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Codes for electromagnetic scattering by cylinders – this article list codes for electromagnetic scattering by a cylinder.
Majority of existing codes for calculation of electromagnetic scattering by a single cylinder are based on Mie theory, which is an analytical solution of Maxwell's equations in terms of infinite series.
== Classification ==
The compilation contains information about the electromagnetic scattering by cylindrical particles, relevant links, and applications.
=== Codes for electromagnetic scattering by a single homogeneous cylinder ===
== Relevant scattering codes ==
Discrete dipole approximation codes
Codes for electromagnetic scattering by spheres
== See also ==
Computational electromagnetics
List of atmospheric radiative transfer codes
== References ==
== External links ==
SCATTERLIB: Collection of light scattering codes

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Codes for electromagnetic scattering by spheres - this article list codes for electromagnetic scattering by a homogeneous sphere, layered sphere, and cluster of spheres.
== Solution techniques ==
Majority of existing codes for calculation of electromagnetic scattering by a single sphere is based on Mie theory which is an analytical solution of Maxwell's equations in terms of infinite series. Other approximations to scattering by a single sphere include: Debye series, ray tracing (geometrical optics), ray tracing including the effects of interference between rays, Airy theory, Rayleigh scattering, diffraction approximation. There are many phenomena related to light scattering by spherical particles such as resonances, surface waves, plasmons, near-field scattering. Even though Mie theory offers convenient and fast way of solving light scattering problem by homogeneous spherical particles, there are other techniques, such as discrete dipole approximation, FDTD, T-matrix, which can also be used for such tasks.
== Classification ==
The compilation contains information about the electromagnetic scattering by spherical particles, relevant links, and applications.
=== Codes for electromagnetic scattering by a single homogeneous sphere ===
=== Codes for electromagnetic scattering by a layered sphere ===
Algorithmic literature includes several contributions
=== Codes for electromagnetic scattering by cluster of spheres ===
== Relevant scattering codes ==
Discrete dipole approximation codes
Codes for electromagnetic scattering by cylinders
== See also ==
Computational electromagnetics
Light scattering by particles
List of atmospheric radiative transfer codes
Optical properties of water and ice
Mie theory
== References ==
== External links ==
SCATTERLIB: Collection of light scattering codes

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The following index is provided as an overview of and topical guide to science: Links to articles and redirects to sections of articles which provide information on each topic are listed with a short description of the topic. When there is more than one article with information on a topic, the most relevant is usually listed, and it may be cross-linked to further information from the linked page or section.
Science (from Latin scientia, meaning "knowledge") is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe.
The branches of science, also referred to as scientific fields, scientific disciplines, or just sciences, can be arbitrarily divided into three major groups:
The natural sciences (biology, chemistry, physics, astronomy, and Earth sciences), which study nature in the broadest sense;
The social sciences (e.g. psychology, sociology, economics, history) which study people and societies; and
The formal sciences (e.g. mathematics, logic, theoretical computer science), which study abstract concepts.
Disciplines that use science, such as engineering and medicine, are described as applied sciences.
== A ==
Abiology – Life arising from non-living matterPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of inanimate, inorganic, or lifeless things.
Abiophysiology – The study of non-organic biological processes
Acanthochronology – Study of cactus spines and the chronology of their growth
Acanthology – study of spined things, in particular sea urchins, and the resultant impact on taxonomy
Acarology – Study of mites and ticks
Aceology – The study of therapies – science of remedies, or of therapeutics; iamatology.
Acology – Science of medical remedies, or of therapeutics.
Acoustics – Branch of physics involving mechanical waves – the branch of physics studying the properties of sound.
Actinobiology – Study of effects of radiation on living things – synonymous with radiobiology.
Adenology – Branch of medicine dealing the endocrine system
Aerobiology – Study of airborne organisms
Aerodonetics – Science or study of gliding flight.
Aerodynamics – Branch of dynamics concerned with studying the motion of air
Aerolithology – Science of meteorites – study of aerolites; meteorites.
Aerology – Synonym for atmospheric science
Aeronautics – Science of air flight-capable machines
Aeropalynology – Study of pollen and spores in Earths atmosphere – study of pollens and spores in atmosphere.
Aerospace engineering – Branch of engineering
Aerostatics – Study of gases that are not in motion
Agnoiology – Study of ignorance
Agonistics – Chemical which binds to and activates a biochemical receptorPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Agricultural chemistry – Agricultural sub-discipline of applied chemistry – study of influence in chemical processes in plants.
Agriology – comparative study of primitive peoples.
Agrobiology – Interdisciplinary studies of the interactions between plants and soil
Agroecology – Study of ecological processes in agriculture
Agrogeology – Study of origins and applications of minerals important to farming
Agrology – Soil science, study of soils, especially agricultural soils.
Agronomics – Branch of economics about distribution, management, and productivity of land.
Agronomy – Science of producing and using plants
Agrostology – Scientific study of the grasses
Algebra – Branch of mathematics
Algedonics – Branch of psychology that deals with pleasant and unpleasant states of consciousness
Algology – Branch of biology concerned with the study of algae (botany)
Algology – Medical treatment of pain as practiced in Greece and Turkey
Allergology – Study of the causes and treatment of allergies - study of causes and treatment of allergies
Anaesthesiology – Medical specialty concerned with anesthesia and perioperative care
Anatomy – Study of the structure of organisms
Andragogy – Methods and principles in adult education
Andrology – Medical specialty – study of men's physiology.
Anemology – Study of winds – study of wind.
Angiology – Branch of internal medicine, which deals with vascular disease
Anthropobiology – Biological study of the human species – study of human biology.
Anthropology – Scientific study of humans, human behavior, and societies – study of human cultures.
Anthrozoology – Subset of ethnobiology – study of human-animal interaction.
Apiology – Scientific study of bees
Aquatic ecology – The study of interactions between organisms and the environment in water
Arachnology – Scientific study of arachnides such as spiders, ticks and mites
Archaeology – Study of human activity based on materials left behind
Archelogy – study of first principles.
Archival science – Science of storage, registration and preservation of historical data
Archology – science of the origins of government.
Areology – Scientific study of the surface, crust, and interior of the planet Mars
Aristology – science or art of dining.
Aromachology – Study of the influence of odors on human behavior
Arthrology – Scientific study of joints and articulations
Arthropodology – Study of arthropods
Astacology – Scientific study of crayfish
Asteroseismology – Study of oscillations in stars
Astheniology – Physical symptomPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of diseases of weakening and aging.
Astrobotany – Study of plants grown in spacecraft
Astrobiology – Science concerned with life in the universe
Astrodynamics – Field of classical mechanics concerned with the motion of spacecraftPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Astrogeology – Geology of astronomical objects apparently in orbit around stellar objects
Astronautics – Theory and practice of space travel
Astronomy – Scientific study of celestial objects
Astrophysics – Subfield of astronomy – study of behaviour of interstellar matter.
Atmology – the science of aqueous vapor.
Audiology – Branch of science that studies hearing, balance, and related disorders
Autecology – Study of interactions of individual organisms with the environment
Autology – Word that expresses a property it also possessesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – scientific study of oneself.
Automata theory – Study of abstract machines and automata
Auxology – Study of all aspects of human physical growth

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== B ==
Bacteriology – Subdiscipline of microbiology that studies bacteria
Ballistics – Science of the motion of projectiles
Balneology – Method of treating diseases by bathingPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – science of the therapeutic use of baths.
Barodynamics – science of the support and mechanics of heavy structures
Barology – study of gravitational force.
Bathymetry – Study of underwater depth of lake or ocean floors
Batology – Study of brambles
Batrachology – Branch of herpetology that studies amphibians
Behavioural genetics – Study of genetic-environment interactions influencing behaviour
Behavioral neuroscience – Study of biological and neural mechanisma in behaviour
Bibliology – Organized listing of books and the systematic description of them as objects
Bibliotics – study of documents to determine authenticity.
Bioecology – Study of interrelations of plants and animals with their environment
Biogeochemistry – Study of chemical cycles of the earth related to biological activity
Biology – Scientific study of life
Biochemistry – Study of chemical processes of living organisms
Biomechanics – Study of the mechanics of biological systems
Biometrics – Metrics related to human characteristics
Bionomics – Term with different meanings in ecology or economics – study of organisms interacting in their environments.
Biophysics – Interdisciplinary science – study of physics of biological phenomena.
Biopsychology – Study of biological and neural mechanisma in behaviourPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – application of the science of biology to the study of psychology.
Biotribology – Study of friction, wear and lubrication in biological systems – study of friction, wear and lubrication of biological systems.
Botany – Study of plant life
Bromatology – Applied science devoted to the study of foodPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of food.
Bryology – Branch of botany concerned with the study of bryophytes – study of mosses and liverworts.
== C ==
Cacogenics – Decrease in genetic traits deemed desirable and study thereof
Caliology – Place where a bird broods its eggsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of bird's nests.
Calorifics – study of heat – relating to the production of heat
Cambistry – science of international exchange.
Campanology – Scientific and musical study of bells
Carcinology – Study of crustaceans
Cardiology – Branch of medicine dealing with the heart
Caricology – Study of sedges
Carpology – Study of seeds and fruit
Cartography – Study and practice of making maps – science of making maps and globes.
Castrametation – Roman term for a fortified military basePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – art of designing a camp.
Catacoustics – science of echoes or reflected sounds.
Catallactics – Theory about the free market system in economies – science of commercial exchange.
Catechectics – art of teaching by question and answer.
Celestial mechanics – Branch of astronomy – study of motion of objects in outer space.
Cell biology – Branch of biology that studies cells – study of the different structures and functions of both eukaryote and prokaryote cells.
Cetology – Study of whales, dolphins, porpoises, and other cetaceans – study of whales and dolphins.
Chaology – Field of mathematics and science based on non-linear systems and initial conditions
Chaos theory – Field of mathematics and science based on non-linear systems and initial conditions
Characterology – Academic study of character – study of development of character.
Chemistry – Scientific study of matter's behavior and properties – study of properties and behaviours of substances.
Chirography – Study of penmanship and handwriting in all of its aspects – study of handwriting or penmanship.
Chiropody – Medicine branch focusing on the human lower extremities
Chorology – Study of geographic causal relationships – science of the geographic description of anything.
Chrematistics – Economics theory studying money – study of wealth; political economy.
Chromatics – Technique to quantify and describe physically the human color perception – study of color.
Chronobiology – Study of rhythms in biological processes of living organisms – study of biological rhythms.
Chrysology – study of precious metals.
Classical mechanics – Description of large objects' physics – study of motion of macroscopic objects.
Climatology – Scientific study of climate – study of climate.
Clinology – study of aging or individual decline after maturity.
Codicology – Study of codices or manuscript books
Cognitive science – Interdisciplinary scientific study of cognitive processes
Coleopterology – Branch of entomology studying beetles
Cometology – study of comets.
Computer science – Study of computation – study of processes that interact with data.
Conchology – Study of mollusc shells
Coniology – Study of atmospheric dust and its effects
Connectomics – Study of mapping wiring diagrams
Contact mechanics – Study of the deformation of solids that touch each other
Coprology – Study of faeces
Cosmetology – Study and application of beauty treatment – study of cosmetics.
Cosmochemistry – Study of the chemical composition of matter in the universe
Cosmology – Scientific study of the origin, evolution, and eventual fate of the universe
Craniology – Pseudoscientific study of human skull shapePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of the skull.
Criminology – Field of studies related to crimes
Cryobiology – Study of effects of extreme low temperatures on life
Cryptography – Practice and study of secure communication techniques
Cryptology – Practice and study of secure communication techniquesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of codes.
Ctetology – study of the inheritance of acquired characteristics.
Cybernetics – Study of circular causal processes
Cyclonology – study of tropical cyclones, e.g. hurricanes.
Cynology – Study of canines or domestic dogs
Cytology – Study of cells in terms of structure, function and chemistry

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== D ==
Dactyliology – study of finger rings.
Dactylography – Scientific study of fingerprints
Dactylology – Form of communication using one or both handsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of sign language.
Data science – Field of study to extract knowledge from data – study of analyzing, processing, interpreting and extracting data.
Demography – Study of human populations and their structures
Demology – study of human populations and behaviour.
Dendrochronology – Method of dating based on the analysis of patterns of tree rings
Dendrology – Science and study of woody plants
Dermatoglyphics – Scientific study of finger- and toeprints
Dermatology – Field of medicine dealing with the hair, nails, skin, and its diseases
Desmology – Study of ligaments
Dialectology – Scientific study of linguistic dialect
Dietetics – Study of diet and nutrition in relation to health and disease
Dioptrics – Science of light and lenses
Diplomatics – Academic study of the protocols of documents – science of deciphering ancient writings and texts.
Dosiology – study of dosage of drugs.
Dynamics – Study of forces and their effect on motion
Dysgenics – Decrease in genetic traits deemed desirable and study thereof.
== E ==
Eccrinology – Sweat gland distributed almost all over the human bodyPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of excretion.
Ecology – Study of organisms and their environment
Economics – Social science studying goods and services – study of material wealth (production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services).
Edaphology – Science concerned with the influence of soils on living beings
Egyptology – Scientific study of ancient Egypt – study of ancient Egypt.
Eidology – study of mental imagery.
Ekistics – Conceptual framework
Electrochemistry – Branch of physical chemistry – study of relations between electricity and chemicals.
Electrodynamics – Fundamental interaction between charged particlesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of the effects arising from the interactions of electric currents with magnets, with other currents, or with themselves.
Electrohydrodynamics – Study of electrically conducting fluids in the presence of electric fields – the study of dynamics of electrically charged fluids.
Electrology – Method of hair removal – study of electricity.
Electrostatics – Study of still or slow electric charges – study of static electricity.
Electromagnetism – Fundamental interaction between charged particles – study of electromagnetic force.
Embryology – Branch of biology, studying prenatal biology
Emetology – Involuntary, forceful expulsion of stomach contents, typically via the mouthPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of vomiting.
Emmenology – study of menstruation.
Endemiology – study of local diseases.
Endocrinology – Branch of medicine pertaining to the endocrine system
Energetics – study of energy under transformation within various fields.
Engineering studies – Academic field – study of engineering.
Enigmatology – Problem or enigma that testsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of enigmas (puzzles).
Entomology – Scientific study of insects
Entozoology – study of parasites that live inside larger organisms.
Enzymology – Large biological molecule that acts as a catalystPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of enzymes.
Ephebiatrics – Medical subspecialty for adolescentsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – branch of medicine dealing with adolescence.
Epidemiology – Study of health and disease within a population
Epileptology – Physician specializing in epileptologyPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of epilepsy.
Eremology – study of deserts.
Ergology – study of effects of work on humans.
Ergonomics – Designing systems to suit their users – study of people at work.
Escapology – Practice of escaping from restraints – study of freeing oneself from constraints.
Ethnobiology – Study of how living things are used by human cultures – study of dynamic relationships between peoples.
Ethnobotany – Study of traditional plant use – study of a region's plants and their practical uses through the traditional knowledge of a local culture and people.
Ethnogeny – study of origins of races or ethnic groups.
Ethnochoreology – Field of dance study – study of dances and its implication in culture.
Ethnomusicology – Study of the cultural aspects of music – study of comparative musical systems.
Ethnology – Branch of anthropology – study of cultures.
Ethnomethodology – Study of how social order is produced – study of everyday communication and social interaction.
Ethology – Study of animal behaviour – study of natural or biological character.
Ethonomics – Personal value, basis for ethical actionPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of economic and ethical principles of a society.
Etiology – Study of causation, or origination
Etymology – Study of the origin and evolution of words – study of origins of words.
Euthenics – Study of improving living conditions to increase well-being – science concerned with improving living conditions.
Exobiology – Science concerned with life in the universePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of extraterrestrial life.
Exoplanetology – study of exoplanets.
== F ==
Felinology – Study of cats – study of felines.
Finance – Academic discipline studying businesses and investments – science or study of money management.
Fluid dynamics – Aspects of fluid mechanics involving fluid flow
Fluid mechanics – Branch of physics – study of fluids behaviour at rest and in motion.
Fluid statics – Branch of fluid mechanics that studies fluids at restPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of fluids behaviour at rest.
Fluviology – study of watercourses.
Folkloristics – Branch of anthropologyPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of folklore and fables.
Forestry – Science and craft of managing woodlands – study of the creation, management, use, conservation, and repair of forests and associated resources.
Fracture mechanics – Study of propagation of cracks in materials
Futurology – Study of postulating possible, probable, and preferable futures
Forensic science – Application of science to law and investigation – the use of scientific methods or expertise to investigate crimes or examine evidence that might be presented in a court of law

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== G ==
Garbology – Study of modern refuse
Gastroenterology – Branch of medicine focused on the digestive system and its disorders
Gastronomy – Study of the relationship between food and culture
Gemmology – Science dealing with natural and artificial gemstone materialsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of gems and jewels
Gender studies – Interdisciplinary field of study – study of gender
Genealogy – Study of individual descent and bloodline – study of descent of families
Genesiology – study of reproduction and heredity
Genetics – Science of genes, heredity and variation
Geochemistry – Science that applies chemistry to analyze geological systems – study of chemistry of the Earth's crust
Geochronology – Science of determining the age of rocks, sediments and fossils – study of measuring geological time
Geography – Study of Earth's spatial information – study of surface of the earth and its inhabitants
Geology – Scientific study of Earth's physical composition – study of the rocks of a planet
Geometry – Branch of mathematics – study the sizes, shapes, positions, angles and dimensions of things.
Geomorphogeny – study of the characteristics, origins, and development of land forms
Geomorphology – Scientific study of landforms – study of landforms and landform evolution
Geoponics – Science of cultivating the earth – study of agriculture
Geotechnics – Scientific study of earth materials in engineering problemsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of increasing habitability of the Earth
Geratology – Study of the biological, psychological, and social aspects of agingPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of decadence and decay
Gerocomy – study of old age
Gerontology – Study of the biological, psychological, and social aspects of aging
Gigantology – study of giants
Glaciology – Scientific study of ice and natural phenomena involving ice
Glossology – Scientific study of languagePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of language; study of the tongue
Gnomonics – Study of sundials – the art of measuring time using sundials
Gnotobiology – Organism with fully-known microorganismsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of life in germ-free conditions
Googology – Numbers significantly larger than those used regularlyPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of large numbers
Graminology – Scientific study of the grassesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Grammatology – Study of graphemes and writing systemsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of systems of writing
Graphemics – Study of graphemes and writing systemsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of systems of representing speech in writing
Graphology – Pseudoscientific analysis of handwriting – study of handwriting
Gromatics – Ancient Roman land surveyorsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – science of surveying
Gynaecology – Medical area for women's reproductive health – study of women's physiology
Gyrostatics – study of rotating bodies
== H ==
Haemataulics – study of movement of blood through blood vessels
Halieutics – study of fishing
Harmonics – Science of musical sounds
Helcology – study of ulcers
Heliology – Scientific study of the sun
Helioseismology – Study of the structure and dynamics of the Sun through its oscillation
Helminthology – Study of parasitic worms (helminths)
Hematology – Study of blood and blood diseases
Hemodynamics – Dynamics of blood flow – study of the dynamics behind blood circulation
Hepatology – Medical specialty – study of liver, gallbladder, biliary tree, and pancreas
Hermeology – study of Mercury
Herpetology – Study of amphibians and reptiles
Hippiatrics – study of diseases of horses
Hippology – Study of horses
Histology – Study of the microscopic anatomy of cells and tissues of plants and animals
Histopathology – Microscopic examination of tissue in order to study and diagnose disease – study of changes in tissue due to disease
Historiography – Study of the methods used by historians
Historiology – The study of history.
Home economics – Study of household management
Hoplology – Study of human combative behavior and performance
Horography – art of constructing sundials or clocks
Horology – Art or science of measuring time – science of time measurement
Horticulture – Small-scale cultivation of plants – study of gardening
Hydraulics – Applied engineering involving liquids – study of application of engineering, chemistry and other fields of science involving the use of liquids
Hydrobiology – Science of life and life processes in water – study of aquatic organisms
Hydrodynamics – Study of liquids in motion
Hydrogeology – Study of groundwater's movement and distribution
Hydrography – Measurement of bodies of water
Hydrokinetics – study of motion of fluids
Hydrology – Science of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth – study of water resources
Hydrometeorology – Branch of meteorology and hydrology – study of atmospheric moisture
Hydrostatics – Branch of fluid mechanics that studies fluids at rest
Hyetology – science of rainfall
Hygiastics – science of health and hygiene
Hygienics – Practices performed to preserve healthPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of sanitation; health
Hygiology – hygienics; study of cleanliness
Hygroscopy – Phenomenon of attracting and holding water molecules – study of humidity
Hygrometry – Study of gas-vapor mixturesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – science of humidity
Hypnology – Study of sleep and hypnotic phenomena – study of sleep; study of hypnosis.
Hypsography – Geographical measurementPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – science of measuring heights

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== I ==
Iamatology – Obsolete synonym for the study of therapies.
Iatrology – treatise or text on medical topics; study of medicine
Ichnography – Architectural drawing showing interior layout of a buildingPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – art of drawing ground plans; a ground plan
Ichnology – Study of trace fossils
Ichthyology – Scientific study of fish
Iconography – Branch of art history – study of drawing symbols
Iconology – Method of interpretation in cultural history – study of icons; symbols
Ideogeny – study of origins of ideas
Ideology – Set of beliefs or values – science of ideas; system of ideas used to justify behaviour
Idiomology – study of idiom, jargon or dialect
Idiopsychology – study of the psychology of one's own mind
Immunochemistry – Study of the chemistry of the immune system
Immunogenetics – Branch of medical genetics – study of genetic characteristics of immunity
Immunology – Branch of medicine studying the immune system
Immunopathology – Branch of medicine that deals with immune responses associated with disease
Information science – Academic field concerned with collection and analysis of information
Information technology (IT) – Computer-based technology
Insectology – Scientific study ofi insects, or relationships between insects and humans
Irenology – Social science study of peace – study of peace
== J ==
Japanology – Area studies focused on JapanPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – The study of Japan, its language, culture and history
== K ==
Kalology – study of beauty
Karstology – Scientific study of the various aspects of karst regions
Karyology – Photographic display of total chromosome complement in a cellPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of cell nuclei
Kinematics – Branch of physics describing the motion of objects without considering forces – study of motion
Kinesics – Interpretation of body motion communication – study of gestural communication
Kinesiology – Study of human body movement – study of human movement and posture
Kinetics – Subfield of physics – study of forces producing or changing motion
Koniology – Study of atmospheric dust and its effects – study of atmospheric pollutants and dust
Ktenology – Scientific study of killing
Kymatology – Branch of physicsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of wave motion
== L ==
Larithmics – study of population statistics
Laryngology – Medical specialty that deals with the larynx
Lepidopterology – Branch of entomology that studies moths and butterflies
Leprology – The study of leprosy and its treatment
Lexicology – Linguistic discipline studying words – study of words and their meanings
Lexigraphy – Grapheme which represents a word or a morphemePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – art of definition of words
Library science – Branch of academic disciplines – study of collection of information
Lichenology – Branch of mycology that studies lichens
Library and information science – Branch of academic disciplines – study of organization, access, collection, and protection/regulation of information, whether in physical or digital forms.
Limacology – Study of slugs
Limnobiology – study of freshwater ecosystems
Limnology – Science of inland aquatic ecosystems
Linguistics – Scientific study of language
Loimology – study of plagues and epidemics
Logics – Study of correct reasoning
Loxodromy – study of sailing along rhumb-lines
Ludology – Study of games and the act of playing them

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== M ==
Macroeconomics – Study of an economy as a whole – branch of economics dealing with the performance, structure, behavior, and decision-making of the whole economy
Magnetics – Class of physical phenomenaPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of magnetism
Magnetohydrodynamics – Model of electrically conducting fluids – study of electrically conducting fluids
Magnetostatics – Branch of physics about magnetism in systems with steady electric currents – study of magnetic fields in systems where the currents are steady
Malacology – Study of molluscs
Malariology – Study of the mosquito borne disease, malaria
Mammalogy – Study of mammals
Marine biology – Scientific study of ocean life – study of the ocean's ecosystem
Mastology – Study of mammals – study of mammals
Mathematics – Field of study – study of magnitude, number, and forms
Mazology – mammalogy; study of mammals
Mechanics – Science concerned with physical bodies subjected to forces or displacements
Meconology – study of or treatise concerning opium
Media studies – Field of study that deals with media
Medicine – Diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of illness
Melissopalynology – Study of pollen contained in honey
Melittology – Scientific study of bees
Melology – Scholarly study of musicPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of music; musicology
Mereology – Study of parts and the wholes they form – study of part-whole relationships
Mesology – Study of organisms and their environmentPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – ecology
Metallogeny – Study of the genesis and geographic distribution of mineral deposits – study of the origin and distribution of metal deposits
Metallography – Study of metals using microscopy – study of the structure and constitution of metals
Metallurgy – Field of science that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metals
Metaphysics – Study of fundamental reality – study of principles of nature and thought
Metapolitics – Political discourse about politics itself – study of politics in theory or abstract
Metapsychology – Psychological aspect – study of nature of the mind
Metascience – Scientific study of science
Meteoritics – Scientific study of meteors, meteorites and meteoroids
Meteorology – Interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere focusing on weather forecasting
Methodology – Study of research methods
Methyology – study of alcohol
Metrology – Science of measurement and its application
Microanatomy – Study of the microscopic anatomy of cells and tissues
Microbial ecology – Study of the relationship of microorganisms with their environment
Microbiology – Study of microscopic organisms (microbes)
Microclimatology – Local set of atmospheric conditions that differ significantly from the surrounding areaPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of local climates
Microeconomics – Behavior of individuals and firms – branch of economics that studies the behavior of individual households and firms in making decisions on the allocation of limited resources
Micrology – study or discussion of trivialities
Micropalaeontology – Branch of paleontology that studies microfossils
Microphytology – study of very small plant life
Military science – Theory, method, and practice of producing military capability
Mineralogy – Scientific study of minerals and mineralised artifacts
Molecular biology – Branch of biology that studies biological systems at the molecular level
Molinology – Study of devices which use energy for mechanical purposes
Momilogy – study of mummies
Morphology – study of forms and the development of structures
Morphometrics – Quantitative study of size and shape – study of size and shape
Muscology – Branch of botany concerned with the study of bryophytesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of mosses
Museology – Study of museums
Musicology – Scholarly study of music – study of music
Mycology – Study of fungi
Myology – Study of the muscular system – study of muscles
Myrmecology – Study of ants
Mythology – Type of traditional narrativePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of myths; fables; tales
== N ==
Naology – study of church or temple architecture
Nautics – study and art of navigation
Navigation – Process of monitoring and controlling the movement of a craft or vehicle – study of controlling a movement of a vehicle from one place to another
Necroplanetology – Study of the process of planetary destruction – study of the destruction of planets
Nematology – Scientific study of roundworms
Neonatology – Medical care of newborns, especially the ill or premature
Neossology – study of nestling birds
Nephology – Scientific study of clouds
Nephrology – Medical study concerned with the kidneys
Neurobiology – Scientific study of the nervous system
Neuroeconomics – Interdisciplinary field – study of human decision making and the ability to process multiple alternatives and to choose an optimal course of action
Neurology – Medical specialty dealing with disorders of the nervous system
Neuropsychology – Study of the brain related to specific psychological processes and behaviors
Neuroscience – Scientific study of the nervous system – study of development, work and structure of nervous system
Neurypnology – study of hypnotism
Neutrosophy – study of the origin and nature of philosophical neutralities
Nomology – Science of laws in philosophy
Noology – Spanish philosopher (1898–1983)Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – science of the intellect
Nosology – Branch of medicine that deals with classification of diseases
Nostology – study of senility
Notaphily – Study and collection of paper currency – study and collecting of bank-notes and cheques
Numismatics – Study of currencies, coins and paper money
Nymphology – study of nymphs
Nanotechnology – Technology with features near one nanometer

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== O ==
Obstetrics – Medical specialty concerning pregnancy and childbirth
Oceanography – Scientific study of the ocean
Oceanology – Scientific study of the ocean
Odontology – Scientific study of teeth
Odonatology – Study of dragonflies and damselflies
Oenology – Study of wine and winemaking
Oikology – science of housekeeping
Olfactology – study of the sense of smell
Ombrology – study of rain
Oncology – Branch of medicine dealing with, or specializing in, cancer
Oneirology – Scientific study of dreams
Onomasiology – Branch of linguistics concerned with how to express a given concept – study of nomenclature
Onomastics – Study of proper names
Ontology – Philosophical study of being – science of pure being; the nature of things
Oology – Branch of ornithology studying bird eggs, nests and breeding behavior
Ophiology, also known as ophidiology – Branch of herpetology that studies snakes
Ophthalmology – Field of medicine treating eye disorders
Optics – Branch of physics that studies light
Optology – study of sight
Optometry – Field of medicine treating eye disorders – science of examining the eyes
Orbital mechanics – Field of classical mechanics concerned with the motion of spacecraft
Orchidology – Scientific study of orchids
Ornithology – Scientific study of birds
Organology – Collection of tissues with similar functionsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets (biology) – study of form, structure, development, and functions of plant or animal organs
Organology – Science of musical instruments and their classifications (musicology) – study of musical instruments in relation to history, culture, construction, acoustic properties and classification
Orology, also known as Mountain research – Study of mountain environments
Orthoepy – Correct pronunciation of a language
Orthography – Set of conventions for written language
Orthopterology – Study of grasshoppers and related insects
Oryctology – mineralogy or paleontology
Osmics – scientific study of smells
Osmology – study of smells and olfactory processes
Osphresiology – study of the sense of smell
Osteology – Scientific study of bones
Otology – Branch of medicine for the ear
Otorhinolaryngology – Medical specialty of the head and neck

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== P ==
Paedology – Study of children's behavior and development
Paidonosology – study of children's diseases; pediatrics
Palaeoanthropology – Study of ancient humans
Palaeobiology – Study of organic evolution using fossils
Palaeoclimatology – Study of changes in ancient climate
Palaeoichthyology – study of ancient fish
Palaeolimnology – Scientific study of ancient lakes and streams
Palaeontology – Study of life before the Holocene epoch
Palaeopedology – Discipline studying soils of the past eras
Paleobotany – Study of organic evolution of plants based on fossils
Paleo-osteology – study of ancient bones
Paleoseismology – Study of earthquakes that happened in the past
Palynology – Study of pollen and other acid-resistant microoscopic organic material
Papyrology – Scientific study of ancient manuscripts
Paradoxology – Logically self-contradictory statementPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of paradoxes
Parapsychology – Study of paranormal and psychic phenomena
Parasitology – Study of parasites, their hosts, and the relationship between them
Paroemiology – study of proverbs
Parthenology – study of virgins
Particle physics – Study of subatomic particles and forces
Pathology – Study of disease
Pedagogics – Theory and practice of educationPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Pedology – Study of soils in their natural environment
Pelology – study of mud
Penology – Subfield of criminology – study of crime and punishment
Periodontology, also known as Periodontics – Field of dentistry
Pestology – Scientific study of insectsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – science of pests
Petrology – Study of rocks in geology
Pharmacognosy – Study of drugs obtained from natural sources
Pharmacology – Science of drugs and medications and their effects
Pharology – Scientific study of lighthouses and signal lights
Pharyngology – study of the throat
Phenology – Study of periodic events in biological life cycles
Phenomenology – Philosophical method and schools of philosophy – study of phenomena
Philology – Study of language in historical sources
Philosophy – Study of general and fundamental questions – science of knowledge or wisdom
Phoniatrics – Sudy and treatment of organs involved in speech production
Phonetics – Study of how humans produce and perceive sounds
Phonology – Study of sound organization in languages
Photobiology – Scientific study of light's effect on living organisms
Photonics – Technical applications of optics – study of photons
Phraseology – Linguistic study of phrases
Phycology – Branch of biology concerned with the study of algae
Phylogenetics, also known as Phylogeny – Study of evolutionary relationships between organisms
Physics – Scientific field of study
Physiology – Science regarding functions in organisms or living systems
Phytology, also known as Botany – Study of plant life
Piscatology – study of fishes
Pisteology – science or study of faith
Planetary science, also known as Planetology – Science of planets and planetary systems
Plumology – Study of feathers
Plutology – political economy; study of wealth
Pneumatics – Use of pressurised gas in mechanical systems – study of mechanics of gases
Pneumonology – Study of respiratory diseases
Podiatry, also known as Podology – Medicine branch focusing on the human lower extremities
Political science – Scientific study of politics and social science
Polemology – Multidisciplinary study of war
Pomology – Study of fruits and their cultivation
Pogonology – Hair on the chin, lower face and neckPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of beards
Posology – Study of dosage of medicines
Potamology – Study of rivers
Pragmatics – Branch of linguistics and semiotics relating context to meaning
Praxeology – Theory of human action
Primatology – Scientific study of primates
Proctology – Study of the structure and diseases of the anus, rectum, and sigmoid colon
Protistology – Scientific discipline devoted to the study of protists – study of protists
Proxemics – Study of human use of space and the effects that population density has on behavior
Psephology – Quantitative scientific analysis of elections and balloting (within political science) – study of election results and voting trends
Pseudology – art or science of lying
Pseudoptics – study of optical illusions
Psychobiology – Neuroscience of behaviour
Psychogenetics – Study of genetic-environment interactions influencing behaviour – study of internal or mental states
Psychognosy – study of mentality, personality or character
Psycholinguistics – Study of relations between psychology and language
Psychology – Study of mental functions and behaviors
Psychopathology – Scientific study of mental disorders
Psychophysics – Branch of knowledge relating physical stimuli and psychological perception
Pteridology – Class of vascular plantsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of ferns
Pterylology – study of distribution of feathers on birds
Punnology – study of puns
Pyretology – study of fevers
Pyrgology – study of towers
Pyroballogy – study of artillery
Pyrography – Art or decoration made from burn marks – study of woodburning
Pyrotechnics – Science of creating combustibles and explosives for entertainment – study of combustion through fire or explosions
== Q ==
Quantum computing – Computer hardware technology that uses quantum mechanics – the exploitation of collective properties of quantum states, such as superposition and entanglement, to perform computation.
Quantum mechanics – Description of physical properties at the atomic and subatomic scale – a fundamental theory in physics which describes nature at the smallest scales of energy levels of atoms and subatomic particles
Quantum physics – Description of physical properties at the atomic and subatomic scale – the study of matter and energy at the most fundamental level
Queer theory – Field of critical theory – study of issues related to sexual orientation and gender identity
Quinology – study of quinine.

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== R ==
Radiobiology – Study of effects of radiation on living tissues – study of the scientific principles, mechanisms, and effects of the interaction of ionizing radiation with living matter
Radiochemistry – Chemistry of radioactive materials – study of ordinary chemical reactions under radioactive circumstances
Radiology – Medical specialty for imaging procedures
Rheology – Study of the flow of matter, primarily in a fluid state
Rheumatology – Medical speciality of inflammatory diseases
Rhinology – Study of the nose and sinuses
Rhochrematics – science of inventory management and the movement of products
Robotics – Design, construction, use, and application of robots
Rodentology – Study of rodents
Runology – Study of Runic alphabets
== S ==
Sarcology – study of fleshy parts of the body
Scatology – Study of faeces – study of excrement or obscene literature
Schematonics – art of using gesture to express tones
Sciagraphy – Study of perspective shadow projection – art of shading
Scientific modelling – Scientific activity that produces models – study of application of models to understand a particular problem
Scientific programming – Language for controlling a computer – study of programming
Scripophily – Study and collection of stock and bond certificates
Sedimentology – Study of natural sediments and their formation processes
Seismology – Scientific study of earthquakes and propagation of elastic waves through a planet
Selenodesy – Study of the surface and shape of the Moon
Selenology – Structure and composition of the Moon – study of the Moon
Semantics – Study of meaning in language
Semantology – science of meanings of words
Semasiology – Subfield of linguistic semanticsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Semiology – Study of signsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of signs and signals
Semiotics – Study of signs
Serology – Scientific study of serum and other bodily fluids
Sexology – Scientific study of human sexuality
Siderology – study of iron and its alloys, including steel
Significs – Linguistic and philosophical term – science of meaning
Silvics – Practice of controlling forests for timber productionPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of tree's life
Sindonology – Scientific analysis of the Shroud.of Turin
Sinology – Area studies focused on China
Sitology – Expert in nutrition and malnutritionPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – dietetics
Sociobiology – Subdiscipline of biology regarding social behavior – study of biological basis of human behaviour
Socioeconomics – Branch of sociologyPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of the relationship between economy and society
Sociolinguistics – Study of how society affects language
Sociology – Scientific study of human society and relationships
Solid mechanics – Branch of mechanics concerned with solid materials and their behaviors
Somatology – Branch of anthropology that studies the physical development of the human speciesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – science of substances
Snow hydrology – Field of snow science concerning its composition and dispersion
Spectrology – Study involving matter and electromagnetic radiationPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Spectroscopy – Study involving matter and electromagnetic radiation – study of spectra
Speleology – Science of cave and karst systems
Spermology – Reproductive structure in plants – study of seeds
Sphagnology – study of peat moss
Sphygmology – Study of the pulse
Splanchnology – Study of the visceral organs
Spongology – study of sponges
Stasiology – study of political parties
Statics – Branch of mechanics concerned with balance of forces in nonmoving systems
Stellar astronomy – Study of stars and stellar evolution
Stemmatics, also known as Stemmatology – Identification of textual variantsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of relationships between text
Stereochemistry – Subdiscipline of chemistry – study of chemistry of the relative spatial arrangement of atoms that form the structure of molecules and their manipulation.
Stoichiology – science of elements of animal tissues
Stomatology – Study of oral medicine – study of the mouth
Storiology – study of folk tales
Stratigraphy – Study of rock layers and their formation
Stratography – art of leading an army
Stylometry – Study of writing style – studying literature by means of statistical analysis
Suicidology – Scientific study of suicide and self-destructive behaviors
Supramolecular chemistry – Branch of chemistry – study of the chemistry of assembled molecular sub-units
Symbology – Something that represents an idea, process, or physical entityPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of symbols
Symptomatology – Indications of a specific illness, including psychiatricPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of symptoms of illness
Synecology – Associated populations of species in a given areaPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of ecological communities
Synectics – Thought process for making the strange familiar and the familiar strange – study of processes of invention
Syntax – System responsible for combining morphemes into complex structures – study of sentence structure
Syphilology – Sexually transmitted infectionPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of syphilis
Systematics – Branch of biology – study of the diversification of living forms, both past and present
Systems science – Study of the nature of systems – study of systems

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== T ==
Taxidermy – Stuffing and mounting dead animals for display – art of curing and stuffing animals
Taxonomy – Science of classifying organisms
Tectonics – Process of evolution of Earth's crust
Teleology – Thinking in terms of destiny or purpose – study of final causes; analysis in terms of purpose
Telmatology – Branch of physical geography concerned with the study of wetlands
Tempestology – The study of cyclones, hurricanes and similar extreme weather events
Teratology – Study of developmental anomalies
Terrestrial ecology – Study of terrestrial ecosystems and the biotic and abiotic things that occupy them.
Teuthology – Study of cephalopods
Textology – Identification of textual variants – study of the production of texts
Thalassography – science of the seas and gulfs
Thanatology – Scientific study of death and its aspects
Thaumatology – The study of miracles – study of miracles
Theology – Study of the nature of deities and religious beliefs - study of religion
Theoretical computer science – Subfield of computer science and mathematics
Theriogenology – Veterinary specialty concerning reproduction
Thermodynamics – Physics of heat, work, and temperature
Thermokinematics – study of motion of heat
Thermology – study of heat
Therology – Study of mammals
Thremmatology – science of breeding domestic animals and plants
Threpsology – science of nutrition
Tidology – study of tides
Timbrology – study of postage stamps
Tocology – Medical specialty encompassing two subspecialtiesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – obstetrics; midwifery
Tokology – Medical specialty encompassing two subspecialtiesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of childbirth
Tonetics – Use of pitch to distinguish lexical or grammatical meaningPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
Topography – Study of the forms of land surfaces in earth
Topology – Branch of mathematics – study of places and their natural features
Toponymy, also known as Toponymics – Study of place names
Toxicology – Study of substances harmful to living organisms
Traumatology – Medicine branch – study of wounds and their effects
Tribology – Science of rubbing surfaces
Trichology – Study of the hair and scalp
Trophology – Science of nutrition
Tsiganology – study of gypsies
Turbology – study of tornadoes
Typhlology – study of blindness and the blind
Typography – Art of arranging type – art and technique of arranging type
Typology – System of classification – study of types of things
== U ==
Uranography – Part of astronomy concerned with mapping of stars
Uranology – Science of the heavens (historical)
Urbanology – Study dealing with specialized problems of cities
Urenology – study of rust molds
Urogynecology – Sub-specialty of urology and gynecology
Urology – Medical specialty on the urinary and reproductive systems
== V ==
Vaccinology – Science of vaccine development and production
Valeology – study of healthy living
Venereology – Branch of medicine dealing with the study and treatment of sexually transmitted diseases
Venology – The study of veins.
Veterinary medicine – Branch of medicine for non-human animals
Vexillography – Art and practice of designing flags – the art and practice of designing flags
Vexillology – Study of flags
Victimology – Study of victimization
Vinology – Study of wine and winemakingPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – scientific study of vines and winemaking
Virology – Study of viruses
Vitaminology – The study of vitamins.
Vitrics – study, art and technology of glassy materials; glassware
Volcanology – Study of volcanoes
== W ==
Webology – Academic journal on the World Wide Web – The study of the World Wide Web.
== X ==
Xenobiology – Science of synthetic life forms – study of biological systems which do not exist in nature
Xylography – Broad term for woodblock printing techniques
Xylology – Science of wood
== Y ==
Youth Studies – Interdisciplinary academic fieldPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – the study of the development, history, culture, psychology, and politics of youth
== Z ==
Zenography – The study of the planet Jupiter
Zooarchaeology – Analysis of animal remains found in archaeological sites
Zoochemistry – study of chemistry of animals
Zoogeography – Science of the geographic distribution of animal species
Zoogeology – study of fossil animal remains
Zoology – Scientific study of animals
Zoonomy – study of animal physiology
Zoonosology – study of animal diseases
Zoopathology – Study and diagnosis of disease in animals
Zoophysics – Study of physics relating to structure and function of animal organs and bodies.
Zoophysiology – study of physiology of animals
Zoophytology – study of plant-like animals
Zoosemiotics – Study of the use of signs among animals – study of animal communication
Zootaxy – Scientific classification of animals.
Zootechnics – Science of managing domestic or captive animals
Zygology – science of joining and fastening
Zymology – Study of fermentation and its uses
Zymurgy – Applied chemistry of fermentation processes
Zythology – Study of beer and beer-brewing.
== See also ==
List of words ending in ology
List of sciences
Science
Outline of academic disciplines
== References ==

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Originally, the word computing was synonymous with counting and calculating, and the science and technology of mathematical calculations. Today, "computing" means using computers and other computing machines. It includes their operation and usage, the electrical processes carried out within the computing hardware itself, and the theoretical concepts governing them (computer science).
See also: List of programmers, List of computing people, List of computer scientists, List of basic computer science topics, List of terms relating to algorithms and data structures.
Topics on computing include:
== 0–9 ==
1.TR.6 –
100BaseVG –
100VG-AnyLAN –
10BASE-2 –
10BASE-5 –
10BASE-T –
120 reset –
1-bit computing –
16-bit computing –
16550 UART –
1NF –
1TBS –
20-GATE –
20-GATE –
2B1D –
2B1Q –
2D –
2NF –
3-tier (computing) –
32-bit application –
32-bit computing –
320xx microprocessor –
386BSD –
3Com Corporation –
3DO –
3D computer graphics –
3GL –
3NF –
3Station –
4.2BSD –
4-bit computing –
404 error –
431A –
473L system –
486SX –
4GL –
4NF –
51-FORTH –
56 kbit/s line –
5ESS switch –
5NF –
5th Glove –
6.001 –
64-bit computing –
680x0 –
6x86 –
8-bit clean –
8-bit computing –
8.3 filename –
80x86 –
82430FX –
82430HX –
82430MX –
82430VX –
8514 (display standard) –
8514-A –
88open –
8N1 –
8x86 –
90–90 rule –
9PAC
== A ==
ABC ALGOL –
ABLE –
ABSET –
ABSYS –
Accent –
Acceptance, Test Or Launch Language –
Accessible Computing –
Ada –
Addressing mode –
AIM alliance –
AirPort –
AIX –
Algocracy –
ALGOL –
Algorithm –
AltiVec –
Amazon Web Services –
Amdahl's law –
America Online –
Amiga –
AmigaE –
Analysis of algorithms –
AOL –
APL –
Apple Computer, Inc. –
Apple II –
AppleScript –
Array programming –
Arithmetic and logical unit –
ASCII –
Active Server Pages –
ASP.NET –
Assembly language –
Atari –
Atlas Autocode –
AutoLISP –
Automaton –
AWK –
Microsoft Azure
== B ==
B (programming language) –
Backus–Naur form –
Basic Rate Interface (2B+D) –
BASIC –
Batch job –
BCPL –
Befunge –
BeOS –
Berkeley Software Distribution –
BETA –
Big O notation –
Binary symmetric channel –
Binary Synchronous Transmission –
Binary numeral system –
Bit –
BLISS –
Blu-ray –
Blue screen of death –
Bourne shell (sh)
Bourne-Again shell (bash) –
Better Portable Graphics (BPG) –
Brainfuck –
Btrieve –
Burrows–Abadi–Needham logic –
Business computing
== C ==
C++ –
C# –
C –
Cache –
Canonical LR parser –
Cat (Unix) –
CD-ROM –
Central processing unit –
Chimera –
Chomsky normal form –
CIH virus –
Classic Mac OS –
Cloud Computing –
COBOL –
Cocoa (software) –
Code and fix –
Code Red worm –
ColdFusion –
Colouring algorithm –
COMAL –
Comm (Unix) –
Command line interface –
Command line interpreter –
COMMAND.COM –
Commercial at (computing) –
Commodore 1541 –
Commodore 1581 –
Commodore 64 –
Common logarithm –
Common Unix Printing System –
Compact disc –
Compiler –
Computability theory –
Computational complexity theory –
Computation –
Computer-aided design –
Computer-aided manufacturing –
Computer architecture –
Computer cluster –
Computer hardware –
Computer monitor –
Computer network –
Computer numbering format –
Computer programming –
Computer science –
Computer security –
Computer software –
Computer system –
Computer –
Computing –
Context-free grammar –
Context-sensitive grammar –
Context-sensitive language –
Control flow –
Control store –
Control unit –
CORAL66 –
CP/M –
CPL –
Cracking (software) –
Cracking (passwords) –
Cryptanalysis –
Cryptography –
Cybersquatting –
CYK algorithm –
Cyrix 6x86
== D ==
D –
Data compression –
Database normalization –
Decidable set –
Deep Blue –
Desktop environment –
Desktop publishing –
Deterministic finite automaton –
Dialer –
DIBOL –
Diff –
Digital camera –
DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation) –
Digital signal processing –
Digital visual interface –
Direct manipulation interface –
Disk storage –
Distance transform –
Distance map –
Distance field –
Docblock –
DVD –
DVI (TeX) –
Dvorak keyboard layout –
Dylan
== E ==
Earth Simulator –
EBCDIC –
ECMAScript (a.k.a. JavaScript) –
Electronic data processing (EDP) –
Enhanced Versatile Disc (EVD) –
ENIAC –
Enterprise Java Beans (EJB) –
Entscheidungsproblem –
Equality (relational operator) –
Erlang –
Enterprise resource planning (ERP) –
ES EVM –
Ethernet –
Euclidean algorithm –
Euphoria –
Exploit (computer security)
== F ==
Fast Ethernet –
Federated Naming Service –
Field specification –
Final Cut Pro –
Finite-state automaton –
FireWire –
First-generation language –
Floating-point unit –
Floppy disk –
Formal language –
Forth –
Fortran –
Fourth-generation language –
Fragmentation –
Free On-line Dictionary of Computing –
Free Software Foundation –
Free software movement –
Free software –
Freescale 68HC11 –
Freeware –
Function-level programming –
Functional programming
== G ==
G5 –
GEM –
General Algebraic Modeling System –
Genie –
GNU –
GNU Bison –
Gnutella –
Graphical user interface –
Graphics Device Interface –
Greibach normal form –
G.hn
== H ==
hack (technology slang) –
Hacker (computer security) –
Hacker (hobbyist) –
Hacker (programmer subculture) –
Hacker (term) –
Halting problem –
Hard Drive –
Haskell –
HD DVD –
History of computing –
History of computing hardware –
History of Microsoft Windows –
History of operating systems –
History of the graphical user interface –
Hitachi 6309 –
Home computer –
Human–computer interaction

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== I ==
IA-32 –
IA-64 –
IBM PC –
Interactive computation –
IBM –
iBook –
iCab –
iCal –
Icon –
iDVD –
IEEE 802.2 –
IEEE 802.3 –
IEEE floating-point standard –
iMac –
Image processing –
iMovie –
Indentation style
Inform –
Instruction register –
Intel 8008 –
Intel 80186 –
Intel 80188 –
Intel 80386 –
Intel 80486SX –
Intel 80486 –
Intel 8048 –
Intel 8051 –
Intel 8080 –
Intel 8086 –
Intel 80x86 –
Intel –
INTERCAL –
International Electrotechnical Commission –
Internet Explorer –
Internet –
iPhoto –
iPod –
iResQ –
Irreversible circuit –
iSync –
iTunes
== J ==
J (programming language) –
Java Platform, Enterprise Edition –
Java Platform, Micro Edition –
Java Platform, Standard Edition –
Java API –
Java –
Java virtual machine (JVM) –
JavaScript (standardized as ECMAScript) –
JPEG
== K ==
K&R –
KDE –
Kilobyte –
KL-ONE –
Kleene star –
Klez –
Kotlin
== L ==
LALR parser –
Lambda calculus –
Lasso –
LaTeX –
Leet –
Legal aspects of computing –
Lex –
LibreOffice –
Limbo –
Linked list –
Linux –
Lisp –
List of IBM products –
List of Intel processors –
List of programming languages –
List of operating systems –
List of Soviet computer systems –
LL parser –
Logic programming –
Logo –
Lotus 1-2-3 –
LR parser –
Lua –
Lynx language –
Lynx browser
== M ==
m4 –
macOS Server –
macOS –
Mac –
MAD –
Mainframe computer –
Malware –
Mary –
Mealy machine –
Megabyte –
Melissa worm –
Mercury –
Mesa –
Microcode –
Microprocessor –
Microprogram –
Microsequencer –
Microsoft Windows –
Microsoft –
MIPS architecture -
Miranda –
ML –
MMC –
MMU –
MMX –
Mobile Trin –
Modula –
MOO –
Moore's Law –
Moore machine –
Morris worm –
MOS Technology 6502 –
MOS Technology 650x –
MOS Technology 6510 –
Motorola 68000 –
Motorola 6800 –
Motorola 68020 –
Motorola 68030 –
Motorola 68040 –
Motorola 68060 –
Motorola 6809 –
Motorola 680x0 –
Motorola 68LC040 –
Motorola 88000 –
Mozilla –
MPEG –
MS-DOS –
Multics –
Multiprocessing –
MUMPS
== N ==
.NET –
NetBSD –
Netlib –
Netscape Navigator –
NeXT, Inc. –
Nial –
Nybble –
Ninety–ninety rule –
Non-uniform memory access –
Nondeterministic finite automaton
== O ==
Oberon –
Objective-C –
object –
OCaml –
occam –
OmniWeb –
One True Brace Style –
OpenBSD –
Open source –
Open Source Initiative –
OpenVMS -
Opera (web browser) –
Operating system advocacy –
Operating system
== P ==
PA-RISC –
Page description language –
Pancake sorting –
Parallax Propeller –
Parallel computing –
Parser (language) –
Parsing (technique) –
Partial function –
Pascal –
PDP –
Peer-to-peer network –
Perl –
Personal computer –
PHP –
PILOT –
PL/I –
Pointer –
Poplog –
Portable Document Format (PDF) –
Poser –
PostScript –
PowerBook –
PowerPC –
PowerPC G4 –
Prefix grammar –
Preprocessor –
Primitive recursive function –
Programming language –
Prolog –
PSPACE-complete –
Pulse-code modulation (PCM) –
Pushdown automaton –
Python
== Q ==
QuarkXPress –
QuickTime –
QWERTY
== R ==
R (programming language) –
RAM (random-access memory) –
RAM drive –
Random access –
RascalMPL –
Ratfor –
RCA 1802 –
Read-only memory (ROM) –
REBOL –
Recovery-oriented computing –
Recursive descent parser –
Recursion (computer science) –
Recursive set –
Recursively enumerable language –
Recursively enumerable set –
Reference (computer science) –
Referential transparency –
Register –
Regular expression –
Regular grammar –
Regular language –
RPG –
Retrocomputing –
REXX –
RFC –
RISC –
RS/6000 –
Ruby
== S ==
S –
S-Lang –
Safari (web browser) –
SAIL –
Script kiddie –
Scripting language –
SCSI –
Second-generation programming language –
Secure Sockets Layer –
sed –
Self (or SELF) –
Semaphore (programming) –
Sequential access –
Serverless computing –
SETL –
Shareware –
Shell script –
Shellcode –
SIMD –
Simula –
Sircam –
Slide rule –
SLIP –
SLR parser –
Smalltalk –
Server Message Block –
SMBus –
SMIL (computer) –
Smiley –
SNOBOL –
Software engineering –
SONET –
Space-cadet keyboard –
SPARC International –
Specialist (computer) –
SPITBOL –
SQL –
SQL slammer worm –
Squeak –
SR –
SSL –
Service-oriented architecture –
S/SL –
Stale pointer bug –
Standard ML (or SML) –
Stateless server –
Stepping level -
Structured programming –
Subject-oriented programming –
Subnetwork –
Supercomputer –
Swap space –
Symbolic mathematics –
Symlink –
Symmetric multiprocessing –
Syntactic sugar –
SyQuest Technology –
SYSKEY –
System board –
System programming language –
System R (IBM) –
System X (supercomputer)
== T ==
TADS –
Tcl –
TECO (text editor) –
Text editor –
TeX –
Third-generation language –
Timeline of computing –
Timeline of computing 1950–1979 –
Timeline of computing 1980–1989 –
Timeline of computing 1990–1999 –
Timeline of computing hardware before 1950 (2400 BC–1949) –
Tk –
TPU –
Trac –
Transparency (computing) –
Trin II –
Trin VX –
Turing machine –
Turing –
2B1Q
== U ==
UAT –
Unicode –
Unicon –
Unix –
Unix shell –
UNIX System V –
Unlambda –
USB –
Unreachable memory
== V ==
Var'aq –
VAX –
VBScript –
Vector processor –
Ventura Publisher –
Very-large-scale integration –
Video editing –
Virtual memory –
Visual Basic (classic) –
Visual Basic .NET –
Visual FoxPro –
Von Neumann architecture
== W ==
WD16 –
Web 2.0 –
Web browser –
Western Design Center –
The WELL -
Western Design Center 65C02 –
Western Design Center 65816 –
Whitespace –
Wiki –
Window manager –
Windows 1.0 –
Windows 2000 –
Windows 95 –
Windows Me –
Windows NT –
Windows XP –
Windows 7 –
Word processor –
World Wide Web –
WYSIWYG
== X ==
X Window System –
X86 –
Xmouse
== Y ==
Yacc –
YaST –
Yet another –
Yorick
== Z ==
Z notation –
Z shell –
Zilog Z80 –
Zooming User Interface –
ZX80 –
ZX81 –
ZX Spectrum

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title: "List of Balzan Prize recipients"
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---
This is a list of recipients of the Balzan Prize, one of the world's most prestigious academic awards. The International Balzan Prize Foundation awards four annual monetary prizes to people or organizations who have made outstanding achievements in the humanities, natural sciences, culture, and peace on an international level. The Prizes are awarded in four subject areas: "two in literature, the moral sciences and the arts" and "two in the physical, mathematical and natural sciences and medicine." The special Prize for Humanity, Peace and Fraternity is presented at intervals of every three years or longer.
== 1960s–1970s ==
1961
Nobel Foundation (Sweden) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples
1962
Andrey Kolmogorov (Soviet Union) --- Mathematics
Karl von Frisch (Austria) --- Biology
Paul Hindemith (Germany) --- Music
Samuel Eliot Morison (United States) --- History
Pope John XXIII (Vatican) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples
1978
Mother Teresa of Calcutta (India) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples
1979
Ernest Labrousse (France) and Giuseppe Tucci (Italy) --- History
Jean Piaget (Switzerland) --- Social and political sciences
Torbjörn Caspersson (Sweden) --- Biology
== 1980s ==
1980
Enrico Bombieri (Italy) --- Mathematics
Hassan Fathy (Egypt) --- Architecture and town planning
Jorge Luis Borges (Argentina) --- Philology, linguistics and literary criticism
1981
Dan McKenzie (United Kingdom), Drummond Matthews (United Kingdom) and Frederick Vine (United Kingdom) --- Geology and geophysics
Josef Pieper (Germany) --- Philosophy
Paul Reuter (France) --- International public law
1982
Jean-Baptiste Duroselle (France) --- Social sciences
Kenneth Vivian Thimann (United Kingdom / United States) --- Pure and applied botany
Massimo Pallottino (Italy) --- Sciences of antiquity
1983
Edward Shils (United States) --- Sociology
Ernst Mayr (Germany / United States) --- Zoology
Francesco Gabrieli (Italy) --- Oriental studies
1984
Jan Hendrik Oort (Netherlands) --- Astrophysics
Jean Starobinski (Switzerland) --- History and criticism of the literatures
Sewall Wright (United States) --- Genetics
1985
Ernst H. J. Gombrich (Austria / United Kingdom) --- History of western art
Jean-Pierre Serre (France) --- Mathematics
1986
Jean Rivero (France) --- Basic human rights
Otto Neugebauer (Austria / United States) --- History of science
Roger Revelle (United States) --- Oceanography / climatology
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples
1987
Jerome Seymour Bruner (United States) --- Human psychology
Phillip V. Tobias (South Africa) --- Physical anthropology
Richard W. Southern (United Kingdom) --- Medieval history
1988
Michael Evenari (Israel) and Otto Ludwig Lange (Germany) --- Applied botany (incl. ecological aspects)
René Étiemble (France) --- Comparative literature
Shmuel Noah Eisenstadt (Israel) --- Sociology
1989
Emmanuel Lévinas (France / Lithuania) --- Philosophy
Leo Pardi (Italy) --- Ethologie
Martin John Rees (United Kingdom) --- High energy astrophysics
== 1990s ==
1990
James Freeman Gilbert (United States) --- Geophysics (solid earth)
Pierre Lalive d'Epinay (Switzerland) --- Private international law
Walter Burkert (Germany) --- Study of the ancient world (Mediterranean area)
1991
György Ligeti (Hungary / Austria) --- Music
John Maynard Smith (United Kingdom) --- Genetics and evolution
Vitorino Magalhães Godinho (Portugal) --- History: The emergence of Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries
Abbé Pierre (Henri Grouès) (France) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples
1992
Armand Borel (Switzerland) --- Mathematics
Ebrahim M. Samba (Gambia) --- Preventive medicine
Giovanni Macchia (Italy) --- History and criticism of the literatures
1993
Jean Leclant (France) --- Art and archaeology of the ancient world
Lothar Gall (Germany) --- History: societies of the 19th and 20th centuries
Wolfgang H. Berger (Germany / United States) --- Paleontology with special reference to oceanography
1994
Fred Hoyle (United Kingdom) and Martin Schwarzschild (Germany / United States) --- Astrophysics (evolution of stars)
Norberto Bobbio (Italy) --- Law and political science (governments and democracy)
René Couteaux (France) --- Biology (cell structure with special reference to the nervous system)
1995
Alan J. Heeger (United States) --- Science of new non-biological materials
Carlo M. Cipolla (Italy) --- Economic history
Yves Bonnefoy (France) --- Art history and art criticism (as applied to European art from the Middle Ages to our times)
1996
Arno Borst (Germany) --- History: medieval cultures
Arnt Eliassen (Norway) --- Meteorology
Stanley Hoffmann (Austria / United States / France) --- Political sciences: contemporary international relations
International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples
1997
Charles Coulston Gillispie (United States) --- History and philosophy of science
Stanley Jeyaraja Tambiah (Sri Lanka / United States) --- Social sciences: social anthropology
Thomas Wilson Meade (United Kingdom) --- Epidemiology
1998
Andrzej Walicki (Poland / United States) --- History: the cultural and social history of the Slavonic world from the reign of Catherine the Great to the Russian revolutions of 1917
Harmon Craig (United States) --- Geochemistry
Robert McCredie May (United Kingdom / Australia) --- Biodiversity
1999
John Elliott (United Kingdom) --- History 1500–1800
Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza (Italy / United States) --- Science of human origins
Mikhail Gromov (Russia / France) --- Mathematics
Paul Ricœur (France) --- Philosophy

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== 2000s ==
2000
Ilkka Hanski (Finland) --- Ecological sciences
Martin Litchfield West (United Kingdom) --- Classical antiquity
Michael Stolleis (Germany) --- Legal history since 1500
Michel G.E. Mayor (Switzerland) --- Instrumentation and techniques in astronomy and astrophysics
Abdul Sattar Edhi (Pakistan) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples
2001
Claude Lorius (France) --- Climatology
James Sloss Ackerman (United States) --- History of architecture (including town planning and landscape design)
Jean-Pierre Changeux (France) --- Cognitive neurosciences
Marc Fumaroli (France) --- Literary history and criticism (post 1500)
2002
Anthony Grafton (United States) --- History of the humanities
Dominique Schnapper (France) --- Sociology
Walter J. Gehring (Switzerland) --- Developmental biology
Xavier Le Pichon (France) --- Geology
2003
Eric Hobsbawm (United Kingdom) --- European history since 1900
Reinhard Genzel (Germany) --- Infrared astronomy
Serge Moscovici (France) --- Social psychology
Wen-Hsiung Li (Taiwan / United States) --- Genetics and evolution
2004
Andrew Colin Renfrew (United Kingdom) --- Prehistoric Archaeology
Michael Marmot (United Kingdom) --- Epidemiology
Nikki R. Keddie (United States) --- The Islamic world from the end of the 19th to the end of the 20th century
Pierre Deligne (Belgium) --- Mathematics
Community of Sant'Egidio --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples
2005
Lothar Ledderose (Germany) --- History of the art of Asia
Peter Hall (United Kingdom) --- The social and cultural history of cities since the beginning of the 16th century
Peter R. Grant (United Kingdom) and Rosemary Grant (United States) --- Population biology
Russell J. Hemley (United States) and Ho-kwang (David) Mao (China) --- Mineral physics
2006
Ludwig Finscher (Germany) --- History of western music since 1600
Quentin Skinner (United Kingdom) --- Political thought: history and theory
Andrew Lange (United States) and Paolo de Bernardis (Italy) --- Observational astronomy and astrophysics
Elliott M. Meyerowitz (United States) and Christopher R. Somerville (Canada) --- Plant molecular genetics
2007
Sumio Iijima (Japan) --- Nanoscience
Bruce A. Beutler (United States) and Jules A. Hoffmann (France) --- Innate Immunity
Michel Zink (France) --- European Literature (1000–1500)
Rosalyn Higgins (United Kingdom) --- International Law since 1945
Karlheinz Böhm (Austria) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples
2008
Maurizio Calvesi (Italy) --- The Visual Arts since 1700
Thomas Nagel (Serbia / United States) --- Moral Philosophy
Ian H. Frazer (Australia) --- Preventive Medicine, including Vaccination
Wallace S. Broecker (United States) --- Science of Climate Change
2009
Terence Cave (United Kingdom) --- Literature since 1500
Michael Grätzel (Germany / Switzerland) --- Science of New Materials
Brenda Milner (United Kingdom / Canada) --- Cognitive Neurosciences
Paolo Rossi Monti (Italy) --- History of Science
== 2010s ==
2010
Manfred Brauneck (Germany) --- History of theatre in all its aspects
Carlo Ginzburg (Italy) --- European History (1400–1700)
Jacob Palis (Brazil) --- Mathematics (pure or applied)
Shinya Yamanaka (Japan) --- Stem Cells: Biology and potential applications
2011
Peter Brown (Ireland) --- Ancient History (The Graeco-Roman World)
Bronislaw Baczko (Poland) --- Enlightenment Studies
Russell Scott Lande (United States / United Kingdom) --- Theoretical Biology or Bioinformatics
Joseph Ivor Silk (United States / United Kingdom) --- The Early Universe (From the Planck Time to the First Galaxies)
2012
Ronald Dworkin (United States) --- Jurisprudence
Reinhard Strohm (Germany) --- Musicology
Kurt Lambeck (Australia) --- Solid Earth Sciences, with emphasis on interdisciplinary research
David Baulcombe (United Kingdom) --- Epigenetics
2013
André Vauchez (France) --- Medieval History
Manuel Castells (Spain) --- Sociology
Alain Aspect (France) --- Quantum Information Processing and Communication
Pascale Cossart (France) --- Infectious diseases: basic and clinical aspects
2014
Mario Torelli (Italy) --- Classical Archaeology
Ian Hacking (Canada) --- Epistemology and Philosophy of Mind
G. David Tilman (United States) --- Basic and/or applied Plant Ecology
Dennis Sullivan (United States) --- Mathematics (pure or applied)
Vivre en Famille (France) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples
2015
Hans Belting (Germany) --- History of European Art (1300–1700)
Joel Mokyr (Netherland / United States / Israel) --- Economic History
Francis Halzen (Belgium / United States) --- Astroparticle Physics including neutrino and gamma-ray observation
David Karl (United States) --- Oceanography
2016
Piero Boitani (Italy) --- Comparative Literature
Reinhard Jahn (Germany) --- Molecular and Cellular Neuroscience, including neurodegenerative and developmental aspects
Federico Capasso (Italy) --- Applied Photonics
Robert Keohane (United States) --- International Relations: History and Theory
2017
Aleida Assmann (Germany) and Jan Assmann (Germany) --- Collective Memory
Bina Agarwal (India / United Kingdom) --- Gender Studies
Robert D. Schreiber (United States) and James P. Allison (United States) --- Immunological Approaches in Cancer Therapy
Michaël Gillon (Belgium) --- The Sun's Planetary System and Exoplanets
2018
Éva Kondorosi (Hungary / France) --- Chemical Ecology
Detlef Lohse (Germany) --- Fluid Dynamics
Jürgen Osterhammel (Germany) --- Global History
Marilyn Strathern (United Kingdom) --- Social Anthropology
Terre des hommes Foundation (Switzerland) --- Humanity, Peace and Fraternity among Peoples
2019
Jacques Aumont (France) --- Film Studies
Michael Cook (United States / United Kingdom) --- Islamic Studies
Luigi Ambrosio (Italy) --- Theory of Partial Differential Equations
Erika von Mutius, Klaus F. Rabe, Werner Seeger and Tobias Welte (all Germany) --- Pathophysiology of respiration: from basic sciences to the bedside

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title: "List of Balzan Prize recipients"
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== 2020s ==
2020
Susan Trumbore (US / Germany) --- Earth System Dynamics
Jean-Marie Tarascon (France) --- Environmental Challenges: Materials Science for Renewable Energy
Joan Martinez Alier (Spain) --- Environmental Challenges: Responses from the Social Sciences and the Humanities
Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade (Brazil) --- Human Rights
2021
Saul Friedländer (France / US) --- Holocaust and Genocide Studies
Jeffrey I. Gordon (US) --- Microbiome in Health and Disease
Alessandra Buonanno (Italy / US) and Thibault Damour (France) --- Gravitation: physical and astrophysical aspects
Giorgio Buccellati and Marilyn Kelly-Buccellati (Italy / USA) --- Art and Archaeology of the Ancient Far East
2022
Robert Langer (US) --- Biomaterials for Nanomedicine and Tissue Engineering
Martha Nussbaum (US) --- Moral Philosophy
Dorthe Dahl-Jensen (Denmark) and Hans Oerlemans (Netherlands) --- Glaciation and Ice-Sheet Dynamics
Philip Bohlman (US) --- Ethnomusicology
2023
David Damrosch (US) --- World Literature
Jean-Jacques Hublin (France) --- Evolution of Humankind: Paleoanthropology
Eske Willerslev (Denmark) --- Evolution of Humankind: Ancient DNA and Human Evolution
Heino Falcke (Germany) --- High resolution images: from planetary to cosmic objects
2024
John Braithwaite (Australia) --- Restorative Justice
Lorraine Daston (US / Germany) --- History of Modern and Contemporary Science
Michael N. Hall (US / Switzerland) --- Biological Mechanisms of Ageing
Omar M. Yaghi (US) --- Nanoporous Materials for Environmental Applications
2025
Josiah Ober (US) --- Athenian Democracy Revisited
Rosalind Krauss (US) --- History of Contemporary Art
Christophe Salomon (France) --- Atoms and Ultra-Precise Measurement of Time
Carl H. June (US) --- Gene and Gene-Modified Cell Therapy
== References ==
== External links ==
Official website
"Prize Winners". Milano Zurigo. Retrieved 6 June 2022.

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title: "List of cities by scientific output"
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The following article lists the cities and metropolitan areas with the greatest scientific output, according to the Nature Index. The Nature Index attempts to objectively measure the scientific output of institutions, cities and countries by the amount of scientific articles and papers published in leading journals. Differences in quality are taken into account. Only articles published in 82 selected quality journals are counted. All these journals are in the English language. They were selected by a committee. If authors from several institutions from different cities are involved in a scientific article, it is divided accordingly, assuming that all researchers were equally involved in the article.
In 2019, Beijing was the city in the world with the largest scientific output, accounting for 2.8% of the world's total. New York City was second in the world, with about 2% of the world's total. Overall, China has the most cities in the top 100 list with 28, followed by the United States with 27.
== List ==
Listed below are the top 100 cities and metropolitan areas with the highest share of articles published in scientific journals in 2024, according to the Nature Index 2025 Science Cities:
== Leading cities in different fields ==
The 10 cities and metropolitan areas with the highest share of articles published in the fields of biological sciences, Earth & environmental sciences, chemistry, health sciences, natural sciences and physical sciences:
== Notes ==
== References ==

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Citizen science projects are activities sponsored by a wide variety of organizations so non-scientists can meaningfully contribute to scientific research.
== Precis ==
Activities vary widely from transcribing old ship logbooks to digitize the data as part of the Old Weather project to observing and counting birds at home or in the field for eBird. Participation can be as simple as playing a computer game for a project called Eyewire that may help scientists learn more about retinal neurons. It can also be more in depth, such as when citizens collect water quality data over time to assess the health of local waters, or help discover and name new species of insects. An emerging branch of Citizen Science are Community Mapping projects that utilize smartphone and tablet technology. For example, TurtleSAT is a community mapping project that is mapping freshwater turtle deaths throughout Australia.
This list of citizen science projects involves projects that engage all age groups. There are projects specifically aimed at the younger age demographic like iTechExplorers which was created by a 14 year old in the UK to assess the effects of bedtime technology on the body's circadian rhythm and can be completed in a classroom setting. Other projects like AgeGuess focus on the senior demographics and enable the elderly to upload photos of themselves so the public can guess different ages.
Lists of citizen science projects may change. For example, the Old Weather project website indicates that as of January 10, 2015, 51% of the logs were completed. When that project reaches 100 percent, it will move to the completed list.
== Worldwide ==
Citizen scientists anywhere in the world can participate in these projects.
== Regional ==
These projects require that citizen scientists be local to a region of study.
=== Asia ===
=== Australasia ===
=== Europe ===
=== North America ===
== See also ==
Participatory monitoring
List of grid computing projects
List of volunteer computing projects
List of free and open-source Android applications
== Notes ==
== External links ==
OpenHumans — quantified self projects
SciStarter — SciStarter lists more than 3,000 active and searchable global citizen science projects
== References ==

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Each entry on this list of common misconceptions is worded as a correction; the misconceptions themselves are implied rather than stated. These entries are concise summaries; the main subject articles can be consulted for more detail.
== Astronomy and spaceflight ==
There is no scientific evidence that the motion of stars, planets, and other celestial bodies influences the fates of humans, and astrology has repeatedly been shown to have no explanatory power in predicting future events.
Astronauts in orbit have the sensation of being weightless because they are in free fall around the Earth, not because they are so far away from the Earth that its gravitational pull is negligible. For example, on the International Space Station the Earth's gravity is nearly 90% as strong as at the surface. Objects orbiting in space would not remain in orbit if not for the gravitational force, and gravitational fields extend even into the depths of intergalactic space.
The dark side of the Moon receives about the same amount of light from the Sun as the near side. The far side is called "dark" not because it never receives light but because it had never been seen until humans sent spacecraft around the Moon, since the same side of the Moon always faces the Earth due to tidal locking.
Black holes have the same gravitational effects as any other equal mass in their place. They will draw objects nearby towards them, just as any other celestial body does, except at very close distances to the black hole, comparable to its Schwarzschild radius. If, for example, the Sun were replaced by a black hole of equal mass, the orbits of the planets would be essentially unaffected.
Seasons are not caused by Earth being closer to the Sun in the summer than in the winter, but by the effects of Earth's 23.4-degree axial tilt. Each hemisphere is tilted towards the Sun in its respective summer, resulting in longer days and more direct sunlight, with the opposite being true in the winter. Earth reaches the point in its orbit closest to the Sun in January, and it reaches the point farthest from the Sun in July, so the slight contribution of orbital eccentricity opposes the temperature trends of the seasons in the Northern Hemisphere.
When a meteor or spacecraft enters the atmosphere, the heat of entry is not primarily caused by friction, but by adiabatic compression of air in front of the object.
Egg balancing is possible on every day of the year, not just the vernal equinox.
The Fisher Space Pen was not commissioned by NASA at a cost of millions of dollars, while the Soviets used pencils. Pencils posed a major risk to astronauts due to the release of substances such as shavings and pencil lead being a flight hazard. The pen was independently developed by Paul C. Fisher, founder of the Fisher Pen Company, with $1 million of his own funds (equivalent to $10 million in 2025). NASA tested and approved the pen for space use, then purchased 400 pens at $6 per pen (equivalent to $58 in 2025). The Soviet Union subsequently also purchased the Space Pen for its Soyuz spaceflights.
Tang, Velcro, and Teflon were not spun off from technology originally developed by NASA for spaceflight, though many other products (such as memory foam and space blankets) were.
The Sun is not yellow; rather, it emits light across the full spectrum of visible colors, and this combined light appears white when outside of Earth's atmosphere. Earth's atmosphere scatters shorter wavelengths of light, particularly blues and violets, more than longer wavelengths like reds and yellows, and this scattering is why the Sun appears yellow during the day or orange or red during sunrise and sunset. The scattered blue/violet light, appearing to come from all directions, is what makes the rest of the sky look blue.
The Great Wall of China is not the only human-made object visible from space or from the Moon. None of the Apollo astronauts reported seeing any specific human-made object from the Moon, and even Earth-orbiting astronauts can see it only with magnification. City lights, however, are easily visible on the night side of Earth from orbit.
The Big Bang model does not fully explain the origin of the universe. It does not describe how energy, time, and space were caused, but rather it describes the emergence of the present universe from an ultra-dense and high-temperature initial state.
== Biology ==

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=== Mammals ===
Bats are not blind. While about 70% of bat species, mainly in the microbat family, use echolocation to navigate, all bat species have eyes and are capable of sight. In addition, almost all bats in the megabat or fruit bat family cannot echolocate and have excellent night vision.
Bulls are not enraged by the color red, used in capes by professional bullfighters. Cattle are dichromats, so red does not stand out as a bright color. It is not the color of the cape, but the perceived threat by the bullfighter that incites it to charge, along with the spearing of the bull and mental agitation and abuse it endures beforehand.
Camels do not store water in their humps, but rather fatty tissue which can be used as a reserve source of calories. While they can go long periods without water, the water is stored in the animal's bloodstream, not their humps.
Domestic cats' behavioral and personality traits cannot be predicted from their coat color. Rather, these traits depend on a complex interplay between genetic and environmental factors.
Not all cats are attracted and intoxicated by catnip, which affects only about two thirds of them. Alternatives exist, such as valerian root and leaves.
Dogs do not sweat by salivating. Dogs actually do have sweat glands, but not on their tongues; they sweat mainly through their footpads. However, dogs do primarily regulate their body temperature through panting. (See also: Dog anatomy § Temperature regulation)
Dogs do not consistently age seven times as quickly as humans. Aging in dogs varies widely depending on the breed; certain breeds, such as giant dog breeds and English bulldogs, have much shorter lifespans than average. Most dogs reach adolescence by one year old; smaller and medium-sized breeds begin to age more slowly in adulthood.
Old elephants near death do not leave their herd to go to an "elephants' graveyard" to die.
The hippopotamus does not produce pink milk, nor does it sweat blood. The skin secretions of the hippopotamus are red due to the presence of hipposudoric acid, a red pigment which acts as a natural sunscreen, and is neither sweat nor blood. It does not affect the color of their milk, which is white or beige.
Lemmings do not engage in mass suicidal dives off cliffs when migrating. The scenes of lemming suicides in the 1958 Disney documentary film White Wilderness, which popularized this idea, were completely fabricated. The lemmings in the film were actually purchased from Inuit children, transported to the filming location in Canada and repeatedly shoved off a nearby cliff by the filmmakers to create the illusion of a mass suicide. The misconception itself is much older, dating back to at least the late 19th century, though its exact origins are uncertain.
Mice do not have a special appetite for cheese, and will eat it only for lack of better options; they actually favor sweet sugary foods. The myth may have come from the fact that before the advent of refrigeration, cheese was usually stored outside and was therefore a food easy for mice to reach.
Porcupines do not shoot their quills. They can detach, and porcupines will deliberately back into attackers to impale them, but their quills do not project.
Rabbits are not especially partial to carrots. Their diet in the wild primarily consists of dark green vegetables such as grasses and clovers, and excessive carrot consumption is unhealthy for them due to containing high levels of sugar.
Tomato juice and sauce are ineffective at neutralizing the odor of a skunk. Rather, due to olfactory fatigue, a person sprayed by a skunk loses sensitivity to the smell over time. Effective treatments for skunk odor involve artificial compounds rather than household remedies.
There is no such thing as an "alpha" in a wolf pack. An early study that coined the term "alpha wolf" had observed only unrelated adult wolves living in captivity. In the wild, wolf packs operate like families: parents are in charge until the young grow up and start their own families, and younger wolves do not overthrow an "alpha" to become the new leader.
The phases of the Moon have no effect on the vocalizations of wolves, and wolves do not howl at the Moon. Wolves howl to assemble the pack usually before and after hunts, to pass on an alarm particularly at a den site, to locate each other during a storm, while crossing unfamiliar territory, and to communicate across great distances.
=== Birds ===
A human touching or handling eggs or baby birds will not cause the adult birds to abandon them. The same is generally true for other animals having their young touched by humans as well, with the possible exception of rabbits (as rabbits will sometimes abandon their nest after an event they perceive as traumatizing).
Eating rice, yeast, or Alka-Seltzer does not cause birds to explode and is rarely fatal. Birds can flatulate and regurgitate to expel gas, and some birds even include wild rice as part of their diet. The misconception has often led to weddings using millet, confetti, or other materials to shower the newlyweds as they leave the ceremony, instead of the throwing of rice that is traditional in some places.

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=== Nutrition, food, and drink ===
Diet has little influence on the body's detoxification, and there is no evidence that detoxification diets rid the body of toxins. Toxins are metabolized and removed from the bloodstream by the liver and kidneys, and they are primarily removed from the body in urine and bile (excreted with the feces).
Drinking milk or consuming other dairy products does not increase mucus production. As a result, they do not need to be avoided by those with the flu or cold congestion. However, milk and saliva in one's mouth mix to create a thick liquid that can briefly coat the mouth and throat. The sensation that lingers may be mistaken for increased phlegm.
Drinking eight glasses (2–3 liters) of water a day is not needed to maintain health. The amount of water needed varies by person, weight, diet, activity level, clothing, and the ambient temperature and humidity. Water requirements can be met from liquids such as juices, tea, milk, soups, etc., and from foods including fruits and vegetables.
Drinking coffee and other caffeinated beverages does not cause dehydration for regular drinkers, although it can for occasional drinkers.
Eating disorders do not exclusively affect women; women are merely more likely than men to suffer from eating disorders.
Neither spicy food nor coffee has a significant effect on the development of peptic ulcers.
Sugar does not cause clinical hyperactivity in children. Double-blind trials have shown no difference in behavior between children given sugar-full or sugar-free diets, even in studies specifically looking at children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder or those considered sensitive to sugar. A 2019 meta-analysis found no positive effect of sugar consumption on mood but did find an association with lower alertness and increased fatigue within an hour of consumption, known as a sugar crash. Sugar can, however, lead to a jump in blood sugar levels, causing temporary hyperactivity even if it does not cause clinical hyperactivity.
Eating nuts, popcorn, or seeds does not increase the risk of diverticulitis. These foods may actually have a protective effect.
Eating less than an hour before swimming does not significantly increase the risk of experiencing muscle cramps, and does not increase the risk of drowning. One study shows a correlation between alcohol consumption and drowning, but not between eating and stomach cramps.
Vegan and vegetarian diets can provide enough protein for adequate nutrition. In fact, typical protein intakes of ovo-lacto vegetarians meet or exceed requirements. The American Dietetic Association maintains that appropriately planned vegetarian diets are healthful. However, a vegan diet does require dietary supplements.
Swallowed chewing gum does not take seven years to digest. Chewing gum is mostly indigestible, and passes through the digestive system at the same rate as other matter.
The beta carotene in carrots does not enhance night vision beyond normal levels for people receiving an adequate amount, only in those with a deficiency of vitamin A.
Spinach is not a particularly good source of dietary iron. While it does contain more iron than many vegetables such as asparagus, Swiss chard, kale, or arugula, it contains only about one-third to one-fifth of the iron in lima beans, chickpeas, apricots, or wheat germ. Additionally, the non-heme iron found in spinach and other vegetables is not as readily absorbed as the heme iron found in meats and fish.
Most cases of obesity are not related to slower resting metabolism. Resting metabolic rate does not vary much between people. Overweight people tend to underestimate the amount of food they eat, and underweight people tend to overestimate. In fact, overweight people tend to have faster metabolic rates due to the increased energy required by the larger body.
Eating normal amounts of soy does not cause hormonal imbalance.
There is no good evidence that low-carbohydrate diets have any health benefits besides weight loss, for which they are about as effective as other diets. Weight loss is primarily a result of caloric restriction, and is not significantly influenced by the balance between fat and carbohydrate in one's diet.
==== Alcohol ====
Alcoholic beverages do not make the entire body warmer. Alcoholic drinks create the sensation of warmth because they cause blood vessels to dilate and stimulate nerve endings near the surface of the skin with an influx of warm blood. This can actually result in making the core body temperature lower, as it allows for easier heat exchange with a cold external environment.
Alcohol does not necessarily kill brain cells. Alcohol can, however, lead indirectly to the death of brain cells in two ways. First, in chronic, heavy alcohol users whose brains have adapted to the effects of alcohol, abrupt ceasing following heavy use can cause excitotoxicity leading to cellular death in multiple areas of the brain. Second, in alcoholics who get most of their daily calories from alcohol, a deficiency of thiamine can produce Korsakoff's syndrome, which is associated with serious brain damage.
The order in which different types of alcoholic beverages are consumed ("Grape or grain but never the twain" and "Beer before liquor never sicker; liquor before beer in the clear") does not affect hangover severity.
Authentic absinthe has no hallucinogenic properties, and is no more dangerous than any other alcoholic beverage of equivalent proof. This misconception stems from late-19th- and early-20th-century distillers who produced cheap knockoff versions of absinthe, which used copper salts to recreate the distinct green color of true absinthe, and some also reportedly adulterated cheap absinthe with poisonous antimony trichloride, reputed to enhance the louche effect.

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=== Sexuality and reproduction ===
Older adults are not necessarily sexually inactive nor have they lost interest in sex; although the frequency of sexual activity tends to decline with age. One survey in England of people aged 60–69 recorded 86% of men and 60% of women as sexually active.
It is not possible to get pregnant from semen released in a commercial swimming pool without penetration. The sperm cells would be quickly killed by the chlorinated water and would not survive long enough to reach the vagina.
An examination of the hymen is not an accurate or reliable indicator that a woman or girl has had penetrative sex, because the tearing of the hymen may have been the result of some other event, and some women are born without one. Virginity tests, such as the "two-finger" test, are unscientific.
Hand size and foot size do not correlate with human penis size, but finger length ratio may.
While pregnancies from sex between first cousins do carry a slightly elevated risk of birth defects, this risk is often exaggerated. The risk is 5–6% (similar to that of a woman in her early 40s giving birth), compared with a baseline risk of 3–4%. The effects of inbreeding depression, while still relatively small compared to other factors (and thus difficult to control for in a scientific experiment), become more noticeable if isolated and maintained for several generations.
Having sex before a sporting event or contest is not physiologically detrimental to performance. In fact some studies suggest that sex prior to sports activity can elevate male testosterone levels (which could potentially enhance performance for male athletes), while long periods of abstinence can reduce those levels.
The heightened sensitivity some women experience at the G-spot is not due to it being a distinct anatomical structure, but rather because pressure in that area may stimulate other internal structures, notably the Skene's gland. Many sexologists take issue with the term, concerned that women who "fail to find their G-spot" may feel abnormal.
Closeted or latent homosexuality is not correlated with internalized homophobia. A 1996 study claiming a connection in men has not been verified by subsequent studies, including a 2013 study that found no correlation.
The menstrual cycles of women who live together do not tend to synchronize. A 1971 study made this claim, but subsequent research has not supported it.
Having an abortion does not increase someone's risk of developing breast cancer. Some smaller, less reliable early studies suggested that abortion could be linked to breast cancer, but the scientific community has concluded that abortion does not cause breast cancer.
There is no evidence that English-speaking Christian missionaries encouraged converts to use the missionary position in the colonial era. This notion probably originated from Alfred Kinsey's Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (1948) through misunderstandings and misinterpretations of historical documents.
=== Skin and hair ===
Water-induced wrinkles are not caused by the skin absorbing water and swelling. They are caused by the autonomic nervous system, which triggers localized vasoconstriction in response to wet skin, yielding a wrinkled appearance.
A person's hair and fingernails do not continue to grow after death. Rather, the skin dries and shrinks away from the bases of hairs and nails, giving the appearance of growth.
Shaving does not cause terminal hair to grow back thicker or darker. This belief is thought to be due to the fact that hair that has never been cut has a tapered end, so after cutting, the base of the hair is blunt and appears thicker and feels coarser. The fact that short hairs are less flexible than longer hairs contributes to this effect.
MC1R, the gene mostly responsible for red hair, is not becoming extinct, nor will the gene for blond hair do so, although both are recessive alleles. Redheads and blonds may become rarer but will not die out unless everyone who carries those alleles dies without passing their hair color genes on to their children.
Acne is not caused by a lack of hygiene or eating fatty foods, though certain medications or a carbohydrate-rich diet may worsen it.
Dandruff is not caused by poor hygiene, though infrequent hair-washing can make it more obvious. The exact causes of dandruff are uncertain, but they are believed to be mostly genetic and environmental factors.

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== Inventions ==
James Watt did not invent the steam engine, nor were his ideas on steam engine power inspired by a kettle lid pressured open by steam. Watt improved upon the already commercially successful Newcomen atmospheric engine (invented in 1712 by Thomas Newcomen) in the 1760s and 1770s, making certain improvements critical to its future usage; his new steam engine later gained huge fame as a result.
Although the guillotine was named after the French physician Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, he neither invented nor was executed with this device. He died peacefully in his own bed in 1814. Rather, it was Guillotin's speech favoring beheadings over other forms of execution that led to the device being referred to as "La machine Guillotine" and later simply guillotine.
Thomas Crapper did not invent the flush toilet. A forerunner of the modern toilet was invented by the Elizabethan courtier Sir John Harington in the 16th century, and in 1775 the Scottish mechanic Alexander Cumming developed and patented a design for a toilet with an S-trap and flushing mechanism. Crapper, however, did much to increase the popularity of the flush toilet and introduced several innovations in the late 19th century, holding nine patents, including one for the floating ballcock.
Thomas Edison did not invent the light bulb. The team of inventors Edison employed at his laboratories in Menlo Park, New Jersey did, however, develop the first practical light bulb in 1880 (employing a carbonized bamboo filament), shortly prior to Joseph Swan, who invented an even more efficient bulb in 1881 (which used a cellulose filament).
Henry Ford did not invent either the automobile or the assembly line. He did improve the assembly line process substantially, sometimes through his own engineering but more often through sponsoring the work of his employees, and he was the main person behind the introduction of the Model T, regarded as the first affordable automobile. Karl Benz (co-founder of Mercedes-Benz) is credited with the invention of the first modern automobile, and the assembly line has existed throughout history.
Al Gore never said that he had "invented" the Internet. What Gore actually said was, "During my service in the United States Congress, I took the initiative in creating the Internet", in reference to his political work towards developing the Internet for widespread public use. Gore was the original drafter of the High Performance Computing and Communication Act of 1991, which provided significant funding for supercomputing centers, and this in turn led to upgrades of a major part of the already-existing early 1990s Internet backbone, the NSFNet, and development of NCSA Mosaic, the browser that popularized the World Wide Web. (See also: Al Gore and information technology)
Kodak did not refuse to invest in digital cameras, but was rather a pioneer in the field, and at one point was the market leader in digital camera sales in the United States.
== Mathematics ==
Hindu-Arabic numerals were not originally designed to indicate their numeric value through the number of angles they contain. There are no historical records of this, and the myth is difficult to reconcile with digits past 3 or 4.
The Greek philosopher Pythagoras was not the first to discover what is now called the Pythagorean theorem, as it was known and used by the Babylonians and Indians centuries before him. Pythagoras may have been the first to introduce it to the Greeks, but the first record of it being mathematically proven as a theorem is in Euclid's Elements which was published some 200 years after Pythagoras.
There is no evidence that the ancient Greeks deliberately designed the Parthenon to match the golden ratio. The Parthenon was completed in 438 BCE, more than a century before the first recorded mention of the ratio by Euclid. Similarly, Leonardo da Vinci's Vitruvian Man makes no mention of the golden ratio in its text, although it describes many other proportions.
The repeating decimal written as 0.999... represents exactly the same quantity as 1.
The p-value is not the probability that the null hypothesis is true, or the probability that the alternative hypothesis is false; it is the probability of obtaining results at least as extreme as the results actually observed under the assumption that the null hypothesis was correct, which can indicate the incompatibility of results with the specific statistical model assumed in the null hypothesis. This misconception, and similar ones like it, contributes to the common misuse of p-values in education and research.
If one were to flip a fair coin five times and get heads each time, it would not be any more likely for a sixth flip to come up tails. Phrased another way, after a long and/or unlikely streak of independently random events, the probability of the next event is not influenced by the preceding events. Humans often feel that the underrepresented outcome is more likely, as if it is due to happen. Such thinking may be attributed to the mistaken belief that gambling, or even chance itself, is a fair process that can correct itself in the event of streaks.
== Physics ==

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The lift force is not generated by the air taking the same time to travel above and below an aircraft's wing. This misconception, sometimes called the equal transit-time fallacy, is widespread among textbooks and non-technical reference books, and even appears in pilot training materials. In fact, the air moving over the top of an aerofoil generating lift is always moving much faster than the equal transit theory would imply, as described in the incorrect and correct explanations of lift force.
Blowing over a curved piece of paper does not demonstrate Bernoulli's principle. Although a common classroom experiment is often explained this way, Bernoulli's principle applies only within a flow field, and the air above and below the paper are in different flow fields. The paper rises because the air follows the curve of the paper and a curved streamline will develop pressure differences perpendicular to the airflow.
The Coriolis effect does not cause water to consistently drain from basins in a clockwise/counter-clockwise direction depending on the hemisphere. The common myth often refers to the draining action of flush toilets and bathtubs. In fact, rotation is determined by whatever minor rotation is initially present at the time the water starts to drain, as the magnitude of the Coriolis acceleration is negligibly small compared to the inertial acceleration of flow within a typical basin.
General relativity does not imply that mass increases as an object approaches the speed of light; it is an object's momentum, a quantity dependent upon both mass and velocity, that increases asymptotically as it approaches the speed of light. The mass-energy equivalence equation is thus more accurately expressed as E=γmc², where γ is a variable dependent upon velocity. For an object at rest, γ=1 resulting in the familiar equation E=mc².
Neither gyroscopic forces nor geometric trail are required for a rider to balance a bicycle or for it to demonstrate self-stability. Although gyroscopic forces and trail can be contributing factors, it has been demonstrated that those factors are neither required nor sufficient by themselves.
A penny dropped from the Empire State Building would not kill a person or crack the sidewalk. A penny is too light and has too much air resistance to acquire enough speed to do much damage since it reaches terminal velocity after falling about 15 metres (50 ft). Heavier or more aerodynamic objects could cause significant damage if dropped from that height.
Using a programmable thermostat's setback feature to limit heating or cooling in a temporarily unoccupied building does not waste as much energy as leaving the temperature constant. Using setback saves energy (5–15%) because heat transfer across the surface of the building is roughly proportional to the temperature difference between its inside and the outside.
It is not possible for a person to completely submerge in quicksand, as commonly depicted in fiction, although sand entrapment in the nearshore of a body of water can be a drowning hazard as the tide rises.
Quantum nonlocality caused by quantum entanglement does not allow faster-than-light communication or imply instant action at a distance, despite its common characterization as "spooky action at a distance". Rather, it means that certain experiments cannot be explained by local realism.
The slipperiness of ice is not due to pressure melting. While it is true that increased pressure, such as that exerted by someone standing on a sheet of ice, will lower the melting point of ice, experiments show that the effect is too weak to account for the lowered friction. Materials scientists still debate whether premelting or the heat of friction is the dominant cause of ice's slipperiness.
== Psychology and neuroscience ==
Cannabis use in pregnancy is not low risk. The tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) within cannabis crosses the placenta, directly exposing the developing fetus to this chemical. Cannabis use in pregnancy is linked to increased risk of preterm delivery and lower birth weight, along with a higher likelihood of infants needing placement in the neonatal intensive care unit. Additionally, infants exposed to cannabis in pregnancy may have increased rates of behavioral conditions such as hyperactivity and impulsivity, attention deficits, sleep disorders, emotional disturbances, and a higher chance of substance use. According to a 2015 study, 70% of American women that had used marijuana in the past year thought that consumption of cannabis once or twice per week carried low to no risk of general harm.
True photographic memory (the ability to remember endless images, particularly pages or numbers, with such a high degree of precision that the image mimics a photo) has never been demonstrated to exist in any individual, although a small number of young children have eidetic memory, where they can recall an object with high precision for a few minutes after it is no longer present. Many people have claimed to have a photographic memory, but those people have been shown to have high precision memories as a result of mnemonic devices rather than a natural capacity for detailed memory encoding. There are rare cases of individuals with exceptional memory, but none of them have a memory that mimics that of a camera.
The phase of the Moon does not influence fertility, cause a fluctuation in crime, or affect the stock market. There is no correlation between the lunar cycle and human biology or behavior. However, the increased amount of illumination during the full moon may account for increased epileptic episodes, motorcycle accidents, or sleep disorders.
Repressed memories (the latent, oftentimes traumatic memories of early childhood that are recalled later in life) do not exist. This idea may have been popularized by Marcel Proust's In Search of Lost Time. However, a person cannot retain memories from infancy. The localized amnesia of childhood trauma is impossible, although false memories can be induced.

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=== Mental disorders ===
Vaccines do not cause autism. There have been no successful attempts to reproduce fraudulent research by British ex-doctor Andrew Wakefield, where the misconception likely originates. Wakefield's research was ultimately shown to have been manipulated.
Dyslexia is not defined or diagnosed as mirror writing or reading letters or words backwards. Mirror writing and reading letters or words backwards are behaviors seen in many children (dyslexic or not) as they learn to read and write. Dyslexia is a neurodevelopmental disorder of people who have at least average intelligence and who have difficulty in reading and writing that is not otherwise explained by low intelligence.
Self-harm is not generally an attention-seeking behavior. People who engage in self-harm are typically very self-conscious of their wounds and scars and feel guilty about their behavior, leading them to go to great lengths to conceal it from others. They may offer alternative explanations for their injuries, or conceal their scars with clothing.
There is no evidence that a chemical imbalance or neurotransmitter deficiency is the sole factor in depression and other mental disorders, but rather a combination of biological, psychological, and social factors.
Schizophrenia does not involve split or multiple personalities. It is characterized by continuous or relapsing episodes of psychosis. Major symptoms include hallucinations (typically hearing voices), delusions, paranoia, and disorganized thinking. Other symptoms include social withdrawal, decreased emotional expression, and apathy. The term was coined from the Greek roots schizein and phrēn, "to split" and "mind", in reference to a "splitting of mental functions" seen in schizophrenia, not a splitting of the personality. A split or multiple personality is dissociative identity disorder.
=== Brain ===
Broad generalizations are often made in popular psychology about certain brain functions being lateralized, or more predominant in one hemisphere than the other. These claims are often inaccurate or overstated.
The human brain, particularly the prefrontal cortex, does not reach "full maturity" or "full development" at any particular age (e.g. 16, 18, 21, 25, 30). Changes in structure and myelination of gray matter are recorded to continue with relative consistency all throughout life including until death. Different mental abilities peak earlier or later in life. The myth is believed to have originated from Jay Giedd's work on the adolescent brain funded by the National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, though it has also been popularized by Laurence Steinberg in his work with adolescent criminal reform who has considered ages 10–25 to constitute cognitive adolescence, despite denying any connection to the notion of the brain maturing at "25".
Humans do not generate all of the brain cells they will ever have by the age of two years. Although this belief was held by medical experts until 1998, it is now understood that new neurons can be created after infancy in some parts of the brain into late adulthood.
People do not use only 10% of their brains. While it is true that a small minority of neurons in the brain are actively firing at any one time, a healthy human will normally use most of their brain over the course of a day, and the inactive neurons are important as well. The idea that activating 100% of the brain would allow someone to achieve their maximum potential and/or gain various psychic abilities is common in folklore and fiction, but doing so in real life would likely result in a fatal seizure. This misconception was attributed to late 19th century leading thinker William James, who apparently used the expression only metaphorically.
Although Phineas Gage's brain injuries, caused by a several-foot-long tamping rod driven completely through his skull, caused him to become temporarily disabled, many fanciful descriptions of his aberrant behavior in later life are without factual basis or contradicted by known facts.
=== Senses ===
Humans have more than the commonly cited five senses. The number of senses in various categorizations ranges from 5 to more than 20. In addition to sight, smell, taste, touch, and hearing, which were the senses identified by Aristotle, humans can sense balance and acceleration (equilibrioception), pain (nociception), body and limb position (proprioception or kinesthetic sense), and relative temperature (thermoception). Other senses sometimes identified are the sense of time, echolocation, itching, pressure, hunger, thirst, fullness of the stomach, need to urinate, need to defecate, blood carbon dioxide (CO2) levels, and electric field sensation.
All different tastes can be detected on all parts of the tongue by taste buds, with slightly increased sensitivities in different locations depending on the person; the tongue map showing the contrary is fallacious.
There are not four primary tastes, but five: in addition to bitter, sour, salty, and sweet, humans have taste receptors for umami, which is a "savory" or "meaty" taste. Fat does interact with specific receptors in taste bud cells, but whether it is a sixth primary taste remains inconclusive.
The human sense of smell is not weak or underdeveloped. Humans have similar senses of smell to other mammals, and are more sensitive to some odors than rodents and dogs.

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== Toxicology ==
Smokeless tobacco is not a "safe" alternative to conventional tobacco; smokeless tobacco products contain nicotine and are therefore highly addictive. They also can cause various harmful effects such as dental disease, oral cancer, oesophagus cancer, and pancreas cancer, coronary heart disease, as well as negative reproductive effects including stillbirth, premature birth and low birth weight.
Swallowing gasoline does not generally require special emergency treatment, as long as it goes into the stomach and not the lungs. This does not mean gasoline is safe to drink; it is very dangerous when consumed. Inducing vomiting can make it worse.
A chloroform-soaked rag cannot instantly incapacitate a person. It takes at least five minutes of inhaling an item soaked in chloroform to render a person unconscious. Most criminal cases involving chloroform also involve another drug being co-administered, such as alcohol or diazepam, or the victim being found to have been complicit in its administration. The misconception that chloroform can be used as an incapacitating agent has been popularized by crime fiction authors.
Although bananas contain naturally occurring radioactive isotopes, particularly potassium-40 (40K), which emit ionizing radiation when undergoing radioactive decay, the levels of such radiation are far too low to induce radiation poisoning, and bananas are not a radiation hazard. It would not be physically possible to eat enough bananas to cause radiation poisoning, as the radiation dose from bananas is non-cumulative. (See also: Banana equivalent dose)
Ingesting Visine, a brand of eye drops, does not cause diarrhea. It is neurotoxic, with consumption causing several serious side-effects. Pranks spiking people with Visine rose after the misconception was popularized by the film Wedding Crashers.
== Transportation ==
The Bermuda Triangle does not have any more shipwrecks or mysterious disappearances than most other waterways.
Toilet waste is never intentionally jettisoned from a commercial aircraft. All waste is collected in tanks and emptied into toilet waste vehicles. Blue ice is caused by accidental leakage from the waste tank. Passenger train toilets, on the other hand, have indeed historically flushed onto the tracks; modern trains in most developed countries usually have retention tanks on board and therefore do not dispose of waste in such a manner.
Automotive batteries stored on a concrete floor do not discharge any faster than they would on other surfaces, in spite of a worry that concrete harms batteries. Early batteries with porous, leaky cases may have been susceptible to moisture from floors, but for many years lead–acid car batteries have had impermeable polypropylene cases. While most modern automotive batteries are sealed, and do not leak battery acid when properly stored and maintained, the sulfuric acid in them can leak out and stain, etch, or corrode concrete floors if their cases crack or tip over or their vent-holes are breached by floods.
== References ==
== Sources ==
Kahn, Charles H. (2001). Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History. Indianapolis, Indiana and Cambridge, England: Hackett Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-87220-575-8. OCLC 46394974 – via Internet Archive.
Varasdi, J. Allen (1996). Myth Information. New York: Ballantine Books. ISBN 0-345-41049-1.

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The bold, powerful cry commonly associated with the bald eagle in popular culture is actually that of a red-tailed hawk. Bald eagle vocalizations are much softer and chirpier, and bear far more resemblance to the calls of gulls.
Despite the saying "dumb as a dodo", the dodo's intelligence was above average for an avian, as it was a member of the family Columbidae (pigeons). The perceived stupidity of the dodo, a medium-sized flightless bird that was native to Mauritius, is due to naivety and passivity from living in isolation without significant predators.
Many believe that the dodo was hunted to extinction by European settlers due to its high culinary value. However, the dodo's meat was stated to be inedible by historical accounts, as one of its early names given by the Dutch was Walghvoghel (repulsive bird). The dodo's decline was caused more by predation of their eggs from invasive species as opposed to direct predation from humans.
A duck's quack actually does echo, although the echo may be difficult to hear for humans under some circumstances. Despite this, a British panel show compiling interesting facts was named Duck Quacks Don't Echo.
Ostriches do not stick their heads in the sand to hide from enemies or to sleep. This misconception's origins are uncertain but it was probably popularized by Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE), who wrote that ostriches "imagine, when they have thrust their head and neck into a bush, that the whole of their body is concealed".
Sixty common starlings were released in 1890 into New York's Central Park by Eugene Schieffelin, but there is no evidence that he was trying to introduce every bird species mentioned in the works of William Shakespeare into North America. This claim has been traced to an essay in 1948 by naturalist Edwin Way Teale, whose notes appear to indicate that it was speculation.
=== Other vertebrates ===
The skin of a chameleon is not adapted solely for camouflage purposes, nor can a chameleon change its skin color to match any background. Chameleons usually change color for social signaling, based on their mood, and for heat regulation. The use in social signaling may be to display bright colors for only brief periods of time to avoid increased visibility to predators.
Contrary to the allegorical story about the boiling frog, frogs die immediately when cast into boiling water, rather than leaping out; furthermore, frogs will attempt to escape cold water that is slowly heated before reaching their critical thermal maximum.
The Pacific tree frog and the Baja California chorus frog are some of the only frog species that make a "ribbit" sound. The misconception that all frogs, or at least all those found in North America, make this sound comes from its extensive use in Hollywood films.
The memory span of goldfish is much longer than just a few seconds. It is up to a few months long.
There is no credible evidence that the candiru, a South American parasitic catfish, can swim up a human urethra if one urinates in the water in which it lives. The sole documented case of such an incident, written in 1997, has been heavily criticized upon peer review, and this phenomenon is now largely considered a myth.
Pacus, South American fish related to piranhas, do not attack or feed on human testicles. This myth originated from a misinterpreted joke in a 2013 report of a pacu being found in Øresund, the strait between Sweden and Denmark, which claimed that the fish ate "nuts".
Piranhas do not eat only meat but are omnivorous, and they swim in schools only to defend themselves from predators and not to attack. They very rarely attack humans, only when under stress and feeling threatened, and even then, bites typically only occur on hands and feet.
Sharks can get cancer. The misconception that sharks do not get cancer was spread by the 1992 book Sharks Don't Get Cancer, which was used to sell extracts of shark cartilage as cancer prevention treatments. Reports of carcinomas in sharks exist, and current data does not support any conclusions about the incidence of tumors in sharks.
Great white sharks do not mistake human divers for seals or other pinnipeds. When attacking pinnipeds, the shark surfaces quickly and attacks violently. In contrast, attacks on humans are slower and less violent: the shark charges at a normal pace, bites, and swims off. Great white sharks have efficient eyesight and color vision; the bite is not predatory, but rather for identification of an unfamiliar object.
Snake jaws cannot unhinge. The posterior end of the lower jaw bones contains a quadrate bone, allowing jaw extension. The anterior tips of the lower jaw bones are joined by a flexible ligament allowing them to bow outwards, increasing the mouth gape.
=== Invertebrates ===

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It is not true that aerodynamic theory predicts that bumblebees should not be able to fly; the physics of insect flight is quite well understood. The misconception appears to come from a calculation based on a fixed-wing aircraft mentioned in a 1934 book, and was further popularized in the 2007 film Bee Movie.
While certainly critical to the pollination of many plant species, European honey bees are not essential to human food production, despite claims that without their pollination, humanity would starve or die out "within four years". In fact, the most essential staple food crops on the planet, like wheat, maize, rice, soybeans and sorghum, are wind-pollinated or self-pollinating, and only slightly over 10% of the total human diet of plant crops is dependent upon insect pollination.
Bees do not always die if they use their sting. This happens for only a very small minority of species, which includes the honey bee, when they sting mammals, as they have thick skin. They are able to survive when they sting other insects.
Cockroaches would not be the only organisms capable of surviving in an environment contaminated with nuclear fallout. While cockroaches have a much higher radiation resistance than vertebrates, they are not immune to radiation poisoning, nor are they exceptionally radiation-resistant compared to other insects.
Not all earthworms become two worms when cut in half. Only a limited number of earthworm species are capable of anterior regeneration.
Earwigs are not known to purposely climb into external ear canals, though there have been anecdotal reports of earwigs being found in the ear. The name may be a reference to the appearance of their hindwings, which are unique and distinctive among insects, and resemble a human ear when unfolded.
Houseflies have an average lifespan of 20 to 30 days, not 24 hours. However, females of one species of mayfly, which do not belong to the group of true flies, have an adult lifespan of as little as 5 minutes.
Applying urine to jellyfish stings does not relieve pain and may make the pain worse. The best immediate treatment for jellyfish stings is to rinse them in salt water. For some kinds of jellyfish stings, adding vinegar helps.
Female praying mantises do not always eat the males during mating.
The daddy longlegs spider (Pholcidae) is not the most venomous spider in the world. Their fangs are capable of piercing human skin, but the tiny amount of venom they carry causes only a mild burning sensation for a few seconds. Other species such as harvestmen and crane flies are also called daddy longlegs, and share the misconception of being highly venomous but unable to pierce the skin of humans.
People do not swallow large numbers of spiders during sleep. A sleeping person makes noises that warn spiders of danger. Most people also wake up from sleep when they have a spider on their face.
Though they are often called "white ants", termites are not ants, nor are they closely related to ants. Termites are actually highly derived cockroaches.
Ticks do not jump or fall from trees onto their hosts. Instead, they lie in wait to grasp and climb onto any passing host or otherwise trace down hosts via, for example, olfactory stimuli, the host's body heat, or carbon dioxide in the host's breath.
=== Plants ===
Carnivorous plants can survive without eating prey. Catching insects, however, supports their growth.
Mushrooms, molds, and other fungi are not plants, despite similarities in their morphology and lifestyle. The historical classification of fungi as plants is defunct, and although they are still commonly included in botany curricula and textbooks, modern molecular evidence shows that fungi are more closely related to animals than to plants.
Poinsettias are not highly toxic to humans or cats. While it is true that they are mildly irritating to the skin or stomach, and may sometimes cause diarrhea and vomiting if eaten, they rarely cause serious medical problems.
Sunflowers do not always point to the Sun. Flowering sunflowers face a fixed direction (often east) all day long, but do not necessarily face the Sun. However, in an earlier developmental stage, before the appearance of flower heads, the immature buds do track the Sun (a phenomenon called heliotropism).
=== Evolution and paleontology ===

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The word theory in "the theory of evolution" does not imply scientific doubt regarding its validity; the concepts of theory and hypothesis have specific meanings in a scientific context. While theory in colloquial usage may denote a hunch or conjecture, a scientific theory is a set of principles that explains an observable phenomenon in natural terms. Scientific facts and theories are not mutually exclusive, and evolution is a theory in the same sense as germ theory or the theory of gravitation.
The theory of evolution does not attempt to explain the origin of life or the origin and development of the universe. The theory of evolution deals primarily with changes in successive generations over time after life has already originated. The scientific model concerned with the origin of the first organisms from organic or inorganic molecules is known as abiogenesis, and the prevailing theory for explaining the early development of the universe is the Big Bang model.
Evolution is not a progression from inferior to superior organisms, and it also does not necessarily result in an increase in complexity. Evolution through natural selection only causes successive generations of a population of organisms to become more fit for their environment than previous generations. A population can evolve to become simpler or to have a smaller genome, and atavistic ancestral genetic traits can reappear after having been lost through evolutionary change in previous generations. Biological devolution or de-evolution is a misnomer, not only because it implies that organisms can only evolve backward or forward, but also because it implies that evolution may cause organisms to evolve in the "wrong" direction.
The phrase "survival of the fittest" refers to biological fitness, not physical fitness. Biological fitness is the quantitative measure of individual reproductive success, e.g. the tendency of lineages containing individuals that produce more offspring in a particular environment to persist and thrive in that environment. Further, while the related concepts of "survival of the fittest" and "natural selection" are often used interchangeably, they are not the same: natural selection is not the only form of selection that determines biological fitness (see sexual selection, fecundity selection, viability selection, and artificial selection).
Evolution does not "plan" to improve an organism's fitness to survive. This misconception is encouraged as it is common shorthand for biologists to speak of a purpose as a concise form of expression (sometimes called the "metaphor of purpose"); it is less cumbersome to say "Dinosaurs may have evolved feathers for courtship" than "Feathers may have been selected for when they arose as they gave dinosaurs a selective advantage during courtship over their non-feathered rivals". However, this can result in many students explaining evolution as an intentional and purposeful process.
Mutations are not all equally likely, nor do they occur at the same frequency everywhere in the genome. Certain regions of an organism's genome will be more or less likely to undergo mutation depending on the presence of DNA repair mechanisms and other mutation biases. For instance, in a study on Arabidopsis thaliana, biologically important regions of the plant's genome were found to be protected from mutations, and beneficial mutations were found to be more likely, i.e. mutation was "biased in a way that benefits the plant".
Although the word dinosaur can be used pejoratively to describe something that is becoming obsolete due to failing to adapt to changing conditions, non-avian dinosaurs did not become extinct due to being generally maladapted or unable to cope with normal climatic change, a view found in many older textbooks. Moreover, not all dinosaurs are extinct (see below).
Birds are theropod dinosaurs, and consequently dinosaurs are not extinct. The word dinosaur is commonly used to refer only to non-avian dinosaurs, reflecting an outdated conception of the ancestry of avian dinosaurs, the birds. The evolutionary origin of birds was an open question in paleontology for over a century, but the modern scientific consensus is that birds evolved from small feathered theropods in the Jurassic. Not all dinosaur lineages were cut short at the end of the Cretaceous during the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, and over 11,000 species of avian theropods survive as part of the modern fauna.
Despite their cultural depictions as "swimming dinosaurs", mosasaurs, ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs, and other aquatic Mesozoic diapsids were not dinosaurs. Mosasaurs were actually lizards, and ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs were even more distantly related to dinosaurs. Though some dinosaurs were or are semiaquatic (Hesperornis, Spinosaurus, auks, penguins), none are known to have been fully marine.
Pterosaurs (informally called pterodactyls) are often called "flying dinosaurs" by popular media and the general public, but while pterosaurs were closely related to dinosaurs, dinosaurs are defined as the descendants of the last common ancestor of the Saurischia and the Ornithischia, which excludes the pterosaurs.
Dimetrodon is often mistakenly called a dinosaur or considered to be a contemporary of dinosaurs in popular culture, but it became extinct some 40 million years before the first appearance of dinosaurs. Being a synapsid, Dimetrodon is actually more closely related to mammals than to dinosaurs, lizards, or other diapsids.
Humans and non-avian dinosaurs did not coexist at any point, although humans and avian dinosaurs currently coexist. The last of the non-avian dinosaurs died 66 million years ago while the earliest members of the genus Homo (humans) evolved between 2.3 and 2.4 million years ago.
Fossil fuels do not originate from dinosaur fossils. Petroleum is formed when algae and zooplankton die and sink in anoxic conditions to be buried on the ocean floor without being decomposed by aerobic bacteria, and only a tiny amount of the world's deposits of coal contain dinosaur fossils; the vast majority of coal is fossilized plant matter.
Mammals did not evolve from any modern group of reptiles; rather, mammals descend from a Reptiliomorph, "reptile-like," ancestor. After the first fully terrestrial tetrapods evolved, one of their lineages split into the synapsids (the line leading to mammals) and the diapsids (the line leading to reptiles, including birds). The synapsids and the diapsids diverged about 320 million years ago, in the mid-Carboniferous period. The mammals themselves are the only survivors of the synapsid line.
Humans and other apes are Old World monkeys. There is a concerted social and religious effort to deny evidence which connects humans to their ancestors and fellow extant simians, but there is no way to naturally define the monkeys while excluding humans and other apes.
Humans did not evolve from either of the living species of chimpanzees or any other living species of apes. Humans and chimpanzees did, however, evolve from a common ancestor. This most recent common ancestor of living humans and chimpanzees would have lived between 5 and 8 million years ago.
Humans are animals, despite the fact that the word animal is colloquially used as an antonym for human.
Ecosystems do not naturally move back towards an equilibrium using negative feedback. The concept of an inherent "balance of nature" has been superseded by chaos theory.

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== Chemistry and materials science ==
Himalayan salt does not have lower levels of sodium than conventional table salt.
Glass does not flow at room temperature as a high-viscosity liquid. Although glass shares some molecular properties with liquids, it is a solid at room temperature and begins to flow only at hundreds of degrees above room temperature. Old glass which is thicker at the bottom than at the top comes from the production process, not from slow flow; no such distortion is observed in other glass objects of similar or even greater age.
Diamonds are not formed from highly compressed coal. Almost all commercially mined diamonds were formed in the conditions of extreme heat and pressure about 150 kilometers (93 mi) below the earth's surface. Coal is formed from prehistoric plants buried much closer to the surface, and is unlikely to migrate below 3.2 kilometers (2.0 mi) through geological processes. Most diamonds that have been dated are older than the first land plants, and are therefore older than coal.
Neither "tin" foil nor "tin" cans still use tin as a primary material. Aluminum foil has replaced tin foil in almost all uses since the 20th century; tin cans now primarily use steel or aluminum as their main metal.
There is no special compound added to the water in swimming pools that will reveal the presence of urine and catch those who urinate in the pool.
Although the core of a wooden pencil is commonly referred to as "lead", wooden pencils do not contain the chemical element lead, nor have they ever contained it; "black lead" was formerly a name of graphite, which is commonly used for pencil leads.
== Computing and the Internet ==
The macOS and Linux operating systems are not immune to malware such as trojan horses or computer viruses. Specialized malware designed to attack those systems does exist (see Linux malware). However, the vast majority of viruses are developed for Microsoft Windows due to its larger market share.
The deep web is not primarily full of pornography, illegal drug trade websites, and stolen bank details. This information is primarily found in a small portion of the deep web known as the "dark web". Much of the deep web consists of academic libraries, databases, and anything that is not indexed by normal search engines, including most private email accounts and direct messages.
Private browsing (such as Chrome's "Incognito Mode") does not protect users from being tracked by websites, governments, or one's internet service provider (ISP), nor does it hide one's information when using devices or networks owned or maintained by one's employer, school, or other entity, such as a coffee shop. Such entities can still use information such as IP addresses and user accounts to uniquely identify users. Private browsing also does not provide additional protection against viruses or malware. It is usually only a feature to not record browsing and searching history on the browser.
Submerging a phone in rice after it has suffered from water damage has not been shown to be effective in repairing it. Even if submerging them in a desiccant were more effective than leaving them to dry in open air, common desiccants such as silica gel or cat litter are better than rice.
Mobile phones do not create considerable electromagnetic interference when used in hospitals.
The Apple logo was not inspired by Alan Turing or his death by cyanide-laced apple. Although Turing was found dead with a half-eaten apple near his bed in 1954 and was a key figure in computing history, Apple's logo designer Rob Janoff has repeatedly denied any connection.
== Earth and environmental sciences ==

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Contemporary global warming is driven by human activities, despite claims that it is not occurring, lacks strong scientific consensus, or that warming is mostly caused by non-human factors. No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with the decades-old, near-complete scientific consensus on climate change. Global warming is primarily a result of the increase in atmospheric greenhouse-gas concentrations (like CO2 and methane) via the burning of fossil fuels as well as other human activities such as deforestation, with secondary climate change feedback mechanisms (such as the melting of the polar ice increasing the Earth's absorption of sunlight) assisting to perpetuate the change.
Global warming is not caused by the hole in the ozone layer. Ozone depletion is a separate problem caused by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which have been released into the atmosphere. CFCs are strong greenhouse gases; however, the hole in the ozone layer is shrinking and in 2019 was the smallest it had been since 1982, while global warming continues.
Cooling towers in power stations and other facilities do not emit smoke, harmful fumes, or radiation; they emit water vapor and do not contribute to climate change.
Nuclear power is one of the safest sources of energy, resulting in orders of magnitude fewer deaths than conventional power sources per unit of energy produced. Extremely few people are killed or injured due to nuclear power on a yearly basis. (See also: Radiophobia)
Earthquake strength (or magnitude) is not commonly measured using the Richter scale. Although the Richter scale was used historically to measure earthquake magnitude (not earthquake damage), it was found in the 1970s that it does not reliably represent the magnitude of large earthquakes. It has therefore been largely replaced by the moment magnitude scale, although very small earthquakes are still sometimes measured using the Richter scale. Nevertheless, earthquake magnitude is still widely misattributed to the Richter scale.
Lightning can, and often does, strike the same place twice. Lightning in a thunderstorm is more likely to strike objects and spots that are more prominent or conductive. For instance, lightning strikes the Empire State Building in New York City on average 23 times per year.
Heat lightning does not exist as a distinct phenomenon. What is mistaken for "heat lightning" is usually ordinary lightning from storms too distant to hear the associated thunder.
The Yellowstone Caldera is not overdue for a supervolcano eruption. There is also no evidence that it will erupt in the near future. In fact, data indicates there will not be an eruption in the coming centuries. The most likely eruption would be hydrothermal rather than volcanic. A caldera-forming volcanic eruption (and subsequent impacts on global weather patterns and agricultural production) is the least likely scenario and has an extremely low likelihood.
The Earth's interior is not molten rock. This misconception may originate from a misunderstanding based on the fact that the Earth's mantle convects, and the incorrect assumption that only liquids and gases can convect. In fact, a solid with a large Rayleigh number can also convect, given enough time, which is what occurs in the solid mantle due to the very large thermal gradient across it. There are small pockets of molten rock in the upper mantle, but these make up a tiny fraction of the mantle's volume. The Earth's outer core is liquid, but it is liquid metal, not rock.
The Amazon rainforest does not provide 20% of Earth's oxygen. This is a misinterpretation of a 2010 study which found that approximately 34% of photosynthesis by terrestrial plants occurs in tropical rainforests (so the Amazon rainforest would account for approximately half of this). Due to respiration by the resident organisms, all ecosystems (including the Amazon rainforest) have a net output of oxygen of approximately zero. The oxygen currently present in the atmosphere was accumulated over billions of years.
Bird deaths due to wind turbines are extremely rare compared to those caused by cats, windows, vehicles, poison, and overhead power lines.
The white streaks seen in the sky after airplanes pass overhead are contrails consisting of condensed water vapor and engine exhaust. They are not chemtrails, nor are they part of a program to control the weather or some other nefarious purpose.
== Economics ==

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The total number of people living in extreme absolute poverty globally decreased by two-thirds from 1990 to 2025 (measured using the international poverty line), with other poverty measurements showing similar trends. However, most people surveyed in several countries incorrectly think it has increased or stayed the same.
Although the human population of Earth is increasing, the rate of human population growth is decreasing and the world population is expected to peak and then begin falling during the 21st century. Improvements in agricultural productivity and technology are expected to be able to meet anticipated increased demand for resources, making a global human overpopulation scenario unlikely.
For any given production set, there is not a set amount of labor input (a "lump of labor") to produce that output. This fallacy is commonly seen in Luddite and later, related movements as an argument either that automation causes permanent, structural unemployment, or that labor-limiting regulation can decrease unemployment. In fact, changes in capital allocation, efficiency, and economies of learning can change the amount of labor input for a given set of production.
Income is not a direct factor in determining credit score in the United States. Rather, credit score is affected by the amount of unused available credit, which is in turn affected by income. Income is also considered when evaluating creditworthiness more generally.
The US public vastly overestimates the amount spent on foreign aid.
In the US, an increase in gross income will never reduce a taxpayer's post-tax earnings (net income) by putting them in a higher tax bracket. Tax brackets specify marginal tax rates: only income earned in the higher tax bracket is taxed at the higher rate. An increase in gross income can reduce net income in a welfare cliff, however, when benefits are withdrawn when passing a certain income threshold. Prevalence of the misconception varies by political party affiliation.
Constructing new housing decreases the cost of rent and the price of homes in both the immediate neighborhood and in the city as a whole. In real estate economics, "supply skepticism" leads many Americans to misunderstand the effect of increasing the supply of housing on housing costs. The misconception is unique to the housing market.
Businesses do not get a tax benefit by collecting charitable donations from their customers. Corporation taxes are based on profit; the customer's donation would not change the amount of profit and therefore the tax payable. A business would need to donate its own money to receive a tax break.
Import tariffs are taxes paid to the government by importers, not by exporting countries or manufacturers as is claimed by some, including Donald Trump. There is a near-unanimous consensus among economists that tariffs have a net-negative effect on economic growth and welfare, and harm consumers through higher prices by more than they benefit domestic producers and governments.
== Geography ==
The Cape of Good Hope is not the southern tip of Africa; that distinction belongs to Cape Agulhas, located about 150 kilometres (90 mi) to the east-southeast.
The majority of the Sahara consists of rocks, rather than sand.
Rivers do not predominantly flow from north to south. Rivers flow downhill in all compass directions, often changing direction along their course. Many major rivers flow northward, including the Nile, the Yenisey, the Ob, the Rhine, the Lena, and the Orinoco.
== Human body and health ==

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It is not just heavy metals which can be toxic; other metals (for example beryllium and lithium) can be toxic too.
Sleeping in a closed room with an electric fan running does not result in "fan death", as is widely believed in South Korea among older people. As of 2019, this belief was in decline.
Nocturia (waking up at night to urinate) is equally prevalent in women and men, although it is more common among both men and women over 50.
Waking up a sleepwalker does not harm them. Sleepwalkers may be confused or disoriented for a short time after awakening, but the health risks associated with sleepwalking are from injury or insomnia, not from being awakened.
Seizures cannot cause a person to swallow their own tongue, and it is dangerous to attempt to place a foreign object into a convulsing person's mouth. Instead it is recommended to gently lay a convulsing person on their side to minimize the risk of asphyxiation.
Drowning is often inconspicuous to onlookers. In most cases, the instinctive drowning response prevents the victim from waving or yelling (known as "aquatic distress"), which are therefore not dependable signs of trouble; indeed, most drowning victims undergoing the response do not show prior evidence of distress.
Herbal medicines are not necessarily safe and side-effect free; such medicines can have adverse effects.
Human blood in veins is not actually blue. Blood is red due to the presence of hemoglobin; deoxygenated blood (in veins) has a deep red color, and oxygenated blood (in arteries) has a light cherry-red color. Veins below the skin can appear blue or green due to subsurface scattering of light through the skin, and aspects of human color perception. Many medical diagrams also use blue to show veins, and red to show arteries, which contributes to this misconception.
Exposure to a vacuum, or experiencing all but the most extreme uncontrolled decompression, does not cause the body to explode or internal fluids to boil (although the fluids in the mouth and lungs will indeed boil at altitudes above the Armstrong limit); rather, it will lead to a loss of consciousness once the body has depleted the supply of oxygen in the blood, followed by death from hypoxia within minutes.
Exercise-induced delayed onset muscle soreness is not caused by lactic acid build-up. Muscular lactic acid levels return to normal levels within an hour after exercise; delayed onset muscle soreness is thought to be due to microtrauma from unaccustomed or strenuous exercise.
Stretching before or after exercise does not reduce delayed onset muscle soreness.
Urine is not sterile, not even in the bladder. This misconception may derive from urine bacterial screening tests, which return "negative" when bacteria levels are low, but nonzero.
Sudden immersion into freezing water does not typically cause death by hypothermia, but rather from the cold shock response, which can cause cardiac arrest, heart attack, or hyperventilation leading to drowning.
Cremated remains are not ashes in the usual sense. After the incineration is completed, the dry bone fragments are swept out of the retort and pulverized by a machine called a cremulator (essentially a high-capacity, high-speed blender) to process them into "ashes" or "cremated remains".
The lung's alveoli are not tiny balloons that expand and contract under positive pressure following the Young–Laplace equation, as is taught in some physiology and medical textbooks. The tissue structure is more like a sponge with polygonal spaces that unfold and fold under negative pressure from the chest wall.
Half of body heat is not lost through the head, and covering the head is no more effective at preventing heat loss than covering any other portion of the body. Heat is lost from the body in proportion to the amount of exposed skin. The head accounts for around 7–9% of the body's surface, and studies have shown that having one's head submerged in cold water causes a person to lose only 10% more heat overall.
Adrenochrome is not harvested from living people and has no use as a recreational drug. Hunter S. Thompson conceived a fictional drug of the same name in his book Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, apparently as a metaphor and unaware that a real substance by that name existed; it is Thompson's fictional adrenochrome, and not the real chemical compound, that is the source of numerous conspiracy theories revolving around human trafficking to harvest the fictional drug.
Men and women have the same number of ribs: 24, or 12 pairs. The erroneous idea that women have one more rib than men may stem from the biblical creation story of Adam and Eve.
The use of cotton swabs (a.k.a. cotton buds or Q-Tips) in the ear canal has no associated medical benefits and poses definite medical risks.
The idea that a precise number of stages of grief exists is not supported in peer-reviewed research or objective clinical observation, let alone the five stages of grief model.
37 °C (98.6 °F) is not the normal or average temperature of the human body. That figure comes from an 1860 study, but modern research shows that the average internal temperature is 36.4 °C (97.5 °F), with small fluctuations.
The cells in the human body are not outnumbered 10 to 1 by microorganisms. The 10 to 1 ratio was an estimate made in 1972; current estimates put the ratio at either 3 to 1 or 1.3 to 1.
The total length of capillaries in the human body is not 100,000 km. That figure comes from a 1929 book by August Krogh, who used an unrealistically large model person and an inaccurately high density of capillaries. The true number is believed to be between 9,000 and 19,000 km.
Wood smoke, for example from wood-burning stoves, is not a benign form of pollution because it is "natural", but is as harmful as other common forms of air pollution such as diesel fumes.
=== Disease and preventive healthcare ===

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It is not true that more people have died from the COVID-19 vaccine than from COVID-19 itself. Severe adverse reactions from the vaccine are rare, and an "exceedingly small" number of deaths have been caused by the vaccine. Meanwhile, the death toll from the disease itself is in the millions.
Tuberculosis is not purely a disease of the lungs that has symptoms of coughing. It may instead infect a wide range of other organs in the body.
Cancer cannot be treated by restricting food intake and so supposedly "starving" tumors. Rather, the health of people with cancer is best served by maintaining a healthy diet.
The common cold and the common flu are caused by viruses, not exposure to cold temperatures. However, low temperatures may somewhat weaken the immune system, and someone already infected with a cold or influenza virus but showing no symptoms can become symptomatic after they are exposed to low temperatures. Viruses are more likely to spread during the winter for a variety of reasons such as dry air, less air circulation in homes, people spending more time indoors, and lower vitamin D levels in humans.
Antibiotics will not cure a cold; they treat bacterial diseases and are ineffectual against viruses. However, they are sometimes prescribed to prevent or treat secondary infections.
There is little to no evidence that any illnesses are curable through essential oils or aromatherapy, and fish oil has not been shown to cure dementia.
In those with the common cold, the color of the sputum or nasal secretion may vary from colorless to yellow to green and does not indicate the class of agent causing the infection. The color of the sputum is determined by immune cells fighting an infection in the nasal area.
Vitamin C does not prevent or treat the common cold, although it may have a protective effect during intense cold-weather exercise. If taken daily, it may slightly reduce the duration and severity of colds, but it has no effect if taken after the cold starts.
Supplements of the plant echinacea do not prevent or reduce the severity of colds as widely believed. A 2014 review of 24 different randomized controlled trials found echinacea supplements do not prevent colds, with most showing no benefit over placebo.
Humans cannot catch warts from toads or other animals; the bumps on a toad are not warts. Warts on human skin are caused by human papillomavirus, which is known to affect only humans.
Cracking one's knuckles does not cause osteoarthritis.
In people with eczema, bathing does not dry the skin as long as a moisturizer is applied soon after. If moisturizer is not applied after bathing, then the evaporation of water from the skin can result in dryness.
There have never been any programs in the US that provide access to dialysis machines in exchange for pull tabs on beverage cans. This rumor has existed since at least the 1970s, and usually cites the National Kidney Foundation as the organization offering the program. The Foundation itself has denied the rumor, noting that dialysis machines are primarily funded by Medicare.
Rhinoceros horn in powdered form is not used as an aphrodisiac in traditional Chinese medicine as Cornu Rhinoceri Asiatici (犀角, xījiǎo, "rhinoceros horn"). It is prescribed for fevers and convulsions, a treatment not supported by evidence-based medicine.
Leprosy is not auto-degenerative as commonly supposed, meaning that it will not (on its own) cause body parts to be damaged or fall off. Leprosy causes rashes to form and may degrade cartilage and, if untreated, inflame tissue. In addition, leprosy is only mildly contagious, partly because 95% of those infected with the mycobacteria that cause leprosy do not develop the disease. Tzaraath, a Biblical disease that disfigures the skin, is often identified as leprosy, and may be the source of many myths about the disease.
Rust itself does not cause tetanus infection. The bacterium that causes tetanus thrives in low oxygen environments, including rust where the oxygen has combined with iron, so many people associate rust with tetanus. However, any puncture wound can introduce spores that cause a tetanus infection, not just rusty nails.
Quarantine has never been a standard procedure for those with severe combined immunodeficiency, despite the condition's popular nickname ("bubble boy syndrome") and its portrayal in films. A bone marrow transplant in the earliest months of life is the standard course of treatment. The exceptional case of David Vetter, who lived much of his life encased in a sterile environment because he would not receive a transplant until age 12, was an inspiration for the "bubble boy" trope.
Post-exposure prophylaxis for rabies does not require a painful series of injections into the abdomen with a long needle. Prior to the 1980s, the rabies vaccine did indeed require injection into the abdomen, but modern rabies vaccines are given as intramuscular injections into the deltoid muscle of the upper arm.
Statements in medication package inserts listing the frequency of side effects describe how often the effect occurs after taking a drug, but are not making any assertion that there is a causal connection between taking the drug and the occurrence of the side effect. In other words, what is being reported on is correlation, not necessarily causation.
There is no peer-reviewed scientific evidence that crystal healing has any effect beyond acting as a placebo.
There is a scientific consensus that currently available food derived from genetically modified crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food.
Reading in dim light causes eye strain rather than permanent damage to the eye.
Color blindness cannot be significantly alleviated by glasses or lenses. While there are lenses marketed towards the colorblind, their efficacy is doubted by professionals, and they do not enable wearers to see new colors.
A fever from infection does not cause brain damage by itself. The myth has been linked to the association between fevers and typically non-serious febrile seizures.
Tourette's syndrome is not predominantly characterised by the compulsive or frequent use of profanity or taboo words and phrases (coprolalia), as it is commonly misunderstood to be. Only approximately 10% of people with Tourette's exhibit coprolalia at all, and most Tourette's tics (which can be physical or verbal) often go unnoticed by casual observers.
The Hippocratic Oath does not begin, "First do no harm" (Primum non nocere), nor is the word "First" present in the original text. Physicians taking the Hippocratic Oath vow, however, to "abstain from all intentional wrong-doing and harm".

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This is a list of physical and mathematical constants named after people.
Eponymous constants and their influence on scientific citations have been discussed in the literature.
Apéry's constant – Roger Apéry
Archimedes' constant (π, pi) – Archimedes
Avogadro constant – Amedeo Avogadro
Balmer's constant – Johann Jakob Balmer
Belphegor's prime – Belphegor (demon)
Bohr magneton – Niels Bohr
Bohr radius – Niels Bohr
Boltzmann constant – Ludwig Boltzmann
Brun's constant – Viggo Brun
Cabibbo angle – Nicola Cabibbo
Chaitin's constant – Gregory Chaitin
Champernowne constant – D. G. Champernowne
Chandrasekhar limit – Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar
Copeland–Erdős constant – Paul Erdős and Peter Borwein
Eddington number – Arthur Stanley Eddington
Dunbar's number – Robin Dunbar
Embree–Trefethen constant
Erdős–Borwein constant
Euler–Mascheroni constant (
γ
{\displaystyle \gamma }
) – Leonhard Euler and Lorenzo Mascheroni
Euler's number (
e
{\displaystyle e}
) – Leonhard Euler
Faraday constant – Michael Faraday
Feigenbaum constants – Mitchell Feigenbaum
Fermi coupling constant – Enrico Fermi
Gauss's constant – Carl Friedrich Gauss
Graham's number – Ronald Graham
Hartree energy – Douglas Hartree
Hubble constant – Edwin Hubble
Josephson constant – Brian David Josephson
Kaprekar's constant – D. R. Kaprekar
Kerr constant – John Kerr
Khinchin's constant – Aleksandr Khinchin
Landau–Ramanujan constant – Edmund Landau and Srinivasa Ramanujan
Legendre's constant (one, 1) – Adrien-Marie Legendre
Loschmidt constant – Johann Josef Loschmidt
Ludolphsche Zahl – Ludolph van Ceulen
Mean of Phidias (golden ratio,
ϕ
{\displaystyle \phi }
, phi) – Phidias
Meissel–Mertens constant
Moser's number
Newtonian constant of gravitation (gravitational constant,
G
{\displaystyle G}
) – Sir Isaac Newton
Planck constant (
h
{\displaystyle h}
) – Max Planck
Reduced Planck constant or Dirac constant (
h
{\displaystyle h}
-bar, ħ) – Max Planck, Paul Dirac
Ramanujan–Soldner constant – Srinivasa Ramanujan and Johann Georg von Soldner
Richardson constant – Owen Willans Richardson
Rayo's number – Agustin Rayo
Rydberg constant – Johannes Rydberg
Sommerfeld constant – Arnold Sommerfeld
Sagan's number – Carl Sagan
Sackur–Tetrode constant – Otto Sackur and Hugo Tetrode
Sierpiński's constant – Wacław Sierpiński
Skewes' number – Stanley Skewes
Stefan–Boltzmann constant – Jožef Stefan and Ludwig Boltzmann
Theodorus' constant (√3 ≅ ±1.732050807568877...) – Theodorus of Cyrene
Tupper's number – Jeff Tupper
Viswanath's constant – Divakar Viswanath
von Klitzing constant – Klaus von Klitzing
Wien displacement law constant – Wilhelm Wien
== See also ==
List of eponymous laws, for a list of laws named after people
List of scientific laws named after people
List of scientists whose names are used in physical constants
== Notes and references ==

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The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to biochemistry:
Biochemistry, or biological chemistry (distinct from chemical biology), is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. A sub-discipline of both chemistry and biology, biochemistry may be divided into three fields: structural biology, enzymology, and metabolism. Over the last decades of the 20th century, biochemistry has become successful at explaining living processes through these three disciplines. Almost all areas of the life sciences are being uncovered and developed through biochemical methodology and research. Biochemistry focuses on understanding the chemical basis that allows biological molecules to give rise to the processes that occur within living cells and between cells, in turn relating greatly to the understanding of tissues and organs as well as organism structure and function. Biochemistry is closely related to molecular biology, the study of the molecular mechanisms of biological phenomena.
== Applications of biochemistry ==
Testing
Ames test – salmonella bacteria is exposed to a chemical under question (a food additive, for example), and changes in the way the bacteria grows are measured. This test is useful for screening chemicals to see if they mutate the structure of DNA and by extension identifying their potential to cause cancer in humans.
Pregnancy test – one uses a urine sample and the other a blood sample. Both detect the presence of the hormone human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). This hormone is produced by the placenta shortly after implantation of the embryo into the uterine walls and accumulates.
Breast cancer screening – identification of risk by testing for mutations in two genes—Breast Cancer-1 gene (BRCA1) and the Breast Cancer-2 gene (BRCA2)—allow a woman to schedule increased screening tests at a more frequent rate than the general population.
Prenatal genetic testing – testing the fetus for potential genetic defects, to detect chromosomal abnormalities such as Down syndrome or birth defects such as spina bifida.
PKU test – Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a metabolic disorder in which the individual is missing an enzyme called phenylalanine hydroxylase. Absence of this enzyme allows the buildup of phenylalanine, which can lead to intellectual disability.
Genetic engineering – taking a gene from one organism and placing it into another. Biochemists inserted the gene for human insulin into bacteria. The bacteria, through the process of translation, create human insulin.
Cloning – Dolly the sheep was the first mammal ever cloned from adult animal cells. The cloned sheep was, of course, genetically identical to the original adult sheep. This clone was created by taking cells from the udder of a six-year-old ewe and growing them in the lab.
Gene therapy – a modified or healthy gene is inserted into the organism to replace a disease-causing gene. Commonly a virus that has been altered to carry human DNA is used to deliver the healthy gene to the targeted cells of the patient. This process was first used successfully in 1990 on a four-year-old patient who lacked an immune system due to a rare genetic disease called severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID).
== Branches of biochemistry ==
=== Main branches ===
Animal biochemistry
Plant biochemistry
Metabolism
Enzymology
=== Other branches ===
Biotechnology,
Bioluminescence,
Molecular chemistry,
Enzymatic chemistry,
Genetic engineering,
Pharmaceuticals,
Endocrinology,
Neurochemistry,
Hematology,
Nutrition,
Photosynthesis,
Environmental,
Toxicology
== History of biochemistry ==
== General biochemistry concepts ==
Major categories of bio-compounds:
Carbohydrates : sugar – disaccharide – polysaccharide – starch – glycogen
Lipids : fatty acid – fats – essential oils – oils – waxes – cholesterol
Nucleic acids : DNA – RNA – mRNA – tRNA – rRNA – codon – adenosine – cytosine – guanine – thymine – uracil
Proteins :
amino acid – glycine – arginine – lysine
peptide – primary structure – secondary structure – tertiary structure – conformation – protein folding
Chemical properties:
molecular bond – covalent bond – ionic bond – hydrogen bond – ester – ethyl
molecular charge – hydrophilic – hydrophobic – polar
pH – acid – alkaline – base
oxidation – reduction – hydrolysis
Structural compounds:
In cells: flagellin – peptidoglycan – myelin – actin – myosin
In animals: chitin – keratin – collagen – silk
In plants: cellulose – lignin – cell wall
Enzymes and enzyme activity:
enzyme kinetics – enzyme inhibition
proteolysis – ubiquitin – proteasome
kinase – dehydrogenase
Membranes : fluid mosaic model – diffusion – osmosis
phospholipids – glycolipid – glycocalyx – antigen – isoprene
ion channel – proton pump – electron transport – ion gradient – antiporter – symporter – quinone – riboflavin
Biomolecule (list)
Biomolecular engineering
Biomolecular structure
Multi-state modeling of biomolecules
Energy pathways :
pigments : chlorophyll – carotenoids – xanthophyll – cytochrome – phycobilin – bacteriorhodopsin – hemoglobin – myoglobin – absorption spectrum – action spectrum – fluorescence
Photosynthesis : light reaction – dark reaction
Fermentation : Acetyl-CoA – lactic acid
Cellular respiration : Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) – NADH – pyruvate – oxalate – citrate
Chemosynthesis
Regulation
hormones : auxin
signal transduction – growth factor – transcription factor – protein kinase – SH3 domain
Malfunctions : tumor – oncogene – tumor suppressor gene
Receptors : Integrin – transmembrane receptor – ion channel
Techniques : electrophoresis – chromatography – mass spectrometry – x-ray diffraction – Southern blot – fractionation – Gram stain – Surface Plasmon Resonance – Microscale Thermophoresis
== Biochemical techniques ==
=== Molecular genetics ===
DNA sequencing
Polymerase chain reaction
Northern blotting
Southern blotting
Fusion proteins
DNA microarray
Bioinformatics
Flow cytometry
=== Protein purification ===
Western blotting
Chromatography
ELISA
=== Structural determination ===
X-ray crystallography
NMR
Electron microscopy
Molecular dynamics
Mass spectrometry
Isotopic labeling
=== Interactions between biomolecules ===
Coimmunoprecipitation
Electrophoretic mobility shift assay
Southwestern blotting
== External links ==
Biochemistry, 5th ed. Full text of Berg, Tymoczko, and Stryer, courtesy of NCBI.
Biochemistry, 2nd ed. Full text of Garrett and Grisham.