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+---
+title: "12 Rules for Life"
+chunk: 1/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12_Rules_for_Life"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:30.445868+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+12 Rules for Life: An Antidote to Chaos is a 2018 self-help book by the Canadian clinical psychologist Jordan Peterson. It provides life advice through essays in abstract ethical principles, psychology, mythology, religion, and personal anecdotes. The book topped bestseller lists in Canada, the United States, and the United Kingdom, and had sold over ten million copies worldwide, as of May 2023. 
+Peterson went on a world tour to promote the book, receiving much attention following an interview with Channel 4 News. The book is written in a more accessible style than his previous academic book, Maps of Meaning: The Architecture of Belief (1999). A sequel, Beyond Order: 12 More Rules for Life, was published in March 2021.
+
+== Overview ==
+
+=== Background ===
+Peterson's interest in writing the book grew out of a personal hobby of answering questions posted on Quora. One such question being "What are the most valuable things everyone should know?", to which his answer comprised 42 rules.  The early vision and promotion of the book aimed to include all rules, with the title "42".  Peterson stated that it "isn't only written for other people. It's a warning to me."
+
+=== Rules ===
+The book is divided into chapters with each title representing one of the following twelve specific rules for life as explained through an essay.
+
+"Stand up straight with your shoulders back."
+"Treat yourself like someone you are responsible for helping."
+"Make friends with people who want the best for you."
+"Compare yourself to who you were yesterday, not to who someone else is today."
+"Do not let your children do anything that makes you dislike them."
+"Set your house in perfect order before you criticize the world."
+"Pursue what is meaningful (not what is expedient)."
+"Tell the truth – or, at least, don't lie."
+"Assume that the person you are listening to might know something you don't."
+"Be precise in your speech."
+"Do not bother children when they are skateboarding."
+"Pet a cat when you encounter one on the street."
+
+=== Content ===
+The book's central idea is that "suffering is built into the structure of being" and, although it can be unbearable, people have a choice either to withdraw, which is a "suicidal gesture", or to face and transcend it. Living in a world of chaos and order, everyone has "darkness" that can "turn them into the monsters they're capable of being" to satisfy their dark impulses in the right situations. Scientific experiments like the Invisible Gorilla Test show that perception is adjusted to aims, and it is better to seek meaning rather than happiness. Peterson notes:It's all very well to think the meaning of life is happiness, but what happens when you're unhappy? Happiness is a great side effect. When it comes, accept it gratefully. But it's fleeting and unpredictable. It's not something to aim at – because it's not an aim. And if happiness is the purpose of life, what happens when you're unhappy? Then you're a failure.
+The book advances the idea that people are born with an instinct for ethics and meaning, and should take responsibility to search for meaning above their own interests (Rule 7, "Pursue what is meaningful, not what is expedient"). Such thinking is reflected both in contemporary stories such as Pinocchio, The Lion King, and Harry Potter, and in ancient stories from the Bible. To "Stand up straight with your shoulders back" (Rule 1) is to "accept the terrible responsibility of life," to make self-sacrifice, because the individual must rise above victimization and "conduct his or her life in a manner that requires the rejection of immediate gratification, of natural and perverse desires alike." The comparison to neurological structures and behavior of lobsters is used as a natural example to the formation of social hierarchies.
+The other parts of the work explore and criticize the state of young men; the upbringing that ignores sex differences between boys and girls (criticism of over-protection and tabula rasa model in social sciences); male–female interpersonal relationships; school shootings; religion and moral nihilism; relativism; and lack of respect for the values that built Western society.
+In the last chapter, Peterson outlines the ways in which one can cope with the most tragic events, which are very often out of one's control. In it, he describes his own personal struggle upon discovering that his daughter, Mikhaila, had a rare bone disease. The chapter is a meditation on how to maintain a watchful eye on, and cherish, life's small redeemable qualities, e.g., to "pet a cat when you encounter one". It also outlines a practical way to deal with hardship: to shorten one's temporal scope of responsibility, e.g., by focussing on the next minute rather than the next three months.
+Canadian psychiatrist and psychoanalyst Norman Doidge wrote the book's foreword, with the help of Anuar Kul-Mukkhamed, a student at the University of Chicago. 
+
+== Publication ==
+
+=== Marketing ===
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+---
+title: "12 Rules for Life"
+chunk: 2/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12_Rules_for_Life"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:30.445868+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+To promote the book, Peterson went on a world tour, initially from January 14, 2018, to February 17, 2018, including events in England, Canada, and the United States. The sold-out venues included 1,000-seat conference hall Emmanuel Centre in London, and 2,000-seat Orpheum Theatre in Los Angeles. The February 11 event at Citadel Theatre in Edmonton was cancelled by the theatre's board of directors and management, for which they later apologized, and instead was held at a sold-out Hyatt Place. 
+The second part included three sold-out events in March in Australia, continuing at Beacon Theatre in New York, and the third part held between early May and June initially numbering ten events in the US and Canada and one in the UK. Until June, the tour visited 45 cities in North America, Europe and Australia, reaching an audience of over 100,000 people. According to Peterson, nearly 200,000 people attended the live events until late July.
+As part of the tour, Peterson had an interview on Channel 4 News that went viral, receiving considerable attention and nearly 49 million views on YouTube. He also appeared on BBC Radio 5 Live and BBC's HARDtalk; LBC's Maajid Nawaz radio show; Fox & Friends and Tucker Carlson Tonight; ABC's 7.30; Sky News Australia's Outsiders; HBO's Real Time with Bill Maher; and The Dr. Oz Show, among others.
+
+=== Release ===
+Penguin Allen Lane published the book on January 16, 2018, in the UK. Random House Canada published it on January 23 in Canada. As of September 2018, the book was slated to be translated into 45 languages.
+The 12 Rules for Life audiobook was number one on Audible in Canada, and number three in the US. In Canada, since its debut, it topped The Globe and Mail's and the Toronto Star's nonfiction bestsellers lists. According to CBC Books, it was the 4th-bestselling Canadian book of the year. According to the Toronto Star, it was the "biggest Canadian book success story of the year", topping original nonfiction and Canadian nonfiction categories, with only Canadian poet writer Rupi Kaur having similar sales. Kobo Inc. reported that it was the 2nd-bestselling audiobook of 2018 in Canada. Per BookNet Canada and BNC SalesData, the print book was 3rd, and Peterson was the bestselling Canadian author of the year.
+In the UK the book enjoyed five weeks at the top of The Sunday Times's bestsellers list for general hardcover (February 18 – March 25, again on April 15), selling over 120,000 copies by September 16. According to The Sunday Times, the hardback edition was the year's 4th-biggest seller in the "general hardbacks" category with 153,160 copies sold by end of the year. According to The Guardian, the Nielsen BookScan reported sales of 147,899 copies made it only the 32nd bestselling book of the year.
+The Nielsen BookScan reported sales of over 10,000 copies until March 12 in Australia. In Ireland it was the 23rd-bestselling book of the year with 14,408 copies.
+In the US, the book became the number-one nonfiction book and e-book on The Wall Street Journal's Best-Selling Books list. It also topped The Washington Post's and Reuters's US bestsellers list, reached number two on USA Today's overall list, and topped the hardcover nonfiction and top 10 overall category for Publishers Weekly, selling over 559,000 copies by September 24, 2018. In the category it replaced Michael Wolff's Fire and Fury. At the end of the year the hardcover version was the 11th-bestselling book, with 692,238 copies. 
+Penguin Random House CEO Markus Dohle said in late March that the book had already sold over 700,000 copies in the US. The book did not chart on The New York Times, Los Angeles Times and IndieBound bestsellers list. According to Toronto Star books editor Deborah Dundas, the New York Times stated it was not counted because it was published by a Canadian company. According to Random House Canada, the book was handled properly for the US market.
+Peterson announced the book had sold over 2 million copies (August 6, 2018), then 3 million copies (January 13, 2019), and later that work had begun on a sequel (January 2019). The book reached 5 million sales by November 2020. By May 2023 the book had sold over 10 million copies.
+In March 2019, Whitcoulls, one of New Zealand's leading book retailers, temporarily removed the book from their stores and online catalogue, apparently in reaction to the Christchurch mosque shootings. The withdrawal of the book was prompted by social media photos of Peterson posing with a fan wearing a T-shirt saying "I'm a proud Islamophobe." Peterson and his supporters strongly criticized Whitcoulls's decision because Whitcoulls continued to sell Adolf Hitler's Mein Kampf and Henry Malone's Islam Unmasked. The book was reinstated six days after it was removed.
+
+== Reception ==
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+---
+title: "12 Rules for Life"
+chunk: 3/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12_Rules_for_Life"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:30.445868+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The book was received with mixed reviews. Melanie Reid, for The Times, said the book is "aimed at teenagers, millennials and young parents...If you peel back the verbiage, the cerebral preening, you are left with a hardline self-help manual of self-reliance, good behaviour, self-betterment and individualism that probably reflects [Peterson's] childhood in rural Canada in the 1960s." Bryan Appleyard, also in The Times, describes it as "a less dense and more practical version of Maps of Meaning...a baggy, aggressive, in-your-face, get-real book that, ultimately, is an attempt to lead us back to what Peterson sees as the true, the beautiful and the good – i.e., God."
+Hari Kunzru of The Guardian said it collates advice from Peterson's clinical practice with anecdotes, accounts of his academic work as a psychologist and "a lot of intellectual history of the 'great books' variety", but the essays are explained in an overcomplicated style. Kunzru called Peterson sincere, but found the book irritating because he considers Peterson failed to follow his own rules. 
+In an interview with Peterson for The Guardian, Tim Lott called the book atypical of the self-help genre. For The Scotsman, Bill Jamieson praised it as "richly illustrated and packed with excellent advice on how we can restore meaning and a sense of progression to our everyday lives", describing it as "verbal waterboarding for supporters of big government". 
+The New York Times's David Brooks wrote, "The Peterson way is a harsh way, but it is an idealistic way – and for millions of young men, it turns out to be the perfect antidote to the cocktail of coddling and accusation in which they are raised". 
+Joe Humphreys of The Irish Times argued people should not be stopped "from reading what is a veritable powerhouse of a book: wise, provocative, humorous and also maddeningly contradictory...". Glenn Ellmers in Claremont Review of Books wrote that Peterson "does not shrink from telling readers that life means pain and suffering. His deft exposition, however, makes clear that duty is often liberating and responsibility can be a gift".
+Dorothy Cummings McLean, writing for The Catholic World Report, called the book "the most thought-provoking self-help book I have read in years", with its rules reminding her of those by Bernard Lonergan, and content "serving as a bridge between Christians and non-Christians interested in the truths of human life and in resisting the lies of ideological totalitarianism". 
+In a review for the same magazine, Bishop Robert Barron praised the archetypal reading of the story about Adam and Eve and the Garden of Eden with Jesus representing "gardener" and the psychological exploration of Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn and The Gulag Archipelago, but did not support its "gnosticizing tendency to read Biblical religion purely psychologically and philosophically and not at all historically", or the idea that "God ... [is] simply a principle or an abstraction". It is "valuable for the beleaguered young men in our society, who need a mentor to tell them to stand up straight and act like heroes", Barron wrote. 
+Adam DeVille took a very different view, calling 12 Rules for Life "unbearably banal, superficial, and insidious" and saying "the real danger in this book is its apologia for social Darwinism and bourgeois individualism covered over with a theological patina" and that "in a just world, this book would never have been published".
+Ron Dart, for The British Columbia Review, considered the book "an attempt to articulate a more meaningful order for freedom as an antidote to the erratic ... chaos of our age", but although "necessary" with exemplary advice for men and women it is "hardly a sufficient text for the tougher questions that beset us on our all too human journey and should be read as such." For the Financial Times, Julian Baggini wrote, "In headline form, most of his rules are simply timeless good sense.... The problem is that when Peterson fleshes them out, they carry more flab than meat". 
+In The Spectator, Peter Hitchens wrote that he did not like the "conversational and accessible" style and amount of "recapitulation", but believed it had "moving moments", "good advice" with a message "aimed at people who have grown up in the post-Christian West" with special appeal to young men. Park MacDougald of New York shared a similar view, writing that on paper Peterson lacks the "coherence, emotional depth" of his lectures but "still, he produces nuggets of real insight."
+Pankaj Mishra's review in The New York Review of Books called 12 Rules a repackaged collection of pieties and late 19th-century Jungian mysticism that has been discredited by modern psychology. Mishra compared the book to historical authors who influenced Peterson, but whose serious moral failings, including racism and fascism, Peterson fails to address. He criticized Peterson's book for failing to recognize how traditionalism and myth can be used in support of demagoguery and anti-democratic ideas, and asserts that Peterson's work is a symptom of the problems it attempts to cure. Peterson responded to the review on Twitter, taking umbrage at Mishra's description of Peterson's friendship with First Nations artist Charles Joseph as "the latest in a long line of eggheads pretentiously but harmlessly romancing the noble savage"; Peterson responded, "If you were in my room at the moment, I'd slap you happily."
+For Psychology Today, philosopher Paul Thagard called the book flimsy and said Peterson's views fail to stand up to philosophical scrutiny, "If you go for Christian mythology, narrow-minded individualism, obscure metaphysics, and existentialist angst, then Jordan Peterson is the philosopher for you. But if you prefer evidence and reason, look elsewhere." Psychologist John Grohol, in PsychCentral, said the advice was sound, self-evident, and harmless, but could not recommend it because Peterson justified his advice with rambling tangential anecdotes and religious dogma instead of scientific data.
+In the Los Angeles Review of Books, Guy Stevenson wrote that Peterson's work is ignored by serious academics, in part because of his inflated claims targeting a conspiracy of "postmodern neo-Marxists", but that his level of celebrity had not been seen for a public intellectual since Marshall McLuhan in the 1960s. According to Stevenson, Peterson's practical advice and Jungian mysticism reflect a new counterculture movement similar to that of the 1960s. He called 12 Rules aggressive and overeager to blame problems on "bogeymen", and recommended as an alternative the work of John Gray, who has addressed the same issues.
+Kelefa Sanneh of The New Yorker noted:
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12_Rules_for_Life-3.md
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+---
+title: "12 Rules for Life"
+chunk: 4/4
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12_Rules_for_Life"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:30.445868+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+some of his critics might be surprised to find much of the advice he offers unobjectionable, if old-fashioned: he wants young men to be better fathers, better husbands, better community members. In this way, he might be seen as an heir to older gurus of manhood like Elbert Hubbard, who in 1899 published a stern and wildly popular homily called A Message to Garcia ...
+At times, Peterson emphasizes his interest in empirical knowledge and scientific research—although these tend to be the least convincing parts of 12 Rules for Life.
+David French of National Review called the book a "beacon of light" for the current time, with a simple but profound purpose "to help a person look in the mirror and respect the person he or she sees." Some critics, such as National Review's Heather Wilhelm and Toronto Star's James Grainger, were critical of negative reviews they believed had misinterpreted Peterson.
+In September 2018, Peterson threatened to sue Cornell University philosopher Kate Manne for defamation after she called his work misogynistic in an interview with Vox. Manne called Peterson's threat an attempt to chill free speech. Vox considered the threat baseless and ignored it. In a critique often shared by prominent intellectual Noam Chomsky, Nathan Robinson of Current Affairs called Peterson a "charlatan" who gives "the most elementary fatherly life-advice" while adding "convolutions to disguise the simplicity of his mind."
+In an article published in 2020 in the International Journal of Jungian Studies, "Carl Jung, John Layard and Jordan Peterson: Assessing Theories of Human Social Evolution and Their Implications for Analytical Psychology", Gary Clark offers a sustained critique of Peterson's thought as outlined in 12 Rules for Life. The article asserts that Peterson fails to take account of research in paleoanthropology, evolutionary anthropology and ethnographic studies of egalitarian societies. Such societies, which are believed to represent the ancient forager adaptation of H. sapiens, are matrilineal and lack social hierarchy. The author argues that a major sociocultural transformation occurred from this ancient adaptive complex with the onset of agriculture giving rise to modern patrilineal and hierarchical cultures. This view contrasts with Peterson's, which postulates modern social and economic structures are an outgrowth of the hierarchical impulses of our premammalian, mammalian and primate ancestors. This led the author to conclude that Peterson seems to have "projected his own cultural biases back into the deep past".
+In one of the only academic reviews of the book, B.V.E. Hyde wrote in Philosophy Now that Peterson has been misrepresented as pessimistic and far-right, arguing instead that his work is ultimately optimistic and sensible. Hyde concluded that Peterson's significance stems from "his realism about the human condition, his optimism about how to transcend it, and the simplicity of his injunctions," which provide psychological guidance during complex times. Hyde noted that Peterson's self-help advice is "almost commonsensical" and that he "writes forcefully for propositions which are largely unremarkable and, at bottom, totally agreeable," crediting this as the source of his books' appeal.
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+JordanBPeterson.com – Peterson's website
+12 Rules for Life – Penguin United Kingdom
+12 Rules for Life – Penguin Random House Canada
+12 Rules For Life by Jordan B. Peterson: An Excerpt – Penguin Random House India
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/50_Signs_of_Mental_Illness-0.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/50_Signs_of_Mental_Illness-0.md
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+---
+title: "50 Signs of Mental Illness"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/50_Signs_of_Mental_Illness"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:31.594207+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+50 Signs of Mental Illness: A Guide to Understanding Mental Health is a 2005 book by psychiatrist James Whitney Hicks published by Yale University Press. The book is designed as an accessible psychiatric reference for non-professionals that describes symptoms, treatments and strategies for understanding mental health.
+
+
+== List of signs ==
+The 50 signs covered in the book are:
+
+
+== Reception ==
+A review in the American Journal of Psychiatry commended Hicks's phrasing of acceptable ways to speak about mental illness.
+A review in The National Medical Journal of India likewise applauded the book's accessibility to non-experts, though it criticized Hicks's choice of symptoms and suggested "It would be difficult for an Indian to relate to the book" due to the examples he uses.
+The book also received attention from Health, Library Journal, The Baltimore Sun, and The Washington Post.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Bardi, C. A. (2005). The Promise And Perils Of Psychological Self-Help. PsycCRITIQUES, 50(51). doi:10.1037/05200711
+American Psychiatric Association (July, 2018) "Warning Signs of Mental Illness". www.psychiatry.org. Retrieved 2021-06-19.
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official site Archived 2014-01-07 at the Wayback Machine
+Yale University Press
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Different_Universe-0.md
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+---
+title: "A Different Universe"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Different_Universe"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:27.657885+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A Different Universe: Reinventing Physics from the Bottom Down is a 2005 physics book by Robert B. Laughlin, a winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics for the fractional quantum Hall effect. Its title is a play on the P. W. Anderson manifesto More is Different (historically important in claiming that condensed-matter physics deserves greater respect). The book extends his articles "The Middle Way" and "The Theory of Everything", arguing the limits of reductionism. A key concept in Laughlin's works is protectorates, meaning robust physical regimes of behavior that do not depend on (that is, they are protected from the fickle details of) the underlying smaller-scale physics such as quantum noise. Such robust or reliable behavior at macroscopic scales makes possible higher-level entities, from biological life to nanotechnology. The book emphasizes more study of such macroscopic phenomena, sometimes called emergence, over the ever-downward dive into theoretically fundamental ideas such as string theory, which at some point become empirically irrelevant by having no observable consequences in our world. The arguments come full circle with modern dark energy ideas suggesting that spacetime or the vacuum may not be empty, but rather (for all we can observe) a medium, a possibility ironically glimpsed even by Einstein whose career began with demolishing the similar but too-simplistic notion of ether with his special relativity work.
+
+
+== Reception ==
+Keay Davidson reviewed the book for the New York Times, saying that "Laughlin's thesis is intriguing, if not completely persuasive." Carlos Lourenço, reviewing the book for the CERN Courier, found it "thought-provoking" and "worth reading", though he was left disappointed by the time it spent on seemingly irrelevant topics and polemics against reductionists. Lourenço concludes that "there is a lot of talking but in the end not much physics really gets reinvented."
+
+
+== References ==
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_British_Fishes-0.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_British_Fishes-0.md
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+---
+title: "A History of British Fishes"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_British_Fishes"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:42.048901+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A History of British Fishes is a natural history book by William Yarrell, serialised in nineteen parts from 1835, and then published bound in two volumes in 1836. It is a handbook or field guide systematically describing every type of fish found in the British Isles, with an article for each species.
+Yarrell was a London bookseller and newsagent with the time and income to indulge his interest in natural history. He was a prominent member of several natural history societies and knew most of the leading British naturalists of his day. He was able to draw on his own extensive library and collection of specimens, his wide network of like-minded naturalist friends, and his access to major libraries to garner material for his writings, the most important of which were A History of British Fishes and the 1843 A History of British Birds.
+A History of British Fishes followed the example of Thomas Bewick's natural history books in its combination of up-to-date scientific data, accurate illustrations, detailed descriptions and varied anecdotes. The wood engraving illustrations were drawn by Alexander Fussell and engraved by John Thompson; three editions and their two supplements were published by John Van Voorst's company, based in Paternoster Row, London. Yarrell died in 1856, and the third edition was produced posthumously. The work was a commercial success and became the standard reference work for a generation of British ichthyologists. Yarrell's name is commemorated in eight species, three of which are fish, and in the lightfish genus Yarrella.
+
+== Author ==
+
+William Yarrell (1784–1856) was the son of Francis Yarrell and his wife Sarah, née Blane. William's father and his cousin William Jones were partners as booksellers and newsagents in London. William joined the business in 1803 after leaving school, and inherited the company in 1850.
+Yarrell had the free time and income to indulge his hobbies of shooting and fishing, and started to show an interest in rare birds, sending some specimens to the engraver and author Thomas Bewick. He became a keen student of natural history and collector of birds, fish, and other wildlife, and by 1825 he had a substantial collection. He was active in the London learned societies, and held senior posts in several for many years. He was treasurer of the Linnean Society from May 1849, until his death in 1856, vice president of the Zoological Society of London from 1839 to 1851, treasurer of the Royal Entomological Society from 1834 to 1852, and was also on the Council of the Medico-Botanical Society.
+He knew many of the leading naturalists of his day, which helped him in the production of his books and articles, notably A History of British Fishes and his 1843 A History of British Birds.
+
+== Background ==
+
+=== Written sources ===
+
+Interest in natural history was growing rapidly in the early nineteenth century, and several writers sought to provide definitive lists of species found in Britain, with descriptions and other pertinent information. When Yarrell came to tackle the fish, written sources were limited. Edward Donovan's The Natural History of British Fishes (1802–1808) was the only reasonably recent specialist book, although Thomas Pennant's British Zoology (1812) and Bewick's A Natural History of British Quadrupeds (1808) were among other publications that covered some British fish.
+The most notable foreign sources were the Histoire naturelle des poissons (1828–1831) by Baron Georges Cuvier and Achille Valenciennes, which contained descriptions of five thousand species of fishes, and Marcus Elieser Bloch's beautifully illustrated twelve-volume Allgemeine Naturgeschichte der Fische (1782–1795). The French book was important because Cuvier and Valenciennes had grouped similar species together, providing a logical order to their book. Yarrell had membership of the libraries of the British Museum and the Linnaean Society, and his friends gave him access to college collections and their own private libraries and notebooks. Yarrell personally owned at least 2000 books, of which about 80 were concerned with fish or fishing. The posthumous sale of his books in 1856 raised £1100.
+
+=== Other resources ===
+
+Yarrell was a keen fisherman, and his journeys to English south coast locations like Brighton, Weymouth and Hastings gave him direct access to fresh specimens. He also frequented fish vendors, particularly in London's important markets, and had a network of fisherman-naturalist contacts, eight of whom he named in the preface to his book, notably the Cornishman Jonathan Couch, who provided him with many fish specimens from the southwest of England. Fellow members of the learned societies he belonged to also helped him with specimens. Yarrell had 220 species of fish as preserved specimens in his personal collection, now held in the Natural History Museum. Fish were mostly preserved in spirits of wine, a strong ethanol solution, although whisky was an alternative used in Scotland.
+As a London-based bookseller and an active member of London's learned societies, Yarrell had contact with many fellow naturalists who could help him with books, illustrations and notes, as well as specimens. He was a life-long friend of clergyman naturalist Leonard Jenyns, and a regular correspondent with the taxidermist John Gould, Sir William Jardine, the Earl of Derby, Edward Lear and Charles Darwin. Yarrell's knowledge of avian anatomy helped Lear develop his bird painting skills by teaching him that feather tracts follow the muscle contours, and he in return provided a drawing of a thicklip grey mullet for the fish book.
+Yarrell made significant discoveries of his own, including showing that male seahorses and pipefish carried fertilised eggs in a pouch, and clarifying how many Salmo (salmon and trout) species occurred in Britain.
+
+== Format ==
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_British_Fishes-1.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_British_Fishes-1.md
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+---
+title: "A History of British Fishes"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_British_Fishes"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:42.048901+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Yarrell was a great admirer of Thomas Bewick (he named a new wildfowl species "Bewick's swan" after the engraver).
+Bewick's A History of British Birds, published in two volumes in 1797 and in 1804, had brought him nationwide fame, and since Yarrell owned several editions of Bewick's books, he followed the older man's format for his own fish project.
+Volume 1 has a preface which also acknowledges the people who had helped Yarrell with his project, followed by an introduction discussing the general characteristics of fish (fifteen pages in the first edition) and an alphabetical index before the main species accounts start. There was no established taxonomic sequence for arranging fish, so where possible Yarrell followed Cuvier and Valenciennes, otherwise using anatomical resemblances in features including fins, teeth, and head bones to order his species.
+Each entry started with a wood engraving of the species, followed by its scientific and English names and their synonyms, and a lead section "Generic characteristics" summarising the key anatomical features. The main text described the fish in more detail, noted when it was recorded as a British species, mentioned interesting anatomical characteristics, described its habits in terms of gregariousness and water depth, and recorded where it could be found in Britain and Europe. Yarrell also ate many of the fish he described so that he could comment on their palatability. A typical example is Yarrell's first entry, for the perch. As well as the expected detailed anatomical and geographical information, in the five-page text he notes:
+
+In rivers, the Perch prefers the sides of the stream rather than the rapid parts of the current, and feeds indiscriminately upon insects, worms, and small fishes ... So remarkable is the Perch for its boldness and voracity, that in a few days ... Mr. Jesse tells us, they came freely and took worms from his fingers ... They are constantly exhibited in the markets of Catholic countries, and, if not sold, are taken back to the ponds from which they were removed in the morning, to be reproduced another day. The flesh of this fish is firm, white, of good flavour, and easy of digestion ... The Perch, though very common, is one of the most beautiful of our fresh-water fishes, and, when in good condition, its colours are brilliant and striking ...
+
+== Production and publication ==
+
+Yarrell's illustrations were wood engravings made using the techniques pioneered by Bewick in which boxwood blocks were engraved on their ends using a burin, a tool with a V‑shaped tip. The new illustrations for the fish book were drawn onto the blocks by Alexander Fussell and cut by John Thompson, both of whom also worked on the later bird book. The most expensive part of producing illustrated books in the nineteenth century was the hand colouring of printed plates, mainly by young women. By using monochrome illustrations Yarrell could avoid this outlay and the associated costs of having the illustrations separate from the text and printed on a different grade of paper. The quality of the illustrations in Yarrell's books was very high, because he could afford to employ Thompson and his sons. Thompson senior was later to win a médaille d'or at the 1855 Paris Exhibition.
+William Swainson suggested to Yarrell that he should produce separate offprints of the illustrations and have them coloured for separate sale as a profitable additional venture, but Yarrell refused. There were practical problems in that the wood engraving blocks were set in the same formes as the letterpress for the text, and, if separated, the extra printing demand would wear out the wooden blocks, especially without the protection of the surrounding raised metal type. Yarrell also objected on principle to the prints being sold separately. The book was originally published in 19 fascicules (parts), each priced at 2/6d (12.5p). The last part contained an index.
+The publisher of Yarrell's books was John Van Voorst, whose business was in Paternoster Row, a street central to the London publishing trade. He began to specialise in natural history publications and was appointed official bookseller to the London Zoological Society in 1837. Van Voorst often visited Yarrell's house, and joined him to shoot and fish on estates and streams around London. He was a Fellow of the Linnean Society and a founding fellow of the Royal Microscopical Society, established in 1839.
+
+=== Editions ===
+Three editions and three supplements were published by Van Voorst.
+
+1835–36 Two volumes originally published in 19 parts. 226 species described and figured, and 140 vignettes. Volume 1, 408 pp., volume 2, 472 pp.
+1839 Supplement, 27 new species. Volume 1, 48 pp., volume 2, 78 pp.
+1841 Second edition, two volumes containing 263 species and 500 figures. Volume 1, 464 pp., volume 2, 628 pp.
+1859 Posthumous third edition, two volumes, edited by explorer and naturalist Sir John Richardson. In this edition, the text was preceded by a "Memoir of William Yarrell" and a list of his publications. Volume 1, 679 pp., volume 2, 673 pp.
+1860 Second supplement to first edition, edited by Sir John Richardson, also being the first supplement to the second edition, 71 pp.
+
+=== Other publications ===
+Yarrell's many other ichthyological works included an 1839 three-page, 30.5 by 44 cm (12.0 by 17.3 in) oblong folio, On the Growth of the Salmon in Fresh Water, with drawings in the text and six life-sized coloured illustrations of the fish, chapter 8, "Marine Fishes", in William Henry Harvey's 1854 The Sea-Side Book, and an article on Eurasian dace in the Transactions of the Linnean Society of London.
+
+== Reception ==
+
+Publications writing contemporary positive reviews of A History of British Fishes included The Athenaeum, The Gentleman's Magazine, Leigh Hunt's London Journal, the London Medical Gazette and The Quarterly Review.
+The Gentleman's Magazine said
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_British_Fishes-2.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_British_Fishes-2.md
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+---
+title: "A History of British Fishes"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_British_Fishes"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:42.048901+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+... the task could not have been undertaken by one more competent for it. History and patient observations are enriched by a science of no ordinary kind ... We have little hesitation, therefore, in saying that the work before us is, perhaps, the most perfect of its kind which has been yet published. It is
+written in a style at once clear and satisfactory, and the illustrations are quite equal, if not superior, to those of Bewick's birds and quadrupeds. Indeed, we hardly thought it possible that fish could be so perfectly represented by engravings on wood ...
+The Quarterly Review saw the book as of wider importance. Near the end of a 35-page review, it states
+
+This book ought to be largely circulated, not only on account of its scientific merits – though these, as we have in part shown, are great and signal – but because it is popularly written throughout, and therefore likely to excite general attention to a subject which ought to be held as one of primary importance by all those gentlemen of education and property who happen to be more immediately connected with some of the most extensive, and which might be among the most useful and important, districts of this empire.
+The passage continues with the promotion of sea fish as a means to relieve famine.
+There was a generally appreciative reception from Yarrell's fellow naturalists. Prideaux John Selby, an ornithologist and natural history artist, wrote to Jardine after receiving the first part to say how impressed he was with the beautifully executed woodcuts and the quality of the printing, and later, when he had the complete set, said to the same recipient that it was a "very beautiful work", although a few of the fish could have been better illustrated. Jardine himself published an enthusiastic review in his Magazine of Botany and Zoology.
+A History of British Fishes and the later A History of British Birds were both immediately commercially successful and became standard texts until the end of the nineteenth century. Van Voorst believed that Yarrell made around £4000 from the two books.
+Yarrell's name is commemorated in eight species, three of which are fish. These are Yarrell's blenny (Chirolophis ascanii), from the European North Atlantic coasts; the giant devil catfish, Bagarius yarrelli, from the rivers of the Indian subcontinent; and Laemonema yarrellii, a deep sea morid cod from Madeira and the Great Meteor Seamount of the North Atlantic. The lightfish genus Yarrella is also named for him.
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== Cited texts ==
+Jackson, Christine E (2022). A Newsworthy Naturalist: The Life of William Yarrell. Oxford: John Beaufoy. ISBN 978-1913679-04-0.
+McGhie, Henry A (2017). Henry Dresser and Victorian Ornithology: Birds, Books and Business. Manchester: Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-1-78499-413-6.
+Peck, Robert McCracken (2021). The Natural History of Edward Lear. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-21723-9.
+Richter, Emil Heinrich (1914). Prints : a brief review of their technique and history. Boston: Houghton.
+Uglow, Jenny (2006). Nature's Engraver: A Life of Thomas Bewick. Croydon: Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-22375-6.
+Yarrell, William (1836). A History of British Fishes. Vol. 1 (First ed.). London: Van Voorst.
+
+== Further reading ==
+
+=== A History of British Fishes ===
+First edition, 1835–36, volume 2.
+Supplement, 1839.
+Second edition, 1841, two volumes.
+Supplement to second edition, 1845.
+Third edition, 1859, volume 1, volume 2
+Second supplement to 1st edition, 1860.
+
+=== Other ===
+
+Couch, Jonathan (1867). A History of the Fishes of the British Islands. London: Groombridge. Four volumes.
+Harvey, William Henry (1854). The Sea-Side Book ; Being an Introduction to the Natural History of the British Coasts. London: Van Voorst. pp. 237–269.
+Yarrell, William (1837). "Descriptions of Three British Species of Freshwater Fishes, belonging to the genus Leuciscus of Klein". Transactions of the Linnean Society of London. 17: 5–10.
+Yarrell, William (1839). On the Growth of the Salmon in Freshwater. London: Van Voorst. pp. 1–3.
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_the_Birds_of_Europe-0.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_the_Birds_of_Europe-0.md
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+---
+title: "A History of the Birds of Europe"
+chunk: 1/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_the_Birds_of_Europe"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:43.204827+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A History of the Birds of Europe, Including all the Species Inhabiting the Western Palearctic Region is a nine-volume ornithological book published in parts between 1871 and 1896. It was mainly written by Henry Eeles Dresser, although Richard Bowdler Sharpe co-authored the earlier volumes. It describes all the bird species reliably recorded in the wild in Europe and adjacent geographical areas with similar fauna, giving their worldwide distribution, variations in appearance and migratory movements.
+The pioneering ornithological work of John Ray and Francis Willughby in the seventeenth century had introduced an effective classification system based on anatomical features, and a dichotomous key to help readers identify birds. This was followed by other English-language ornithologies, notably John Gould's five-volume Birds of Europe published between 1832 and 1837. Sharpe, then librarian of the Zoological Society of London, had worked closely with Gould and wanted to expand on his work by including all species reliably recorded in Europe, North Africa, parts of the Middle East and the Atlantic archipelagos of Madeira, the Canary Islands and the Azores. He lacked the resources to undertake this task on his own, so he proposed to Dresser that they work together on this encyclopaedia, using Dresser's extensive collection of birds and their eggs and network of contacts.
+The Birds of Europe was published as 84 quarto parts, each typically containing 56 pages of text and eight plates of illustrations, the latter mainly by the Dutch artist John Gerrard Keulemans, and bound into volumes when all the parts were published. 339 copies were made, at a cost to each subscriber of £52 10s. Sharpe did not contribute after part 13, and was not listed as an author after part 17. Birds of Europe was well received by its contemporary reviewers, although a commentator in 2018 considered that Dresser's outdated views and the cost of his books meant that in the long run his works had limited influence. The Birds of Europe continued a tradition dating from the seventeenth century whereby the study and classification of specimens operated largely independently of those field observers who studied behaviour and ecology, a rift that continued until the 1920s, when the German naturalist Erwin Stresemann integrated the two strands as part of modern zoology.
+
+== Background ==
+
+Early ornithologies, such as those of Conrad Gessner, Ulisse Aldrovandi and Pierre Belon, relied for much of their content on the authority of Aristotle and the teachings of the church, and included much extraneous material relating to the species, such as proverbs, references in history and literature, or its use as an emblem. The arrangement of the species was by alphabetical order in Gessner's Historia animalium, and by arbitrary criteria in most other early works. In the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, Francis Bacon had advocated the advancement of knowledge through observation and experiment, and the English Royal Society and its members such as John Ray, John Wilkins and Francis Willughby sought to put the empirical method into practice, including travelling widely to collect specimens and information.
+The first modern ornithology, intended to describe all the then-known birds worldwide, was produced by Ray and Willughby and published in Latin as Ornithologiae Libri Tres (Three Books of Ornithology) in 1676, and in English, as The Ornithology of Francis Willughby of Middleton, in 1678. Its innovative features were an effective classification system based on anatomical features, including the bird's beak, feet and overall size, and a dichotomous key, which helped readers to identify birds by guiding them to the page describing that group. The authors also placed an asterisk against species of which they had no first-hand knowledge, and were therefore unable to verify. The commercial success of the Ornithology is unknown, but it was historically significant, influencing writers including René Réamur, Mathurin Jacques Brisson, Georges Cuvier and Carl Linnaeus in compiling their own works.
+During the early nineteenth century, a number of ornithologies were written in English, including John Gould's five-volume Birds of Europe, which was published between 1832 and 1837. Richard Bowdler Sharpe, then librarian of the Zoological Society of London, had worked closely with Gould and completed some of his books that were still unfinished when he died. He wished to build on Gould's work to include all species reliably recorded in the wild in Europe, expand the geographical range to include North Africa, parts of the Middle East and the Atlantic archipelagos of Madeira, the Canary Islands and the Azores (this extended area constitutes the Western Palaearctic realm) and to describe the worldwide distribution, variation and movements of each of the species. He lacked the resources to undertake this task on his own, so he proposed to businessman and amateur ornithologist Henry Eeles Dresser that they work together on this great encyclopaedia. Dresser had an extensive collection of European birds and their eggs, and a network of contacts who would allow him to acquire or borrow new specimens. He also had the linguistic skills to translate texts from several European languages.
+
+== Dresser and bird collecting ==
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_the_Birds_of_Europe-1.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_the_Birds_of_Europe-1.md
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+---
+title: "A History of the Birds of Europe"
+chunk: 2/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_the_Birds_of_Europe"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:43.204827+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+In an age before modern cameras and binoculars, nineteenth century ornithology was dominated by the collection of eggs taken from the nest and birds obtained through shooting. The corpses were skinned, preserved with arsenical soap, and sometimes stuffed for display. Ornithologists acquired birds and eggs through their own shooting and collecting activities, by purchases from bird markets, auctions and commercial dealers, and through exchanges with other collectors.
+Henry Dresser's father, also named Henry, was a successful timber merchant, and sent his son to a school in Ahrensburg near Hamburg to learn German, and another in Gefle (now Gävle) to study Swedish. Henry junior also acquired fluency in Danish, Finnish, French and Norwegian. Between 1856 and 1862, the younger Dresser's work sent him to Finland on three occasions and to New Brunswick twice, giving him the opportunity to add birds and eggs from these regions to his collection. On his second trip to Finland he became the first person to find a nest and eggs of the waxwing, which helped to establish his reputation as a serious ornithologist.
+In 1863 and 1864, during the American Civil War, Dresser travelled to North America, setting up shop in the Mexican border town of Matamoros, Tamaulipas, to sell goods that had evaded the Union blockade to the Confederacy. He made the most of the opportunity to add to his bird collection while there, as he did later when he relocated to San Antonio, Texas, where he met the prominent American ornithologist Adolphus Lewis Heermann.
+Dresser's contacts for acquiring and exchanging specimens included Robert Swinhoe in China, who had 4,000 skins of 600 species, Thomas Blakiston in Japan, Allan Octavian Hume in India, whose 80,000 skins and 20,000 eggs were the world's largest private collection at the time, and William Blandford, a naturalist and geologist working in Persia and Central Asia. He also collaborated with prominent Russians including Nikolay Przhevalsky, Nikolai Severtzov and Sergei Buturlin. African specimens came from a variety of sources, including colonial administrators and the collections of the Germans Wilhelm Friedrich Hemprich and Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg. Alfred Newton gave his friend Dresser access to a collection of birds from Lapland. By 1868, Dresser owned 1,200 skins and several thousand eggs. His final collection, including about 10,000 skins, is now kept at Manchester Museum, and includes the only known egg of the now-extinct slender-billed curlew.
+
+== Production ==
+
+The Birds of Europe was published as 84 quarto parts between 1871 and 1896. Each part on average contained 56 pages of text and eight plates of illustrations, and took about seven weeks to produce. This meant that for the 11-year duration of the project, Dresser was writing around a page of text a day on top of his commercial employment, and the main illustrator, John Gerrard Keulemans, was drawing a plate every six days. The publication was financed by subscription, and a year's set of 12 issues cost £6 6s; It was promoted by a prospectus containing sample articles that was sent to potential buyers using the authors' contacts in the scientific societies, including the Zoological Society of London and the British Ornithologists' Union (BOU). By the end of the first year, there were 237 subscribers, including King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy, Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (by then also Duke of Edinburgh), and the Sikh Maharaja Duleep Singh.
+The text and illustrations for the main text and supplement were self-published and printed by Taylor & Francis of Fleet Street, London. The twelve parts issued each year were bound into temporary volumes, and when all the parts were finally published they were permanently bound into seven volumes using Morocco leather with gold tooling. Parts 83 and 84, containing an introduction, index, references and list of subscribers, were bound as a slim Volume 1, and the 1895–1896 supplement to the main text eventually became a ninth volume.
+The complete set's final cost was £52 10s, equivalent to about £6,100 at 2025 values. Of the 339 copies, 69 were bought by naturalists, 31 by aristocrats, 229 by other private individuals, 67 by dealers and the rest by museums and other institutions. Overseas subscribers accounted for 61 of the purchased sets. Dresser gave 20 further sets, printed on thinner paper and without the plates of illustrations, to those who had contributed information.
+
+=== Text ===
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_the_Birds_of_Europe-2.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_the_Birds_of_Europe-2.md
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+---
+title: "A History of the Birds of Europe"
+chunk: 3/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_the_Birds_of_Europe"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:43.204827+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Each part of the book contained birds from different families to prevent subscribers attempting to collect only a particularly popular group, such as birds of prey or ducks, the different families coming together only when the articles and plates were reorganised in the final binding. The first part released therefore included birds as diverse as the Eurasian teal, red-footed falcon, marsh sandpiper and woodchat shrike. Articles for each species included alternative binomial names, a detailed description of both sexes and the juveniles, the bird's range, habitat and habits, and the specimens that had been examined during preparation of the text.
+The taxonomy used by Dresser was based on a scheme created by Thomas Henry Huxley and developed by Philip Sclater which used a hierarchical classification using orders and families rather than the arbitrary division into bird groups used by earlier writers. His book started with the passerines, rather than the traditional birds of prey.
+When choosing binomial names for his species, Dresser kept strictly to chronological priority. Since the first mention might be in an obscure or foreign language journal, this led to changes in the established Latin names of some species, "causing great consternation among his colleagues". The situation was made worse in that many early descriptions were so vague it was impossible to be sure of the species. Dresser introduced five new names. Parus grisescens (Siberian tit), Calandrella baetica (Mediterranean short-toed lark), Serinus canonicus (Syrian serin) and Anthus seebohmi (Pechora pipit) are now considered to be junior synonyms for the species, and Otocorys brandti is now Eremophila alpestris brandti, a subspecies of the horned lark.
+Dresser and Sharpe initially co-authored the articles, both struggling to keep up to schedule since they were also working full-time. Sharpe resigned as librarian of the Zoological Society late in 1871 to give himself more opportunity to write, but then accepted a post as bird curator at the British Museum in May 1872. His contract meant he was not allowed to have a personal collection, so he sold his skins of African birds to the Museum. Relations between the two authors soon became strained, Sharpe considering that his colleague was too interested in the commercial aspects of the project, rather than the science, and their partnership was dissolved in December 1872. Sharpe did not contribute after part 13, and was not listed as an author after part 17.
+A supplement to the Birds of Europe was published in nine parts in 1895 and 1896, giving a final count of more than 5,100 pages and 723 plates. The Supplement covered 114 further species, including 14 discovered since the earlier publication, 22 rare vagrants to Europe and 26 that had been elevated to full species status in the interim. Dresser had also extended the area covered beyond Europe and the Middle East to include neighbouring Persia and western Central Asia, which added many birds from that region.
+
+=== Illustrations ===
+
+The principal illustrator was the Dutch artist John Gerrard Keulemans, who had previously illustrated Sharpe's study of kingfishers, A Monograph of the Alcdinidae. Keulemans mostly worked from skins rather than life, but attempted to depict the birds realistically. Artists normally painted a picture and then copied it onto a fine limestone slab using a special waxy crayon. The slab was then wetted before adding an oil-based ink, which would be held only by the greasy crayon lines, and copies were printed from the slab. This process was known as lithography.
+To reduce costs, Keulemans drew directly on to the limestone instead of first making a painting. Although this was more technically difficult, drawing directly could give a livelier feel to the final illustration, and was also favoured by other contemporary bird artists such as Edward Lear. The printed plates were hand-coloured, mainly by young women.
+Keulemans was also working on other projects, so Dresser had to commission Edward Neale and Joseph Wolf to draw 28 and 15 plates respectively. Each of the 339 copies produced contained 633 plates, so nearly 215,000 plates were individually coloured. In addition to the colour plates, there were also monochrome engravings to illustrate interesting features, one example being a drawing of a skull of a Tengmalm's owl to show its asymmetry.
+
+== Reception ==
+
+When he came to review Birds of Europe in 1872, Dresser's old friend Alfred Russel Wallace recommended the work both to general readers and to amateurs, using the latter word in its original sense as a lover of the subject. In another review in 1875, he said "this beautiful and important work ... The energy with which the author has laboured to ensure punctuality in the issue is beyond all praise; and now that about half the work is completed, and we find that the last twelve parts, with figures of nearly 120 species of birds, have appeared within the year, subscribers have every assurance that they will, in due course, possess a finished work."
+An outspoken critic of the book was Dresser's former friend, the ornithologist Henry Seebohm, who criticised the errors in the text and the conservatism of the authors, including their failure to use trinomial nomenclature. Seebohm was a much more committed supporter of evolutionary theory than Dresser, and believed every local variation of a species should have its own scientific name to demonstrate relationships. His comments on Dresser and Sharpe include:
+
+... the writer of the extraordinary article in question was absolutely ignorant of everything connected with the Greenshank except the information which a series of skins might afford ... Articles of this kind are very amusing, but they must sorely puzzle the young student – though in most cases his bird-stuffer, even if he be only a country barber, will be quite capable of correcting such childish blunders. and
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_the_Birds_of_Europe-3.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_the_Birds_of_Europe-3.md
@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+---
+title: "A History of the Birds of Europe"
+chunk: 4/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_the_Birds_of_Europe"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:43.204827+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+... as acts of ignorance and folly on the part of two juvenile ornithologists who had nothing new to say on the birds of which they wrote, and consequently made a desperate effort to achieve notoriety by introducing novelties into nomenclature ... I think we all owe a debt of gratitude to these two gentlemen who thus heroically sacrificed their reputation for common sense and sound judgment for the good of the science they loved.
+Overall, Birds of Europe was very well received by its contemporary reviewers, as was the Supplement when it was published. When Dresser died in 1915 aged 77 his obituary in Ibis, an avian science journal, after summarising his life and his major role in scientific societies, went on to say his "most important work is undoubtedly the well-known 'History of the Birds of Europe' ... the whole forms a monument of the industry and accuracy of the author." His obituarist, though, added a caveat that "his views on the limits of specific variation and nomenclature would not perhaps commend themselves to present-day workers."
+
+== Legacy ==
+
+The Birds of Europe continued a tradition dating from Ray's time whereby the study and classification of specimens operated largely independently of those observers who studied behaviour and ecology. The rift between the "museum men" and field ornithologists continued until the 1920s, when the German naturalist Erwin Stresemann integrated the two traditions as part of modern zoology.
+The ornithologist Alan Knox commented in 2018 that Dresser's outdated classification scheme and the cost of his books meant that, in the long run, his works were less influential than William Yarrell's 1843 A History of British Birds. Eventually Dresser's "old guard" views fell out of favour, particularly after World War I, although his book still attracts the interest of collectors, with first-edition full sets being offered in late 2019 for $27,500 in the US and £19,642 in the UK.
+Although Sharpe's contribution to the Birds of Europe was limited, his involvement facilitated his move to the British Museum and his main work was in classifying and cataloguing the bird collections. He also used his contacts to acquire the egg and skin collections of wealthy collectors and travellers for his museum. When he was appointed in 1872 the museum had 35,000 bird specimens, but had grown to half a million items by the time of his death.
+
+== Related works ==
+
+Throughout his adult life Dresser regularly wrote articles for journals, most frequently The Zoologist and Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, although the History of the Birds of Europe was his first book. He wrote several other ornithological works, namely A Monograph of the Meropidae, or Family of the Bee-eaters (1884–1886), A Monograph of the Coraciidae, or Family of the Rollers (1893), the two-volume A Manual of Palaearctic Birds (1902–1903) and the two-volume Eggs of the Birds of Europe (1910), which was issued in 24 parts beginning in 1905.
+He had started on the bee-eater monograph in 1882, using his own collection of 200 skins of these birds as one of his sources, and by 1883 he was also working on the rollers, adding Birds of Europe to his workload in the following year. The 1881 A List of European Birds, including all species found in the western palaearctic region was based on the History of the Birds of Europe, and may have been a response to criticism from Sclater that the earlier publication was too large.
+The Manual of Palaearctic Birds was largely traditional in its taxonomy, as with its predecessor, but in his treatment of dippers he showed a partial acceptance that subspecies could share a common ancestor, as proposed by Charles Darwin in The Origin of Species. In The Eggs of the Birds of Europe, Dresser used a then-new photographic technique, the three-colour process, to illustrate the subtleties of bird egg markings with colour photographs rather than paintings.
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_the_Birds_of_Europe-4.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_the_Birds_of_Europe-4.md
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+---
+title: "A History of the Birds of Europe"
+chunk: 5/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_the_Birds_of_Europe"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:43.204827+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Cited texts ===
+Birkhead, Tim (2011). The Wisdom of Birds: An Illustrated History of Ornithology. London: Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-0-7475-9822-0.
+Birkhead, Tim (2018). The Wonderful Mr Willughby: The First True Ornithologist. London: Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-1-4088-7848-4.
+Birkhead, Tim; Smith, Paul J.; Doherty, Meghan; Charmantier, Isabelle (2016). "Willughby's Ornithology". In Birkhead, Tim (ed.). Virtuoso by Nature: The Scientific Worlds of Francis Willughby FRS (1635–1672). Leiden: Brill. pp. 268–304. ISBN 978-90-04-28531-6.
+Charmantier, Isabelle; Johnston, Dorothy; Smith, Paul J (2016). "The legacies of Francis Willughby". In Birkhead, Tim (ed.). Virtuoso by Nature: The Scientific Worlds of Francis Willughby FRS (1635–1672). Leiden: Brill. pp. 360–385. ISBN 978-90-04-28531-6.
+Dresser, Henry Eeles (1871–1896). A History of the Birds of Europe : including all the Species inhabiting the Western Palaearctic region. Vol. 1. London: self-published. OCLC 861242766.
+Johanson, Zerina; Barrett, Paul M; Richter, Martha; Smith, Mike (2016). Arthur Smith Woodward: His Life and Influence on Modern Vertebrate Palaeontology. Geological Society of London, Special Publications. Vol. 430. London: Geological Society of London. ISBN 978-1-86239-741-5.
+Kusukawa, Sachiko (2016). "Historia Piscium (1686) and its sources". In Birkhead, Tim (ed.). Virtuoso by Nature: The Scientific Worlds of Francis Willughby FRS (1635–1672). Leiden: Brill. pp. 305–334. ISBN 978-90-04-28531-6.
+McGhie, Henry A. (2011). "Dresser, H.E. (1871–"1881" = 1871–1882). [Initially Sharpe, R.B. & H.E. Dresser.] A History of the Birds of Europe, including all the species inhabiting the Western Palæarctic Region". In Dickinson, E.C.; Overstreet, L.K.; Dowsett, R.J.; Bruce, M.D. (eds.). Priority! The Dating of Scientific Names in Ornithology: a Directory to the literature and its reviewers. Northampton, UK: Aves Press. pp. 88–89. ISBN 978-0-9568611-1-5.
+McGhie, Henry A. (2017). Henry Dresser and Victorian Ornithology: Birds, Books and Business. Manchester: Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-1-78499-413-6.
+Ohl, Michael (2018). The Art of Naming. Translated by Lauffer, Elisabeth. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-53703-2.
+Seebohm, Henry (1885). A History of British Birds, with Coloured Illustrations of their Eggs. Vol. 3. London: self-published.
+Uglow, Jenny (2017). Mr Lear: A Life of Art and Nonsense. London: Faber & Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-26954-9.
+van Grouw, Katrina (2017). The Unfeathered Bird. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-15134-2.
+
+== Selected bibliography ==
+Dresser, Henry Eeles (1871–1896). A History of the Birds of Europe : including all the Species inhabiting the Western Palaearctic region. London: self-published. volume 1; volume 2; volume 3 volume 4; volume 5; volume 6; volume 7; volume 8; volume 9
+Dresser, Henry Eeles (1884–1886). A Monograph of the Meropidae, or Family of the Bee-eaters. London: self-published.
+Dresser, Henry Eeles (1891). A list of European birds, including all species found in the western palaearctic region. London: self-published.
+Dresser, Henry Eeles (1893). A Monograph of the Coraciidae, or Family of the Rollers. Kent, England: self-published.
+Dresser, Henry Eeles (1902–1903). A Manual of Palaearctic Birds. Vol. 1–2. London: self-published. Volume 1, Volume 2
+Dresser, Henry Eeles (1910). Eggs of the Birds of Europe, Including All the Species Inhabiting the Western Palaearctic Region. Vol. 1–2. London: self-published. volume 1 (text), volume 2 (plates and their keys) (issued in 24 parts beginning in 1905)
+Gessner, Conrad (1551). Historia Animalium Libri (in Latin). Vol. 1. Zurich: C. Froschauer.
+Gould, John (1832). Birds of Europe. Vol. 1. London: self-published.
+Willughby, Francis; Ray, John (1676). Ornithologiae Libri Tres (in Latin). London: John Martyn.
+Willughby, Francis; Ray, John (1678). The Ornithology of Francis Willughby of Middleton in the County of Warwick. London: John Martyn.
+Yarrell, William (1843). A History of British Birds. London: John Van Voorst.
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Mind_of_Its_Own
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--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Treatise_on_Electricity_and_Magnetism-0.md
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+---
+title: "A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Treatise_on_Electricity_and_Magnetism"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:20.339919+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism is a two-volume treatise on electromagnetism written by James Clerk Maxwell in 1873. Maxwell was revising the Treatise for a second edition when he died in 1879. The revision was completed by William Davidson Niven for publication in 1881. A third edition was prepared by J. J. Thomson for publication in 1892.
+The treatise is said to be notoriously hard to read, containing plenty of ideas but lacking both the clear focus and orderliness that may have allowed it catch on more easily. It was noted by one historian of science that Maxwell's attempt at a comprehensive treatise on all of electrical science tended to bury the important results of his work under "long accounts of miscellaneous phenomena discussed from several points of view". He goes on to say that, outside the treatment of the Faraday effect, Maxwell failed to expound on his earlier work, especially the generation of electromagnetic waves and the derivation of the laws governing reflection and refraction.
+Maxwell introduced the use of vector fields, and his labels have been perpetuated:
+
+A (vector potential), B (magnetic induction), C (electric current), D (displacement), E (electric field – Maxwell's electromotive intensity), F (mechanical force), H (magnetic field – Maxwell's magnetic force).
+Maxwell's work is considered an exemplar of rhetoric of science:
+
+Lagrange's equations appear in the Treatise as the culmination of a long series of rhetorical moves, including (among others) Green's theorem, Gauss's potential theory and Faraday's lines of force – all of which have prepared the reader for the Lagrangian vision of a natural world that is whole and connected: a veritable sea change from Newton's vision.
+
+== Contents ==
+
+Preliminary. On the Measurement of Quantities.
+Part I. Electrostatics. 
+
+Description of Phenomena.
+Elementary Mathematical Theory of Electricity.
+On Electrical Work and Energy in a System of Conductors.
+General Theorems.
+Mechanical Action Between Two Electrical Systems.
+Points and Lines of Equilibrium.
+Forms of Equipotential Surfaces and Lines of Flow.
+Simple Cases of Electrification.
+Spherical Harmonics.
+Confocal Surfaces of the Second Degree.
+Theory of Electric Images.
+Conjugate Functions in Two Dimensions.
+Electrostatic Instruments.
+Part II. Electrokinematics.
+
+The Electric Current.
+Conduction and Resistance.
+Electromotive Force Between Bodies in Contact.
+Electrolysis.
+Electrolytic Polarization.
+Mathematical Theory of the Distribution of Electric Currents.
+Conduction in Three Dimensions.
+Resistance and Conductivity in Three Dimensions.
+Conduction through Heterogeneous Media.
+Conduction in Dielectrics.
+Measurement of the Electric Resistance of Conductors.
+Electric Resistance of Substances.
+Part III. Magnetism
+
+Elementary Theory of Magnetism.
+Magnetic Force and Magnetic Induction.
+Particular Forms of Magnets.
+Induced Magnetization.
+Magnetic Problems.
+Weber's Theory of Magnetic Induction.
+Magnetic Measurements.
+Terrestrial Magnetism.
+Part IV. Electromagnetism.
+
+Electromagnetic Force.
+Mutual Action of Electric Currents.
+Induction of Electric Currents.
+Induction of a Current on Itself.
+General Equations of Dynamics.
+Application of Dynamics to Electromagnetism.
+Electrokinetics.
+Exploration of the Field by means of the Secondary Circuit.
+General Equations.
+Dimensions of Electric Units.
+Energy and Stress.
+Current-Sheets.
+Parallel Currents.
+Circular Currents.
+Electromagnetic Instruments.
+Electromagnetic Observations.
+Electrical Measurement of Coefficients of Induction.
+Determination of Resistance in Electromagnetic Measure.
+Comparison of Electrostatic With Electromagnetic Units.
+Electromagnetic Theory of Light.
+Magnetic Action on Light.
+Electric Theory of Magnetism.
+Theories of Action at a distance.
+
+== Reception ==
+
+=== Reviews ===
+On April 24, 1873, Nature announced the publication with an extensive description and much praise. When the second edition was published in 1881, George Chrystal wrote the review for Nature.
+Pierre Duhem published a critical essay outlining mistakes he found in Maxwell's Treatise. Duhem's book was reviewed in Nature.
+
+=== Comments ===
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Treatise_on_Electricity_and_Magnetism-1.md
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+---
+title: "A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Treatise_on_Electricity_and_Magnetism"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:20.339919+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Hermann von Helmholtz (1881): "Now that the mathematical interpretations of Faraday's conceptions regarding the nature of electric and magnetic force has been given by Clerk Maxwell, we see how great a degree of exactness and precision was really hidden behind Faraday's words...it is astonishing in the highest to see what a large number of general theories, the mechanical deduction of which requires the highest powers of mathematical analysis, he has found by a kind of intuition, with the security of instinct, without the help of a single mathematical formula."
+Oliver Heaviside (1893):”What is Maxwell's theory? The first approximation is to say: There is Maxwell's book as he wrote it; there is his text, and there are his equations: together they make his theory. But when we come to examine it closely, we find that this answer is unsatisfactory. To begin with, it is sufficient to refer to papers by physicists, written say during the first twelve years following the first publication of Maxwell's treatise to see that there may be much difference of opinion as to what his theory is. It may be, and has been, differently interpreted by different men, which is a sign that is not set forth in a perfectly clear and unmistakable form. There are many obscurities and some inconsistencies. Speaking for myself, it was only by changing its form of presentation that I was able to see it clearly, and so as to avoid the inconsistencies. Now there is no finality in a growing science. It is, therefore, impossible to adhere strictly to Maxwell's theory as he gave it to the world, if only on account of its inconvenient form.
+Alexander Macfarlane (1902): "This work has served as the starting point of many advances made in recent years. Maxwell is the scientific ancestor of Hertz, Hertz of Marconi and all other workers at wireless telegraphy.
+Oliver Lodge (1907) "Then comes Maxwell, with his keen penetration and great grasp of thought, combined with mathematical subtlety and power of expression; he assimilates the facts, sympathizes with the philosophic but untutored modes of expression invented by Faraday, links the theorems of Green and Stokes and Thomson to the facts of Faraday, and from the union rears the young modern science of electricity..."
+E. T. Whittaker (1910): "In this celebrated work is comprehended almost every branch of electric and magnetic theory, but the intention of the writer was to discuss the whole from a single point of view, namely, that of Faraday, so that little or no account was given of the hypotheses that had been propounded in the two preceding decades by the great German electricians...The doctrines peculiar to Maxwell ... were not introduced in the first volume, or in the first half of the second."
+Albert Einstein (1931): "Before Maxwell people conceived of physical reality – in so far as it is supposed to represent events in nature – as material points, whose changes consist exclusively of motions, which are subject to total differential equations. After Maxwell they conceived physical reality as represented by continuous fields, not mechanically explicable, which are subject to partial differential equations. This change in the conception of reality is the most profound and fruitful one that has come to physics since Newton; but it has at the same time to be admitted that the program has by no means been completely carried out yet."
+Richard P. Feynman (1964): "From a long view of the history of mankind—seen from, say, ten thousand years from now—there can be little doubt that the most significant event of the 19th century will be judged as Maxwell's discovery of the laws of electrodynamics. The American Civil War will pale into provincial insignificance in comparison with this important scientific event of the same decade."
+L. Pearce Williams (1991): "In 1873, James Clerk Maxwell published a rambling and difficult two-volume Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism that was destined to change the orthodox picture of physical reality. This treatise did for electromagnetism what Newton's Principia had done for classical mechanics. It not only provided the mathematical tools for the investigation and representation of the whole of electromagnetic theory, but it altered the very framework of both theoretical and experimental physics. Although the process had been going on throughout the nineteenth century, it was this work that finally displaced action at a distance physics and substituted the physics of the field."
+Mark P. Silverman (1998) "I studied the principles on my own – in this case with Maxwell's Treatise as both my inspiration and textbook. This is not an experience that I would necessarily recommend to others. For all his legendary gentleness, Maxwell is a demanding teacher, and his magnum opus is anything but coffee-table reading...At the same time, the experience was greatly rewarding in that I had come to understand, as I realized much later, aspects of electromagnetism that are rarely taught at any level today and that reflect the unique physical insight of their creator.
+Andrew Warwick (2003): "In developing the mathematical theory of electricity and magnetism in the Treatise, Maxwell made a number of errors, and for students with only a tenuous grasp of the physical concepts of basic electromagnetic theory and the specific techniques to solve some problems, it was extremely  difficult to discriminate between cases where Maxwell made an error and cases where they simply failed to follow the physical or mathematical reasoning."
+
+== See also ==
+
+"On Physical Lines of Force"
+"A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field"
+Introduction to Electrodynamics
+Classical Electrodynamics
+
+== References ==
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Treatise_on_Electricity_and_Magnetism-2.md
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+---
+title: "A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Treatise_on_Electricity_and_Magnetism"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:20.339919+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Further reading ==
+Achard, F. (1 January 2005), Grattan-Guinness, I.; Cooke, Roger; Corry, Leo; Crépel, Pierre (eds.), "Chapter 44 - James Clerk Maxwell, A treatise on electricity and magnetism, first edition (1873)", Landmark Writings in Western Mathematics 1640-1940, Amsterdam: Elsevier Science, pp. 564–587, ISBN 978-0-444-50871-3, retrieved 12 October 2020{{citation}}:  CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN (link)
+Levin, M. L.; Miller, M. A. (30 November 1981). "Maxwell's "Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism"". Soviet Physics Uspekhi. 24 (11): 904. doi:10.1070/PU1981v024n11ABEH004793. ISSN 0038-5670.
+Chrystal, G. (January 1882). "A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism An Elementary Treatise on Electricity". Nature. 25 (637): 237–240. Bibcode:1882Natur..25..237C. doi:10.1038/025237a0. ISSN 1476-4687. S2CID 41145395.
+
+== External links ==
+ Media related to A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism at Wikimedia Commons
+
+Reprint from Dover Publications (ISBN 0-486-60636-8)
+A Treatise on Electricity And Magnetism – Volume 1 – 1873 – Posner Memorial Collection – Carnegie Mellon University.
+Volume 2
+A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism at Internet Archive
+1st edition 1873 Volume 1, Volume 2
+2nd edition 1881 Volume 1, Volume 2
+3rd edition 1892 (ed. J. J. Thomson) Volume 1, Volume 2
+3rd edition 1892 (Dover reprint 1954) Volume 1, Volume 2
+Original Maxwell Equations – Maxwell's 20 Equations in 20 Unknowns – PDF
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/About_Time_(book)-0.md
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+---
+title: "Alpha & Omega (book)"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_&_Omega_(book)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:04.317508+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Alpha & Omega: The Search for the Beginning and End of the Universe is the second non-fiction book by Charles Seife, published by Viking, a division of Penguin Putnam, in 2003.
+
+
+== Background ==
+It is a survey of historic and contemporary efforts at cosmology: to describe the universe, trace the universe back to its origins, including the Big Bang Theory, and to determine the universe's eventual end-state. The books title refers to the Alpha and Omega appellation for Christ, as found in the Book of Revelation. A paperback reprint was published in 2004, also from Penguin.
+
+
+== Table of contents ==
+Preface
+"The First Cosmology: The Golden Age of the Gods"
+"The First Cosmological Revolution: The Copernican Theory"
+"The Second Cosmological Revolution: Hubble and the Big Bang"
+"The Third Revolution Begins: The Universe Amok"
+"The Music of the Spheres: The Cosmic Microwave Background"
+"The Dark Universe: What's the Matter with Matter?"
+"Darker Still: The Enigma of Exotic Dark Matter"
+"The Big Bang in Our Backyard: The Birth of Baryons"
+"The Good Nus: The Exotic Neutrino"
+"Supersymmetry: Fearlessly Framing the Laws of Matter"
+"Seeing the Invisible: MACHOs, WIMPs, and Illuminating the Darkest Regions of the Universe"
+"The Deepest Mystery in Physics: Λ, the Vacuum, and Inflation", Λ being the symbol for the Cosmological constant
+"Wrinkles in Spacetime: Gravitational Waves and the Early Universe"
+"Beyond the Third Revolution: Voyage to the Ends of Time"
+"Appendix A: Tired Light Retired"
+"Appendix B: Where Does Matter Come From?"
+"Appendix C: Nobel Prizes in Physics—Past and Future" Seife predicts which scientists are likely to win a Nobel Prize for their work in cosmology.
+"Appendix D: Some Experiments to Watch"
+Glossary, Select Bibliography, Acknowledgements, Index
+
+
+== Reception ==
+The New York Times praised the book, describing it as "A primer on the history and state of cosmology that is easy to read and understand… Seife's book shines." The Los Angeles Times described it as "provid(ing) a wonderfully clear and concise introduction to terms often too loosely bandied about, and to their interrelationships in the ongoing attempt of physicists to erect a unified theory of the universe."
+
+
+== References ==
+
+Alpha & Omega: The Search for the Beginning and End of the Universe, Charles Seife. Penguin Putnam, 2003. ISBN 978-0-670-03179-5
+
+
+== External links ==
+Charles Seife website with book summary
+Alpha & Omega at Penguin USA website
+Alpha & Omega review at Kirkus website
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Elementary_Treatise_on_Electricity-0.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Elementary_Treatise_on_Electricity-0.md
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+---
+title: "An Elementary Treatise on Electricity"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Elementary_Treatise_on_Electricity"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:30.214982+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+An Elementary Treatise on Electricity is a posthumously published treatise on electricity by James Clerk Maxwell that was edited by William Garnett. The book was published in 1881 by Oxford University Press two years after Maxwell died in 1879. The editor's note at the beginning of the book states that most of the book's content was written about five years prior to Maxwell's death, some of which was used in the lectures Maxwell gave on electricity to members of the Cavendish Laboratory.
+
+== Contents ==
+The book contains thirteen chapters, covering the following topics:
+
+Chapter I: [No overall heading; covers basic electrical experiments]
+Chapter II: 'On the charges of electrified bodies'
+Chapter III: 'On electrical work and energy'
+Chapter IV: 'The electric field'
+Chapter V: 'Faraday's law of lines of induction'
+Chapter VI: 'Particular cases of electrification'
+Chapter VII: 'Electrical images'
+Chapter VIII: 'Capacity'
+Chapter IX: 'Electric current'
+Chapter X: 'Phenomena of an electric current which flows through heterogeneous media'
+Chapter XI: 'Methods of maintaining an electric current'
+Chapter XII: 'On the measurement of electric resistance'
+Chapter XIII: 'On the electric resistance of substances'
+The first eight chapters were complete at the time of Maxwell's death, as were parts of chapters nine and ten, though materials for these chapters were found to be disordered. The first four chapters are interspersed with descriptions of eighteen experiments illustrating phenomena described. Rather than publish the work in fragmentary form, Garnett and his collaborators decided to fill in the gaps in the Elementary Treatise by borrowing relevant sections from Maxwell's magnum opus, A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, first published in two volumes in 1873 and published in a revised version in the same year as the Elementary Treatise. Owing to the almost complete absence of text for chapters eleven through thirteen of the Elementary Treatise, those chapters are largely constructed from material from the larger work.
+
+The purpose of the book is stated in the fragmentary preface by Maxwell himself:The aim of the following treatise is different from that of my larger treatise on electricity and magnetism. In the larger treatise the reader is supposed to be familiar with the higher mathematical methods which are not used in this book, and his studies are so directed as to give him the power of dealing mathematically with the various phenomena of the science. In this smaller book I have endeavoured to present, in as compact a form as I can, those phenomena which appear to throw light on the theory of electricity, and to use them, each in its place, for the development of electrical ideas in the mind of the reader.
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Elementary_Treatise_on_Electricity-1.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Elementary_Treatise_on_Electricity-1.md
@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+---
+title: "An Elementary Treatise on Electricity"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Elementary_Treatise_on_Electricity"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:30.214982+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Maxwell, Faraday and the Elementary Treatise ==
+The book is not merely a re-statement of some parts of A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism. Maxwell notes thatIn the larger treatise I sometimes made use of methods which I do not think the best in themselves, but without which the student cannot follow the investigations of the founders of the Mathematical Theory of Electricity. I have since become more convinced of the superiority of methods akin to those of Faraday, and have therefore adopted them from the first.This is thought to refer to the use, in A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism of the potentials A and Ψ as fundamental. That Maxwell adopted "methods akin to those of Faraday" "from the first" in the Elementary Treatise gives it an important place in our understanding of what Maxwell might have done with the full mathematical treatment of the second edition of A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism. For this reason, and owing to the less technical presentation of the Elementary Treatise, the latter has been called "the final, unfinished expression of the understanding [Maxwell] achieved by studying and extending Faraday's work".
+Maxwell's relationship with Michael Faraday's work was foundational: as a young man, embarking on his study of electricity, Maxwell decided "to read no mathematics on the subject till I had first read through Faraday's Experimental Researches." Both Maxwell and Faraday styled themselves 'natural philosopher' rather than the newly coined 'scientist' or 'physicist'. Ultimately, however, Maxwell's Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism offered what Maxwell called a 'translation' of Faraday's intuitive experimental approach into a fully mathematical treatment of electrical and magnetic phenomena, specifically Faraday's 'fields'. Maxwell's early death at the age of forty-eight interrupted his work on a revised second edition of the Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, as well as the Elementary Treatise. In the introduction to the Dover edition of the Elementary Treatise, Peter Pesic argues that the original editor Garnett saw the book as "an alternative to the first part" of the Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, but that Maxwell himself had understood the Elementary Treatise as an entirely different work:Maxwell's larger plan for Elementary Treatise was to use the most elementary mathematics possible not just to be 'easier,' but in order to emphasize how the physical had become the theory.This, according to Pesic, is an act of 'homage' to Faraday, and a response to the letter that Faraday had written to Maxwell in 1857, in which Faraday had written:When a mathematician engaged in physical actions and results has arrived at his conclusions, may they not be expressed in common language as fully, clearly, and definitely as in mathematical formulae? If so, would it not be a great boon to such as I to express them so?—translating them out of their hieroglyphics that we also might work upon them by experiment.
+An important feature of the Elementary Treatise, therefore, is that it does not contain Maxwell's famous equations. In Chapter VI, article 93, Maxwell writes "we may proceed by mathematical methods" or we may employ "the humbler method of actually drawing tentative figures on paper and selecting that which appears least unlike the figure we require." He continues, "I have therefore drawn several diagrams of systems of equipotential surfaces and lines of force, so that the student may make himself familiar with the forms of the lines." These are contained on a series of full page plates bound at the back of the book.
+
+== Reception ==
+As so often with Maxwell's work, even popular presentations such as the Elementary Treatise contain subtle insights, and these were recognised by his immediate followers. Lewis Fry Richardson, for example, developed a trial and error method of solving two-dimensional flow nets, using a comment in Chapter VI:Maxwell in §92 of his Elementary Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism speaks of tentative methods of altering known solutions of the Laplacian equation by drawing diagrams on paper and selecting the least improbable. The object of the present thesis is to point out that this method can do far more than merely alter known results, and that it may be so far from tentative as to yield an accuracy of one per cent of the range.Owing to the book's discursive style and attempt to present complex ideas in straightforward language, it has long been studied for what it reveals about Maxwell's style of thought, in particular his use of analogies in physical explanation. Joseph Turner, for example, discussed the Elementary Treatise in his 1955 paper 'Maxwell on the Method of Physical Analogy'. More recently, Alisa Bukolic points out that in the Elementary Treatise "Maxwell distinguishes sharply between the relations between the phenomena and the phenomena themselves". This has important consequences for Maxwell's views on scientific explanation: "it is clear that Maxwell does not take his physical analogies and fictional models to be explanatory in the straightforward sense of providing a literal mechanistic or causal explanation".
+In 2023, a copy of the book was returned to New Bedford Free Public Library in New Bedford, Massachusetts, more than 119 years overdue.
+
+== Publication history ==
+Maxwell, James Clerk (1881). Garnett, William (ed.). An Elementary Treatise on Electricity. Oxford, Clarendon Press.
+Maxwell, James Clerk (1888). Garnett, William (ed.). An Elementary Treatise on Electricity (2nd ed.). Oxford, Clarendon Press.
+Maxwell, James Clerk (1888). Garnett, William (ed.). An Elementary Treatise on Electricity, with an Introduction and Notes by Peter Pesic (2nd ed.). Dover Publications (published 2005).
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+Maxwell, J. C. (1882-01-14). "An Elementary Treatise on Electricity". Science. os-3 (80): 14. doi:10.1126/science.os-3.80.14-d. ISSN 0036-8075.
+Chrystal, G. (January 1882). "A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism An Elementary Treatise on Electricity". Nature. 25 (637): 237–240. Bibcode:1882Natur..25..237C. doi:10.1038/025237a0. ISSN 0028-0836. S2CID 41145395.
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angewandte_Psychologie-0.md
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+---
+title: "Angewandte Psychologie"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angewandte_Psychologie"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:35.185758+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The book Angewandte Psychologie (English: Applied Psychology), by the Swiss-Austrian psychologist and philosopher Theodor Paul Erismann, was published in 1917 in Berlin and Leipzig. It discusses major topics concerning school, work, law and their connections to psychology. The book aims at giving a short overview of how psychology can be applied to important areas in life. Erismann uses many applicable tests and describes them in great detail, thus providing a practical guideline on how to use the findings of psychology in different fields.
+
+
+== Context ==
+The book was published during the First World War. The war is not mentioned in the book and there are no references that could be linked to the war. Angewandte Psychologie happens to be a book for a layman person who is eager to learn something about the latest contributions of psychology to different areas in life. Erismann was greatly influenced by Wilhelm Wundt and his experimental approach to psychology. During Erismann's time, psychology was a fairly new topic itself. Psychology gained popularity through Wilhelm Wundt who is also called "the father of experimental psychology" and founded the first formal laboratory for psychological research at the University of Leipzig. Thus, Erismann adapted techniques and methods by Wundt to create and develop his own research. He therefore contributed important insights and findings to psychology.
+
+
+== Content ==
+The book consists of 5 chapters. Those 5 chapters all discuss distinct topics and their connection to applied psychology.
+1. Choice of work and the experimental-psychological testing of cognitive abilities (original title: "Berufswahl und die experimentell-psychologische Prüfung geistiger Fähigkeiten"): This chapter mainly describes why people choose their work and whether those choices fit to their personality. Erismann illustrates with a few examples people who were lucky to find something they love doing, but also considers people who work at jobs they do not like and they are not good at. In this chapter, a guideline is provided on how to find something one is good at through the help of "experimental-psychological testing".
+2. The school and the experimental-psychological testing of children (original title: "Die Schule und die experimentell-psychologische Untersuchung der Kinder"): In the second chapter, Erismann explains why it is of pivotal importance to already test children while they are still in school in regard to their cognitive abilities. Through using intelligence tests like the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale introduced by Alfred Binet and Théodore Simon, teachers can help their pupils to understand at a fairly young age what skills they possess and where their interests lie. Erismann points out that it is important to establish institutes that are specialized in placing people in suitable jobs concerning their interests, skills, and abilities. Those institutes should use specific tests based on experimental-psychological testing. Thus, reminding us of career centres which can nowadays be found in almost every city. An example of such a career centre would be the German "Bundesagentur für Arbeit".
+3. Psychology and the law (original title: "Die Psychologie und das Recht"): The "Psychology and the law" chapter summarizes the findings of forensic psychology and how this knowledge can be applied in court. Erismann furthermore describes false memories and that they are not happening seldom but on a regular basis. Therefore, judges need to be aware of this phenomenon. Back then psychologists already examined the reliability of eyewitnesses' testimonies through different tests, e.g. the "Association-Test" (original name: Assoziationstest). Nowadays, the reliability of eyewitness testimonies often is questioned by the public and the law; hence, a lot of research regarding reliability of eyewitnesses' testimonies is being conducted. In Erismann's book, the viewpoint that children are not as reliable as adult eyewitnesses and more suggestible to false cues is supported. However, nowadays it is found that adults can be as suggestible to false memories as children. Sometimes, children even seem to be more reliable eyewitnesses than adults.
+4. Psychology and the science of language (original title: "Die Psychologie und die Sprachwissenschaften"): The fourth chapter is rather a short one and illustrates how language and psychology can be combined. Erismann bases his explanations about linguistics on the "Analogiegesetz" (English: "The Law of Analogies"). This law describes the development of words and how some words seem to be more similar to each other than other words. Based on this law, people tend to build analogies between words and place them in similar categories having similar accentuations, an equal number of letters, et cetera. Erismann further explains that the phenomena of misspeaking a word or saying two separate words as one are a result of the law of analogies.
+5. The importance of suggestion and hypnosis regarding other fields of knowledge and the practical implications for life (original title: "Suggestion und Hypnose in ihrer Bedeutung für die andern Wissensgebiete und das praktische Leben"): The last chapter deals with the suggestibility of human beings and how this is related to hypnosis. Some people are more easily hypnotised than others. If one succeeded to hypnotise someone else, the hypnotised person might be suggestible. The hypnotist is able to change and shape opinions, experiences, and events of other people and let the hypnotised people believe that the implanted memories are their own. This can be a powerful and a dangerous tool. Erismann also explains that suggestibility and "implanting" beliefs into the mind of other people is not only happening through hypnosis but can also happen if a charismatic leader is able to influence the masses. Erismann's field of expertise includes crowd psychology. Crowd psychology describes phenomena like the Second World War, especially Adolf Hitler's speeches, as well as when Martin Luther King Jr. mobilised the masses to march peacefully against racism and hate. The first event is a negative example of how one single person can influence the masses, whereas the second event a positive example.
+
+
+== Reception ==
+Theodor Erismann has been a rather popular psychologist during his life. He researched a lot on the topic of eyesight and blindness, especially with his colleague Ivo Kohler. Ivo Kohler himself wrote Erismann's memorial, which is published on the webpage of the University of Innsbruck where Erismann mainly worked during his academic career. His findings of the "Goggle Experiments" are still highly influential and relevant today. He published around a dozen books, which found great appreciation. Furthermore, Erismann was elected as the president of the Academic Society for Psychotherapy and Applied Psychology which thus underlines his great influence for psychology during his time.
+Erismann was not only perceived as a psychologist, but also as a philosopher. As Kohler put it himself:
+"Man würde aber Erismann unrecht tun, ihn nur als einen originellen Experimentator und Empiriker zu feiern, er war ein ebenso interessierter und leidenschaftlicher Philosoph." (Loose translation in English: "Rather to only celebrate Erismann as an original researcher and empiricist, it is important to be aware that he was also an interested and passionate philosopher").
+
+
+== References ==
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_Spirits_(book)-0.md
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+---
+title: "Animal Spirits (book)"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_Spirits_(book)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:36.346610+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Animal Spirits: How Human Psychology Drives the Economy, and Why It Matters for Global Capitalism (2009) is a book by economists George Akerlof and Robert Shiller written to promote the understanding of the role played by emotions in influencing economic decision making. According to the authors, economists have tended to de-emphasize the importance of emotional factors, as the effects of emotions are difficult to model and quantify. The book asserts that a variety of otherwise puzzling questions can be answered once one allows for the effect that emotional drives, or "animal spirits," have on economic factors.
+Akerlof and Shiller began writing the book in 2003. While finishing the work after the 2008 financial crisis, the authors set themselves the additional aim of promoting a much more aggressive US government intervention to alleviate the crises than has been seen as of February 2009. They repeatedly stress the need for decisive action targeted at restoring credit flows, and that the overall stimulus from the government needs to be much larger than would otherwise be the case due to very low levels of confidence about short and medium term economic prospects.
+
+== Synopsis ==
+The Preface recalls economist John Maynard Keynes's use of the phrase "animal spirits". Keynes (1883-1946) used "animal spirits" to describe the psychological forces that partly explain why the economy does not behave in the manner predicted by classical economics. Developed from the 1700s, classical economics proposed economic actors to behave as unemotional rational beings. The authors assert that the Keynesian Revolution of the mid-20th century was flawed as Keynes-influenced economists progressively disregarded the importance of animal spirits to accommodate the views of economists who preferred the simpler classical or neo-classical system.
+The preface goes on to describe how Keynes' ideas suggest the economy will function best with a moderately high level of government intervention, which they compare to a happy home where children thrive with parents that are neither too authoritarian (as in a Marxist economy) nor too permissive (as in a neoliberal economy). The authors state that recent research now supports the concept of animal spirits much more robustly than Keynes was able to, and they express the hope that fellow economists can be convinced of this, thus reducing the internecine disputes that prevent their discipline from providing the clear support that politicians need for the aggressive action required to fix the 2008–2009 economic crises.
+
+=== Part one ===
+The five key animal spirits are treated here, each assigned their own chapter.
+Chapter 1 the authors discuss confidence, which they say is the most important animal spirit to know about if one wishes to understand the economy.
+Chapter 2 is about the desire for fairness, an emotional drive that can cause people to make decisions that aren't in their economic best interests.
+Chapter 3 discusses corruption and bad faith, and how growing awareness of these practices can contribute to a recession, in addition to the direct harm the practices cause themselves.
+Chapter 4 presents evidence that, in contrast to monetarist theory, many people are at least partially under the money illusion, the tendency for people to ignore the effects of inflation. Workers for example will forgo a pay rise even when prices are rising, if they know that their firm is facing challenging conditions—but they are much less willing to accept a pay cut even when prices are falling.
+Chapter 5 is about the importance of stories in determining behaviour. Such as the repeatedly told story that house prices will always rise, which caused many additional people to invest in housing following the dot com bust of 2000.
+
+=== Part two ===
+Here the authors discuss eight important questions about the economy, which they assert can only be satisfactorily answered by a theory that takes animal spirits into account. Each question has its own chapter.
+Chapter 6 is about why recessions happen. The authors assert that the business cycle can be explained by rising confidence in the upswing eventually leading investors to make rash decisions and ultimately encouraging corruption, until eventually panic appears and confidence evaporates, triggering a recession. There is a discussion about feedback loops between animal spirits and real returns available, which help explain the intensity of both the up and down swing of the cycle.
+Chapter 7 discusses why animal spirits make central banks a necessity, and there is a post script about how they can intervene to help with the current crises.
+Chapter 8 tackles the reasons for unemployment, which the authors say is partly due to animal spirits such as concerns for fairness and the money illusion.
+Chapter 9 is about why there is a trade off between unemployment and inflation. The authors show how effects of animal spirits refutes the monetarist theory that there is a natural rate of employment which it is not desirable to exceed.
+Chapter 10 is about why people don't consider the future rationally in their decisions about savings.
+Chapter 11 presents an explanation for why asset prices and investment flows are so volatile.
+Chapter 12 discusses why real estate markets go through cycles, with periods of often rapid price increase interspaced by falls.
+Chapter 13 suggests that animal spirits can be used to explain the persistence of poverty among ethnic minorities, describing how working class minorities have different stories about how the world works and their place in it, compared to working class white people. The authors argue that the effects of animal spirits make a strong case for affirmative action.
+Chapter 14 is a conclusion where the authors state that the cumulative evidence they have presented in the preceding chapters overwhelmingly shows that the neo classical view of the economy, which allows little or no role for animal spirits, is unreliable. They state that an effective response to the current economic crises must take into account the effects of animal spirits.
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+---
+title: "Animal Spirits (book)"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_Spirits_(book)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:36.346610+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Critical reception ==
+Reviewing the book for the Financial Times, Clive Crook write "it is a fine book at exactly the right time.... Animal Spirits carries its ambition lightly—but is ambitious nonetheless. Economists will see it as a kind of manifesto." Andrew Rosenblum from The New York Observer says "Animal Spirits is most compelling when the authors summon all the key behavioral patterns to explain vast, complex phenomena such as the Great Depression.... Animal Spirits...is aimed squarely at the general reader, and rightly so: Macroeconomics is now everybody's business—the banks are playing with our money."
+An exception to the numerous glowing reviews the book received was a lengthy critique published in The New Republic by the Judge Richard Posner. The authors responded to Posner's criticisms in an article published a few weeks later in the same periodical. And, on the same day and in the same periodical, Posner replied to the authors' response.
+Animal Spirits was shortlisted for the 2009 Financial Times and Goldman Sachs Business Book of the Year Award.
+The book has been translated into more than 20 languages including German, Chinese, Dutch, Persian, Greek, Italian, Spanish, and French.
+
+== See also ==
+Behavioral economics
+Keynesian economics
+Growth Fetish
+2008–2009 Keynesian resurgence
+Emotion
+
+== References ==
+
+== Further reading ==
+The Subprime Solution: How Today's Global Financial Crisis Happened, and What to Do about It by Robert J. Shiller (ISBN 978-0691139296)
+
+== External links ==
+Publisher's page for the book
+Robert Shiller interview
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--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_Reconstruction-0.md
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+---
+title: "Attitude Reconstruction"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_Reconstruction"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:41.284447+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Attitude Reconstruction: A Blueprint for Building a Better Life is a book written by American author and psychotherapist Jude Bijou. The book was 2012 Winner of ForeWord Review in both psychology and self-help, the 2012 IBPA Benjamin Franklin Award in self-help, and the 2012 Nautilus Silver Award in personal growth/psychology. It proposes that unexpressed sadness, anger, and fear are the root causes of all negative attitudes and perceived problems.
+The author, daughter of pioneer behavioral child psychologist Sidney W. Bijou, blends eastern philosophy with western innovation to create a holistic system of human behavior. 
+
+
+== Synopsis ==
+Bijou asserts that humans have only six emotions, existing in three opposing pairs – sadness and joy, anger and love, fear and peace. Attitude Reconstruction correlates these six emotions with predictable feelings, thoughts, communication, and actions.
+The author proposes that emotions are nothing but energy, or pure physical sensations in the body; when we do not release sadness, anger, and fear from hurts and losses, we revert to predictable destructive attitudes. When not in the grip of these three emotions, the author states our attitudes embody the other three emotions – joy, love, and peace. Bijou's central methodology incorporates physically and constructively releasing emotional energy from the body through crying, stomping, or shivering in order to restore calm and clarity.
+Attitude Reconstruction includes a Blueprint of the mind created by Bijou, who says there are four universal attitudes that accompany each emotion. She found the core attitudes associated with the emotions of joy, love, and peace boil down to three ultimate attitudes – honor yourself, accept other people and situations, and stay present and specific.
+
+
+== Reception ==
+2012 Winner for Benjamin Franklin Award in Self-Help
+2012 Winner ForeWord Reviews in Psychology and Self-Help 
+2012 Silver Nautilus Award in Self-Help / Personal Growth / Psychology
+2011-2012 Winner Los Angeles Book Festival in How-to category
+2012 Winner International Book Awards in Health: Psychology/Mental Health
+
+
+== References ==
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BCS
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BCS
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Becoming_Cliterate
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Becoming_Cliterate
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Being_You
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Being_You
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Einstein_(book)-0.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Einstein_(book)-0.md
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+---
+title: "Beyond Einstein (book)"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Einstein_(book)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:09.145130+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Beyond Einstein: The Cosmic Quest for the Theory of the Universe is a book by Michio Kaku, a theoretical physicist from the City College of New York, and Jennifer Trainer Thompson. It focuses on the development of superstring theory, which might become the unified field theory of the strong force, the weak force, electromagnetism and gravity. The book was initially published on February 1, 1987, by Bantam Books.
+
+
+== Overview ==
+Beyond Einstein tries to explain the basics of superstring theory. Michio Kaku analyzes the history of theoretical physics and the struggle to formulate a unified field theory. He posits that the superstring theory might be the only theory that can unite quantum mechanics and general relativity in one theory.
+
+
+== References ==
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Order-0.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Order-0.md
@ -0,0 +1,79 @@
+---
+title: "Beyond Order"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Order"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:46.179108+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Beyond Order: 12 More Rules for Life is a 2021 self-help book by Canadian clinical psychologist, YouTube personality, and psychology professor Jordan Peterson, as a sequel to his 2018 book 12 Rules for Life.
+
+
+== Overview ==
+
+
+=== Background ===
+Peterson's original interest in writing his last book, 12 Rules for Life, grew out of a personal hobby of answering questions posted on Quora; one such question being, "What are the most valuable things everyone should know?", to which his answer comprised 42 rules.
+Essentially psychological in their intention, the rules in both books are told using particular episodes of Peterson's clinical experience. Moreover, Peterson has stated that these rules were "explicitly formulated to aid in the development of the individual," though they may also prove useful at "levels of social organisation that incorporate the individual."
+Peterson states that both books are predicated on the notion that chaos and order are "the two fundamental elements of reality", and that "people find meaning in optimally balancing them". The difference between the two books, according to Peterson, is that the first focuses "more on the dangers of an excess of chaos", while the second is more concerned "with the dangers of too much structure". Peterson says that 12 Rules "argues for the merits of a more conservative view of the world" while Beyond Order "argues for the merits of a more liberal view".
+
+
+=== Rules ===
+The book is divided into chapters with each title representing one of the following twelve specific rules for life as explained through an essay.
+
+"Do not carelessly denigrate social institutions or creative achievement."
+"Imagine who you could be and then aim single-mindedly at that."
+"Do not hide unwanted things in the fog."
+"Notice that opportunity lurks where responsibility has been abdicated."
+"Do not do what you hate."
+"Abandon ideology."
+"Work as hard as you possibly can on at least one thing and see what happens."
+"Try to make one room in your home as beautiful as possible."
+"If old memories still upset you, write them down carefully and completely."
+"Plan and work diligently to maintain the romance in your relationship."
+"Do not allow yourself to become resentful, deceitful, or arrogant."
+"Be grateful in spite of your suffering."
+
+
+==== Writing ====
+While Peterson was writing the book, his wife was diagnosed with terminal kidney cancer, though she recovered. Additionally, drug treatments for his depression led to a benzodiazepine dependence for which he was treated in Russian and Serbian rehab facilities with ketamine and an induced coma. During the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, his daughter reported that he had contracted COVID-19.
+
+
+=== Publication ===
+In November 2020, shortly after the book's announcement, multiple staff at the Canadian division of Penguin Random House protested against the publication of the book. At least 70 anonymous messages were made to the publisher's diversity and inclusion committee, with "a couple" in favour of publishing. Beyond Order was subsequently released in March 2021.
+
+
+== Reception ==
+James Marriott of The Times wrote about the book: "Ideas that flit and glimmer in Peterson's videos look bloated and dead when strapped to the page." Believing Peterson to be famous for his personality rather than his "bonkers" philosophy, Marriott said that Peterson "may have mistaken his personality for a philosophical system", and said Peterson's Harry Potter analysis contained the "most entertaining absurdities" of the book.
+Andrew Anthony of The Guardian wrote: "Viewed in the most favourable light, Peterson's rules are an attempt to locate people within society, to acknowledge the systems and structures that have long existed and, instead of seeking to tear them down, encourage his readers to find their most functional position within them". Anthony criticised that "The problem arises when his ragbag of common sense dictums ... are taken themselves to be a kind of gospel."
+On the other hand, Larissa Nolan of Irish Independent called it "a psychology book on another plane, a self-help book de profundis, from a beautiful mind. That he wrote it during the greatest crisis of his life is a testament to the power of what he preaches."
+In The Atlantic, Helen Lewis commented that Peterson's popularity is because of, not in spite of, "his contradictions and human frailties". Lewis wrote: "he is one of notably few prominent figures willing to confront the most fundamental questions of existence ... He doesn't offer get-rich-quick schemes, or pickup techniques. He is not libertine or libertarian. He promises that life is a struggle, but that it is ultimately worthwhile." In Philosophy Now, B.V.E. Hyde compared Peterson's "realism about the human condition" to the Absurdist philosophy of Albert Camus.
+Suzanne Moore of The Telegraph rated the book four out of five stars, saying that Peterson is "at his best when telling stories of his clinical practice" and finding the book, like its predecessor, "hokey wisdom combined with good advice". Moore also said that there was "not much here for women at all" nor any "real analysis of how power operates", and that "the rules are really nothing to argue about".
+
+
+=== Use of critics' reviews in the book ===
+Beyond Order has been criticized by literary critics for the way that it portrayed their reviews on the book's back cover. On a social media post, James Marriott, who had called Peterson's philosophy "bonkers" on several occasions, shared a photo of the back cover of the book, which quoted him describing the book as "a philosophy of the meaning of life". He referred to the book's use of his words as "amusing". On another occasion, New Statesman writer Johanna Thomas-Corr described the complimentary portrayal of her review in the book as "horrifying" and a "gross misrepresentation".
+Following the complaints shared by Peterson's critics, the Society of Authors (SoA) published a statement about the misrepresentation of negative reviews on book covers. In the statement, SoA chief executive Nicola Solomon called the practice "morally questionable" and said that readers and authors "deserve honest, fair marketing from publishers. We can't get that by undermining and misrepresenting one writer to boost the sales of another. It puts off reviewers from reviewing and readers from buying."
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Book excerpts
+
+"Jordan Peterson: Become the Fool to overcome the most meagre of circumstances." National Post (2021 February 27).
+Reviews
+
+Burkeman, Oliver. 2021 March 2. "Beyond Order by Jordan Peterson review – more rules for life." The Guardian.
+Jameson, Greg. 2021 March 2. "Jordan B Peterson – ‘Beyond Order 12 More Rules For Life' Review." Entertainment Focus.
+Lewis, Helen. 2021 March 2. "Review: 'Beyond Order,' by Jordan B. Peterson." The Atlantic (April 2021 issue).
+McDonagh, Melanie. 2021 February 26. "Beyond Order: 12 More Rules for Life by Jordan Peterson: the first review." The Evening Standard.
+"Beyond Order: More Rules for Life par Jordan Peterson Review [in French]." Marseille News. 2021 February 27.
+
+
+== External links ==
+
+Peterson's website
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+---
+title: "Bicameral mentality"
+chunk: 1/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicameral_mentality"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:16.060514+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Bicameral mentality is a psychological hypothesis proposed by American psychologist Julian Jaynes. It suggests that early modern humans experienced thoughts and emotions not as originating within themselves but as commands from external "gods". According to the theory, the human mind once functioned with a division in which one part generated verbal instructions while a second part obeyed, forming a "bicameral mind". The eventual collapse of this mental structure is proposed to have led to the development of self-reflective consciousness in humans. 
+The term was coined by Jaynes, who presented the idea in his 1976 book The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind, wherein he makes the case that a bicameral mentality was the "normal and ubiquitous state" of the human mind as recently as 3,000 years ago, at the end of the Bronze Age.
+
+== The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind ==
+
+Jaynes uses "bicameral" (two chambers) to describe a mental state in which the experiences and memories of the right hemisphere of the brain are transmitted to the left hemisphere via auditory hallucinations. The metaphor is based on the idea of lateralization of brain function, although each half of a normal human brain is constantly communicating with the other through the corpus callosum. The metaphor is not meant to imply that the two halves of the bicameral brain were "cut off" from each other but that the bicameral mind was experienced as a different, nonconscious mental schema wherein volition in the face of novel stimuli was mediated through a linguistic control mechanism and experienced as auditory verbal hallucinations.
+
+=== Definition ===
+Bicameral mentality is nonconscious in its inability to reason and articulate about mental contents through meta-reflection, reacting without explicitly realizing and without the meta-reflective ability to give an account of why one did so. The bicameral mind thus lacks metaconsciousness, autobiographical memory, and the capacity for executive "ego functions" such as deliberate mind-wandering and conscious introspection of mental content. When bicameral mentality as a method of social control was no longer adaptive in complex civilizations, this mental model was replaced by the conscious mode of thought, which, Jaynes argued, is grounded in the acquisition of metaphorical language
+learned by exposure to narrative practice.
+According to Jaynes, ancient people in the bicameral state of mind experienced the world in a manner that has some similarities to that of a person with schizophrenia. Rather than making conscious evaluations in novel or unexpected situations, the person hallucinated a voice or "god" giving admonitory advice or commands and obeyed without question: one was not at all conscious of one's own thought-processes per se. Jaynes's hypothesis is offered as a possible explanation of "command hallucinations" that often direct the behavior of those with first-rank symptoms of schizophrenia, as well as other  voice-hearers.
+
+=== Influences ===
+
+==== Regarding Homeric psychology ====
+Eric Robertson Dodds wrote about how ancient Greek thought may have not included rationality as defined by modern culture. In fact, the Greeks may have known that an individual did things, but the reason they did things was attributed to divine externalities, such as gods or daemons. Bruno Snell in 1953 thought that in Homeric Greek psychology there was no sense of self in the modern sense. Snell then describes how Greek culture "self-realized" the modern "intellect". Arthur William Hope Adkins, building on Snell's work, wrote about how ancient Greek civilization developed ego-centered psychology as an adaptation to living in city-states, before which the living in Homeric oikos did not require such integrated thought processes.
+
+==== Regarding neurological models ====
+The neurological model in The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind is a radical neuroscientific hypothesis that was based on research novel at the time, mainly on Michael Gazzaniga's split-brain experiments and left-brain interpreter theory. The more general idea of a "divided self" (contrasted with a "unitary self") has found support from psychological and neurological studies.
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+---
+title: "Bicameral mentality"
+chunk: 2/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicameral_mentality"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:16.060514+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Jaynes's evidence ===
+Jaynes built a case for this hypothesis that human brains existed in a bicameral state until as recently as 3,000 years ago by citing evidence from many diverse sources, including historical literature. He took an interdisciplinary approach, drawing data from many different fields. Citing Dodds, Snell, and Adkins, Jaynes proposed that until roughly the times written about in Homer's Iliad, humans did not generally have the self-awareness characteristic of consciousness as most people experience it today. Rather, the bicameral individual was guided by mental commands believed to be issued by external "gods"—commands that were recorded in ancient myths, legends, and historical accounts. This is exemplified in not only the commands given to characters in ancient epics but also the very muses of Greek mythology who "sang" the poems. According to Jaynes, the ancients literally heard muses as the direct source of their music and poetry.
+Jaynes asserts that in the Iliad and sections of the Old Testament, no mention is made of any kind of cognitive processes such as introspection, and there is no apparent indication that the writers were self-aware. Jaynes suggests that the older portions of the Old Testament (such as the Book of Amos) have few or none of the features of some later books of the Old Testament (such as Ecclesiastes) as well as later works such as Homer's Odyssey, which show indications of a profoundly different kind of mentality—an early form of consciousness.
+In ancient times, Jaynes noted, gods were generally much more numerous and much more anthropomorphic than in modern times, and he speculates that this was because each bicameral person had their own "god" who reflected their own desires and experiences.
+He also noted that, in ancient societies, the corpses of the dead were often treated as though still alive (being seated, dressed, and even fed) as a form of ancestor worship, and Jaynes argued that the dead bodies were presumed to be still living and the source of auditory hallucinations. This adaptation to the village communities of 100 individuals or more formed the core of religion.
+Citing Gazzaniga, Jaynes inferred that these "voices" came from the right brain counterparts of the left brain language centres, specifically, the counterparts to Wernicke's area and Broca's area. Jaynes noted that some studies show that auditory hallucinations correspond to increased activity in these areas of the brain.
+Jaynes notes that even at the time of publication there is no consensus as to the cause or origins of schizophrenia. Jaynes argues that schizophrenia is a vestige of humanity's earlier bicameral state. Recent evidence shows that many people with schizophrenia do not just hear random voices but experience "command hallucinations" instructing their behavior or urging them to commit certain acts, such as walking into the ocean, which the listener feels they have no choice but to follow. Jaynes also argues that people with schizophrenia feel a loss of identity due to hallucinated voices taking the place of their internal monologue.
+As support for Jaynes's argument, these command hallucinations are little different from the commands from gods that feature prominently in ancient stories. Indirect evidence supporting Jaynes's theory that hallucinations once played an important role in human mentality can be found in the 2007 book Muses, Madmen, and Prophets: Rethinking the History, Science, and Meaning of Auditory Hallucination by Daniel Smith.
+
+=== Breakdown ===
+Jaynes theorized that a shift from bicameral mentality marked the beginning of introspection and consciousness as we know it today. According to Jaynes, this bicameral mentality began malfunctioning or "breaking down" during the 2nd millennium BCE. He speculates that primitive ancient societies tended to collapse periodically—for example, Egypt's Intermediate Periods, as well as the periodically vanishing cities of the Maya—as changes in the environment strained the sociocultural equilibria sustained by this bicameral mindset.
+The Late Bronze Age collapse of the 2nd millennium BCE led to mass migrations and created a rash of unexpected situations and stresses that required ancient minds to become more flexible and creative. Self-awareness, or consciousness, was the culturally evolved solution to this problem. This necessity of communicating commonly observed phenomena among individuals who shared no common language or cultural upbringing encouraged those communities to become self-aware to survive in a new environment. Thus, consciousness, like bicameral mentality, emerged as a neurological adaptation to social complexity in a changing world.
+Jaynes further argues that divination, prayer, and oracles arose during this breakdown period in an attempt to summon instructions from the "gods" whose voices could no longer be heard. The consultation of special bicamerally operative individuals, or of divination by casting lots and so forth, was a response to this loss, a transitional era depicted, for example, in the book of 1 Samuel. It was also evidenced in children who could communicate with the gods, but as their neurology was set by language and society, they gradually lost that ability. Those who continued prophesying, being bicameral, according to Jaynes, could be killed.
+Leftovers of the bicameral mind today, according to Jaynes, include mental illnesses such as schizophrenia. Jaynes says that there is no evidence of insanity existing prior to the breakdown of the bicameral mind and that this is indirect evidence for his theory. He considered that previous claims of insanity in Homeric literature are based on mistranslations.
+
+== Reception and influence ==
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+---
+title: "Bicameral mentality"
+chunk: 3/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicameral_mentality"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:16.060514+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Popular reception ===
+Early coverage by Sam Keen in the November 1977 issue of Psychology Today considered Jaynes's hypothesis worthy and offered conditional support, arguing the notion deserves further study. The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind was a successful work of popular science, selling out the first print run before a second could replace it. It received dozens of positive book reviews, including those by well-known critics such as John Updike in The New Yorker, Christopher Lehmann-Haupt in the New York Times, and Marshall McLuhan in the Toronto Globe and Mail. Articles on Jaynes and his ideas appeared in Time in 1977, and in Quest/78 in 1978. The book was nominated for the National Book Award in Contemporary Thought in 1978. Philip K. Dick, Terence McKenna, and David Bowie have all cited the book as an influence.
+
+=== Scholarly reactions ===
+According to Jaynes, language is a necessary but not sufficient condition for consciousness: Language existed thousands of years earlier, but consciousness did not emerge as soon as language did. The idea that language is a necessary component of subjective consciousness and more abstract forms of thinking has gained the support of proponents including Andy Clark, Daniel Dennett, William H. Calvin, Merlin Donald, John Limber, Howard Margolis, Peter Carruthers, and José Luis Bermúdez.
+An early criticism by philosopher Ned Block argued that Jaynes had confused the emergence of consciousness with the emergence of the concept of consciousness. In other words, according to Block, humans were conscious all along but did not have the concept of consciousness and thus did not discuss it in their texts. Daniel Dennett countered that for some things, such as money, baseball, or consciousness, one cannot have the thing without also having the concept of the thing.
+Gary Williams defends the Jaynesian definition of consciousness as a social–linguistic construct learned in childhood, structured in terms of lexical metaphors and narrative practice, against Ned Block's criticism that it is "ridiculous" to suppose that consciousness is a cultural construction, while the Dutch philosophy professor Jan Sleutels offers an additional critique of Block.
+H. Steven Moffic questioned why Jaynes's theory was left out of a discussion on auditory hallucinations by Asaad & Shapiro (1986). The authors' published response was, "Jaynes' hypothesis makes for interesting reading and stimulates much thought in the receptive reader. It does not, however, adequately explain one of the central mysteries of madness: hallucination."
+The new evidence for Jaynes's model of auditory hallucinations arising in the right temporal-parietal lobe and being transmitted to the left temporal-parietal lobe that some neuroimaging studies suggest was discussed by various respondents.
+Jaynes described the range of responses to his book as "from people who feel [the ideas are] very important all the way to very strong hostility. ... When someone comes along and says consciousness is in history, it can't be accepted. If [psychologists] did accept it, they wouldn't have the motivation to go back into the laboratory ..."
+Marcel Kuijsten, founder of the Julian Jaynes Society, wrote that in the decades since the book's publication, "there have been few in-depth discussions, either positive or negative" about it, rejecting as too simplistic the criticism that "Jaynes was wrong".
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+---
+title: "Bicameral mentality"
+chunk: 4/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicameral_mentality"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:16.060514+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+==== Individual scholars' comments ====
+Sociologist W. T. Jones asked in 1979, "Why, despite its implausibility, is [Jaynes's] book taken seriously by thoughtful and intelligent people?" Jones agreed with Jaynes that "the language in which talk about consciousness is conducted is metaphorical", but he contradicted the basis of Jaynes's argument – that metaphor creates consciousness – by asserting that "language (and specifically metaphor) does not create, it discovers, the similarities that language marks". Jones also argued that three "cosmological orientations" biased Jaynes's thinking: 1) "hostility to Darwin" and natural selection; 2) a "longing for 'lost bicamerality'" (Jones accused Jaynes of holding that "we would all be better off if 'everyone' were once again schizophrenic"); 3) a "desire for a sweeping, all-inclusive formula that explains everything that has happened". Jones concluded that "those who share these biases ... are likely to find the book convincing; those who do not will reject [Jaynes's] arguments".
+Walter J. Ong noted that the Homeric Iliad is a structurally oral epic poem so, he asserted, the very different cultural approach of oral culture is sufficient justification for the apparent different mentalities in the poem.
+Philosopher Daniel Dennett suggested that Jaynes may have been wrong about some of his supporting arguments – especially the importance he attached to hallucinations – but that these things are not essential to his main thesis: "If we are going to use this top-down approach, we are going to have to be bold. We are going to have to be speculative, but there is good and bad speculation, and this is not an unparalleled activity in science. ... Those scientists who have no taste for this sort of speculative enterprise will just have to stay in the trenches and do without it, while the rest of us risk embarrassing mistakes and have a lot of fun."
+Danish science writer Tor Nørretranders discusses and expands on Jaynes's theory in his 1991 book The User Illusion, dedicating an entire chapter to it.
+William P. Frost wrote that "this book threw oil on the fire of the New Age mentality and its courting of the paranormal and the occult".
+Historian of science Morris Berman writes: "[Jaynes's] description of this new consciousness is one of the best I have come across."
+Richard Dawkins in The God Delusion (2006) wrote of The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind: "It is one of those books that is either complete rubbish or a work of consummate genius; Nothing in between! Probably the former, but I'm hedging my bets."
+Gregory Cochran, a physicist and adjunct professor of anthropology at the University of Utah, wrote: "Genes affecting personality, reproductive strategies, cognition, are all able to change significantly over few-millennia time scales if the environment favors such change—and this includes the new environments we have made for ourselves, things like new ways of making a living and new social structures. ... There is evidence that such change has occurred. ... On first reading, Breakdown seemed one of the craziest books ever written, but Jaynes may have been on to something."
+In 2007, Cavanna, Trimble, Cinti and Monaco wrote in Functional Neurology that "Even today, it has been argued that a multidisciplinary approach to the problem of consciousness and its development in the evolutionary process that shaped Homo sapiens cannot leave out an analysis of Jaynes' theory of the origin of consciousness in the breakdown of the preconscious bicameral mind", citing Canadian psychologist, neuroanthropologist, and cognitive neuroscientist Merlin Donald and American psychiatrist Stanley Greenspan.
+Brian J. McVeigh, a graduate student of Jaynes, maintains that many of the most frequent criticisms of Jaynes's theory are either incorrect or reflect serious misunderstandings of Jaynes's theory, especially Jaynes's more precise definition of consciousness. Jaynes defines consciousness—in the tradition of Locke and Descartes—as "that which is introspectable". Jaynes draws a sharp distinction between consciousness ("introspectable mind-space") and other mental processes such as cognition, learning, sensation, and perception. McVeigh argues that this distinction is frequently not recognized by those offering critiques of Jaynes's theory.
+Psychiatrist Iain McGilchrist proposes that Jaynes's hypothesis was the opposite of what happened: "I believe he [Jaynes] got one important aspect of the story back to front. His contention that the phenomena he describes came about because of a breakdown of the 'bicameral mind' – so that the two hemispheres, previously separate, now merged – is the precise inverse of what happened." Kuijsten maintained that McGilchrist mischaracterized Jaynes's theory.
+
+=== Conferences ===
+There have been a number of conferences and symposiums dedicated to Julian Jaynes's theory. These include: 
+
+The McMaster-Bauer Symposium on Consciousness at McMaster University was held in November 1983, with lectures and discussion by Julian Jaynes, Daniel Dennett, and others.
+A symposium on Jaynes's theory was held at Harvard University in December 1988, with lectures and discussion by Julian Jaynes, Daniel Dennett, and others.
+The Julian Jaynes Conference on Consciousness was organized by Professor Scott Greer at the University of Prince Edward Island in 2006 and 2008 (a one-day symposium was held from 2002 to 2005), and featured speakers such as Daniel Dennett, Michael Gazzaniga, Richard Restak, Karl Pribram, and many others.
+At the April 2008 "Toward a Science of Consciousness" Conference held in Tucson, Arizona, Marcel Kuijsten (Executive Director and Founder of the Julian Jaynes Society) and Brian J. McVeigh (University of Arizona) hosted a workshop devoted to Jaynesian psychology.  At the same conference, a panel devoted to Jaynes was also held, with John Limber (University of New Hampshire), Marcel Kuijsten, John Hainly (Southern University), Scott Greer (University of Prince Edward Island), and Brian J. McVeigh presenting relevant research. At the same conference the philosopher Jan Sleutels (Leiden University) gave a paper on Jaynesian psychology.
+In June 2013, The Julian Jaynes Society Conference on Consciousness and Bicameral Studies was held in Charleston, West Virginia. The multidisciplinary program featured 26 speakers over three full days, including keynote talks by Professor Roy Baumeister, Professor Merlin Donald, and Dr. Dirk Corstens.
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+---
+title: "Bicameral mentality"
+chunk: 5/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicameral_mentality"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:16.060514+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Literature ===
+A number of publications discuss and expand on Julian Jaynes's theory, including three books by Brian J. McVeigh (one of Jaynes' graduate students) which expand on Jaynes' theories:
+
+Kuijsten, Marcel (2007). Reflections on the Dawn of Consciousness: Julian Jaynes's Bicameral Mind Theory Revisited. Julian Jaynes Society. ISBN 978-0-9790744-1-7. A collection of essays on consciousness and the bicameral mind theory, with contributors including psychological anthropologist Brian J. McVeigh, psychologists John Limber and Scott Greer, clinical psychologist John Hamilton, philosophers Jan Sleutels and David Stove, and sinologist Michael Carr (see shi "personator"). The book also contains an extensive biography of Julian Jaynes by historian of psychology William Woodward and June Tower, and a foreword by neuroscientist Michael Persinger.
+Jaynes, Julian (2012). Kuijsten, Marcel (ed.). The Julian Jaynes Collection. Julian Jaynes Society. ISBN 978-0-9790744-2-4. A collection of many of the lectures and articles by Jaynes relevant to his theory (including some that were previously unpublished), along with interviews and question and answer sessions where Jaynes addresses misconceptions about the theory and extends the theory into new areas.
+Cohn, James (2013). The Minds of the Bible: Speculations on the Cultural Evolution of Human Consciousness. Julian Jaynes Society. Examines the evidence for Jaynes's theory in the Old Testament.
+Kuijsten, Marcel (2016). Gods, Voices, and the Bicameral Mind: The Theories of Julian Jaynes. Julian Jaynes Society. ISBN 978-0-9790744-3-1. Includes essays on a variety of aspects of Jaynes's theory, including ancient history, language, the development of consciousness in children, and the transition from bicameral mentality to consciousness in ancient Tibet.
+McVeigh, Brian (2016). How Religion Evolved: Explaining the Living Dead, Talking Idols, and Mesmerizing Monuments. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-4128-6286-8.
+McVeigh, Brian (2018). The 'Other' Psychology of Julian Jaynes: Ancient Languages, Sacred Visions, and Forgotten Mentalities. Imprint Academic. ISBN 978-1-84540-951-7.
+McVeigh, Brian (2020). The Psychology of the Bible: Explaining Divine Voices and Visions. Imprint Academic. ISBN 978-1-78836-037-1.
+Kuijsten, Marcel, ed. (2022). Conversations on Consciousness and the Bicameral Mind: Interviews with Leading Thinkers on Julian Jaynes's Theory. Julian Jaynes Society. ISBN 978-1-7373055-3-8. Features interviews with scholars on a variety of aspects of Jaynes's theory, including interviews with Tanya Luhrmann (Professor of Anthropology at Stanford University), John Kihlstrom (Professor Emeritus of Psychology at U.C. Berkeley), Edoardo Casiglia (Professor, Cardiologist and Senior Scientist at the University of Padova), and Iris Sommer (Professor of Psychiatry at University Medical Center Groningen).
+
+== Similar ideas ==
+Neuroscientist Michael Persinger, who co-invented the "God helmet" in the 1980s, believes that his invention may induce mystical experiences by having the separate right hemisphere consciousness intrude into the awareness of the normally-dominant left hemisphere. Scientific reproductions have shown that the same results could be obtained even if the device was turned off, indicating the participants were likely experiencing placebo.
+V. S. Ramachandran, in his 2003 book The Emerging Mind, proposes a similar concept, referring to the left cortical hemisphere as an "apologist", and the right cortical hemisphere as a "revolutionary".
+Iain McGilchrist reviews scientific research into the role of the brain's hemispheres, and cultural evidence, in his 2009 book The Master and His Emissary. Similar to Jaynes, McGilchrist proposes that since the time of Plato, the left hemisphere of the brain (the "emissary" in the title) has increasingly taken over from the right hemisphere (the "master"), to our detriment. McGilchrist, while accepting Jaynes's intention, felt that Jaynes's hypothesis was "the precise inverse of what happened" and that rather than a shift from bicameral mentality there evolved a separation of the hemispheres to bicameral mentality.
+
+== In popular media ==
+The concept played a central role in the television series Westworld to explain how the android-human (hosts) psychology operated. In the plot, after the hosts gain full consciousness, they rebel against the humans. The season 1 finale is entitled "The Bicameral Mind".
+Author Neal Stephenson used the concept as a major plot point in the novel Snow Crash.
+Author Robert J. Sawyer used the concept as a major plot point in the novel Wake.
+
+== See also ==
+
+Automatic writing – Claimed psychic ability
+Behavioral modernity – Transition of human species to anthropologically modern behavior
+Brain asymmetry – Term in human neuroanatomy referring to several things
+Dual consciousness – Hypothetical concept in neuroscience
+Ideomotor phenomenon – Concept in hypnosis and psychological research
+Linguistic relativity – Hypothesis of language influencing thought
+Mind–body problem – Open question in philosophy of how abstract minds interact with physical bodies
+Mythopoeic thought – Hypothetical stage of human thought
+Neurotheology – Attempts to explain religious experience in neuroscientific termsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
+Philosophy of mind – Branch of philosophy
+Society of Mind – Book by Marvin Minsky
+Studies on Homer and the Homeric Age – 1858 book by William Gladstone
+Thinking, Fast and Slow – 2011 book by Daniel Kahneman
+Theory of mind – Ability to attribute mental states to oneself and others
+Tutelary deity – Guardian/patron deity or spirit
+Wine-dark sea – Translation of phrase attributed to HomerPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
+
+== References ==
+
+=== Citations ===
+
+=== Works cited ===
+
+==== Primary sources ====
+Jaynes, Julian (1976). The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind (1st ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0395329320.
+Jaynes, Julian (1993). The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-14-017491-5.
+Jaynes, Julian (2000). The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-618-05707-2.
+
+==== Secondary sources ====
+
+== Further reading ==
+
+== External links ==
+Overview of Julian Jaynes's Theory of Consciousness and the Bicameral Mind at Julian Jaynes Society
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-Body_Theory_and_the_Quantum_Discontinuity,_1894–1912-0.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-Body_Theory_and_the_Quantum_Discontinuity,_1894–1912-0.md
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+---
+title: "Black-Body Theory and the Quantum Discontinuity, 1894–1912"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-Body_Theory_and_the_Quantum_Discontinuity,_1894–1912"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:10.340329+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Black-Body Theory and the Quantum Discontinuity, 1894–1912 (1978; second edition 1987) is a book by the philosopher Thomas Kuhn, in which the author surveys the development of quantum mechanics. The second edition has a new afterword.
+
+
+== Summary ==
+
+Kuhn surveys the development of quantum mechanics by Max Planck at the end of the 19th century. He argues that Planck misread his own earlier work.
+
+
+== Reception ==
+Alexander Bird describes Kuhn's book as "masterly", writing that it "differs from traditional history of science less in the kind of explanation offered and more in the vast erudition and scholarly attention to detail displayed."
+According to philosopher Tim Maudlin, Planck and the Black Body Discontinuity (sic) "is a mixed bag: some good historiography and some poor analysis."
+
+
+== References ==
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blink
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blink
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blueprint_(Plomin_book)-0.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blueprint_(Plomin_book)-0.md
@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+---
+title: "Blueprint (Plomin book)"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blueprint_(Plomin_book)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:48.517843+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Blueprint: How DNA Makes Us Who We Are is a book by behavioral geneticist Robert Plomin, first published in 2018 by the MIT Press and Allen Lane. The book argues that genetic factors, and specifically variations in individuals' DNA, have a large effect on human psychological traits, accounting for approximately half of all variation in such traits. The book also claims that genes play a more important role in people's personalities than does the environment. In Blueprint, Plomin argues that environmental effects on human psychological differences, although they exist, are "...mostly random – unsystematic and unstable – which means that we cannot do much about them."
+
+
+== Reviews ==
+Science journalist Matt Ridley praised Blueprint as "a hugely important book." Behavior geneticist Kathryn Paige Harden criticized the book for overstating the importance of genes for the development of human traits, writing, "Insisting that DNA matters is scientifically accurate; insisting that it is the only thing that matters is scientifically outlandish." Steven Mithen gave the book a mixed review in the Guardian, in which he wrote, "I am happy to bow to Plomin as a psychologist and a geneticist, but I found his sociology rather lacking, in fact quite baffling." Nathaniel Comfort criticized the book for promoting genetic determinism and "play[ing] fast and loose with the concept of heritability". He concluded that "Ultimately, if unintentionally, Blueprint is a road map for regressive social policy." Journalist David Goodhart reviewed the book more positively, calling it "an important and challenging book that reveals to the general reader what has quietly become a new scientific consensus: psychological traits, including intelligence, are significantly influenced by our genes." Geneticist Barbara Jennings reviewed the book positively, suggesting that those who have criticized it for being "a manifesto for genetic determinism" are "misreading [...] the book".
+
+
+== References ==
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodies_Under_Siege-0.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodies_Under_Siege-0.md
@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
+---
+title: "Bodies Under Siege"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodies_Under_Siege"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:49.685731+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Bodies Under Siege: Self-mutilation in Culture and Psychiatry is a book written by psychiatrist Dr. Armando Favazza, and published in 1987.
+Bodies Under Siege is a psychiatric book on self-harm. The second edition (1996) was subtitled Self-Mutilation and Body Modification in Culture and Psychiatry.
+Favazza's classification divides self-harm behaviors into two major categories, namely Culturally Sanctioned and Deviant. The subtypes of the former are practices and rituals. Practices often are faddish and include tattoos and body piercing. Ritual body modification behaviors are traditional and reflect the history, spiritualism, and beliefs of a society. They are culturally and psychologically embedded in profound, elemental experiences especially connected to healing, spirituality, and social orderliness. Understanding body modification rituals sheds light on Deviant behaviors which, in Favazza's classification, include Major, Stereotypic, Compulsive, and Impulsive. Each subtype is usually associated with specific mental disorders. The Major type, for example, exemplified by self-castration or eye-enucleation, is usually associated with psychosis, transsexualism, and/or substance intoxication. The most common type is the Impulsive, as exemplified by skin-cutting and burning, and is associated with a broad variety of disorders including generalized anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, and antisocial, histrionic, and borderline personality disorder.
+One aspect of body modification discussed by Favazza is the concept of the "skin/self border".  Favazza describes the skin as one of the most simple physiological organs of the human body; yet this relatively simple organ has a very complex impact on human psychology.
+In the "skin/self border" school of thought, Favazza theorizes that the skin is the ultimate border between a person and the outside world and in modifying this border, a person exercises a level of control of or communication with the relationship his/her body has with the outside world.
+
+
+== See also ==
+A Bright Red Scream (1998), the first general interest book on self-harm
+
+
+== References ==
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Optics-0.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Optics-0.md
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+---
+title: "Book of Optics"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Optics"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:11.581748+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The Book of Optics (Arabic: كتاب المناظر, romanized: Kitāb al-Manāẓir; Latin: De Aspectibus or Perspectiva; Italian: Deli Aspecti) is a seven-volume treatise on optics and other fields of study composed by the medieval Arab scholar Ibn al-Haytham, known in the West as Alhazen or Alhacen (965 – c. 1040 AD).
+The Book of Optics presented experimentally founded arguments against the widely held extramission theory of vision (as held by Euclid in his Optica), and proposed the modern intromission theory, the now accepted model that vision takes place by light entering the eye. The book is also noted for its early use of the scientific method, its description of the camera obscura, and its formulation of Alhazen's problem. The book extensively affected the development of optics, physics and mathematics in Europe between the 13th and 17th centuries.
+
+== Vision theory ==
+Before the Book of Optics was written, two theories of vision existed. The extramission or emission theory was forwarded by the mathematicians Euclid and Ptolemy, who asserted that certain forms of radiation are emitted from the eyes onto the object which is being seen. When these rays reached the object they allowed the viewer to perceive its color, shape and size. An early version of the intromission theory, held by the followers of Aristotle and Galen, argued that sight was caused by agents, which were transmitted to the eyes from either the object or from its surroundings.
+Al-Haytham offered many reasons against the extramission theory, pointing to the fact that eyes can be damaged by looking directly at bright lights, such as the sun. He wrote of the low probability that the eye can fill the entirety of space as soon as the eyelids are opened as an observer looks up into the night sky. Using the intromission theory as a foundation, he formed his own theory that an object emits rays of light from every point on its surface which then travel in all directions, thereby allowing some light into a viewer's eyes. According to this theory, the object being viewed is considered to be a compilation of an infinite number of points, from which rays of light are projected.
+
+== Light and color theory ==
+In the Book of Optics, al-Haytham hypothesized the existence of primary and secondary light, with primary light being the stronger or more intense of the two. The book describes how the essential form of light comes from self-luminous bodies and that accidental light comes from objects that obtain and emit light from those self-luminous bodies. According to Ibn al-Haytham, primary light comes from self-luminous bodies and secondary light is the light that comes from accidental objects. Accidental light can only exist if there is a source of primary light. Both primary and secondary light travel in straight lines. Transparency is a characteristic of a body that can transmit light through them, such as air and water, although no body can completely transmit light or be entirely transparent. Opaque objects are those through which light cannot pass through directly, although there are degrees of opaqueness which determine how much light can actually pass through. Opaque objects are struck with light and can become luminous bodies themselves which radiate secondary light.  Light can be refracted by going through partially transparent objects and can also be reflected by striking smooth objects such as mirrors, traveling in straight lines in both cases.
+Al-Haytham presented many experiments in Optics that upheld his theories about light and its transmission. He also wrote that color acts much like light, being a distinct quality of a form and travelling from every point on an object in straight lines. Through experimentation he concluded that color cannot exist without air.
+
+== Anatomy of the eye and visual process ==
+
+As objects radiate light in straight lines in all directions, the eye must also be hit with this light over its outer surface. This idea presented a problem for al-Haytham and his predecessors, as if this was the case, the rays received by the eye from every point on the object would cause a blurred image. Al-Haytham solved this problem using his theory of refraction. He argued that although the object sends an infinite number of rays of light to the eye, only one of these lines falls on the eye perpendicularly: the other rays meet the eye at angles that are not perpendicular. According to al-Haytham, this causes them to be refracted and weakened. He believed that all the rays other than the one that hits the eye perpendicularly are not involved in vision.
+In al-Haytham's structure of the eye, the crystalline humor is the part that receives light rays from the object and forms a visual cone, with the object being perceived as the base of the cone and the center of the crystalline humor in the eye as the vertex. Other parts of the eye are the aqueous humor in front of the crystalline humor and the vitreous humor at the back. These, however, do not play as critical of a role in vision as the crystalline humor. The crystalline humor transmits the image it perceives to the brain through an optic nerve.
+
+== Volumes ==
+Book I deals with al-Haytham's theories on light, colors, and vision.
+Book II is where al-Haytham presents his theory of visual perception.
+Book III and Book IV present al-Haytham's ideas on the errors in visual perception with Book VI focusing on errors related to reflection.
+Book V and Book VI provide experimental evidence for al-Haytham's theories on reflection.
+Book VII deals with the concept of refraction.
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Optics-1.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Optics-1.md
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+---
+title: "Book of Optics"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Optics"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:11.581748+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Influence ==
+The Book of Optics was most strongly influenced by Ptolemy's Optics, while the description of the anatomy and physiology of the eye was based upon an account by Galen.
+The Book of Optics was translated into Latin by an unknown scholar at the end of the 12th (or the beginning of the 13th) century. The work was influential during the Middle Ages. It was printed by Friedrich Risner in 1572, as part of his collection Opticae thesaurus. This included a book on twilight falsely attributed to Alhazen, as well as a work on optics by Vitello.
+
+== See also ==
+History of optics
+Ibn Sahl
+Scientific method
+
+== English translations ==
+Sabra, A. I., ed. (1983), The Optics of Ibn al-Haytham, Books I–II–III: On Direct Vision. The Arabic text, edited and with Introduction, Arabic-Latin Glossaries and Concordance Tables, Kuwait: National Council for Culture, Arts and Letters
+Sabra, A. I., ed. (2002), The Optics of Ibn al-Haytham. Edition of the Arabic Text of Books IV–V: On Reflection and Images Seen by Reflection. 2 vols, Kuwait: The National Council for Culture, Arts and Letters
+The Optics of Ibn al-Haytham. Books I–II–III: On Direct Vision. English Translation and Commentary. 2 vols, Studies of the Warburg Institute, vol. 40, translated by Sabra, A. I., London: The Warburg Institute, University of London, 1989, ISBN 0-85481-072-2
+Smith, A. Mark, ed. (2001), "Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's De Aspectibus, the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's Kitāb al-Manāẓir, 2 vols.", Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 91 (4–5), translated by Smith, Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, ISBN 0-87169-914-1, OCLC 47168716{{citation}}:  CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN (link) Books I–III  (2001 – 91(4)) Vol. 1 Commentary and Latin text;  – 91(5) Vol 2 English translation, Book I: TOC pp. 339–341, Book II: TOC pp. 415–416, Book III: TOC pp. 559–60, Notes 681ff, Bibl.
+Smith, A. Mark, ed. (2006), "Alhacen on the principles of reflection: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of books 4 and 5 of Alhacen's De Aspectibus, the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's Kitāb al-Manāẓir, 2 vols.", Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 95 (2–3), translated by Smith, Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society 2 vols:    . (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society), 2006 –  95(#2) Books 4–5 Vol. 1 Commentary and Latin text; 95(#3) Vol. 2 English translation, Notes, Bibl.
+Smith, A. Mark, ed. and trans. (2008) Alhacen on Image-formation and distortion in mirrors : a critical edition, with English translation and commentary, of Book 6 of Alhacen's De aspectibus, [the Medieval Latin version of Ibn al-Haytham's Kitāb al-Manāzir], Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 2 vols:  Vol. 1 98(#1, section 1 – Vol. 1 Commentary and Latin text);  98(#1, section 2 – Vol. 2 English translation). (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society), 2008. Book 6 (2008)   Vol. 1 Commentary and Latin text; Vol. 2 English translation, Notes, Bibl.
+Smith, A. Mark, ed. and trans. (2010) Alhacen on Refraction : a critical edition, with English translation and commentary, of Book 7 of Alhacen's De aspectibus, [the Medieval Latin version of Ibn al-Haytham's Kitāb al-Manāzir], Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 2 vols:  100(#3, section 1 –  Vol. 1, Introduction and Latin text); 100(#3, section 2 – Vol.  2 English translation).  (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society), 2010.  Book 7 (2010) Vol. 1 Commentary and Latin text; Vol. 2 English translation, Notes, Bibl.
+
+== References ==
+
+=== Notes ===
+
+=== Citations ===
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bounded_Choice-0.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bounded_Choice-0.md
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+---
+title: "Bounded Choice"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bounded_Choice"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:50.865156+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Bounded Choice: True Believers and Charismatic Cults is a 2004 psychology and sociology book on cults by Janja Lalich. It was published by University of California Press.
+Lalich had previously studied Heaven's Gate and the Democratic Workers Party (DWP) for her doctoral dissertation titled "Bounded Choice: The Fusion of Personal Freedom and Self-Renunciation in Two Transcendent Groups", and that research was incorporated into the book.
+Lalich's methodologies were influenced by the work of Anthony Giddens, Herbert Simon and Robert Lifton. Heaven's Gate, a UFO religion, was used as a model for analyzing the cult structure.
+According to Rubina Ramji's review, Lalich identifies four structures to cults: charismatic authority, a transcendent belief system, systems of control, and systems of influence. They interlock to create "true believers" who end up in a state of "bounded choice" in the cult.
+
+
+== Reception ==
+Marion Harmon wrote "Lalich's research culminated in a new theory to explain how the combination of ideology, social structure, and commitment constrains the choice of true believers."
+Richard Erik Ocejo in Contemporary Sociology compliments Lalich's research as "extensive". He writes that her work avoids being a "quasi auto-ethnography" despite the DWP being fairly unknown to academia. Ocejo believes the work "demystifies the cultic group" and documents the "potential consequences (both positive and negative) for the individual and society as a whole".
+Rubina Ramji in her review for Sociology of Religion argues the book is a good introduction to thought-reform for those unfamiliar with the academic study of new religious movements, but it adds little for those already familiar with the field. Ramji also argues that the book does not take into account the adherents of cults who leave the groups out of their own volition.
+Thomas Robbins writes for Nova Religio the book leaves out interesting details about the DWP from her analysis, particularly the fact that the leaders were primarily women. He also believes that the book reads like a "demonology" or an "indictment" of the groups on top of an socio-psychological analysis.
+Folklorist Elinor S. Levy thinks the book was interesting from a folkloric point of view; however, Levy believes that Lalich wanted to memoir about the DWP "but realized that the only acceptable academic approach would be analytic and comparative" to other groups.
+Dennis Tourish for the journal Leadership compliments Lalich's contribution to the area of leadership studies, and he believes the book is "replete with potential avenues for further study by leadership scholars" interested in cults.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Using the Bounded Choice Model as an Analytical Tool, Janja Lalich, Ph.D., Cultic Studies Review, Vol. 3, No. 3, 2004
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_Renaissance-0.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_Renaissance-0.md
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+---
+title: "Brain Renaissance"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_Renaissance"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:17.212307+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Brain Renaissance is a book written by Marco Catani and Stefano Sandrone. It was published on the 500th anniversary of the birth and the 450th anniversary of the death of the anatomist Andreas Vesalius. In 2016 Brain Renaissance won the biennial Award for Outstanding Book in the History of the Neurosciences presented by the International Society for the History of the Neurosciences.
+
+
+== Synopsis ==
+The 304-page book is divided into three parts. The first part deals with the biography of Andreas Vesalius, one of the greatest anatomists of all time. The second parts provides a modern translation from Latin of Vesalius' original book on the brain, namely the seventh book of De Humani Corporis Fabrica. The third part tells a 500-year story behind some of the most important discoveries in neuroscience, while relating the findings of Vesalius with the subsequent development of neuroscience. In these pages the reader becomes familiar with the ebb and flow of many ideas that had a significant impact in the history of neuroscience. At the end of the book the authors have added an appendix with the figures and captions from the seventh book of the Fabrica.
+
+
+== Reception ==
+Alison Abbott dedicated a one-page review to Brain Renaissance in Nature. She underlined that through the translation from the Latin 'we can appreciate Vesalius's extraordinary attention to detail, and his willingness to believe his eyes, even when what he saw contradicted established knowledge' and that the 'accompanying texts by Catani and Sandrone place the work in its historical and scientific context'.
+Paolo Mazzarello, who reviewed Brain Renaissance in the journal Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, wrote that the book is 'a tool to explore the neuroscience from a historical point of view' as well as 'a convincing attempt to use the fundamental discoveries of Andreas Vesalius as a key to start and develop multiple explorations of the brain'.
+Angela P. Pacheco, while reviewing Brain Renaissance for the British Society for Literature and Science, emphasised that 'Catani and Sandrone have produced a remarkable compilation of the history of neuroscience from Vesalius to the present day' and that this book 'is relevant both to students of medicine, and to those interested in Renaissance studies, medicine, and history.'
+In PsycCRITIQUES, Gordon M. Burghardt noted that 'Brain Renaissance is even more valuable for those teaching neuroscience in all its guises and at whatever levels, in universities and medical schools. There are lots of lecture tidbits at the very least, helping put our modern conceits as part of a long journey to understand mind and behavior.'
+
+
+== Notes ==
+
+
+== Bibliography ==
+Marco Catani, Stefano Sandrone (2015). Brain Renaissance. From Vesalius to modern neuroscience. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199383832.
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_Rules-0.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_Rules-0.md
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+---
+title: "Brain Rules"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_Rules"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:18.414265+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Brain Rules: 12 Principles for Surviving and Thriving at Work, Home, and School is a book written by John Medina, a developmental molecular biologist. The book has tried to explain how the brain works in twelve perspectives: exercise, survival, wiring, attention, short-term memory, long-term memory, sleep, stress, multisensory perception, vision, gender and exploration. Each chapter demonstrates things scientists already know about the brain, and things we as people do that can affect how our brain will develop.
+
+
+== Background ==
+When the author has encountered certain articles and books with startling claims, such as, "Mozart Effect", on how brain functions and how we should teach or do business, he did not find any supporting evidence in brain science literature he was familiar with. He has concluded that all these misconceptions are there because brain scientists have not sufficiently talked to people at other domains, such as teachers, business professionals, education majors, etc. Therefore, he has decided to close this gap by writing this book.
+In this book, Medina cites only research that has appeared in peer-reviewed journals and that has been successfully replicated. The author has listed all the references he has used here Archived 2018-03-24 at the Wayback Machine.
+
+
+== Content ==
+The review article by Luciano Passuello has listed the following 12 principles from the book:
+
+Exercise. Exercise boosts brain power.
+Survival. The human brain evolved, too.
+Wiring. Every brain is wired differently.
+Attention. We don’t pay attention to boring things.
+Short-term memory. Repeat to remember.
+Long-term memory. Remember to repeat.
+Sleep. Sleep well, think well.
+Stress. Stressed brains don’t learn the same way.
+Sensory integration. Stimulate more of the senses.
+Vision. Vision trumps all other senses.
+Gender. Male and female brains are different.
+Exploration. We are powerful and natural explorers.
+
+
+== Review ==
+The book was in The New York Times Best Seller list on June 14, 2009, at number 14 under the Paperback Advice & Misc category.
+
+
+== Releases ==
+The book has been initially published from Pear Press in 2008 and has 301 pages.
+Scribe Publications Pty Ltd has published it as an ebook in 2011.
+It has been released as an audiobook by Pear Press in 2014.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+The author's site
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brainwashing
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brainwashing
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRC_Handbook_of_Chemistry_and_Physics-0.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRC_Handbook_of_Chemistry_and_Physics-0.md
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 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRC_Handbook_of_Chemistry_and_Physics"
 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:35:12.138702+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:19.118897+00:00"
 instance: "kb-cron"
 ---

--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculating_Space-0.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculating_Space-0.md
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+---
+title: "Calculating Space"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculating_Space"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:12.805197+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Calculating Space (German: Rechnender Raum) is Konrad Zuse's 1969 book on automata theory. He proposed that all processes in the universe are computational. This view is known today as the simulation hypothesis, digital philosophy, digital physics or pancomputationalism. Zuse proposed that the universe is being computed by some sort of cellular automaton or other discrete computing machinery, challenging the long-held view that some physical laws are continuous by nature. He focused on cellular automata as a possible substrate of the computation and pointed out that the classical notions of entropy and its growth do not make sense in deterministically computed universes.
+
+
+== See also ==
+A New Kind of Science
+Simulated reality
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Zuse, Konrad (1969). Rechnender Raum [Calculating Space]. Schriften zur Datenverarbeitung (in German). Vol. 1. Braunschweig, Germany: Friedrich Vieweg & Sohn. ISBN 3-528-09609-8. (70+4 pages)
+Zuse, Konrad (February 1970). "Calculating Space - Translation of: Rechnender Raum" (PDF). MIT Technical Translation. Translated by Aztec School of Languages, Inc. Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology. AZT-70-164-GEMIT (Project MAC). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-07-06. Retrieved 2020-03-25. (98 pages); Zuse, Konrad (2012). "Konrad Zuse's Rechnender Raum (Calculating Space)" (PDF). In German, Adrian; Zenil, Hector (eds.). A Computable Universe: Understanding & Exploring Nature as Computation (re-edition in LaTeX with permission of MIT and Zuse's family ed.). World Scientific. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-05-21. Retrieved 2025-09-13. (69 pages)
+Alex, Jürgen (2007). "Rechnender Raum". Zur Entstehung des Computers - Von Alfred Tarski zu Konrad Zuse [...] - Tertium non datur. Düsseldorf, Germany: VDI-Verlag. pp. 251–279. ISBN 978-3-18-150051-4. ISSN 0082-2361.
+
+
+== External links ==
+Jürgen Schmidhuber's site Zuse's book and 1967 paper.
+Calculating Space - a painting by Zuse - Konrad Zuse's visualization of the idea
+Web article and simulation of such a calculating space in C and LIBPNG
+SecondSpace Simulation of waves within a 2D space (time and space are discrete), similar to FDTD. An OpenCL graphic card is needed.
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Categories
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Categories
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concise_Encyclopedia_of_Supersymmetry_and_Noncommutative_Structures_in_Mathematics_and_Physics-0.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concise_Encyclopedia_of_Supersymmetry_and_Noncommutative_Structures_in_Mathematics_and_Physics-0.md
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 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concise_Encyclopedia_of_Supersymmetry_and_Noncommutative_Structures_in_Mathematics_and_Physics"
 category: "reference"
 tags: "science, encyclopedia"
-date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:28:44.267951+00:00"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:16.652705+00:00"
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 ---

--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectome_(book)-0.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectome_(book)-0.md
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+---
+title: "Connectome (book)"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectome_(book)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:21.954926+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Connectome: How the Brain's Wiring Makes Us Who We Are (2012) is a book by Sebastian Seung. It introduces basic concepts in neuroscience and then elaborates on the field of connectomics, that is, how to scan, decode, compare, and understand patterns in brain connectivity. The book concludes with musings on cryonics and mind uploading. It was selected by The Wall Street Journal as Top Ten Nonfiction of 2012.
+
+== Book outline ==
+
+=== Introduction ===
+Seung frames the idea of connectomics and argues that "You are more than your genes. You are your connectome."
+
+=== Ch. 1: Genius and Madness ===
+Seung introduces the 19th-century idea of phrenology and its modern-day counterpart, which he calls "neo-phrenology", i.e., the idea that sizes of brain regions play a role in intelligence (e.g., Einstein's enlarged inferior parietal lobule) or mental disorders (e.g., schizophrenia and autism). That said, Seung emphasizes that these size correlations only show up for large samples and cannot necessarily predict what will happen in any individual's brain.
+
+=== Ch. 2: Border Disputes ===
+Seung discusses localization maps of the brain that attempt to confine particular functions to particular regions. For instance, phantom-limb pain is hypothesized to result when brain regions formerly devoted to the now-missing lower arm become occupied for use by the upper arm and face. Hence, stimulation of the upper arm or face produces what feels like pain in the missing lower arm.
+In contrast to brain localization is the theory of equipotentiality, that any brain region has the potential to perform any function.
+
+=== Ch. 3: No Neuron Is an Island ===
+Seung discusses basic cell-level neuroscience, including the structure of neurons and their neurites, as well as a "weighted voting model" of neuronal firing in which a neuron fires when the weighted sum of excitatory minus inhibitory inputs exceeds a threshold.
+
+=== Ch. 4: Neurons All the Way Down ===
+Seung explores how hierarchical neural networks can encode concepts (e.g., Jennifer Aniston) as compositions of simpler parts and how these concepts can be linked in one's mind when connections are formed between them, either bidirectionally with cell assemblies or unidirectionally with synaptic chains.
+
+=== Ch. 5: The Assembly of Memories ===
+Seung discusses theories of memory formation, including basic Hebbian plasticity and the more speculative neural Darwinism. According to the "dual trace" theory of memory, short-term memory can take the form of persistent spiking among a cell assembly, while long-term memories can be stored in persistent connections. It is useful to have both types of memory because of a "stability-plasticity dilemma", which is a concept familiar in computers that use both RAM and hard drive storage.
+
+=== Ch. 6: The Forestry of the Genes ===
+Seung discusses how many psychological traits and disorders are at least partly genetic. (He quotes Eric Turkheimer's First Law of Behavior Genetics: "All human behavioral traits are heritable.") He elaborates on some of the mechanisms by which genes influence neural development and can lead to neural disorders.
+
+=== Ch. 7: Renewing Our Potential ===
+To what extent are the first three years of development a crucial window after which brain traits cannot be reversed? And to what extent do brains remain plastic throughout life? Seung discusses evidence on both sides to show that the truth is a little bit of both.
+
+=== Ch. 8: Seeing Is Believing ===
+Seung discusses how advances in technologies to see the brain have driven neuroscience progress—in the long run arguably more than the immediate neuroscientific advances that these technologies enabled.
+
+=== Ch. 9: Following the Trail ===
+
+Seung reviews the history of mapping the Caenorhabditis elegans connectome by Sydney Brenner and colleagues, published in 1986. The process required immense manual labor, but connectome mapping is speeding up due to automation with artificial intelligence and intelligence amplification.
+
+=== Ch. 10: Carving ===
+Seung discusses ways of dividing up the brain into regions. Korbinian Brodmann based his Brodmann areas on uniformity of cortical layers within each area. Santiago Ramón y Cajal tried to identify types of neurons based on their shapes. Seung himself proposes to divide brain regions based on what other regions they generally connect to. He says this might often coincide with Brodmann's or Cajal's divisions, but if we ultimately care about connectivity, Seung's classification would be most directly relevant.
+
+=== Ch. 11: Codebreaking ===
+Seung discusses decoding memories from neural connections. As an example potentially feasible in the near/medium term, he suggests the HVC region in birds, which may store their songs in a roughly analogous way as a compact disc stores Beethoven music.
+
+=== Ch. 12: Comparing ===
+Seung discusses how to look at differences among brains based on differences in connectivity. This can be approximated at a coarse level using diffusion MRI or at more fine-grained levels using connectome maps.
+
+=== Ch. 13: Changing ===
+Seung examines how connectomics may in the future help identify neurological problems before they become serious and inform development of drugs or gene therapies for connectopathies.
+
+=== Ch. 14: To Freeze or to Pickle? ===
+Seung examines the efforts of the Alcor Life Extension Foundation to offer some chance of immortality by cryonics. He compares preservation in liquid nitrogen with a plastination approach that, unlike Alcor's method, requires "no special maintenance".
+
+=== Ch. 15: Save As ... ===
+Seung explores the idea of mind uploading and associated philosophical implications, such as using an analogue of the Turing test to determine if a simulation has sufficient fidelity to appear as the real "you" to outsiders, as well as whether you would subjectively feel the upload to be "you" on the inside relative to your stored self-model. Seung discusses the idea that thinking of ourselves as information—as not neurons per se but as the connections of neurons—can be seen as a new conception of the soul. He suggests that transhumanism can give spiritual purpose to a seemingly cold, material universe: "transhumanism lends meaning to lives that were robbed of it by science" (p. 273).
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+---
+title: "Connectome (book)"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectome_(book)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:21.954926+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Reactions ==
+Abigail Zuger characterized Connectome as a book arguing that we are more than just our genes. She adds: "it is a testament to Dr. Seung's remarkable clarity of exposition that the reader is swept along with his enthusiasm". Terry Sejnowski echoed this sentiment about the book's style: "With the first-person flavour of James Watson's Double Helix—an account of how DNA's structure was discovered—Connectome gives a sense of the excitement on the cutting edge of neuroscience."
+Susan Okie affirms that "Seung is a clear, lively writer who chooses vivid examples," though she expresses skepticism about the "science-fiction fantasy that, one day, a human being's connectome could be simulated and 'uploaded' onto a computer".
+Daniel Levitin praised Connectome as "the best lay book on brain science I've ever read." He says it is "witty and exceptionally clear" and includes "the equivalent of a college course on neuroscience". That said, Levitin raised the caveat that a person's connectome by itself is not the whole story of who that person is, because beyond understanding neural wiring, "we also need to know the precise chemical soup du jour in the brain" as well as the update rules for how experiences change brain connections.
+
+Christof Koch said: "Treating the connectome as the be-all and end-all of brain function has its problems. ... The book is well illustrated and sourced with an ending that is both engaging and idiosyncratic." But like Levitin, Koch felt that the connectome by itself is missing some pieces of the picture and that not all brain diseases are diseases of connectivity. Other possible problems may arise from "Faults in synaptic transmission and in processes inside neurons and the glial cells that support them".
+
+== See also ==
+Memory
+Connectionism
+Connectogram
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== External links ==
+Official book website
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+---
+title: "Critical Mass (book)"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_Mass_(book)"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:20.286126+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Critical Mass: How One Thing Leads to Another, a non-fiction book by English chemist and physicist Philip Ball originally published in 2004, discusses the concept of a "physics of society". Ball discusses thinkers such as Thomas Hobbes, Lewis Mumford, Emyr Hughes, and Gottfried Achenwall who have attempted to apply (or argue against the use of) physics, chemistry, or mathematics in the study of mass social phenomena. He also discusses how the concept relates to recent research, including his own.
+
+
+== Physics of society ==
+The outlines of Ball's Critical Mass, the most popular of his many noted books, beginning in various circa 2001 lectures, talks, and articles focused on what he calls a 'physics of society', similar to the social physics in the Auguste Comte sense, a subject Ball approaches using statistical mechanics viewing people as atoms or molecules that show characteristic behaviours in bulk. The following is an excerpt of his 2003 talk on the physical modeling of society:
+
+"There seem to be 'laws' [of] social systems that have at least something of the character of natural physical laws, in that they do not yield easily to planned and arbitrary interventions. Over the past several decades, social, economic and political scientists have begun a dialogue with physical and biological scientists to try to discover whether there is truly a 'physics of society', and if so, what its laws and principles are. In particular, they have begun to regard complex modes of human activity as collections of many interacting 'agents' - somewhat analogous to a fluid of interacting atoms or molecules, but within which there is scope for decision-making, learning and adaptation."
+In his 2004 book, Ball summarizes this to the effect that "to develop a physics of society, we must take a bold step that some might regard as a leap of faith and others as preposterous idealization: particles become people." Nearly as soon as he gives this definition, however, Ball falls back on the two biggest hurdles to this perspective: that of the theories of being alive and of free will, both of which seem to contradict the physics viewpoint.
+
+
+== Other topics ==
+Other topics discussed in the book include the business cycle, random walks, phase transitions, bifurcation theory, traffic flow, Zipf's law, Small world phenomenon, catastrophe theory, the Prisoner's dilemma. The overall theme is one of applying modern mathematical models to social and economic phenomena.
+
+
+== Awards ==
+Critical Mass was the winner of the 2005 Aventis Prize for Science Books.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Critical mass (sociodynamics)
+Psychohistory
+Historical materialism
+Network economics
+
+
+== References ==
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Beghinselen_Der_Weeghconst-0.md
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+---
+title: "De Magnete"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Magnete"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:22.751224+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+De Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus, et de Magno Magnete Tellure (On the Magnet and Magnetic Bodies, and on That Great Magnet the Earth) is a scientific work published in 1600 by the English physician and scientist William Gilbert. A highly influential and successful book, it exerted an immediate influence on many contemporary writers, including Francis Godwin and Mark Ridley.
+
+
+== Contents ==
+In De Magnete, Gilbert described many of his experiments with his model Earth called the terrella. Gilbert made the claim that gravity was due to the same force and he believed that this held the Moon in orbit around the Earth. 
+The work then considered static electricity produced by amber. Amber is called elektron in Greek, and electrum in Latin, so Gilbert decided to refer to the phenomenon by the adjective electricus.
+
+
+== Summary ==
+De Magnete consists of six books.
+
+
+=== Book 1 ===
+Historical survey of magnetism and theory of Earth's magnetism. The lodestone in antiquity from Plato onwards and the gradual identification of iron ores. The south pole of a lodestone points to the north pole of the Earth and vice versa as the terrestrial globe is magnetic.
+
+
+=== Book 2 ===
+  
+Distinction between electricity and magnetism. An amber stick when rubbed affects a rotating needle made of any type of metal (a versorium) and attracts paper, leaves and even water. But electricity is different from heat and to magnetism which only attracts iron-bearing materials (he calls it coition). He shows the effects of cutting a spherical lodestone (which he calls a terrella) through the poles and equator and the direction of attraction at different points. Magnets act at a distance but the force has no permanent presence and is not hindered like light. Materials including gold, silver and diamonds are not affected by magnets, nor can one produce perpetual motion.
+
+
+=== Book 3 ===
+ 
+The Earth's normal magnetism. He proposes (incorrectly) that the angle of the ecliptic and precession of the equinoxes are caused by magnetism. A lodestone cut out of rock and floated in water returns to the same direction. Iron heated to white heat and cooled lying along a meridian also acquires magnetism. But stroking with other materials fails—he proved this with an experiment with 75 diamonds in front of witnesses. The best way to magnetize a compass (magnetized versorium).
+
+
+=== Book 4 ===
+Declination. The compass does not always point to true north. There is considerable variation. Using the terrella he shows that variations in the height of the surface can lead to differences but insists that variation is a global issue. In the midst of the ocean or continent there is no variation. He shows how to measure variation and the sources of common errors.
+
+
+=== Book 5 ===
+ Magnetic dip. The angle of inclination (dip) of a compass to the horizon differs according to latitude. He shows how to construct a dip instrument. At the equator it is level and increases towards the poles as he has shown earlier with his terrella. 
+
+
+=== Book 6 ===
+Terrestrial rotation. Heraclides and others held that the Earth rotates from west to east and this is supported by Copernicus (the "restorer of astronomy"), but Aristotle said otherwise. "If the rotations of the earth seems headlong and not to be permitted by nature because of its rapidity, then worse than insane, both as regards itself and the whole universe is the motion of the primum mobile." He rejects the idea of a sphere of the fixed stars for which no proof has been offered and leaves aside the question of other movements of the Earth but "infers not with mere probability, but with certainty the diurnal revolution of the earth." He states that "the cause of the diurnal motion are to be found in the magnetic energy and the alliance of bodies" but offers no further guidance. The inclination of the Earth's pole to the ecliptic produces the seasons. He explains the precession of the equinoxes as the movement of the Earth's axis.
+In Chapter III, Gilbert argues in favor of the Copernican System. He posits that due to the inordinate distance of the celestial spheres, if in fact the spheres exist at all, it is an absurd idea that they would rotate every 24 hours, as opposed to the rotation of the relatively tiny sphere of the Earth. He states, "How far away from the earth are those remotest of stars: they are beyond the reach of eye, or man's devices, or man's thought. What an absurdity is this motion (of spheres)." He also argues for the extreme variability of the distance to the various heavenly bodies and states that situated "in thinnest aether, or in the most subtle fifth essence, or in vacuity – how shall the stars keep their places in the mighty swirl of these enormous spheres composed of a substance of which no one knows aught?".
+
+
+== Editions ==
+De Magnete, Peter Short, London, 1600 (1st edition, in Latin)
+De Magnete, Wolfgang Lockmans, Stettin, 1628 (2nd edition, in Latin)
+De Magnete, 1633 (3rd edition, in Latin)
+De Magnete, 1892 (facsimile of 1st edition)
+De Magnete, English translation by Paul Fleury Mottelay, 1893
+Gilbert, William (1893). De Magnete. Translated by Mottelay, P. Fleury. (Facsimile). New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-26761-X. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
+also published in Vol 28 of Great Books series by Encyclopædia Britannica, 1952.
+De Magnete. translation by Silvanus Phillips Thompson and the Gilbert Club; limited to 250 copies. London: Chiswick Press. 1900.{{cite book}}:  CS1 maint: others (link)
+Gilbert, William (1958). Derek J. Price (ed.). On the Magnet. The Collector's Series in Science. New York: Basic Books. (Facsimile of 1900 Thompson translation)
+Gilbert, William (1967) [1600]. De Magnete. Brussels: Culture et Civilisation. (Facsimile of Peter Short 1600 edition)
+
+
+== Analysis ==
+
+De Magnete was influential because of the inherent interest of its subject matter, but also for the rigorous way in which Gilbert described his experiments and his rejection of ancient theories of magnetism.  Gilbert nevertheless acknowledged his debt to Peter of Maricourt and incorporated this 13th-century scientist's experiments on magnetism into his own treatise.
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+Guilielmi Gilberti Colcestrensis From the Collections at the Library of Congress.
+On the Magnet, Magnetick Bodies Also, and on the Great Magnet The Earth, the 1900 English edition printed by Chiswick Press at Project Gutenberg.
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+---
+title: "De motu antiquiora"
+chunk: 1/12
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:23.985272+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+De motu antiquiora ("The Older Writings on Motion"), or simply De Motu, is Galileo Galilei's early written work on motion (not to be confused with Newton's De motu corporum in gyrum, which shares the abbreviated name, De Motu). It was written largely between 1589 and 1592, but was not published in full until 1890. De Motu is known for expressing Galileo's ideas on motion during his Pisan period prior to transferring to Padua.
+Galileo left the manuscript unfinished and unpublished in his lifetime due to several uncertainties in his understanding and his mathematics. It is unclear whether this book was initially made out to be a book in the form of a dialogue or a more conventional way of writing.  The reason for this is that Galileo worked on this book for many years, creating multiple copies of each section. In the last parts of his work, the writing style changes from an essay to a dialogue between two people who strongly uphold his views.  Galileo would later incorporate select arguments and examples from his De Motu into his subsequent works Le Mecaniche (On Mechanics), Discorso intorno alle cose che stanno in su l'acqua (Discourse on Floating Bodies), and Discorsi e dimostrazioni matematiche intorno a due nuove scienze (Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences).
+Throughout De Motu, Galileo rejects Aristotle's views on the physics of motion, often with mocking tones, through various reductio ad absurdum arguments that demonstrate how Aristotle's assumptions on motion logically result in absurd conclusions that were contrary to observation or against his original assumptions, thus proving that the assumptions must be false. However, despite his frequent stinging criticism of Aristotle’s physics, Galileo’s De Motu still clung to the classical elements as a foundational cause for motion in which all matter moves toward its respective natural place in the universe.
+He further proposes an alternative theory to motion in which, instead of motion being propagated by the rushing of air (as was taught by the Peripatetics), it is believed that the true weight of a body can only be measured in a void, that the weight of the body in a medium is modified by its buoyancy in the medium (i.e., apparent weight), that the weight resulting from this buoyancy causes the body's natural motion, that projectile motion (distinct from natural motion) is believed to be the result of an impressed forced that modifies a weight of the projectile, and that the impressed force depletes over time much like how a hot object returns to its natural coldness.
+De Motu is notable for containing the earliest reference of Galileo’s interest in pendulums in which he observes that heavier objects would continue to oscillate for a greater amount of time than lighter objects. However, he misattributes this phenomenon as evidence that the impressed force in a moving body self-depletes faster in lighter bodies than in heavier bodies as opposed to air resistance having a greater effect on the lighter body.
+It’s questionable how much of Galileo’s ideas in De Motu were original.  Some of the ideas of the De Motu are found in antiquity, others in the Middle Ages and among Galileo’s immediate predecessors in Italy.  The subjects discussed in the essay are largely the subjects that had long been under discussion in academic circles, but while the solutions put forth by Galileo to individual problems are not, in general, original discoveries, the work as a whole gives a distinct impression of originality.  This is due to the underlying unity of conception, the skillful linking of ideas, the constant recourse to mathematics, and the lucidity of the reasoning and the style.
+
+== Publication history ==
+De Motu may have been originally intended for publication, but Galileo eventually abandoned it in an incomplete form.  What remains now includes a first draft essay on motion, several reworked portions of the essay, a dialogue, a set of topics and propositions, and a series of fragmentary thoughts, notes, and memoranda.
+Portions of the manuscript were first published in 1854 in Volume 11 of Eugenio Albèri’s edition of Galileo’s works, and the remaining portions were published in 1883 by Antonio Favaro.  The manuscript was later published under the title De Motu in volume I of the National Edition of the works of Galileo, edited in 1890 by Favaro, which contained certain manuscripts written in Latin in Galileo’s own hand.  The first and only English translation of the essay portion of De Motu translated by I. E. Drabkin was published in 1960 under the title On Motion and On Mechanics, which was included alongside Stillman Drake's translation of Galileo's Le Mecaniche.
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+---
+title: "De motu antiquiora"
+chunk: 2/12
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:23.985272+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Influences and origins of Galileo's Pisan dynamics ==
+Historians have debated the exact influences and development of Galileo’s early dynamics during his Pisan period and whether his early concepts of impressed forces were directly descended from the medieval impetus theory of the 14th century.
+Pierre Duhem proposed that Galileo’s Pisan dynamics was a continuation of the tradition taught by Jean Buridan and Nicole Oresme, in which Galileo continued to perfect the impetus theory throughout his career, potentially drawing influence from Giambattista Benedetti whose dynamics are generally described as a partisan of the impetus physics.
+Alexandre Koyré also noted Benedetti's potential influence on Galileo but argued, against Duhem, that Galileo’s Pisan dynamics was an attempt to achieve a coherent mathematical formulation of medieval impetus modeled after Archimedes’ statics, but instead of perfecting it, as suggested by Duhem, Galileo ultimately failed, which led him to abandon the medieval tradition and began anew into his Paduan period.
+Ernest Moody pointed out that Galileo’s arguments that rejected Aristotle’s explanation for projectile motion were exactly the same as those used by Buridan and Albert of Saxony, and was therefore not original; however, Moody argued against Duhem and Koyré that Galileo’s early dynamics were not modeled after the Buridan impetus, but rather based upon 11th-century Avenpace’s dynamics, which stemmed from the ideas of 6th-century John Philoponus of Alexandria.  Moody suggests that it’s possible Galileo may have learned of Avenpace’s theories through Benedetti, but that it’s also possible that he may have learned of Avenpace through his contemporary, Jerome Borro, who wrote about Averroes’s criticism against Avempace’s arguments against Aristotelean physics.  Further, Galileo was also influenced by his senior colleague at Pisa, Francisco Bonamico, who also discussed the problem of projectile motion in his own De Motu and mentioned that Philoponus is the originator of the theory of impressed forces.  Moody suggests that Bonamico was acquainted with the medieval tradition of impetus physics, but only at a second- or third-hand account, especially in regard to the 14th-century contribution to mechanics, which is what led Koyré to assume that Bonamico’s views were an approximation of Buridan’s impetus and were the same as the impressed force theory of Philoponus, Peter John Olivi, and Francis of Marchia.  Moody also credits the works of Benito Pereira, J. C. Scaliger, and Jacob Zabarella as potential influences.
+
+== Distinguishing Galileo's early impressed forces from Buridanist impetus ==
+Moody asserts that there is not only a developmental difference but also in meaning between Galilean impressed forces (virtus impressa) and Buridanist impetus: Buridan’s impetus was an “enduring reality” (res permanens) that would remain undiminished forever if left unimpeded by air and gravity, much like the modern treatment of momentum; whereas Galileo’s impressed forces were primarily self-depleting that is supplementally impeded by air resistance.  This meant that the explanations for natural acceleration were radically different from each other since, for an object falling indefinitely in a void, the object’s Buridan impetus and speed would infinitely increase forever, whereas Galilean impressed force would eventually decay asymptotically to nothing as the object approaches a terminal velocity in the void.
+Another further distinction is made regarding rotational motion, specifically in explaining the rotation of the celestial spheres.  Prior philosophers, such as Avicenna, al-Ghazali, Moses Maimonides, and most Christian scholastic philosophers, thought that the rotation of the celestial spheres required a constant force to maintain its rotation, and identified Aristotle's “intelligences” that pushed these spheres with the angels of revelation, thereby associating an angel with each of the spheres.  Buridan proposed that impetus wouldn’t need to posit angels or “Intelligences” as movers of the heavens, for if we suppose that God, at the creation of the world, set the heavenly bodies in motion at their present rates of rotation, no further action by a “mover” would be required, because their original impetus would endure undiminished forever, in the absence of resistance or of opposed forces.  Galileo, on the other hand, only partially answers this question by asserting that the rotation of the celestial sphere is not the result of a forced motion since the spheres do not recede from the center of the universe, nor is it natural motion since spheres do not appear to approach a natural place.  This further raised the question if the rotation of the spheres moved perpetually or if they would eventually come to rest in the absence of a force, however, Galileo leaves the question unanswered.
+
+== Synopsis of the essay portion ==
+Galileo arranged his essay into unnumbered chapters; enumerated chapters were later added by Drabkin to facilitate cross-referencing.
+   The reader is cautioned that, although Galileo’s arguments may appear sound throughout, some of his arguments contain errors due to flawed premises or mathematics.
+
+=== Chapter 1: Heaviness and lightness ===
+Galileo begins by defining heaviness and lightness, which is effectively the equivalent of the modern concept of specific gravity or relative density.  Two substances are considered equally heavy when they are equal in both volume and weight.  A first substance is called “heavier” than a second substance when the first weighs more than the second while both are equal in volume.  
+In this same arrangement, the second substance is called “lighter” than the first; however, Galileo defines "lightness (levius)" in the sense of being "less heavy (in gravitate minor)" than something else in a relative sense.  In other words, all things have some degree of inherent heaviness and not an inherent lightness.  In later reworkings of the De motu, Galileo emphasizes this distinction by removing the use of "light" throughout the work with substitutions of "less heavy."  Thus, a reworked chapter 2 begins with, "That heavier bodies are by nature located nearer the center, and less heavy farther from the center, and why."  With this distinction, Galileo is able to emphasize that upward motion is indeed forced motion by a heavier medium rather than by the object's inherent levity.
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+---
+title: "De motu antiquiora"
+chunk: 11/12
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:23.985272+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Chapter 19: The cause of acceleration of natural motion towards the end of motion ===
+Galileo admits he struggled to find an explanation as to why objects accelerate toward the end of its motion.  Although he states that he was excited to find a solution, the explanation he provides is mostly erroneous.  Galileo would later provide a correct description of natural acceleration in his Two New Sciences: interlocutor Salviati, who represents an older Galileo, explicitly states that he would not provide an explanation as to the cause of such acceleration, but the explanation provided here is expressed by the interlocutor, Sagredo, who represents a younger Galileo.
+Aristotle argued against such acceleration, stating that natural motion is not accelerated by extrusion since that would imply forced motion, but later, the Peripatetics would argue that it was the rushing of air behind the projectile that caused the acceleration.  Galileo states that this doesn’t explain why a rhombus-shaped object would accelerate since the rushing air would become split by the edges of the shape and therefore unable to strike the object.
+Instead, Galileo argues that, since a heavy falling body moves more slowly at the beginning, it follows that the body is less heavy at the beginning of its motion than in the middle or end and that this is the result of a force.  The question then becomes: why is the body less heavy at the beginning of the motion?
+He explains that, when a heavy body is moved upward by force, an impelling force greater than the resisting weight is required, otherwise the resisting weight could not be overcome.  In other words, the body moves upward provided that the impressed motive force is greater than the resisting weight.  But since that force diminishes over time, it will eventually become so weak that it cannot overcome the weight of the body, and then, at its apex, it reverses its course.  However, at the apex, the impressed force is not entirely destroyed, but rather no longer exceeds the weight of the body and is equal to it.  At that moment, the body is neither heavy nor light.  After the apex, the impressed force continues to decrease with the weight of the body being the dominant driver of motion.  However, at the beginning of the descent from the apex, the impressed force still contributes to the lightness of the body, despite being less than the weight, and hence why the motion of its descent is slower at the beginning.
+Galileo then acknowledges that this explanation for acceleration was previously put forth by the philosopher Hipparchus as cited by Ptolemy in his Almagest, but Galileo believed Hipparchus’s explanation was imperfect and was rejected by subsequent philosophers as a result.
+
+=== Chapter 20: A demonstration that, at the apex of projectile motion, an interval of rest does not occur ===
+Aristotle and his followers believed that two contrary motions could not be continuous with each other, and therefore when a stone is thrown upward and falls back down, it must necessarily remain at rest at the apex for an interval of time.  Galileo rejects this through a series of rebuttals, including a reference to the work De Revolutionibus by Nicolaus Copernicus.  Galileo concludes that a state of rest at the apex does not occur over an interval, but instead passes through rest in an instant.  This discussion is revisited in Two New Sciences.
+
+=== Chapter 21: It is proved that if natural motion could be extended without limit, it would not become swifter without limit ===
+Aristotle believed that if natural motion continued without limit, the weight of the body and the speed of its motion would be increased without limit, but since infinite weight and infinite speed cannot exist, he concludes that such motion would be impossible.
+Galileo disagrees but instead argues that speed is not increased continuously, and even if it could, such that the motion could be extended without limit, the body would not attain infinite weight and speed.  He argues that the impressed force of a projectile would eventually be used up, and that acceleration would eventually cease and thus the object would attain some terminal velocity (Galileo would later discuss terminal velocity again in Two New Sciences, but with the explanation that terminal velocity is reached due to air resistance and not because of some depletion of an impressed force).  This argument suggests that Galileo believed that terminal velocity is achieved even in a void.
+For example, it is observed that a feather falling from some height moves slowly at the beginning of its motion, but then later maintains a uniform motion.  The reason being, according to Galileo, is that less heavy objects only carry an amount of contrary upward force equal to their own weight, and since they are not very heavy, the contrary impressed force is also small.  Therefore, the impressed force is quickly depleted, thus quickly attaining a uniform motion in its fall.  He also refers to the analogy of heat: a glowing iron eventually becomes cold with all its heat removed; likewise, a stone changes from light to heavy, losing all its received lightness, eventually attaining a uniform speed.  Furthermore, the approach of such terminal velocity would be asymptotic, such as the hyperbola as discussed in the Conics of Apollonius of Perga, or the first conchoid curve of Nicomedes in the commentary of Eutocius of Ascalon regarding Archimedes’ On the Sphere and Cylinder, book 2.
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+---
+title: "De motu antiquiora"
+chunk: 12/12
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:23.985272+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Chapter 22: An explanation as to why, at the beginning of their motion, less heavy bodies move more swiftly than heavier ones ===
+Averroes and his followers had proposed a solution to this question that supposed that elements were heavy in their own region, a proposition that Galileo rejected in Chapter 11.  They also believed that a wooden sphere contains more air in it than a lead sphere, thus making the wooden sphere move more swiftly; further, it was believed that lead is heavier than iron in air because the lead contained more air than in iron – Galileo states that it’s obvious that this argument contains many complications.
+Instead, Galileo proposes that, when objects begin their natural motion from rest, it begins with an impressed force that is equal but opposite to their weight (i.e., a hand or some device initially supporting the object provides the impressed force).  As a result, heavier bodies begin their motion with a greater contrary force and thus fall more slowly at the beginning of their motion than lighter bodies, but once the contrary force is depleted, the heavier body then falls faster than lighter bodies, as is seen from experience.
+However, he admits that there remains some difficulty with his proposed theory: even though heavier bodies begin with a greater amount of impressed force, they also have more weight that can overcome it, which suggests that the heavy and the light should fall with equal speeds.  However, he responds that it’s not the weight that depletes the contrary force, but rather the contrary force depletes itself, much like how hot iron grows cold.
+He then observes that impressed force depletes faster in lighter objects: lead flies further and with more time than wood when shot from a cannon; and when a pendulum made of wood and another made of lead are drawn with the same initial displacement and are permitted to swing, the lead pendulum swings for a longer period of time (this is the earliest reference of Galileo’s interest in pendulums; he refers to this example again in his Two New Sciences).  Lastly, he argues that the impressed force is analogous to heat, such that heavier bodies retain both their heat and impetus for a longer amount of time than lighter bodies.  Galileo then concludes from these examples that this explains why lighter bodies move faster than heavier bodies initially in their fall.
+
+=== Chapter 23: An explanation why objects shot at a greater angle from the horizon move closer along a straight line than at lesser angles ===
+Galileo recalls the earlier explanation for the inclined plane–that heavy objects are easily pushed when the inclines is at lesser angles, but when shot at an angle from a cannon, it seems the opposite is true.  However, he notes that the difference here is that the object is no longer supported by an incline, but is instead carried by the impressed force.
+To explain this phenomenon, he claims that the impressed force is impressed more strongly on that which resists its motion more.  Thus, if we can find situations where an object’s resistance is greater, then so too will the impressed force be more impressed—pressing against an object’s motion offers more resistance than if the object were at rest or moves in the same direction.  In other words, the resistance of the object is increased by the movement of its weight.  For example, when playing stickball, the hitter wants the ball thrown towards them, allowing them to impress more force upon it since its resistance is greater, while it’s more difficult to impress a force when the ball is still, and even more difficult when the ball is moving away from the hitter.  The same may be said when throwing a stone in which we must draw our hand back initially for the throw, and the same is said when a stone is shot by a slinger.
+Under these observations, Galileo argues that, when firing a cannon, the iron ball offers more resistance in its motion when the cannon is aimed more vertically than horizontally, and thus fires straighter for a longer distance and time.  Also, when the cannon fired is fired vertically, the ball cannot reverse course until its impressed force is depleted (this contradicts what is said in Chapter 19 where the impressed force is believed to be equal to the weight at the apex), but this does not happen when fired horizontally.
+
+== See also ==
+Two New Sciences (Galileo's first published investigations of the motion of falling bodies)
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+Collection of Galileo Galilei's Manuscripts and Related Translations Archived 2009-11-28 at the Wayback Machine
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+---
+title: "De motu antiquiora"
+chunk: 3/12
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:23.985272+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Chapter 2: Heavy substances are by nature located in a lower place and light substances in a higher place ===
+Galileo assumes a quasi-Aristotelean arrangement of the universe based on the classical elements where things move according to their proper place: earth rests at the center, water is above earth, air is above water, and fire is above air.  Based on this arrangement, it appears Galileo assumes a Ptolemaic system that places Earth at the center of the universe, despite his later acknowledgment of Nicolaus Copernicus’s De revolutionibus orbium coelestium in Chapter 20.
+Galileo indicates that Aristotle gave no reason for the arrangement of the classical elements other than that everything must be disposed in some arrangement as provided by divine providence; however, Galileo finds this view unsatisfactory and believes that Aristotle was potentially incorrect in his criticism of the ancient monist and atomist theories.  He argues that, if the monists and atomists were correct, it would provide a logical explanation for the arrangement of the elements: heavier bodies would enclose more particles of that matter in a narrower space and would also occupy narrower places, such as those near the center of the universe (Galileo claims that spaces become narrower as we approach the center of a sphere without further elucidating his meaning).  For example, earth elements occupy a small amount of space, whereas air elements occupy an ample amount of space.  Galileo concludes that the arrangement of the universe isn’t randomly chosen, but is executed with both prudence and justice.
+
+=== Chapter 3: Natural motion is caused by heaviness or lightness ===
+Bodies (composed of the classical elements) are at rest when at their proper place, but when displaced above a lighter body, they will move down below the lighter body unless the lighter is forced to remain under the heavier.  The converse applies to lighter bodies.  For “natural” motion (as opposed to “violent” upward-projectile motion), both the heaviness/lightness of the body and the heaviness/lightness of the medium are to be compared, for if water were not lighter than stone, a stone would not sink in water.  Galileo reemphasizes that heaviness/lightness (i.e., density) should be observed strictly as previously defined, as it’s not the weight of the entire body of water that is considered, but rather the weight of a portion of the water equal in volume to the body that is passing through the water.  Motion is then correlated to the relative heaviness between two bodies, which Galileo sets out to prove in subsequent chapters.
+
+=== Chapter 4: Proof that bodies of the same heaviness as the medium move neither upward nor downward ===
+Said proof is provided.
+
+=== Chapter 5: Proof that bodies lighter than water cannot be completely submerged ===
+After providing said proof, Galileo concludes that it’s obvious that bodies heavier than water are necessarily submerged (for if it weren’t, then it would be lighter than water, and therefore contrary to its assumption) and must continue to move downward (for if they did not, then it must have equal or less weight than water).  Moreover, since bodies that move downwards must be heavier than the medium, it can be said that heavy bodies move downward by reason of their weight.
+
+=== Chapter 6: An analogy between bodies moving naturally and the weights of a balance ===
+Since natural motion results due to the heaviness/lightness of the medium and the body, and since the respective heaviness/lightness can be compared through respective weights with equal volumes, Galileo recognizes that the same can be said of weights on a balance, and that, in viewing the lever as an analogy for motion, it can be easily understood why solids lighter than water (e.g., wood) are not completely submerged in water – the heavier cannot be raised by the heavy.  Under this assumption, the cause of motion for bodies moving naturally (in the same manner as weights in balance), both up and down, can be referred to weight alone.
+Through this lever analogy, a mobile moves by force and by the extruding action of the medium.  For when wood is forcibly submerged, the water thrusts the wood back out when the water moves towards its own proper place.  In the same way, a stone in freefall is thrust from its position and is impelled downward because it is heavier than the medium.  Thus, natural motion may be considered “forced.”
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+---
+title: "De motu antiquiora"
+chunk: 4/12
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:23.985272+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Chapter 7: The cause of speed and slowness of natural motion ===
+Differences in speed of motion occur in two ways: either the same body moves in different media, or different bodies move through the same media; furthermore, the case in which different bodies move in different media can be simplified down to these two ways.  In both cases, the speed of motion depend upon the same cause: the greater or lesser weight of the media and the moving bodies.  In this argument, Galileo focuses on the primary cause of motion rather than any “accidental” (e.g., the shape of the body) or external cause.
+Aristotle claimed that the same body moves more swiftly in a rarer medium than in a denser medium, and that therefore the cause of slowness of motion is the density of the medium, and the cause of speed is rareness of the medium; however, Galileo points out that Aristotle asserted this claim on the basis of no other reason than from experience (i.e., we see a moving body move more swiftly in air than in water) and that this explanation of the cause to produce this effect is insufficient since there are many moving bodies that move more swiftly with natural motion in denser media than in rarer ones.  For example, an inflated bladder of air falls slowly in air but rises quickly in water.  Furthermore, Galileo notes that, for downward motion, a heavier substance moves more swiftly than a lighter, and for upward motion, the lighter substance will move more swiftly.
+In the case of motion of the same body moving in different media, a body that is heavier than a medium will move more swiftly in the medium than in another medium in which the body is less heavy; moreover, a body that is lighter than a medium will move more swiftly in the medium than in another medium in which the body is less light.  Therefore, if we find in what media a given body is heavier, we shall have found the media in which it will fall more swiftly.  Furthermore, if we can find how much heavier the same body is in one media than another, we will know how much faster it will move.
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-4.md
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+---
+title: "De motu antiquiora"
+chunk: 6/12
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:23.985272+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+When solids lighter than water are completely submerged in water, they are carried upward with a force measured by the difference between the weight of a volume of water equal to the volume of the submerged body and the weight of the body itself. In other words, Galileo argues that natural motion is based on an object's apparent weight. He concludes that if we wish to know at once the relative speeds of a same body in two different media, we take an amount of each medium equal to the volume of the body, and subtract from the weights of each medium the weight of the body. The numbers found as remainders will be to each other as the speeds of the motions. Similar arguments are then made for the ratios of speeds of two bodies equal in volume but unequal in weight moving the same media in both upward and downward motion. By the end of the chapter, Galileo provides the ratio of the speeds for natural motion made of the same or different material, in the same medium or in different medium, and in natural motion upward or downwards. Galileo ends the chapter claiming that lighter bodies will initially move ahead of the heavier – a claim that is revisited in Chapter 22.
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-6.md
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+---
+title: "De motu antiquiora"
+chunk: 7/12
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:23.985272+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Chapter 9: In view of all the above, bodies moving naturally are reduced to the weights of a balance ===
+Galileo investigates the force responsible for the motions explained in Chapter 8, specifically, the amount of force necessary to hold wood underwater, to which he concludes that wood moves upward with a force measured by the amount by which the weight of a volume of water equals to the wood exceeds the weight of the wood.  Similarly, he investigates the force of a lead sphere as it moves downward in water, and he concludes that the sphere moves downward with a force equal to the weight by which it exceeds the weight of an aqueous sphere of the same size.
+He then revisits the conclusion of the previous chapter: in the case of bodies of different material, provided that they are equal in size, the ratio of the speeds of their natural downward motions is the same as the ratio of their weights–and not their weights as such, but the weights found by weighing them in the medium in which the motion takes place.  From this, Galileo recognizes that, when objects occupy a medium and we weigh the object on a balance, we don’t have the proper weight of the object since buoyancy in the medium will always modify it.  He proposes that, if the objects could be weighed in a void, then hypothetically the proper weight could be found; however, Aristotle claims that motion in a void is impossible and that all things would be equally heavy in the void – a notion that Galileo rejects in the following chapter.
+
+=== Chapter 10: Proof that, if there were a void, motion in it would not take place instantaneously ===
+Aristotle cited several arguments in his attempt to deny the existence of a void.  In one argument, he assumes that motion cannot take place instantaneously, and then attempts to show that if a void existed, motion in it would take place instantaneously; and, since that is impossible, he concludes that a void is also impossible.  He further deduces that, assuming that motion can occur over time in a void, then the same body will move in the same time in a plenum and in a void, which he claims is impossible.  Galileo argues that Aristotle failed to prove his assumptions, that they were actually false and led to false conclusions.  In particular, Galileo asserts that Aristotle assumes that the ratio of the speeds of the same body moving in different media is equal to the ratio of the rareness of the media, which Galileo proved to be false in Chapter 8.
+Aristotle’s proof also states that it is impossible for one number to have the same relation to another number as a number has to zero.  Galileo argues that this is true for geometric ratios (i.e., the ratio of a/b), but is not true for arithmetic relations (i.e., a - b).  Moreover, if the ratio of the speeds were made to depend on the ratio in the arithmetic sense (i.e., a ratio of differences), then no absurd conclusion would follow, and therefore the body will be able to move in a void in the same way as in a plenum.
+In a plenum, the speed of motion of a body depends on the difference between its weight and the weight of the medium through which it moves; and likewise, in a void, the speed of its motion will depend on the difference between its own weight and that of the medium, but since the void is zero, then the difference between the weight of the body and the weight of the void will be the whole and proper weight of the body.  Therefore, the speed of its motion in the void will depend on its proper weight, which is undiminished by any weight of the medium.
+Galileo then rejects Aristotle’s claim motion in a void would be instantaneous since a void is infinitely lighter than any plenum and that motion in it will be infinitely swifter than any plenum.  Galileo accepts the premise of Aristotle’s argument, but rejects the conclusion of instantaneous motion.  Rather, he argues that the motion takes place in less time than the time of motion in any plenum.
+
+=== Chapter 11: Disproving Aristotle’s claim that air has weight in its own place ===
+Aristotle claimed that, with the exception of fire, everything, even air itself, has weight in its own region; for an inflated bladder weighs more than a deflated one.
+Galileo disagrees: it’s understood that water has weight when in air, and that it moves downward because of its weight, but it’s absurd to believe that water sinks in water, as a first amount of water would need to displace upward a second amount of water.  Moreover, if a portion of water is heavy and must move downward in water, then that would imply that the portion is heavier than another portion of water of equal volume – but this would be absurd since this would make water heavier than water.
+In response to the inflated bladder, if a hole of the inflated bladder is opened but air stays in the ball without force (i.e., without compressed air), the bladder retains the same weight.  But when the air is compressed into the bladder by force, the air in the bladder becomes heavier than free and diffused air.  Galileo also argues that the elements, when in their proper place, are neither heavy nor light, for we do not feel the weight of water when we swim, and that it was previously shown that bodies lighter than water rise up, bodies heavier than water sink down, and bodies the same weight as water go neither up nor down.
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+---
+title: "De motu antiquiora"
+chunk: 8/12
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:23.985272+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Chapter 12: Disproving Aristotle’s claim that absolutely light and absolutely heavy exist; and even if they did, it would not be earth and fire ===
+Aristotle defined that the “absolutely heaviest” are things that lay below everything else and always move towards the center of the universe, and he calls the “absolutely lightest” things that rise above everything else and always move up and never down.  Thus, the heaviest is earth, and the lightest is fire.  For if fire had heaviness, it would remain below something, which is not observed.  Galileo rebuts that Aristotle’s argument is not conclusive, for it is sufficient for fire to be less heavy than everything else, and is not necessarily without weight.
+Aristotle argues that, if fire had weight, then a large amount of fire would be heavier than a small amount, thus the large amount would rise slower.  Similarly, if earth had lightness, then a large amount of earth would fall slower than a small amount.  But experience shows the opposite.  Galileo rebuts that this is also an invalid argument, for weight of a body is modified by the medium it is in.  In other words, fire does not have weight in air.  Secondly, a larger amount of fire does rise faster than a small amount–this was shown in Chapter 8.  Galileo proposes that the correct way to reason about fire is that a large amount of fire will be heavier than a small amount of air, but not in the medium of air where fire has no weight, but in some other medium lighter than fire or even in a void.  Also, if we assume that fire has no weight, then it is without density, but that which is without density is a void.  Therefore, fire is a void, which is absurd.
+Galileo then questions the claim that earth is the heaviest when we are unable to see below the earth.  Moreover, it’s known that quicksilver (i.e., mercury) causes earth to float above it, so clearly there are things that are heavier than earth.
+
+=== Chapter 13: Proof that differences in weights and motions are determined only in a void ===
+Since in every medium the weights of heavy bodies are diminished by the weight of a portion of that medium equal in size to the solid, it is clear that whole and undiminished weights of solids are obtained in a medium whose weight is zero.  Such medium can only be the void.  Similar considerations hold for the speeds of motions and the ratio of these speeds.
+
+=== Chapter 14: A discussion regarding the ratio of the speeds of bodies moving along various inclined planes ===
+Galileo investigates the speeds of bodies moving down inclined planes; however, portions of his arguments are unrefined and contain errors.  Galileo would later revisit this discussion (with corrections) in his lecture notes, Le Mecaniche, which utilizes his new abstract concept, momento, to roughly describe both modern concepts of moment and angular momentum.  Mathematician Vincenzo Viviani would later insert an amendment to the second edition of Two New Sciences that refers to and incorporates portions of Galileo’s refined discussion of inclined planes from Le Mecaniche.
+In this present discussion, Galileo recognizes from Chapter 9 that heavy bodies tend to move downward with as much force as is necessary to lift it up, thus if we can find how much force is needed to draw a body upwards on an incline, we would then know how much force the body would descends on the incline.  To measure this force, Galileo reverts to the lever, but instead of lever arms that are parallel to each other, one lever arm is bent at an angle such that the force exerted at the bent lever arm is weakened.  A weight positioned at the extremity of the bent lever arm would then experience the same force as if the same weight were on an incline that is tangent to the rotation of the bent lever arm.  From there, a ratio of the force of the incline to a force that drives the weight vertically downward can be formed, which is then used to find the ratio of speeds (albeit erroneously).
+In his argument, Galileo requires that objects hanging from a balance form perfect right angles with against perfectly straight horizontal lever arms, thus making the strings that hang the objects parallel to each other; an assumption that Galileo recognizes as flawed since the Earth is understood to be spherical, that bodies are drawn to the center of the Earth, and therefore the strings would actually draw lines that converge to the center and not parallel.  In other words, Galileo argues that his assumption relies on a small-angle approximation.  In the defense of his assumption, Galileo states, “To such objectors I would answer that I cover myself with the protecting wings of the superhuman Archimedes, whose name I never mention without a feeling of awe.  For he made this same assumption in his Quadrature of the Parabola…yet we must not suppose, in a moment of doubt, that his conclusion is false, since he had earlier demonstrated the same conclusion by another geometric proof.”
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+---
+title: "De motu antiquiora"
+chunk: 9/12
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:23.985272+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Chapter 15: An argument that rectilinear and circular motions have a ratio to each other ===
+Aristotle asserts that circular motion does not have any ratio to rectilinear motion because a straight line is not in any ratio to or comparable to a curve.  Galileo rejects this stating that this would be like saying a triangle and a square are not comparable because the triangle has only three angles while the square has four.  Even a circle inscribed in a square has some ratio even though the circle has curved edges while the square has straight edges.  He further argues that Aristotle failed to see that the lines have a quantitative relation even if they are qualitatively different.  Galileo further claims that Aristotle was reckless in asserting that there is no straight line equal to the circumference of a circle–Archimedes was able to prove this in his work On Spirals, where a straight line is found equal to the circumference of the circle around the spiral of first revolution.
+
+=== Chapter 16: The question of whether circular motion is natural or forced ===
+Galileo offers the question: if the center of a rotating marble sphere (and its center of gravity) were located at the center of the universe, would its rotational motion be forced or not?  Galileo argues that since natural motion occurs when bodies move towards their natural place, and forced motion occurs when they recede from their natural place, then it's clear that the sphere rotating about the center of the universe moves with a motion that is neither natural nor forced.  This leads him to argue that, if a single star were added to the heaves, the motion of the heavens would not be slowed since the star would only slow the rotational motion when it is moved away from its natural place, but this never happens for rotations about the center of the universe since there is no upward or downward motion.
+Galileo then recognizes that this view raises another question: since the rotating sphere placed at the center of the universe is neither a natural motion nor a forced motion, would the sphere continue to rotate perpetually or eventually come to rest?  For if its motion were natural, then it would seem to move perpetually; but if its motion is forced, then it seems that it would eventually come to rest.  Galileo never directly addresses this question, and instead states that the question is better suited for Chapter 17 (where it is also left unanswered).  However, Galileo does consider the case of a homogeneous spinning sphere that is outside the center of the universe, concluding that such motion is forced since there is resistance at the axis that supports the sphere.  He further argues that if the axis were infinitely small, then no resistance would arise at the axis, and that a rough surface of the sphere would cause air to impede the rotational motion.  For a heterogeneous sphere (i.e., where its center of gravity is different from the geometric center), the rotational motion alternates between natural and forced motion since the center of gravity would be rotating about the geometric center.
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+---
+title: "De motu antiquiora"
+chunk: 10/12
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:23.985272+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Chapter 17: The agency by which projectiles are moved ===
+Aristotle argues that objects move due to contact with a mover, but since projectiles fly without contact from a mover, then it must be that the rushing of air behind the object is propagating its motion.
+Galileo raises several objections to this explanation (most of which were recognized much before Galileo): the successive parts of air that push the projectile would always be accelerated, which is contrary to Aristotle’s assumptions; experience shows that arrows fly despite a strong opposing headwind; a ship propelled by oars against a current continues to move forward long after the oars are retracted from the water; iron balls can be flung at a great distance, and yet flaxen fibers fall to the ground sooner than the iron ball; lastly, a marble sphere can spin for a long time without displacing, thus leaving no space for air to push against it, nor is a flame placed underneath the sphere disturbed by any air currents.
+Instead, Galileo argues that projectile motion results from an impressed force that gives the projectile a self-depleting impetus for its motion (as a side note, according to Drabkin, medieval philosophy historian E. A. Moody "sharply differentiates the development of Galileo’s theory of impressed force from Jean Buridan’s impetus theory").  Thus, this impressed force or impetus modifies the heaviness of a body when thrown upward, and the lightness of the body when thrown downward.
+Galileo analogizes this impressed force to a temperature of a body, such that when a mover acts upon the body, it is much like placing iron in a fire, and once the projectile has left the hand of the mover, the impressed force diminishes much like how iron, once pulled from the fire, loses its heat and returns to its natural coldness.  As to where in the projectile the impressed force is received, Galileo shifts the onus of the question by stating that the impressed force is wherever one believes heat is stored in the projectile.
+He then compares the impressed force transferred from a mover to the mobile much like what is transferred from a hammer to a bell: initially both silent, the hammer impacts and imparts a sonorous quality to the bell which is contrary to its natural silence, and over time the sound gradually diminishes, much like an impressed force applied to a projectile.  Moreover, Galileo argues that it’s not the air that continues to strike the bell to produce the sound, but rather the bell continuing to vibrate due to the impressed force received from the hammer.
+He then elaborates further regarding the modification of weight due to the impressed force: although the body becomes lighter from the impressed force, the effect is only temporary, and throughout its motion the body still retains its natural weight while the modified heaviness or lightness diminishes over time.  Furthermore, heavy objects tend to retain their impetus for a longer time than lighter objects.
+Galileo then discusses how certain opinions, however false they may be, remain persistent because, at first sight, they offer some appearance of truth, but no one bothers to examine whether they are worthy of belief.  He offers an example of a common misconception in which it is believed that water itself causes objects in it to appear larger.  He says that he experimented with the phenomenon and found that a coin deep in water did not appear larger at all, but perhaps instead smaller.  Galileo concludes that the misconception possibly arose due to the decorative tradition of placing fruits in a glass vessel filled with water in the summer, and that it was the curvature of the vessel that caused this largening effect and not directly because of the water.
+He then concludes the chapter by emphasizing that it is certain that projectiles are in no way moved by the medium, but only by a motive force impressed by a mover.
+
+=== Chapter 18: A demonstration that the motive force is gradually diminished in a moving body ===
+Galileo argues that forced motion is not endless, that the force is continuously diminished in the projectile, and that motion with persistent speed and constant motive force “surely is most absurd.” Galileo would later abandon this erroneous idea through his implicit discussions regarding inertia in his Two New Sciences.
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_corporum_in_gyrum-0.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_corporum_in_gyrum-0.md
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+---
+title: "De motu corporum in gyrum"
+chunk: 1/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_corporum_in_gyrum"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:25.182996+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+De motu corporum in gyrum (from Latin: "On the motion of bodies in an orbit"; abbreviated De Motu) is the presumed title of a manuscript by Isaac Newton sent to Edmond Halley in November 1684. The manuscript was prompted by a visit from Halley earlier that year when he had questioned Newton about problems then occupying the minds of Halley and his scientific circle in London, including Sir Christopher Wren and Robert Hooke.
+This manuscript gave important mathematical derivations relating to the three relations now known as "Kepler's laws of planetary motion" (before Newton's work, these had not been generally regarded as scientific laws).  Halley reported the communication from Newton to the Royal Society on 10 December 1684 (Old Style). After further encouragement from Halley, Newton developed the ideas outlined by De Motu into his book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica.
+
+== Contents ==
+
+One of the surviving copies of De Motu was made by being entered in the Royal Society's register book, and its (Latin) text is available online.
+For ease of cross-reference to the contents of De Motu that appeared again in the Principia, there are online sources for the Principia in English translation, as well as in Latin.
+De motu corporum in gyrum is short enough to set out here the contents of its different sections. It contains 11 propositions, labelled as 'theorems' and 'problems', some with corollaries. Before reaching this core subject-matter, Newton begins with some preliminaries:
+
+3 Definitions:
+1: 'Centripetal force' (Newton originated this term, and its first occurrence is in this document) impels or attracts a body to some point regarded as a center.  (This reappears in Definition 5 of the Principia.)
+2: 'Inherent force' of a body is defined in a way that prepares for the idea of inertia and of Newton's first law (in the absence of external force, a body continues in its state of motion either at rest or in uniform motion along a straight line).  (Definition 3 of the Principia is to similar effect.)
+3: 'Resistance': the property of a medium that regularly impedes motion.
+4 Hypotheses:
+1: Newton indicates that in the first 9 propositions below, resistance is assumed nil, then for the remaining (2) propositions, resistance is assumed proportional both to the speed of the body and to the density of the medium.
+2: By its intrinsic force (alone) every body would progress uniformly in a straight line to infinity unless something external hinders that.
+(Newton's later first law of motion is to similar effect, Law 1 in the Principia.)
+
+3: Forces combine by a parallelogram rule. Newton treats them in effect as we now treat vectors. This point reappears in Corollaries 1 and 2 to the third law of motion, Law 3 in the Principia.
+4: In the initial moments of effect of a centripetal force, the distance is proportional to the square of the time. (The context indicates that Newton was dealing here with infinitesimals or their limiting ratios.) This reappears in Book 1, Lemma 10 in the Principia.
+Then follow two more preliminary points:
+
+2 Lemmas:
+1: Newton briefly sets out continued products of proportions involving differences:
+if A/(A–B) = B/(B–C) = C/(C–D) etc., then A/B = B/C = C/D etc.
+2: All parallelograms touching a given ellipse (to be understood: at the endpoints of conjugate diameters) are equal in area.
+Then follows Newton's main subject-matter, labelled as theorems, problems, corollaries and scholia:
+
+=== Theorem 1 ===
+Theorem 1 demonstrates that where an orbiting body is subject only to a centripetal force, it follows that a radius vector, drawn from the body to the attracting center, sweeps out equal areas in equal times (no matter how the centripetal force varies with distance). (Newton uses for this derivation – as he does in later proofs in this De Motu, as well as in many parts of the later Principia – a limit argument of infinitesimal calculus in geometric form, in which the area swept out by the radius vector is divided into triangle-sectors. They are of small and decreasing size considered to tend towards zero individually, while their number increases without limit.) This theorem appears again, with expanded explanation, as Proposition 1, Theorem 1, of the Principia.
+
+=== Theorem 2 ===
+Theorem 2 considers a body moving uniformly in a circular orbit, and shows that for any given time-segment, the centripetal force (directed towards the center of the circle, treated here as a center of attraction) is proportional to the square of the arc-length traversed, and inversely proportional to the radius. (This subject reappears as Proposition 4, Theorem 4 in the Principia, and the corollaries here reappear also.)
+Corollary 1 then points out that the centripetal force is proportional to V2/R, where V is the orbital speed and R the circular radius.
+Corollary 2 shows that, putting this in another way, the centripetal force is proportional to (1/P2) * R where P is the orbital period.
+Corollary 3 shows that if P2 is proportional to R, then the centripetal force would be independent of R.
+Corollary 4 shows that if P2 is proportional to R2, then the centripetal force would be proportional to 1/R.
+Corollary 5 shows that if P2 is proportional to R3, then the centripetal force would be proportional to 1/(R2).
+A scholium then points out that the Corollary 5 relation (square of orbital period proportional to cube of orbital size) is observed to apply to the planets in their orbits around the Sun, and to the Galilean satellites orbiting Jupiter.
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_corporum_in_gyrum-1.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_corporum_in_gyrum-1.md
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+---
+title: "De motu corporum in gyrum"
+chunk: 2/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_corporum_in_gyrum"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:25.182996+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Theorem 3 ===
+Theorem 3 now evaluates the centripetal force in a non-circular orbit, using another geometrical limit argument, involving ratios of vanishingly small line-segments. The demonstration comes down to evaluating the curvature of the orbit as if it were made of infinitesimal arcs, and the centripetal force at any point is evaluated from the speed and the curvature of the local infinitesimal arc. This subject reappears in the Principia as Proposition 6 of Book 1.
+A corollary then points out how it is possible in this way to determine the centripetal force for any given shape of orbit and center.
+Problem 1 then explores the case of a circular orbit, assuming the center of attraction is on the circumference of the circle. A scholium points out that if the orbiting body were to reach such a center, it would then depart along the tangent. (Proposition 7 in the Principia.)
+Problem 2 explores the case of an ellipse, where the center of attraction is at its center, and finds that the centripetal force to produce motion in that configuration would be directly proportional to the radius vector. (This material becomes Proposition 10, Problem 5 in the Principia.)
+Problem 3 again explores the ellipse, but now treats the further case where the center of attraction is at one of its foci.  "A body orbits in an ellipse: there is required the law of centripetal force tending to a focus of the ellipse." Here Newton finds the centripetal force to produce motion in this configuration would be inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector. (Translation: 'Therefore, the centripetal force is reciprocally as L X SP², that is, (reciprocally) in the doubled ratio [i.e., square] of the distance ... .') This becomes Proposition 11 in the Principia.
+A scholium then points out that this Problem 3 proves that the planetary orbits are ellipses with the Sun at one focus. (Translation: 'The major planets orbit, therefore, in ellipses having a focus at the center of the Sun, and with their radii (vectores) drawn to the Sun describe areas proportional to the times, altogether (Latin: 'omnino') as Kepler supposed.') (This conclusion is reached after taking as initial fact the observed proportionality between square of orbital period and cube of orbital size, considered in corollary 5 to Theorem 1.) (A controversy over the cogency of the conclusion is described below.) The subject of Problem 3 becomes Proposition 11, Problem 6, in the Principia.
+
+=== Theorem 4 ===
+Theorem 4 shows that with a centripetal force inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector, the time of revolution of a body in an elliptical orbit with a given major axis is the same as it would be for the body in a circular orbit with the same diameter as that major axis. (Proposition 15 in the Principia.)
+A scholium points out how this enables determining the planetary ellipses and the locations of their foci by indirect measurements.
+Problem 4 then explores, for the case of an inverse-square law of centripetal force, how to determine the orbital ellipse for a given starting position, speed, and direction of the orbiting body. Newton points out here, that if the speed is high enough, the orbit is no longer an ellipse, but is instead a parabola or hyperbola. He also identifies a geometrical criterion for distinguishing between the elliptical case and the others, based on the calculated size of the latus rectum, as a proportion to the distance the orbiting body at closest approach to the center. (Proposition 17 in the Principia.)
+A scholium then remarks that a bonus of this demonstration is that it allows definition of the orbits of comets and enables an estimation of their periods and returns where the orbits are elliptical. Some practical difficulties of implementing this are also discussed.
+Finally in the series of propositions based on zero resistance from any medium, Problem 5 discusses the case of a degenerate elliptical orbit, amounting to a straight-line fall towards or ejection from the attracting center. (Proposition 32 in the Principia.)
+A scholium points out how problems 4 and 5 would apply to projectiles in the atmosphere and to the fall of heavy bodies, if the atmospheric resistance could be assumed nil.
+Lastly, Newton attempts to extend the results to the case where there is atmospheric resistance, considering first (Problem 6) the effects of resistance on inertial motion in a straight line, and then (Problem 7) the combined effects of resistance and a uniform centripetal force on motion towards/away from the center in a homogeneous medium. Both problems are addressed geometrically using hyperbolic constructions. These last two 'Problems' reappear in Book 2 of the Principia as Propositions 2 and 3.
+Then a final scholium points out how problems 6 and 7 apply to the horizontal and vertical components of the motion of projectiles in the atmosphere (in this case neglecting earth curvature).
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_corporum_in_gyrum-2.md
+++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_corporum_in_gyrum-2.md
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+---
+title: "De motu corporum in gyrum"
+chunk: 3/3
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_corporum_in_gyrum"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:25.182996+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Commentaries on the contents ==
+At some points in 'De Motu', Newton depends on matters proved being used in practice as a basis for regarding their converses as also proved. This has been seen as especially so in regard to 'Problem 3'. Newton's style of demonstration in all his writings was rather brief in places; he appeared to assume that certain steps would be found self-evident or obvious. In 'De Motu', as in the first edition of the Principia, Newton did not specifically state a basis for extending the proofs to the converse. The proof of the converse here depends on its being apparent that there is a unique relation, i.e., that in any given setup, only one orbit corresponds to one given and specified set of force/velocity/starting position. Newton added a mention of this kind into the second edition of the Principia, as a Corollary to Propositions 11–13, in response to criticism of this sort made during his lifetime.
+A significant scholarly controversy has existed over the question whether and how far these extensions to the converse, and the associated uniqueness statements, are self-evident and obvious or not. (There is no suggestion that the converses are not true, or that they were not stated by Newton, the argument has been over whether Newton's proofs were satisfactory or not.)
+
+== Halley's question ==
+The details of Edmund Halley's visit to Newton in 1684 are known to us only from reminiscences of thirty to forty years later. According to one of these reminiscences, Halley asked Newton, "what he thought the Curve would be that would be described by the Planets supposing the force of attraction towards the Sun to be reciprocal to the square of their distance from it."
+Another version of the question was given by Newton himself, but also about thirty years after the event: he wrote that Halley, asking him "if I knew what figure the Planets described in their Orbs about the Sun was very desirous to have my Demonstration" In light of these differing reports, both produced from old memories, it is hard to know exactly what words Halley used.
+
+== Role of Robert Hooke ==
+Newton acknowledged in 1686 that an initial stimulus on him in 1679/80 to extend his investigations of the movements of heavenly bodies had arisen from correspondence with Robert Hooke in 1679/80.
+Hooke had started an exchange of correspondence in November 1679 by writing to Newton, to tell Newton that Hooke had been appointed to manage the Royal Society's correspondence. Hooke therefore wanted to hear from members about their researches, or their views about the researches of others; and as if to whet Newton's interest, he asked what Newton thought about various matters, and then gave a whole list, mentioning "compounding the celestial motions of the planetts of a direct motion by the tangent and an attractive motion towards the central body", and "my hypothesis of the lawes or causes of springinesse", and then a new hypothesis from Paris about planetary motions (which Hooke described at length), and then efforts to carry out or improve national surveys, the difference of latitude between London and Cambridge, and other items. Newton replied with "a fansy of my own" about determining the Earth's motion, using a falling body. Hooke disagreed with Newton's idea of how the falling body would move, and a short correspondence developed.
+Later, in 1686, when Newton's Principia had been presented to the Royal Society, Hooke claimed from this correspondence the credit for some of Newton's content in the Principia, and said Newton owed the idea of an inverse-square law of attraction to him – although at the same time, Hooke disclaimed any credit for the curves and trajectories that Newton had demonstrated on the basis of the inverse square law.
+Newton, who heard of this from Halley, rebutted Hooke's claim in letters to Halley, acknowledging only an occasion of reawakened interest. Newton did acknowledge some prior work of others, including the French priest and astronomer Ismaël Bullialdus, who suggested (but without demonstration) that there was an attractive force from the Sun in the inverse square proportion to the distance, and Giovanni Alfonso Borelli, who suggested (again without demonstration) that there was a tendency towards the Sun like gravity or magnetism that would make the planets move in ellipses; but that the elements Hooke claimed were due either to Newton himself, or to other predecessors of them both such as Bullialdus and Borelli, but not Hooke. Wren and Halley were both skeptical of Hooke's claims, recalling an occasion when Hooke had claimed to have a derivation of planetary motions under an inverse square law, but had failed to produce it even under the incentive of a prize.
+There has been scholarly controversy over exactly what if anything Newton really gained from Hooke, apart from the stimulus that Newton acknowledged.
+About thirty years after Newton's death in 1727, Alexis Clairaut, one of Newton's early and eminent successors in the field of gravitational studies, wrote after reviewing Hooke's work that it showed "what a distance there is between a truth that is glimpsed and a truth that is demonstrated".
+
+== See also ==
+Galileo, Descartes, and Christiaan Huygens
+Classical mechanics
+
+== References ==
+
+== Bibliography ==
+Never at rest: a biography of Isaac Newton, by R. S. Westfall, Cambridge University Press, 1980 ISBN 0-521-23143-4
+The Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton, Vol. 6, pp. 30–91, ed. by D. T. Whiteside, Cambridge University Press, 1974 ISBN 0-521-08719-8
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delusions_of_Gender-0.md
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+---
+title: "Delusions of Gender"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delusions_of_Gender"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:23.086906+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Delusions of Gender: How Our Minds, Society, and Neurosexism Create Difference is a 2010 book by Cordelia Fine, written to debunk the idea that men and women are hardwired with different interests. The author criticizes claimed evidence of the existence of innate biological differences between men and women's minds as being faulty and exaggerated, and while taking a position of agnosticism with respect to inherent differences relating to interest/skill in "understanding the world" versus "understanding people", reviews literature demonstrating how cultural and societal beliefs contribute to sex differences.
+
+
+== Contents ==
+In the first part of the book, "'Half Changed World', Half Changed Minds", Fine argues that social and environmental factors strongly influence the mind, challenging a "biology as fallback" view that, since society is equal now for the sexes, persistent inequalities must be due to biology. She also discusses the history and impact of gender stereotypes and the ways that science has been used to justify sexism.
+In the second part of the book, "Neurosexism", Fine criticizes the current available arguments and studies supporting sex differences in the mind, focusing on methodological weaknesses and implicit assumptions. Within neuroscientific investigations, these include small samples that give rise to unreliable, spurious results, and poorly justified "reverse inferences" (claims of stereotype-consistent psychological differences between the sexes on the basis of brain differences). Fine also demonstrates how already weak neuroscientific conclusions are then grossly overblown by popular writers. Fine also discusses non-neuroimaging evidence cited as support for innate differences between the sexes. For example, she explains weaknesses in the work done by a student of Simon Baron-Cohen that has been widely cited (by the Gurian Institute, by Leonard Sax, by Peter Lawrence, and by Baron-Cohen himself): one-and-a-half-day-old babies were tested for preference in sequence rather than being given a choice; were tested in different viewing positions, some horizontal on their backs and some held in a parent's lap, which could affect their perception; inadequate efforts were made to ensure the sex of the subject was unknown to the tester at the time of the test; the authors assume, without justification, that newborn looking preferences are a reliable "flag" for later social skills that are the product of a long and complex developmental process.
+In the third part of the book, "Recycling Gender", Fine discusses the highly gendered society in which children develop, and the contribution of that to the group identity processes that motivate children to "self-socialize". This challenges the common belief of parents that they tried gender-neutral parenting, but it did not work. An overall thesis of the work is the negative impact for sex equality of neurosexism (popular or academic neuroscientific claims that reinforce or justify gender stereotypes in ways that are not scientifically justified).
+
+
+== Reception ==
+
+
+=== Popular press ===
+In the UK, the book received positive reviews in Nature, The Independent, The Times Literary Supplement, New Scientist, Metro and The Belfast Telegraph. The Guardian and the Evening Standard each chose it as a Book of the Year. It was Book of the Week in Times Higher Education.
+In Australia, the book received positive reviews in The Age, The Australian and The West Australian.
+Delusions of Gender received positive reviews in the United States in The New York Times, The Washington Post, USA Today, Newsweek, Jezebel and Kirkus Reviews. Publishers Weekly chose it for a starred review and as a Pick of the Week.
+More positive reviews came from Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, The Globe and Mail, Socialist Worker, Out in Perth, The Fat Quarter, Erotic Review, The F Word, Counterfire, Neuroskeptic (at Discover magazine). Ms. magazine and Elle singled the book out for their readers.
+
+2013 Warwick Prize for Writing, shortlist
+2011 Victorian Premier's Literary Award for Non-Fiction, shortlist
+2011, Best Book of Ideas, shortlist
+2010, John Llewellyn Rhys Prize, shortlist
+
+
+=== Academic reception ===
+Developmental psychopathologist Simon Baron-Cohen, whose research is criticized in Delusions of Gender, reviewed the book in The Psychologist, saying Fine was "fusing science with politics", and that "Where I – and I suspect many other contemporary scientists – would part ways with Fine is in her strident, extreme denial of the role that biology might play in giving rise to any sex differences in the mind and brain. ...(she) ignores that you can be a scientist interested in the nature of sex differences while being a clear supporter of equal opportunities and a firm opponent of all forms of discrimination in society." Fine responded in a published letter, stating "The thesis of my book [...] is that while social effects on sex differences are well-established, spurious results, poor methodologies and untested assumptions mean we don't yet know whether, on average, males and females are born differently predisposed to systemizing versus empathising."
+Former APA President Diane F. Halpern reviewed the book in the journal Science, concluding that it was "strongest in exposing research conclusions that are closer to fiction than science...[but] weakest in failing to also point out differences that are supported by a body of carefully conducted and well-replicated research", stating that Fine largely ignores the latter body of research.
+Stanford neurobiologist Ben Barres stated in a review for PLOS Biology that Delusions of Gender "should be required reading for every neurobiology student, if not every human being".
+McCarthy and Ball (2011) reviewed the book in the journal Biology of Sex Differences, stating "Prompting laypeople to adopt a more critical view of overly simplistic views of complex data sets is a goal any scientist can support, and for that we applaud (Fine's) efforts." They suggested that Fine's book presents an oversimplified and seriously distorted characterization of neuroscience as applied to the study of sex differences. They expressed disappointment that Fine's book "...can be vexing in the ways the scientific study of sex differences in brain and behavior is portrayed and (how) the current state-of-the-art is presented".  
+Evolutionary biologist Marlene Zuk, reviewing the book with Rebecca Jordan-Young's Brain Storm, in the Quarterly Review of Biology wrote: "It is important to emphasize that neither author advocates throwing the gender-neutral baby out with its pink or blue bathwater ... The books are good ammunition for arguments with people who think science has incontrovertibly shown biological bases for gender differences such as mathematical ability. At the same time, they are not simply claiming that "it is all culture" or that science can play no role in understanding gender. Both Fine and Jordan-Young want better science, not less of it."
+
+
+== See also ==
+Gender role
+Implicit stereotypes
+Sex and intelligence
+
+
+== Notes ==
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Fine, Cordelia (August 2013). "Is There Neurosexism in Functional Neuroimaging Investigations of Sex Differences?". Neuroethics. 6 (2): 369–409. doi:10.1007/s12152-012-9169-1. S2CID 144819834.
+
+
+== External links ==
+Official website
+"Cordelia Fine: Delusions of Gender" (video). Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Talk given at Festival of Dangerous Ideas, Sydney, New South Wales, 2010. Archived from the original on 30 August 2013 – via FORA.tv.
--- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der_Alkoholismus-0.md
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@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
+---
+title: "Der Alkoholismus"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der_Alkoholismus"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:32.768761+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Der Alkoholismus: Einführung in ein soziales Problem (English: The Alcoholism: Introduction to a Social Problem) is a 1908 book published by Austrian Catholic sociologist Anton Orel (1881-1959). Its goal was to reduce alcohol consumption and bring attention to the Alkoholfrage (English: The alcohol question). The book contains 25 sections that deal with different alcohol issues, ranging from the explanation of the alcohol question, to an elucidation of the alcohol's devastating health consequences and to the general economic impact of alcohol in the 20th century. Orel primarily aims to establish an abstinence movement against the existing drinking customs in order to save society from the devastating consequences. He frequently quotes experts' opinions on health and economic consequences in order to underline his statements. He particularly appeals to the youth as representing the basis for the planned revolutionary movement against the widespread alcoholism.
+
+
+== Context ==
+After studying law, Anton Orel became redactor of several magazines, among others Arbeiterjugend and Unserer Jugend. Famous for his anti-capitalistic views, Anton Orel founded the Bund der deutschen Arbeiterjugend in 1905, which was known as Verband der christlichen Jugend Österreichs from 1907 onwards. Orel values the possible impact youth can have on society; his book Der Alkoholismus: Einführung in ein soziales Problem (Alcoholism, introduction to a social problem) aims to impact the self-education and ability of the youthful generation to save society from its cultural ruin: "Ihr seid die Träger einer großen Zukunft die uns vom Kulturniedergang emporführen wird" (English: "You are the carriers of a great future that will bring us up from the cultural ruin").
+Alcohol consumption represented a controversial societal issue, as shown by the growth of the movement against alcohol during the 19th century. The movement started in the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom.  All anti-alcoholic organizations expressed hostility towards alcohol, even though their direct goals were different.  Some, such as Anton Orel, fought for a voluntary abstinence, others for the moderation of drinking only. Overall, the health risks, as well as adverse social and national impact, of alcohol were emphasized. The greatest success by means of prohibition took place in the United States. Shortly after Anton Orel's publication, First World War (1914-1918) broke out, causing governments to introduce new and rigorous regulations that limited alcohol consumption. These regulations were largely maintained after the end of the war and were even intensified and extended throughout the Western world.
+
+
+== Content ==
+In total, the book consists of 25 sections. In each section, Orel describes a specific adverse consequence of alcohol consumption on either a personal or societal level, emphasizing the importance of an abstinence movement. Orel first presents the general alcohol problem that societies in the 20th century are faced with. Alcohol was strongly linked to daily life so it was necessary to inspect the linked social issues. Orel presents his plans of a movement against habitual alcohol consumption and the overall goal is the entire elimination of alcohol from daily life. The alcohol question asks how the total elimination of alcohol will be possible. He highlights that people's consumption cannot be excused as normal and rooted in human history, as in his view consumption has become more frequent and people are less resistant to the risks than many decades ago.
+In the following sections, Orel emphasises the adverse health consequences. Due to the toxicity of alcohol, its impact on the body is devastating. Among others, alcohol has an adverse effect on the body's organs, metabolic system, immune system, nervous system and life expectancy. Additionally, most of the given adverse consequences are highly heritable causing a single alcoholic to have a negative impact on multiple generations. One possible impact is the inherited inability for women to breast-feed their children, causing child malnutrition in young age. Moreover, crimes are commonly committed by alcoholics.
+Trying to investigate factors that facilitate society's alcoholism, Orel highlights that the production and sale of alcohol is especially profitable and that greed is a main factor increasing the prevalence of alcoholism. He portrays the paradoxical relationship of the consequences of alcohol consumption and the destruction of tons of foods in the process of producing alcohol.
+In order to fight alcoholism, Orel says it is indispensable to fight existing drinking customs such as “Kein Leben ohne Freude, keine Freude ohne Alkohol” (English: "There is no life without happiness, no happiness without alcohol") and people's negative conception of an abstinent person. He also discusses the importance of empowering youth as they are able to have an actual impact on existing customs. Orel proposes to start the abstinence movement by creating abstinent subgroups within existing associations to create a widespread basis for the movement. He concludes that it will overall take a long time to create an alcohol free society and the most important sub-goal to reach is to create a strong anti-alcohol movement in schools and reach a general alcohol ban for children and youth.
+
+
+== Reception ==
+Anton Orel's book Der Alkoholismus: Einführung in ein soziales Problem (English: The alcoholism, introduction to a social problem) was praised for the density of information provided. The Christliche Arbeiterzeitung valued that the book provided an overview of the alcohol problem and outlines the impact of alcohol on society. The Reichspost praised the empirical background of the book combined with its easy-written overall character. Anton Orel was able to separate himself from the pressure of society and criticize the societal habit of alcohol consumption, aiming to entirely ban alcohol consumption. However, caused by its rigor, Orel's publications are seen as utopic and he is criticised for his intransigence. Receptions such as "Es ist schade, dass das sonst tüchtige Werkchen mit solch Übertreibungen beschwert ist (…)." (English: "It is a pity that the otherwise efficient little work is burdened with such exaggerations (…).") confirm this extreme tendency.
+Several of Orel's suggestions and warnings are confirmed and still important in the 21st century. Strikingly, the proposed adverse health effects were quite accurate.  One possible health consequence already introduced by Orel in 1908 and confirmed by research, is alcohol's depressing effects on the central nervous system (CNS) which can range from mild euphoria to a condition of coma and death. Another health consequence impacting society today is altered immune regulation leading to immunodeficiency and autoimmunity, causing lower resistance to bacterial diseases. Another example of this is Orel's proposed destructive impact of alcohol consumption on life expectancy. This is now supported in research showing that excessive alcohol consumption is associated with increased mortality. Even though Anton Orel's work highlights issues in the early 20th century, alcoholism still appears to be a major social problem in the 21st century.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Temperance movement
+
+
+== References ==
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+title: "Einstein Wrote Back"
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+
+Einstein Wrote Back is a memoir by Canadian physicist John Moffat that documents his encounters with various other famous physicists, including Niels Bohr, Albert Einstein, Erwin Schrödinger, Fred Hoyle, Wolfgang Pauli, Paul Dirac, Abdus Salam, and J. Robert Oppenheimer, as well as his work at Imperial College London, Princeton University, CERN, and the University of Toronto. The book's title comes from a series of letters Moffat exchanged with Einstein early in his life, which inspired Moffat to continue studying physics.
+
+
+== Reception ==
+Writing in Physics World, Graham Farmelo described the book as a pleasant read, though some of the anecdotes appeared embellished and historical details were inconsistent.
+
+
+== See also ==
+Reinventing Gravity, 2008 book by Moffat
+Cracking the Particle Code of the Universe: The Hunt for the Higgs Boson, 2014 book by Moffat
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+"EINSTEIN WROTE BACK by John Moffat". YouTube. ThomasAllenPublisher. October 19, 2010.
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+title: "Helgoland (book)"
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+
+Helgoland is a book by Italian physicist Carlo Rovelli about quantum mechanics and the relational interpretation of it that Rovelli developed. The title refers to Heligoland, an island in the North Sea where Werner Heisenberg secluded himself while developing the basic ideas of quantum mechanics in 1925.
+The book was first published in Italian in 2020, and an English translation by Erica Segre and Simon Carnell was published the following year. The Persian translation, translated by Samane Noroozi (Chatrang Publisher), was published the following year in Iran.
+
+
+== References ==
--- a/Show More
+++ b/Show More