Scrape wikipedia-science: 168 new, 2 updated, 184 total (kb-cron)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_science-0.md

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+---
+title: "Earth science"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:53.861518+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Earth science or geoscience includes all fields of natural science related to planet Earth. This is a branch of science dealing with the physical, chemical, and biological complex constitutions and synergistic linkages of Earth's four spheres: the biosphere, hydrosphere/cryosphere, atmosphere, and geosphere (or lithosphere). Earth science can be considered to be a branch of planetary science but with a much older history.
+
+== Geology ==
+
+Geology is broadly the study of Earth's structure, substance, and processes. Geology is largely the study of the lithosphere, or Earth's surface, including the Earth's crust and rocks. It includes the physical characteristics and processes that occur in the lithosphere as well as how they are affected by geothermal energy. It incorporates aspects of chemistry, physics, and biology as elements of geology interact. Historical geology is the application of geology to interpret Earth history and how it has changed over time.
+Geochemistry studies the chemical components and processes of the Earth. Geophysics studies the physical properties of the Earth. Paleontology studies fossilized biological material in the lithosphere. Planetary geology studies geoscience as it pertains to extraterrestrial bodies. Geomorphology studies the origin of landscapes. Structural geology studies the deformation of rocks to produce mountains and lowlands. Resource geology studies how energy resources can be obtained from minerals. Environmental geology studies how pollution and contaminants affect soil and rock. Mineralogy is the study of minerals and includes the study of mineral formation, crystal structure, hazards associated with minerals, and the physical and chemical properties of minerals. Petrology is the study of rocks, including the formation and composition of rocks. Petrography is a branch of petrology that studies the typology and classification of rocks.
+
+== Earth's interior ==
+
+Plate tectonics, mountain ranges, volcanoes, and earthquakes are geological phenomena that can be explained in terms of physical and chemical processes in the Earth's crust. Beneath the Earth's crust lies the mantle which is heated by the radioactive decay of heavy elements. The mantle is not quite solid and consists of magma which is in a state of semi-perpetual convection. This convection process causes the lithospheric plates to move, albeit slowly. The resulting process is known as plate tectonics. Areas of the crust where new crust is created are called divergent boundaries, those where it is brought back into the Earth are convergent boundaries and those where plates slide past each other, but no new lithospheric material is created or destroyed, are referred to as transform (or conservative) boundaries. Earthquakes result from the movement of the lithospheric plates, and they often occur near convergent boundaries where parts of the crust are forced into the earth as part of subduction.
+Plate tectonics might be thought of as the process by which the Earth is resurfaced. As the result of seafloor spreading, new crust and lithosphere is created by the flow of magma from the mantle to the near surface, through fissures, where it cools and solidifies. Through subduction, oceanic crust and lithosphere vehemently returns to the convecting mantle. Volcanoes result primarily from the melting of subducted crust material. Crust material that is forced into the asthenosphere melts, and some portion of the melted material becomes light enough to rise to the surface—giving birth to volcanoes.
+
+== Atmospheric science ==
+
+Atmospheric science initially developed in the late-19th century as a means to forecast the weather through meteorology, the study of weather. Atmospheric chemistry was developed in the 20th century to measure air pollution and expanded in the 1970s in response to acid rain. Climatology studies the climate and climate change.
+The troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere are the five layers which make up Earth's atmosphere. Seventy-five percent of the mass in the atmosphere is located within the troposphere, the lowest layer. In all, the atmosphere is made up of about 78.0% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, and 0.92% argon, and small amounts of other gases including CO2 and water vapor. Water vapor and CO2 cause the Earth's atmosphere to catch and hold the Sun's energy through the greenhouse effect. This makes Earth's surface warm enough for liquid water and life. In addition to trapping heat, the atmosphere also protects living organisms by shielding the Earth's surface from cosmic rays. The magnetic field—created by the internal motions of the core—produces the magnetosphere which protects Earth's atmosphere from the solar wind. As the Earth is 4.5 billion years old, it would have lost its atmosphere by now if there were no protective magnetosphere.
+
+== Earth's magnetic field ==
+
+== Hydrology ==
+
+Hydrology is the study of the hydrosphere and the movement of water on Earth. It emphasizes the study of how humans use and interact with freshwater supplies. Study of water's movement is closely related to geomorphology and other branches of Earth science. Applied hydrology involves engineering to maintain aquatic environments and distribute water supplies. Subdisciplines of hydrology include oceanography, hydrogeology, ecohydrology, and glaciology. Oceanography is the study of oceans. Hydrogeology is the study of groundwater. It includes the mapping of groundwater supplies and the analysis of groundwater contaminants. Applied hydrogeology seeks to prevent contamination of groundwater and mineral springs and make it available as drinking water. The earliest exploitation of groundwater resources dates back to 3000 BC, and hydrogeology as a science was developed by hydrologists beginning in the 17th century. Ecohydrology is the study of ecological systems in the hydrosphere. It can be divided into the physical study of aquatic ecosystems and the biological study of aquatic organisms. Ecohydrology includes the effects that organisms and aquatic ecosystems have on one another as well as how these ecosystems are affected by humans. Glaciology is the study of the cryosphere, including glaciers and coverage of the Earth by ice and snow. Concerns of glaciology include access to glacial freshwater, mitigation of glacial hazards, obtaining resources that exist beneath frozen land, and addressing the effects of climate change on the cryosphere.
+
+== Ecology ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_science-1.md

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+---
+title: "Earth science"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:53.861518+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Ecology is the study of the biosphere. This includes the study of nature and of how living things interact with the Earth and one another and the consequences of that. It considers how living things use resources such as oxygen, water, and nutrients from the Earth to sustain themselves. It also considers how humans and other living creatures cause changes to nature.
+
+== Physical geography ==
+
+Physical geography is the study of Earth's systems and how they interact with one another as part of a single self-contained system. It incorporates astronomy, mathematical geography, meteorology, climatology, geology, geomorphology, biology, biogeography, pedology, and soils geography. Physical geography is distinct from human geography, which studies the human populations on Earth, though it does include human effects on the environment.
+
+== Methodology ==
+Methodologies vary depending on the nature of the subjects being studied. Studies typically fall into one of three categories: observational, experimental, or theoretical. Earth scientists often conduct sophisticated computer analysis or visit an interesting location to study earth phenomena (e.g., Antarctica or hot spot island chains).
+A foundational idea in Earth science is the notion of uniformitarianism, which states that "ancient geologic features are interpreted by understanding active processes that are readily observed." In other words, any geologic processes at work in the present have operated in the same ways throughout geologic time. This enables those who study Earth history to apply knowledge of how the Earth's processes operate in the present to gain insight into how the planet has evolved and changed throughout long history.
+
+== Earth's spheres ==
+
+In Earth science, it is common to conceptualize the Earth's surface as consisting of several distinct layers, often referred to as spheres: the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere. This concept of spheres is a useful tool for understanding the Earth's surface and its various processes; these correspond to rocks, water, air and life. Also included by some are the cryosphere (corresponding to ice) as a distinct portion of the hydrosphere and the pedosphere (corresponding to soil) as an active and intermixed sphere.
+The following fields of science are generally categorized within the Earth sciences:
+
+Geology describes the rocky parts of the Earth's crust (or lithosphere) and its historic development. Major subdisciplines are mineralogy and petrology, geomorphology, paleontology, stratigraphy, structural geology, engineering geology, and sedimentology.
+Physical geography focuses on geography as an Earth science. Physical geography is the study of Earth's seasons, climate, atmosphere, soil, streams, landforms, and oceans. Physical geography can be divided into several branches or related fields, as follows: geomorphology, biogeography, environmental geography, palaeogeography, climatology, meteorology, coastal geography, hydrology, ecology, glaciology.
+Geophysics and geodesy investigate the shape of the Earth, its reaction to forces and its magnetic and gravity fields. Geophysicists explore the Earth's core and mantle as well as the tectonic and seismic activity of the lithosphere. Geophysics is commonly used to supplement the work of geologists in developing a comprehensive understanding of crustal geology, particularly in mineral and petroleum exploration. Seismologists use geophysics to understand plate tectonic movement, as well as predict seismic activity.
+Geochemistry studies the processes that control the abundance, composition, and distribution of chemical compounds and isotopes in geologic environments. Geochemists use the tools and principles of chemistry to study the Earth's composition, structure, processes, and other physical aspects. Major subdisciplines are aqueous geochemistry, cosmochemistry, isotope geochemistry and biogeochemistry.
+Soil science covers the outermost layer of the Earth's crust that is subject to soil formation processes (or pedosphere). Major subdivisions in this field of study include edaphology and pedology.
+Ecology covers the interactions between organisms and their environment. This field of study differentiates the study of Earth from other planets in the Solar System, Earth being the only planet teeming with life.
+Hydrology, oceanography and limnology are studies which focus on the movement, distribution, and quality of the water and involve all the components of the hydrologic cycle on the Earth and its atmosphere (or hydrosphere). "Sub-disciplines of hydrology include hydrometeorology, surface water hydrology, hydrogeology, watershed science, forest hydrology, and water chemistry."
+Glaciology covers the icy parts of the Earth (or cryosphere).
+Atmospheric sciences cover the gaseous parts of the Earth (or atmosphere) between the surface and the exosphere (about 1000 km). Major subdisciplines include meteorology, climatology, atmospheric chemistry, and atmospheric physics.
+
+=== Earth science breakup ===
+
+== See also ==
+
+== References ==
+
+=== Sources ===
+
+== Further reading ==
+
+== External links ==
+
+Earth Science Picture of the Day, a service of Universities Space Research Association, sponsored by NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.
+Geoethics in Planetary and Space Exploration.
+Geology Buzz: Earth Science Archived 2021-11-04 at the Wayback Machine

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_crew_members_aboard_the_first_voyage_of_James_Cook-0.md

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+---
+title: "List of crew members aboard the first voyage of James Cook"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_crew_members_aboard_the_first_voyage_of_James_Cook"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:46.746246+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The first voyage of James Cook was a discovery expedition to the south Pacific Ocean, with aims of observing the 1769 transit of Venus across the Sun and seeking evidence of the alleged southern territories, named by that time as Terra Australis Incognita. The ship chosen for the voyage was HMS Endeavour. The makeup of the crew during the voyage varied due the high mortality, for which contributed mainly malaria and dysentery, that the crew had contracted in Batavia. There was also one occurrence of successful desertion of Patrick Saunders, who after being disrated, escaped the ship.
+
+
+== Personnel ==
+The following is a complete list of initial crew that departed from Plymouth on 26 August 1768 according to ship's journal.
+
+
+== See also ==
+1769 transit of Venus observed from Tahiti
+Personnel of Franklin's lost expedition
+
+
+== Notes and references ==
+
+
+=== Notes ===
+
+
+=== References ===
+
+
+=== Works cited ===
+Rigby, Nigel; van der Merwe, Pieter (2002). Captain Cook in the Pacific. National Maritime Museum (UK). ISBN 0-948065-43-5.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cycles-0.md

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+---
+title: "List of cycles"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cycles"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:47.882457+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+This is a list of recurring cycles. See also Index of wave articles, Time, and Pattern.
+
+
+== Planetary cycles ==
+
+
+=== Astronomical cycles ===
+Astronomy – Axial precession – CNO cycle – Eclipse cycle – Eclipse – Full moon cycle – Galactic year – Great Year – Lunar phase – Mesoamerican calendars – Metonic cycle – Milankovitch cycles – Mira – Moon – Nutation – Orbit – Orbital period – Saros cycle – Sothic cycle – Secularity – Sidereal year – Sunspot – Tide – Tropical year – Year
+
+
+=== Climate and weather cycles ===
+Animal migration – Avalanche – Carbon cycle – Climate change – Climate change and agriculture – Climate model – Climate oscillation – Clock of the Long Now – Ecology – El Niño/La Niña – Environmental geography – Global cooling – Global warming – Historical temperature record – Hydrogen cycle – Ice age – Transhumance – Milankovitch cycles – Monsoon – Pleistocene – Season – Sulfur cycle – Sunspot – Tide – Timeline of meteorology – 1500-year climate cycle
+
+
+=== Geological cycles ===
+Age of the Earth – Aluminum cycle – Arsenic cycle – Boron cycle – Bromine cycle – Cadmium cycle – Calcium cycle – Carbonate–silicate cycle – Chlorine cycle – Chromium cycle – Climate change – Copper cycle – Cycle of erosion – Dynamic topography – Dynamic topography – Earthquake cycle – Fluorine cycle  – Glaciation – Gold cycle – Iodine cycle – Iron cycle – Lead cycle – Lithium cycle  – Manganese cycle – Mass extinction cycles – Mercury cycle – Methane cycle – Ozone–oxygen cycle – Phosphorus cycle – Selenium cycle – Silica cycle – Supercontinent cycle – Vanadium cycle – Wilson cycle – Zinc cycle
+
+
+== Organic cycles ==
+
+
+=== Agricultural cycles ===
+Agricultural cycle – Carbon cycle – Crop rotation – Fertile Crescent – Harvest – Nitrogen cycle – Organic farming – Phosphorus cycle – Season – Sulfur cycle – Soil degradation – Sustainable industries – Water cycle
+
+
+=== Biological and medical cycles ===
+Alternation of generations – Beta oxidation – Bioelectricity – Biological pest control – Biological rhythm – Bipolar disorder – Cardiopulmonary resuscitation – Calvin–Benson cycle – Cell cycle – Chronobiology – Citric acid cycle – Circadian rhythm – Clinical depression – Digestion – Ecology – Endometrium – Feedback – Infradian rhythm - Life cycle – List of biochemistry topics – Marine biology – Menstrual cycle – Neurofeedback – Non-Hodgkin lymphoma – Organic farming – Periodical cicadas – Polymerase chain reaction – Soil degradation – Stomach cancer – Triage – Ultradian rhythm - Urea cycle – Zygote
+
+
+=== Brain waves and cycles ===
+Bioelectricity – Circadian rhythm – Consciousness – Electroencephalography – Neurofeedback – Persistent vegetative state – Sjögren's syndrome – Sleep - Ultradian rhythm
+
+
+== Physics cycles ==
+Cyclic process – Carnot cycle – Double-slit experiment – Dynamic theory of gravity – Physics of music – Resonance – Sonoluminescence – Speed of light – Sunspot
+
+
+=== Mathematics of waves and cycles ===
+Almost periodic function – Amplitude modulation – Amplitude – Beat – Chaos theory – Cyclic group – Diffraction – Doppler effect – Eigenstate – Eigenvalue – Fibonacci sequence – Fourier series – Frequency domain – Frequency spectrum – Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics) – Harmonic oscillator – Huygens–Fresnel principle – Longitudinal wave – Mechanical wave – Navier–Stokes equations – Partial differential equation – Periodic function – Permutation – Phase (waves) – Physics of music – Power spectrum – Signal – Sine wave – Spectrum of an operator – Translational symmetry – Transverse wave – Wave equation – Wave–particle duality – Wave – Waveform
+
+
+=== Electromagnetic spectrum ===
+Absorption spectroscopy – Anders Jonas Ångström – Astronomical spectroscopy – Astronomy – Black body – Blazar – Bremsstrahlung – Caesium – Cherenkov radiation – Color – Diffraction – Digital signal processing – Direct-sequence spread spectrum – Dispersion (optics) – Eigenstate – Eigenvalue – Electromagnetic radiation – Electromagnetic spectroscopy – Electromagnetic spectrum – Electromagnetism – Emission line – Emission spectrum – FM broadcasting – Frequency domain – Frequency hopping – Frequency spectrum – Gamma-ray burst – Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics) – History of radio – Hue – Isotope – Light – Optical brightener – Orbits (complex dynamics) –Particle in a spherically symmetric potential – Piezoelectricity – Power spectrum – RADAR – Radio frequency – Radio – Radiocommunications Agency – Redshift – SETI – Spectrogram – Spectrometer – Spectroscopy – Spectrum analyzer – Sunyaev–Zel'dovich effect – Supernova – Telecommunication – Timbre – Very high frequency – Visible light – Visible spectrum – White noise
+
+
+=== Sound waves ===
+Acoustic theory – Acoustics – Aerodynamics – Amplitude – Anemometer – Audio feedback – Beat (acoustics) – Bugging – Cherenkov radiation – Cold fusion – Compressibility – Delay-line memory – Diffraction – Doppler effect – Echo sounding – Electronic filter – FTIR – Krakatoa – Loudspeaker – Mach number – Microphone – Ossicles – Pan pipes – Parabolic microphone – Phonetics – Phonon – Piezoelectricity – Psychoacoustics – Sawtooth wave – Shock wave – SID – Sonar – Sonic boom – Sonoluminescence – Soundproofing – Sound recording – Sound – Speech processing – Speed of sound – Square wave – Subsonic – Subtractive synthesis – Synthesizer – Telephone – Transmission line – Triangle wave – Wave drag – Waveform
+
+
+== Miscellaneous cycles ==
+
+
+=== Economic and business cycles ===
+Business cycle – Inflation / Recession – Monetary policy – Virtuous circle and vicious circle – Kitchin cycle – Juglar cycle – Kuznets swing
+
+
+=== Music and rhythm cycles ===
+Harmonics – Interval cycle – Musica universalis – Music theory – Physics of music – Ring cycle – Rhythm – Song cycle
+
+
+=== Political cycles ===
+Election Cycle – Campaign Cycle – Cycle between political extremes – American political cycle
+
+
+=== Religious, mythological, and spiritual cycles ===
+Astrology – Mantra – Numerology – Pratītyasamutpāda – Samhain – Sexagenary cycle – Surya
+
+
+=== Social and cultural cycles ===
+Dynastic cycle – Kondratiev wave – Social cycle theory – Tytler cycle – Strauss–Howe generational theory
+
+
+=== Military and war ===
+War cycles - Joshua S. Goldstein - George Modelski
+
+
+=== Literature ===
+Literature cycle – Play cycle – Sonnet cycle

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_developers_of_optical_scientific_equipment-0.md

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+---
+title: "List of developers of optical scientific equipment"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_developers_of_optical_scientific_equipment"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:49.060394+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A developer of optical scientific equipment is an individual who makes and adjusts optical aids for scientific purposes, including telescope optics and microscope lenses.
+
+
+== Telescope developers ==
+James Gilbert Baker
+Denis Albert Bardou
+John A. Brashear
+Laurent Cassegrain
+Henri Chrétien
+Alvan Clark
+John Dollond
+Charles Wesley Elmer and Richard Scott Perkin
+Galileo Galilei
+James Gregory
+John Hadley
+Chester Moore Hall
+Robert Hooke
+Johannes Kepler
+Frederick James Hargreaves
+Christiaan Huygens
+Hans Lippershey
+Raymond Augustin Mailhat
+Dmitri Dmitrievich Maksutov
+James Henry Marriott
+Jacob Metius
+Isaac Newton
+Georg Simon Plössl
+Russell W. Porter
+Jesse Ramsden
+George Willis Ritchey
+Christoph Scheiner
+Bernhard Schmidt
+James Short
+See also Timeline of telescope technology and List of astronomical instrument makers
+
+
+== Microscope developers ==
+Ernst Karl Abbe
+Denis Albert Bardou
+Christopher Cock
+Siegfried Czapski
+Cornelius Drebbel
+Galileo Galilei
+Robert Hooke
+Christiaan Huygens
+Carl Kellner
+Anton van Leeuwenhoek
+Moritz von Rohr
+See also Timeline of microscope technology
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience-0.md

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+---
+title: "List of diagnoses characterized as pseudoscience"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:50.211778+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Many proposed diseases and diagnoses are rejected by mainstream medical consensus and are associated with pseudoscience due to a lack of scientific evidence for their existence, proposed mechanism or action, or manifestation that cannot be explained by something else.
+
+== Definition ==
+Pseudoscientific diseases are not defined using objective criteria. Such diseases cannot achieve, and perhaps do not seek, medical recognition. Pseudoscience rejects empirical methodology.
+Other conditions may be rejected or contested by orthodox medicine, but are not necessarily associated with pseudoscience. Diagnostic criteria for some of these conditions may be vague, over-inclusive, or otherwise ill-defined. Although the evidence for the disease may be contested or lacking, the justification for these diagnoses is nevertheless empirical and therefore amenable to scientific investigation, at least in theory.
+In some cases, patients are exhibiting genuine signs and symptoms but the explanation or diagnosis for their distress is disputed or inaccurate.
+Examples of conditions that are not necessarily pseudoscientific include:
+
+Conditions determined to be somatic in nature, including mass psychogenic illnesses.
+Medicalized conditions that are not pathogenic in nature, such as aging, childbirth, pregnancy, sexual addiction,  baldness, jet lag, and halitosis.
+Conditions that are not widely recognized, about which there is an ongoing debate within the scientific and medical literature.
+Functional disorders are a set of conditions that cannot be explained by structural or biochemical abnormalities. These raise challenges around diagnosis and treatment, with debate around whether they are psychogenic. They often present with non-specific symptoms that are consistent with multiple causes.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience-1.md

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+---
+title: "List of diagnoses characterized as pseudoscience"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:50.211778+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Medical ==
+Adrenal fatigue or hypoadrenia is a diagnosis described as a state in which the adrenal glands are exhausted and unable to produce adequate quantities of hormones, primarily the glucocorticoid cortisol, due to chronic stress or infections. Adrenal fatigue should not be confused with a number of actual forms of adrenal dysfunction such as adrenal insufficiency or Addison's disease. The term "adrenal fatigue", which was invented in 1998 by James Wilson, a chiropractor, may be applied to a collection of mostly nonspecific symptoms. There is no scientific evidence supporting the concept of adrenal fatigue and it is not recognized as a diagnosis by any scientific or medical community. A systematic review found no evidence for the term adrenal fatigue, confirming the consensus among endocrinological societies that it is a myth.
+Autistic enterocolitis is a nonexistent medical condition proposed in 1998 by now-discredited British gastroenterologist Andrew Wakefield, who suggested a link between a number of common clinical symptoms and signs which he contended were distinctive to autism. The existence of such an enterocolitis has been dismissed by experts as having "not been established". Wakefield's fraudulent report, which was retracted in 2010, suppressed negative findings and used inadequate controls. Multiple attempts to replicate his results have been unsuccessful. Reviews in the medical literature have found no link between autism and bowel disease.
+Candida hypersensitivity is the spuriously claimed chronic yeast infections responsible for many common disorders and non-specific symptoms, such as fatigue, weight gain, constipation, dizziness, muscle and joint pain, and asthma. The notion has been strongly disabused by the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology.
+Chronic Lyme disease is a generally rejected diagnosis that encompasses "a broad array of illnesses or symptom complexes for which there is no reproducible or convincing scientific evidence of any relationship to Borrelia burgdorferi infection." This is different from Lyme disease, which is a known medical condition. Despite numerous studies, there is no clinical evidence that "chronic" Lyme disease is caused by a persistent infection. It is distinct from post-treatment Lyme disease syndrome, a set of lingering symptoms which may persist after successful treatment of infection with Lyme spirochetes. The symptoms of "chronic Lyme" are generic and non-specific "symptoms of life".
+Electromagnetic hypersensitivity is a reported sensitivity to electric and magnetic fields or electromagnetic radiation of various frequencies at exposure levels well below established safety standards. Symptoms are inconsistent, but can include headache, fatigue, difficulty sleeping, as well as similar non-specific indications. Provocation studies find that the discomfort of sufferers is unrelated to hidden sources of radiation, and "no scientific basis currently exists for a connection between EHS and exposure to [electromagnetic fields]."
+Excited delirium, originally identified by pathologist Charles Wetli to account for the deaths of nineteen Black prostitutes due to "sexual excitement" while under the influence of cocaine; the women later turned out to be victims of a serial killer. The condition is primarily found in people under police restraint, especially after being tasered, and, while it is not in the ICD-10 or DSM-5, it is promoted by a number of doctors, many of whom are on the payroll of Axon, the manufacturer of the Taser.
+Leaky gut syndrome is an alleged condition caused by the passage of harmful substances outward through the gut wall. Alternative medicine proponents claim it is the cause of many conditions including multiple sclerosis and autism, a claim which has been called pseudoscientific. According to the UK National Health Service, the theory is vague and unproven. Some skeptics and scientists say that the marketing of treatments for leaky gut syndrome is either misguided or an instance of deliberate health fraud.
+Morgellons is a self-diagnosed, unexplained skin condition in which individuals have sores that they believe contain some kind of fibers. Morgellons is poorly characterized but the general medical consensus is that it is a form of delusional parasitosis. An attempt to link Morgellons to the cause of Lyme disease has been attacked by Steven Salzberg as "dangerous pseudoscience".
+Multiple chemical sensitivity is an unrecognized controversial diagnosis characterized by chronic symptoms attributed to exposure to low levels of commonly used chemicals. Symptoms are typically vague and non-specific. They may include fatigue, headaches, nausea, and dizziness.
+Rope worms
+Shoenfeld's syndrome, a hypothesised autoimmune disorder proposed by Israeli immunologist Yehuda Shoenfeld. There is a lack of reproducible evidence for this syndrome, refuting its existence. In addition, supporting data from animal models are flawed.
+Traditional Chinese medicine diagnoses, such as imbalances in yin and yang and blockages in the flow of qi
+"Vaccine overload", a non-medical term for the notion that giving many vaccines at once may overwhelm or weaken a child's immature immune system and lead to adverse effects, is strongly contradicted by scientific evidence.
+Vertebral subluxation is a chiropractic diagnosis that involves a site of impaired flow of innate or a spinal lesion that is postulated to cause neuromusculoskeletal or visceral dysfunction. Scientific consensus does not support the existence of chiropractic's vertebral subluxation.
+Wilson's syndrome (not to be confused with Wilson's disease) is an alternative medicine concept, not recognized as a legitimate diagnosis in evidence-based medicine. Its supporters describe Wilson's syndrome as a mix of common and non-specific symptoms which they attribute to low body temperature and impaired conversion of thyroxine (T4) to triiodothyronine (T3), despite normal thyroid function tests. The American Thyroid Association (ATA) says Wilson's syndrome is at odds with established knowledge of thyroid function, has vague diagnostic criteria, and lacks supporting scientific evidence. The ATA further raised concern that the proposed treatments were potentially harmful.
+Wind turbine syndrome is a proposed connection between adverse health effects and proximity to wind turbines. Proponents have claimed that these effects include death, cancer, and congenital abnormality. The distribution of recorded events, however, correlates with media coverage of wind farm syndrome itself, and not with the presence or absence of wind farms. Reviews of the scientific literature have consistently found no reason to believe that wind turbines are harmful to health.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience-2.md

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+---
+title: "List of diagnoses characterized as pseudoscience"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:50.211778+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Psychological ==
+Autogynephilia is a proposed paraphilic disorder in which a man has erotic interest in the idea of himself in the form of a woman. Autogynephilia is not recognized by any major medical organization and has been criticised as a form of medical transphobia.
+Drapetomania was a supposed mental illness that, in 1851, American physician Samuel A. Cartwright hypothesized as the cause of enslaved Africans fleeing captivity. This hypothesis centered around the belief that slavery was such an improvement upon the lives of slaves that only those suffering from some form of mental illness would wish to escape. As treatment Cartwright recommended "whipping the devil out of them" both as a punishment and as a preventative measure.
+Female hysteria was once a common medical diagnosis for women, which was described as exhibiting a wide array of symptoms, including anxiety, shortness of breath, fainting, nervousness, sexual desire, insomnia, fluid retention, heaviness in the abdomen, irritability, loss of appetite for food or sex, (paradoxically) sexually forward behaviour, and a "tendency to cause trouble for others". It is no longer recognized by medical authorities as a medical disorder.
+Parental alienation syndrome, also routinely referred to as parental alienation is a proposed mental health disorder in which a child expresses hostility or aversion to a parent as an effect of the manipulation of another parent. Given an absence of research-based support for its existence, parental alienation syndrome is not recognized as a mental health disorder by the American Psychiatric Association, American Psychological Association, American Medical Association or World Health Organization. Despite the fact it is frequently referenced as a defense strategy in family courts where parents, disproportionately fathers, are accused of domestic violence or coercive control, it does not meet the scientific standards demanded by legal tests such as the Frye test and Daubert standard for admissibility in the United States legal system.
+Pathological demand avoidance is a proposed disorder characterised by avoidance of every day demands. It was proposed by British psychologist Elizabeth Newsom in 1983 for children who did not then meet the criteria for autism and which she felt shared certain other characteristics, such as an interest in pretend play. Largely ignored until recently, especially outside the UK, it's seen a surge in interest from parents due to social media. According to one paper, there is insufficient evidence to support it as an independent diagnosis. Alternative diagnoses to PDA include ADHD, generalised anxiety disorder, autism spectrum condition, attachment disorder, and oppositional defiance disorder; in some cases, autism is diagnosed, "with PDA profile."
+Rapid-onset gender dysphoria is a proposed condition in which someone develops gender dysphoria due to social contagion. The term originates from a 2018 study which surveyed parents of transgender people from anti-transgender internet forums.  While the American Psychological Association and the American Psychiatric Association cosigned a statement with 120 other medical organizations calling for rapid-onset gender dysphoria to not be used in clinical settings, the term is still used by anti-trans groups.
+Reward deficiency syndrome (RDS) is a term that has been applied to a wide variety of addictive, obsessive and compulsive behaviors including substance and process addictions, and personality and spectrum disorders. There is no consistent evidence to validate any such syndrome. "Reward deficiency syndrome" is not a medically recognized disorder. The diagnostic validity of RDS has not been recognized by the American Psychiatric Association in its diagnostic manual, the DSM.
+Sluggish schizophrenia is a proposed form of slow-onset schizophrenia that political dissenters were institutionalised for in communist countries. It was diagnosed in people with no hallucinations or delusions under the assumption that they would appear later.
+Stendhal syndrome is a proposed condition in which someone experiences rapid heartbeat, fainting, confusion, and even hallucinations when exposed to works of beauty.
+Stockholm syndrome is a proposed condition in which a hostage develops an emotional bond with their kidnapper while in captivity. Stockholm syndrome is considered a contested illness and is not recognized in the DSM.
+
+== See also ==
+List of topics characterized as pseudoscience § Health and medicine
+List of questionable diagnostic tests
+List of fictional diseases
+Culture-bound syndrome
+Medically unexplained physical symptoms
+Quackery
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+Quackwatch: Index to "Fad" Diagnoses
+Science-Based Medicine: Fake diseases, false compassion

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_discoveries_influenced_by_chance_circumstances-0.md

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+---
+title: "List of discoveries influenced by chance circumstances"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_discoveries_influenced_by_chance_circumstances"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:52.687764+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Below are discoveries in science that involve chance circumstances in a particularly salient way. This page should not list all chance involved in all discoveries (i.e. it should focus on discoveries reported for their notable circumstances).
+
+
+== Overview ==
+
+Royston Roberts says that various discoveries required a degree of genius, but also some lucky element for that genius to act on. Richard Gaughan writes that accidental discoveries result from the convergence of preparation, opportunity, and desire.
+Major everyday discoveries that were helped by luck in some way include products like vulcanized rubber, teflon, nylon, penicillin, cyanoacrylate (Super Glue), the implantable pacemaker, the microwave oven, Scotchgard, Saran wrap, Silly Putty, Slinky, safety glass, propeller, snowmaking, stainless steel, Perkin's mauve, and popsicles. Most artificial sweeteners have been discovered when accidentally tasted, including aspartame and saccharin.
+Ideas include the theory of the Big Bang, tissue culture, radio astronomy, and the discovery of DNA.
+Such archeological discoveries as the Rosetta Stone, the Dead Sea Scrolls and the ruins of Pompeii also emerged partly out of serendipity.
+Many relevant and well known scientific theories were developed by chance at some degree along history. According to a legend, Archimedes realized his principle on hydrostatics when he entered in a bath full of water, which overflows (he then shouted out his famous "Eureka!"). And the unexpected, negative results of the Michelson–Morley experiment in their search of the luminiferous aether ultimately led to the special theory of relativity by Albert Einstein.
+The optical illusion called the "flashed face distortion effect" suggests a new area of research in the neurology of face perception.
+
+
+== Detailed examples ==
+
+
+=== Newton and gravity ===
+
+In his book, Roberts recounts Sir Isaac Newton's discovery of gravity (using Newton's own descriptions and notes). Newton was sitting in his yard when he noticed an apple fall from a tree. The apple fell straight down, perpendicular to the ground, and Newton found himself wondering why the apple never falls upward or off to a side. Newton soon realized that it was a property of all matter to have an attractive force, including the apple, and even the moon –which moves as one would expect if it was passing the earth but nevertheless being attracted. It was another 20 years before Newton published his detailed theory of gravity, but he later visited the tree that helped him provoke the idea. Gaughan elaborates that Newton only had the opportunity to reflect on his orchard because of other chance circumstances: Newton was home because his university was shut down due to an outbreak of plague.
+
+
+=== Nobel and blasting gelatin ===
+According to Roberts, the common story that Alfred Nobel's discovery of dynamite was an accident may not be true. On the other hand, Roberts says, Nobel did make a discovery with the help of luck soon after that. Nobel cut his finger on a piece of glass one day at work and subsequently applied collodion in order to form a protective layer over the wound (similar in principle to liquid bandage). Nobel was kept up at night by the pain in his finger, so he started to think about a problem he was having back at work: Nobel was trying to create a powerful explosive using nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine, but the two would not combine. Roberts reports that Nobel then realized that collodion (which he was using to dress his wound) could allow the two substances to combine, which led to the invention of blasting gelatin (as powerful as dynamite but much safer to handle).
+
+
+=== Pasteur ===
+
+The French scientist Louis Pasteur is responsible for various discoveries, some of which involved serendipity in some way.  This seems to be the case with both his discovery that chemically identical molecules can have chirality (the way a right handed baseball glove will not work with the left hand), as well as his discovery of the chicken cholera vaccine.
+
+
+==== Chirality ====
+Roberts writes "Pasteur was puzzled: the salts of tartaric acid and racemic acid were said to be identical in chemical composition and crystalline shape, but they had different effects on polarized light." Pasteur later prepared a solution of only racemic acid and found that it itself contained salt crystals with chirality and which affected light differently. This was somewhat lucky because the type of salt crystals that Pasteur was studying (sodium ammonium salt of racemic acid) is one of few salts that would be visibly different in Pasteur's time. Moreover, the salts only differentiate if the solution reaches a temperature below 26 °C (79 °F); Pasteur did not know about this temperature requirement, but he did happen to store the solution on a window sill over night and the cold Paris air activated it.
+
+
+==== Chicken cholera vaccine ====
+Pasteur and his assistants had succeeded in isolating a microbe from chickens sick or dead from cholera. Chickens injected with the isolated microbe invariably died –a key element in Pasteur's reasoning that the microbe was responsible for the disease, rather than a result of the disease, as many thought. Pasteur was searching for a method of preventing the disease, but no matter what he did to the "broth" of microbes or to the chickens, all injected chickens died.  Gaughan writes "Finally Pasteur had had enough, he needed a vacation. He told [his assistant] to take care of injecting more chickens with the next batch of bacteria." His assistant neglected the task, electing to go on vacation as well. When the men returned and injected chickens with the batch of bacteria that had sat around for a few weeks, none died, indicating to Pasteur that the batch of bacteria had been ruined. But when those same chickens were injected with a new batch of bacteria, none of them died, while chickens that hadn't previously been injected with the "spoiled" batch all died. Pasteur reasoned that the "attenuated" microbes in the spoiled batch "'used up' something within the body; something that wasn't there for the fully functional bacteria to eat." His explanation was wrong, but his chance creation of attenuated bacteria resulted in the first intentionally created vaccine.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-0.md

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+---
+title: "List of effects"
+chunk: 1/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:56.203937+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+This is a list of names for observable phenomena that contain the word “effect”, amplified by reference(s) to their respective fields of study.
+
+== A ==
+Abscopal effect (cancer treatments) (immune system) (medical treatments) (radiation therapy)
+Accelerator effect (economics)
+Accordion effect (physics) (waves)
+Acousto-optic effect (nonlinear optics) (waves)
+Additive genetic effects (genetics)
+Aharonov–Bohm effect (quantum mechanics)
+Al Jazeera effect (Al Jazeera) (media issues)
+Alienation effect (acting techniques) (Bertolt Brecht theories and techniques) (film theory) (metafictional techniques) (theatre)
+Allais effect (fringe physics)
+Allee effect (biology)
+Ambiguity effect (cognitive biases)
+Anrep effect (cardiology) (medicine)
+Antenna effect (digital electronics) (electronic design automation)
+Anti-greenhouse effect (atmospheric dynamics) (atmospheric science) (astronomy) (planetary atmospheres)
+Askaryan effect (particle physics)
+Asymmetric blade effect (aerodynamics)
+Audience effect (psychology) (social psychology)
+Auger effect (atomic physics) (foundational quantum physics)
+Aureole effect (atmospheric optical phenomena) (scientific terminology)
+Autler–Townes effect (atomic, molecular, and optical physics) (atomic physics) (quantum optics)
+Autokinetic effect (vision)
+Avalanche effect (cryptography)
+Averch–Johnson effect (economics)
+
+== B ==
+Baader-Meinhof effect / Baader-Meinhof phenomenon (psychology)
+Balassa–Samuelson effect (economics)
+Baldwin effect (evolutionary biology) (selection)
+Balloon-carried light effect (balloons) (culture) (entertainment)
+Bambi effect (hunting) (psychology stubs)
+Bandwagon effect (cognitive biases) (crowd psychology) (economics effects) (metaphors) (propaganda techniques)
+Bank effect (marine propulsion) (nautical terms) (water)
+Barkhausen effect (condensed matter) (magnetism)
+Barnett effect (condensed matter) (magnetism)
+Barnum effect (psychology)
+Baskerville effect (cardiology)
+Bauschinger effect (classical mechanics) (materials science)
+Beaujolais effect (Ada programming language)
+Ben Franklin effect (emotion) (psychology)
+Bernoulli effect (equations) (fluid dynamics) (wind power)
+Beta-silicon effect (physical organic chemistry)
+Bezold effect (optical illusions) (psychological theories)
+Bezold–Brücke effect (optical illusions)
+Biefeld–Brown effect (physical phenomena) (propulsion)
+Big-fish–little-pond effect (educational psychology) (pedagogy)
+Birthday-number effect (psychology)
+Black drop effect (astronomical transits)
+Blazhko effect (astronomy)
+Blocking effect (psychology)
+Bloom (shader effect) (3D computer graphics) (demo effects)
+Bohr effect (hematology) (hemoproteins) (respiratory physiology)
+Boomerang effect (psychology) (social psychology) (psychology)
+Bouba/kiki effect (cognitive science)
+Bowditch effect (medicine)
+Bradley effect (American political terms) (elections in the United States) (political history of the United States) (political neologisms) (politics and race) (polling) (psephology) (racism)
+Bridgman effect (electricity) (electromagnetism)
+Brookings effect (atmospheric science) (Curry County, Oregon) (Oregon coast) (Oregon geography) (winds)
+Brown Willy effect (geography of Cornwall) (mesoscale meteorology)
+Bruce effect (reproduction)
+Bullwhip effect (distribution, retailing, and wholesaling)
+Butterfly effect (chaos theory) (physical phenomena) (stability theory)
+Bystander effect (crowd psychology) (social phenomena)
+Bystander effect (radiobiology) (radiobiology)
+
+== C ==
+Cage effect (chemistry)
+Calendar effect (behavioral finance)  (market trends)
+Callendar effect (atmospheric science) (climate) (climate change)
+Captodative effect (organic chemistry)
+Capture effect (broadcast engineering) (radio) (radio communications/) (telecommunications) (wireless communications)
+Carnoustie effect (golf) (golf terminology)
+Carryover effect (cooking techniques) (food and drink)
+Cascade effect (ecology)
+Cascade effect (spaceflight)
+Casimir effect (quantum field theory) (physical phenomena)
+Castle thunder (sound effect) (in-jokes) (sound effects)
+Catapult effect (electromagnetism)
+Catch-up effect (economics effects)
+Catfish effect (human resource management) (management) (organizational studies and human resource management) (social psychology)
+Cause and effect
+Ceiling effect (medical treatment) (statistics)
+Channel capture effect (ethernet) (network topology)
+Cheerio effect (fluid mechanics) (physics)
+Cherenkov effect (experimental particle physics) (fundamental physics concepts) (particle physics) (special relativity)
+Chilling effect (law) (censorship) (freedom of expression) (American legal terms)
+Chimney effect
+Chorus effect (audio effects) (audio engineering) (effects units) (sound recording)
+Christiansen effect (optical filters)
+Christofilos effect (particle physics)
+Cinderella effect (child abuse)
+Cis effect (inorganic chemistry)
+Clientele effect (economics) (finance)
+Cluster effect (economics effects)
+CNN effect (civil–military relations) (CNN) (news media) (warfare of the modern era)
+Coandă effect (aerodynamics) (boundary layers) (physical phenomena)
+Coattail effect (political terms)
+Cobra effect (Economics)
+Cocktail party effect (acoustical signal processing) (attention)
+Cohort effect
+Common-ion effect (ions) (physical chemistry)
+Compton effect (astrophysics) (atomic physics) (foundational quantum physics) (observational astronomy) (quantum electrodynamics) (X-rays)
+Contrast effect (cognition) (cognitive biases) (perception) (vision)
+Coolidge effect (jokes) (sexual attraction)
+Coriolis effect (atmospheric dynamics) (classical mechanics) (force) (physical phenomena) (urban legends)
+Cotton effect (atomic, molecular, and optical physics) (polarization)
+Cotton–Mouton effect (magnetism) (optics)
+Crabtree effect (biochemistry)
+Cross-race effect (face recognition)
+CSI effect (criminal law) (criminology) (CSI television series) (psychology) (television terminology)
+Cupertino effect (computers) (spell checking)
+Cytopathic effect (microbiology terms)
+
+== D ==
+Déjà vu effect
+De Haas–van Alphen effect (condensed matter) (magnetism) (quantum physics)
+(de Sitter effect: see) Geodetic effect (general relativity)
+Debye–Falkenhagen effect
+Decoy effect (consumer behavior) (decision theory) (economic theories) (finance theory) (marketing)
+Delay (audio effect) (audio effects) (effects units) (musical techniques)
+Dellinger effect (radio communications)
+Dember effect (electrical phenomena) (physics)
+Demo effect (demoscene)
+Demonstration effect (human behavior) (sociological terms)
+Denomination effect (behavioral economics)
+Diderot effect (anthropology) (consumer behaviour)
+Ding Hai effect (economy of Hong Kong) (Hong Kong culture)
+Direct effect (European Union law)
+Disposal tax effect (economics and finance) (finance) (taxation)
+Disposition effect (economics and finance)
+Dole effect (climatology) (oxygen) (paleoclimatology) (photosynthesis)
+Domino effect (physics) (politics)
+Doppler effect (Doppler effects) (radio frequency propagation) (wave mechanics)
+Downing effect (psychology)
+Dresselhaus effect (physics)
+Droste effect (artistic techniques)
+Dunning–Kruger effect (personality) (social psychology)
+
+== E ==
+Eagle effect (antibiotic resistance) (pharmacology)
+Early effect (transistors)
+Eberhard effect (science of photography)
+Edge effect (ecological succession) (ecology)
+Edison effect (atomic physics) (electricity) (Thomas Edison) (vacuum tubes)
+Efimov effect (physics)
+Einstein effect (disambiguation), several different effects in physics
+Einstein–de Haas effect (science)
+Electro-optic effect (nonlinear optics)
+Electrocaloric effect (cooling technology) (heat pumps)
+Electron-cloud effect (particle accelerators) (physics)
+Electroviscous effects (colloid chemistry) (surface chemistry)
+ELIZA effect (artificial intelligence) (human–computer interaction) (propositional fallacies)
+Embedding effect (environmental economics)
+EMC effect (particle physics)
+Emerson effect (photosynthesis)
+Endowment effect (behavioral finance) (cognitive biases) (psychological theories)
+Enhanced Permeability and Retention effect (medicine)
+Eötvös effect (geodesy) (topography)
+Epps effect (econometrics) (statistical terminology) (statistics)
+Ettinghausen effect (condensed matter) (electrodynamics) (thermodynamics)
+Evershed effect (physics) (solar phenomena)
+Exciter (effect) (audio effects) (effects units)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-1.md

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+---
+title: "List of effects"
+chunk: 2/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:56.203937+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== F ==
+Fahraeus–Lindquist effect (blood) (fluid dynamics) (molecular and cellular biology)
+False consensus effect (cognitive biases) (futurology) (group processes) (psychological theories) (sustainability)
+Faraday effect (magnetism) (optics)
+Ferroelectric effect (condensed matter physics) (electrical phenomena)
+Fink effect (anesthesia) (diffusion)
+Floating body effect (electronics) (semiconductors)
+Floodgate effect (social phenomena) (sociology)
+Floor effect (statistics)
+Florence Nightingale effect (Florence Nightingale) (love) (psychology)
+Flutie effect (student sport)
+Flux pinning (Physics)
+Flynn effect (futurology) (intelligence) (psychological theories) (psychometrics) (race and intelligence controversy)
+Focusing effect (cognitive biases)
+Forbush effect (cosmic rays) (solar phenomena)
+Forer effect (cognitive biases) (history of astrology) (psychological theories)
+Founder effect (ecology) (population genetics)
+Fractional quantum Hall effect (physics)
+Franssen effect (acoustics) (sound perception)
+Franz–Keldysh effect (condensed matter) (electronic engineering) (electronics) (optics) (optoelectronics)
+Free surface effect (fluid mechanics)
+Front projection effect (film production)
+Fujiwhara effect (tropical cyclone meteorology) (vortices)
+Full screen effect (computer graphics) (demo effects)
+
+== G ==
+Garshelis effect (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (magnetism) (physics)
+Gauche effect (stereochemistry)
+Gell-Mann amnesia effect (journalism)
+Generation effect (cognitive biases) (memory biases) (psychological theories)
+Geodetic effect (general relativity)
+Gerschenkron effect (economic development) (economic systems) (economics and finance) (econometrics) (index numbers) (national accounts)r
+Giant magnetoresistive effect (condensed matter physics) (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (quantum electronics) (spintronics)
+Gibbons–Hawking effect (general relativity)
+Gibbs–Donnan effect (biology) (physics)
+Gibbs–Thomson effect (petrology) (thermodynamics)
+Glass house effect (culture) (surveillance)
+Glasser effect (physics)
+Goos–Hänchen effect (optical phenomena)
+Great Salt Lake effect (natural history of Utah)
+Green-beard effect (evolution) (evolutionary biology) (game theory) (selection)
+Greenhouse effect (atmosphere) (atmospheric radiation) (climate change feedbacks and causes) (climate forcing)
+Ground effect (aircraft) (aerodynamics)
+Ground effect (cars) (aerodynamics) (motorsport terminology)
+Gunn effect (diodes) (microwave technology) (physics) (terahertz technology)
+
+== H ==
+Haas effect (audio engineering) (sound) (speakers)
+Haldane effect (hematology) (hemoproteins) (protein)
+Hall effect (condensed matter physics) (electric and magnetic fields in matter)
+Hall of mirrors effect (computer graphic artifacts) (Doom) (id software) (video game glitches)
+Halo effect (cognitive biases) (educational psychology) (logical fallacies) (social psychology)
+Hanbury Brown and Twiss effect (quantum optics)
+Harem effect (harem) (human sexuality) (sex) (sexual orientation and identity) (sexual orientation and society)
+Hawthorne effect (educational psychology) (psychological theories) (social phenomena)
+Health effect (health) (health effectors) (pollution)
+Holtzman effect (Dune technology) (physics in fiction)
+Horizon effect (artificial intelligence) (game artificial intelligence)
+Hostile media effect (cognitive biases) (criticism of journalism) (journalism standards) (psychological theories)
+Hot chocolate effect (acoustics) (physics) (wave mechanics)
+Hundredth monkey effect (behavioral science) (New Age) (urban legends)
+Hydrophobic effect (chemical bonding) (supramolecular chemistry)
+Hyperchromic effect (biochemistry)
+Hypersonic effect (acoustics) (hearing) (psychology) (ultrasound)
+
+== I ==
+Ideomotor effect
+IKEA effect (marketing) (psychology)
+Imbert–Fedorov effect (optical phenomena)
+In-camera effect (filming) (special effects)
+Incidental effect (European Union law)
+Indirect effect (European Union law)
+Inductive effect (chemical bonding)
+Inert-pair effect (atomic physics) (inorganic chemistry) (quantum chemistry)
+inertial supercharging effect (automobile) (engine technology)
+Inner-platform effect (anti-patterns)
+International Fisher effect (economics and finance) (finance theories) (interest rates)
+Inverse Doppler effect (Doppler effects) (wave mechanics)
+Inverse Faraday effect (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (optical phenomena)
+
+== J ==
+Jack-in-the-box effect (military) (military slang and jargon) (tanks)
+Jahn–Teller effect (condensed matter physics) (inorganic chemistry) (organometallic chemistry) (quantum chemistry)
+January effect (behavioral finance) (economics and finance) (market trends) (stock market)
+Janus effect (effects) (sociology)
+Johnsen–Rahbek effect (classical mechanics) (electrical engineering)
+Joule–Thomson effect (thermodynamics)
+Josephson effect (condensed matter physics) (sensors) (superconductivity)
+Jupiter effect (astronomy) (science book)
+
+== K ==
+Kadenacy effect (automobile parts) (engine technology)
+Kapitsa–Dirac effect (physics)
+Kappa effect (geography) (psychology)
+Karr Creates effect (JolliBini) (Jollibee x Karr Creates)
+Kate Middleton effect (celebrity) (fashion)
+Kautsky effect (fluorescence)
+Kaye effect (fluid dynamics)
+Ken Burns effect (film techniques)
+Kendall effect (telecommunications)
+Kerr effect (nonlinear optics)
+Keynes effect (economics and finance) (Keynesian economics)
+Keystone effect (technology)
+Kinetic depth effect (perception)
+Kinetic isotope effect (chemical kinetics) (physical organic chemistry)
+Kirkendall effect (chemistry) (metallurgy)
+Klein–Nishina effect (quantum field theory)
+Knife-edge effect (radio frequency propagation)
+Kohn effect (physics)
+Kondo effect (condensed matter physics) (physical phenomena)
+Kozai effect (astronomy) (celestial mechanics)
+Kuleshov effect (cinema of Russia) (cognitive biases) (film editing) (film techniques) (psychological theories)
+
+== L ==
+Lake effect (snow or ice weather phenomena)
+Lake Wobegon effect (cognitive biases) (psychological theories) (social psychology)
+Landau–Pomeranchuk–Migdal effect (high-energy physics)
+Larsen effect (audio feedback)
+Late effect (disease)
+Lawn dart effect (psychology)
+Lazarus effect (particle detectors)
+Lead–lag effect (control theory) (economics and finance)
+Leakage effect (tourism)
+Learning effect (economics) (economics) (economics terminology)
+Lee–Boot effect (biology) (reproduction)
+Legalized abortion and crime effect (abortion debate) (criminology)
+Leidenfrost effect (physical phenomena)
+Lenard effect (physics)
+Lense–Thirring effect (effects of gravitation) (tests of general relativity)
+Leveling effect (chemistry)
+Levels-of-processing effect (educational psychology) (psychology) (psychological theories)
+Liquid Sky (effect) (lasers) (stage lighting)
+Little–Parks effect (condensed matter physics)
+Lockin effect (physics)
+Lombard effect (phonetics) (human voice) (animal communication) (human communication) (noise pollution)
+Lotus effect (nanotechnology)
+Low-frequency effects (film sound production) (technology)
+Lubberts effect (medicine) (radiography) (radiology)
+Lunar effect (moon myths) (pseudoscience)
+Luxemburg–Gorky effect (radio communication) (radio spectrum)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-2.md

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+---
+title: "List of effects"
+chunk: 3/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:56.203937+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== M ==
+Magali effect
+Magneto-optic effect (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (optical phenomena)
+Magneto-optic Kerr effect (condensed matter physics) (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (optical phenomena)
+magnetocaloric effect (physical phenomena) (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (thermodynamics)
+Magnus effect (fluid dynamics)
+Malmquist effect (astronomy)
+Malter effect (physics)
+Mandela effect (psychology) (paranormal)
+Marangoni effect (fluid dynamics) (fluid mechanics) (physical phenomena)
+Marchywka effect (electrochemistry) (ultraviolet sensor production)
+Mark Twain effect (economics and finance) (stock market)
+Martha Mitchell effect (psychological theories) (psychosis)
+Massenerhebung effect (trees)
+Maternal age effect (developmental biology)
+Maternal effect (developmental biology)
+Matthew effect (education) (education)
+Matilda effect (Research)
+Matthew effect (sociology) (adages) (social phenomena) (sociology of scientific knowledge)
+McClintock effect (menstruation)
+McCollough effect (optical illusions)
+McGurk effect (auditory illusions) (perception) (psychological theories)
+Meissner effect (levitation) (magnetism) (superconductivity)
+Meitner–Hupfeld effect (particle physics)
+Mellanby effect (health) (alcohol intoxication)
+Memory effect (electric batteries)
+Mesomeric effect (chemical bonding)
+Microwave auditory effect (cognitive neuroscience) (espionage) (hearing) (human psychology) (less-lethal weapons) (mind control) (sound)
+Mid-domain effect (macroecology) (biogeography) (biodiversity)
+Mikheyev–Smirnov–Wolfenstein effect (particle physics)
+Milky seas effect (aquatic biology) (biological oceanography) (bioluminescence)
+Miller effect (electrical engineering) (electronics terms)
+Miniature effect (film and video technology) (film techniques) (scale modeling) (scientific modeling) (special effects) (visual effects)
+Misinformation effect (cognitive biases) (psychological theories)
+Missing letter effect (perception) (psychometrics)
+Misnay–Schardin effect (explosives)
+Mohring effect (microeconomics) (transportation)
+Mössbauer effect (condensed matter physics) (nuclear physics) (physical phenomena)
+Mozart effect (education psychology) (popular psychology) (psychological theories) (Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart)
+Mpemba effect (phase changes) (physical paradoxes) (thermodynamics)
+Mullins effect (rubber properties)
+Multiple-effect humidification (drinking water) (water supply) (water treatment)
+Munroe effect (explosive weapons) (explosives)
+
+== N ==
+Name-letter effect (psychology)
+Negative (positive) contrast effect (psychology)
+Negativity effect (cognitive biases) (psychological theories)
+Neglected firm effect (business analysis)
+Nernst effect (electrodynamics) (thermodynamics)
+Network effect (business models) (economics effects) (information technology) (monopoly [economics]) (networks) (transport economics)
+Non-thermal microwave effect (chemical kinetics)
+Nordtvedt effect (astronomy) (astrophysics) (effects of gravitation) (relativity) (theoretical physics)
+Novaya Zemlya effect (arctic) (atmospheric optical phenomena) (atmospheric science) (Novaya Zemlya) (solar phenomena)
+Novelty effect (learning) (psychology)
+Nuclear Overhauser effect (chemical physics) (nuclear magnetic resonance) (physical chemistry) (spectroscopy)
+Numerosity adaptation effect (cognitive science) (optical illusions) (perception)
+Nut Island effect (human resource management) (organizational studies and human resource management)
+
+== O ==
+Oberth effect (physics)
+Observer effect (information technology) (computer programming)
+Observer effect (physics) (physics)
+Observer-expectancy effect (cognitive biases) (cognitive psychology)
+Occlusion effect (biology) (otology)
+Octave effect (effects units)
+Okorokov effect (physics)
+Oligodynamic effect (biology and pharmacology of chemical elements)
+Online disinhibition effect (Internet culture) (psychology)
+Onnes effect (condensed matter physics) (fluid mechanics) (helium)
+Opposition effect (astronomy) (optical phenomena) (observational astronomy) (radiometry) (scattering, absorption and radiative transfer [optics])
+Osborne effect (marketing)
+Ostrich effect (adages)
+Ouzo effect (Colloidal chemistry) (Chemical mixtures) (Condensed matter physics) (Soft matter) (Fluid dynamics)
+Overconfidence effect (cognitive biases) (psychological theories)
+Overjustification effect (educational psychology) (psychological theories) (psychology)
+Overview effect (spaceflight) (transcendence) (psychology)
+Ovsiankina effect (psychology)
+
+== P ==
+Pandemonium effect (gamma spectroscopy)
+Partner effects (economics) (sociology)
+Paschen–Back effect (atomic physics) (atomic, molecular, and optical physics) (magnetism)
+Pasteur effect (beer and brewery) (biochemistry) (fermentation) (metabolism)
+Paternal effect – (developmental biology)
+Pauli effect (experimental physics) (parapsychology) (psychokinesis)
+Payne effect (rubber properties)
+Pearson–Anson effect (electronics)
+Peltier–Seebeck effect (thermoelectric effect) (electricity) (HVAC) (physical phenomena) (thermodynamics)
+Peltzman effect (economics of regulation) (University of Chicago)
+Penn effect (economics effects)
+Petkau effect (radiobiology)
+Phaser (effect) (audio effects) (effects units)
+Phillips effect (employment) (inflation)
+Photoacoustic Doppler effect (Doppler effects) (radar signal processing) (radio frequency propagation) (wave mechanics)
+Photoelectric effect (Albert Einstein) (electrical phenomena) (foundational quantum physics)
+Photorefractive effect (nonlinear optics)
+Photothermal effect (particle physics) (photochemistry) (physics)
+Picture superiority effect (cognitive biases) (educational psychology) (memory biases) (psychological theories)
+Piezoresistive effect (electrical phenomena)
+Pigou effect (economics effects)
+Pioneer effect (astrodynamics) (pioneer program)
+Placebo effect (bioethics) (clinical research) (experimental design) (history of medicine) (Latin medical phrases) (Latin words and phrases) (medical ethics) (medical terms) (medicinal chemistry) (mind–body interventions) (pharmacology) (psychological theories) (research methods) (theories)
+Plasma effect (demo effects)
+Plateau effect (systems science) (metaphors referring to places)
+Plummer effect (iodine) (medicine)
+Pockels effect (cryptography) (nonlinear optics) (polarization)
+Polar effect (physical organic chemistry)
+Polar effect (genetics) (genetics)
+Portevin–Le Chatelier effect (engineering) (materials science)
+Position-effect variegation (genetics)
+Positivity effect (aging) (cognition) (cognitive biases) (memory) (memory biases) (psychological theories) (psychology)
+Poynting effect (gases)
+Poynting–Robertson effect (celestial mechanics)
+Practical effect (special effects)
+Pratfall effect (psychology)
+Precedence effect (acoustics) (sound perception)
+Primakoff effect (particle physics)
+Priority effect (ecology)
+Probe effect (software development philosophies) (system administration)
+Proteus effect (consciousness) (psychology)
+Proximity effect (atomic physics) (nuclear physics) (physics)
+Proximity effect (audio) (acoustics)
+Proximity effect (electromagnetism) (electrical engineering)
+Proximity effect (electron beam lithography) (condensed matter physics)
+Proximity effect (superconductivity) (superconductivity)
+Pseudocertainty effect
+Pulfrich effect (3D imaging) (optical illusions)
+Purkinje effect (optical illusions) (perception) (vision)
+Pygmalion effect (cognitive biases)
+
+== Q ==
+QMR effect (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (magnetism) (optics) (optical phenomena)
+Quantum-confined Stark effect (quantum mechanics)
+Quantum Hall effect (Hall effect) (condensed matter physics) (quantum electronics) (spintronics)
+Quantum Zeno effect (quantum measurement)
+
+== R ==
+Raman effect (physics)
+Ramp effect (drug addiction) (drug rehabilitation)
+Ramsauer–Townsend effect (physical phenomena) (scattering)
+Ransom note effect (typography)
+Rashomon effect (psychology)
+Ratchet effect (game theory)
+Rear projection effect (special effects)
+Rebound effect (medical sign)
+Rebound effect (conservation) (economics paradoxes) (energy) (energy conservation)
+Red-eye effect (science of photography)
+Relativistic Doppler effect (Doppler effects) (special relativity)
+Renner–Teller effect (molecular physics)
+Reverse Cerenkov effect (physics)
+Reverse short-channel effect (transistors)
+Ringelmann effect (social psychology)
+Ripple effect (education) (sociology)
+Robin Hood effect (income distribution) (Robin Hood) (socioeconomics) (taxation)
+Roe effect (abortion debate) (abortion in the United States)
+Root effect (fish) (hemoproteins) (respiratory physiology)
+Rope trick effect (nuclear weapons)
+Rossiter–McLaughlin effect (Doppler effects) (extrasolar planets) (spectroscopy) (star systems)
+Rusty bolt effect (radio electronics)
+Russ Christ effect (PV rejection profile)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-3.md

@@ -0,0 +1,154 @@
+---
+title: "List of effects"
+chunk: 4/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:56.203937+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== S ==
+Sabattier effect (solarization) (photographic processes) (science of photography)
+Sachs–Wolfe effect (astronomy) (physical cosmology)
+Sagnac effect (optics) (relativity)
+Sailing Ship Effect (business) (economics)
+Samba effect (Brazil) (economy of Brazil) (history of Brazil)
+Sandbox effect (Internet technology) (search engine optimization)
+Scharnhorst effect (quantum field theory)
+Schottky effect (diodes)
+Schwinger effect (particle physics) (hypothetical processes) (quantum electrodynamics)
+Screen-door effect (display technology) (technology)
+Second gas effect (anesthesia)
+Second-system effect (software development)
+Seeliger effect (astronomy) (observational astronomy)
+Serial position effect (cognitive biases) (psychological theories) (psychologicy)
+Shaft effect (motorcycle)
+Shapiro effect (effects of gravitation)
+Shielding effect (atomic, molecular, and optical physics) (atomic physics) (chemistry) (quantum chemistry)
+Shower-curtain effect (fluid dynamics)
+Shubnikov–de Haas effect (science)
+Side effect (computer science) (computer programming)
+Side effect (disambiguation)
+Signor–Lipps effect (extinction) (fossils) (paleontology)
+Silk screen effect (technology)
+Silo effect (management) (systems theory)
+Simon effect (psychology)
+Simpson's paradox aka Yule–Simpson effect (probability) (statistics)
+Skin effect (electronics)
+Slashdot effect (denial-of-service attacks)(Internet terminology) (Slashdot)
+Sleeper effect (social psychology)
+Smith–Purcell effect (physics) (quantum optics)
+Snackwell effect (consumer behaviour) (psychology)
+Snob effect (consumer theory) (economics and finance)
+Snowball effect (language) (metaphors)
+Somogyi effect (diabetes)
+Sound effect (film techniques) (sound effects) (sound production) (special effects)
+Soap opera effect (film techniques) (television terminology) (filming) (film editing)
+Southwest effect, The (airline terminology) (Southwest Airlines)
+Spacing effect (cognitive biases) (educational psychology) (psychological theories)
+Special effect (animation) (special effects)
+Spin Hall effect (condensed matter physics) (Hall effect) (physics) (spintronics)
+Spoiler effect (psephology) (voting theory)
+Stack effect (filming) (television terminology) (digital electronics) (film techniques)
+Stark effect (atomic physics) (foundational quantum physics) (physical phenomena)
+Stars (shader effect) (3D computer graphics) (computer graphics) (demo effects)
+Status effect (video game gameplay)
+Stewart–Tolman effect (electrodynamics)
+Stock sound effect (film and video technology) (film and video terminology) (film terminology)
+Storage effect (demography) (population ecology)
+Streisand effect (dynamic lists) (eponyms) (slang)
+Stroop effect (perception) (psychological tests)
+Steric effect (chemical kinetics) (chemical reactions) (collision theory) (molecular geometry) (stereochemistry)
+Subadditivity effect (cognitive biases)
+Subject-expectancy effect (cognitive biases)
+Sunyaev–Zel'dovich effect (physical cosmology) (radio astronomy)
+SVG filter effect (computer graphics) (computer graphics techniques) (image processing) (Scalable Vector Graphics)
+Szilard–Chalmers effect (nuclear chemistry)
+
+== T ==
+Tamagotchi effect (psychology)
+Tanada effect (botany)
+Tanzi effect (taxation)
+Telescoping effect (memory biases) (psychology)
+Testing effect (educational psychology) (memory)
+Tetris effect (memory) (Tetris)
+Thatcher effect (vision)
+Therapeutic effect (medical treatment) (pharmacology)
+Thermal flywheel effect (heat) (thermodynamics)
+Thermal Hall effect (condensed matter) (Hall effect) (superconductivity)
+Third-person effect (media studies)
+Thorpe–Ingold effect (chemical kinetics) (organic chemistry)
+Threshold effect (particle physics) (physics) (renormalization group)
+Tinkerbell effect (sociology)
+Tocqueville effect (sociology)
+Training effect (cardiovascular system) (exercise physiology) (medicine) (respiratory system) (sports terminology)
+Trans effect (coordination chemistry)
+Transformer effect (electrodynamics)
+Transverse flow effect (aerodynamics)
+Trench effect (fire)
+Triboelectric effect (electrical phenomena) (electricity)
+Trickle-down economics
+Trickle-down fashion
+Trickle-up economics
+Trickle-up fashion
+Troxler effect (optical illusion)
+Twisted nematic field effect (display technology) (liquid crystal displays) (liquid crystals)
+Twomey effect (air pollution) (atmospheric radiation) (clouds, fog and precipitation)
+Tyndall effect (physical phenomena) (scattering)
+
+== U ==
+Umov effect (astronomy) (observational astronomy) (planetary science)
+Unruh effect (quantum field theory) (thermodynamics)
+Urban heat island effect (climate change feedbacks and causes) (climate forcing)
+
+== V ==
+Vandenbergh effect (biology)
+Vaporific effect (fire)
+Veblen effect (consumer theory) (goods)
+Venturi effect (fluid dynamics)
+Venus effect (artistic techniques) (cognitive science) (film techniques) (mirrors) (psychology)
+Visual effects (computer generated imagery)
+Visual effects art director
+Voigt effect (magnetism) (optics)
+Von Restorff effect (cognitive biases) (psychological theories)
+Vroman effect (molecular and cellular biology)
+
+== W ==
+Wagon-wheel effect (optical illusion)
+Wahlund effect (evolution) (population genetics)
+Walker effect (illusions of self-motion) (spatial misconception)
+Walkman effect (computing and society) (technology)
+Wallace effect (evolutionary biology) (speciation)
+Warburg effect (biochemistry) (oncology) (photosynthesis)
+Wealth effect (economics and finance) (wealth)
+Weapons effect (gun politics)
+Weathervane effect (aviation terminology)
+Weissenberg effect (physics)
+Westermarck effect (psychology) (incest)
+Wet floor effect (computer graphic techniques) (computer graphics) (Web 2.0)
+Whitten effect (menstruation)
+Wien effect (electrochemistry)
+Wigner effect (condensed matter physics) (nuclear technology) (physical phenomena) (radiation effects)
+Wilson effect (astronomy) (Sun)
+Wilson–Bappu effect (physics)
+Wimbledon effect (economic theories) (economy of Japan) (economy of London)
+Windkessel effect (physiology)
+Withgott effect (linguistics) (phonetics)
+Wolf effect (scattering) (spectroscopy)
+Wolff–Chaikoff effect (iodine) (medicine)
+Woozle effect (psychology) (scientific method) (sociology)
+Word superiority effect (cognitive science)
+Worse-than-average effect (cognitive biases) (psychological theories) (social psychology)
+
+== X ==
+Xenia effect (agriculture) (genetics)
+
+== Y ==
+Yarkovsky effect (celestial mechanics)
+Yarkovsky–O'Keefe–Radzievskii–Paddack effect (celestial mechanics)
+Yule–Simpson effect (probability) (statistics)
+
+== Z ==
+Zeeman effect (atomic physics) (foundational quantum physics) (magnetism) (physical phenomena)
+Zeigarnik effect (cognitive biases) (educational psychology) (learning) (psychological theories)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_forms_of_electricity_named_after_scientists-0.md

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+---
+title: "List of forms of electricity named after scientists"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_forms_of_electricity_named_after_scientists"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:57.469953+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+This is a list of forms of electricity named after scientists.  The terms in this list are mostly archaic usages but are found in many 19th and early 20th-century publications.
+
+
+== Adjectives ==
+faradic
+Of electricity that is alternating, especially when obtained from an induction coil.  Named after Michael Faraday who built the first electromagnetic generator.
+galvanic
+Of electricity that is not alternating.  Named after Luigi Galvani.
+voltaic
+Of electricity derived from an electrochemical cell or battery.  Named after Alessandro Volta who built the first battery, the voltaic pile.  In most contexts it can be considered a synonym of galvanic.
+
+
+== Nouns (applications) ==
+Faradization
+Electrotherapy treatment of a person with faradic electricity.  Coined by Duchenne de Boulogne and named after Michael Faraday.
+Franklinization
+Electrotherapy by charging a person to high voltage with static electricity.  Named after Benjamin Franklin.
+d'Arsonvalization
+Electrotherapy treatment of a person with high frequency electricity.  Named after Jacques-Arsène d'Arsonval.
+
+
+== Nouns (forms) ==
+Faradism
+Faradic electricity
+Franklinism
+High voltage static electricity as used in Franklinization
+Galvanism
+Originally, voltaic electricity, but can also be used to distinguish Galvani's animal electricity from Volta's chemical/metal contact electricity
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Bibliography ==
+Borck, Cornelius, Brainwaves: A Cultural History of Electroencephalography, Routledge, 2018 ISBN 1472469445.
+Chalovich, Joseph M, Franklinization: Early Therapeutic Use of Static Electricity, ScholarShip, East Carolina University, 23 January 2012.
+Martellucci,  Jacopo (ed), Electrical Stimulation for Pelvic Floor Disorders, Springer, 2014 ISBN 3319069470.
+de la Peňa, Carolyn Thomas, The Body Electric: How Strange Machines Built the Modern American, New York University Press, 2005 ISBN 081471983X.
+Pinchuck, LS; Nikolaev, VI; Tsetkova, EA; Goldade, VA, Tribology and Biophysics of Artificial Joints, Elsevier, 2005 ISBN 0080458084.
+Tate, Thomas, On Magnetism, Voltaic Electricity, and Electrodynamics, London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1854 OCLC 316488126.
+de Young, Mary, Encyclopedia of Asylum Therapeutics, 1750-1950s, McFarland, 2015 ISBN 0786468971.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science-0.md

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+---
+title: "Outline of Earth science"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:55.003860+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Earth science:
+
+Earth science – all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. It is also known as geoscience, the geosciences or the Earthquake sciences, and is arguably a special case in planetary science, the Earth being the only known life-bearing planet.
+Earth science is a branch of the physical sciences which is a part of the natural sciences. It in turn has many branches.
+
+== Earth's spheres ==
+
+Ecosphere – there are many subsystems that make up the natural environment (the planetary ecosystem or "ecosphere") of the Earth. Many of the subsystems are characterized as "spheres", coinciding with the shape of the planet. The four spheres (for which most of the other spheres are a subtype of) are the atmosphere, the biosphere, the hydrosphere and the geosphere. Earth's ecosphere lies it self within the heliosphere (the Sun's astrosphere). Listed roughly from outermost to innermost the named spheres of the Earth are:
+
+Magnetosphere – The region around an astronomical object in which charged particles are affected by its magnetic field
+Atmosphere, the gases that surround the Earth (its air)
+By altitude
+Exosphere – The outermost layer of an atmosphere
+Exobase – The lower boundary of the exosphere
+Thermopause – The upper boundary of the thermosphere
+Thermosphere – The layer of the atmosphere above the mesosphere and below the exosphere
+Mesopause – The temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere
+Mesosphere – The layer of the atmosphere directly above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere
+Stratopause – The upper boundary of the stratosphere
+Stratosphere – The layer of the atmosphere above the troposphere
+Ozone layer – The region of Earth's stratosphere that absorbs most of the Sun's UV radiation
+Tropopause – The boundary of the atmosphere between the troposphere and stratosphere
+Troposphere – The lowest layer of the atmosphere
+Planetary boundary layer – The lowest part of the atmosphere, directly influenced by contact with the planetary surface
+By air turbulence
+Heterosphere – Upper parts of the atmosphere in which the component gases are not well mixed
+Turbopause – The altitude in the Earth's atmosphere below which turbulent mixing dominates
+Homosphere – Lower parts of the atmosphere in which the component gases are well mixed
+Other
+Ionosphere – The ionized part of Earth's upper atmosphere
+Biosphere – The global sum of all ecosystems on Earth
+Anthroposphere – The part of the environment that is made or modified by humans for use in human activities and human habitat
+Noosphere (rare) – The sphere of human thought
+Hydrosphere – The combined mass of water found on, under, and above the surface of a planet, minor planet or natural satellite
+Cryosphere – Those portions of Earth's surface where water is in solid form
+Geosphere/Solid Earth – (Also sometimes a collective name for the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the cryosphere, and the atmosphere) The union of all solid parts of Earth and the Inner of Earth.
+Pedosphere – The outermost layer of the Earth that is composed of soil and subject to soil formation processes
+Outer layers
+By composition
+Crust (geology) – The outermost solid shell of a rocky planet, dwarf planet, or natural satellite.
+Moho Discontinuity– The line between the crust and the Earth's mantle.
+Earth's mantle – The part of the interior of the planet Earth between the crust and the core.
+By diffusion of seismic waves
+Lithosphere – The rigid, outermost shell of a terrestrial-type planet or natural satellite that is defined by its rigid mechanical properties.
+Asthenosphere – The highly viscous, mechanically weak and ductile region of the Earth's upper mantle
+Mesozone – The part of the Earth's mantle below the lithosphere and the asthenosphere, but above the outer core.
+Gutenberg discontinuity– The line between the mantle and the Earth's core.
+Earth's core – The inner part of the planet, formed by differential buoyancy of the component materials causing the denser materials to accumulate nearer to the centre.
+Outer core – A fluid layer composed of mostly iron and nickel between Earth's solid inner core and its mantle.
+Lehmann Discontinuity – The line between the inner core and the outer core.
+Inner core – The innermost part of the Earth, a solid ball of iron-nickel alloy.
+
+== Branches of Earth science ==
+
+=== Atmospheric science ===
+Atmospheric sciences – The study of the atmosphere, its processes, and interactions with other systems
+
+Climatology – The scientific study of climate, defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time
+Meteorology – Interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere focusing on weather forecasting.
+Paleoclimatology – The study of changes in climate taken on the scale of the entire history of Earth
+Atmospheric chemistry – The branch of atmospheric science in which the chemistry of the atmosphere is studied
+Atmospheric physics – The application of physics to the study of the atmosphere
+Paleotempestology – The study of past tropical cyclone activity using geological proxies and historical documents

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science-1.md

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+---
+title: "Outline of Earth science"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:55.003860+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Geology ===
+Geology – The study of the composition, structure, physical properties, and history of Earth's components, and the processes by which they are shaped.
+Economic geology – Science concerned with earth materials of economic value
+Engineering geology – The application of the geology to engineering practice.
+Environmental geology – Science of the practical application of geology in environmental problems.
+Quaternary geology – The branch of geology that studies developments more recent than 2.6 million years ago
+Planetary geology – The geology of astronomical objects apparently in orbit around stellar objects
+Petroleum geology – The study of the origin, occurrence, movement, accumulation, and exploration of hydrocarbon fuels
+Historical geology – The study of the geological history of Earth
+Hydrogeology – The study of the distribution and movement of groundwater
+Structural geology – The science of the description and interpretation of deformation in the Earth's crust independent of extent
+Geochemistry – Science that applies chemistry to analyse geological systems
+Geochronology – Science of determining the age of rocks, sediments and fossils
+Geodesy – The science of the geometric shape, orientation in space, and gravitational field of the Earth
+Geomagnetics – Study of the Earth's magnetic field
+Geomicrobiology – Science of the interactions between microbiology and geology
+Geomorphology – The scientific study of landforms and the processes that shape them
+Glaciology – Scientific study of ice and natural phenomena involving ice
+Geophysics – The physics of the Earth and its environment in space, and the study of the Earth using quantitative physical methods
+Micropaleontology – The branch of paleontology that studies microfossils
+Mineralogy – Scientific study of minerals and mineralised artifacts
+Gemology – Science dealing with natural and artificial gemstone materials
+Mineral physics – The science of materials that compose the interior of planets
+Paleontology – Scientific study of prehistoric life
+Palynology – The study of dust
+Petrology – The branch of geology that studies the origin, composition, distribution and structure of rocks
+Physical geodesy – The study of the physical properties of the Earth's gravity field
+Sedimentology – The study of natural sediments and of the processes by which they are formed
+Seismology – The scientific study of earthquakes and propagation of elastic waves through a planet
+Paleoseismology – The study of earthquakes that happened in the past
+Stratigraphy – The study of rock layers and their formation
+Volcanology – The study of volcanoes, lava, magma and associated phenomena
+
+=== Geography ===
+Geography – The science that studies the terrestrial surface, the societies that inhabit it and the territories, landscapes, places or regions that form it.
+
+Physical geography – The branch of natural science which deals with the study of processes and patterns in the natural environment such as the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and geosphere, as opposed to the cultural or built environment, the domain of human geography
+Human geography – The study of cultures, communities and activities of peoples of the world
+Cartography
+Topography
+Geostatistics – A branch of statistics focusing on spatial data sets
+Environmental chemistry – The scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places
+Environmental soil science – The study of the interaction of humans with the pedosphere as well as critical aspects of the biosphere, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, and the atmosphere.
+Geographic information science – Scientific study of geographic data and information
+Edaphology – The science concerned with the influence of soils on living things.
+Pedology – The study of soils in their natural environment
+Spatial decision support systems – Computerised aid to land use decisions
+Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) – Various satellite navigation systems
+Hydrology – The science of applying engineering techniques to the properties of the Earth's water, especially its movement in relation to land.
+Satellite navigation – Any system that uses satellite radio signals to provide. autonomous geo-spatial positioning
+Remote sensing – Acquisition of information at a significant distance from the subject.
+Photogrammetry – The science of making measurements using photography.
+
+=== Oceanography ===
+Oceanography – The study of the physical and biological aspects of the ocean
+
+Biological oceanography – The study of how organisms affect and are affected by the physics, chemistry, and geology of the oceanographic system.
+Physical oceanography – The study of physical conditions and physical processes within the ocean
+Chemical oceanography – The study of ocean chemistry
+Paleoceanography – The study of the history of the oceans in the geologic past
+Limnology – The science of inland aquatic ecosystems
+Marine geology – The study of the history and structure of the ocean floor
+
+=== Planetary science ===
+Planetary science – The study of planets (including Earth), moons, and planetary systems (in particular those of the Solar System) and the processes that form them.
+
+Planetary geology – study of the geology of astronomical objects apparently in orbit around stellar objects
+Selenography – study of the surface and physical features of the Moon
+Theoretical planetology – the theoretical study of the internal structure of planets by making assumptions about their chemical composition and the state of their materials, then calculating the radial distribution of various properties such as temperature, pressure, or density of material across the planet's internals.
+
+== History of Earth science ==
+History of Earth science – history of the all-embracing sciences related to Earth. Earth science and all of its branches are branches of physical science.

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+---
+title: "Outline of Earth science"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:55.003860+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+History of atmospheric sciences – history of the umbrella study of the atmosphere, its processes, the effects other systems have on the atmosphere, and the effects of the atmosphere on these other systems.
+History of atmospheric chemistry
+History of biogeography – history of the study of the distribution of species (biology), organisms, and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time.
+History of cartography – history of the study and practice of making maps or globes.
+History of climatology – history of the study of climate, scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time
+History of coastal geography – history of the study of the dynamic interface between the ocean and the land, incorporating both the physical geography (i.e. coastal geomorphology, geology, and oceanography) and the human geography (sociology and history) of the coast.
+History of environmental science – history of an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental systems.
+History of ecology – history of the scientific study of the distribution and abundance of living organisms and how they are affected by interactions between the organisms and their environment.
+History of Freshwater biology – history of the scientific biological study of freshwater ecosystems and is a branch of limnology
+History of marine biology – history of the scientific study of organisms in the ocean or other marine or brackish bodies of water
+History of parasitology – The history of parasitology studies parasites, their hosts, and their relationships.
+History of population dynamics – history of population dynamics is the branch of life sciences that studies short-term and long-term changes in the size and age composition of populations and the biological and environmental processes influencing those changes.
+History of environmental chemistry – The history of environmental chemistry is the scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places.
+History of environmental soil science – The history of environmental soil science is the study of the interaction of humans with the pedosphere as well as critical aspects of the biosphere, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, and the atmosphere.
+History of environmental geology – The history of environmental geology, like hydrogeology, is an applied science concerned with the practical application of the principles of geology in solving environmental problems.
+History of toxicology – history of the branch of biology, chemistry, and medicine concerned with the study of the adverse effects of chemicals on living organisms.
+History of geodesy – history of the scientific discipline that deals with the measurement and representation of the Earth, including its gravitational field, in a three-dimensional time-varying space
+History of geography – history of the science that studies the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth
+History of geoinformatics – the history of the science and the technology used to develop and use information science infrastructure to address the problems of geography, geosciences, and related branches of engineering.
+History of geology – history of studying Earth, with the general exclusion of present-day life, flow within the ocean, and the atmosphere.
+History of planetary geology – the history of the planetary science discipline concerned with the geology of the celestial bodies, such as the planets and their moons, asteroids, comets, and meteorites.
+History of geomorphology – history of the scientific study of landforms and the processes that shape them
+History of geostatistics – history of the branch of statistics focusing on spatial or spatiotemporal datasets
+History of geophysics – history of the physics of the Earth and its environment in space; also the study of the Earth using quantitative physical methods.
+History of glaciology – history of the study of glaciers, or more generally, ice, and natural phenomena that involve ice.
+History of hydrology – history of studying water movement, distribution, and quality on Earth and other planets, including the hydrologic cycle, water resources, and environmental watershed sustainability.
+History of hydrogeology – history of the area of geology that deals with the distribution and movement of groundwater in the soil and rocks of the Earth's crust (commonly in aquifers).
+History of mineralogy – history of the study of chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of minerals.
+History of meteorology – history of the interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere, which explains and forecasts weather events.
+History of oceanography – history of the branch of Earth science that studies the ocean
+History of paleoclimatology – history of the study of changes in climate taken on the scale of the entire history of Earth
+History of paleontology – history of the study of prehistoric life
+History of petrology – history of the geology branch that studies rocks' origin, composition, distribution, and structure.
+History of limnology – history of the study of inland waters
+History of seismology – history of the scientific study of earthquakes and the propagation of elastic waves through the Earth or other planet-like bodies
+History of soil science – history of the study of soil as a natural resource on the surface of the Earth, including soil formation, classification, and mapping; physical, chemical, biological, and fertility properties of soils; and these properties concerning the use and management of soils.
+History of topography – history of the study of surface shape and features of the Earth and other observable astronomical objects, including planets, moons, and asteroids.
+History of volcanology – history of studying volcanoes, lava, magma, and related geological, geophysical and geochemical phenomena.
+
+== Earth science programs ==
+NASA Earth Science
+
+== Earth science organizations ==
+List of geoscience organizations
+
+== Earth science journals ==
+Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
+Earth-Science Reviews
+Nature Geoscience
+Radiocarbon
+Reviews of Geophysics
+
+== People influential in Earth science ==
+James Hutton
+Alfred Wegener
+Isabelle Daniel
+Robert Hazen
+Naomi Oreskes
+Michael E. Mann
+
+== See also ==
+
+Outline of science –
+Outline of natural science –
+Outline of physical science –
+Outline of Earth science
+Outline of formal science –
+Outline of social science –
+Outline of applied science –
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+
+Earth Science Picture of the Day, a service of Universities Space Research Association, sponsored by NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
+Geoethics in Planetary and Space Exploration
+National Earth Science Teachers Association

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-0.md

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+---
+title: "Timeline of scientific discoveries"
+chunk: 1/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:51.420967+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The timeline below shows the date of publication of possible major scientific breakthroughs, theories and discoveries, along with the discoverer.  This article discounts mere speculation as discovery, although imperfect reasoned arguments, arguments based on elegance/simplicity, and numerically/experimentally verified conjectures qualify (as otherwise no scientific discovery before the late 19th century would count). The timeline begins at the Bronze Age, as it is difficult to give even estimates for the timing of events prior to this, such as of the discovery of counting, natural numbers and arithmetic.
+To avoid overlap with timeline of historic inventions, the timeline does not list examples of documentation for manufactured substances and devices unless they reveal a more fundamental leap in the theoretical ideas in a field.
+
+== Bronze Age ==
+Many early innovations of the Bronze Age were prompted by the increase in trade, and this also applies to the scientific advances of this period. For context, the major civilizations of this period are Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Indus Valley, with Greece rising in importance towards the end of the third millennium BC. The Indus Valley script remains undeciphered and there are very little surviving fragments of its writing, thus any inference about scientific discoveries in that region must be made based only on archaeological digs. The following dates are approximations.
+
+3000 BC: Units of measurement are developed in the Americas as well as the major Bronze Age civilizations: Egypt, Mesopotamia, Elam and the Indus Valley.
+3000 BC: The first deciphered numeral system is that of the Egyptian numerals, a sign-value system (as opposed to a place-value system).
+2650 BC: The oldest extant record of a unit of length, the cubit-rod ruler, is from Nippur.
+2600 BC: The oldest attested evidence for the existence of units of weight, and weighing scales date to the Fourth Dynasty of Egypt, with Deben (unit) balance weights, excavated from the reign of Sneferu, though earlier usage has been proposed.
+2100 BC: The concept of area is first recognized in Babylonian clay tablets, and 3-dimensional volume is discussed in an Egyptian papyrus. This begins the study of geometry.
+2100 BC: Quadratic equations, in the form of problems relating the areas and sides of rectangles, are solved by Babylonians.
+2000 BC: Pythagorean triples are first discussed in Babylon and Egypt, and appear on later manuscripts such as the Berlin Papyrus 6619.
+2000 BC: Multiplication tables in a base-60, rather than base-10 (decimal), system from Babylon.
+2000 BC: Primitive positional notation for numerals is seen in the Babylonian cuneiform numerals. However, the lack of clarity around the notion of zero made their system highly ambiguous (e.g. 13200 would be written the same as 132).
+Early 2nd millennium BC: Similar triangles and side-ratios are studied in Egypt for the construction of pyramids, paving the way for the field of trigonometry.
+Early 2nd millennium BC: Ancient Egyptians study anatomy, as recorded in the Edwin Smith Papyrus. They identified the heart and its vessels, liver, spleen, kidneys, hypothalamus, uterus, and bladder, and correctly identified that blood vessels emanated from the heart (however, they also believed that tears, urine, and semen, but not saliva and sweat, originated in the heart, see Cardiocentric hypothesis).
+1800 BC: The Middle Kingdom of Egypt develops Egyptian fraction notation.
+1800 BC – 1600 BC: A numerical approximation for the square root of two, accurate to 6 decimal places, is recorded on YBC 7289, a Babylonian clay tablet believed to belong to a student.
+1800 BC – 1600 BC: A Babylonian tablet uses 25⁄8 = 3.125 as an approximation for π, which has an error of 0.5%.
+1550 BC: The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus (a copy of an older Middle Kingdom text) contains the first documented instance of inscribing a polygon (in this case, an octagon) into a circle to estimate the value of π.
+
+== Iron Age ==
+The following dates are approximations.
+
+700 BC: Pythagoras's theorem is discovered by Baudhayana in the Hindu Shulba Sutras in Upanishadic India. However, Indian mathematics, especially North Indian mathematics, generally did not have a tradition of communicating proofs, and it is not fully certain that Baudhayana or Apastamba knew of a proof.
+700 BC: Pell's equations are first studied by Baudhayana in India, the first diophantine equations known to be studied.
+700 BC: Grammar is first studied in India (note that Sanskrit Vyākaraṇa predates Pāṇini).
+600 BC: Thales of Miletus is credited with proving Thales's theorem.
+600 BC: Maharshi Kanada gives the ideal of the smallest units of matter. According to him, matter consisted of indestructible minutes particles called paramanus, which are now called as atoms.
+600 BC – 200 BC: The Sushruta Samhita shows an understanding of musculoskeletal structure (including joints, ligaments and muscles and their functions) (3.V). It refers to the cardiovascular system as a closed circuit. In (3.IX) it identifies the existence of nerves.
+
+== 500 BC – 1 BC ==
+The following dates are approximations.

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+---
+title: "Timeline of scientific discoveries"
+chunk: 2/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:51.420967+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+500 BC: Hippasus, a Pythagorean, discovers irrational numbers.
+500 BC: Anaxagoras identifies moonlight as reflected sunlight.
+5th century BC: The Greeks start experimenting with straightedge-and-compass constructions.
+5th century BC: The earliest documented mention of a spherical Earth comes from the Greeks in the 5th century BC.  It is known that the Indians modeled the Earth as spherical by 300 BC
+460 BC: Empedocles describes thermal expansion.
+Late 5th century BC: Antiphon discovers the method of exhaustion, foreshadowing the concept of a limit.
+4th century BC: Greek philosophers study the properties of logical negation.
+4th century BC: The first true formal system is constructed by Pāṇini in his Sanskrit grammar.
+4th century BC: Eudoxus of Cnidus states the Archimedean property.
+4th century BC: Thaetetus shows that square roots are either integer or irrational.
+4th century BC: Thaetetus enumerates the Platonic solids, an early work in graph theory.
+4th century BC: Menaechmus discovers conic sections.
+4th century BC: Menaechmus develops co-ordinate geometry.
+4th century BC: Mozi in China gives a description of the camera obscura phenomenon.
+4th century BC: Around the time of Aristotle, a more empirically founded system of anatomy is established, based on animal dissection. In particular, Praxagoras makes the distinction between arteries and veins.
+4th century BC: Aristotle differentiates between near-sighted and far-sightedness. Graeco-Roman physician Galen would later use the term "myopia" for near-sightedness.
+4th century BC: Pāṇini develops a full-fledged formal grammar (for Sanskrit).
+Late 4th century BC: Chanakya (also known as Kautilya) establishes the field of economics with the Arthashastra (literally "Science of wealth"), a prescriptive treatise on economics and statecraft for Mauryan India.
+4th – 3rd century BC: In Mauryan India, The Jain mathematical text Surya Prajnapati draws a distinction between countable and uncountable infinities.
+350 BC – 50 BC: Clay tablets from (possibly Hellenistic-era) Babylon describe the mean speed theorem.
+300 BC: Finite geometric progressions are studied by Euclid in Ptolemaic Egypt.
+300 BC: Euclid proves the infinitude of primes.
+300 BC: Euclid proves the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic.
+300 BC: Euclid discovers the Euclidean algorithm.
+300 BC: Euclid publishes the Elements, a compendium on classical Euclidean geometry, including: elementary theorems on circles, definitions of the centers of a triangle, the tangent-secant theorem, the law of sines and the law of cosines.
+300 BC: Euclid's Optics introduces the field of geometric optics, making basic considerations on the sizes of images.
+3rd century BC: Archimedes relates problems in geometric series to those in arithmetic series, foreshadowing the logarithm.
+3rd century BC: Pingala in Mauryan India studies binary numbers, making him the first to study the radix (numerical base) in history.
+3rd century BC: Pingala in Mauryan India describes the Fibonacci sequence.
+3rd century BC: Pingala in Mauryan India discovers the binomial coefficients in a combinatorial context and the additive formula for generating them 
+  
+    
+      
+        
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+              
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+              
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+                
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+              
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+                )
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+        +
+        
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+              
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+                
+                  n
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+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\tbinom {n}{r}}={\tbinom {n-1}{r}}+{\tbinom {n-1}{r-1}}}
+  
+, i.e. a prose description of Pascal's triangle, and derived formulae relating to the sums and alternating sums of binomial coefficients. It has been suggested that he may have also discovered the binomial theorem in this context.
+3rd century BC: Eratosthenes discovers the Sieve of Eratosthenes.
+3rd century BC: Archimedes derives a formula for the volume of a sphere in The Method of Mechanical Theorems.
+3rd century BC: Archimedes calculates areas and volumes relating to conic sections, such as the area bounded between a parabola and a chord, and various volumes of revolution.
+3rd century BC: Archimedes discovers the sum/difference identity for trigonometric functions in the form of the "Theorem of Broken Chords".
+3rd century BC: Archimedes makes use of infinitesimals.
+3rd century BC: Archimedes further develops the method of exhaustion into an early description of integration.
+3rd century BC: Archimedes calculates tangents to non-trigonometric curves.
+3rd century BC: Archimedes uses the method of exhaustion to construct a strict inequality bounding the value of π within an interval of 0.002.
+3rd century BC: Archimedes develops the field of statics, introducing notions such as the center of gravity, mechanical equilibrium, the study of levers, and hydrostatics.
+3rd century BC: Eratosthenes measures the circumference of the Earth.
+260 BC: Aristarchus of Samos proposes a basic heliocentric model of the universe.
+200 BC: Apollonius of Perga discovers Apollonius's theorem.
+200 BC: Apollonius of Perga assigns equations to curves.
+200 BC: Apollonius of Perga develops epicycles. While an incorrect model, it was a precursor to the development of Fourier series.
+2nd century BC: Hipparchos discovers the apsidal precession of the Moon's orbit.
+2nd century BC: Hipparchos discovers Axial precession.
+2nd century BC: Hipparchos measures the sizes of and distances to the Moon and Sun.
+190 BC: Magic squares appear in China. The theory of magic squares can be considered the first example of a vector space.
+165 BC – 142 BC: Zhang Cang in Northern China is credited with the development of Gaussian elimination.
+
+== 1 AD – 500 AD ==
+Mathematics and astronomy flourish during the Golden Age of India (4th to 6th centuries AD) under the Gupta Empire. Meanwhile, Greece and its colonies have entered the Roman period in the last few decades of the preceding millennium, and Greek science is negatively impacted by the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and the economic decline that follows.

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+---
+title: "Timeline of scientific discoveries"
+chunk: 3/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:51.420967+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+1st to 4th century: A precursor to long division, known as "galley division" is developed at some point. Its discovery is generally believed to have originated in India around the 4th century AD, although Singaporean mathematician Lam Lay Yong claims that the method is found in the Chinese text The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, from the 1st century AD.
+60 AD: Heron's formula is discovered by Hero of Alexandria.
+2nd century: Ptolemy formalises the epicycles of Apollonius.
+2nd century: Ptolemy publishes his Optics, discussing colour, reflection, and refraction of light, and including the first known table of refractive angles.
+2nd century: Galen studies the anatomy of pigs.
+100: Menelaus of Alexandria describes spherical triangles, a precursor to non-Euclidean geometry.
+150: The Almagest of Ptolemy contains evidence of the Hellenistic zero. Unlike the earlier Babylonian zero, the Hellenistic zero could be used alone, or at the end of a number. However, it was usually used in the fractional part of a numeral, and was not regarded as a true arithmetical number itself.
+150: Ptolemy's Almagest contains practical formulae to calculate latitudes and day lengths.
+3rd century: Diophantus discusses linear diophantine equations.
+3rd century: Diophantus uses a primitive form of algebraic symbolism, which is quickly forgotten.
+210: Negative numbers are accepted as numeric by the late Han-era Chinese text The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art. Later, Liu Hui of Cao Wei (during the Three Kingdoms period) writes down laws regarding the arithmetic of negative numbers.
+By the 4th century: A square root finding algorithm with quartic convergence, known as the Bakhshali method (after the Bakhshali manuscript which records it), is discovered in India.
+By the 4th century: The present Hindu–Arabic numeral system with place-value numerals develops in Gupta-era India, and is attested in the Bakhshali Manuscript of Gandhara. The superiority of the system over existing place-value and sign-value systems arises from its treatment of zero as an ordinary numeral.
+4th to 5th centuries: The modern fundamental trigonometric functions, sine and cosine, are described in the Siddhantas of India. This formulation of trigonometry is an improvement over the earlier Greek functions, in that it lends itself more seamlessly to polar co-ordinates and the later complex interpretation of the trigonometric functions.
+By the 5th century: The decimal separator is developed in India, as recorded in al-Uqlidisi's later commentary on Indian mathematics.
+By the 5th century: The elliptical orbits of planets are discovered in India by at least the time of Aryabhata, and are used for the calculations of orbital periods and eclipse timings.
+By 499: Aryabhata's work shows the use of the modern fraction notation, known as bhinnarasi.
+499: Aryabhata gives a new symbol for zero and uses it for the decimal system.
+499: Aryabhata discovers the formula for the square-pyramidal numbers (the sums of consecutive square numbers).
+499: Aryabhata discovers the formula for the simplicial numbers (the sums of consecutive cube numbers).
+499: Aryabhata discovers Bezout's identity, a foundational result to the theory of principal ideal domains.
+499: Aryabhata develops Kuṭṭaka, an algorithm very similar to the Extended Euclidean algorithm.
+499: Aryabhata describes a numerical algorithm for finding cube roots.
+499: Aryabhata develops an algorithm to solve the Chinese remainder theorem.
+499: Historians speculate that Aryabhata may have used an underlying heliocentric model for his astronomical calculations, which would make it the first computational heliocentric model in history (as opposed to Aristarchus's model in form). This claim is based on his description of the planetary period about the Sun (śīghrocca), but has been met with criticism.
+499: Aryabhata creates a particularly accurate eclipse chart. As an example of its accuracy, 18th century scientist Guillaume Le Gentil, during a visit to Pondicherry, India, found the Indian computations (based on Aryabhata's computational paradigm) of the duration of the lunar eclipse of 30 August 1765 to be short by 41 seconds, whereas his charts (by Tobias Mayer, 1752) were long by 68 seconds.
+
+== 500 AD – 1000 AD ==
+
+The Golden Age of Indian mathematics and astronomy continues after the end of the Gupta empire, especially in Southern India during the era of the Rashtrakuta, Western Chalukya and Vijayanagara empires of Karnataka, which variously patronised Hindu and Jain mathematicians. In addition, the Middle East enters the Islamic Golden Age through contact with other civilisations, and China enters a golden period during the Tang and Song dynasties.

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+---
+title: "Timeline of scientific discoveries"
+chunk: 4/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:51.420967+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+6th century: Varahamira in the Gupta empire is the first to describe comets as astronomical phenomena, and as periodic in nature.
+525: John Philoponus in Byzantine Egypt describes the notion of inertia, and states that the motion of a falling object does not depend on its weight. His radical rejection of Aristotlean orthodoxy lead him to be ignored in his time
+628: Brahmagupta states the arithmetic rules for addition, subtraction, and multiplication with zero, as well as the multiplication of negative numbers, extending the basic rules for the latter found in the earlier The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art.
+628: Brahmagupta writes down Brahmagupta's identity, an important lemma in the theory of Pell's equation.
+628: Brahmagupta produces an infinite (but not exhaustive) number of solutions to Pell's equation.
+628: Brahmagupta provides an explicit solution to the quadratic equation.
+628: Brahmagupta discovers Brahmagupta's formula, a generalization of Heron's formula to cyclic quadrilaterals.
+628: Brahmagupta discovers second-order interpolation, in the form of Brahmagupta's interpolation formula.
+628: Brahmagupta invents a symbolic mathematical notation, which is then adopted by mathematicians through India and the Near East, and eventually Europe.
+629: Bhāskara I produces the first approximation of a transcendental function with a rational function, in the sine approximation formula that bears his name.
+9th century: Jain mathematician Mahāvīra writes down a factorisation for the difference of cubes.
+9th century: Algorisms (arithmetical algorithms on numbers written in place-value system) are described by al-Khwarizmi in his kitāb al-ḥisāb al-hindī (Book of Indian computation) and kitab al-jam' wa'l-tafriq al-ḥisāb al-hindī (Addition and subtraction in Indian arithmetic).
+9th century: Mahāvīra discovers the first algorithm for writing fractions as Egyptian fractions, which is in fact a slightly more general form of the Greedy algorithm for Egyptian fractions.
+816: Jain mathematician Virasena describes the integer logarithm.
+850: Mahāvīra derives the expression for the binomial coefficient in terms of factorials, 
+  
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+              
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+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle {\tbinom {n}{r}}={\tfrac {n!}{r!(n-r)!}}}
+  
+.
+10th century AD: Manjula in India discovers the derivative, deducing that the derivative of the sine function is the cosine.
+10th century AD: Kashmiri astronomer Bhaṭṭotpala lists names and estimates periods of certain comets.
+975: Halayudha organizes the binomial coefficients into a triangle, i.e. Pascal's triangle.
+984: Ibn Sahl discovers Snell's law.
+
+== 1000 AD – 1500 AD ==
+11th century: Alhazen discovers the formula for the simplicial numbers defined as the sums of consecutive quartic powers.
+11th century: Alhazen systematically studies optics and refraction, which would later be important in making the connection between geometric (ray) optics and wave theory.
+11th century: Shen Kuo discovers atmospheric refraction and provides the correct explanation of rainbow phenomenon
+11th century: Shen Kuo discovers the concepts of true north and magnetic declination.
+11th century: Shen Kuo develops the field of geomorphology and natural climate change.
+1000: Al-Karaji uses mathematical induction.
+1058: al-Zarqālī in Islamic Spain discovers the apsidal precession of the Sun.
+12th century: Bhāskara II develops the Chakravala method, solving Pell's equation.
+12th century: Al-Tusi develops a numerical algorithm to solve cubic equations.
+12th century: Jewish polymath Baruch ben Malka in Iraq formulates a qualitative form of Newton's second law for constant forces.
+1220s: Robert Grosseteste writes on optics, and the production of lenses, while asserting models should be developed from observations, and predictions of those models verified through observation, in a precursor to the scientific method.
+1267: Roger Bacon publishes his Opus Majus, compiling translated Classical Greek, and Arabic works on mathematics, optics, and alchemy into a volume, and details his methods for evaluating the theories, particularly those of Ptolemy's 2nd century Optics, and his findings on the production of lenses, asserting  “theories supplied by reason should be verified by sensory data, aided by instruments, and corroborated by trustworthy witnesses", in a precursor to the peer reviewed scientific method.
+1290: Eyeglasses are invented in Northern Italy, possibly Pisa, demonstrating knowledge of human biology and optics, to offer bespoke works that compensate for an individual human disability.
+1295: Scottish priest Duns Scotus writes about the mutual beneficence of trade.
+14th century: French priest Jean Buridan provides a basic explanation of the price system.
+1380: Madhava of Sangamagrama develops the Taylor series, and derives the Taylor series representation for the sine, cosine and arctangent functions, and uses it to produce the Leibniz series for π.
+1380: Madhava of Sangamagrama discusses error terms in infinite series in the context of his infinite series for π.
+1380: Madhava of Sangamagrama discovers continued fractions and uses them to solve transcendental equations.
+1380: The Kerala school develops convergence tests for infinite series.
+1380: Madhava of Sangamagrama solves transcendental equations by iteration.
+1380: Madhava of Sangamagrama discovers the most precise estimate of π in the medieval world through his infinite series, a strict inequality with uncertainty 3e-13.
+15th century: Parameshvara discovers a formula for the circumradius of a quadrilateral.
+1480: Madhava of Sangamagrama found pi and that it was infinite.
+1500: Nilakantha Somayaji discovers an infinite series for π.
+1500: Nilakantha Somayaji develops a model similar to the Tychonic system. His model has been described as mathematically more efficient than the Tychonic system due to correctly considering the equation of the centre and latitudinal motion of Mercury and Venus.
+
+== 16th century ==
+The Scientific Revolution occurs in Europe around this period, greatly accelerating the progress of science and contributing to the rationalization of the natural sciences. 

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+---
+title: "Timeline of scientific discoveries"
+chunk: 5/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:51.420967+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+16th century: Gerolamo Cardano solves the general cubic equation (by reducing them to the case with zero quadratic term).
+16th century: Lodovico Ferrari solves the general quartic equation (by reducing it to the case with zero quartic term).
+16th century: François Viète discovers Vieta's formulas.
+16th century: François Viète discovers Viète's formula for π.1500: Scipione del Ferro solves the special cubic equation 
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          x
+          
+            3
+          
+        
+        =
+        p
+        x
+        +
+        q
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle x^{3}=px+q}
+  
+.
+Late 16th century: Tycho Brahe proves that comets are astronomical (and not atmospheric) phenomena.
+1517: Nicolaus Copernicus develops the quantity theory of money and states the earliest known form of Gresham's law: ("Bad money drowns out good").
+1543: Nicolaus Copernicus develops a heliocentric model, rejecting Aristotle's Earth-centric view, would be the first quantitative heliocentric model in history.
+1543: Vesalius: pioneering research into human anatomy.
+1545: Gerolamo Cardano discovers complex numbers.
+1556: Niccolò Tartaglia introduces parenthesis.
+1557: Robert Recorde introduces the equal sign.
+1564: Gerolamo Cardano is the first to produce a systematic treatment of probability.
+1572: Rafael Bombelli provides rules for complex arithmetic.
+1591: François Viète's New algebra shows the modern notational algebraic manipulation.
+
+== 17th century ==
+1600: William Gilbert: Earth's magnetic field.
+1608: Earliest record of an optical telescope.
+1609: Johannes Kepler: first two laws of planetary motion.
+1610: Galileo Galilei: Sidereus Nuncius: telescopic observations.
+1614: John Napier: use of logarithms for calculation.
+1619: Johannes Kepler: third law of planetary motion.
+1620: Appearance of the first compound microscopes in Europe.
+1628: Willebrord Snellius: the law of refraction also known as Snell's law.
+1628: William Harvey: blood circulation.
+1638: Galileo Galilei: laws of falling bodies.
+1643: Evangelista Torricelli invents the mercury barometer.
+1662: Robert Boyle: Boyle's law of ideal gases.
+1665: Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society: first peer reviewed scientific journal published.
+1665: Robert Hooke: discovers the cell.
+1668: Francesco Redi: disproved idea of spontaneous generation.
+1669: Nicholas Steno: proposes that fossils are organic remains embedded in layers of sediment, basis of stratigraphy.
+1669: Jan Swammerdam: epigenesis in insects.
+1672: Sir Isaac Newton: discovers that white light is a mixture of distinct coloured rays (the spectrum).
+1673: Christiaan Huygens: first study of oscillating system and design of pendulum clocks
+1675: Leibniz, Newton: infinitesimal calculus.
+1675: Anton van Leeuwenhoek: observes microorganisms using a refined simple microscope.
+1676: Ole Rømer:  first measurement of the speed of light.
+1687: Sir Isaac Newton: classical mathematical description of the fundamental force of universal gravitation and the three physical laws of motion.
+
+== 18th century ==
+1735: Carl Linnaeus described a new system for classifying plants in Systema Naturae.
+1745: Ewald Georg von Kleist first capacitor, the Leyden jar.
+1749 – 1789: Buffon wrote Histoire naturelle.
+1750: Joseph Black: describes latent heat.
+1751: Benjamin Franklin: lightning is electrical.
+1755: Immanuel Kant: Gaseous Hypothesis in Universal Natural History and Theory of Heaven.
+1761: Mikhail Lomonosov: discovery of the atmosphere of Venus.
+1763: Thomas Bayes: publishes the first version of Bayes' theorem, paving the way for Bayesian probability.
+1771: Charles Messier: publishes catalogue of astronomical objects (Messier Objects) now known to include galaxies, star clusters, and nebulae.
+1778: Antoine Lavoisier (and Joseph Priestley): discovery of oxygen leading to end of Phlogiston theory.
+1781: William Herschel announces discovery of Uranus, expanding the known boundaries of the Solar System for the first time in modern history.
+1785: William Withering: publishes the first definitive account of the use of foxglove (digitalis) for treating dropsy.
+1787: Jacques Charles: Charles's law of ideal gases.
+1789: Antoine Lavoisier: law of conservation of mass, basis for chemistry, and the beginning of modern chemistry.
+1796: Georges Cuvier: Establishes extinction as a fact.
+1796: Edward Jenner: smallpox historical accounting.
+1796: Hanaoka Seishū: develops general anaesthesia.
+1800: Alessandro Volta: discovers electrochemical series and invents the battery.
+
+== 1800–1849 ==
+1802: Jean-Baptiste Lamarck: teleological evolution.
+1805: John Dalton: Atomic Theory in (chemistry).
+1820: Hans Christian Ørsted discovers that a current passed through a wire will deflect the needle of a compass, establishing the deep relationship between electricity and magnetism (electromagnetism).
+1820: Michael Faraday and James Stoddart discover alloying iron with chromium produces a stainless steel resistant to oxidising elements (rust).
+1821: Thomas Johann Seebeck is the first to observe a property of semiconductors.
+1824: Carnot: described the Carnot cycle, the idealized heat engine.
+1824: Joseph Aspdin develops Portland cement (concrete), by heating ground limestone, clay and gypsum, in a kiln.
+1827: Évariste Galois development of group theory.
+1827: Georg Ohm: Ohm's law (Electricity).
+1827: Amedeo Avogadro: Avogadro's law (Gas law).
+1828: Friedrich Wöhler synthesized urea, refuting vitalism.
+1830: Nikolai Lobachevsky created Non-Euclidean geometry.
+1831: Michael Faraday discovers electromagnetic induction.
+1833: Anselme Payen isolates first enzyme, diastase.
+1837: Charles Babbage proposes a design for the construction of a Turing complete, general purpose Computer, to be called the Analytical Engine.
+1838: Matthias Schleiden: all plants are made of cells.
+1838: Friedrich Bessel: first successful measure of stellar parallax (to star 61 Cygni).
+1842: Christian Doppler: Doppler effect.
+1843: James Prescott Joule: Law of Conservation of energy (first law of thermodynamics), also 1847 – Helmholtz, Conservation of energy.
+1846: Johann Gottfried Galle and Heinrich Louis d'Arrest: discovery of Neptune.
+1847: George Boole: publishes The Mathematical Analysis of Logic, defining Boolean algebra; refined in his 1854 The Laws of Thought.
+1848: Lord Kelvin: absolute zero.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-5.md

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+---
+title: "Timeline of scientific discoveries"
+chunk: 6/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:51.420967+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== 1850–1899 ==
+1856: Robert Forester Mushet develops a process for the decarbonisation, and re-carbonisation of iron, through the addition of a calculated quantity of spiegeleisen, to produce cheap, consistently high quality steel.
+1858: Rudolf Virchow: cells can only arise from pre-existing cells.
+1859: Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace: Theory of evolution by natural selection.
+1861: Louis Pasteur: Germ theory.
+1861: John Tyndall:  Experiments in Radiant Energy that reinforced the Greenhouse effect.
+1864: James Clerk Maxwell: Theory of electromagnetism.
+1865: Gregor Mendel: Mendel's laws of inheritance, basis for genetics.
+1865: Rudolf Clausius: Definition of entropy.
+1868: Robert Forester Mushet discovers that alloying steel with tungsten produces a harder, more durable alloy.
+1869: Dmitri Mendeleev: Periodic table.
+1871: Lord Rayleigh: Diffuse sky radiation (Rayleigh scattering) explains why sky appears blue.
+1873: Johannes Diderik van der Waals: was one of the first to postulate an intermolecular force: the van der Waals force.
+1873: Frederick Guthrie discovers thermionic emission.
+1873: Willoughby Smith discovers photoconductivity.
+1875: William Crookes invented the Crookes tube and studied cathode rays.
+1876: Josiah Willard Gibbs founded chemical thermodynamics, the phase rule.
+1877: Ludwig Boltzmann: Statistical definition of entropy.
+1880s: John Hopkinson develops three-phase electrical supplies, mathematically proves how multiple AC dynamos can be connected in parallel, improves permanent magnets, and dynamo efficiency, by the addition of tungsten, and describes how temperature effects magnetism (Hopkinson effect).
+1880: Pierre Curie and Jacques Curie: Piezoelectricity.
+1884: Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff: discovered the laws of chemical dynamics and osmotic pressure in solutions (in his work "Études de dynamique chimique").
+1887: Albert A. Michelson and Edward W. Morley: Michelson–Morley experiment which showed a lack of evidence for the aether.
+1888: Friedrich Reinitzer discovers liquid crystals.
+1892: Dmitri Ivanovsky discovers viruses.
+1895: Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen discovers x-rays.
+1896: Henri Becquerel discovers radioactivity
+1896: Svante Arrhenius derives the basic principles of the greenhouse effect
+1897: J.J. Thomson discovers the electron in cathode rays
+1898: Martinus Beijerinck: concluded that a virus is infectious—replicating in the host—and thus not a mere toxin, and gave it the name "virus"
+1898: J.J. Thomson proposed the plum pudding model of an atom
+1898: Marie Curie discovered radium and polonium
+1898: J. J. O'Donnell discovers and documents the order-of-sequence for the sound of an approaching tornado
+
+== 1900–1949 ==
+1900: Max Planck: explains the emission spectrum of a black body
+1905: Albert Einstein: theory of special relativity, explanation of Brownian motion, and photoelectric effect
+1906: Walther Nernst: Third law of thermodynamics
+1907: Alfred Bertheim: Arsphenamine, the first modern chemotherapeutic agent
+1909: Fritz Haber: Haber Process for industrial production of ammonia
+1909: Robert Andrews Millikan: conducts the oil drop experiment and determines the charge on an electron
+1910: Williamina Fleming: the first white dwarf, 40 Eridani B
+1911: Ernest Rutherford: Atomic nucleus
+1911: Heike Kamerlingh Onnes: Superconductivity
+1912: Alfred Wegener: Continental drift
+1912: Max von Laue: x-ray diffraction
+1912: Vesto Slipher: galactic redshifts
+1912: Henrietta Swan Leavitt: Cepheid variable period-luminosity relation
+1913: Henry Moseley: defined atomic number
+1913: Niels Bohr: Model of the atom
+1915: Albert Einstein: theory of general relativity – also David Hilbert
+1915: Karl Schwarzschild: discovery of the Schwarzschild radius leading to the identification of black holes
+1918: Emmy Noether: Noether's theorem – conditions under which the conservation laws are valid
+1920: Arthur Eddington: Stellar nucleosynthesis
+1922: Frederick Banting, Charles Best, James Collip, John Macleod: isolation and production of insulin to control diabetes
+1924: Wolfgang Pauli: quantum Pauli exclusion principle
+1924: Edwin Hubble: the discovery that the Milky Way is just one of many galaxies
+1925: Erwin Schrödinger: Schrödinger equation (quantum mechanics)
+1925: Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin: Discovery of the composition of the Sun and that hydrogen is the most abundant element in the Universe
+1927: Werner Heisenberg: Uncertainty principle (quantum mechanics)
+1927: Georges Lemaître: Theory of the Big Bang
+1928: Paul Dirac: Dirac equation (quantum mechanics)
+1929: Edwin Hubble: Hubble's law of the expanding universe
+1929: Alexander Fleming: Penicillin, the first beta-lactam antibiotic
+1929: Lars Onsager's reciprocal relations, a potential fourth law of thermodynamics
+1930: Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar discovers his eponymous limit of the maximum mass of a white dwarf star
+1931: Kurt Gödel: incompleteness theorems prove formal axiomatic systems are incomplete
+1932: James Chadwick: Discovery of the neutron
+1932: Karl Guthe Jansky discovers the first astronomical radio source, Sagittarius A
+1932: Ernest Walton and John Cockcroft: Nuclear fission by proton bombardment
+1934: Enrico Fermi: Nuclear fission by neutron irradiation
+1934: Clive McCay: Calorie restriction extends the maximum lifespan of another species
+1938: Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner and Fritz Strassmann: Nuclear fission of heavy nuclei
+1938: Isidor Rabi: Nuclear magnetic resonance
+1943: Oswald Avery proves that DNA is the genetic material of the chromosome
+1945: Howard Florey Mass production of penicillin
+1947: William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain invent the first transistor
+1948: Claude Elwood Shannon: 'A mathematical theory of communication' a seminal paper in Information theory.
+1948: Richard Feynman, Julian Schwinger, Sin-Itiro Tomonaga and Freeman Dyson: Quantum electrodynamics

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+---
+title: "Timeline of scientific discoveries"
+chunk: 7/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:51.420967+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== 1950–1999 ==
+1951: George Otto Gey propagates first cancer cell line, HeLa
+1952: Jonas Salk: developed and tested first polio vaccine
+1952: Stanley Miller: demonstrated that the building blocks of life could arise from primeval soup in the conditions present during early Earth (Miller-Urey experiment)
+1952: Frederick Sanger: demonstrated that proteins are sequences of amino acids
+1953: James Watson, Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin: helical structure of DNA, basis for molecular biology
+1957: Chien Shiung Wu: demonstrated that parity, and thus charge conjugation and time-reversals, are violated for weak interactions
+1962: Riccardo Giacconi and his team discover the first cosmic x-ray source, Scorpius X-1
+1963: Lawrence Morley, Fred Vine, and Drummond Matthews:  Paleomagnetic stripes in ocean crust as evidence of plate tectonics (Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis).
+1964: Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig: postulates quarks, leading to the Standard Model
+1964: Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson: detection of CMBR providing experimental evidence for the Big Bang
+1965: Leonard Hayflick: normal cells divide only a certain number of times: the Hayflick limit
+1967: Jocelyn Bell Burnell and Antony Hewish discover first pulsar
+1967: Vela nuclear test detection satellites discover the first gamma-ray burst
+1970: James H. Ellis proposed the possibility of "non-secret encryption", more commonly termed public-key cryptography, a concept that would be implemented by his GCHQ colleague Clifford Cocks in 1973, in what would become known as the RSA algorithm, with key exchange added by a third colleague Malcolm J. Williamson, in 1975.
+1971: Place cells in the brain are discovered by John O'Keefe
+1974: Russell Alan Hulse and Joseph Hooton Taylor, Jr. discover indirect evidence for gravitational wave radiation in the Hulse–Taylor binary
+1977: Frederick Sanger sequences the first DNA genome of an organism using Sanger sequencing
+1980: Klaus von Klitzing discovered the quantum Hall effect
+1982: Donald C. Backer et al. discover the first millisecond pulsar
+1983: Kary Mullis invents the polymerase chain reaction, a key discovery in molecular biology
+1986: Karl Müller and Johannes Bednorz: Discovery of High-temperature superconductivity
+1988:  Bart van Wees and colleagues at TU Delft and Philips Research discovered the quantized conductance in a two-dimensional electron gas.
+1990: Mary-Claire King discovers the link between heritable breast cancers and a gene found on chromosome 17q21.
+1992: Aleksander Wolszczan and Dale Frail observe the first pulsar planets (this was the first confirmed discovery of planets outside the Solar System)
+1994: Andrew Wiles proves Fermat's Last Theorem
+1995: Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz definitively observe the first extrasolar planet around a main sequence star
+1995: Eric Cornell, Carl Wieman and Wolfgang Ketterle attained the first Bose-Einstein Condensate with atomic gases, so called fifth state of matter at an extremely low temperature.
+1996: Roslin Institute: Dolly the sheep was cloned.
+1997: CDF and DØ experiments at Fermilab: Top quark.
+1998: Supernova Cosmology Project and the High-Z Supernova Search Team: discovery of the accelerated expansion of the Universe and dark energy
+2000: The Tau neutrino is discovered by the DONUT collaboration
+
+== 21st century ==
+
+2001: The first draft of the Human Genome Project is published.
+2003: Grigori Perelman presents proof of the Poincaré Conjecture.
+2003: The Human Genome Project sequences the human genome with a 92% accuracy.
+2004: Ben Green and Terence Tao announce their proof on arithmetic progressions in prime numbers known as the Green–Tao Theorem.
+2004: Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov isolated graphene, a monolayer of carbon atoms, and studied its quantum electrical properties.
+2005: Grid cells in the brain are discovered by Edvard Moser and May-Britt Moser.
+2010: The first self-replicating, synthetic bacterial cells are constructed.
+2010: The Neanderthal Genome Project presented preliminary genetic evidence that interbreeding likely occurred and that a small but significant portion of Neanderthal admixture is present in modern non-African populations.
+2012: Higgs boson is discovered at CERN (confirmed to 99.999% certainty)
+2012: Photonic molecules are discovered at MIT
+2014: Exotic hadrons are discovered at the LHCb
+2014: Photonic metamaterials are discovered to make passive daytime radiative cooling possible by Raman et al.
+2016: The LIGO team detects gravitational waves from a black hole merger
+2017: Gravitational wave signal GW170817 is observed by the LIGO/Virgo collaboration. This is the first instance of a gravitational wave event observed to have a simultaneous electromagnetic signal when space telescopes like Hubble observed lights coming from the event, thereby marking a significant breakthrough for multi-messenger astronomy.
+2019: The first image of a black hole is captured, using eight different telescopes taking simultaneous pictures, timed with extremely precise atomic clocks. [1]
+2020: NASA and SOFIA (Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy) discover about 350 mL of surface water in one of the Moon's largest visible craters.
+2022: The standard reference gene, GRCh38.p14, of the human genome, is fully sequenced and contains 3.1 billion base pairs.
+
+== References ==
+
+Boyer, Carl Benjamin (1991). A History of Mathematics (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-0-471-54397-8.
+
+== External links ==
+Science Timeline