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+title: "Anthropocene Working Group"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropocene_Working_Group"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:57:13.545922+00:00"
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+---
+
+The Anthropocene Working Group (AWG) is an interdisciplinary research group dedicated to the study of the Anthropocene as a geological time unit. It was established in 2009 as part of the Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy (SQS), a constituent body of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS). As of 2021, the research group features 37 members, with the physical geographer Simon Turner as Secretary and the geologist Colin Neil Waters as chair of the group. The late Nobel Prize-winning Paul Crutzen, who popularized the word 'Anthropocene' in 2000, had also been a member of the group until he died on January 28, 2021. The main goal of the AWG is providing scientific evidence robust enough for the Anthropocene to be formally ratified by the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) as an epoch within the Geologic time scale.
+
+== History ==
+Prior to the establishment of the Anthropocene Working Group in 2009, no research program dedicated to the formalization of the Anthropocene in the geologic time scale existed. The idea of naming the current epoch 'Anthropocene' rather than using its formal time unit, the Holocene, became popular after Paul Crutzen and Eugene Stoermer published in May 2000 an article on the IGBP Global Change Newsletter called "The 'Anthropocene'." Later in 2002, Crutzen published a commentary on Nature titled "Geology of Mankind" where he further stressed the idea "to assign the term ‘Anthropocene’ to the present, in many ways human-dominated, geological epoch, supplementing the Holocene," with starting date in the late 18th century (at the onset of the Industrial Revolution). Soon after Paul Crutzen published his influential articles, a debate over the beginning of the Anthropocene took place between supporters of the Early Anthropocene Hypothesis, a thesis originally promoted in 2003 by the palaeoclimatologist William Ruddiman dating the beginning of the Anthropocene as far back as the Neolithic Revolution, and supporters of more recent starting dates, from  European Colonization of the Americas, to the late 18th century, to the post-WWII Great Acceleration.
+The discussion over the beginning of the Anthropocene was crucial for the 'stratigraphic turn' that the Anthropocene debate took in the following years. In February 2008, Jan Zalasiewicz and other members of the Stratigraphy Commission of the Geological Society of London published a paper that considered the possibility to "amplify and extend the discussion of the effects referred to by Crutzen and then apply the same criteria used to set up new epochs to ask whether there really is justification or need for a new term, and if so, where and how its boundary might be placed." The article raised the possibility of studying the Anthropocene as a discrete geological unit—a possibility that later led to the establishment of the AWG.
+In 2009, the Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy established an Anthropocene Working Group to "examine the status, hierarchical level and definition of the Anthropocene as a potential new formal division of the Geological Time Scale." Some authors have labelled this moment as 'stratigraphic turn' or 'geological turn', in that the establishment of the AWG acknowledged the Anthropocene as an object of geological interest in the scientific community. The AWG has been actively publishing ever since then.
+The first in-person meeting of the AWG took place in October 2014 at Haus der Kulturen der Welt, Berlin (HKW), with several other work meetings at HKW to follow in subsequent years. The AWG became a close collaborator of the HKW's and Max Planck Institute for the History of Science's decade long Anthropocene Project. Within the framework of that project, HKW was able to acquired in 2018 about 850 000 Euros financial support for a systematic assessment of potential candidates for the Anthropocene's Global boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) by the AWG through means of a special appropriation from the German Bundestag. While large parts of the funding sum were dedicated to GSSP research, the AWG was obliged to contribute to HKW's Evidence & Experiment program to publicly share and discuss their research findings.
+In 2020, Colin Waters, previously secretary of the AWG, became the new chair, replacing the paleobiologist Jan Zalasiewicz who had previously been chair of the AWG from 2009 to 2020, while Simon Turner became the new secretary of the group. In 2024, Jan Zalasiewicz replaced Colin Waters again as chair of the AWG, while Simon Turner remained in his role as secretary of the working group.
+In 2023, the AWG submitted a proposal to define the Anthropocene epoch on the International Chronostratigraphic Chart, starting from 1952 CE based on the high levels of Plutonium as a marker.
+In 2024, academics from the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) voted on a proporsal to formally define the Anthropocene as a new epoch. The proposal was rejected by a 12 to 4 vote in March.

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+title: "Anthropocene Working Group"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropocene_Working_Group"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:57:13.545922+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Research ==
+The Anthropocene Working Group is one of four workings groups part of the Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy (the other three being the Pleistocene–Holocene boundary working group, Middle/Late Pleistocene boundary working group, and Early/Middle Pleistocene boundary working group). The AWG members (including Paul Crutzen, who was awarded the Nobel prize for chemistry in 1995 for his researcher on ozone depletion; John McNeill, a pioneering researcher in the field of environmental history; and Naomi Oreskes, author of the book Merchants of Doubt) have diverse disciplinary backgrounds, ranging from international law, archaeology, and history to philosophy, natural science, and geography. Since no direct funding supports the research program, communication among members happens mostly through email, whereas meetings are usually founded by hosting institutions.
+As for most of the epochs in the Phanerozoic (the current Eon, starting 539 million years ago), determining the beginning of the Anthropocene by locating and agreeing upon its lower boundary is a necessary step in its process of formal recognition as a geochronological/chronostratigraphic unit. A lower boundary is defined by locating a GSSP (informally known as 'golden spike') in the stratigraphic section of a stage, the chronostratigraphic taxonomic equivalent of an epoch. Alternatively, if a 'golden spike' cannot be located, a GSSA can be agreed upon, although this methodology is usually implemented for Precambrian boundaries. There is a specific set of rules that a GSSP must fulfill in order to be recognized as a valid primary geologic marker.
+A central object of research for the AWG is establishing when, where, and how to locate the lower boundary of the Anthropocene. This means assigning a starting date to the Anthropocene (and an end to the Holocene), locating primary as well as auxiliary markers defining Anthropocene geologic record, and determining the proper methodology to implement in the overall process of formalization (GSSP or GSSA, what proxies to use as markers, etc.). Although debates on the taxonomical level of the Anthropocene in the chronostratigraphic chart / geologic time scale (Stage/Age, Series/Epoch, or System/Period) have occurred, the AWG has been considering the Anthropocene to best fit the requirements to be taxonomically recognized as an epoch.
+In January 2014, the Geological Society of London published A Stratigraphical Basis for the Anthropocene, a collection of scientific essays dedicated to assessing and analyzing the anthropogenic signatures defining the Anthropocene, and its requirements to be recognized as a distinct chronostratigraphic unit from the Holocene. The volume constitutes a landmark publication for the AWG, collecting a preliminary body of scientific evidence for the Anthropocene, and establishing research areas and trajectories retraced in the following years.
+In February 2019, the AWG published The Anthropocene as a Geological Time Unit: A Guide to the Scientific Evidence and Current Debate. It represents an extensive summary of evidence collected supporting the case of formalization of the Anthropocene as a geological time unit. The synthesis comprehends evidence ranging from stratigraphy, lithostratigraphy, mineralogy, biostratigraphy, chemostratigraphy, to climatology, Earth system science, and archaeology. The monograph also links the Anthropocene to the question concerning anthropogenic climate change, and the role of human technology and the technosphere in impacting the functioning of the Earth system. In the first chapter, the authors also provide a genealogy of the term 'Anthropocene,' and a statement of the role of the AWG as a scientific research program.
+In May, 2019, the AWG completed a binding vote determining two major research questions:
+
+"Should the Anthropocene be treated as a formal chrono-stratigraphic unit defined by a GSSP?"
+"Should the primary guide for the base of the Anthropocene be one of the stratigraphic signals around the mid-twentieth century of the Common Era?"
+Both questions received a positive response, with 29 votes in favor, 4 votes against, and no abstention (33 votes received out of 34 potential voting members).
+On July 11, 2023, the AWG proposed Crawford Lake, Canada as GSSP candidate site of the Anthropocene series in a joint press conference with the Max Planck Society.
+
+== Media ==
+
+In 2016 seven prominent members of the AWG – Erle Ellis, John McNeill, Eric Odada, Andrew Revkin, Will Steffen, Davor Vidas and Jan Zalasiewicz –  were interviewed in the feature documentary Anthropocene which showed on campuses and at film festivals worldwide and helped the term gain public attention. The documentary was the first feature-length film about the new epoch, and was described by Earth.com as one of the top ten documentaries to help raise environmental awareness. While the seven AWG members formed a broad consensus about the Anthropocene's history and the term's significance, they took contrasting views when invited by director Steve Bradshaw to consider the Anthropocene either as a tragedy – with extinctions and upheavals – or as a dark comedy.
+
+== See also ==
+Research program
+Geochronology
+Chronostratigraphy
+List of GSSPs
+History of geology
+Attribution of recent climate change
+Human ecology
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faculty_of_Natural_Sciences,_Imperial_College_London-0.md

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+title: "Faculty of Natural Sciences, Imperial College London"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faculty_of_Natural_Sciences,_Imperial_College_London"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:57:14.768081+00:00"
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+---
+
+The Faculty of Natural Sciences is one of four faculties of Imperial College London in London, England. It was formed in 2001 from the former Royal College of Science, a constituent college of Imperial College which dated back to 1848, and the faculty largely consists of the original departments of the college. Undergraduate teaching occurs for all departments at the South Kensington campus, with research being split between South Kensington and the new innovation campus at White City.
+Students who study at the departments of the Faculty are represented by the Royal College of Science Union, a constituent union of the college union which caters specifically to students on natural science courses. Graduates who obtain an undergraduate degree, either BSc or MSci, from the faculty are awarded the Associateship of the Royal College of Science (ARCS) as an additional degree.
+
+
+== History ==
+
+The origins of the faculty lie in the Royal College of Chemistry, which, after being founded in 1845, moved to a new site in South Kensington in the early 1870s. Incorporated into the Normal School of Science, the college was later renamed the Royal College of Science in 1890, and in 1907 became a constituent college of the newly formed Imperial College of Science and Technology.
+In 2001, Imperial was restructured to form four new faculties, including the faculties of Physical Sciences and Life Sciences, which took over the role of the Royal College of Science. These faculties were later re-merged over the course of 2005-2006 to form the Faculty of Natural Sciences, which comprises the same departments as the original Royal College of Science.
+
+
+== Departments ==
+The faculty includes five academic departments:
+
+Chemistry
+Mathematics
+Physics, The Blackett Laboratory
+Life Sciences
+Centre for Environmental Policy
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Imperial College Faculty of Natural Sciences website

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+title: "Natural Sciences Collections Association"
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+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:57:16.058320+00:00"
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+---
+
+The Natural Sciences Collections Association (NatSCA) is a United Kingdom based membership organisation and charitable organization (No.1098156) run by volunteers from the membership. NatSCA's mission is "to promote and support natural science collections, the institutions that house them and the people that work with them, in order to improve collections care, understanding, accessibility and enjoyment for all." The subject specialist network promotes research and exchange of ideas, advances in technical and ethical standards, and raises the public profile of the conservation and preservation of natural science collections and objects.
+The organisation describes their focus as:
+
+Community – developing an open, friendly and accessible network for sharing information, experience and skills.
+Support – facilitating the professional development of stakeholders in natural science collections.
+Standards – identifying and promoting good quality practice in the care and use of natural science collections.
+Promoting collections – increasing awareness of the scientific and cultural value of natural science collections.
+Advocacy – challenging neglect of collections and lobbying for the appropriate resourcing of collections for their care and sustainable use.
+
+
+== History ==
+The Natural Sciences Collections Association was founded in April 2003 from the merger of Natural Sciences Conservation Group (NCSG) and Biological Curator's Group (BCG) at a meeting in the Manchester Museum on 7 April 2003. The organisation has a Memorandum of Understanding with the Geological Curators' Group and Society for the Preservation of Natural History Collections.
+On 14 May 2020 Isla Gladstone (based at Bristol City Museum and Art Gallery) was elected chair, replacing Paolo Viscardi (based at the National Museum of Ireland – Natural History) who was chair for two terms since June 2014.
+
+
+== Patrons ==
+In 2013, the charity announced Alice Roberts, Iain Stewart and Ben Garrod as patrons.
+
+
+== Publications ==
+The Natural Sciences Collections Association publishes an annual peer-reviewed academic journal, the Journal of Natural Science Collections as well as occasional papers under the title of Notes & Comments and a blog. Previous publications include NatSCA News.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Natural Sciences Collections Association website

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+title: "Nature (journal)"
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
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+
+Nature is a British weekly international scientific journal publishing peer-reviewed research across the natural sciences, including biology, physics, chemistry, the earth sciences, and related interdisciplinary fields. It operates editorial offices in London, the United States, continental Europe, and Asia under the international scientific publishing company Springer Nature. According to the 2022 Journal Citation Reports, Nature had one of the highest impact factors among multidisciplinary science journals (50.5), reflecting its strong citation influence within the scientific literature; some commentators also regard it as among the most influential scientific journals worldwide. In 2007, Nature (together with Science) received the Prince of Asturias Award for Communications and Humanity. As of 2012, it claimed an online readership of about three million unique readers per month.
+Founded in the autumn of 1869, Nature was first circulated by Norman Lockyer and Alexander MacMillan as a public forum for scientific innovations. The mid-20th century facilitated an editorial expansion for the journal; Nature redoubled its efforts in explanatory and scientific journalism. The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the creation of a network of editorial offices outside of Britain and the establishment of ten new supplementary, specialty publications (e.g. Nature Materials). Since the late 2000s, dedicated editorial and current affairs columns have been created weekly, and electoral endorsements are featured. The primary source of the journal remains, as established at its founding, research scientists; editing standards are primarily concerned with technical readability.
+The main research published in Nature consists mostly of papers (articles or letters) in lightly-edited form. They are highly technical and dense, but, due to imposed text limits, they are typically summaries of larger works. Fewer than 8% of submitted papers are accepted for publication. Nature’s research articles are widely cited and often attract international attention, and the journal has occasionally been involved in disputes and academic controversies, such as debates over retractions, peer-review processes, and methodological standards.
+In addition to primary research papers, Nature publishes commentary, analysis, news, and features on topics such as research funding, science policy, ethical issues in science, and notable scientific developments; there are also sections on books, arts, and short science fiction stories. Innovations or breakthroughs in any scientific or technological field are featured in the journal as spotlight articles, which are news or magazine-style papers and therefore do not receive similar recognition as research articles. Some spotlight articles are also funded by partners or sponsors.
+
+== History ==
+
+=== Background ===
+The huge progress in science and mathematics during the 19th century was recorded in journals written mostly in German or French, as well as in English. Britain underwent enormous technological and industrial changes and advances, particularly in the latter half of the 19th century. The most respected scientific journals of this time were the refereed journals of the Royal Society, which had published many of the great works from Isaac Newton and Michael Faraday to Charles Darwin. In addition, the number of popular science periodicals doubled from the 1850s to the 1860s. According to the editors of these popular science magazines, the publications were designed to serve as "organs of science", in essence, a means of connecting the public to the scientific world.
+Nature, first created in 1869, was not the first magazine of its kind in Britain. One journal to precede Nature was Recreative Science: A Record and Remembrancer of Intellectual Observation, which, founded in 1859, began as a natural history magazine and progressed to include more physical observational science and technical subjects and less natural history. The journal's name changed from its original title to Intellectual Observer: A Review of Natural History, Microscopic Research, and Recreative Science and then to the Student and Intellectual Observer of Science, Literature, and Art. While Recreative Science had attempted to include more physical sciences such as astronomy and archaeology, the Intellectual Observer broadened itself further to include literature and art as well. Similar to Recreative Science was the scientific journal Popular Science Review, created in 1862, which covered different fields of science by creating subsections titled "Scientific Summary" or "Quarterly Retrospect", with book reviews and commentary on the latest scientific works and publications. Two other journals produced in England prior to the development of Nature were the Quarterly Journal of Science and Scientific Opinion, established in 1864 and 1868, respectively. The journal most closely related to Nature in its editorship and format was The Reader, created in 1863; the publication mixed science with literature and art in an attempt to reach an audience outside of the scientific community, similar to Popular Science Review.
+These similar journals all ultimately failed. The Popular Science Review survived longest, lasting 20 years and ending its publication in 1881; Recreative Science ceased publication as the Student and Intellectual Observer in 1871. The Quarterly Journal, after undergoing a number of editorial changes, ceased publication in 1885. The Reader terminated in 1867, and finally, Scientific Opinion lasted a mere 2 years, until June 1870.
+
+=== Creation ===

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+title: "Nature (journal)"
+chunk: 2/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:57:17.381596+00:00"
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+---
+
+Not long after the conclusion of The Reader, a former editor, Norman Lockyer, decided to create a new scientific journal titled Nature, taking its name from a line by William Wordsworth: "To the solid ground of nature trusts the Mind that builds for aye". First owned and published by Alexander Macmillan, Nature was similar to its predecessors in its attempt to "provide cultivated readers with an accessible forum for reading about advances in scientific knowledge." Janet Browne has proposed that "far more than any other science journal of the period, Nature was conceived, born, and raised to serve polemic purpose." Many of the early editions of Nature consisted of articles written by members of a group that called itself the X Club, a group of scientists known for having liberal, progressive, and somewhat controversial scientific beliefs for their time. Initiated by Thomas Henry Huxley, the group consisted of such important scientists as Joseph Dalton Hooker, Herbert Spencer, and John Tyndall, along with another five scientists and mathematicians; these scientists were all avid supporters of Darwin's theory of evolution as common descent, a theory which, during the latter half of the 19th century, received a great deal of criticism among more conservative groups of scientists. Perhaps it was in part its scientific liberality that made Nature a longer-lasting success than its predecessors. John Maddox, editor of Nature from 1966 to 1973 and from 1980 to 1995, suggested at a celebratory dinner for the journal's centennial edition that perhaps it was the journalistic qualities of Nature that drew readers in; "journalism" Maddox states, "is a way of creating a sense of community among people who would otherwise be isolated from each other. This is what Lockyer's journal did from the start." In addition, Maddox mentions that the financial backing of the journal in its first years by the Macmillan family also allowed the journal to flourish and develop more freely than scientific journals before it.
+
+==== Editors ====
+Norman Lockyer, the founder of Nature, was a professor at Imperial College. He was succeeded as editor in 1919 by Sir Richard Gregory. Gregory helped to establish Nature in the international scientific community. His obituary by the Royal Society stated: "Gregory was always very interested in the international contacts of science, and in the columns of Nature, he always gave generous space to accounts of the activities of the International Scientific Unions." During the years 1945 to 1973, editorship of Nature changed three times, first in 1945 to A. J. V. Gale and L. J. F. Brimble (who in 1958 became the sole editor), then to John Maddox in 1965, and finally to David Davies in 1973. In 1980, Maddox returned as editor and retained his position until 1995. Philip Campbell became editor-in-chief of all Nature publications until 2018. Magdalena Skipper has since become editor-in-chief.
+
+==== Expansion and development ====
+In 1970, Nature first opened its Washington office; other branches opened in New York in 1985, Tokyo and Munich in 1987, Paris in 1989, San Francisco in 2001, Boston in 2004, and Hong Kong in 2005. In 1971, under John Maddox's editorship, the journal split into Nature Physical Sciences (published on Mondays), Nature New Biology (published on Wednesdays), and Nature (published on Fridays). In 1974, Maddox was no longer editor, and the journals were merged into Nature. Starting in the 1980s, the journal underwent a great deal of expansion, launching over ten new journals. These new journals comprise Nature Research, which was created in 1999 under the name Nature Publishing Group and includes Nature, Nature Research Journals, Stockton Press Specialist Journals and Macmillan Reference (renamed NPG Reference). In 1996, Nature created its own website and in 1999 Nature Publishing Group began its series of Nature Reviews. Some articles and papers are available for free on the Nature website, while others require the purchase of premium access to the site. As of 2012, Nature claimed an online readership of about 3 million unique readers per month.
+On 30 October 2008, Nature endorsed an American presidential candidate for the first time when it supported Barack Obama during his campaign in America's 2008 presidential election. In October 2012, an Arabic edition of the magazine was launched in partnership with King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology. As of the time it was released, it had about 10,000 subscribers. On 2 December 2014, Nature announced that it would allow its subscribers and a group of selected media outlets to share links allowing free, "read-only" access to content from its journals. These articles are presented using the digital rights management system ReadCube (which is funded by the Macmillan subsidiary Digital Science), and does not allow readers to download, copy, print, or otherwise distribute the content. While it does, to an extent, provide free online access to articles, it is not a true open access scheme due to its restrictions on re-use and distribution. On 15 January 2015, details of a proposed merger with Springer Science+Business Media were announced.
+In May 2015, it came under the umbrella of Springer Nature, by the merger of Springer Science+Business Media and Holtzbrinck Publishing Group's Nature Publishing Group, Palgrave Macmillan, and Macmillan Education. Since 2011, the journal has published Nature's 10 "people who mattered" during the year, as part of their annual review.
+
+== Publication in Nature ==

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+title: "Nature (journal)"
+chunk: 3/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
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+
+According to Science, another academic journal, being published in Nature has been known to carry a certain level of prestige in academia. In particular, empirical papers are often highly cited, which can lead to promotions, grant funding, and attention from the mainstream media. Because of these positive feedback effects, competition among scientists to publish in high-level journals like Nature and its closest competitor, Science, can be very fierce. Nature's impact factor, a measure of how many citations a journal generates in other works, was 42.778 in 2019 (as measured by Thomson ISI). However, as with many journals, most papers receive far fewer citations than the impact factor would indicate. Nature's journal impact factor carries a long tail.
+Studies of methodological quality and reliability have found that some high-prestige journals, including Nature, "publish significantly substandard structures", and overall "reliability of published research works in several fields may be decreasing with increasing journal rank".
+As with most other professional scientific journals, papers undergo an initial screening by the editor, followed by peer review. In this process, the editor selects several other scientists to read and critique articles, based on their expertise with the subject matter but who have no connection to the research under review. These critiques are then given to the original author, who makes revisions based on feedback. In the case of Nature, articles are generally sent for peer review if it is decided that they deal with a topical subject and are sufficiently ground-breaking in that particular field. As a consequence, the majority of submitted papers are rejected without peer review.
+According to Nature's original mission statement:
+
+It is intended, FIRST, to place before the general public the grand results of Scientific Work and Scientific Discovery; and to urge the claims of Science to a more general recognition in Education and in Daily Life; and, SECONDLY, to aid Scientific men themselves, by giving early information of all advances made in any branch of Natural knowledge throughout the world, and by affording them an opportunity of discussing the various Scientific questions which arise from time to time.
+This was later revised to:
+
+First, to serve scientists through prompt publication of significant advances in any branch of science, and to provide a forum for the reporting and discussion of news and issues concerning science. Second, to ensure that the results of science are rapidly disseminated to the public throughout the world, in a fashion that conveys their significance for knowledge, culture and daily life.
+
+=== Landmark papers ===
+Many of the most significant scientific breakthroughs in modern history have been first published in Nature. The following is a selection of scientific breakthroughs published in Nature, all of which had far-reaching consequences, and the citation for the article in which they were published.
+
+Wave nature of particles (Davisson–Germer experiment) — C. Davisson and L. H. Germer (1927). "The scattering of electrons by a single crystal of nickel" (PDF). Nature. 119 (2998): 558–560. Bibcode:1927Natur.119..558D. doi:10.1038/119558a0. S2CID 4104602.
+The neutron — J. Chadwick (1932). "Possible existence of a neutron". Nature. 129 (3252): 312. Bibcode:1932Natur.129Q.312C. doi:10.1038/129312a0. S2CID 4076465.
+Nuclear fission — L. Meitner and O. R. Frisch (1939). "Disintegration of uranium by neutrons: a new type of nuclear reaction". Nature. 143 (3615): 239–240. Bibcode:1939Natur.143..239M. doi:10.1038/143239a0. S2CID 4113262.
+The structure of DNA — J. D. Watson and F. H. C. Crick (1953). "Molecular structure of Nucleic Acids: A structure for deoxyribose nucleic acid". Nature. 171 (4356): 737–738. Bibcode:1953Natur.171..737W. doi:10.1038/171737a0. PMID 13054692. S2CID 4253007.
+First molecular protein structure (myoglobin) — J. C. Kendrew; G. Bodo; H. M. Dintzis; R. G. Parrish; H. Wyckoff; D. C. Phillips (1958). "A three-dimensional model of the myoglobin molecule obtained by X-ray analysis". Nature. 181 (4610): 662–666. Bibcode:1958Natur.181..662K. doi:10.1038/181662a0. PMID 13517261. S2CID 4162786.
+Plate tectonics — J. Tuzo Wilson (1966). "Did the Atlantic close and then re-open?". Nature. 211 (5050): 676–681. Bibcode:1966Natur.211..676W. doi:10.1038/211676a0. S2CID 4226266.
+Pulsars — Hewish, A.; Bell, S. J.; Pilkington, J. D. H.; Scott, P. F.; Collins, R. A. (1968). "Observation of a Rapidly Pulsating Radio Source". Nature. 217 (5130): 709–713. Bibcode:1968Natur.217..709H. doi:10.1038/217709a0. S2CID 4277613.
+The ozone hole — J. C. Farman, B. G. Gardiner and J. D. Shanklin (1985). "Large losses of total ozone in Antarctica reveal seasonal ClOx/NOx interaction". Nature. 315 (6016): 207–210. Bibcode:1985Natur.315..207F. doi:10.1038/315207a0. S2CID 4346468.
+First cloning of a mammal (Dolly the sheep) — Wilmut, I.; Schnieke, A. E.; McWhir, J.; Kind, A. J.; Campbell, K. H. S. (1997). "Viable offspring derived from fetal and adult mammalian cells". Nature. 385 (6619): 810–813. Bibcode:1997Natur.385..810W. doi:10.1038/385810a0. PMID 9039911. S2CID 4260518.
+The human genome — International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium (2001). "Initial sequencing and analysis of the human genome". Nature. 409 (6822): 860–921. Bibcode:2001Natur.409..860L. doi:10.1038/35057062. hdl:2027.42/62798. PMID 11237011.
+
+=== Controversies ===
+Nature has famously rejected papers that later became foundational to modern science. For example, Enrico Fermi's breakthrough paper on the weak interaction theory of beta decay was rejected by Nature because it was considered too remote from reality. (Fermi's paper was instead published by Zeitschrift für Physik in 1934.) In another example, Nature initially rejected Paul Lauterbur and Peter Mansfield's research on MRI, which would later win them the Nobel Prize in Medicine. Only after Lauterbur appealed the rejection did Nature publish their work.

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+---
+title: "Nature (journal)"
+chunk: 4/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(journal)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:57:17.381596+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In a 2003 editorial, "Coping with Peer Rejection", Nature acknowledged several other rejection missteps:[T]here are unarguable faux pas in our history. These include the rejection of Cherenkov radiation, Hideki Yukawa's meson, work on photosynthesis by Johann Deisenhofer, Robert Huber and Hartmut Michel, and the initial rejection (but eventual acceptance) of Stephen Hawking's black-hole radiation.
+The journal has also faced scrutiny for not following editorial procedure. For example, before publishing Watson and Crick's 1953 paper on the structure of DNA, Nature did not send the paper to peer review. John Maddox, Nature's editor, stated: "The Watson and Crick paper was not peer-reviewed by Nature ... the paper could not have been refereed: its correctness is self-evident. No referee working in the field ... could have kept his mouth shut once he saw the structure."
+In June 1988, Nature published a controversial and seemingly anomalous paper detailing Jacques Benveniste and his team's work studying water memory. The paper concluded that less than a single molecule of antibody diluted in water could trigger an immune response in human basophils, defying the physical law of mass action. The paper gained substantial media attention in Paris, France, chiefly because their research sought funding from homeopathic medicine companies. Public inquiry prompted Nature to mandate an extensive and stringent experimental replication in Benveniste's lab, through which his team's results were refuted.
+The journal has also been criticised for its social stances. In 2017, Nature published an editorial entitled "Removing Statues of Historical Figures Risks Whitewashing History: Science Must Acknowledge Mistakes as it Marks its Past". The article argued against removing monuments to scientists with controversial legacies. Specifically, the editorial cited examples of J. Marion Sims, the 'Father of gynecology', who experimented on African American female slaves who were unable to give informed consent, and Thomas Parran Jr., who oversaw the Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment. The editorial made the case that removing monuments could result in "whitewashing history" and stated, "Instead of removing painful reminders, perhaps these should be supplemented." The article drew condemnation, particularly on social media, and was quickly modified by Nature. Nature acknowledged that the article, as originally written, was "offensive and poorly worded" and published selected letters of response. The controversy was intensified as the editorial was published shortly after the violent Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville, Virginia. In response, several scientists called for a boycott. On 18 September 2017, the editorial was updated and edited by Philip Campbell, the editor of the journal.
+In April of 2020, the journal apologized for its initial coverage of the COVID-19 pandemic in which it linked China and the city of Wuhan with the outbreak, which may have led to racist attacks.
+Before the election for the 46th President of the United States, Nature published an editorial entitled "Why Nature Supports Joe Biden for US President". Political scientists Ffloyd Jiuyun Zhang found that this decreased trust in Nature and in the institution of science more broadly. Philosopher of science Byron Hyde argues that repeated presidential endorsements since 2012 were a mistake and that any benefits are overshadowed by the loss of public trust.
+
+==== Retractions ====
+From 2000 to 2001, a series of five fraudulent papers by Jan Hendrik Schön were published in Nature. The papers, about semiconductors, were revealed to contain falsified data and other scientific fraud. In 2003, Nature retracted the papers. The Schön scandal was not limited to Nature; other prominent journals, such as Science and Physical Review, also retracted papers by Schön.
+In 2024, a paper titled "Pluripotency of Mesenchymal Stem Cells Derived from Adult Marrow", published in 2002, was retracted due to concerns raised regarding some of the panels shown in a figure, making it the most-cited retracted paper ever.
+
+== Science fiction ==
+In 1999, Nature began publishing science fiction short stories. The brief "vignettes" are printed in a series called "Futures". The stories appeared in 1999 and 2000, again in 2005 and 2006, and have appeared weekly since July 2007. Sister publication Nature Physics also printed stories in 2007 and 2008. In 2005, Nature was awarded the European Science Fiction Society's Best Publisher award for the "Futures" series. One hundred of the Nature stories between 1999 and 2006 were published as the collection Futures from Nature in 2008. Another collection, Futures from Nature 2, was published in 2014.
+
+== Publication ==
+
+Nature is edited and published in the United Kingdom by a division of the international scientific publishing company Springer Nature that publishes academic journals, magazines, online databases, and services in science and medicine. Nature has offices in London, New York City, San Francisco, Washington, D.C., Boston, Tokyo, Hong Kong, Paris, Munich, and Basingstoke. Nature Portfolio also publishes other specialized journals, including Nature Neuroscience, Nature Biotechnology, Nature Methods, the Nature Clinical Practice series of journals, Nature Structural & Molecular Biology, Nature Chemistry, and the Nature Reviews series of journals.
+Since 2005, each issue of Nature has been accompanied by a Nature Podcast featuring highlights from the issue and interviews with the articles' authors and the journalists covering the research. It is presented by Kerri Smith and features interviews with scientists on the latest research, as well as news reports from Nature's editors and journalists. The Nature Podcast was founded – and the first 100 episodes were produced and presented – by clinician and virologist Chris Smith of Cambridge and The Naked Scientists.
+Nature Portfolio actively supports the self-archiving process and, in 2002, was one of the first publishers to allow authors to post their contributions on their personal websites by requesting an exclusive licence to publish, rather than requiring authors to transfer copyright. In December 2007, Nature Publishing Group introduced the Creative Commons attribution-non-commercial-share alike unported licence for those articles in Nature journals that are publishing the primary sequence of an organism's genome for the first time.
+In 2008, a collection of articles from Nature was edited by John S. Partington under the title H. G. Wells in Nature, 1893–1946: A Reception Reader and published by Peter Lang.
+
+== Communications journals ==
+Nature also publishes a number of journals in different disciplines, all prefixed with "Communications", which complement their other journals. These include:
+
+Communications Biology
+Communications Chemistry
+Communications Earth & Environment
+Communications Engineering
+Communications Materials
+Communications Medicine
+Communications Physics
+Communications Psychology
+
+== References ==
+
+== General bibliography ==
+Baldwin, Melinda (2016). Making Nature: The History of a Scientific Journal. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226261454.
+Barton, R. (1996). "Just Before Nature: The Purposes of Science and the Purposes of Popularization in Some English Popular Science Journals of the 1860s". Annals of Science. 55 (1): 1–33. doi:10.1080/00033799800200101. PMID 11619805.
+Browne, J. (2002). Charles Darwin: The Power of Place. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Incorporated. ISBN 978-0691114392.
+
+== External links ==
+
+Official website 
+Freely available scans of volumes: 1–112 (1869–1923)
+Nature Index
+For €9500, Nature journals will now make your paper free to read

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+---
+title: "Outline of natural science"
+chunk: 1/12
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_natural_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:57:12.306970+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to natural science:
+Natural science – a major branch of science that tries to explain, and predict, nature's phenomena based on empirical evidence. In natural science, hypothesis must be verified scientifically to be regarded as scientific theory.  Validity, accuracy, and social mechanisms ensuring quality control, such as peer review and repeatability of findings, are amongst the criteria and methods used for this purpose. Natural science can be broken into 2 main branches: life science, and physical science. Each of these branches, and all of their sub-branches, are referred to as natural sciences.
+
+== Overview ==
+Natural science can be described as all of the following:
+
+Branch of science – systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe.
+Major category of academic disciplines – an academic discipline is focused study in one academic field or profession. A discipline incorporates expertise, people, projects, communities, challenges, studies, inquiry, and research areas that are strongly associated with academic areas of study or areas of professional practice. For example, the branches of science are commonly referred to as the scientific disciplines. For instance, Gravitation is strongly associated with the discipline of physics, and is considered to be part of that disciplinary knowledge.
+
+== Branches of natural science ==
+
+=== Physical science ===
+
+Physical science – branch of natural science that studies non-living systems, in contrast to the biological sciences. It in turn has many branches, each referred to as a "physical science", together called the "physical sciences". However, the term "physical" creates an unintended, somewhat arbitrary distinction, since many branches of physical science also study biological phenomena (organic chemistry, for example).
+
+==== Astronomy ====
+Astronomy – studies the universe beyond Earth, including its formation and development, and the evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology, and motion of celestial objects (such as galaxies, planets, etc.) and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth (such as the cosmic background radiation).
+Astrobiology – study of evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe—also known as exobiology, exopaleontology, and bioastronomy
+Astrodynamics – application of ballistics and celestial mechanics to the practical problems concerning the motion of rockets and other spacecraft.
+Astrophysics – study of the physical aspects of celestial objects.
+Astrometry – branch of astronomy that involves precise measurements of the positions and movements of stars and other celestially  bodies.
+Cosmology – discipline that deals with the nature of the Universe as a whole.
+Extragalactic astronomy – branch of astronomy concerned with objects outside our own Milky Way Galaxy
+Galactic astronomy – study of our own Milky Way galaxy and all its contents.
+Physical cosmology – study of the largest-scale structures and dynamics of the universe and is concerned with fundamental questions about its formation and evolution.
+Planetary science – scientific study of planets (including Earth), moons, and planetary systems, in particular those of the Solar System and the processes that form them.
+Stellar astronomy – natural science that deals with the study of celestial objects (such as stars, planets, comets, nebulae, star clusters, and galaxies) and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth (such as cosmic background radiation)

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+---
+title: "Outline of natural science"
+chunk: 2/12
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_natural_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:57:12.306970+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Physics ====
+Physics – physical science that studies matter and its motion through space-time, and related concepts such as energy and force.
+Acoustics – study of mechanical waves in solids, liquids, and gases (such as vibration and sound)
+Agrophysics – study of physics applied to agroecosystems
+Soil physics – study of soil physical properties and processes.
+Atmospheric physics – study of the application of physics to the atmosphere
+Atomic, molecular, and optical physics – study of how matter and light interact
+Biophysics – study of physical processes relating to biology
+Medical physics – application of physics concepts, theories and methods to medicine.
+Neurophysics – branch of biophysics dealing with the nervous system.
+Chemical physics – branch of physics that studies chemical processes from the point of view of physics.
+Computational physics – study and implementation of numerical algorithms to solve problems in physics for which a quantitative theory already exists.
+Condensed matter physics – study of the physical properties of condensed phases of matter.
+Cryogenics – cryogenics is the study of the production of very low temperature (below −150 °C, −238 °F or 123K) and the behavior of materials at those temperatures.
+Dynamics – study of the causes of motion and changes in motion
+Econophysics – interdisciplinary research field, applying theories and methods originally developed by physicists in order to solve problems in economics
+Electromagnetism – branch of science concerned with the forces that occur between electrically charged particles.
+Geophysics – the physics of the Earth and its environment in space; also the study of the Earth using quantitative physical methods
+Materials physics – use of physics to describe materials in many different ways such as force, heat, light and mechanics.
+Mathematical physics – application of mathematics to problems in physics and the development of mathematical methods for such applications and for the formulation of physical theories.
+Mechanics – branch of physics concerned with the behavior of physical bodies when subjected to forces or displacements, and the subsequent effects of the bodies on their environment.
+Biomechanics – study of the structure and function of biological systems such as humans, animals, plants, organs, and cells by means of the methods of mechanics.
+Classical mechanics – one of the two major sub-fields of mechanics, which is concerned with the set of physical laws describing the motion of bodies under the action of a system of forces.
+Continuum mechanics – branch of mechanics that deals with the analysis of the kinematics and the mechanical behavior of materials modeled as a continuous mass rather than as discrete particles.
+Fluid mechanics – study of fluids and the forces on them.
+Quantum mechanics – branch of physics dealing with physical phenomena where the action is on the order of the Planck constant.
+Thermodynamics – branch of physical science concerned with heat and its relation to other forms of energy and work.
+Nuclear physics – field of physics that studies the building blocks and interactions of atomic nuclei.
+Optics – branch of physics which involves the behavior and properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it.
+Particle physics – branch of physics that studies the existence and interactions of particles that are the constituents of what is usually referred to as matter or radiation.
+Psychophysics – quantitatively investigates the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they affect.
+Plasma physics – state of matter similar to gas in which a certain portion of the particles are ionized.
+Polymer physics – field of physics that studies polymers, their fluctuations, mechanical properties, as well as the kinetics of reactions involving degradation and polymerisation of polymers and monomers respectively.
+Quantum physics – branch of physics dealing with physical phenomena where the action is on the order of the Planck constant.
+Relativity – branch of physics dealing with the mechanics of objects that approach the speed of light.
+Statics – branch of mechanics concerned with the analysis of loads (force, torque/moment) on physical systems in static equilibrium, that is, in a state where the relative positions of subsystems do not vary over time, or where components and structures are at a constant velocity.
+Solid state physics – study of rigid matter, or solids, through methods such as quantum mechanics, crystallography, electromagnetism, and metallurgy.
+Vehicle dynamics – dynamics of vehicles, here assumed to be ground vehicles.

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+---
+title: "Outline of natural science"
+chunk: 11/12
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_natural_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:57:12.306970+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+History of mycology – history of the study of fungi
+History of oceanography – history of the study of the ocean, including ocean life, environment, geography, weather, and other aspects influencing the ocean
+History of oncology – history of the study of cancer processes, including virus or mutation oncogenesis, angiogenesis and tissues remoldings
+History of population biology – history of the study of groups of conspecific organisms, including
+History of population ecology – history of the study of how population dynamics and extinction
+History of population genetics – history of the study of changes in gene frequencies in populations of organisms
+Pathobiology or pathology – history of the study of diseases, and the causes, processes, nature, and development of disease
+History of parasitology – history of the study of parasites and parasitism
+History of pharmacology – history of the study and practical application of preparation, use, and effects of drugs and synthetic medicines
+History of physiology – history of the study of the functioning of living organisms and the organs and parts of living organisms
+History of immunology –
+History of kinesiology – history of the Kinesiology, also known as human kinetics, is the scientific study of human movement
+History of neurobiology – history of the study of the nervous system, including anatomy, physiology and pathology
+History of neuroscience – history of the interdisciplinary science that studies the nervous system
+History of histology –
+History of phytopathology – history of the study of plant diseases (also called Plant Pathology)
+History of psychobiology – history of the study of the biological bases of psychology
+History of sociobiology – history of the study of the biological bases of sociology
+History of systematics – history of the study of the diversification of living forms, both past and present, and the relationships among living things through time
+History of cladistics – history of the method of classifying species of organisms into groups called clades, which consist of an ancestor organism and all its descendants (and nothing else)
+History of phylogeny – history of the study of evolutionary relation among groups of organisms (e.g. species, populations), which is discovered through molecular sequencing data and morphological data matrices
+History of taxonomy – history of the science of identifying and naming species, and arranging them into a classification. History of zoology – history of the study of animals, including classification, physiology, development, and behavior
+History of arachnology – history of the scientific study of spiders and related animals such as scorpions, pseudoscorpions, harvestmen, collectively called arachnids. History of acarology – history of the study of the taxon of arachnids that contains mites and ticks
+History of entomology – history of the study of insects
+Timeline of entomology
+History of myrmecology – history of the scientific study of ants, a branch of entomology
+History of coleopterology – history of the study of beetles
+History of lepidopterology – history of the study of a large order of insects that includes moths and butterflies (called lepidopterans)
+History of ethology – history of the study of animal behavior
+History of helminthology – history of the study of worms, especially parasitic worms
+History of herpetology – history of the study of reptiles and amphibians
+History of ichthyology – history of the study of fish
+History of malacology – history of the branch of invertebrate zoology which deals with the study of the Mollusca (mollusks or molluscs), the second-largest phylum of animals in terms of described species after the arthropods. History of mammalogy – history of the study of mammals
+History of biological anthropology – history of the studies the physical development of the human species. Also called physical anthropology. History of cetology – history of the branch of marine mammal science that studies the approximately eighty species of whales, dolphins, and porpoise in the scientific order Cetacea. History of nematology – history of the scientific discipline concerned with the study of nematodes, or roundworms
+History of ornithology – history of the study of birds

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+---
+title: "Outline of natural science"
+chunk: 12/12
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_natural_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:57:12.306970+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== General natural science concepts ==
+Discovery science
+Empirical evidence
+Experiment
+Hypothesis
+Laboratory
+Nature
+Occam's razor
+Peer review
+Physical law
+Reproducibility
+Scientific evidence
+Scientific method
+Scientific theory
+Testability
+Universe
+Validity
+
+== Natural science organizations ==
+
+== Natural science publications ==
+Physical science journals
+List of astronomy journals
+List of chemistry journals
+List of earth and atmospheric sciences journals
+List of physics journals
+List of biology journals
+List of botany journals
+List of zoology journals
+
+== Persons influential in natural science ==
+List of physicists
+List of biophysicists
+List of geophysicists
+List of astronomers
+List of cosmologists
+List of chemists
+List of biochemists
+List of neurochemists
+List of electrochemists
+List of earth scientists
+List of Russian earth scientists
+List of cartographers
+List of climatologists
+List of geographers
+List of geologists
+List of geophysicists
+List of glaciologists
+List of mineralogists
+List of meteorologists
+List of paleontologists
+List of soil scientists
+List of biologists
+List of botanists by author abbreviation
+List of carcinologists
+List of coleopterists
+List of ecologists
+List of malacologists
+List of mammalogists
+List of mycologists
+List of ornithologists
+List of pathologists
+List of zoologists by author abbreviation
+List of Nobel Prize winners in physiology or medicine
+
+== See also ==
+
+Outline of science
+Outline of natural science
+Outline of physical science
+Outline of earth science
+Outline of formal science
+Outline of social science
+Outline of applied science
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+
+The History of Recent Science and Technology
+Natural Sciences Information on the Natural Sciences degree programme at Durham University.
+Natural Sciences Contains updated information on research in the Natural Sciences including biology, geography and the applied life and earth sciences.
+Natural Sciences Information on the Natural Sciences degree programme at the University of Bath which includes the Biological Sciences, Chemistry, Pharmacology, Physics and Environmental Studies.
+Reviews of Books About Natural Science This site contains over 50 previously published reviews of books about natural science, plus selected essays on timely topics in natural science.
+Scientific Grant Awards Database Contains details of over 2,000,000 scientific research projects conducted over the past 25 years.
+Natural Sciences Tripos Provides information on the framework within which most of the natural science is taught at the University of Cambridge.
+E!Science Up-to-date science news aggregator from major sources including universities.

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+---
+title: "Outline of natural science"
+chunk: 3/12
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_natural_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:57:12.306970+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Chemistry ====
+Chemistry – physical science of atomic matter (matter that is composed of chemical elements), especially its chemical reactions, but also including its properties, structure, composition, behavior, and changes as they relate the chemical reactions
+Analytical chemistry – study of the separation, identification, and quantification of the chemical components of natural and artificial materials. Astrochemistry – study of the abundance and reactions of chemical elements and molecules in the universe, and their interaction with radiation. Cosmochemistry – study of the chemical composition of matter in the universe and the processes that led to those compositions
+Atmospheric chemistry – branch of atmospheric science in which the chemistry of the Earth's atmosphere and that of other planets is studied. It is a multidisciplinary field of research and draws on environmental chemistry, physics, meteorology, computer modeling, oceanography, geology and volcanology and other disciplines
+Biochemistry – study of chemical processes in living organisms, including, but not limited to, living matter. Biochemistry governs all living organisms and living processes. Agrochemistry – study of both chemistry and biochemistry which are important in agricultural production, the processing of raw products into foods and beverages, and in environmental monitoring and remediation. Bioinorganic chemistry – examines the role of metals in biology. Bioorganic chemistry – rapidly growing scientific discipline that combines organic chemistry and biochemistry. Biophysical chemistry –  new branch of chemistry that covers a broad spectrum of research activities involving biological systems. Environmental chemistry – scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places. Immunochemistry – branch of chemistry that involves the study of the reactions and components on the immune system. Medicinal chemistry – discipline at the intersection of chemistry, especially synthetic organic chemistry, and pharmacology and various other biological specialties, where they are involved with design, chemical synthesis and development for market of pharmaceutical agents (drugs). Pharmacology – branch of medicine and biology concerned with the study of drug action. Natural product chemistry – chemical compound or substance produced by a living organism – found in nature that usually has a pharmacological or biological activity for use in pharmaceutical drug discovery and drug design. Neurochemistry – specific study of neurochemicals, which include neurotransmitters and other molecules such as neuro-active drugs that influence neuron function. Computational chemistry – branch of chemistry that uses principles of computer science to assist in solving chemical problems. Chemo-informatics – use of computer and informational techniques, applied to a range of problems in the field of chemistry. Molecular mechanics – uses Newtonian mechanics to model molecular systems. Flavor chemistry – someone who uses chemistry to engineer artificial and natural flavors. Flow chemistry – chemical reaction is run in a continuously flowing stream rather than in batch production. Geochemistry – study of the mechanisms behind major geological systems using chemistry
+Aqueous geochemistry – study of the role of various elements in watersheds, including copper, sulfur, mercury, and how elemental fluxes are exchanged through atmospheric-terrestrial-aquatic interactions
+Isotope geochemistry – study of the relative and absolute concentrations of the elements and their isotopes using chemistry and geology
+Ocean chemistry – studies the chemistry of marine environments including the influences of different variables. Organic geochemistry – study of the impacts and processes that organisms have had on Earth
+Regional, environmental and exploration geochemistry – study of the spatial variation in the chemical composition of materials at the surface of the Earth
+Inorganic chemistry – branch of chemistry concerned with the properties and behavior of inorganic compounds. Nuclear chemistry – subfield of chemistry dealing with radioactivity, nuclear processes and nuclear properties. Radiochemistry – chemistry of radioactive materials, where radioactive isotopes of elements are used to study the properties and chemical reactions of non-radioactive isotopes (often within radiochemistry the absence of radioactivity leads to a substance being described as being inactive as the isotopes are stable). Organic chemistry – study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation (by synthesis or by other means) of carbon-based compounds, hydrocarbons, and their derivatives. Petrochemistry – branch of chemistry that studies the transformation of crude oil (petroleum) and natural gas into useful products or raw materials. Organometallic chemistry – study of chemical compounds containing bonds between carbon and a metal. Photochemistry – study of chemical reactions that proceed with the absorption of light by atoms or molecules.. Physical chemistry – study of macroscopic, atomic, subatomic, and particulate phenomena in chemical systems in terms of physical laws and concepts. Chemical kinetics –  the study of rates of chemical processes. Chemical thermodynamics – study of the interrelation of heat and work with chemical reactions or with physical changes of state within the confines of the laws of thermodynamics. Electrochemistry – branch of chemistry that studies chemical reactions which take place in a solution at the interface of an electron conductor (a metal or a semiconductor) and an ionic conductor (the electrolyte), and which involve electron transfer between the electrode and the electrolyte or species in solution. Femtochemistry – Femtochemistry is the science that studies chemical reactions on extremely short timescales, approximately 10−15 seconds (one femtosecond, hence the name). Mathematical chemistry – area of research engaged in novel applications of mathematics to chemistry; it concerns itself principally with the mathematical modeling of chemical phenomena. Mechanochemistry – coupling of the mechanical and the chemical phenomena on a molecular scale and includes mechanical breakage, chemical behaviour of mechanically stressed solids (e.g., stress-corrosion cracking), tribology, polymer degradation under shear, cavitation-related phenomena (e.g., sonochemistry and sonoluminescence), shock wave chemistry and physics, and even the burgeoning field of molecular machines. Physical organic chemistry – study of the interrelationships between structure and reactivity in organic molecules. Quantum chemistry – branch of chemistry whose primary focus is the application of quantum mechanics in physical models and experiments of chemical systems. Sonochemistry – study of the effect of sonic waves and wave properties on chemical systems. Stereochemistry – study of the relative spatial arrangement of atoms within molecules. Supramolecular chemistry – area of chemistry beyond the molecules and focuses on the chemical systems made up of a discrete number of assembled molecular subunits or components. Thermochemistry – study of the energy and heat associated with chemical reactions and/or physical transformations. Phytochemistry – strict sense of the word the study of phytochemicals. Polymer chemistry – multidisciplinary science that deals with the chemical synthesis and chemical properties of polymers or macromolecules. Solid-state chemistry – study of the synthesis, structure, and properties of solid phase materials, particularly, but not necessarily exclusively of, non-molecular solids
+Multidisciplinary fields involving chemistry
+Chemical biology – scientific discipline spanning the fields of chemistry and biology that involves the application of chemical techniques and tools, often compounds produced through synthetic chemistry, to the study and manipulation of biological systems. Chemical engineering – branch of engineering that deals with physical science (e.g., chemistry and physics), and life sciences (e.g., biology, microbiology and biochemistry) with mathematics and economics, to the process of converting raw materials or chemicals into more useful or valuable forms. Chemical oceanography – study of the behavior of the chemical elements within the Earth's oceans. Chemical physics – branch of physics that studies chemical processes from the point of view of physics.

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+title: "Outline of natural science"
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+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_natural_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:57:12.306970+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Materials science – interdisciplinary field applying the properties of matter to various areas of science and engineering. Nanotechnology – study of manipulating matter on an atomic and molecular scale
+Oenology – science and study of all aspects of wine and winemaking except vine-growing and grape-harvesting, which is a subfield called viticulture. Spectroscopy – study of the interaction between matter and radiated energy
+Surface science – Surface science is the study of physical and chemical phenomena that occur at the interface of two phases, including solid–liquid interfaces, solid–gas interfaces, solid–vacuum interfaces, and liquid–gas interfaces.

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+---
+title: "Outline of natural science"
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+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:57:12.306970+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Earth science ====
+Earth science – all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. Earth science, and all of its branches, are branches of physical science.
+Atmospheric sciences –  umbrella term for the study of the atmosphere, its processes, the effects other systems have on the atmosphere, and the effects of the atmosphere on these other systems.
+Biogeography – study of the distribution of species (biology), organisms, and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time.
+Cartography – study and practice of making maps or globes.
+Climatology – study of climate, scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time
+Coastal geography – study of the dynamic interface between the ocean and the land, incorporating both the physical geography (i.e. coastal geomorphology, geology and oceanography) and the human geography (sociology and history) of the coast.
+Environmental science – an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental systems.
+Ecology – scientific study of the distribution and abundance of living organisms and how the distribution and abundance are affected by interactions between the organisms and their environment.
+Freshwater biology – scientific biological study of freshwater ecosystems and is a branch of Limnology
+Marine biology – scientific study of organisms in the ocean or other marine or brackish bodies of water
+Parasitology – Parasitology is the study of parasites, their hosts, and the relationship between them.
+Population dynamics – Population dynamics is the branch of life sciences that studies short-term and long-term changes in the size and age composition of populations, and the biological and environmental processes influencing those changes.
+Environmental chemistry – Environmental chemistry is the scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places.
+Environmental soil science – Environmental soil science is the study of the interaction of humans with the pedosphere as well as critical aspects of the biosphere, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, and the atmosphere.
+Environmental geology – Environmental geology, like hydrogeology, is an applied science concerned with the practical application of the principles of geology in the solving of environmental problems.
+Toxicology – branch of biology, chemistry, and medicine concerned with the study of the adverse effects of chemicals on living organisms.
+Geodesy – scientific discipline that deals with the measurement and representation of the Earth, including its gravitational field, in a three-dimensional time-varying space
+Geography – science that studies the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth
+Geoinformatics – science and the technology which develops and uses information science infrastructure to address the problems of geography, geosciences and related branches of engineering.
+Geology – study of the Earth, with the general exclusion of present-day life, flow within the ocean, and the atmosphere.
+Planetary geology – planetary science discipline concerned with the geology of the celestial bodies such as the planets and their moons, asteroids, comets, and meteorites.
+Gemology
+Geomorphology – scientific study of landforms and the processes that shape them
+Geostatistics – branch of statistics focusing on spatial or spatiotemporal datasets
+Geophysics – physics of the Earth and its environment in space; also the study of the Earth using quantitative physical methods.
+Glaciology – study of glaciers, or more generally ice and natural phenomena that involve ice.
+Hydrology – study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth and other planets, including the hydrologic cycle, water resources and environmental watershed sustainability.
+Hydrogeology – area of geology that deals with the distribution and movement of groundwater in the soil and rocks of the Earth's crust (commonly in aquifers).
+Mineralogy – study of chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of minerals.
+Meteorology – interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere which explains and forecasts weather events.
+Oceanography – branch of Earth science that studies the ocean
+Paleoclimatology – study of changes in climate taken on the scale of the entire history of Earth
+Paleontology – study of prehistoric life
+Petrology – branch of geology that studies the origin, composition, distribution and structure of rocks.
+Limnology – study of inland waters
+Seismology – scientific study of earthquakes and the propagation of elastic waves through the Earth or through other planet-like bodies
+Soil science – study of soil as a natural resource on the surface of the earth including soil formation, classification and mapping; physical, chemical, biological, and fertility properties of soils; and these properties in relation to the use and management of soils.
+Topography – study of surface shape and features of the Earth and other observable astronomical objects including planets, moons, and asteroids.
+Volcanology – study of volcanoes, lava, magma, and related geological, geophysical and geochemical phenomena.
+
+=== Life science ===

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+chunk: 6/12
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:57:12.306970+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Biology ====
+Biology – study of living organisms.
+Aerobiology – study of airborne organic particles
+Agriculture – study of producing crops from the land, with an emphasis on practical applications
+Anatomy – study of form and function, in plants, animals, and other organisms, or specifically in humans
+Human anatomy – scientific study of the morphology of the adult human.
+Biochemistry – study of the chemical reactions required for life to exist and function, usually a focus on the cellular level
+Bioengineering – study of biology through the means of engineering with an emphasis on applied knowledge and especially related to biotechnology
+Biogeography – study of the distribution of species spatially and temporally
+Bioinformatics – use of information technology and statistics for the study, collection, and storage of genomic and other biological data
+Biomathematics or mathematical biology – quantitative or mathematical study of biological processes, with an emphasis on modeling
+Biomechanics – often considered a branch of medicine, the study of the mechanics of living beings, with an emphasis on applied use through prosthetics or orthotics
+Biomedical sciences
+Biomedical research – study of the human body in health and disease
+Clinical research
+Biophysics – study of biological processes through physics, by applying the theories and methods traditionally used in the physical sciences
+Biotechnology – new and sometimes controversial branch of biology that studies the manipulation of living matter, including genetic modification and synthetic biology
+Botany – study of plants
+Cell biology – study of the cell as a complete unit, and the molecular and chemical interactions that occur within a living cell
+Conservation biology – study of the preservation, protection, or restoration of the natural environment, natural ecosystems, vegetation, and wildlife
+Chronobiology – field of biology that examines periodic (cyclic) phenomena in living organisms and their adaptation to solar- and lunar-related rhythms.
+Cryobiology – study of the effects of lower than normally preferred temperatures on living beings.
+Developmental biology – study of the processes through which an organism forms, from zygote to full structure
+Embryology – study of the development of embryo (from fecundation to birth). See also topobiology.
+Gerontology – study of aging processes.
+Ecology – study of the interactions of living organisms with one another and with the non-living elements of their environment
+Environmental biology – study of the natural world, as a whole or in a particular area, especially as affected by human activity
+Epidemiology – major component of public health research, studying factors affecting the health of populations
+Evolution – any change across successive generations in the heritable characteristics of biological populations.
+Evolutionary biology – study of the origin and descent of species over time
+Evolutionary developmental biology – field of biology that compares the developmental processes of different organisms to determine the ancestral relationship between them, and to discover how developmental processes evolved.
+Paleobiology – discipline which combines the methods and findings of the natural science biology with the methods and findings of the earth science paleontology.
+Paleontology – study of fossils and sometimes geographic evidence of prehistoric life
+Genetics – study of genes and heredity
+Genomics – discipline in genetics concerned with the study of the genomes of organisms.
+Proteomics – large-scale study of proteins, particularly their structures and functions
+Population genetics – study of changes in gene frequencies in
+Histology – study of cells and tissues, a microscopic branch of anatomy
+Integrative biology – study of whole organisms
+Limnology – study of inland waters
+Marine biology – study of ocean ecosystems, plants, animals, and other living beings
+Microbiology – study of microscopic organisms (microorganisms) and their interactions with other living things
+Bacteriology – study of bacteria.
+Virology – study of viruses and some other virus-like agents
+Molecular biology – study of biology and biological functions at the molecular level, some cross over with biochemistry
+Structural biology – branch of molecular biology, biochemistry, and biophysics concerned with the molecular structure of biological macromolecules
+Morphology – In biology, morphology is a branch of bioscience dealing with the study of the form and structure of organisms and their specific structural features.
+Mycology – study of fungi
+Oceanography – study of the ocean, including ocean life, environment, geography, weather, and other aspects influencing the ocean
+Oncology – study of cancer processes, including virus or mutation oncogenesis, angiogenesis and tissues remoldings
+Population biology – study of groups of conspecific organisms, including
+Population ecology – study of how population dynamics and extinction
+Population genetics – study of changes in gene frequencies in populations of organisms
+Pathobiology or pathology – study of diseases, and the causes, processes, nature, and development of disease
+Parasitology – study of parasites and parasitism
+Pharmacology – study and practical application of preparation, use, and effects of drugs and synthetic medicines
+Physiology (Outline) – study of the functioning of living organisms and the organs and parts of living organisms
+Immunology – Immunology is the study of all aspects of the immune system in all organisms
+Kinesiology – Kinesiology, also known as human kinetics, is the scientific study of human movement
+Neurobiology – study of the nervous system, including anatomy, physiology and pathology
+Neuroscience – interdisciplinary science that studies the nervous system
+Histology –
+Phytopathology – study of plant diseases (also called plant pathology)
+Psychobiology – study of the biological bases of psychology
+Sociobiology – study of the biological bases of sociology
+Systematics – study of the diversification of living forms, both past and present, and the relationships among living things through time
+Cladistics – method of classifying species of organisms into groups called clades, which consist of an ancestor organism and all its descendants (and nothing else)
+Phylogeny – study of evolutionary relation among groups of organisms (e.g. species, populations), which is discovered through molecular sequencing data and morphological data matrices
+Taxonomy – science of identifying and naming species, and arranging them into a classification.
+Zoology – study of animals, including classification, physiology, development, and behavior
+Arachnology – scientific study of spiders and related animals such as scorpions, pseudoscorpions, harvestmen, collectively called arachnids.
+Acarology – study of the taxon of arachnids that contains mites and ticks
+Entomology – study of insects
+Myrmecology – scientific study of ants, a branch of entomology
+Coleopterology – study of beetles
+Lepidopterology – study of a large order of insects that includes moths and butterflies (called lepidopterans)
+Ethology – study of animal behavior
+Helminthology – study of worms, especially parasitic worms
+Herpetology – study of reptiles and amphibians
+Ichthyology – study of fish
+Malacology – branch of invertebrate zoology which deals with the study of the Mollusca (mollusks or molluscs), the second-largest phylum of animals in terms of described species after the arthropods.
+Mammalogy – study of mammals
+Cetology – branch of marine mammal science that studies the approximately eighty species of whales, dolphins, and porpoise in the scientific order Cetacea.
+Physical anthropology – studies the physical development of the human species.
+Nematology – scientific discipline concerned with the study of nematodes, or roundworms
+Ornithology – study of birds
+
+== History of natural science ==

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+---
+title: "Outline of natural science"
+chunk: 7/12
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+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:57:12.306970+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== History of the branches of natural science ===
+Natural philosophy
+History of physical science – history of the branch of natural science that studies non-living systems, in contrast to the biological sciences. It in turn has many branches, each referred to as a "physical science", together called the "physical sciences". However, the term "physical" creates an unintended, somewhat arbitrary distinction, since many branches of physical science also study biological phenomena (organic chemistry, for example). History of physics – history of the physical science that studies matter and its motion through space-time, and related concepts such as energy and force
+History of acoustics – history of the study of mechanical waves in solids, liquids, and gases (such as vibration and sound)
+History of agrophysics – history of the study of physics applied to agroecosystems
+History of soil physics – history of the study of soil physical properties and processes. History of astrophysics – history of the study of the physical aspects of celestial objects
+History of astronomy – history of the studies the universe beyond Earth, including its formation and development, and the evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology, and motion of celestial objects (such as galaxies, planets, etc.) and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth (such as the cosmic background radiation). History of astrodynamics – history of the application of ballistics and celestial mechanics to the practical problems concerning the motion of rockets and other spacecraft. History of astrometry – history of the branch of astronomy that involves precise measurements of the positions and movements of stars and other celestial bodies. History of cosmology – history of the discipline that deals with the nature of the Universe as a whole. History of extragalactic astronomy – history of the branch of astronomy concerned with objects outside our own Milky Way Galaxy
+History of galactic astronomy – history of the study of our own Milky Way galaxy and all its contents. History of physical cosmology – history of the study of the largest-scale structures and dynamics of the universe and is concerned with fundamental questions about its formation and evolution. History of planetary science – history of the scientific study of planets (including Earth), moons, and planetary systems, in particular those of the Solar System and the processes that form them. History of stellar astronomy – history of the natural science that deals with the study of celestial objects (such as stars, planets, comets, nebulae, star clusters and galaxies) and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth (such as cosmic background radiation)
+History of atmospheric physics – history of the study of the application of physics to the atmosphere
+History of atomic, molecular, and optical physics – history of the study of how matter and light interact
+History of biophysics – history of the study of physical processes relating to biology
+History of medical physics – history of the application of physics concepts, theories and methods to medicine. History of neurophysics – history of the branch of biophysics dealing with the nervous system. History of chemical physics – history of the branch of physics that studies chemical processes from the point of view of physics. History of computational physics – history of the study and implementation of numerical algorithms to solve problems in physics for which a quantitative theory already exists. History of condensed matter physics – history of the study of the physical properties of condensed phases of matter. History of cryogenics – history of the cryogenics is the study of the production of very low temperature (below −150 °C, −238 °F or 123K) and the behavior of materials at those temperatures. History of dynamics – history of the study of the causes of motion and changes in motion
+History of econophysics – history of the interdisciplinary research field, applying theories and methods originally developed by physicists in order to solve problems in economics
+History of electromagnetism – history of the branch of science concerned with the forces that occur between electrically charged particles. History of geophysics – history of the physics of the Earth and its environment in space; also the study of the Earth using quantitative physical methods
+History of materials physics – history of the use of physics to describe materials in many different ways such as force, heat, light and mechanics. History of mathematical physics – history of the application of mathematics to problems in physics and the development of mathematical methods for such applications and for the formulation of physical theories. History of mechanics – history of the branch of physics concerned with the behavior of physical bodies when subjected to forces or displacements, and the subsequent effects of the bodies on their environment. History of biomechanics – history of the study of the structure and function of biological systems such as humans, animals, plants, organs, and cells by means of the methods of mechanics. History of classical mechanics – history of one of the two major sub-fields of mechanics, which is concerned with the set of physical laws describing the motion of bodies under the action of a system of forces. History of continuum mechanics – history of the branch of mechanics that deals with the analysis of the kinematics and the mechanical behavior of materials modeled as a continuous mass rather than as discrete particles. History of fluid mechanics – history of the study of fluids and the forces on them. History of quantum mechanics – history of the branch of physics dealing with physical phenomena where the action is on the order of the Planck constant. History of thermodynamics – history of the branch of physical science concerned with heat and its relation to other forms of energy and work. History of nuclear physics – history of the field of physics that studies the building blocks and interactions of atomic nuclei. History of optics – history of the branch of physics which involves the behavior and properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it. History of particle physics – history of the branch of physics that studies the existence and interactions of particles that are the constituents of what is usually referred to as matter or radiation. History of psychophysics – history of the quantitatively investigates the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations and perceptions they affect. History of plasma physics – history of the state of matter similar to gas in which a certain portion of the particles are ionized. History of polymer physics – history of the field of physics that studies polymers, their fluctuations, mechanical properties, as well as the kinetics of reactions involving degradation and polymerisation of polymers and monomers respectively. History of quantum physics – history of the branch of physics dealing with physical phenomena where the action is on the order of the Planck constant. Relativity –
+History of statics – history of the branch of mechanics concerned with the analysis of loads (force, torque/moment) on physical systems in static equilibrium, that is, in a state where the relative positions of subsystems do not vary over time, or where components and structures are at a constant velocity.

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+category: "reference"
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+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:57:12.306970+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+History of solid state physics – history of the study of rigid matter, or solids, through methods such as quantum mechanics, crystallography, electromagnetism, and metallurgy. History of vehicle dynamics – history of the dynamics of vehicles, here assumed to be ground vehicles. History of chemistry – history of the physical science of atomic matter (matter that is composed of chemical elements), especially its chemical reactions, but also including its properties, structure, composition, behavior, and changes as they relate the chemical reactions
+History of analytical chemistry – history of the study of the separation, identification, and quantification of the chemical components of natural and artificial materials. History of astrochemistry – history of the study of the abundance and reactions of chemical elements and molecules in the universe, and their interaction with radiation. History of cosmochemistry – history of the study of the chemical composition of matter in the universe and the processes that led to those compositions
+History of atmospheric chemistry – history of the branch of atmospheric science in which the chemistry of the Earth's atmosphere and that of other planets is studied. It is a multidisciplinary field of research and draws on environmental chemistry, physics, meteorology, computer modeling, oceanography, geology and volcanology and other disciplines
+History of biochemistry – history of the study of chemical processes in living organisms, including, but not limited to, living matter. Biochemistry governs all living organisms and living processes. History of agrochemistry – history of the study of both chemistry and biochemistry which are important in agricultural production, the processing of raw products into foods and beverages, and in environmental monitoring and remediation. History of bioinorganic chemistry – history of the examines the role of metals in biology. History of bioorganic chemistry – history of the rapidly growing scientific discipline that combines organic chemistry and biochemistry. History of biophysical chemistry – history of the  new branch of chemistry that covers a broad spectrum of research activities involving biological systems. History of environmental chemistry – history of the scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places. History of immunochemistry – history of the branch of chemistry that involves the study of the reactions and components on the immune system. History of medicinal chemistry – history of the discipline at the intersection of chemistry, especially synthetic organic chemistry, and pharmacology and various other biological specialties, where they are involved with design, chemical synthesis and development for market of pharmaceutical agents (drugs). History of pharmacology – history of the branch of medicine and biology concerned with the study of drug action. History of natural product chemistry – history of the chemical compound or substance produced by a living organism – history of the found in nature that usually has a pharmacological or biological activity for use in pharmaceutical drug discovery and drug design. History of neurochemistry – history of the specific study of neurochemicals, which include neurotransmitters and other molecules such as neuro-active drugs that influence neuron function. History of computational chemistry – history of the branch of chemistry that uses principles of computer science to assist in solving chemical problems. History of cheminformatics – history of the use of computer and informational techniques, applied to a range of problems in the field of chemistry. History of molecular mechanics – history of the uses Newtonian mechanics to model molecular systems. History of flavor chemistry – history of the someone who uses chemistry to engineer artificial and natural flavors. History of flow chemistry – history of the chemical reaction is run in a continuously flowing stream rather than in batch production. History of geochemistry – history of the study of the mechanisms behind major geological systems using chemistry
+History of aqueous geochemistry – history of the study of the role of various elements in watersheds, including copper, sulfur, mercury, and how elemental fluxes are exchanged through atmospheric-terrestrial-aquatic interactions
+History of isotope geochemistry – history of the study of the relative and absolute concentrations of the elements and their isotopes using chemistry and geology
+History of ocean chemistry – history of the studies the chemistry of marine environments including the influences of different variables. History of organic geochemistry – history of the study of the impacts and processes that organisms have had on Earth
+History of regional, environmental and exploration geochemistry – history of the study of the spatial variation in the chemical composition of materials at the surface of the Earth
+History of inorganic chemistry – history of the branch of chemistry concerned with the properties and behavior of inorganic compounds. History of nuclear chemistry – history of the subfield of chemistry dealing with radioactivity, nuclear processes and nuclear properties. History of radiochemistry – history of the chemistry of radioactive materials, where radioactive isotopes of elements are used to study the properties and chemical reactions of non-radioactive isotopes (often within radiochemistry the absence of radioactivity leads to a substance being described as being inactive as the isotopes are stable). History of organic chemistry – history of the study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation (by synthesis or by other means) of carbon-based compounds, hydrocarbons, and their derivatives. History of petrochemistry – history of the branch of chemistry that studies the transformation of crude oil (petroleum) and natural gas into useful products or raw materials. History of organometallic chemistry – history of the study of chemical compounds containing bonds between carbon and a metal. History of photochemistry – history of the study of chemical reactions that proceed with the absorption of light by atoms or molecules.. History of physical chemistry – history of the study of macroscopic, atomic, subatomic, and particulate phenomena in chemical systems in terms of physical laws and concepts. History of chemical kinetics – history of the study of rates of chemical processes. History of chemical thermodynamics – history of the study of the interrelation of heat and work with chemical reactions or with physical changes of state within the confines of the laws of thermodynamics. History of electrochemistry – history of the branch of chemistry that studies chemical reactions which take place in a solution at the interface of an electron conductor (a metal or a semiconductor) and an ionic conductor (the electrolyte), and which involve electron transfer between the electrode and the electrolyte or species in solution. History of Femtochemistry – history of the Femtochemistry is the science that studies chemical reactions on extremely short timescales, approximately 10−15 seconds (one femtosecond, hence the name). History of mathematical chemistry – history of the area of research engaged in novel applications of mathematics to chemistry; it concerns itself principally with the mathematical modeling of chemical phenomena. History of mechanochemistry – history of the coupling of the mechanical and the chemical phenomena on a molecular scale and includes mechanical breakage, chemical behaviour of mechanically stressed solids (e.g., stress-corrosion cracking), tribology, polymer degradation under shear, cavitation-related phenomena (e.g., sonochemistry and sonoluminescence), shock wave chemistry and physics, and even the burgeoning field of molecular machines. History of physical organic chemistry – history of the study of the interrelationships between structure and reactivity in organic molecules.

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+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:57:12.306970+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+History of quantum chemistry – history of the branch of chemistry whose primary focus is the application of quantum mechanics in physical models and experiments of chemical systems. History of sonochemistry – history of the study of the effect of sonic waves and wave properties on chemical systems. History of stereochemistry – history of the study of the relative spatial arrangement of atoms within molecules. History of supramolecular chemistry – history of the area of chemistry beyond the molecules and focuses on the chemical systems made up of a discrete number of assembled molecular subunits or components. History of thermochemistry – history of the study of the energy and heat associated with chemical reactions and/or physical transformations. History of phytochemistry – history of the strict sense of the word the study of phytochemicals. History of polymer chemistry – history of the multidisciplinary science that deals with the chemical synthesis and chemical properties of polymers or macromolecules. History of solid-state chemistry – history of the study of the synthesis, structure, and properties of solid phase materials, particularly, but not necessarily exclusively of, non-molecular solids
+Multidisciplinary fields involving chemistry
+History of chemical biology – history of the scientific discipline spanning the fields of chemistry and biology that involves the application of chemical techniques and tools, often compounds produced through synthetic chemistry, to the study and manipulation of biological systems. History of chemical engineering – history of the branch of engineering that deals with physical science (e.g., chemistry and physics), and life sciences (e.g., biology, microbiology and biochemistry) with mathematics and economics, to the process of converting raw materials or chemicals into more useful or valuable forms. History of chemical oceanography – history of the study of the behavior of the chemical elements within the Earth's oceans. History of chemical physics – history of the branch of physics that studies chemical processes from the point of view of physics. History of materials science – history of the interdisciplinary field applying the properties of matter to various areas of science and engineering. History of nanotechnology – history of the study of manipulating matter on an atomic and molecular scale
+History of oenology – history of the science and study of all aspects of wine and winemaking except vine-growing and grape-harvesting, which is a subfield called viticulture. History of spectroscopy – history of the study of the interaction between matter and radiated energy
+History of surface science – history of the Surface science is the study of physical and chemical phenomena that occur at the interface of two phases, including solid–liquid interfaces, solid–gas interfaces, solid–vacuum interfaces, and liquid–gas interfaces. History of earth science – history of the all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. Earth science, and all of its branches, are branches of physical science. History of atmospheric sciences – history of the  umbrella term for the study of the atmosphere, its processes, the effects other systems have on the atmosphere, and the effects of the atmosphere on these other systems. History of biogeography – history of the study of the distribution of species (biology), organisms, and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time. History of cartography – history of the study and practice of making maps or globes. History of climatology – history of the study of climate, scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time
+History of coastal geography – history of the study of the dynamic interface between the ocean and the land, incorporating both the physical geography (i.e. coastal geomorphology, geology and oceanography) and the human geography (sociology and history) of the coast. History of environmental science – history of an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental systems. History of ecology – history of the scientific study of the distribution and abundance of living organisms and how the distribution and abundance are affected by interactions between the organisms and their environment. History of freshwater biology – history of the scientific biological study of freshwater ecosystems and is a branch of Limnology
+History of marine biology – history of the scientific study of organisms in the ocean or other marine or brackish bodies of water
+History of parasitology – history of the Parasitology is the study of parasites, their hosts, and the relationship between them. History of population dynamics – history of the Population dynamics is the branch of life sciences that studies short-term and long-term changes in the size and age composition of populations, and the biological and environmental processes influencing those changes. History of environmental chemistry – history of the Environmental chemistry is the scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places. History of environmental soil science – history of the Environmental soil science is the study of the interaction of humans with the pedosphere as well as critical aspects of the biosphere, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, and the atmosphere. History of environmental geology – history of the Environmental geology, like hydrogeology, is an applied science concerned with the practical application of the principles of geology in the solving of environmental problems. History of toxicology – history of the branch of biology, chemistry, and medicine concerned with the study of the adverse effects of chemicals on living organisms. History of geodesy – history of the scientific discipline that deals with the measurement and representation of the Earth, including its gravitational field, in a three-dimensional time-varying space
+History of geography – history of the science that studies the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth
+History of geoinformatics – history of the science and the technology which develops and uses information science infrastructure to address the problems of geography, geosciences and related branches of engineering. History of geology – history of the study of the Earth, with the general exclusion of present-day life, flow within the ocean, and the atmosphere. History of planetary geology – history of the planetary science discipline concerned with the geology of the celestial bodies such as the planets and their moons, asteroids, comets, and meteorites. History of geomorphology – history of the scientific study of landforms and the processes that shape them
+History of geostatistics – history of the branch of statistics focusing on spatial or spatiotemporal datasets
+History of geophysics – history of the physics of the Earth and its environment in space; also the study of the Earth using quantitative physical methods. History of glaciology – history of the study of glaciers, or more generally ice and natural phenomena that involve ice. History of hydrology – history of the study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth and other planets, including the hydrologic cycle, water resources and environmental watershed sustainability. History of hydrogeology – history of the area of geology that deals with the distribution and movement of groundwater in the soil and rocks of the Earth's crust (commonly in aquifers). History of mineralogy – history of the study of chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of minerals. History of meteorology – history of the interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere which explains and forecasts weather events.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_natural_science-9.md

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+---
+title: "Outline of natural science"
+chunk: 10/12
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_natural_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:57:12.306970+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+History of oceanography – history of the branch of Earth science that studies the ocean
+History of paleoclimatology – history of the study of changes in climate taken on the scale of the entire history of Earth
+History of paleontology – history of the study of prehistoric life
+History of petrology – history of the branch of geology that studies the origin, composition, distribution and structure of rocks. History of limnology – history of the study of inland waters
+History of seismology – history of the scientific study of earthquakes and the propagation of elastic waves through the Earth or through other planet-like bodies
+History of soil science – history of the study of soil as a natural resource on the surface of the earth including soil formation, classification and mapping; physical, chemical, biological, and fertility properties of soils; and these properties in relation to the use and management of soils. History of topography – history of the study of surface shape and features of the Earth and other observable astronomical objects including planets, moons, and asteroids. History of volcanology – history of the study of volcanoes, lava, magma, and related geological, geophysical and geochemical phenomena. History of biology – history of the study of living organisms. History of aerobiology – history of the study of airborne organic particles
+History of agriculture – history of the study of producing crops from the land, with an emphasis on practical applications
+History of anatomy – history of the study of form and function, in plants, animals, and other organisms, or specifically in humans
+History of human anatomy – history of the scientific study of the morphology of the adult human. History of astrobiology – history of the study of evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe—also known as exobiology, exopaleontology, and bioastronomy
+History of biochemistry – history of the study of the chemical reactions required for life to exist and function, usually a focus on the cellular level
+History of bioengineering – history of the study of biology through the means of engineering with an emphasis on applied knowledge and especially related to biotechnology
+History of biogeography – history of the study of the distribution of species spatially and temporally
+History of bioinformatics – history of the use of information technology for the study, collection, and storage of genomic and other biological data
+History of biomathematics – history of the quantitative or mathematical study of biological processes, with an emphasis on modeling
+History of biomechanics – history of the often considered a branch of medicine, the study of the mechanics of living beings, with an emphasis on applied use through prosthetics or orthotics
+History of biomedical research – history of the study of the human body in health and disease
+History of biophysics – history of the study of biological processes through physics, by applying the theories and methods traditionally used in the physical sciences
+History of biotechnology – history of the new and sometimes controversial branch of biology that studies the manipulation of living matter, including genetic modification and synthetic biology
+History of building biology – history of the study of the indoor living environment
+History of botany – history of the study of plants
+History of cell biology – history of the study of the cell as a complete unit, and the molecular and chemical interactions that occur within a living cell
+History of conservation biology – history of the study of the preservation, protection, or restoration of the natural environment, natural ecosystems, vegetation, and wildlife
+History of chronobiology – history of the field of biology that examines periodic (cyclic) phenomena in living organisms and their adaptation to solar- and lunar-related rhythms. History of cryobiology – history of the study of the effects of lower than normally preferred temperatures on living beings. History of developmental biology – history of the study of the processes through which an organism forms, from zygote to full structure
+History of embryology – history of the study of the development of embryo (from fecundation to birth). See also topobiology. History of gerontology – history of the study of aging processes. History of ecology – history of the study of the interactions of living organisms with one another and with the non-living elements of their environment
+History of environmental biology – history of the study of the natural world, as a whole or in a particular area, especially as affected by human activity
+History of epidemiology – history of the major component of public health research, studying factors affecting the health of populations
+History of evolution – history of the any change across successive generations in the heritable characteristics of biological populations. History of evolutionary biology – history of the study of the origin and descent of species over time
+History of evolutionary developmental biology – history of the field of biology that compares the developmental processes of different organisms to determine the ancestral relationship between them, and to discover how developmental processes evolved. History of paleobiology – history of the discipline which combines the methods and findings of the natural science biology with the methods and findings of the earth science paleontology. History of paleontology – history of the study of fossils and sometimes geographic evidence of prehistoric life
+History of genetics – history of the study of genes and heredity
+History of genomics – history of the discipline in genetics concerned with the study of the genomes of organisms. History of proteomics – history of the large-scale study of proteins, particularly their structures and functions
+History of population genetics – history of the study of changes in gene frequencies in
+History of histology – history of the study of cells and tissues, a microscopic branch of anatomy
+History of integrative biology – history of the study of whole organisms
+History of limnology – history of the study of inland waters
+History of marine biology – history of the study of ocean ecosystems, plants, animals, and other living beings
+History of microbiology – history of the study of microscopic organisms (microorganisms) and their interactions with other living things
+History of bacteriology – history of the study of bacteria. History of virology – history of the study of viruses and some other virus-like agents
+History of molecular biology – history of the study of biology and biological functions at the molecular level, some cross over with biochemistry
+History of structural biology – history of the branch of molecular biology, biochemistry, and biophysics concerned with the molecular structure of biological macromolecules
+History of morphology – history of the In biology, morphology is a branch of bioscience dealing with the study of the form and structure of organisms and their specific structural features.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prodromus-0.md

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 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prodromus"
 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:53:52.988995+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:57:18.623670+00:00"
 instance: "kb-cron"
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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_ecology-0.md

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+---
+title: "Systems ecology"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_ecology"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:57:04.993476+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Systems ecology is an interdisciplinary field of ecology, a subset of Earth system science, that takes a holistic approach to the study of ecological systems, especially ecosystems.  Systems ecology can be seen as an application of general systems theory to ecology.  Central to the systems ecology approach is the idea that an ecosystem is a complex system exhibiting emergent properties.  Systems ecology focuses on interactions and transactions within and between biological and ecological systems, and is especially concerned with the way the functioning of ecosystems can be influenced by human interventions.  It uses and extends concepts from thermodynamics and develops other macroscopic descriptions of complex systems.
+
+
+== Overview ==
+Systems ecology seeks a holistic view of the interactions and transactions within and between biological and ecological systems. Systems ecologists realise that the function of any ecosystem can be influenced by human economics in fundamental ways.  They have therefore taken an additional transdisciplinary step by including economics in the consideration of ecological-economic systems. In the words of R.L. Kitching:
+
+Systems ecology can be defined as the approach to the study of ecology of organisms using the techniques and philosophy of systems analysis: that is, the methods and tools developed, largely in engineering, for studying, characterizing and making predictions about complex entities, that is, systems.
+In any study of an ecological system, an essential early procedure is to draw a diagram of the system of interest ... diagrams indicate the system's boundaries by a solid line. Within these boundaries, series of components are isolated which have been chosen to represent that portion of the world in which the systems analyst is interested ... If there are no connections across the systems' boundaries with the surrounding systems environments, the systems are described as closed. Ecological work, however, deals almost exclusively with open systems.
+As a mode of scientific enquiry, a central feature of Systems Ecology is the general application of the principles of energetics to all systems at any scale. Perhaps the most notable proponent of this view was Howard T. Odum - sometimes considered the father of ecosystems ecology. In this approach the principles of energetics constitute ecosystem principles. Reasoning by formal analogy from one system to another enables the Systems Ecologist to see principles functioning in an analogous manner across system-scale boundaries. H.T. Odum commonly used the Energy Systems Language as a tool for making systems diagrams and flow charts.
+The fourth of these principles, the principle of maximum power efficiency, takes central place in the analysis and synthesis of ecological systems. The fourth principle suggests that the most evolutionarily advantageous system function occurs when the environmental load matches the internal resistance of the system. The further the environmental load is from matching the internal resistance, the further the system is away from its sustainable steady state. Therefore, the systems ecologist engages in a task of resistance and impedance matching in ecological engineering, just as the electronic engineer would do.
+
+
+== Closely related fields ==
+
+
+=== Earth systems engineering and management ===
+
+Earth systems engineering and management (ESEM) is a discipline used to analyze, design, engineer and manage complex environmental systems.  It entails a wide range of subject areas including anthropology, engineering, environmental science, ethics and philosophy. At its core, ESEM looks to "rationally design and manage coupled human-natural systems in a highly integrated and ethical fashion."
+
+
+=== Ecological economics ===
+
+Ecological economics is a transdisciplinary field of academic research that addresses the dynamic and spatial interdependence between human economies and natural ecosystems. Ecological economics brings together and connects different disciplines, within the natural and social sciences but especially between these broad areas. As the name suggests, the field is made up of researchers with a background in economics and ecology. An important motivation for the emergence of ecological economics has been criticism on the assumptions and approaches of traditional (mainstream) environmental and resource economics.
+
+
+=== Ecological energetics ===
+
+Ecological energetics is the quantitative study of the flow of energy through ecological systems. It aims to uncover the principles which describe the propensity of such energy flows through the trophic, or 'energy availing' levels of ecological networks. In systems ecology the principles of ecosystem energy flows or "ecosystem laws" (i.e. principles of ecological energetics) are considered formally analogous to the principles of energetics.
+
+
+=== Ecological humanities ===
+
+Ecological humanities aims to bridge the divides between the sciences and the humanities, and between Western, Eastern and Indigenous ways of knowing nature. Like ecocentric political theory, the ecological humanities are characterised by a connectivity ontology and a commitment to two fundamental axioms relating to the need to submit to ecological laws and to see humanity as part of a larger living system.
+
+
+=== Ecosystem ecology ===
+
+Ecosystem ecology is the integrated study of biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems and their interactions within an ecosystem framework. This science examines how ecosystems work and relates this to their components such as chemicals, bedrock, soil, plants, and animals. Ecosystem ecology examines physical and biological structure and examines how these ecosystem characteristics interact.
+The relationship between systems ecology and ecosystem ecology is complex.  Much of systems ecology can be considered a subset of ecosystem ecology.  Ecosystem ecology also utilizes methods that have little to do with the holistic approach of systems ecology.  However, systems ecology more actively considers external influences such as economics that usually fall outside the bounds of ecosystem ecology.  Whereas ecosystem ecology can be defined as the scientific study of ecosystems, systems ecology is more of a particular approach to the study of ecological systems and phenomena that interact with these systems.
+
+
+=== Industrial ecology ===
+
+Industrial ecology is the study of industrial processes as linear (open loop) systems, in which resource and capital investments move through the system to become waste, to a closed loop system where wastes become inputs for new processes.
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Bibliography ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+Organisations
+Systems Ecology Department at the Stockholm University.
+Systems Ecology Department at the University of Amsterdam.
+Systems ecology Lab at SUNY-ESF.
+Systems Ecology program at the University of Florida
+Systems Ecology program at the University of Montana
+Terrestrial Systems Ecology of ETH Zürich.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_science-0.md

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+---
+title: "Systems science"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:57:06.307255+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Systems science, also referred to as systems research or simply systems, is a transdisciplinary field that is concerned with understanding simple and complex systems in nature and society, which leads to the advancements of formal, natural, social, and applied attributions throughout engineering, technology, and science itself.
+To systems scientists, the world can be understood as a system of systems. The field aims to develop transdisciplinary foundations that are applicable in a variety of areas, such as psychology, biology, medicine, communication, business, technology, computer science, engineering, and social sciences.
+Themes commonly stressed in system science are (a) holistic view, (b) interaction between a system and its embedding environment, and (c) complex (often subtle) trajectories of dynamic behavior that sometimes are stable (and thus reinforcing), while at various 'boundary conditions' can become wildly unstable (and thus destructive). Concerns about Earth-scale biosphere/geosphere dynamics is an example of the nature of problems to which systems science seeks to contribute meaningful insights.
+
+
+== Associated fields ==
+The systems sciences are a broad array of fields. One way of conceiving of these is in three groups: fields that have developed systems ideas primarily through theory; those that have done so primarily through practical engagements with problem situations; and those that have applied ideas for other disciplines.
+
+
+=== Theoretical fields ===
+
+
+==== Chaos and dynamical systems ====
+
+
+==== Complexity ====
+
+
+==== Control theory ====
+
+Affect control theory
+Control engineering
+Control systems
+
+
+==== Cybernetics ====
+
+Autopoiesis
+Conversation theory
+Engineering cybernetics
+Perceptual control theory
+Management cybernetics
+Second-order cybernetics
+Cyber-physical system
+Artificial intelligence
+Synthetic intelligence
+
+
+==== Information theory ====
+
+
+==== General systems theory ====
+
+Systems theory in anthropology
+Biochemical systems theory
+Ecological systems theory
+Developmental systems theory
+General systems theory
+Living systems theory
+LTI system theory
+Social systems
+Sociotechnical systems theory
+Mathematical system theory
+World-systems theory
+
+
+==== Hierarchy Theory ====
+
+
+=== Practical fields ===
+
+
+==== Critical systems thinking ====
+
+
+==== Operations research and management science ====
+
+
+==== Soft systems methodology ====
+
+The soft systems methodology was developed in England by academics at the University of Lancaster Systems Department through a ten-year action research programme. The main contributor is Peter Checkland (born 18 December 1930, in Birmingham, UK), a British management scientist and emeritus professor of systems at Lancaster University.
+
+
+==== Systems analysis ====
+
+Systems analysis branch of systems science that analyzes systems, the interactions within those systems, or interaction with its environment, often prior to their automation as computer models. Systems analysis is closely associated with the RAND corporation.
+
+
+==== Systemic design ====
+
+Systemic design integrates methodologies from systems thinking with advanced design practices to address complex, multi-stakeholder situations.
+
+
+==== Systems dynamics ====
+
+System dynamics is an approach to understanding the behavior of complex systems over time. It offers "simulation technique for modeling business and social systems", which deals with internal feedback loops and time delays that affect the behavior of the entire system.  What makes using system dynamics different from other approaches to studying complex systems is the use of feedback loops and stocks and flows.
+
+
+==== Systems engineering ====
+
+Systems engineering (SE) is an interdisciplinary field of engineering, that focuses on the development and organization of complex systems. It is the "art and science of creating whole solutions to complex problems",  for example: signal processing systems, control systems and communication system, or other forms of high-level modelling and design in specific fields of engineering. Systems Science is foundational to the Embedded Software Development that is founded in the embedded requirements of Systems Engineering.
+Aerospace systems
+Biological systems engineering
+Earth systems engineering and management
+Electronic systems
+Enterprise systems engineering
+Software systems
+Systems analysis
+
+
+=== Applications in other disciplines ===
+
+
+==== Earth system science ====
+
+Climate systems
+Systems geology
+
+
+==== Systems biology ====
+
+Computational systems biology
+Synthetic biology
+Systems immunology
+Systems neuroscience
+
+
+==== Systems chemistry ====
+
+
+==== Systems ecology ====
+
+Ecosystem ecology
+Agroecology
+
+
+==== Systems psychology ====
+
+Ergonomics
+Family systems theory
+Systemic therapy
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+B. A. Bayraktar (1979). Education in Systems Science. p. 369.
+Kenneth D. Bailey, "Fifty Years of Systems Science:Further Reflections", Systems Research and Behavioral Science, 22, 2005, pp. 355–361. doi:10.1002/sres.711
+Robert L. Flood, Ewart R Carson, Dealing with Complexity: An Introduction to the Theory and Application of Systems Science (2nd Edition), 1993.
+George J. Klir, Facets of Systems Science (2nd Edition), Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, 2001.
+Ervin László, Systems Science and World Order: Selected Studies, 1983.
+G. E. Mobus & M. C. Kalton, Principles of Systems Science, 2015, New York:Springer.
+Anatol Rapoport (ed.), General Systems: Yearbook of the Society for the Advancement of General Systems Theory, Society for General Systems Research, Vol 1., 1956.
+Li D. Xu, "The contributions of Systems Science to Information Systems Research", Systems Research and Behavioral Science, 17, 2000, pp. 105–116.
+Graeme Donald Snooks, "A general theory of complex living systems: Exploring the demand side of dynamics", Complexity, vol. 13, no. 6, July/August 2008.
+John N. Warfield,  "A proposal for Systems Science", Systems Research and Behavioral Science, 20, 2003, pp. 507–520. doi:10.1002/sres.528
+Michael C. Jackson, Critical Systems Thinking and the Management of Complexity, 2019, Wiley.
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+Principia Cybernetica Web
+International Federation for Systems Research
+Institute of System Science Knowledge (ISSK.org)
+International Society for the System Sciences
+American Society for Cybernetics
+UK Systems Society
+Cybernetics Society

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_computer_science-0.md

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+---
+title: "Theoretical computer science"
+chunk: 1/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_computer_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:57:07.633078+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Theoretical computer science is a subfield of computer science and mathematics that focuses on the abstract and mathematical foundations of computation.
+It is difficult to circumscribe the theoretical areas precisely. The ACM's Special Interest Group on Algorithms and Computation Theory (SIGACT) provides the following description:
+
+TCS covers a wide variety of topics including algorithms, data structures, computational complexity, parallel and distributed computation, probabilistic computation, quantum computation, automata theory, information theory, cryptography, program semantics and verification, algorithmic game theory, machine learning, computational biology, computational economics, computational geometry, and computational number theory and algebra. Work in this field is often distinguished by its emphasis on mathematical technique and rigor.
+
+== History ==
+
+Theoretical computer science is closely related to mathematics and logic. In the 20th century, it emancipated itself and became an independent discipline. Pioneers of the discipline were Kurt Gödel, Alonzo Church, Alan Turing, Stephen Cole Kleene, Claude Shannon, John von Neumann and Noam Chomsky. While logical inference and mathematical proof had existed previously, in 1931 Kurt Gödel proved with his incompleteness theorem that there are fundamental limitations on what statements could be proved or disproved.
+Information theory was added to the field with a 1948 mathematical theory of communication by Claude Shannon. In the same decade, Donald Hebb introduced a mathematical model of learning in the brain. With mounting biological data supporting this hypothesis with some modification, the fields of neural networks and parallel distributed processing were established. In 1971, Stephen Cook and, working independently, Leonid Levin, proved that there exist practically relevant problems that are NP-complete – a landmark result in computational complexity theory.
+Modern theoretical computer science research is based on these basic developments, but includes many other mathematical and interdisciplinary problems that have been posed, as shown below:
+
+== Topics ==
+
+=== Algorithms ===
+
+An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure for calculations. Algorithms are used for calculation, data processing, and automated reasoning.
+An algorithm is an effective method expressed as a finite list of well-defined instructions for calculating a function.  Starting from an initial state and initial input (perhaps empty), the instructions describe a computation that, when executed, proceeds through a finite number of well-defined successive states, eventually producing "output" and terminating at a final ending state. The transition from one state to the next is not necessarily deterministic; some algorithms, known as randomized algorithms, incorporate random input.
+
+=== Automata theory ===
+
+Automata theory is the study of abstract machines and automata, as well as the computational problems that can be solved using them. It is a theory in theoretical computer science, under discrete mathematics (a section of mathematics and also of computer science). Automata comes from the Greek word αὐτόματα, meaning "self-acting".
+Automata Theory is the study of self-operating virtual machines to help in the logical understanding of input and output process, without or with intermediate stage(s) of computation (or any function/process).
+
+=== Coding theory ===
+
+Coding theory is the study of the properties of codes and their fitness for a specific application. Codes are used for data compression, cryptography, error correction and more recently also for network coding. Codes are studied by various scientific disciplines – such as information theory, electrical engineering,  mathematics, and computer science – for the purpose of designing efficient and reliable data transmission methods. This typically involves the removal of redundancy and the correction (or detection) of errors in the transmitted data.
+
+=== Computational complexity theory ===
+
+Computational complexity theory is a branch of the theory of computation that focuses on classifying computational problems according to their inherent difficulty, and relating those classes to each other. A computational problem is understood to be a task that is in principle amenable to being solved by a computer, which is equivalent to stating that the problem may be solved by mechanical application of mathematical steps, such as an algorithm.
+A problem is regarded as inherently difficult if its solution requires significant resources, whatever the algorithm used. The theory formalizes this intuition, by introducing mathematical models of computation to study these problems and quantifying the amount of resources needed to solve them, such as time and storage. Other complexity measures are also used, such as the amount of communication (used in communication complexity), the number of gates in a circuit (used in circuit complexity) and the number of processors (used in parallel computing). One of the roles of computational complexity theory is to determine the practical limits on what computers can and cannot do.
+
+=== Computational geometry ===
+
+Computational geometry is a branch of computer science devoted to the study of algorithms that can be stated in terms of geometry. Some purely geometrical problems arise out of the study of computational geometric algorithms, and such problems are also considered to be part of computational geometry. 
+The main impetus for the development of computational geometry as a discipline was progress in computer graphics and computer-aided design and manufacturing (CAD/CAM), but many problems in computational geometry are classical in nature, and may come from mathematical visualization.
+Other important applications of computational geometry include robotics (motion planning and visibility problems), geographic information systems (GIS) (geometrical location and search, route planning), integrated circuit design (IC geometry design and verification), computer-aided engineering (CAE) (mesh generation), computer vision (3D reconstruction).
+
+=== Computational learning theory ===
+
+Theoretical results in machine learning mainly deal with a type of inductive learning called supervised learning. In supervised learning, an algorithm is given samples that are labeled in some 
+useful way. For example, the samples might be descriptions of mushrooms, and the labels could be whether or not the mushrooms are edible. The algorithm takes these previously labeled samples and 
+uses them to induce a classifier. This classifier is a function that assigns labels to samples including the samples that have never been previously seen by the algorithm. The goal of the supervised learning algorithm is to optimize some measure of performance such as minimizing the number of mistakes made on new samples.
+
+=== Computational number theory ===

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_computer_science-1.md

@@ -0,0 +1,43 @@
+---
+title: "Theoretical computer science"
+chunk: 2/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_computer_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:57:07.633078+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Computational number theory, also known as algorithmic number theory, is the study of algorithms for performing number theoretic computations. The best known problem in the field is integer factorization.
+
+=== Cryptography ===
+
+Cryptography  is the practice and study of techniques for secure communication in the presence of third parties (called adversaries). More generally, it is about constructing and analyzing protocols that overcome the influence of adversaries and that are related to various aspects in information security such as data confidentiality, data integrity, authentication, and non-repudiation. Modern cryptography intersects the disciplines of mathematics, computer science, and electrical engineering. Applications of cryptography include ATM cards, computer passwords, and electronic commerce.
+Modern cryptography is heavily based on mathematical theory and computer science practice; cryptographic algorithms are designed around computational hardness assumptions, making such algorithms hard to break in practice by any adversary. It is theoretically possible to break such a system, but it is infeasible to do so by any known practical means. These schemes are therefore termed computationally secure; theoretical advances, e.g., improvements in integer factorization algorithms, and faster computing technology require these solutions to be continually adapted. There exist information-theoretically secure schemes that provably cannot be broken even with unlimited computing power—an example is the one-time pad—but these schemes are more difficult to implement than the best theoretically breakable but computationally secure mechanisms.
+
+=== Data structures ===
+
+A data structure is a particular way of organizing data in a computer so that it can be used efficiently.
+Different kinds of data structures are suited to different kinds of applications, and some are highly specialized to specific tasks. For example, databases use B-tree indexes for small percentages of data retrieval and compilers and databases use dynamic hash tables as look up tables.
+Data structures provide a means to manage large amounts of data efficiently for uses such as large databases and internet indexing services. Usually, efficient data structures are key to designing efficient algorithms. Some formal design methods and programming languages emphasize data structures, rather than algorithms, as the key organizing factor in software design. Storing and retrieving can be carried out on data stored in both main memory and in secondary memory.
+
+=== Distributed computation ===
+
+Distributed computing studies distributed systems. A distributed system is a software system in which components located on networked computers communicate and coordinate their actions by passing messages. The components interact with each other in order to achieve a common goal. Three significant characteristics of distributed systems are: concurrency of components, lack of a global clock, and independent failure of components. Examples of distributed systems vary from SOA-based systems to massively multiplayer online games to  peer-to-peer applications, and blockchain networks like Bitcoin.
+A computer program that runs in a distributed system is called a distributed program, and distributed programming is the process of writing such programs. There are many alternatives for the message passing mechanism, including RPC-like connectors and message queues.  An important goal and challenge of distributed systems is location transparency.
+
+=== Information-based complexity ===
+
+Information-based complexity (IBC) studies optimal algorithms and computational complexity for continuous problems. IBC has studied continuous problems as path integration, partial differential equations, systems of ordinary differential equations, nonlinear equations, integral equations, fixed points, and very-high-dimensional integration.
+
+=== Formal methods ===
+
+Formal methods are a particular kind of mathematics based techniques for the specification, development and verification of software and hardware systems. The use of formal methods for software and hardware design is motivated by the expectation that, as in other engineering disciplines, performing appropriate mathematical analysis can contribute to the reliability and robustness of a design.
+Formal methods are best described as the application of a fairly broad variety of theoretical computer science fundamentals, in particular logic calculi, formal languages, automata theory, and program semantics, but also type systems and algebraic data types to problems in software and hardware specification and verification.
+
+=== Information theory ===
+
+Information theory is a branch of applied mathematics, electrical engineering, and computer science involving the quantification of information.  Information theory was developed by Claude E. Shannon to find fundamental limits on signal processing operations such as compressing data and on reliably storing and communicating data. Since its inception it has broadened to find applications in many other areas, including statistical inference, natural language processing, cryptography, neurobiology, the evolution and function of molecular codes, model selection in statistics, thermal physics, quantum computing, linguistics, plagiarism detection, pattern recognition, anomaly detection and other forms of data analysis.
+Applications of fundamental topics of information theory include lossless data compression (e.g. ZIP files), lossy data compression (e.g. MP3s and JPEGs), and channel coding (e.g. for Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)).  The field is at the intersection of mathematics, statistics, computer science, physics, neurobiology, and electrical engineering. Its impact has been crucial to the success of the Voyager missions to deep space, the invention of the compact disc, the feasibility of mobile phones, the development of the Internet, the study of linguistics and of human perception, the understanding of black holes, and numerous other fields. Important sub-fields of information theory are source coding, channel coding, algorithmic complexity theory, algorithmic information theory, information-theoretic security, and measures of information.
+
+=== Machine learning ===

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+---
+title: "Theoretical computer science"
+chunk: 3/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_computer_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:57:07.633078+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Machine learning is a scientific discipline that deals with the construction and study of algorithms that can learn from data. Such algorithms operate by building a model based on inputs and using that to make predictions or decisions, rather than following only explicitly programmed instructions.
+Machine learning can be considered a subfield of computer science and statistics. It has strong ties to artificial intelligence and optimization, which deliver methods, theory and application domains to the field. Machine learning is employed in a range of computing tasks where designing and programming explicit, rule-based algorithms is infeasible. Example applications include spam filtering, optical character recognition (OCR), search engines and computer vision. Machine learning is sometimes conflated with data mining, although that focuses more on exploratory data analysis. Machine learning and pattern recognition "can be viewed as two facets of 
+the same field."
+
+=== Natural computation ===
+
+=== Parallel computation ===
+
+Parallel computing is a form of computation in which many calculations are carried out simultaneously, operating on the principle that large problems can often be divided into smaller ones, which are then solved "in parallel". There are several different forms of parallel computing: bit-level, instruction level, data, and task parallelism. Parallelism has been employed for many years, mainly in high-performance computing, but interest in it has grown lately due to the physical constraints preventing frequency scaling. As power consumption (and consequently heat generation) by computers has become a concern in recent years, parallel computing has become the dominant paradigm in computer architecture, mainly in the form of multi-core processors.
+Parallel computer programs are more difficult to write than sequential ones, because concurrency introduces several new classes of potential software bugs, of which race conditions are the most common. Communication and synchronization between the different subtasks are typically some of the greatest obstacles to getting good parallel program performance.
+The maximum possible speed-up of a single program as a result of parallelization is known as Amdahl's law.
+
+=== Programming language theory and program semantics ===
+
+Programming language theory is a branch of computer science that deals with the design, implementation, analysis, characterization, and classification of programming languages and their individual features. It falls within the discipline of theoretical computer science, both depending on and affecting mathematics, software engineering, and linguistics. It is an active research area, with numerous dedicated academic journals.
+In programming language theory, semantics is the field concerned with the rigorous mathematical study of the meaning of programming languages. It does so by evaluating the meaning of syntactically legal strings defined by a specific programming language, showing the computation involved. In such a case that the evaluation would be of syntactically illegal strings, the result would be non-computation. Semantics describes the processes a computer follows when executing a program in that specific language. This can be shown by describing the relationship between the input and output of a program, or an explanation of how the program will execute on a certain platform, hence creating a model of computation.
+
+=== Quantum computation ===
+
+A quantum computer is a computation system that makes direct use of quantum-mechanical phenomena, such as superposition and entanglement, to perform operations on data. Quantum computers are different from digital computers based on transistors. Whereas digital computers require data to be encoded into binary digits (bits), each of which is always in one of two definite states (0 or 1), quantum computation uses qubits (quantum bits), which can be in superpositions of states. A theoretical model is the quantum Turing machine, also known as the universal quantum computer.  Quantum computers share theoretical similarities with non-deterministic and probabilistic computers; one example is the ability to be in more than one state simultaneously.  The field of quantum computing was first introduced by Yuri Manin in 1980 and Richard Feynman in 1982. A quantum computer with spins as quantum bits was also formulated for use as a quantum space–time in 1968.
+Experiments have been carried out in which quantum computational operations were executed on a very small number of qubits. Both practical and theoretical research continues, and many national governments and military funding agencies support quantum computing research to develop quantum computers for both civilian and national security purposes, such as cryptanalysis.
+
+=== Symbolic computation ===
+
+Computer algebra, also called symbolic computation or algebraic computation is a scientific area that refers to the study and development of algorithms and software for manipulating mathematical expressions and other mathematical objects. Although, properly speaking, computer algebra should be a subfield of scientific computing, they are generally considered as distinct fields because scientific computing is usually based on numerical computation with approximate floating point numbers, while symbolic computation emphasizes exact computation with expressions containing variables that have not any given value and are thus manipulated as symbols (therefore the name of symbolic computation).
+Software applications that perform symbolic calculations are called computer algebra systems, with the term system alluding to the complexity of the main applications  that include, at least, a method to represent mathematical data in a computer, a user programming language (usually different from the language used for the implementation), a dedicated memory manager, a user interface for the input/output of mathematical expressions, a large set of routines to perform usual operations, like simplification of expressions, differentiation using chain rule, polynomial factorization, indefinite integration, etc.
+
+=== Very-large-scale integration ===
+
+Very-large-scale integration (VLSI) is the process of creating an integrated circuit (IC) by combining thousands of transistors into a single chip. VLSI began in the 1970s when complex semiconductor and communication technologies were being developed. The microprocessor is a VLSI device. Before the introduction of VLSI technology, most ICs had a limited set of functions they could perform. An electronic circuit might consist of a CPU, ROM, RAM and other glue logic. VLSI allows IC makers to add all of these circuits into one chip.
+
+== Organizations ==
+European Association for Theoretical Computer Science
+SIGACT
+Simons Institute for the Theory of Computing

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+title: "Theoretical computer science"
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+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoretical_computer_science"
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+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:57:07.633078+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Journals and newsletters ==
+Discrete Mathematics and Theoretical Computer Science
+Information and Computation
+Theory of Computing (open access journal)
+Formal Aspects of Computing
+Journal of the ACM
+SIAM Journal on Computing (SICOMP)
+SIGACT News
+Theoretical Computer Science
+Theory of Computing Systems
+TheoretiCS (open access journal)
+International Journal of Foundations of Computer Science
+Chicago Journal of Theoretical Computer Science (open access journal)
+Foundations and Trends in Theoretical Computer Science
+Journal of Automata, Languages and Combinatorics
+Acta Informatica
+Fundamenta Informaticae
+ACM Transactions on Computation Theory
+Computational Complexity
+Journal of Complexity
+ACM Transactions on Algorithms
+Information Processing Letters
+Open Computer Science (open access journal)
+
+== Conferences ==
+Annual ACM Symposium on Theory of Computing (STOC)
+Annual IEEE Symposium on Foundations of Computer Science (FOCS)
+Innovations in Theoretical Computer Science (ITCS)
+Mathematical Foundations of Computer Science (MFCS)
+International Computer Science Symposium in Russia (CSR)
+ACM–SIAM Symposium on Discrete Algorithms (SODA)
+IEEE Symposium on Logic in Computer Science (LICS)
+Computational Complexity Conference (CCC)
+International Colloquium on Automata, Languages and Programming (ICALP)
+Annual Symposium on Computational Geometry (SoCG)
+ACM Symposium on Principles of Distributed Computing (PODC)
+ACM Symposium on Parallelism in Algorithms and Architectures (SPAA)
+Annual Conference on Learning Theory (COLT)
+International Conference on Current Trends in Theory and Practice of Computer Science (SOFSEM)
+Symposium on Theoretical Aspects of Computer Science (STACS)
+European Symposium on Algorithms (ESA)
+Workshop on Approximation Algorithms for Combinatorial Optimization Problems (APPROX)
+Workshop on Randomization and Computation (RANDOM)
+International Symposium on Algorithms and Computation (ISAAC)
+International Symposium on Fundamentals of Computation Theory (FCT)
+International Workshop on Graph-Theoretic Concepts in Computer Science (WG)
+
+== See also ==
+Formal science
+Unsolved problems in computer science
+Sun–Ni law
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Martin Davis, Ron Sigal, Elaine J. Weyuker, Computability, complexity, and languages: fundamentals of theoretical computer science, 2nd ed., Academic Press, 1994, ISBN 0-12-206382-1. Covers theory of computation, but also program semantics and quantification theory. Aimed at graduate students.
+
+== External links ==
+SIGACT directory of additional theory links (archived 15 July 2017)
+Theory Matters Wiki Theoretical Computer Science (TCS) Advocacy Wiki
+List of academic conferences in the area of theoretical computer science at confsearch
+Theoretical Computer Science – StackExchange, a Question and Answer site for researchers in theoretical computer science
+Computer Science Animated
+Theory of computation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology