Scrape wikipedia-science: 258 new, 862 updated, 1153 total (kb-cron)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agronomy-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,71 @@
+---
+title: "Agronomy"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agronomy"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:54:51.887302+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Agronomy is the science and technology of producing and using plants, animals and soils by agriculture for food, fuel, fiber, chemicals, recreation, or land conservation. Agronomy has come to include research of plant genetics, plant physiology, meteorology, and soil science. It is the application of a combination of sciences such as biology, chemistry, economics, ecology, earth science, and genetics. Professionals in the field are known as agronomists.
+
+
+== Plant breeding ==
+
+This topic of agronomy involves selective breeding of plants to produce the best crops for various conditions. Plant breeding has increased crop yields and has improved the nutritional value of numerous crops, including corn, soybeans, and wheat. It has also resulted in the development of new types of plants. For example, a hybrid grain named triticale was produced by crossbreeding rye and wheat. Triticale contains more usable protein than does either rye or wheat. Agronomy has also been instrumental for fruit and vegetable production research. Furthermore, the application of plant breeding for turfgrass development has resulted in a reduction in the demand for fertilizer and water inputs (requirements), as well as turf-types with higher disease resistance.
+
+
+== Biotechnology ==
+
+Agronomists use biotechnology to extend and expedite the development of desired characteristics.  Biotechnology is often a laboratory activity requiring field testing of new crop varieties that are developed.
+In addition to increasing crop yields agronomic biotechnology is being applied increasingly for novel uses other than food. For example, oilseed is at present used mainly for margarine and other food oils, but it can be modified to produce fatty acids for detergents, substitute fuels and petrochemicals.
+
+
+== Soil science ==
+
+Agronomists study sustainable ways to make soils more productive and profitable. They classify soils and analyze them to determine whether they contain nutrients vital for plant growth. Common macronutrients analyzed include compounds of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sulfur. Soil is also assessed for several micronutrients, like zinc and boron. The percentage of organic matter, soil pH, and nutrient holding capacity (cation exchange capacity) are tested in a regional laboratory. Agronomists will interpret these laboratory reports and make recommendations to modify soil nutrients for optimal plant growth.
+
+
+=== Soil conservation ===
+Additionally, agronomists develop methods to preserve soil and decrease the effects of [erosion] by wind and water. For example, a technique known as contour plowing may be used to prevent soil erosion and conserve rainfall. Researchers of agronomy also seek ways to use the soil more effectively for solving other problems. Such problems include the disposal of human and animal manure, water pollution, and pesticide accumulation in the soil, as well as preserving the soil for future generations such as the burning of paddocks after crop production. Pasture management techniques include no-till farming, planting of soil-binding grasses along contours on steep slopes, and using contour drains of depths as much as 1 metre.
+
+
+== Agroecology ==
+
+Agroecology is the management of agricultural systems with an emphasis on ecological and environmental applications. This topic is associated closely with work for sustainable agriculture, organic farming, and alternative food systems and the development of alternative cropping systems.
+
+
+== Theoretical modeling ==
+
+Theoretical production ecology is the quantitative study of the growth of crops. The plant is treated as a kind of biological factory, which processes light, carbon dioxide, water, and nutrients into harvestable products. The main parameters are temperature, sunlight, standing crop biomass, plant production distribution, and nutrient and water supply.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Agricultural engineering
+Agricultural policy
+Agroecology
+Agrophysics
+Crop farming
+Food systems
+Horticulture
+Green Revolution
+Vegetable farming
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Bibliography ==
+Wendy B. Murphy, The Future World of Agriculture, Watts, 1984.
+Antonio Saltini, Storia delle scienze agrarie, 4 vols, Bologna 1984–89, ISBN 88-206-2412-5, ISBN 88-206-2413-3, ISBN 88-206-2414-1, ISBN 88-206-2415-X
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+The American Society of Agronomy (ASA)
+Crop Science Society of America (CSSA)
+Soil Science Society of America (SSSA)
+European Society for Agronomy
+The National Agricultural Library (NAL) – Comprehensive agricultural library.
+Information System for Agriculture and Food Research

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_anthropology-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
+---
+title: "Applied anthropology"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_anthropology"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:54:53.174621+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Applied anthropology is the practical application of anthropological theories, methods, and practices to the analysis and solution of practical problems. The term was first put forward by Daniel G. Brinton in his paper "The Aims of Anthropology". John Van Willengen defined applied anthropology as "anthropology put to use". Applied anthropology includes conducting research with a primary or tertiary purpose to solve real-world problems in areas such as public health, education, government, and business. 
+In Applied Anthropology: Domains of Application, Kedia and Van Willigen define the process as a "complex of related, research-based, instrumental methods which produce change or stability in specific cultural systems through the provision of data, initiation of direct action, and/or the formulation of policy". In other words, applied anthropology is the praxis-based side of anthropological research; it includes researcher involvement and activism within the participating community. 
+
+
+== Spanning academic disciplines ==
+The American Anthropological Association (AAA) website describes anthropology as a focus on "the study of humans, past and present. To understand the full sweep and complexity of cultures across all of human history, anthropology draws and builds upon knowledge from the social and biological sciences as well as the humanities and physical sciences." Thus, the field of anthropology encompasses four subareas: sociocultural anthropology, biological (or physical) anthropology, archaeology, and linguistic anthropology. Because a central tenet of the anthropological field is the application of shared knowledge and research about humans across the world, an anthropologist who specializes in any of these areas and enacts research into direct action and/or policy can be deemed an "applied anthropologist". In fact, some practical, real-world problems invoke all sub-disciplines of anthropological theory, method, and practice. For example, a Native American community development program may involve archaeological research to determine legitimacy of water rights claims, ethnography to assess the current and historical cultural characteristics of the community, linguistics to restore language competence among inhabitants, and medical anthropology to determine the causality of dietary deficiency diseases.
+
+
+== Professional engagement ==
+Applied anthropologists often work for nonacademic clients, such as governments, development agencies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), tribal and ethnic associations, advocacy groups, social-service and educational agencies, and businesses. It is also not uncommon for an anthropologist to initiate activist work surrounding their own area of study; frequently, sociocultural anthropological studies begin as mere research inquiries that blossom into community advocacy projects, and even new specialized NGOs.
+Methodology utilized in applied anthropology includes, but is not limited to, ethnography, participant observation, snowballing, interviews, and focus groups. Applied anthropologists also use textual analysis, surveying, archival research, and other empirical methods to inform policy or to market products.
+
+
+== Problems and criticisms ==
+The process of conducting anthropological research and then applying knowledge in attempts to improve the lives of research participants can be problematic, and is often laced with elements of Orientalism and/or colonialism. Kedia and Van Willigen describe the moral dilemma embedded in this work: "The ethical requirements of applied anthropology are especially challenging since the practitioner must negotiate an intricate balance between the interests of the clients who commission the work, and those of the community being studied." The authors continue by stating that this negotiation leads to issues of privacy, ownership, and the implications and purposes of the study being produced (p. 16).
+Although guidelines regarding ethicalities of applied anthropology are put forth by major anthropological organizations—including the American Anthropological Association (AAA), the Society for Applied Anthropology (SFAA), and the National Association for the Practice of Anthropology (NAPA)—it is increasingly difficult to ensure that the high volume of worldwide anthropologists proceed with their research in ways that are both culturally relative and sensitive to community needs. Kedia and Van Willigen describe the myriad roles an applied anthropologist must play as effective resource for communities in need; a researcher must be an advocate, cultural "broker", evaluator, policy researcher, public participation specialist, and research analyst.
+There has also been some criticism of the interaction between applied anthropologists and government agencies, as those agencies may want to move forward with a development project while anthropologists restrict progress studying carefully before supporting the project.
+
+
+=== Debates about objectivity/cultural relativity in anthropology ===
+The field of anthropology is also fraught with debate surrounding accurate and effective approaches to conducting research. More specifically, there is continued debate about the essentiality of objectivity in anthropological fieldwork. Some hermeneutic scholars contend that it is impossible to remove one's own preconceived cultural notions from one's work. In this line of thought, it is more productive to recognize that anthropologists are themselves culturally programmed observers, and must always be wary of biases that influence information they receive. In contrast, the positivist approach to anthropology emphasizes the necessity for an objective, regimented, and scientific approach to anthropological research.
+The multinational phenomenon of female genital cutting (FGC) exemplifies the necessity for an anthropologist to account for relative cultural contexts: "The work of scholars who stress the fundamental importance of offering perspectives on cultural factors that promote the practice of female genital cutting has brought the debate surrounding cultural relativism into sharp focus. Greunbaum (1996) notes that analyses that do offer emic interpretations and cultural contextualizations are often criticized as bordering on advocacy for the practice" [emphasis in original]. In these instances, it is imperative that an anthropologist not cloud their own preconceived notions about health and gender relations in an attempt to "remedy" a complex social issue.
+
+
+== Scholarly works and organizations ==
+There are three primary groups based in the US that are founded on the application of anthropology with acute attention to ethics and social implications: American Anthropological Association (AAA), Society for Applied Anthropology (SFAA), and the National Association for the Practice of Anthropology (NAPA).
+The premiere journal of applied anthropology in the United States is called Human Organization, published by the Society for Applied Anthropology. In the UK, the main journal for applied anthropology is called Anthropology in Action.
+The Association of Social Anthropologists (ASA) has a network of Applied Anthropologists known as "Apply". Within the European Association of Social Anthropologists (EASA), there is the Applied Anthropology Network, which annually organises the international symposium, Why the World Needs Anthropologists. The theme of the first symposium was New Fields for Applied Anthropology in Europe (Amsterdam, 2013), followed by; Coming Out of the Ivory Tower (Padua, 2014), Burning Issues of Our Hot Planet (Ljubljana, 2015), Humanise IT (Tartu, 2016), Powering the Planet (Durham, 2017), and Designing the Future (Lisbon, 2018). Within the EASA Medical Anthropology Network, there is also an applied anthropology special interest group.
+Under the direction of the Royal Anthropological Institute, Jonathan Benthall (author of The Best of Anthropology Today) created the annual Lucy Mair Medal of Applied Anthropology. This recognizes excellence in using anthropology "for the relief of poverty or distress, or for the active recognition of human dignity".
+
+
+== See also ==
+Development anthropology
+Economic anthropology
+Public anthropology
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_anthropology_research_methods-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
+---
+title: "Applied anthropology research methods"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_anthropology_research_methods"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:54:54.480564+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Anthropology is the study of human societal and cultural development in the past, present, and future with a number of facets that are categorized into five different fields. These fields include: biological (physical) anthropology, cultural (socio-cultural) anthropology, linguistic anthropology (linguistics), archaeology, and applied anthropology. Applied anthropology is the analysis of human interaction with the purpose of solving practical problems that affect and arise throughout time between cultures and societies. Applied anthropologists use many different methods to conduct research on agriculture, health and medicine, housing, social services, political-economic development, displacement and resettlement, business and industry, education, nutrition, environment, and aging. Applied anthropology research methods are: policy research, evaluation research, cultural intervention, activist (action) research, participatory action research (PAR).
+
+
+== Background and history ==
+Applied anthropology was first established in the 19th century in Europe and continued to expand to other cultures around the world. Applied anthropology was first seen in North America by the Mexican government in 1917 and continues to grow. Applied anthropology was more prevalent after WWII, this was due to the loss of Britain's occupations in Africa, Asia, and the Caribbean. These regions were under British rule until the 1930s, and once that ended, societal and practical problems began to be observed. In 1941 in America, the Society of Applied Anthropology was established to further the practice of applied anthropology and created many projects to accumulate data. One of the most important and influential anthropologists, Franz Boas, was a pioneer in applied research methods and practices.
+Boas was born 1858 and died in 1942. He contributed many practices and studies towards applied anthropology and is often referred to as the "Father of Modern Anthropology". Boas was one of the first to look at anthropology as a science and as a means of understanding the different cultures and people around the world. Prior anthropologists were likely artifact hunters and had no regard for the cultures that they were encountering. Some of Boas' work consisted of teaching and fieldwork, as well as six different trips to study the migratory movements of the Inuit, starting in 1886. Another important application of Boas was the four field discipline of anthropology in which  he proclaimed that all sub-fields together were needed to paint an accurate picture of anthropological research.
+Other anthropologists made contributions to early modern anthropology, like Bronislaw Malinowski, Margaret Mead, and Ruth Benedict. Malinowski's studies contributed the functional theory or functionalism, which is the idea that no matter the culture or civilization, societal institutions exist to help the individual meet their needs. Mead contributed to the idea of cultural determinism, which is the idea that culture shapes the way one thinks and behaves. Benedict contributed to the theory of cultural relativism by writing "Patterns of Culture" which elaborated on the idea that each culture is unique and can be fully understood if one studies a culture as a whole.
+
+
+== Research methods ==
+
+
+=== Policy research ===
+Policy research, a research method used by applied anthropologists, uses ethnographic research to make suggestions about policies to policy-makers. Policy research also involves the use of press conferences or workshops to bring in individuals from communities to enlighten them on policy information. The policy information at these workshops or press conferences usually explain the effects of the policies and how it will affect the individuals involved. However, suggesting ways to execute policies and providing ethnographical data is as far as an applied anthropologist can go.
+
+
+=== Evaluation research ===
+Evaluation research is the study of evaluation or improvement of programs, projects, and organizations. These studies are an internal look into projects and organizations as to what is happening, who or what is involved, problems if any, and how to improve the project or program. Initially, applied anthropologists were only involved in observing and making suggestions about a program after the fact. Applied anthropologists now have taken an active role in corrective feedback and interventions. The evaluation of programs, projects, and organizations usually involves: cultural patterns, environmental conditions, processes, system models, networks, or any other factor that could be improved for a better outcome and consistency within an organization or project.
+
+
+=== Cultural intervention ===
+In cultural intervention, applied anthropologists directly involve themselves in the development, conduct, and evaluation of culturally-based, theory-driven interventions. Applied anthropologists also research cultural factors and their influence within the intervention as well as using this information to create intervention theories. Applied anthropologists must know a great amount about a program or movement to create an intervention based on cultural knowledge and theory development. Examples of this would be disease prevention interventions and social marketing research.
+
+
+=== Advocacy, activist, action research ===
+Activist, advocacy, action research is conducted by applied anthropologists by identifying, addressing, and critiquing imbalances in the division of power within society. This includes economic resources, social status, material goods, and any other good desired socially or economically within a society, community, or globally. Advocacy research is used to increase, organize, and create a movement within a community of the less fortunate or oppressed. Applied anthropologists engaged in advocacy research tend to have a liberal or critical view on the situation and due to that create culturally based theories that focus on structural barriers that cause social inequalities: gender, age, sexual preference, and ethnic group identification. Action research is the study of factors leading up to an action or event within society. Activist research is when applied anthropologists collaborate with communities affected by inequality and conducts research that furthers the political agenda of these oppressed communities.
+
+
+=== Participatory (action) research ===
+Participatory action research or PAR is a method in which applied anthropologists work closely with a community group because they are affected by inequities in health, housing, cultural conservation, or political participation. Applied anthropologist conduct research on locally to solve local problems with local partners. The ultimate goal of an applied anthropologist using PAR is to use the research found locally to either create programs or policies to better the locals.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+https://www.jeffreycjohnson.org/app/download/767412178/Handbook_of_Methods_in_Cultural_Anthropo_p669-701.pdf

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_science-0.md

@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1
 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_science"
 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:23:39.420865+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:54:48.158510+00:00"
 instance: "kb-cron"
 ---
 

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_applied_science-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+---
+title: "Outline of applied science"
+chunk: 1/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_applied_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:54:50.711493+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to applied science:
+Applied science – the branch of science that applies existing scientific knowledge to develop more practical applications, including inventions and other technological advancements. Science itself is the  systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_applied_science-1.md

@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+---
+title: "Outline of applied science"
+chunk: 2/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_applied_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:54:50.711493+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Branches of applied science ==
+Applied cryptography – applications of cryptography. Applied science – application of scientific knowledge transferred into a physical environment. Actuarial science — application of mathematical and statistical methods to assess risk in the insurance, finance, and other industries
+Agricultural science
+Agronomy – science and technology of producing and using plants for food, fuel, feed, fiber, and reclamation. Animal husbandry – agricultural practice of breeding and raising livestock. Aquaculture – also known as aquafarming, is the farming of aquatic organisms such as fish, crustaceans, molluscs and aquatic plants. Algaculture – form of aquaculture involving the farming of species of algae. Mariculture – cultivation of marine organisms for food and other products in the open ocean, an enclosed section of the ocean, or in tanks, ponds or raceways which are filled with seawater. Agriculture – science of farming
+Cuniculture – also known as rabbit farming, is the breeding and raising domestic rabbits, usually for their meat or fur. Fungiculture –  process of producing food, medicine, and other products by the cultivation of mushrooms and other fungi. Heliciculture – also called snail farming, is the process of farming or raising land snails specifically for human consumption, and more recently, to obtain snail slime for cosmetics use. Olericulture – science of vegetable growing, dealing with the culture of non-woody (herbaceous) plants for food. Sericulture – also called silk farming, is the rearing of silkworms for the production of silk. Although there are several commercial species of silkworms, Bombyx mori is the most widely used and intensively studied. Food science – study concerned with all technical aspects of foods, beginning with harvesting or slaughtering, and ending with its cooking and consumption, an ideology commonly referred to as "from field to fork". It is the discipline in which the engineering, biological, and physical sciences are used to study the nature of foods, the causes of deterioration, the principles underlying food processing, and the improvement of foods for the consuming public. Forestry – art and science of managing forests, tree plantations, and related natural resources. Arboriculture – cultivation, management, and study of individual trees, shrubs, vines, and other perennial woody plants. Silviculture – practice of controlling the establishment, growth, composition, health, and quality of forests to meet diverse needs and values. It includes regenerating, tending and harvesting techniques. Horticulture – art, science, technology and business of intensive plant cultivation for human use
+Floriculture – discipline of horticulture concerned with the cultivation of flowering and ornamental plants for gardens and for floristry, comprising the floral industry. Hydroculture – growing of plants in a soilless medium, or an aquatic based environment. Plant nutrients are distributed via water. Hydroculture is aquatic horticulture. Hydroponics – subset of hydroculture and is a method of growing plants using mineral nutrient solutions, in water, without soil. Permaculture – branch of ecological design and ecological engineering, which develop sustainable human settlements and self-maintained agricultural systems modeled from natural ecosystems. Architecture – process and product of planning, designing and construction. Architectural works, in the material form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols and as works of art. Architectural engineering – application of engineering principles and technology to building design and construction. Building science – collection of scientific knowledge that focuses on the analysis and control of the physical phenomena affecting buildings. Computing technology (outline) – computer hardware and software, and computing methods. Education – any act or experience that has a formative effect on the mind, character, or physical ability of an individual. In its technical sense, education is the process by which society deliberately transmits its accumulated knowledge, skills, and values from one generation to another. Electronics – branch of physics, engineering and technology dealing with electrical circuits that involve active electrical components such as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes and integrated circuits, and associated passive interconnection technologies. Energy technology (outline) – interdisciplinary engineering science having to do with the efficient, safe, environmentally friendly and economical extraction, conversion, transportation, storage and use of energy, targeted towards yielding high efficiency whilst skirting side effects on humans, nature and the environment. Energy storage (outline) – accomplished by devices or physical media that store some form of energy to perform some useful operation at a later time. A device that stores energy is sometimes called an accumulator. Engineering (outline) – discipline, art, skill and profession of acquiring and applying scientific, mathematical, economic, social, and practical knowledge, in order to design and build structures, machines, devices, systems, materials and processes that safely realize improvements to the lives of people. Aerospace engineering – Aerospace engineering is the primary branch of engineering concerned with the design, construction, and science of aircraft and spacecraft. It is divided into two major and overlapping branches: aeronautical engineering and astronautical engineering. The former deals with craft that stay within Earth's atmosphere, and the latter with craft that operate outside it. Agricultural engineering – engineering discipline that applies engineering science and technology to agricultural production and processing. Agricultural science – broad multidisciplinary field that encompasses the parts of exact, natural, economic and social sciences that are used in the practice and understanding of agriculture. Applied engineering – field concerned with the application of management, design, and technical skills for the design and integration of systems, the execution of new product designs, the improvement of manufacturing processes, and the management and direction of physical and/or technical functions of a firm or organization. Bioengineering – application of concepts and methods of biology (and secondarily of physics, chemistry, mathematics, and computer science) to solve real-world problems related to the life sciences and/or the application thereof, using engineering's own analytical and synthetic methodologies and also its traditional sensitivity to the cost and practicality of the solution(s) arrived at. Biomedical engineering – application of engineering principles and design concepts to medicine and biology. Chemical engineering – application of physical science (e.g., chemistry and physics), and life sciences (e.g., biology, microbiology and biochemistry) with mathematics and economics, to the process of converting raw materials or chemicals into more useful or valuable forms. Civil engineering – deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including works like roads, bridges, canals, dams, and buildings. Civil engineering has many sub-disciplines. Computer engineering – design and development of computer systems
+Artificial intelligence (outline) – intelligence of machines and the branch of computer science that aims to create it. Electrical engineering – field of engineering that generally deals with the study and application of electricity, electronics and electromagnetism. Engineering technology (outline) – development and implementation of existing technology within a field of engineering. Environmental engineering science – multidisciplinary field of engineering science that combines the biological, chemical and physical sciences with the field of engineering. Industrial engineering – branch of engineering dealing with the optimization of complex processes or systems
+Control engineering – engineering discipline that applies control theory to design systems with desired behaviors. Manufacturing engineering – engineering discipline of creating quality products from raw materials in the most efficient way possible. Ceramic engineering – science and technology of creating objects from inorganic, non-metallic materials.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_applied_science-2.md

@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+---
+title: "Outline of applied science"
+chunk: 3/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_applied_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:54:50.711493+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Language engineering – deliberate effort to influence the function, structure, or acquisition of languages or language variety within a speech community. Marine engineering – engineering of boats, ships, oil rigs and any other marine vessel
+Materials science and engineering – interdisciplinary field applying the properties of matter to various areas of science and engineering. This scientific field investigates the relationship between the structure of materials at atomic or molecular scales and their macroscopic properties. Mechanical engineering – discipline of engineering that applies the principles of physics and materials science for analysis, design, manufacturing, and maintenance of mechanical systems. Mining engineering – engineering discipline that involves the practice, the theory, the science, the technology, and application of extracting and processing minerals from a naturally occurring environment. Nuclear engineering – branch of engineering concerned with the application of the breakdown (fission) as well as the fusion of atomic nuclei and/or the application of other sub-atomic physics, based on the principles of nuclear physics. Polymer engineering – subfield of materials science concerned with polymers, primarily synthetic polymers such as plastics. Engineering physics – study of the combined disciplines of physics, engineering and mathematics in order to develop an understanding of the interrelationships of these three disciplines. Security engineering – focuses on the security aspects in the design of systems that need to be able to deal robustly with possible sources of disruption, ranging from natural disasters to malicious acts. Software engineering (outline) – application of a systematic, disciplined, quantifiable approach to the development, operation, and maintenance of software, and the study of these approaches; that is, the application of engineering to software. Systems engineering – interdisciplinary field of engineering focusing on how complex engineering projects should be designed and managed over their life cycles. Environmental science – multidisciplinary academic field that integrates physical, biological and information sciences to the study of the environment, and the solution of environmental problems. Conservation biology – the study of the conservation of nature and of Earth's biodiversity with the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems. Environmental technology – application of one or more of environmental science, green chemistry, environmental monitoring and electronic devices to monitor, model and conserve the natural environment and resources, and to curb the negative impacts of human involvement. Fisheries science – academic discipline of managing and understanding fisheries. It is a multidisciplinary science, which draws on the disciplines of limnology, oceanography, freshwater biology, marine biology, conservation, ecology, population dynamics, economics and management to attempt to provide an integrated picture of fisheries. Forensic science (outline) – application of a broad spectrum of sciences to answer questions of interest to a legal system. This may be in relation to a crime or a civil action. Health science – application of science, technology, engineering or mathematics to the delivery of healthcare
+Anatomy – branch of biology and medicine that is the consideration of the structure of living things. Human anatomy – scientific study of the morphology of the adult human. Conservation medicine – emerging, interdisciplinary field that studies the relationship between human and animal health, and environmental conditions. Dentistry – branch of medicine that is involved in the study, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of diseases, disorders and conditions of the oral cavity, maxillofacial area and the adjacent and associated structures and their impact on the human body. Optometry – health care profession concerned with the health of the eyes and related structures, as well as vision, visual systems, and vision information processing in humans. Medicine – science of healing. To elaborate, it is the applied science of the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease. It encompasses a variety of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness in human beings. Biomedicine – branch of medical science that applies biological and physiological principles to clinical practice. Cardiology – medical specialty dealing with disorders of the heart (specifically the human heart). Dermatology – branch of medicine dealing with the skin and its diseases, a unique specialty with both medical and surgical aspects. Endocrinology – medical specialty dealing with the endocrine system, its diseases, and its specific secretions (hormones), and the interactions of these with all aspects of bodily functioning
+Gastroenterology – branch of medicine whereby the digestive system and its disorders are studied. Gynecology – medical practice dealing with the health of the female reproductive system (uterus, vagina, and ovaries). Immunology – study of the immune system. Internal medicine – medical specialty dealing with the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of adult diseases. Neurology – medical specialty dealing with disorders of the nervous system. Ophthalmology – branch of medicine that deals with the anatomy, physiology and diseases of the eye. Pathology – precise study and diagnosis of disease. Pathophysiology – study of the changes of normal mechanical, physiological, and biochemical functions, either caused by a disease, or resulting from an abnormal syndrome. Pediatrics – branch of medicine that deals with the medical care of infants, children, and adolescents. Psychiatry – medical specialty devoted to the study and treatment of mental disorders. Radiology – medical specialty that employs the use of imaging to both diagnose and treat disease visualised within the human body. Toxicology – branch of biology, chemistry, and medicine concerned with the study of the adverse effects of chemicals on living organisms. Urology – medical and surgical specialty that focuses on the urinary tracts of males and females, and on the reproductive system of males. Nutrition – studies the relationship between diet and states of health and disease. Nursing – Nursing is a healthcare profession focused on the care of individuals, families, and communities so they may attain, maintain, or recover optimal health and quality of life. Pharmacology – branch of medicine and biology concerned with the study of drug action. Pharmacy – health profession that links the health sciences with the chemical sciences and it is charged with ensuring the safe and effective use of pharmaceutical drugs. Physical therapy – health profession that promotes, maintains and restores health through physical examination, diagnosis, intervention, patient education, rehabilitation, and prevention. Physiology – science of the function of living systems. Veterinary medicine – branch of science that deals with the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of disease, disorder and injury in non-human animals. Applied linguistics – interdisciplinary field of study that identifies, investigates, and offers solutions to language-related real-life problems. Management (outline) – getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives using available resources efficiently and effectively. Accounting – process of communicating financial information about a business entity to users such as shareholders and managers. Finance –  addresses the ways in which individuals, businesses and organizations raise, allocate and use monetary resources over time, taking into account the risks entailed in their projects. Marketing – social and managerial processes by which products, services and value are exchanged in order to fulfil individuals' or group's needs and wants. These processes include, but are not limited to, advertising, promotion, distribution, and sales. Organizational behavior – field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups and structures have on behavior within an organization.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_applied_science-3.md

@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+---
+title: "Outline of applied science"
+chunk: 4/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_applied_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:54:50.711493+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Human resource management – strategic approach to the effective management of people in a company or organization
+Operations – those ongoing recurring (cyclic) activities involved in the running of a business for the purpose of producing value for the stakeholders. Strategic management – field that deals with the major intended and emergent initiatives taken by general managers on behalf of owners, involving utilization of resources, to enhance the performance of firms in their external environments. Metrology
+Applied mathematics – branch of mathematics concerned with mathematical methods that are typically used in science, engineering, business, and industry. Thus, "applied mathematics" is a mathematical science with specialized knowledge. Microtechnology – technology with features near one micrometre (one millionth of a metre, or 1μm). Military science – study of the technique, psychology, practice and other phenomena which constitute war and armed conflict. Military organization – structuring of the armed forces of a state so as to offer military capability required by the national defence policy. Military history – humanities discipline within the scope of general historical recording of armed conflict in the history of humanity, and its impact on the societies, their cultures, economies and changing intra and international relationships. Military engineering – the art and practice of designing and building military works and maintaining lines of military transport and communications. Military recruit training – Recruit training, more commonly known as basic training and colloquially called boot camp, is the initial indoctrination and instruction given to new military personnel, enlisted and officer. Military strategy and tactics – set of ideas implemented by military organizations to pursue desired strategic goals
+Applied physics – physics intended for a particular technological or practical use. It is usually considered as a bridge between "pure" physics and engineering. Optics – branch of physics which involves the behavior and properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it. Nanotechnology (outline) – study of manipulating matter on an atomic and molecular scale. Generally, nanotechnology deals with developing materials, devices, or other structures possessing at least one dimension sized from 1 to 100 nanometres. Quantum mechanical effects are important at this quantum-realm scale. Nuclear technology (outline) – technology that involves the reactions of atomic nuclei. Among the notable nuclear technologies are nuclear power, nuclear medicine, and nuclear weapons. It has found applications from smoke detectors to nuclear reactors, and from gun sights to nuclear weapons. Space science – discipline encompassing the fields of study that involve space exploration and the study of natural phenomena occurring in outer space. Astronautics – science of spacefaring and spaceflight. Astronomy – the study of natural objects and phenomena. Space exploration – the discovery and exploration of celestial structures in outer space by developing space technology. Spatial science – academic discipline incorporating fields such as surveying, geographic information systems, hydrography and cartography. Spatial science is typically concerned with the measurement, management, analysis and display of spatial information describing the Earth, its physical features and the built environment. GIS – geographic information system is a system designed to capture, store, manipulate, analyze, manage, and present all types of geographical data. Remote sensing – acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon, without making physical contact with the object. Photogrammetry – practice of determining the geometric properties of objects from photographic images.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_applied_science-4.md

@@ -0,0 +1,98 @@
+---
+title: "Outline of applied science"
+chunk: 5/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_applied_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:54:50.711493+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== History of applied science ==
+History of applied linguistics
+History of applied mathematics
+History of applied physics
+History of artificial intelligence
+Timeline of artificial intelligence
+History of ceramic engineering
+History of computing technology
+History of computing
+History of computing hardware
+History of electronics
+Early electronic components
+History of electronic engineering
+History of energy
+History of energy storage
+History of environmental engineering
+History of forensic science
+History of forestry
+History of materials science
+History of medicine
+History of nanotechnology
+History of nuclear technology
+History of optics
+History of software engineering
+
+== Applied science education ==
+Fachhochschule
+Institute of technology
+
+=== Degrees and certificates ===
+Bachelor of Applied Science – undergraduate degree awarded for a course of study that generally lasts three to four years in the United Kingdom and Australia, and four to six years in Canada, the Netherlands and the United States.
+Applied science technician
+Applied science technologist
+
+=== Applied science schools ===
+University of applied sciences (Finland)
+
+== Applied science organizations ==
+Fraunhofer Society
+Saskatchewan Applied Science Technologists & Technicians
+
+== Applied science publications ==
+American Journal of Applied Sciences
+Foresight: The International Journal of Applied Forecasting
+Intégral: The Journal of Applied Musical Thought
+International Journal of Applied Management and Technology
+International Journal of Applied Mathematics and Computer Science
+International Journal of Applied Philosophy
+ITL – International Journal of Applied Linguistics
+Japanese Journal of Applied Physics
+Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis
+Journal of Applied Biomechanics
+Journal of Applied Biomedicine
+Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology
+Journal of Applied Ecology
+Journal of Applied Econometrics
+Journal of Applied Economics
+Journal of Applied Electrochemistry
+Journal of Applied Gerontology
+Journal of Applied Horticulture
+Journal of Applied Ichthyology
+Journal of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics
+Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology
+Journal of Applied Non-Classical Logics
+Journal of Applied Philosophy
+Journal of Applied Physics
+Journal of Applied Physiology
+Journal of Applied Polymer Science
+Journal of Applied Psychology
+Journal of Applied Social Psychology
+Journal of Applied Social Science
+Journal of Applied Toxicology
+The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science
+
+== See also ==
+Outline of science
+Outline of natural science
+Outline of physical science
+Outline of earth science
+Outline of formal science
+Outline of social science
+Outline of technology
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+
+Free Federal Resources for Educational Excellence – Applied sciences Archived 2012-05-10 at the Wayback Machine

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_dry_box-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,20 @@
+---
+title: "Vacuum dry box"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_dry_box"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:54:41.192336+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A vacuum dry box is a piece of safety equipment which can provide an inert, or controlled atmosphere for handling sensitive materials. These devices can commonly be found in the fume hoods of chemistry labs, in facilities handling deadly pathogens, in NASA Moon rock handling facilities and in industrial applications.  Inert atmosphere glove boxes are also used for painting and sandblasting.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Laboratory equipment
+Glovebox
+Dry box
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_metrology-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
+---
+title: "Virtual metrology"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_metrology"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:54:42.378077+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In semiconductor manufacturing, virtual metrology refers to methods to predict the properties of a wafer based on machine parameters and sensor data in the production equipment, without performing the (costly) physical measurement of the wafer properties. Statistical methods such as classification and regression are used to perform such a task. Depending on the accuracy of this virtual data, it can be used in modelling for other purposes, such as predicting yield, preventative analysis, etc. This virtual data is helpful for modelling techniques that are adversely affected by missing data. Another option to handle missing data is to use imputation techniques on the dataset, but virtual metrology in many cases, can be a more accurate method.
+Examples of virtual metrology include:
+
+the prediction of the silicon nitride (
+  
+    
+      
+        S
+        
+          i
+          
+            3
+          
+        
+        
+          N
+          
+            4
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle Si_{3}N_{4}}
+  
+) layer thickness in the chemical vapor deposition process (CVD), using multivariate regression methods;
+the prediction of critical dimension in photolithography, using multi-level and regularization approaches;
+the prediction of layer width in etching.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vision_science-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,73 @@
+---
+title: "Vision science"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vision_science"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:54:43.503319+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Vision science is the scientific study of visual perception. Researchers in vision science can be called vision scientists, especially if their research spans some of the science's many disciplines.
+Vision science encompasses all studies of vision, such as how human and non-human organisms process visual information, how conscious visual perception works in humans, how to exploit visual perception for effective communication, and how artificial systems can do the same tasks. Vision science overlaps with or encompasses disciplines such as ophthalmology and optometry, neuroscience(s), psychology (particularly sensation and perception psychology, cognitive psychology, linguistics, biopsychology, psychophysics, and neuropsychology), physics (particularly optics), ethology, and computer science (particularly computer vision, artificial intelligence, and computer graphics), as well as other engineering related areas such as data visualization, user interface design, and human factors and ergonomics. Below is a list of pertinent journals and international conferences.
+
+
+== Journals ==
+Scientific journals exclusively or predominantly concerned with vision science include:
+
+Acta Ophthalmologica
+American Journal of Ophthalmology
+Annual Review of Vision Science
+Attention Perception & Psychophysics (previously Perception & Psychophysics)
+British Journal of Ophthalmology
+Clinical & Experimental Ophthalmology
+Current Opinion in Ophthalmology
+European Journal of Ophthalmology
+Experimental Eye Research
+Eye
+Graefe's Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology
+Investigative Ophthalmology & Vision Science (IOVS)
+JAMA Ophthalmology
+Journal of Glaucoma
+Journal of Neuro-Ophthalmology
+Journal of Ophthalmology
+Journal of the Optical Society of America
+Journal of Vision
+translational vision science & technology (tvst)
+Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics (OPO)
+Ophthalmology
+Optometry and Vision Science
+Perception and i-Perception
+Progress in Retinal and Eye Research
+Seeing and Perceiving and Spatial Vision
+Survey of Ophthalmology
+Vision Research (including Clinical Vision Sciences)
+Optica
+
+
+== Conferences ==
+Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology (ARVO)
+American Academy of Ophthalmology (AAO) Annual Meeting
+American Academy of Optometry(AAOpt) Annual Meeting
+European Conference on Visual Perception (ECVP)[1]
+Annual Meeting of the Vision Sciences Society (VSS)[2]
+Asia Pacific Conference on Vision (APVC)[3]
+British Congress of Optometry and Vision Science(BCOVS)[4]
+Indian Contact Lens Education Program(ICLEP) Annual Meeting
+International Myopia Conference, International Myopia Institute
+World Congress of Optometry(WCO)[5]
+IVI International Optometry Conference[6]
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+
+== References ==
+
+Palmer, S.E. (1999). Vision Science: Photons to Phenomenology. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-16183-1.
+
+
+== External links ==
+VisionScience – an Internet resource for research in human and animal vision.
+Visiome Platform – digital research resource archive for vision science by the Neuroinformatics Japan Center
+European Conference on Visual Perception – an international scientific conference on vision science

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiley_mill-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+---
+title: "Wiley mill"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiley_mill"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:54:44.807814+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Wiley mill is a laboratory-scale machine for grinding materials to a powder, and belongs to the family of cutting mills. These mills prepare materials for analysis with minimal moisture loss. Well-dried samples are preferred. In the grinding mill, the material is loaded cut into crude pieces or lumps and loaded into a hopper.  From the hopper, the material drops by gravity into the path of a set of revolving hard tool steel blades driven by an electric motor.  The revolving knives work against stationary knives and the resulting powder is forced through a steel screen.  The powdered material then drops into a waiting collection vessel underneath.
+The Wiley mill is most commonly used in agriculture and soil science laboratories but can be used on a wide variety of materials.  The Wiley mill was originally designed for grinding fertilizer materials, animal hair, hoofs and other materials. 
+
+
+== Materials ==
+The hard, tool steel cutting edges of the knives of a Wiley mill allow for milling a wide range of materials, including plant-based and fibrous materials such as soft and dry wood, particles or sawdust, leaves, stems, and roots, bark and grasses, forage samples (like hay, silage), seeds (like wheat, rice, corn), and also, straw and other lignocellulosic biomass. However, materials that are not recommended, include oily seeds (like soybeans, flax, sunflower), fresh or moist biomass (which may gum up the screen or blades), plastics oand metals, bones or mineral-rich samples (which can damage the blades), and highly abrasive materials.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_paper-0.md

@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+---
+title: "Working paper"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_paper"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:54:46.098316+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A working paper or work paper may be: 
+
+A working paper or technical paper. This encompasses literature that has not been peer reviewed or published in an academic journal. Working papers may be disseminated for the purpose of receiving feedback to improve the publication. They are often the basis for related works, and may themselves be cited by peer-reviewed papers. They may be considered as grey literature.
+Sometimes the term working paper is used synonymously as technical report.  Working papers are typically hosted on websites belonging either to the author or the author's affiliated institution. The United Nations uses the term "working paper" in approximately this sense for the draft of a resolution.
+Documents required for a minor to get a job in certain states within the United States. Such papers usually require the employer, parent/guardian, school, and a physician to agree to the terms of work laid out by the employer.
+Audit working papers: Documents required on an audit of a company's financial statements. In an external audit, the working papers are the property of the accounting firm conducting the audit; in an internal audit, they belong to the organisation. These papers are formally referred to as audit documentation (per [[PCAOB]] and international auditing standards) or as the audit documentation file. The documents serve as proof of audit procedures performed, evidence obtained, and the conclusions the auditor reached.
+
+
+== References ==