Scrape wikipedia-science: 249 new, 861 updated, 1142 total (kb-cron)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_source_and_information_reliability-0.md

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+---
+title: "Intelligence source and information reliability"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_source_and_information_reliability"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:54:28.421422+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Intelligence source and information reliability rating systems are used in intelligence analysis. This rating is used for information collected by a human intelligence collector. This type of information collection and job duty exists within many government agencies around the world.
+According to Ewen Montagu, John Godfrey devised this system when he was director of the Naval Intelligence Division (N.I.D.) around the time of World War II. 
+The system employed by the United States Armed Forces rates the reliability of the source as well as the information. The source reliability is rated between A (history of complete reliability) to E (history of invalid information), with F for source without sufficient history to establish reliability level. The information content is rated between 1 (confirmed) to 5 (improbable), with 6 for information whose reliability can not be evaluated.
+For example, a confirmed information from a reliable source has rating A1, an unknown-validity information from a new source without reputation is rated F6, an inconsistent illogical information from a known liar is E5, a confirmed information from a moderately doubtful source is C1.
+The evaluation matrix as described in the Field Manual FM 2-22.3 (see also Admiralty code):
+
+
+== Source reliability ==
+
+
+== Information credibility ==
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_myth-0.md

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+---
+title: "Scientific myth"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_myth"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:54:25.957474+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A scientific myth  is a myth about science, or a myth or factoid that is commonly thought to be scientific. Scientific discoveries are often presented in a mythological way with a theory being presented as a dramatic flash of insight by a heroic individual, rather than as the result of sustained experiment and reasoning.  For example, Newton's law of universal gravitation is commonly presented as the result of an apple falling upon his head. Newton's observation of an apple falling part in starting him thinking about the problem, but it took him about twenty years to develop the theory fully and so the story of the apple has been described as a myth. Other unscientific misconceptions include the idea that bats are blind. 
+The extent to which it occurs and is problematic is debatable. The scientific historian Douglas Allchin suggests that mythical accounts are misleading because they present the results as handed down by authority figures and understate the importance of error and its resolution by the scientific method.  In responding to this, Westerlund and Fairbanks agreed that romantic accounts of science tend to distort its nature but, in the case of Mendel's discovery of the rules of inheritance, they argue that Allchin's criticism of Mendel's role and reasoning is over-stated.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Great Man theory
+List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
+Whig history
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Magnus Pyke (1962), The Science Myth, Macmillan
+E. A. Bayne (1969), The Social Reality of Scientific Myth, Science and Social Change, American Universities Field Staff
+Earl R. Mac Cormac (1976), Metaphor and Myth in Science and Religion, Duke University Press
+Yehoyakim Stein (2005), The Psychoanalysis Of Science: The Role Of Metaphor, Paraprax, Lacunae And Myth, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 9781845190705

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_Quantum_Electronics_Workshop-0.md

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+---
+title: "Silicon Quantum Electronics Workshop"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_Quantum_Electronics_Workshop"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:54:27.230425+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Silicon Quantum Electronics Workshop (SiQEW) is a series of workshops on silicon quantum computing that date back to 2007.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial_power_combiner-0.md

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+---
+title: "Spatial power combiner"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial_power_combiner"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:54:29.589963+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A spatial power combiner generally refers to a microwave system in which the output power of several solid state circuits are combined in free space as opposed to in a lossy substrate. Many spatial power combiners use concepts from free-space optics in which dielectric lenses are used to focus a microwave beam into and out of a solid-state circuit array. For this reason, this field of research is also known as quasioptics.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereokinetic_stimulus-0.md

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+---
+title: "Stereokinetic stimulus"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereokinetic_stimulus"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:54:30.684411+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Stereokinetic stimulus, stereokinetic depth, stereokinetic illusion is an illusion of depth induced by moving two-dimensional stimuli.
+ 
+A stereokinetic stimulus generates the perception of 3D based on 2D rotational motion. 
+A stereokinetic effect is created when flat displays are rotated in the frontal plane and are perceived as having three-dimensional structure.
+
+
+== History ==
+Ernst Mach first reported a depth effect produced by motion in the frontoparallel plane in 1886.
+Marcel Duchamp first experimented with stereokinetic depth in 1935.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetically_thinned_aperture_radar-0.md

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+---
+title: "Synthetically thinned aperture radar"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetically_thinned_aperture_radar"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:54:31.946289+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Synthetic thinned aperture radiometry (STAR) is a method of radar in which the coherent product (correlation) of the signal from pairs of antennas is measured at different antenna-pair spacings (baselines). These products yield sample points in the Fourier transform of the brightness temperature map of the scene, and the scene itself is reconstructed by inverting the sampled transform. The reconstructed image includes all of the pixels in the entire field-of-view of the antennas.
+The main advantage of the STAR architecture is that it requires no mechanical scanning of an antenna. Using a static antenna simplifies the antenna system dynamics and improves the time-bandwidth product of the radiometer. Furthermore, aperture thinning reduces the overall volume and mass of the antenna system. A disadvantage is the reduction of radiometric sensitivity (or increase in rms noise) of the image due to a decrease in signal-to-noise ratio for each measurement compared to a filled aperture. Pixel averaging is required for good radiometric sensitivity.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Beamforming
+Microwave Imaging Radiometer with Aperture Synthesis (MIRAS), an example of a spaceborne STAR
+Synthetic aperture radar
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminology_for_the_Description_of_Dynamics-0.md

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+---
+title: "Terminology for the Description of Dynamics"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminology_for_the_Description_of_Dynamics"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:54:33.130789+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Terminology for the Description of Dynamics (TEDDY) aims to provide an ontology for dynamical behaviours, observable dynamical phenomena, and control elements of bio-models and biological systems in Systems Biology and Synthetic Biology.
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower_testing_station-0.md

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+---
+title: "Tower testing station"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower_testing_station"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:54:34.212526+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A tower testing station is a special plant for testing various design for towers for transmission lines and similar uses. A tower testing station consists of two steel stands and one or more foundations, on which a sample of the tower can be built. The number of test conditions is normally limited to between six and eight individual cases, with loading condition such as reduced wind and ice. The towers to be tested are erected on rigid foundation and the wire ropes attached to the loading point required. Loading may either be applied by 'dead' weights using scale pans, winches or hydraulic rams. In the latter cases a load cell or dynamometer is placed in the rigging adjacent to the point of loading at the structure. The loading methods induce strain by pulling cables away from the tower to the specified loads. The pulling load is indicated through a strain gauge placed on the pulling point. Loading points on a tower naturally encompasses longitudinal, transverse and vertical components, either as individual or a combined resultant load.
+The degree of sophistication of the control equipment for the application and recording of the load varies considerably at individual test stations. From individual load point application of individual load components with corresponding dial gauges to electronic equipment capable of applying all the loads with constant data recording facilities.
+The test set up is made to conform to the design specifications and verify the adequacy of the main components of the structure and their connections to withstand the static design loads specified for that particular structure as an individual entity under controlled conditions. It furnishes insight into actual stress distribution of unique configurations, fit-up verification, performance of the structure in a deflected position and other benefits.
+
+
+== Locations of tower testing stations ==
+Chungju, South Korea, BOSUNG POWERTEC CO., LTD., [1]
+Moscow, Russia, ORGRES, [2]
+Mannheim, Germany, ABB
+Livorno, Italy, Tower Test srl
+Seville, Spain, Eucomsa
+Toronto, Ontario, Canada, Kinectrics
+Vashi, Jaipur, Jabalpur, India, [3]
+Bucharest, Romania, [4]
+Liangxiang, China, [5]
+Butibori, Nagpur, India, [6]
+Betim, Minas Gerais, Brazil, [7]
+Kanchipuram, Chennai, India, Larsen & Toubro
+IRAN, NRI (Niroo Research Institute), [8]
+Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, Al-Babtain Tower Testing Station [9]
+Linhares, Espírito Santo, Brazil, Brametal Test Station [10]

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turnover_number-0.md

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+---
+title: "Turnover number"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turnover_number"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:54:35.372004+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In chemistry, the term "turnover number" has two distinct meanings.
+In enzymology, the turnover number (kcat) is defined as the limiting number of chemical conversions of substrate molecules per second that a single active site will execute for a given enzyme concentration [ET] for enzymes with two or more active sites. For enzymes with a single active site, kcat is referred to as the catalytic constant. It can be calculated from the limiting reaction rate Vmax and catalyst site concentration e0 as follows:
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          k
+          
+            
+              c
+              a
+              t
+            
+          
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              V
+              
+                max
+              
+            
+            
+              e
+              
+                0
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle k_{\mathrm {cat} }={\frac {V_{\max }}{e_{0}}}}
+  
+ (See Michaelis–Menten kinetics).
+In other chemical fields, such as organometallic catalysis, turnover number (TON) has a different meaning: the number of moles of substrate that a mole of catalyst can convert before becoming inactivated: 
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          T
+          O
+          N
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              n
+              
+                
+                  p
+                  r
+                  o
+                  d
+                  u
+                  c
+                  t
+                
+              
+            
+            
+              n
+              
+                
+                  c
+                  a
+                  t
+                
+              
+            
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathrm {TON} ={\frac {n_{\mathrm {product} }}{n_{\mathrm {cat} }}}}
+  
+ 
+An ideal catalyst would have an infinite turnover number in this sense, because it would never be consumed. The term turnover frequency (TOF) is used to refer to the turnover per unit time, equivalent to the meaning of turnover number in enzymology.  
+
+  
+    
+      
+        
+          T
+          O
+          F
+        
+        =
+        
+          
+            
+              T
+              O
+              N
+            
+            t
+          
+        
+      
+    
+    {\displaystyle \mathrm {TOF} ={\frac {\mathrm {TON} }{t}}}
+  
+
+For most relevant industrial applications, the turnover frequency is in the range of 10−2 – 102 s−1 (103 – 107 s−1 for enzymes). The enzyme catalase has the largest turnover frequency, with values up to 4×107 s−1 having been reported.
+
+
+== Turnover number of diffusion-limited enzymes ==
+
+Acetylcholinesterase is a serine hydrolase with a reported catalytic constant greater than 104 s−1. This implies that this enzyme reacts with acetylcholine at close to the diffusion-limited rate.
+Carbonic anhydrase is one of the fastest enzymes, and its rate is typically limited by the diffusion rate of its substrates. Typical catalytic constants for the different forms of this enzyme range between 104 s−1 and 106 s−1.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Catalysis
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbach_tail-0.md

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+---
+title: "Urbach tail"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbach_tail"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:54:36.574002+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In the solid-state physics of semiconductors, the Urbach tail is an exponential part in the energy spectrum of the absorption coefficient. This tail appears near the optical band edge in amorphous, disordered and crystalline materials.
+
+
+== History ==
+Researchers began questioning the nature of "tail states" in disordered semiconductors in the 1950s. It was found that such tails arise from the strains sufficient to push local states past the band edges.
+In 1953, the Austrian-American physicist Franz Urbach (1902–1969) found that such tails decay exponentially into the gap. Later, photoemission experiments delivered absorption models revealing temperature dependence of the tail.
+A variety of amorphous crystalline solids expose exponential band edges via optical absorption. The universality of this feature suggested a common cause. Several attempts were made to explain the phenomenon, but these could not connect specific topological units to the electronic structure.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Tauc plot
+Urbach energy
+
+
+== References ==