Scrape wikipedia-science: 333 new, 867 updated, 1237 total (kb-cron)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrative_history-0.md

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+---
+title: "Administrative history"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrative_history"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:57:29.637085+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Administrative history is a historiographic field which looks at the history of state administrations and bureaucracies. Originally considered a sub-field of Administrative Sciences that was intended to improve contemporary governance, administrative history has become an increasingly separate field. Administrative historians study the changes in administrative ideologies and administrative law while also looking at civil servants and the relationship between government and society. It is related to political and constitutional history. The discipline is most common in France, Germany, the United Kingdom, and Italy. In 1965, when fields like social history were becoming ever more popular, G. R. Elton (then a fellow of Clare College, Cambridge) defended administrative history as the only field which can explain how the machinery of government actually worked in the past.
+
+
+== Journals ==
+Academic journals which specialise in administrative history include:
+
+Jahrbuch für europäische Verwaltungsgeschichte (JEV)
+
+
+== The New Administrative History ==
+Historians researching the medieval and early modern periods have begun to reexplore the possibilities of administrative history. This movement has been described as the "New Administrative History". It embraces a broad range of approaches, including interdisciplinary and theoretical work – as exemplified by John Sabapathy – and also more traditional institutional approaches, revisiting the methods of influential administrative historians such as T. F. Tout and G. R. Elton.
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+Business history
+Institutional anthropology
+Prosopography
+Constitutional history
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+=== Bibliography ===
+Raadschelders, J.C.N. (1994). "Administrative History: Contents, Meaning and Usefulness". International Review of Administrative Sciences. 60: 117–29. doi:10.1177/002085239406000107. S2CID 144037125.
+Raadschelders, J.C.N. (1998). Handbook of Administrative History. London: Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-1-56000-315-1.
+
+
+== External links ==
+Constitutional and administrative history at "Making History" (Institute of Historical Research)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_studies-0.md

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+---
+title: "Animal studies"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_studies"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:57:30.835346+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Animal studies is a recently recognised field in which animals are studied in a variety of cross-disciplinary ways. Scholars who engage in animal studies may be formally trained in a number of diverse fields, including art history, anthropology, biology, film studies, geography, history, psychology, literary studies, museology, philosophy, communication, and sociology. They engage with questions about notions of "animality," "animalization," or "becoming animal," to understand human-made representations of and cultural ideas about "the animal" and what it is to be human by employing various theoretical perspectives. Using these perspectives, those who engage in animal studies seek to understand both human-animal relations now and in the past as defined by present knowledge. Because the field is still developing, scholars and others have some freedom to define their own criteria about what issues may structure the field.
+
+== History ==
+Animal studies became popular in the 1970s as an interdisciplinary subject, animal studies exists at the intersection of a number of different fields of study such as journals and books series, etc. Different fields began to turn to animals as an important topic at different times and for various reasons, and these separate disciplinary histories shape how scholars approach animal studies. Historically, the field of environmental history has encouraged attention to animals.
+
+== Ethics ==
+Throughout Western history, humankind has put itself above the "nonhuman species." In part, animal studies developed out of the animal liberation movement and was grounded in ethical questions about co-existence with other species: whether it is moral to eat animals, to do scientific research on animals for human benefit, and so on. Take rats, for example, with a history of being used as "an experimental subject, feeder, and "pest." However, fewer than 10% of research studies on animals result in new medical findings for human patients. This has led researchers to find new Non-animal Approach Methodologies (NAMs) that provide more accurate human reactions. Animal studies scholars who explore the field from an ethical perspective frequently cite Australian philosopher Peter Singer's 1975 work, Animal Liberation, as a founding document in animal studies. Singer's work followed Jeremy Bentham's by trying to expand utilitarian questions about pleasure and pain beyond humans to other sentient creatures. Overall, progress happens slowly, but the marginal voices help introduce new concepts and ethics that can eventually transform society's relationship with other species.
+Some still believe that the primary purpose of animal interaction is solely for food. However, animal domestication created a new intimate bond between human and non-human, and changed the way that humans live their lives. Theorists interested in the role of animals in literature, culture, and Continental philosophy also consider the late work of Jacques Derrida a driving force behind the rise of interest in animal studies in the humanities.  Derrida's final lecture series, The Animal That Therefore I Am, examined how interactions with animal life affect human attempts to define humanity and the self through language. Taking up Derrida's deconstruction and extending it to other cultural territory, Cary Wolfe published Animal Rites in 2003 and critiqued earlier animal rights philosophers such as Peter Singer and Tom Regan. Wolfe's study points out an insidious humanism at play in their philosophies and others. Recently also the Italian philosopher Giorgio Agamben published a book on the question of the animal: The Open. Man and Animal.
+
+== Art ==
+Animals also played an essential role in the art community. One of the earliest forms of art was on the walls of caves from the early man, where they usually drew what they hunted. The country of Namibia has a large collection of ancient rock art from the Stone Age. The skillfully engraved depiction of animal tracks provides important information about the animals of that time. Then, in the Middle Ages, animals would appear for more religious reasons. Later in the 15th century, artists began coinciding with animals as a serious subject when discoveries in foreign lands were brought back to England. During the Renaissance era, the influential artist Leonardo da Vinci took interest in animal studies. Leonardo da Vinci studied animal anatomy to create anatomically accurate drawings of various species. Years later, animal representation took the form of woodworking, lithography, and photographs. In the late 1800s, photographers became interested in capturing animal locomotion.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_studies-1.md

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+---
+title: "Animal studies"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_studies"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:57:30.835346+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Research topics and methodologies ==
+Researchers in animal studies examine the questions and issues that arise when traditional modes of humanistic and scientific inquiry begin to take animals seriously as subjects of thought and activity. Students of animal studies may examine how humanity is defined in relation to animals, or how representations of animals create understandings (and misunderstandings) of other species. In fact, animals often elicit fear in humans. A well-known animal phobia is ophidiophobia, the fear of snakes. People with animal phobias tend to negatively generalize animals, even species that are harmless.
+In most movies, predatory animals such as sharks and wolves are usually the antagonists, but this only causes significant damage to their reputation and makes people fear what they think their true nature is. In order to do so, animal studies pays close attention to the ways that humans anthropomorphize animals, and asks how humans might avoid bias in observing other creatures. Anthropomorphized animals are frequently found in children's books and films. Researchers are analyzing the positive and negative effects of anthropomorphized animals on a child's view of the non-human species.  In addition, Donna Haraway's book, Primate Visions, examines how dioramas created for the American Museum of Natural History showed family groupings that conformed to the traditional human nuclear family, which misrepresented the animals' observed behavior in the wild. Critical approaches in animal studies have also considered representations of non-human animals in popular culture, including species diversity in animated films and fiction. By highlighting these issues, animal studies strives to re-examine traditional ethical, political, and epistemological categories in the context of a renewed attention to and respect for animal life. The assumption that focusing on animals might clarify human knowledge is neatly expressed in Claude Lévi-Strauss's famous dictum that animals are "good to think."
+
+== See also ==
+Intersectionality
+Anthrozoology (human–animal studies)
+Animality studies
+Critical animal studies
+Ecocriticism
+Ecosophy
+
+== References ==
+
+== Bibliography ==
+Bjorkdahl, Kristian, and Alex Parrish (2017) Rhetorical Animals: Boundaries of the Human in the Study of Persuasion. Lantham: Lexington Press. ISBM 9781498558457.
+Boehrer, Bruce, editor, A Cultural History of Animals in the Renaissance, Berg, 2009, ISBN 9781845203955.
+Boggs, Colleen Glenney (2013). Animalia Americana: Animal Representations and Biopolitical Subjectivity. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-16122-0.
+Burt, Jonathan, editor (2013), "Animal" series, Reaktion Books.
+De Ornellas, Kevin (2014). The Horse in early modern English Culture, Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, ISBN 978-1-61147-658-3.
+Derrida, Jacques (2008). The animal that therefore I am. New York: Fordham University Press. ISBN 978-0-8232-2791-4.
+Haraway, Donna J. (2008). When species meet. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 978-0-8166-5046-0.
+Kalof, Linda (2017). The Oxford Handbook of Animal Studies.  Oxford: Oxford University Press.  ISBN 9780199927142.
+Pick, Anat (2011). Creaturely Poetics: Animality and Vulnerability in Literature and Film. New York City: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-14787-3.
+Ritvo, Harriet (2010). Noble cows and hybrid zebras: essays on animals and history. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press. ISBN 978-0-8139-3060-2.
+Salisbury, Joyce E. (2010). The Beast Within. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-78095-7.
+Tuan, Yi-Fu (1984). Dominance and affection: the making of pets. New Haven: Yale Univ Press. ISBN 0-300-10208-9.
+Waldau, Paul (2013). Animal Studies: An Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-982701-5.
+Wolfe, Cary (2003). Zoontologies: the question of the animal. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0-8166-4106-4.
+
+== External links ==
+Animal Studies Journal
+Animal Rights History
+Animal Studies and Film: An interview with Matthew Brower, professor of graduate Art History at York University
+Animal Studies Online Bibliography
+Animals and the Law
+Australian Animal Studies Group
+Italian Animal Studies Review
+Animal Studies at Michigan State University

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascribed_characteristics-0.md

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+---
+title: "Ascribed characteristics"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascribed_characteristics"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:57:33.369422+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Ascribed characteristics, as used in the social sciences, refers to properties of an individual attained at birth, by inheritance, or through the aging process. The individual has very little, if any, control over these characteristics. Typical examples include race, ethnicity, gender, caste, height, and appearance. The term is apt for describing characteristics chiefly caused by "nature" (e.g. genetics) and for those chiefly caused by "nurture" (e.g. parenting during early childhood), see: Nature versus nurture.
+
+
+== Use within demography ==
+Demography being the statistical study of populations requires the ability to differentiate between populations. Most populations self-ascribe themselves as being different from others by the creation of a country. This allows demographers to draw lines between countries and compare them. However useful, countries have significant complex populations that require more exacting definitions. Commonly seen are uses of race, gender and ethnicity. In the scope of academic demography, all of these are social constructs, ascribed to groups or individuals for stratification. With these theories in place, many new theories can be formed and data collected to either prove or disprove them. Ascribed characteristics can have large by-products, whether perceived or not. Discussed below are race, gender, social status / caste and hiring / promotion.
+
+
+=== Race ===
+Ascribed characteristics are not always used for academic purposes. People with certain ascribed characteristics can be systematically treated with prejudice. Thus, the study of racism can be seen, at least superficially, as the study of the ways that people with a certain skin color and cultural background are systematically treated differently by society at large.
+
+
+=== Gender ===
+Frank van Tubergen studied the how ascribed characteristics and achieved characteristics affect their social capital in the article "Personal networks in Saudi Arabia: The role of ascribed and achieved characteristics". The article highlighted that women have less social capital than men in Saudi Arabia citing specifically that it was "due to fewer non-family connections". There are many arguments that stem from disagreements over the definition of what is a fact when it comes to gender, showing the fluidity of ascribed characteristics. For example, people who find homosexuality morally objectionable may attempt to justify this by insisting that homosexuals make a conscious decision about the nature of the sexual desire they experience; however, it would difficult to condemn homosexuality if homosexuality was predetermined, either genetically or from early childhood. (See Sexual orientation.) Both groups do, however, use the term all the same, simply ascribing different definitions to those individuals.
+
+
+=== Social status / caste ===
+Many different societies have had varying types of social stratification both historically and in the modern era. One of the most obvious examples is India, and its caste system. In its essence, it was a system that ascribed sweepers the lowest status, making this one group literally untouchable, although India officially states that discrimination against lower castes is illegal.
+
+
+=== Hiring / promotion ===
+Ronald P. Dore was a British sociologist that was a specialist in the Japanese economy. His view will be expressed here. In his largest work, British Factory, Japanese Factory, Dore investigates whether decisions on hiring and promotion, in the Japanese firm Hitachi, over a particular time were based chiefly on "achievement" or chiefly on "ascribed characteristics". The context of the discussion implied that achievement-based decisions are good, while those based on ascribed characteristics are bad. His discussion admits explicitly and, implicitly, that there are several complications to moral judgement that include:
+
+Some achievement characteristics are positively correlated with some ascribed characteristics such as intelligence and socioeconomic success. For example, "the power to command...may be much more likely to be bred in upper class families" to the extent that "the power to command" is viewed as a measure of merit. Promotion decisions favoring high merit would not be entirely distinguishable from making promotion decisions favoring high class thus, it can be difficult, to tell whether a particular promotion decision has been made for just or unjust reasons.
+It is possible to, "irrelevantly acquire discriminatory characteristics", or even do so intentionally. For example, by converting to a new religion or getting married.
+It is reasonable to view even some ascribed characteristics as factors that should affect employee compensation. In Hitachi, for example, pay is positively correlated both with performance and with age. The latter is an ascribed characteristic, but Dore suggests that it is a perfectly reasonable consideration, especially since expenses such as childcare, tend to increase over the duration of employment at Hitachi.
+Dore also points out that what counts as an ascribed characteristic can vary depending on context. In evaluating the fairness of hiring standards, he viewed an applicant's success in the educational system as a good approximation of achievement. Thus, he noted that hiring decisions at Hitachi, during the time of his study, were "regulated by very strict qualification standards" and not very significantly influenced by ascribed characteristics. When he turned to evaluate opportunities for advancement within the firm, however, Dore noted that "educational qualifications...limit the range of posts which one can achieve", meaning even if one's level of achievement increases, one may still be kept down by a relative lack of achievement in the educational system. Therefore, in investigating opportunities for promotions, educational achievement "the two become another form of ascribed characteristic." These additional forms of ascribed characteristics expand on the definition of an ascribed characteristic allowing for it to have more applications.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioculture-0.md

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+---
+title: "Bioculture"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioculture"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:57:34.575647+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Bioculture is the combination of biological and cultural factors that affect human behavior. It is an area of study bounded by the medical sciences, social sciences, landscape ecology, cultural anthropology, biotechnology, disability studies, the humanities, and the economic and global environment. Along these lines, one can see the biosphere — the earth as it is affected by the human — as the adaptation of the natural to the human and biocultures as the inter-adaptation of the human to the new technologies and ways of knowing characterized by the 21st century’s attitude toward the body. It assumes that in bioculture there is a diverse way to know the workings of the body and mind, and that these are primarily culturally derived, and an expert's way of knowing produces specific strong results. However, the results do not have an exclusive purview over the body and mind. Plus, it seeks to develop and encourage not only the experts but also parts of people's bodies and minds as the subject of study.
+
+
+== Alternative definitions ==
+An alternative definition of the term bioculture is all the practical aspects of the use of living things in culture, including agriculture, production of food and clothing, forestry, animal breeding and training, the pet trade, use of living things in science, zoos and aquariums, animal sports, and the raising of game for sport hunting.
+
+
+== Existence ==
+The term bioculture does not exist as such in the English or Spanish dictionary. BioCultura is a trademark registered in 1983 by the Asociación Vida Sana. The Asociación Vida Sana, elaborated in 1981 the bases for the development of ecological agriculture in Spain through the booklets of norms of ecological agriculture, thus contributing to the health of consumers and, on the other, to the decontamination of the land, water and air, stopping the pollution of the techniques of industrialized agriculture, without counting on the no less obvious and considerable economic and social advantages that these alternatives offer. In 1983 he began to organize the BioCultura fair in Madrid with the support of the city council. The aim was to offer an opportunity to the first organic producers to make their products known to consumers. And they coined the term BioCultura from the prefix Bio joined to the word culture. The trademark was registered in the Patent and Trademark Office. The use and popularity of the brand has caused it to be used as a vocable to determine the sector of the "bio or eco culture", although it is a brand. After 40 years leading the universe of ecological, sustainable culture and responsible consumption in Spain, BioCultura creates BioCultura ON, now for the entire Spanish-speaking community of the world.
+
+
+== Ethics in Bioculture ==
+Moral ethical behavior deals with how humans behave with each other,  likewise Bioculture ethics deals with how humans treat animals and plants. Ethics in Bioculture come into question especially in situations, where the animals and plants are in artificially created environments that are completely controlled by human. In such situations, humans control not only the environmental conditions that these non-human organisms will live under, but even how they will breed and the genetic composition that they would have to meet human purposes.
+Plants and animals could be bred by humans to be later consumed or utilized by humans in some way. For example, agricultural farming for food and clothing; breeding, raising, and then slaughtering animals for food and clothing; growing forests to eventually cut them for wood; or breeding animals and plants and experimenting on them in laboratories. On the other hand, animal and plants could be bred for entertainment purposes also. For example, developing plant nurseries to harvest flowers; building and maintaining zoos, aquariums for entertainment; breeding animals for sports like horse riding or bull fighting;  pet trade; or breeding birds or animals in sporting/hunting grounds and fishes in lakes for game fishing. In each of the above instances, two principles are common - (1) Humans decide how the life of the non-human organism will be led; and (2) non-human organism is bred with the end goal to benefit humans.
+When we use tools and equipments in any setting to gain productive results, we are dealing with non-living things here. However in case of the above-mentioned Bioculture examples, the animals and plants are living, but the human being is deciding how their lives will be lived. Not all plants and animals raised in Bioculture are treated badly or are hurt. Some, as in case of pet trade, the pets are looked after. The pet owner is considered to be responsible for taking care of all things pertaining to the pet. The owner may say that he takes care of his pet, because of his love and affection towards it. But, what about other situations like sport hunting, laboratory experiments, and others. Paul Taylor asks in his book on the fairness of hurting these animals and plants for our benefit or fun, just because we don't have inherent love and affection towards them. Among humans, even when we don't have love and affection towards some stranger, moral ethics require us to behave well with them. The question then arises as to how this translate this ethical duty and responsibility to the field of Bioculture for plants and animals.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Change_and_continuity-0.md

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+---
+title: "Change and continuity"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Change_and_continuity"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:57:35.782936+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Change and continuity is a classic dichotomy within the fields of history, historical sociology, and the social sciences more broadly. The question of change and continuity is considered a classic discussion in the study of historical developments. The dichotomy is used to discuss and evaluate the extent to which a historical development or event represents a decisive historical change or whether a situation remains largely unchanged. A good example of this discussion is the question of how much the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 represents an important change in European history. In a similar vein, historian Richard Kirkendall once questioned whether FDR's New Deal represented "a radical innovation or a continuation of earlier themes in American life?" and posed the question of whether "historical interpretations of the New Deal [should] stress change or emphasize continuity?" The issue here is if the New Deal marks something radically new (change) in US history or if the New Deal can be understood as a continuation (continuity) of tendencies in American history that were in place well before the 1930.
+The dichotomy is important in relation to constructing, discussing, and evaluating historical periodizations. In terms of creating and discussing periodization (e.g. the Enlightenment or the Victorian Era,) the dichotomy can be used to assess when a period can be said to start and end, thus making the dichotomy important in relation to understanding historical chronology. Economic historian Alexander Gerschenkron has taken issue with the dichotomy, arguing that continuity "appears to mean no more than absence of change, i.e. stability." German historian Reinhart Koselleck, however, has been said to challenge this dichotomy. 
+
+
+== Notes ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_social_science-0.md

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+---
+title: "Outline of social science"
+chunk: 1/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_social_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:57:28.365284+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to social science:
+Social science – main branch of science comprising scientific fields concerned with societies, human behaviour, and social relationships.
+
+== Definition ==
+Social science can be described as all of the following:
+
+A  science – systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe.
+Major category of academic disciplines – an academic discipline is focused study in one academic field or profession. A discipline incorporates expertise, people, projects, communities, challenges, studies, inquiry, and research areas that are strongly associated with academic areas of study or areas of professional practice. For example, the branches of science are commonly referred to as the scientific disciplines. For instance, gravitation is strongly associated with the discipline of physics, and is considered to be part of that disciplinary knowledge.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_social_science-1.md

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+---
+title: "Outline of social science"
+chunk: 2/6
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_social_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:57:28.365284+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Branches of social science ==
+Anthropology - the study of humans, past and present, that draws and builds upon knowledge from the social sciences and biological sciences, as well as the humanities and the natural sciences. Anthropology of religion – the study of religious institutions about other social institutions, and the comparison of religious beliefs and practices across cultures
+Applied anthropology – application of the method and theory of anthropology to the analysis and solution of practical problems. Archaeology – the study of cultures via material remains and environmental data (Outline of archaeology)
+Experimental archaeology – Experimental archaeology employs several different methods, techniques, analyses, and approaches to generate and test hypotheses, based upon the archaeological source material, like ancient structures or artifacts. Historical archaeology – a form of archaeology dealing with topics that are already attested in written records. Zooarchaeology – study of faunal remains. Cultural anthropology – a branch of anthropology focused on the study of cultural variation among humans, collecting data about the effect of global economic and political processes on local cultural realities. Ethnobiology – the scientific study of dynamic relationships between peoples, biota, and environments, from the distant past to the immediate present. Ethnobotany – is the study of a region's plants and their practical uses through the traditional knowledge of local culture and people. Ethnography – the systematic study of people and cultures. Ethnology – a branch of anthropology that compares and analyzes the origins, distribution, technology, religion, language, and social structure of the ethnic, racial, and/or national divisions of humanity. Ethnopoetics – method of recording text versions of oral poetry or narrative performances (i.e., verbal lore) that uses poetic lines, verses, and stanzas (instead of prose paragraphs) to capture the formal, poetic performance elements which would otherwise be lost in the written texts. Evolutionary anthropology – an interdisciplinary study of the evolution of human physiology and human behaviour and the relation between hominids and non-hominid primates. Linguistic anthropology – is the interdisciplinary study of how language influences social life. Medical anthropology – an interdisciplinary field that studies "human health and disease, health care systems, and biocultural adaptation". Physical anthropology – the study of the physical development of the human species. Psychological anthropology – interdisciplinary subfield of anthropology that studies the interaction of cultural and mental processes. Urban anthropology
+Anthrozoology – study of human-animal interaction. Business studies – an academic area that consists of many sub-areas about the social relationships that compose the human economic systems. Accountancy – the measurement, processing and communication of financial information about economic entities. Finance – a field dealing with the study of investments. Commerce
+Management – the administration of an organization, whether it be a business, a not-for-profit organization, or government body. Human resource management – a function in organizations designed to maximize employee performance in service of an employer's strategic objectives. Marketing – the study and management of exchange relationships. Organizational studies – the examination of how individuals construct organizational structures, processes, and practices and how these, in turn, shape social relations and create institutions that ultimately influence people. Operations research –
+Economics – analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. It aims to explain how economies work and how economic agents interact. International economics – study of the effects upon economic activity of international differences in productive resources and consumer preferences and the institutions that affect them. Economic methodology – the study of methods, especially the scientific method, about economics, including principles underlying economic reasoning. Behavioural economics – the study of the effects of social, cognitive, and psychological factors on economic decisions. Mathematical economics – application of mathematical methods to represent economic theories and analyze problems posed in economics. Computational economics – research discipline at the interface between computer science and economic and management science. Econometrics – study of statistical methods for dealing with economic data
+Experimental economics – application of experimental methods to study economic questions
+Microeconomics or price theory – branch of economics that studies the behaviour of individual households and firms in making decisions on the allocation of limited resources
+Consumer choice – study of consumers' behaviour
+Theory of the firm – study of firms' behaviour
+Family economics – study of family behaviours such as marriage through an economic lens
+Macroeconomics – branch of economics dealing with the performance, structure, behaviour, and decision-making of the whole economy
+Monetary economics – branch of economics that historically prefigured and remains integrally linked to macroeconomics. Financial economics – branch of economics concerned with "the allocation and deployment of economic resources, both spatially and across time, in an uncertain environment". Public economics – the study of government policy through the lens of economic efficiency and equity. Public finance – the study of the role of the government in the economy. Welfare economics – branch of economics that studies economic evaluate well-being
+Social choice theory – the branch of economics that studies voting rules and collective decision-making
+Economic geography – the study of the location, distribution and spatial organization of economic activities across the world. Labor economics – seeks to understand the functioning and dynamics of the markets for labour. Demographic economics – application of economic methodology to demography
+Law and Economics – application of economic methods to the analysis of law. Industrial organization – field of economics that builds on the theory of the firm in examining the structure of, and boundaries between, firms and markets. Business economics – economic study of business
+Entrepreneurial Economics – the study of the entrepreneur and entrepreneurship within the economy. Managerial economics – application of economic concepts and economic analysis to the problems of formulating rational managerial decisions. Economic history – study of economies or economic phenomena in the past. Development economics – branch of economics which deals with economic aspects of the development process in low-income countries. Political economy – the study of the production, buying, and selling, and their relations with law, custom, and government, as well as with the distribution of national income and wealth, including through the budget process. Comparative economics –  comparative study of different systems of economic organization, such as capitalism, socialism, feudalism and the mixed economy. Institutional economics – the study of the role of institutions in shaping economic behaviour. Economic sociology – studies both the social effects and the social causes of various economic phenomena. Environmental economics – subfield of economics concerned with environmental issues. Resource economics –  the study of supply, demand, and allocation of the Earth's natural resources. Energy economics – broad scientific subject area which includes topics related to supply and use of energy in societies
+Socioeconomics – considers behavioural interactions of individuals and groups through social capital and social "markets" and the formation of social norms
+Economic geography – the subfield of human geography that studies economic activity and factors affecting it. Transport economics – branch of economics that deals with the allocation of resources within the transport sector and has strong linkages with civil engineering. Real estate economics – application of economic techniques to real estate markets. Cognitive science – the interdisciplinary scientific study of the mind and its processes. It examines what cognition is, what it does and how it works.

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+---
+title: "Outline of social science"
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+Cultural studies – academic field grounded in critical theory and literary criticism. Development studies – a multidisciplinary branch of social science that addresses issues of concern to developing countries. Education –  in the general sense is any act or experience that has a formative effect on the mind, character, or physical ability of an individual. In its technical sense, education is the process by which society deliberately transmits its accumulated knowledge, skills, and values from one generation to another. Environmental studies – the interdisciplinary academic field which systematically studies human interaction with the environment. Gender and sexuality studies – field of interdisciplinary study and academic field devoted to gender identity and gendered representation as central categories of analysis. Geography – the study of the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth. Physical geography – a branch of the science that studies physical features on the Earth's surface, water, the atmosphere and biodiversity on the Earth (is also listed in Earth Science). Geomorphology – branch of physical geography that studies the Earth and its landforms. Hydrology – study of water on the Earth's surface and in its atmosphere. Glaciology – study of ice sheets and glaciers on the Earth's surface. Biogeography – study of the distribution of living organisms on the Earth. Climatology – the study of climate. Meteorology – the study of weather. Soil geography – the study of soil. Oceanography – the study of oceans. Coastal geography – study of coasts. Landscape ecology – the study of effects of the ecological process on the Earth. Palaeogeography – studies distribution of continents and oceans over time. Environmental geography – studies the interaction between humans and the physical environment. Cartography – study and practice of making maps or globes. Human geography – the branch of the social sciences that studies the world, its people, communities, and cultures with an emphasis on relations of and across space and place. Critical geography – takes a critical theory (Frankfurt School) approach to the study and analysis of geography. Cultural geography – the study of cultural products and norms and their variations across and relations to spaces and places. Feminist geography – approach in human geography which applies the theories, methods and critiques of feminism to the study of the human environment, society and geographical space. Economic geography – study of the location, distribution and spatial organization of economic activities across the world. Development geography – branch of geography concerning the standard of living and quality of life of its human inhabitants. Historical geography – study of the human, physical, fictional, theoretical, and "real" geographies of the past. Time geography –
+Political geography & geopolitics – field of human geography that is concerned with the study of both the spatially uneven outcomes of political processes and how political processes are themselves affected by spatial structures. Marxist geography – strand of critical geography that uses the theories and philosophy of Marxism to examine the spatial relations of human geography. Military geography – sub-field of geography that is used by, not only the military but also academics and politicians to understand the geopolitical sphere through the militaristic lens. Strategic geography – concerned with the control of, or access to, spatial areas that affect the security and prosperity of nations. Population geography – the study of how spatial variations in the distribution, composition, migration, and growth of populations are related to the nature of places. Social geography – branch of human geography that is most closely related to social theory in general and sociology in particular, dealing with the relation of social phenomena and its spatial components. Behavioral geography – approach to human geography that examines human behaviour using a disaggregated approach. Children's geographies – area of study within human geography and Childhood Studies which involves researching the places and spaces of children's lives. Health geography – application of geographical information, perspectives, and methods to the study of health, disease, and health care. Tourism geography – a study of travel and tourism, as an industry and as a social and cultural activity. Urban geography – the study of areas that have a high concentration of buildings and infrastructure. Environmental geography – a branch of geography that describes the spatial aspects of interactions between humans and the natural world. Regional geography – the study of world regions. History – discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of information about past events. History can also mean the period after writing was invented. This category includes many sub-domains of history such as art history, diplomatic history, history of science, economic history, environmental history, military history, political history, urban history, women's history and many others. Industrial relations – the multidisciplinary field that studies the employment relationship. Information science –  interdisciplinary field primarily concerned with the analysis, collection, classification, manipulation, storage, retrieval and dissemination of information. International studies – the study of the major political, economic, social, cultural and sacral issues that dominate the international agenda
+Law – set of rules and principles (laws) by which a society is governed, through enforcement by governmental authorities. Legal management – social sciences discipline that is designed for students interested in the study of State and its elements, Law, Law Practice, Legal Research and Jurisprudence, legal Philosophy, Criminal Justice, Governance, Government structure, Political history and theories, Business Organization and Management, Entrepreneurship, Public Administration and Human Resource Development. Paralegal studies – social sciences discipline that is designed for students interested in the study of State and its elements, Law, Law Practice, Legal Research and Jurisprudence, legal Philosophy, Criminal Justice, Governance, Government structure, Political history and theories, Business Organization and Management, Entrepreneurship, Public Administration and Human Resource Development. Library science – the study of issues related to libraries and the information fields. Linguistics – the scientific study of natural language. Anthropological linguistics – the study of the relations between language and culture and the relations between human biology, cognition and language. Applied linguistics – an interdisciplinary field of study that identifies, investigates, and offers solutions to language-related real-life problems. Biolinguistics – study of the biology and evolution of language. Clinical linguistics and speech and language pathology – a sub-discipline of linguistics that involves the application of linguistic theory to the field of Speech-Language Pathology. Cognitive linguistics – a branch of linguistics that interprets language in terms of the concepts, sometimes universal, sometimes specific to a particular tongue, which underlies its forms. Comparative linguistics – the branch of historical linguistics that is concerned with comparing languages to establish their historical relatedness. Computational linguistics – interdisciplinary field dealing with the statistical or rule-based modelling of natural language from a computational perspective. Developmental linguistics – the study of the development of linguistic ability in an individual, particularly the acquisition of language in childhood. language acquisition –  the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive and comprehend language, as well as to produce and use words to communicate. Dialectology  – the scientific study of linguistic dialect, a sub-field of sociolinguistics. dialectometry – the study of high levels of structure in geographical dialect networks. Discourse analysis – a general term for several approaches to analyzing the use of written, oral or sign language or any significant semiotic event.

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+Etymology – the study of the history of words, their origins, and how their form and meaning have changed over time. Evolutionary linguistics – the scientific study of both the origins and development of language as well as the cultural evolution of languages. Forensic linguistics – application of linguistic knowledge, methods and insights to the forensic context of law, language, crime investigation, trial, and judicial procedure. Geolinguistics – branch of human geography that studies the geographic distribution of language or its constituent elements. Historical linguistics – the study of language change. Language – is a structured means of communication
+Lexis – total vocabulary or lexicon having items of lexical, rather than grammatical, meaning. Linguistic typology – subfield of linguistics that studies and classifies languages according to their structural features. Literature – refers to writing considered to be an art form or any single writing deemed to have artistic or intellectual value, often due to deploying language in ways that differ from ordinary usage. Mathematical linguistics – Mathematics has been applied in linguistics for analysis, grammar logic and other theoretical aspects in linguistics. Morphology – identification, analysis and description of the structure of a given language's morphemes and other linguistic units, such as words, affixes, parts of speech, intonation/stress, or implied context (words in a lexicon are the subject matter of lexicology). Neurolinguistics – the study of the neural mechanisms in the human brain that control the comprehension, production, and acquisition of language. Philology – the study of language in written historical sources; it is a combination of literary studies, history and linguistics. Phonetics – a branch of linguistics that consists of the study of the sounds of human speech, or the equivalent aspects of sign. Phonology – the branch of linguistics concerned with the systematic organization of sounds in languages. Phraseology – the study of the set or fixed expressions, such as idioms, phrasal verbs, and other types of multi-word lexical units (often collectively referred to as phrasemes), in which the parts of the expression take on a meaning more specific than or otherwise not predictable from the sum of their meanings when used independently. Pragmatics – subfield of linguistics that studies how context contributes to meaning. Psycholinguistics – the study of the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, comprehend and produce language. Sociolinguistics – a descriptive study of the effect of any aspects of society, including cultural norms, expectations, and context, on the way language, is used, and the effects of language use on society. Speech science – Speech science refers to the study of production, transmission and perception of speech. Speech science involves anatomy, in particular the anatomy of the oro-facial region and neuroanatomy, physiology, and acoustics. Stylistics – study and interpretation of texts from a linguistic perspective. Syntax – "the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed in particular languages."
+Semantics – the study of meaning. Writing systems and orthography – representation of language in a textual medium through the use of a set of signs or symbols (known as a writing system). Management – in addition to the administration of an organization, it is the act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives using available resources efficiently and effectively. Media studies – academic discipline and field of study that deals with the content, history and effects of various media; in particular, the mass media. Communication studies – an academic field that deals with processes of human communication, commonly defined as the sharing of symbols to create meaning. Political science – social science discipline concerned with the study of the state, government, and politics. Civics – the study of the theoretical and practical aspects of citizenship, its rights and duties; the duties of citizens to each other as members of a political body and to the government. Comparative politics – field and a method used in political science, characterized by an empirical approach based on the comparative method. Game theory – the study of strategic decision making. Geopolitics – a theory that describes the relationship between politics and territory whether on a local or international scale. political geography –  field of human geography that is concerned with the study of both the spatially uneven outcomes of political processes and how political processes are themselves affected by spatial structures. Ideology – a set of ideas that constitute one's goals, expectations, and actions. Political economy – Political economy originally was the term for studying production, buying, and selling, and their relations with law, custom, and government, as well as with the distribution of national income and wealth, including through the budget process. Political economy originated in moral philosophy. It developed in the 18th century as the study of the economies of states, polities, hence political economy. Political psychology – bureaucratic, administrative and judicial behaviour
+Psephology – the branch of political science which deals with the study and scientific analysis of elections. Voting systems – methods by which voters choose between options, often in an election or on a policy referendum. Public administration – houses the implementation of government policy and an academic discipline that studies this implementation and that prepares civil servants for this work. Public policy – generally the principled guide to action taken by the administrative or executive branches of the state about a class of issues in a manner consistent with law and institutional customs. Public health – the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting human health through organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals
+Local government studies – a form of public administration which is a majority of contexts, exists as the lowest tier of administration within the given state. International politics – the study of relationships between countries, including the roles of states, inter-governmental organizations (IGOs), international nongovernmental organizations (INGOs), non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and multinational corporations (MNCs). International relations theory – the study of international relations from a theoretical perspective; it attempts to provide a conceptual framework upon which international relations can be analyzed. Science diplomacy
+Psychology – the science of behaviour and mental processes
+Abnormal psychology - the study of unusual behaviour, emotion, and thought in an individual, likely of that as a mental disorder. Applied psychology – use of psychological principles and theories to overcome problems in other areas, such as mental health, business management, education, health, product design, ergonomics, and law. Psychological testing – field characterized by the use of samples of behaviour to assess psychological construct(s), such as cognitive and emotional functioning, about a given individual. Clinical psychology – integration of science, theory and clinical knowledge for understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically-based distress or dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal development. Community psychology – Sense of community Social capital
+Consumer behaviour – study of when, why, how, and where people do or do not buy a product. Counseling psychology – a psychological specialty that encompasses research and applied for work in several broad domains: counselling process and outcome; supervision and training; career development and counselling; and prevention and health.

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+Educational psychology – the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. Forensic psychology – the intersection between psychology and the courtroom—criminal, civil, family and Federal. Health psychology – concerned with understanding how biological, psychological, environmental, and cultural factors are involved in physical health and illness. Industrial and organizational psychology – the scientific study of employees, workplaces, and organizations. Legal psychology – involves empirical, psychological research of the law, legal institutions, and people who come into contact with the law. Media psychology – seeks an understanding of how people perceive, interpret, use, and respond to a media-rich world. Military psychology – research, design and application of psychological theories and experimentation data towards understanding, predicting and countering behaviours either in friendly or enemy forces or civilian population that may be undesirable, threatening or potentially dangerous to the conduct of military operations. Occupational health psychology – concerned with the psychosocial characteristics of workplaces that contribute to the development of health-related problems in people who work. Political psychology – an interdisciplinary academic field dedicated to understanding political science, politicians and political behaviour through the use of psychological theories. Psychology of religion – application of psychological methods and interpretive frameworks to religious traditions, as well as to both religious and irreligious individuals. Psychometrics – field of study concerned with the theory and technique of psychological measurement, which includes the measurement of knowledge, abilities, attitudes, personality traits, and educational measurement. School psychology – the field that applies principles of clinical psychology and educational psychology to the diagnosis and treatment of children's and adolescents' behavioural and learning problems. Sport psychology – interdisciplinary science that draws on knowledge from the fields of Kinesiology and Psychology. Systems psychology – the branch of applied psychology that studies human behaviour and experience in complex systems. Traffic psychology – the study of the behaviour of road users and the psychological processes underlying that behaviour (Rothengatter, 1997, 223) as well as to the relationship between behaviour and accidents
+Behaviour analysis – philosophy of psychology based on the proposition that all things that organisms do can and should be regarded as behaviours, and that psychological disorders are best treated by altering behaviour patterns or modifying the environment. Biopsychology – application of the principles of biology (in particular neurobiology), to the study of physiological, genetic, and developmental mechanisms of behaviour in human and non-human animals. Clinical psychology – integration of science, theory and clinical knowledge for understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically-based distress or dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal development. Cognitive psychology – subdiscipline of psychology exploring internal mental processes. Cultural psychology – field of psychology which assumes the idea that culture and mind are inseparable, and that psychological theories grounded in one culture are likely to be limited in applicability when applied to a different culture. Developmental psychology – the scientific study of systematic psychological changes, emotional changes, and perception changes that occur in human beings throughout their life span. Educational psychology – the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. Evolutionary psychology – approach in the social and natural sciences that examines psychological traits such as memory, perception, and language from a modern evolutionary perspective. Experimental psychology – application of experimental methods to the study of behaviour and the processes that underlie it. Forensic psychology – the intersection between psychology and the courtroom—criminal, civil, family and Federal. Health psychology – concerned with understanding how biological, psychological, environmental, and cultural factors are involved in physical health and illness. Humanistic psychology – a psychological perspective which rose to prominence in the mid-20th century in the context of the tertiary sector beginning to produce in the most developed countries in the world more than the secondary sector was producing, for the first time in human history demanding creativity and a new understanding of human capital. Industrial and organizational psychology – the scientific study of employees, workplaces, and organizations. Mathematical psychology – understanding of human nature and mind, all through applications of mathematics theories and concepts along with other methods. Music therapy – allied health profession and one of the expressive therapies, consisting of an interpersonal process in which a trained music therapist uses music to help clients to improve or maintain their health. Neuropsychology – studies the structure and function of the brain as they relate to specific psychological processes and behaviours. Personality psychology – the branch of psychology that studies personality and individual differences. Psychometrics – field of study concerned with the theory and technique of psychological measurement, which includes the measurement of knowledge, abilities, attitudes, personality traits, and educational measurement. Psychology of religion – application of psychological methods and interpretive frameworks to religious traditions, as well as to both religious and irreligious individuals. Psychophysics – quantitatively investigates the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they affect. Sensation and perception psychology
+Religious studies – is an academic field devoted to research into religion beliefs, behaviours, and institutions. Science and technology studies – the study of how society, politics, and culture affect scientific research and technological innovation, and how these, in turn, affect society, politics and culture. Social work – a professional and academic discipline that seeks to improve the quality of life and wellbeing of an individual, group, or community by intervening through research, policy, community organizing, direct practice, and teaching on behalf of those afflicted with poverty or any real or perceived social injustices and violations of their human rights. Sociology – studies society using various methods of empirical investigation and critical analysis to understand the human social activity, from the micro-level of individual agency and interaction to the macro level of systems and social structure. Criminology – the study of the nature, extent, causes, and control of criminal behaviour in both the individual and in society. Crime science
+Penology
+Demography – statistical study of human populations and sub-populations. Urban and rural sociology - the analysis of social life in metropolitan and non-metropolitan areas. Sustainable development – the process of meeting human development goals while sustaining the ability of natural systems to continue to provide the natural resources and natural system services upon which the economy of human society depends. Sustainable agriculture – farming in sustainable ways based on an understanding of ecosystem services, the study of relationships between organisms and their environment. Sustainability studies – focuses on the interdisciplinary perspective of the sustainability concept. Programs include instruction in sustainable development, geography, environmental policies, ethics, ecology, landscape architecture, city and regional planning, economics, natural resources, sociology, and anthropology, many of which are considered social sciences in their own right.

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+---
+
+== History of social science ==
+History of the social sciences
+History of anthropology
+History of archaeology
+History of area studies
+History of communication studies
+History of cultural studies
+History of development studies
+History of economics
+History of education
+History of environmental studies
+History of gender studies
+History of geography
+History of human geography
+History of history
+History of information science
+History of journalism
+History of law
+History of library science
+History of linguistics
+History of management
+History of political science
+History of international studies
+History of international relations
+History of political economy
+History of public administration
+History of psychology
+History of social psychology
+History of social work
+History of sociology
+History of criminal justice
+History of demography
+History of sustainability
+
+== Education and degrees ==
+Bachelor of Social Science
+Bachelor of Science
+Bachelor of Arts
+Bachelor of Economics
+
+== General social science concepts ==
+Ethical research in social science
+Open and closed systems in social science
+
+== Social science organizations ==
+
+== Social science publications ==
+List of social science journals
+
+== Social scientists ==
+List of anthropologists
+List of business theorists
+List of economists
+List of socialist economists
+List of geographers
+List of political scientists
+List of psychologists
+List of developmental psychologists
+List of educational psychologists
+List of social psychologists
+List of sociologists
+List of urban planners
+List of urban theorists
+
+== See also ==
+
+Outline of science
+Outline of natural science
+Outline of physical science
+Outline of earth science
+Outline of formal science
+Outline of applied science
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+
+Social Science Virtual Library
+UC Berkeley Experimental Social Science Laboratory
+Intute: Social Sciences (UK)
+History of Social Science Archived 2009-05-04 at the Wayback Machine
+On the Social Sciences Critical Essays
+praxeology as the method of the social sciences
+in defense of extreme apriourism

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+
+Rangeland management (also range management, range science, or arid-land management) is a natural science that centers around the study of rangelands and the "conservation and sustainable management [of Arid-Lands] for the benefit of current societies and future generations". Range management is defined by Holechek et al. as the "manipulation of rangeland components to obtain optimum combination of goods and services for society on a sustained basis". The United Nations (UN) has declared 2026 the International Year of Rangelands and Pastoralists, with the Food and Agriculture Organization leading the initiative.
+
+
+== History ==
+The earliest form of Rangeland Management is not formally deemed part of the natural science studied today, although its roots can be traced to nomadic grazing practices of the Neolithic Revolution when humans domesticated plants and animals under pressures from population growth and environmental change. Humans might even have altered the environment in times preceding the  Neolithic through hunting of large-game, whereby large losses of grazing herbivores could have resulted in altered ecological states; meaning humans have been inadvertently managing land throughout prehistory.
+Rangeland management was developed in the United States in response to rangeland deterioration and in some cases, denudation, due to overgrazing and other misuse of arid lands as demonstrated by the 20th century "Dust Bowl" and described in Hardin's 1968 "Tragedy of the Commons". Historically, the discipline focused on the manipulation of grazing and the proper use of rangeland vegetation for livestock.
+
+
+== Modern application ==
+
+
+=== Global ===
+Range management's focus has been expanded to include the host of ecosystem services that rangelands provide to humans world-wide. Key management components seek to optimize such goods and services through the protection and enhancement of soils, riparian zones, watersheds, and vegetation complexes, sustainably improving outputs of consumable range products such as red meat, wildlife, water, wood, fiber, leather, energy resource extraction, and outdoor recreation, as well as maintaining a focus on the manipulation of grazing activities of large herbivores to maintain or improve animal and plant production. With increasing levels of rangeland degradation, for example as evident through woody plant encroachment, active rehabilitation efforts become part of rangeland management.
+Pastoralism has become a contemporary anthropological and ecological study as it faces many threats including fragmentation of land, conversion of rangeland into urban development, lack of grazing movement, impending threats on global diversity, damage to species with large terrain, decreases in shared public goods, decreased biological movements, threats of a "tragedy of enclosures", limitation of key resources, reduced biomass and invasive plant species growth. Interest in contemporary pastoralist cultures like the Maasai has continued to increase, especially because the traditional syncreticly-adaptive ability of pastoralists could promise lessons in collaborative and adaptive management for contemporary pastoralist societies threatened by globalization as well as for contemporary non-pastoralist societies that are managing livestock on rangelands.
+
+
+=== United States of America ===
+The United States Society for Range Management is "the professional society dedicated to supporting persons who work with rangelands and have a commitment to their sustainable use". The primary Rangeland Management publications include the Journal of Range Management, Rangelands, and Rangeland Ecology & Management.
+As climate change continues to disrupt a host of rangeland functions, the Society for Range Management has declared that it "is committed to promoting adaptation to and mitigation of climate change through the sponsorship of workshops, symposia, research and educational publications, and appropriate policy recommendations. The Society will strive to maximize opportunities and minimize challenges posed by climate change to promote productive rangeland ecosystems that ensure food security, human livelihoods, and continued delivery of diverse ecosystem services". Emerging evidence suggests that rangelands are extremely vulnerable to the threats of climate change, as more severe heatwaves, droughts, evaporation, and catastrophic flood events will consequentially alter ecological states, and negatively affect forage production, both of which will negatively impact ecosystem functioning and the sustainable production of ecosystem services. In an open letter to the White House in 2017, the president of the SRM offered President Trump the society's support in seeking management strategies to mitigate climate-induced phenomenon like drought and forest fires, a subject which was brought to the national debate stage and which has received significant push-back by Trump and his administration. Likewise in 2021 the SRM and several other institutions sent an open letter to President Biden urging for more research and development funding to be provisioned toward agricultural and food systems research, especially as climate change threatened national security of agricultural resources.
+
+
+=== Australia ===
+The Australian Rangeland Society is the peak group of rangeland professionals in Australia. It is an independent and non-aligned association of people interested in the management and sustainable use of rangelands. Rangeland Management publications from the Society include The Rangeland Journal  and the Range Management Newsletter.
+
+
+== Education and employment ==
+
+In the United States, the study of range science is commonly offered at land-grant universities including New Mexico State University, Colorado State University, Oregon State University, North Dakota State University, South Dakota State University, Texas A&M University, Texas Tech University, the University of Arizona, the University of Idaho, the University of Wyoming, Utah State University, and Montana State University. The Range Science curriculum is strongly tied to animal science, as well as plant ecology, soil science, wildlife management, climatology and anthropology. Courses in a typical Range Science curriculum may include ethology, range animal nutrition, plant physiology, plant ecology, plant identification, plant communities, microbiology, soil sciences, fire control, agricultural economics, wildlife ecology, ranch management, Socioeconomics, cartography, hydrology, Ecophysiology, and environmental policy. These courses are essential to entering a range science profession.
+Students with degrees in range science are eligible for a host of technician-type careers working for the federal government under the Bureau of Land Management, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, the Agricultural Research Service, the United States Environmental Protection Agency, the NRCS, or the US Forest Service as range conservationists, inventory technicians, range monitoring/animal science agents, field botanists, natural-resource technicians, vegetation/habitat monitors, GIS programming assistants, general range technicians, and as ecological assessors, as well as working in the private sector as range managers, ranch managers, producers, commercial consultants, mining and agricultural real estate agents, or as Range/ Ranch Consultants. Individuals who complete degrees at the M.S. or P.h.D. level, can seek academic careers as professors, extension specialists, research assistants, and adjunct staff, in addition to a number of professional research positions for government agencies such as the US Department of Agriculture and other state run departments.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Conservation grazing
+Land management
+Natural Resources Conservation Service
+Range condition scoring
+Wildlife management
+Upland pasture
+
+
+== References ==

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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science-7.md

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+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:57:27.166489+00:00"
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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_arts_and_politics-0.md

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+---
+title: "The arts and politics"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_arts_and_politics"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:57:32.078754+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A strong relationship between the arts and politics, particularly between various kinds of art and power, occurs across historical epochs and cultures.  As they respond to contemporaneous events and politics, the arts take on political as well as social dimensions, becoming themselves a focus of controversy and even a force of political as well as social change.
+A widespread observation is that a great talent has a free spirit. For instance Pushkin, who some scholars regard as Russia's first great writer, is said to have attracted the irritation of the Russian officialdom and particularly of the Tsar, since he "instead of being a good servant of the state in the rank and file of the administration and extolling conventional virtues in his vocational writings (if write he must), composed extremely arrogant and extremely independent and extremely wicked verse in which a dangerous freedom of thought was evident in the novelty of his versification, in the audacity of his sensual fancy, and in his propensity for making fun of major and minor tyrants."
+
+== History of art ==
+According to Groys, "Art has its own power in the world, and is as much a force in the power play of global politics today as it once was in the arena of cold war politics."
+
+=== Social and political change ===
+Pertaining to such politically-intractable phenomena as the Modern conflicts in the Middle East, however, some artists and social critics believe that "art is useless as a tool for political change." There are, nevertheless, examples where artists employ art in the service of political change.
+
+== Role of poetry ==
+Poets are the unacknowledged legislators of the world.
+The Italian poet Ungaretti, when interviewed on transgression by director Pasolini for the 1964 Love Meetings documentary, said that the foundation of poetry is to transgress all laws.
+The recitation of powerful, pithy poetry is a popular art form at American protests and political rallies. From the civil rights, women’s liberation, gay rights, and Puerto Rican Independence movements to Black Lives Matter, poetry is used to build emotional unity in crowds and draw media attention. Giannina Braschi wrote, "Poets and anarchists are always the first to go. Where? To the frontline. Wherever it is." Protest poems include Gwendolyn Brooks "Riot", Allen Ginsberg's Howl, Tato Laviera's "Lady Liberty", Nikki Giovanni's "Rosa Parks", Amiri Baraka's "Short Speech to My Friends," and Jill McDonough's "Dear Gaybashers".  Beat poet Allen Ginsberg was arrested at an antiwar demonstration in New York City in 1967 and tear-gassed at the Democratic National Convention in Chicago in 1968.
+
+== Examples ==
+
+=== Situationist International ===
+The Situationist International (SI), a small group of international political and artistic agitators with roots in Marxism, Lettrism and the early 20th-century European artistic and political avant-gardes formed in 1957, aspired to major social and political transformations; before disbanding in 1972 and splitting into a number of different groups, including the Situationist Bauhaus, the Antinational, and the Second Situationist International, the first SI became active in Europe through the 1960s and elsewhere throughout the world and was characterized by an anti-capitalist and surrealist perspective on aesthetics and politics, according to Italian art historian Francesco Poli.
+In the works of the situationists, Italian scholar Mirella Bandini observes, there is no separation between art and politics; the two confront each other in revolutionary terms.
+McDonough believes that once artistic-intellectual works are separated from current events and from a comprehensive critique of society, they are sterilized and can be safely integrated into the official culture and the public discourse, where they can add new flavours to old dominant ideas and play the role of a gear wheel in the mechanism of the society of the spectacle.
+
+=== Poster art ===
+"Not content with claiming leftwing music", posters for the Conservative Party in the UK recycled iconic art styles of "socialist revolution" to communicate its political message in 2008.
+In the 2008 U.S. presidential election, Shepard Fairey's Barack Obama "Hope" poster became almost instantly iconic and inseparable from Obama and his campaign. Almost immediately after its creation, the artwork went viral, spreading throughout social media and through word of mouth (largely due to the publicity efforts of Yosi Sergant).
+Throughout history, Communist governments have used poster art as a common form of propaganda used to promote the ideology of communism, namely the Soviet Union in the early 20th Century. The Great Soviet Encyclopedia defines communist propaganda as being the expression of the essential worldview of the working class and its natural aims and interests defined by its historical position as the social force which will ultimately usher in the epoch of communism. 
+
+=== Entropa ===
+Czech sculptor David Černý's Entropa, a sculpture commissioned to mark the Czech presidency of the European Union Council during the first semester of 2009, illustrates how art can come into conflict with politics, creating various kinds of controversy in the process, both intentionally and unintentionally. Entropa attracted controversy both for its stereotyped depictions of the various EU member states and for having been a creation of Černý and two friends rather than, as Černý purported, a collaboration of 27 artists from each of the member states. Some European Union members states reacted negatively to the depiction of their country, with Bulgaria, for instance, deciding to summon the Czech Ambassador to Sofia in order to discuss the illustration of the Balkan country as a collection of squat toilets (ČTK).  This "Europe-wide hoax … reveals deeper truths" not only about the countries but "about art itself" (Gavrilova).
+
+=== Russian aesthetics ===
+After the Russian Revolution, Soviet Art came under strict ideological control. According to Esti Sheinberg, a lecturer in music at the University of Edinburgh, in her book about Russian composer Dmitri Shostakovich, Irony, Satire, Parody and the Grotesque in the Music of Shostakovich, in "the traditional Russian perception of the arts", an "interrelationship between artistic technique and ideological content is the main aesthetic criterion" (ix; cf. Blois).

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_arts_and_politics-1.md

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+---
+title: "The arts and politics"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_arts_and_politics"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:57:32.078754+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Classical music ===
+Ludwig van Beethoven did not use the original title "Ode to Freedom" of Friedrich Schiller's lyric, known in English as "Ode to Joy" (1785), in setting it to music in the final movement of his Ninth Symphony (1824), which "Napoleonic censors had forced the poet to change to 'Ode to Joy'." After the fall of the Berlin Wall, on 9 November 1989, that Christmas Day, when Leonard Bernstein conducted a performance of Beethoven's Ninth at the site of the former East German–West German border in Berlin, a concert telecast nationally in the United States, he substituted Freedom for Joy to reflect his own "personal message".
+
+=== Folk and protest music ===
+In February 1952, the United States Customs Service seized the passport of Paul Robeson, preventing him from leaving the United States to travel to the Fourth Canadian Convention of the International Union of Mine, Mill, and Smelter Workers, in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada; but, after "The convention heard Robeson sing over the telephone", the union organized "a concert on the US-Canada border". According to the account of the "Paul Robeson Centennial Celebration": "Robeson sang and spoke for 45 minutes. He introduced his first song stating 'I stand here today under great stress because I dare, as do you—all of you, to fight for peace and for a decent life for all men, women and children' … [and, accompanied by Lawrence Brown on piano,] proceeded to sing spirituals, folk songs, labour songs, and a passionate version of Old Man River, written for him in the [1920s], slowly enunciating 'show a little grit and you land in jail', underlining the fact that his government had turned the entire country into a prison for Robeson and many others."
+In the 1960s the songs of Pete Seeger, Joan Baez, Bob Dylan, and others protested further racism, war, and the military-industrial complex, continuing an American artistic tradition of political protest founded during its colonial era.
+
+=== Restrictions on live-music venues ===
+
+==== In the United States ====
+In force from July 1985 until May 2002 and considered by its opponents a Draconian "anti-music law", the Teen Dance Ordinance (TDO), imposing restrictions on clubs admitting those under the legal drinking age of 21 in Seattle, Washington, was still the subject of protracted political and legal opposition in U.S. Federal Court in early 2002, when a suit filed by the Joint Artists and Music Promotions Action Committee (JAMPAC) in 2000 was still being adjudicated. In May 2002, Judge Lasnik ruled for the City of Seattle on JAMPAC's suit, finding no Constitutional infringement of the First Amendment and deciding that the matter is a political one for the Seattle City Council to decide, not the courts; during the course of the suit, Mayor Schell's successor, Greg Nickels, a proponent of the bill, resubmitted the ordinance to the Seattle City Council, and, on 12 August 2002, the new All-Ages Dance Ordinance (AADO) replaced the TDO, but was not considered much of an improvement by its critics.
+In May 2008 a "Promoters Ordinance" proposed by the Chicago City Council aroused opposition in Chicago, Illinois, for being regarded as overly restrictive and stifling free expression.
+
+==== In the United Kingdom ====
+
+Following the implementation of the Licensing Act 2003, the London Borough of Hillingdon cited "the interest of public order and the prevention of terrorism" as reasons for expecting promoters of live music events to complete the Metropolitan Police's Form 696. Though later clarified by a police spokesperson as not "compulsory", the perceived "demand" for the information solicited on such "risk assessment" forms motivated Jon McClure, lead singer with Reverend and The Makers, to post an electronic petition in the "E-Petitions" section of the official website of Gordon Brown, the UK Prime Minister, at  Number10.gov.uk, in order to facilitate protest against what McClure alleges is "racial discrimination" occasioned by such bureaucratic constraints, which some have deemed "police authoritarianism". It begins: "We the undersigned petition the Prime Minister to Scrap the unnecessary and draconian usage of the 696 Form from London music events".  By 11 November 2008, according to Orlowski, "A dozen London boroughs [had] implemented a 'risk assessment' [Form 696] policy for live music that permits the police to ban any live music if they fail to receive personal details from the performers 14 days in advance."  Orlowski points out: The demand explicitly singles out performances and musical styles favoured by the black community: garage and R&B, and MCs and DJs. ... However all musical performances – from one man playing a guitar on up – are subject to the demands once implemented by the council. And the threat is serious: failure to comply 'may jeopardise future events by the promoter or the venue'. ... UK Music chief Feargal Sharkey ... speaking to the Department of Culture Media and Sport's hearing on venue licensing today [11 Nov. 2008] [concluded that] ... 'Live music is now a threat to the prevention of terrorism'. ... In response, Detective Superintendent Dave Eyles from the Met's clubs and vice office told us that 10,000 such Risk Assessments would be processed this year. He said they weren't compulsory: ... 'We can't demand it – we recommend that you provide it as best practice. But you're bloody silly if you don't, because you're putting your venue at risk.'  By early March 2009, over 16,000 British citizens or residents had signed McClure's E-Petition, which remained open to potential signatories until 1 December 2009.
+
+== See also ==
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+
+"Art and Politics".  "NOW's David Brancaccio talks with noted American author Kurt Vonnegut about art, politics and everything in between" on National Public Radio.  (Includes hyperlinked related programs.)
+Art for Social Change.net ("Art for Social Change is part of DigiCare Foundation and is based in the Netherlands.")
+Imagining Art and Social Change 2008 Community MusicWorks conference, co-organized by Providence Youth Arts Collaborative (Providence CityArts for Youth), Providence, Rhode Island, 28–29 March 2008.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UPRRP_College_of_Natural_Sciences-0.md

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+---
+title: "UPRRP College of Natural Sciences"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UPRRP_College_of_Natural_Sciences"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:57:25.171081+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The College of Natural Sciences of the University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras (Spanish: Universidad de Puerto Rico, Recinto de Río Piedras), was established in 1943. It is one of several colleges that make up the University of Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras campus. Facundo Bueso Sanllehí was its first dean. It is located in the city of San Juan, the capital of Puerto Rico.
+
+
+== Centers ==
+Center for Applied Tropical Ecology and Conservation (CREST-CATEC)
+Center for Nanoscale Materials
+
+
+== Facilities ==
+Animal House
+Botanical Garden
+Center for Educational Production Services
+Computing Center
+Department of Chemistry Support Facilities
+Electronics Workshop
+Field House at El Yunque (El Verde)
+Greenhouse
+Herbarium
+Instrumentation Workshop
+Machining Workshop
+Natural Sciences Library
+Zoology Museum
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website