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z7>(NBS<`pOm63}iMfopk-BC) zk!d{p98 z4feTQi*Qe+A7NZ@r0{a86mq78y8){FrpXIz%K6Nf)5g(=dMnEGlPP?Tb>h@F2@T9D zIlkNXIKp-6X4(i6gh?Wn1=XHN%IsMp1O=pz^+naCylv2Axknmo{qZ zTyYwmw0|`2i>)X#L$K5NBiEaoRTY*TW)urm+X|NoZqRMBoO!s04=JQ&0l??$ojf`FK>inM0I)7J3IP9&d zZ?6e@+gq&~tGlJG!|x5*1AW%?$Rh*6)@@^vde2}-S8K>q)z!z2@j(t9L#3|PU*T;< z&#uOUMOy?@H18O`kY{^chqtn!!mf?_J>Ke=#}l?xFB@aDY9A@8Sd#b9%MY!Dx1rUC VVH~#ho*GQ#ysV#i_*qkp{{o3e_Z|QM diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12_Rules_for_Life-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12_Rules_for_Life-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7bc922a42 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12_Rules_for_Life-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,44 @@ +--- +title: "12 Rules for Life" +chunk: 1/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12_Rules_for_Life" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:30.445868+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +12 Rules for Life: An Antidote to Chaos is a 2018 self-help book by the Canadian clinical psychologist Jordan Peterson. It provides life advice through essays in abstract ethical principles, psychology, mythology, religion, and personal anecdotes. The book topped bestseller lists in Canada, the United States, and the United Kingdom, and had sold over ten million copies worldwide, as of May 2023. +Peterson went on a world tour to promote the book, receiving much attention following an interview with Channel 4 News. The book is written in a more accessible style than his previous academic book, Maps of Meaning: The Architecture of Belief (1999). A sequel, Beyond Order: 12 More Rules for Life, was published in March 2021. + +== Overview == + +=== Background === +Peterson's interest in writing the book grew out of a personal hobby of answering questions posted on Quora. One such question being "What are the most valuable things everyone should know?", to which his answer comprised 42 rules. The early vision and promotion of the book aimed to include all rules, with the title "42". Peterson stated that it "isn't only written for other people. It's a warning to me." + +=== Rules === +The book is divided into chapters with each title representing one of the following twelve specific rules for life as explained through an essay. + +"Stand up straight with your shoulders back." +"Treat yourself like someone you are responsible for helping." +"Make friends with people who want the best for you." +"Compare yourself to who you were yesterday, not to who someone else is today." +"Do not let your children do anything that makes you dislike them." +"Set your house in perfect order before you criticize the world." +"Pursue what is meaningful (not what is expedient)." +"Tell the truth – or, at least, don't lie." +"Assume that the person you are listening to might know something you don't." +"Be precise in your speech." +"Do not bother children when they are skateboarding." +"Pet a cat when you encounter one on the street." + +=== Content === +The book's central idea is that "suffering is built into the structure of being" and, although it can be unbearable, people have a choice either to withdraw, which is a "suicidal gesture", or to face and transcend it. Living in a world of chaos and order, everyone has "darkness" that can "turn them into the monsters they're capable of being" to satisfy their dark impulses in the right situations. Scientific experiments like the Invisible Gorilla Test show that perception is adjusted to aims, and it is better to seek meaning rather than happiness. Peterson notes:It's all very well to think the meaning of life is happiness, but what happens when you're unhappy? Happiness is a great side effect. When it comes, accept it gratefully. But it's fleeting and unpredictable. It's not something to aim at – because it's not an aim. And if happiness is the purpose of life, what happens when you're unhappy? Then you're a failure. +The book advances the idea that people are born with an instinct for ethics and meaning, and should take responsibility to search for meaning above their own interests (Rule 7, "Pursue what is meaningful, not what is expedient"). Such thinking is reflected both in contemporary stories such as Pinocchio, The Lion King, and Harry Potter, and in ancient stories from the Bible. To "Stand up straight with your shoulders back" (Rule 1) is to "accept the terrible responsibility of life," to make self-sacrifice, because the individual must rise above victimization and "conduct his or her life in a manner that requires the rejection of immediate gratification, of natural and perverse desires alike." The comparison to neurological structures and behavior of lobsters is used as a natural example to the formation of social hierarchies. +The other parts of the work explore and criticize the state of young men; the upbringing that ignores sex differences between boys and girls (criticism of over-protection and tabula rasa model in social sciences); male–female interpersonal relationships; school shootings; religion and moral nihilism; relativism; and lack of respect for the values that built Western society. +In the last chapter, Peterson outlines the ways in which one can cope with the most tragic events, which are very often out of one's control. In it, he describes his own personal struggle upon discovering that his daughter, Mikhaila, had a rare bone disease. The chapter is a meditation on how to maintain a watchful eye on, and cherish, life's small redeemable qualities, e.g., to "pet a cat when you encounter one". It also outlines a practical way to deal with hardship: to shorten one's temporal scope of responsibility, e.g., by focussing on the next minute rather than the next three months. +Canadian psychiatrist and psychoanalyst Norman Doidge wrote the book's foreword, with the help of Anuar Kul-Mukkhamed, a student at the University of Chicago. + +== Publication == + +=== Marketing === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12_Rules_for_Life-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12_Rules_for_Life-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..595d358a6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12_Rules_for_Life-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "12 Rules for Life" +chunk: 2/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12_Rules_for_Life" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:30.445868+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +To promote the book, Peterson went on a world tour, initially from January 14, 2018, to February 17, 2018, including events in England, Canada, and the United States. The sold-out venues included 1,000-seat conference hall Emmanuel Centre in London, and 2,000-seat Orpheum Theatre in Los Angeles. The February 11 event at Citadel Theatre in Edmonton was cancelled by the theatre's board of directors and management, for which they later apologized, and instead was held at a sold-out Hyatt Place. +The second part included three sold-out events in March in Australia, continuing at Beacon Theatre in New York, and the third part held between early May and June initially numbering ten events in the US and Canada and one in the UK. Until June, the tour visited 45 cities in North America, Europe and Australia, reaching an audience of over 100,000 people. According to Peterson, nearly 200,000 people attended the live events until late July. +As part of the tour, Peterson had an interview on Channel 4 News that went viral, receiving considerable attention and nearly 49 million views on YouTube. He also appeared on BBC Radio 5 Live and BBC's HARDtalk; LBC's Maajid Nawaz radio show; Fox & Friends and Tucker Carlson Tonight; ABC's 7.30; Sky News Australia's Outsiders; HBO's Real Time with Bill Maher; and The Dr. Oz Show, among others. + +=== Release === +Penguin Allen Lane published the book on January 16, 2018, in the UK. Random House Canada published it on January 23 in Canada. As of September 2018, the book was slated to be translated into 45 languages. +The 12 Rules for Life audiobook was number one on Audible in Canada, and number three in the US. In Canada, since its debut, it topped The Globe and Mail's and the Toronto Star's nonfiction bestsellers lists. According to CBC Books, it was the 4th-bestselling Canadian book of the year. According to the Toronto Star, it was the "biggest Canadian book success story of the year", topping original nonfiction and Canadian nonfiction categories, with only Canadian poet writer Rupi Kaur having similar sales. Kobo Inc. reported that it was the 2nd-bestselling audiobook of 2018 in Canada. Per BookNet Canada and BNC SalesData, the print book was 3rd, and Peterson was the bestselling Canadian author of the year. +In the UK the book enjoyed five weeks at the top of The Sunday Times's bestsellers list for general hardcover (February 18 – March 25, again on April 15), selling over 120,000 copies by September 16. According to The Sunday Times, the hardback edition was the year's 4th-biggest seller in the "general hardbacks" category with 153,160 copies sold by end of the year. According to The Guardian, the Nielsen BookScan reported sales of 147,899 copies made it only the 32nd bestselling book of the year. +The Nielsen BookScan reported sales of over 10,000 copies until March 12 in Australia. In Ireland it was the 23rd-bestselling book of the year with 14,408 copies. +In the US, the book became the number-one nonfiction book and e-book on The Wall Street Journal's Best-Selling Books list. It also topped The Washington Post's and Reuters's US bestsellers list, reached number two on USA Today's overall list, and topped the hardcover nonfiction and top 10 overall category for Publishers Weekly, selling over 559,000 copies by September 24, 2018. In the category it replaced Michael Wolff's Fire and Fury. At the end of the year the hardcover version was the 11th-bestselling book, with 692,238 copies. +Penguin Random House CEO Markus Dohle said in late March that the book had already sold over 700,000 copies in the US. The book did not chart on The New York Times, Los Angeles Times and IndieBound bestsellers list. According to Toronto Star books editor Deborah Dundas, the New York Times stated it was not counted because it was published by a Canadian company. According to Random House Canada, the book was handled properly for the US market. +Peterson announced the book had sold over 2 million copies (August 6, 2018), then 3 million copies (January 13, 2019), and later that work had begun on a sequel (January 2019). The book reached 5 million sales by November 2020. By May 2023 the book had sold over 10 million copies. +In March 2019, Whitcoulls, one of New Zealand's leading book retailers, temporarily removed the book from their stores and online catalogue, apparently in reaction to the Christchurch mosque shootings. The withdrawal of the book was prompted by social media photos of Peterson posing with a fan wearing a T-shirt saying "I'm a proud Islamophobe." Peterson and his supporters strongly criticized Whitcoulls's decision because Whitcoulls continued to sell Adolf Hitler's Mein Kampf and Henry Malone's Islam Unmasked. The book was reinstated six days after it was removed. + +== Reception == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12_Rules_for_Life-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12_Rules_for_Life-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..28ce2f1c2 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12_Rules_for_Life-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "12 Rules for Life" +chunk: 3/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12_Rules_for_Life" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:30.445868+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The book was received with mixed reviews. Melanie Reid, for The Times, said the book is "aimed at teenagers, millennials and young parents...If you peel back the verbiage, the cerebral preening, you are left with a hardline self-help manual of self-reliance, good behaviour, self-betterment and individualism that probably reflects [Peterson's] childhood in rural Canada in the 1960s." Bryan Appleyard, also in The Times, describes it as "a less dense and more practical version of Maps of Meaning...a baggy, aggressive, in-your-face, get-real book that, ultimately, is an attempt to lead us back to what Peterson sees as the true, the beautiful and the good – i.e., God." +Hari Kunzru of The Guardian said it collates advice from Peterson's clinical practice with anecdotes, accounts of his academic work as a psychologist and "a lot of intellectual history of the 'great books' variety", but the essays are explained in an overcomplicated style. Kunzru called Peterson sincere, but found the book irritating because he considers Peterson failed to follow his own rules. +In an interview with Peterson for The Guardian, Tim Lott called the book atypical of the self-help genre. For The Scotsman, Bill Jamieson praised it as "richly illustrated and packed with excellent advice on how we can restore meaning and a sense of progression to our everyday lives", describing it as "verbal waterboarding for supporters of big government". +The New York Times's David Brooks wrote, "The Peterson way is a harsh way, but it is an idealistic way – and for millions of young men, it turns out to be the perfect antidote to the cocktail of coddling and accusation in which they are raised". +Joe Humphreys of The Irish Times argued people should not be stopped "from reading what is a veritable powerhouse of a book: wise, provocative, humorous and also maddeningly contradictory...". Glenn Ellmers in Claremont Review of Books wrote that Peterson "does not shrink from telling readers that life means pain and suffering. His deft exposition, however, makes clear that duty is often liberating and responsibility can be a gift". +Dorothy Cummings McLean, writing for The Catholic World Report, called the book "the most thought-provoking self-help book I have read in years", with its rules reminding her of those by Bernard Lonergan, and content "serving as a bridge between Christians and non-Christians interested in the truths of human life and in resisting the lies of ideological totalitarianism". +In a review for the same magazine, Bishop Robert Barron praised the archetypal reading of the story about Adam and Eve and the Garden of Eden with Jesus representing "gardener" and the psychological exploration of Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn and The Gulag Archipelago, but did not support its "gnosticizing tendency to read Biblical religion purely psychologically and philosophically and not at all historically", or the idea that "God ... [is] simply a principle or an abstraction". It is "valuable for the beleaguered young men in our society, who need a mentor to tell them to stand up straight and act like heroes", Barron wrote. +Adam DeVille took a very different view, calling 12 Rules for Life "unbearably banal, superficial, and insidious" and saying "the real danger in this book is its apologia for social Darwinism and bourgeois individualism covered over with a theological patina" and that "in a just world, this book would never have been published". +Ron Dart, for The British Columbia Review, considered the book "an attempt to articulate a more meaningful order for freedom as an antidote to the erratic ... chaos of our age", but although "necessary" with exemplary advice for men and women it is "hardly a sufficient text for the tougher questions that beset us on our all too human journey and should be read as such." For the Financial Times, Julian Baggini wrote, "In headline form, most of his rules are simply timeless good sense.... The problem is that when Peterson fleshes them out, they carry more flab than meat". +In The Spectator, Peter Hitchens wrote that he did not like the "conversational and accessible" style and amount of "recapitulation", but believed it had "moving moments", "good advice" with a message "aimed at people who have grown up in the post-Christian West" with special appeal to young men. Park MacDougald of New York shared a similar view, writing that on paper Peterson lacks the "coherence, emotional depth" of his lectures but "still, he produces nuggets of real insight." +Pankaj Mishra's review in The New York Review of Books called 12 Rules a repackaged collection of pieties and late 19th-century Jungian mysticism that has been discredited by modern psychology. Mishra compared the book to historical authors who influenced Peterson, but whose serious moral failings, including racism and fascism, Peterson fails to address. He criticized Peterson's book for failing to recognize how traditionalism and myth can be used in support of demagoguery and anti-democratic ideas, and asserts that Peterson's work is a symptom of the problems it attempts to cure. Peterson responded to the review on Twitter, taking umbrage at Mishra's description of Peterson's friendship with First Nations artist Charles Joseph as "the latest in a long line of eggheads pretentiously but harmlessly romancing the noble savage"; Peterson responded, "If you were in my room at the moment, I'd slap you happily." +For Psychology Today, philosopher Paul Thagard called the book flimsy and said Peterson's views fail to stand up to philosophical scrutiny, "If you go for Christian mythology, narrow-minded individualism, obscure metaphysics, and existentialist angst, then Jordan Peterson is the philosopher for you. But if you prefer evidence and reason, look elsewhere." Psychologist John Grohol, in PsychCentral, said the advice was sound, self-evident, and harmless, but could not recommend it because Peterson justified his advice with rambling tangential anecdotes and religious dogma instead of scientific data. +In the Los Angeles Review of Books, Guy Stevenson wrote that Peterson's work is ignored by serious academics, in part because of his inflated claims targeting a conspiracy of "postmodern neo-Marxists", but that his level of celebrity had not been seen for a public intellectual since Marshall McLuhan in the 1960s. According to Stevenson, Peterson's practical advice and Jungian mysticism reflect a new counterculture movement similar to that of the 1960s. He called 12 Rules aggressive and overeager to blame problems on "bogeymen", and recommended as an alternative the work of John Gray, who has addressed the same issues. +Kelefa Sanneh of The New Yorker noted: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12_Rules_for_Life-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12_Rules_for_Life-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..cb2f8bafd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12_Rules_for_Life-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "12 Rules for Life" +chunk: 4/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/12_Rules_for_Life" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:30.445868+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +some of his critics might be surprised to find much of the advice he offers unobjectionable, if old-fashioned: he wants young men to be better fathers, better husbands, better community members. In this way, he might be seen as an heir to older gurus of manhood like Elbert Hubbard, who in 1899 published a stern and wildly popular homily called A Message to Garcia ... +At times, Peterson emphasizes his interest in empirical knowledge and scientific research—although these tend to be the least convincing parts of 12 Rules for Life. +David French of National Review called the book a "beacon of light" for the current time, with a simple but profound purpose "to help a person look in the mirror and respect the person he or she sees." Some critics, such as National Review's Heather Wilhelm and Toronto Star's James Grainger, were critical of negative reviews they believed had misinterpreted Peterson. +In September 2018, Peterson threatened to sue Cornell University philosopher Kate Manne for defamation after she called his work misogynistic in an interview with Vox. Manne called Peterson's threat an attempt to chill free speech. Vox considered the threat baseless and ignored it. In a critique often shared by prominent intellectual Noam Chomsky, Nathan Robinson of Current Affairs called Peterson a "charlatan" who gives "the most elementary fatherly life-advice" while adding "convolutions to disguise the simplicity of his mind." +In an article published in 2020 in the International Journal of Jungian Studies, "Carl Jung, John Layard and Jordan Peterson: Assessing Theories of Human Social Evolution and Their Implications for Analytical Psychology", Gary Clark offers a sustained critique of Peterson's thought as outlined in 12 Rules for Life. The article asserts that Peterson fails to take account of research in paleoanthropology, evolutionary anthropology and ethnographic studies of egalitarian societies. Such societies, which are believed to represent the ancient forager adaptation of H. sapiens, are matrilineal and lack social hierarchy. The author argues that a major sociocultural transformation occurred from this ancient adaptive complex with the onset of agriculture giving rise to modern patrilineal and hierarchical cultures. This view contrasts with Peterson's, which postulates modern social and economic structures are an outgrowth of the hierarchical impulses of our premammalian, mammalian and primate ancestors. This led the author to conclude that Peterson seems to have "projected his own cultural biases back into the deep past". +In one of the only academic reviews of the book, B.V.E. Hyde wrote in Philosophy Now that Peterson has been misrepresented as pessimistic and far-right, arguing instead that his work is ultimately optimistic and sensible. Hyde concluded that Peterson's significance stems from "his realism about the human condition, his optimism about how to transcend it, and the simplicity of his injunctions," which provide psychological guidance during complex times. Hyde noted that Peterson's self-help advice is "almost commonsensical" and that he "writes forcefully for propositions which are largely unremarkable and, at bottom, totally agreeable," crediting this as the source of his books' appeal. + +== References == + +== External links == +JordanBPeterson.com – Peterson's website +12 Rules for Life – Penguin United Kingdom +12 Rules for Life – Penguin Random House Canada +12 Rules For Life by Jordan B. Peterson: An Excerpt – Penguin Random House India \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/50_Signs_of_Mental_Illness-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/50_Signs_of_Mental_Illness-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b18174942 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/50_Signs_of_Mental_Illness-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "50 Signs of Mental Illness" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/50_Signs_of_Mental_Illness" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:31.594207+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +50 Signs of Mental Illness: A Guide to Understanding Mental Health is a 2005 book by psychiatrist James Whitney Hicks published by Yale University Press. The book is designed as an accessible psychiatric reference for non-professionals that describes symptoms, treatments and strategies for understanding mental health. + + +== List of signs == +The 50 signs covered in the book are: + + +== Reception == +A review in the American Journal of Psychiatry commended Hicks's phrasing of acceptable ways to speak about mental illness. +A review in The National Medical Journal of India likewise applauded the book's accessibility to non-experts, though it criticized Hicks's choice of symptoms and suggested "It would be difficult for an Indian to relate to the book" due to the examples he uses. +The book also received attention from Health, Library Journal, The Baltimore Sun, and The Washington Post. + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == +Bardi, C. A. (2005). The Promise And Perils Of Psychological Self-Help. PsycCRITIQUES, 50(51). doi:10.1037/05200711 +American Psychiatric Association (July, 2018) "Warning Signs of Mental Illness". www.psychiatry.org. Retrieved 2021-06-19. + + +== External links == +Official site Archived 2014-01-07 at the Wayback Machine +Yale University Press \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Different_Universe-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Different_Universe-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..690f33720 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Different_Universe-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,18 @@ +--- +title: "A Different Universe" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Different_Universe" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:27.657885+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A Different Universe: Reinventing Physics from the Bottom Down is a 2005 physics book by Robert B. Laughlin, a winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics for the fractional quantum Hall effect. Its title is a play on the P. W. Anderson manifesto More is Different (historically important in claiming that condensed-matter physics deserves greater respect). The book extends his articles "The Middle Way" and "The Theory of Everything", arguing the limits of reductionism. A key concept in Laughlin's works is protectorates, meaning robust physical regimes of behavior that do not depend on (that is, they are protected from the fickle details of) the underlying smaller-scale physics such as quantum noise. Such robust or reliable behavior at macroscopic scales makes possible higher-level entities, from biological life to nanotechnology. The book emphasizes more study of such macroscopic phenomena, sometimes called emergence, over the ever-downward dive into theoretically fundamental ideas such as string theory, which at some point become empirically irrelevant by having no observable consequences in our world. The arguments come full circle with modern dark energy ideas suggesting that spacetime or the vacuum may not be empty, but rather (for all we can observe) a medium, a possibility ironically glimpsed even by Einstein whose career began with demolishing the similar but too-simplistic notion of ether with his special relativity work. + + +== Reception == +Keay Davidson reviewed the book for the New York Times, saying that "Laughlin's thesis is intriguing, if not completely persuasive." Carlos Lourenço, reviewing the book for the CERN Courier, found it "thought-provoking" and "worth reading", though he was left disappointed by the time it spent on seemingly irrelevant topics and polemics against reductionists. Lourenço concludes that "there is a lot of talking but in the end not much physics really gets reinvented." + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_British_Fishes-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_British_Fishes-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..439b8ef5e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_British_Fishes-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "A History of British Fishes" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_British_Fishes" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:42.048901+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A History of British Fishes is a natural history book by William Yarrell, serialised in nineteen parts from 1835, and then published bound in two volumes in 1836. It is a handbook or field guide systematically describing every type of fish found in the British Isles, with an article for each species. +Yarrell was a London bookseller and newsagent with the time and income to indulge his interest in natural history. He was a prominent member of several natural history societies and knew most of the leading British naturalists of his day. He was able to draw on his own extensive library and collection of specimens, his wide network of like-minded naturalist friends, and his access to major libraries to garner material for his writings, the most important of which were A History of British Fishes and the 1843 A History of British Birds. +A History of British Fishes followed the example of Thomas Bewick's natural history books in its combination of up-to-date scientific data, accurate illustrations, detailed descriptions and varied anecdotes. The wood engraving illustrations were drawn by Alexander Fussell and engraved by John Thompson; three editions and their two supplements were published by John Van Voorst's company, based in Paternoster Row, London. Yarrell died in 1856, and the third edition was produced posthumously. The work was a commercial success and became the standard reference work for a generation of British ichthyologists. Yarrell's name is commemorated in eight species, three of which are fish, and in the lightfish genus Yarrella. + +== Author == + +William Yarrell (1784–1856) was the son of Francis Yarrell and his wife Sarah, née Blane. William's father and his cousin William Jones were partners as booksellers and newsagents in London. William joined the business in 1803 after leaving school, and inherited the company in 1850. +Yarrell had the free time and income to indulge his hobbies of shooting and fishing, and started to show an interest in rare birds, sending some specimens to the engraver and author Thomas Bewick. He became a keen student of natural history and collector of birds, fish, and other wildlife, and by 1825 he had a substantial collection. He was active in the London learned societies, and held senior posts in several for many years. He was treasurer of the Linnean Society from May 1849, until his death in 1856, vice president of the Zoological Society of London from 1839 to 1851, treasurer of the Royal Entomological Society from 1834 to 1852, and was also on the Council of the Medico-Botanical Society. +He knew many of the leading naturalists of his day, which helped him in the production of his books and articles, notably A History of British Fishes and his 1843 A History of British Birds. + +== Background == + +=== Written sources === + +Interest in natural history was growing rapidly in the early nineteenth century, and several writers sought to provide definitive lists of species found in Britain, with descriptions and other pertinent information. When Yarrell came to tackle the fish, written sources were limited. Edward Donovan's The Natural History of British Fishes (1802–1808) was the only reasonably recent specialist book, although Thomas Pennant's British Zoology (1812) and Bewick's A Natural History of British Quadrupeds (1808) were among other publications that covered some British fish. +The most notable foreign sources were the Histoire naturelle des poissons (1828–1831) by Baron Georges Cuvier and Achille Valenciennes, which contained descriptions of five thousand species of fishes, and Marcus Elieser Bloch's beautifully illustrated twelve-volume Allgemeine Naturgeschichte der Fische (1782–1795). The French book was important because Cuvier and Valenciennes had grouped similar species together, providing a logical order to their book. Yarrell had membership of the libraries of the British Museum and the Linnaean Society, and his friends gave him access to college collections and their own private libraries and notebooks. Yarrell personally owned at least 2000 books, of which about 80 were concerned with fish or fishing. The posthumous sale of his books in 1856 raised £1100. + +=== Other resources === + +Yarrell was a keen fisherman, and his journeys to English south coast locations like Brighton, Weymouth and Hastings gave him direct access to fresh specimens. He also frequented fish vendors, particularly in London's important markets, and had a network of fisherman-naturalist contacts, eight of whom he named in the preface to his book, notably the Cornishman Jonathan Couch, who provided him with many fish specimens from the southwest of England. Fellow members of the learned societies he belonged to also helped him with specimens. Yarrell had 220 species of fish as preserved specimens in his personal collection, now held in the Natural History Museum. Fish were mostly preserved in spirits of wine, a strong ethanol solution, although whisky was an alternative used in Scotland. +As a London-based bookseller and an active member of London's learned societies, Yarrell had contact with many fellow naturalists who could help him with books, illustrations and notes, as well as specimens. He was a life-long friend of clergyman naturalist Leonard Jenyns, and a regular correspondent with the taxidermist John Gould, Sir William Jardine, the Earl of Derby, Edward Lear and Charles Darwin. Yarrell's knowledge of avian anatomy helped Lear develop his bird painting skills by teaching him that feather tracts follow the muscle contours, and he in return provided a drawing of a thicklip grey mullet for the fish book. +Yarrell made significant discoveries of his own, including showing that male seahorses and pipefish carried fertilised eggs in a pouch, and clarifying how many Salmo (salmon and trout) species occurred in Britain. + +== Format == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_British_Fishes-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_British_Fishes-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ea30f65b2 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_British_Fishes-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +--- +title: "A History of British Fishes" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_British_Fishes" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:42.048901+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Yarrell was a great admirer of Thomas Bewick (he named a new wildfowl species "Bewick's swan" after the engraver). +Bewick's A History of British Birds, published in two volumes in 1797 and in 1804, had brought him nationwide fame, and since Yarrell owned several editions of Bewick's books, he followed the older man's format for his own fish project. +Volume 1 has a preface which also acknowledges the people who had helped Yarrell with his project, followed by an introduction discussing the general characteristics of fish (fifteen pages in the first edition) and an alphabetical index before the main species accounts start. There was no established taxonomic sequence for arranging fish, so where possible Yarrell followed Cuvier and Valenciennes, otherwise using anatomical resemblances in features including fins, teeth, and head bones to order his species. +Each entry started with a wood engraving of the species, followed by its scientific and English names and their synonyms, and a lead section "Generic characteristics" summarising the key anatomical features. The main text described the fish in more detail, noted when it was recorded as a British species, mentioned interesting anatomical characteristics, described its habits in terms of gregariousness and water depth, and recorded where it could be found in Britain and Europe. Yarrell also ate many of the fish he described so that he could comment on their palatability. A typical example is Yarrell's first entry, for the perch. As well as the expected detailed anatomical and geographical information, in the five-page text he notes: + +In rivers, the Perch prefers the sides of the stream rather than the rapid parts of the current, and feeds indiscriminately upon insects, worms, and small fishes ... So remarkable is the Perch for its boldness and voracity, that in a few days ... Mr. Jesse tells us, they came freely and took worms from his fingers ... They are constantly exhibited in the markets of Catholic countries, and, if not sold, are taken back to the ponds from which they were removed in the morning, to be reproduced another day. The flesh of this fish is firm, white, of good flavour, and easy of digestion ... The Perch, though very common, is one of the most beautiful of our fresh-water fishes, and, when in good condition, its colours are brilliant and striking ... + +== Production and publication == + +Yarrell's illustrations were wood engravings made using the techniques pioneered by Bewick in which boxwood blocks were engraved on their ends using a burin, a tool with a V‑shaped tip. The new illustrations for the fish book were drawn onto the blocks by Alexander Fussell and cut by John Thompson, both of whom also worked on the later bird book. The most expensive part of producing illustrated books in the nineteenth century was the hand colouring of printed plates, mainly by young women. By using monochrome illustrations Yarrell could avoid this outlay and the associated costs of having the illustrations separate from the text and printed on a different grade of paper. The quality of the illustrations in Yarrell's books was very high, because he could afford to employ Thompson and his sons. Thompson senior was later to win a médaille d'or at the 1855 Paris Exhibition. +William Swainson suggested to Yarrell that he should produce separate offprints of the illustrations and have them coloured for separate sale as a profitable additional venture, but Yarrell refused. There were practical problems in that the wood engraving blocks were set in the same formes as the letterpress for the text, and, if separated, the extra printing demand would wear out the wooden blocks, especially without the protection of the surrounding raised metal type. Yarrell also objected on principle to the prints being sold separately. The book was originally published in 19 fascicules (parts), each priced at 2/6d (12.5p). The last part contained an index. +The publisher of Yarrell's books was John Van Voorst, whose business was in Paternoster Row, a street central to the London publishing trade. He began to specialise in natural history publications and was appointed official bookseller to the London Zoological Society in 1837. Van Voorst often visited Yarrell's house, and joined him to shoot and fish on estates and streams around London. He was a Fellow of the Linnean Society and a founding fellow of the Royal Microscopical Society, established in 1839. + +=== Editions === +Three editions and three supplements were published by Van Voorst. + +1835–36 Two volumes originally published in 19 parts. 226 species described and figured, and 140 vignettes. Volume 1, 408 pp., volume 2, 472 pp. +1839 Supplement, 27 new species. Volume 1, 48 pp., volume 2, 78 pp. +1841 Second edition, two volumes containing 263 species and 500 figures. Volume 1, 464 pp., volume 2, 628 pp. +1859 Posthumous third edition, two volumes, edited by explorer and naturalist Sir John Richardson. In this edition, the text was preceded by a "Memoir of William Yarrell" and a list of his publications. Volume 1, 679 pp., volume 2, 673 pp. +1860 Second supplement to first edition, edited by Sir John Richardson, also being the first supplement to the second edition, 71 pp. + +=== Other publications === +Yarrell's many other ichthyological works included an 1839 three-page, 30.5 by 44 cm (12.0 by 17.3 in) oblong folio, On the Growth of the Salmon in Fresh Water, with drawings in the text and six life-sized coloured illustrations of the fish, chapter 8, "Marine Fishes", in William Henry Harvey's 1854 The Sea-Side Book, and an article on Eurasian dace in the Transactions of the Linnean Society of London. + +== Reception == + +Publications writing contemporary positive reviews of A History of British Fishes included The Athenaeum, The Gentleman's Magazine, Leigh Hunt's London Journal, the London Medical Gazette and The Quarterly Review. +The Gentleman's Magazine said \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_British_Fishes-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_British_Fishes-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6437f6d69 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_British_Fishes-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,48 @@ +--- +title: "A History of British Fishes" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_British_Fishes" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:42.048901+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +... the task could not have been undertaken by one more competent for it. History and patient observations are enriched by a science of no ordinary kind ... We have little hesitation, therefore, in saying that the work before us is, perhaps, the most perfect of its kind which has been yet published. It is +written in a style at once clear and satisfactory, and the illustrations are quite equal, if not superior, to those of Bewick's birds and quadrupeds. Indeed, we hardly thought it possible that fish could be so perfectly represented by engravings on wood ... +The Quarterly Review saw the book as of wider importance. Near the end of a 35-page review, it states + +This book ought to be largely circulated, not only on account of its scientific merits – though these, as we have in part shown, are great and signal – but because it is popularly written throughout, and therefore likely to excite general attention to a subject which ought to be held as one of primary importance by all those gentlemen of education and property who happen to be more immediately connected with some of the most extensive, and which might be among the most useful and important, districts of this empire. +The passage continues with the promotion of sea fish as a means to relieve famine. +There was a generally appreciative reception from Yarrell's fellow naturalists. Prideaux John Selby, an ornithologist and natural history artist, wrote to Jardine after receiving the first part to say how impressed he was with the beautifully executed woodcuts and the quality of the printing, and later, when he had the complete set, said to the same recipient that it was a "very beautiful work", although a few of the fish could have been better illustrated. Jardine himself published an enthusiastic review in his Magazine of Botany and Zoology. +A History of British Fishes and the later A History of British Birds were both immediately commercially successful and became standard texts until the end of the nineteenth century. Van Voorst believed that Yarrell made around £4000 from the two books. +Yarrell's name is commemorated in eight species, three of which are fish. These are Yarrell's blenny (Chirolophis ascanii), from the European North Atlantic coasts; the giant devil catfish, Bagarius yarrelli, from the rivers of the Indian subcontinent; and Laemonema yarrellii, a deep sea morid cod from Madeira and the Great Meteor Seamount of the North Atlantic. The lightfish genus Yarrella is also named for him. + +== Notes == + +== References == + +== Cited texts == +Jackson, Christine E (2022). A Newsworthy Naturalist: The Life of William Yarrell. Oxford: John Beaufoy. ISBN 978-1913679-04-0. +McGhie, Henry A (2017). Henry Dresser and Victorian Ornithology: Birds, Books and Business. Manchester: Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-1-78499-413-6. +Peck, Robert McCracken (2021). The Natural History of Edward Lear. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-21723-9. +Richter, Emil Heinrich (1914). Prints : a brief review of their technique and history. Boston: Houghton. +Uglow, Jenny (2006). Nature's Engraver: A Life of Thomas Bewick. Croydon: Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-22375-6. +Yarrell, William (1836). A History of British Fishes. Vol. 1 (First ed.). London: Van Voorst. + +== Further reading == + +=== A History of British Fishes === +First edition, 1835–36, volume 2. +Supplement, 1839. +Second edition, 1841, two volumes. +Supplement to second edition, 1845. +Third edition, 1859, volume 1, volume 2 +Second supplement to 1st edition, 1860. + +=== Other === + +Couch, Jonathan (1867). A History of the Fishes of the British Islands. London: Groombridge. Four volumes. +Harvey, William Henry (1854). The Sea-Side Book ; Being an Introduction to the Natural History of the British Coasts. London: Van Voorst. pp. 237–269. +Yarrell, William (1837). "Descriptions of Three British Species of Freshwater Fishes, belonging to the genus Leuciscus of Klein". Transactions of the Linnean Society of London. 17: 5–10. +Yarrell, William (1839). On the Growth of the Salmon in Freshwater. London: Van Voorst. pp. 1–3. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_the_Birds_of_Europe-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_the_Birds_of_Europe-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5851ee4bb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_the_Birds_of_Europe-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "A History of the Birds of Europe" +chunk: 1/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_the_Birds_of_Europe" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:43.204827+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A History of the Birds of Europe, Including all the Species Inhabiting the Western Palearctic Region is a nine-volume ornithological book published in parts between 1871 and 1896. It was mainly written by Henry Eeles Dresser, although Richard Bowdler Sharpe co-authored the earlier volumes. It describes all the bird species reliably recorded in the wild in Europe and adjacent geographical areas with similar fauna, giving their worldwide distribution, variations in appearance and migratory movements. +The pioneering ornithological work of John Ray and Francis Willughby in the seventeenth century had introduced an effective classification system based on anatomical features, and a dichotomous key to help readers identify birds. This was followed by other English-language ornithologies, notably John Gould's five-volume Birds of Europe published between 1832 and 1837. Sharpe, then librarian of the Zoological Society of London, had worked closely with Gould and wanted to expand on his work by including all species reliably recorded in Europe, North Africa, parts of the Middle East and the Atlantic archipelagos of Madeira, the Canary Islands and the Azores. He lacked the resources to undertake this task on his own, so he proposed to Dresser that they work together on this encyclopaedia, using Dresser's extensive collection of birds and their eggs and network of contacts. +The Birds of Europe was published as 84 quarto parts, each typically containing 56 pages of text and eight plates of illustrations, the latter mainly by the Dutch artist John Gerrard Keulemans, and bound into volumes when all the parts were published. 339 copies were made, at a cost to each subscriber of £52 10s. Sharpe did not contribute after part 13, and was not listed as an author after part 17. Birds of Europe was well received by its contemporary reviewers, although a commentator in 2018 considered that Dresser's outdated views and the cost of his books meant that in the long run his works had limited influence. The Birds of Europe continued a tradition dating from the seventeenth century whereby the study and classification of specimens operated largely independently of those field observers who studied behaviour and ecology, a rift that continued until the 1920s, when the German naturalist Erwin Stresemann integrated the two strands as part of modern zoology. + +== Background == + +Early ornithologies, such as those of Conrad Gessner, Ulisse Aldrovandi and Pierre Belon, relied for much of their content on the authority of Aristotle and the teachings of the church, and included much extraneous material relating to the species, such as proverbs, references in history and literature, or its use as an emblem. The arrangement of the species was by alphabetical order in Gessner's Historia animalium, and by arbitrary criteria in most other early works. In the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, Francis Bacon had advocated the advancement of knowledge through observation and experiment, and the English Royal Society and its members such as John Ray, John Wilkins and Francis Willughby sought to put the empirical method into practice, including travelling widely to collect specimens and information. +The first modern ornithology, intended to describe all the then-known birds worldwide, was produced by Ray and Willughby and published in Latin as Ornithologiae Libri Tres (Three Books of Ornithology) in 1676, and in English, as The Ornithology of Francis Willughby of Middleton, in 1678. Its innovative features were an effective classification system based on anatomical features, including the bird's beak, feet and overall size, and a dichotomous key, which helped readers to identify birds by guiding them to the page describing that group. The authors also placed an asterisk against species of which they had no first-hand knowledge, and were therefore unable to verify. The commercial success of the Ornithology is unknown, but it was historically significant, influencing writers including René Réamur, Mathurin Jacques Brisson, Georges Cuvier and Carl Linnaeus in compiling their own works. +During the early nineteenth century, a number of ornithologies were written in English, including John Gould's five-volume Birds of Europe, which was published between 1832 and 1837. Richard Bowdler Sharpe, then librarian of the Zoological Society of London, had worked closely with Gould and completed some of his books that were still unfinished when he died. He wished to build on Gould's work to include all species reliably recorded in the wild in Europe, expand the geographical range to include North Africa, parts of the Middle East and the Atlantic archipelagos of Madeira, the Canary Islands and the Azores (this extended area constitutes the Western Palaearctic realm) and to describe the worldwide distribution, variation and movements of each of the species. He lacked the resources to undertake this task on his own, so he proposed to businessman and amateur ornithologist Henry Eeles Dresser that they work together on this great encyclopaedia. Dresser had an extensive collection of European birds and their eggs, and a network of contacts who would allow him to acquire or borrow new specimens. He also had the linguistic skills to translate texts from several European languages. + +== Dresser and bird collecting == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_the_Birds_of_Europe-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_the_Birds_of_Europe-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9fc920692 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_the_Birds_of_Europe-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "A History of the Birds of Europe" +chunk: 2/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_the_Birds_of_Europe" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:43.204827+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In an age before modern cameras and binoculars, nineteenth century ornithology was dominated by the collection of eggs taken from the nest and birds obtained through shooting. The corpses were skinned, preserved with arsenical soap, and sometimes stuffed for display. Ornithologists acquired birds and eggs through their own shooting and collecting activities, by purchases from bird markets, auctions and commercial dealers, and through exchanges with other collectors. +Henry Dresser's father, also named Henry, was a successful timber merchant, and sent his son to a school in Ahrensburg near Hamburg to learn German, and another in Gefle (now Gävle) to study Swedish. Henry junior also acquired fluency in Danish, Finnish, French and Norwegian. Between 1856 and 1862, the younger Dresser's work sent him to Finland on three occasions and to New Brunswick twice, giving him the opportunity to add birds and eggs from these regions to his collection. On his second trip to Finland he became the first person to find a nest and eggs of the waxwing, which helped to establish his reputation as a serious ornithologist. +In 1863 and 1864, during the American Civil War, Dresser travelled to North America, setting up shop in the Mexican border town of Matamoros, Tamaulipas, to sell goods that had evaded the Union blockade to the Confederacy. He made the most of the opportunity to add to his bird collection while there, as he did later when he relocated to San Antonio, Texas, where he met the prominent American ornithologist Adolphus Lewis Heermann. +Dresser's contacts for acquiring and exchanging specimens included Robert Swinhoe in China, who had 4,000 skins of 600 species, Thomas Blakiston in Japan, Allan Octavian Hume in India, whose 80,000 skins and 20,000 eggs were the world's largest private collection at the time, and William Blandford, a naturalist and geologist working in Persia and Central Asia. He also collaborated with prominent Russians including Nikolay Przhevalsky, Nikolai Severtzov and Sergei Buturlin. African specimens came from a variety of sources, including colonial administrators and the collections of the Germans Wilhelm Friedrich Hemprich and Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg. Alfred Newton gave his friend Dresser access to a collection of birds from Lapland. By 1868, Dresser owned 1,200 skins and several thousand eggs. His final collection, including about 10,000 skins, is now kept at Manchester Museum, and includes the only known egg of the now-extinct slender-billed curlew. + +== Production == + +The Birds of Europe was published as 84 quarto parts between 1871 and 1896. Each part on average contained 56 pages of text and eight plates of illustrations, and took about seven weeks to produce. This meant that for the 11-year duration of the project, Dresser was writing around a page of text a day on top of his commercial employment, and the main illustrator, John Gerrard Keulemans, was drawing a plate every six days. The publication was financed by subscription, and a year's set of 12 issues cost £6 6s; It was promoted by a prospectus containing sample articles that was sent to potential buyers using the authors' contacts in the scientific societies, including the Zoological Society of London and the British Ornithologists' Union (BOU). By the end of the first year, there were 237 subscribers, including King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy, Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (by then also Duke of Edinburgh), and the Sikh Maharaja Duleep Singh. +The text and illustrations for the main text and supplement were self-published and printed by Taylor & Francis of Fleet Street, London. The twelve parts issued each year were bound into temporary volumes, and when all the parts were finally published they were permanently bound into seven volumes using Morocco leather with gold tooling. Parts 83 and 84, containing an introduction, index, references and list of subscribers, were bound as a slim Volume 1, and the 1895–1896 supplement to the main text eventually became a ninth volume. +The complete set's final cost was £52 10s, equivalent to about £6,100 at 2025 values. Of the 339 copies, 69 were bought by naturalists, 31 by aristocrats, 229 by other private individuals, 67 by dealers and the rest by museums and other institutions. Overseas subscribers accounted for 61 of the purchased sets. Dresser gave 20 further sets, printed on thinner paper and without the plates of illustrations, to those who had contributed information. + +=== Text === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_the_Birds_of_Europe-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_the_Birds_of_Europe-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4cf85a7e6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_the_Birds_of_Europe-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "A History of the Birds of Europe" +chunk: 3/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_the_Birds_of_Europe" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:43.204827+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Each part of the book contained birds from different families to prevent subscribers attempting to collect only a particularly popular group, such as birds of prey or ducks, the different families coming together only when the articles and plates were reorganised in the final binding. The first part released therefore included birds as diverse as the Eurasian teal, red-footed falcon, marsh sandpiper and woodchat shrike. Articles for each species included alternative binomial names, a detailed description of both sexes and the juveniles, the bird's range, habitat and habits, and the specimens that had been examined during preparation of the text. +The taxonomy used by Dresser was based on a scheme created by Thomas Henry Huxley and developed by Philip Sclater which used a hierarchical classification using orders and families rather than the arbitrary division into bird groups used by earlier writers. His book started with the passerines, rather than the traditional birds of prey. +When choosing binomial names for his species, Dresser kept strictly to chronological priority. Since the first mention might be in an obscure or foreign language journal, this led to changes in the established Latin names of some species, "causing great consternation among his colleagues". The situation was made worse in that many early descriptions were so vague it was impossible to be sure of the species. Dresser introduced five new names. Parus grisescens (Siberian tit), Calandrella baetica (Mediterranean short-toed lark), Serinus canonicus (Syrian serin) and Anthus seebohmi (Pechora pipit) are now considered to be junior synonyms for the species, and Otocorys brandti is now Eremophila alpestris brandti, a subspecies of the horned lark. +Dresser and Sharpe initially co-authored the articles, both struggling to keep up to schedule since they were also working full-time. Sharpe resigned as librarian of the Zoological Society late in 1871 to give himself more opportunity to write, but then accepted a post as bird curator at the British Museum in May 1872. His contract meant he was not allowed to have a personal collection, so he sold his skins of African birds to the Museum. Relations between the two authors soon became strained, Sharpe considering that his colleague was too interested in the commercial aspects of the project, rather than the science, and their partnership was dissolved in December 1872. Sharpe did not contribute after part 13, and was not listed as an author after part 17. +A supplement to the Birds of Europe was published in nine parts in 1895 and 1896, giving a final count of more than 5,100 pages and 723 plates. The Supplement covered 114 further species, including 14 discovered since the earlier publication, 22 rare vagrants to Europe and 26 that had been elevated to full species status in the interim. Dresser had also extended the area covered beyond Europe and the Middle East to include neighbouring Persia and western Central Asia, which added many birds from that region. + +=== Illustrations === + +The principal illustrator was the Dutch artist John Gerrard Keulemans, who had previously illustrated Sharpe's study of kingfishers, A Monograph of the Alcdinidae. Keulemans mostly worked from skins rather than life, but attempted to depict the birds realistically. Artists normally painted a picture and then copied it onto a fine limestone slab using a special waxy crayon. The slab was then wetted before adding an oil-based ink, which would be held only by the greasy crayon lines, and copies were printed from the slab. This process was known as lithography. +To reduce costs, Keulemans drew directly on to the limestone instead of first making a painting. Although this was more technically difficult, drawing directly could give a livelier feel to the final illustration, and was also favoured by other contemporary bird artists such as Edward Lear. The printed plates were hand-coloured, mainly by young women. +Keulemans was also working on other projects, so Dresser had to commission Edward Neale and Joseph Wolf to draw 28 and 15 plates respectively. Each of the 339 copies produced contained 633 plates, so nearly 215,000 plates were individually coloured. In addition to the colour plates, there were also monochrome engravings to illustrate interesting features, one example being a drawing of a skull of a Tengmalm's owl to show its asymmetry. + +== Reception == + +When he came to review Birds of Europe in 1872, Dresser's old friend Alfred Russel Wallace recommended the work both to general readers and to amateurs, using the latter word in its original sense as a lover of the subject. In another review in 1875, he said "this beautiful and important work ... The energy with which the author has laboured to ensure punctuality in the issue is beyond all praise; and now that about half the work is completed, and we find that the last twelve parts, with figures of nearly 120 species of birds, have appeared within the year, subscribers have every assurance that they will, in due course, possess a finished work." +An outspoken critic of the book was Dresser's former friend, the ornithologist Henry Seebohm, who criticised the errors in the text and the conservatism of the authors, including their failure to use trinomial nomenclature. Seebohm was a much more committed supporter of evolutionary theory than Dresser, and believed every local variation of a species should have its own scientific name to demonstrate relationships. His comments on Dresser and Sharpe include: + +... the writer of the extraordinary article in question was absolutely ignorant of everything connected with the Greenshank except the information which a series of skins might afford ... Articles of this kind are very amusing, but they must sorely puzzle the young student – though in most cases his bird-stuffer, even if he be only a country barber, will be quite capable of correcting such childish blunders. and \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_the_Birds_of_Europe-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_the_Birds_of_Europe-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..256098dd8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_the_Birds_of_Europe-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "A History of the Birds of Europe" +chunk: 4/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_the_Birds_of_Europe" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:43.204827+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +... as acts of ignorance and folly on the part of two juvenile ornithologists who had nothing new to say on the birds of which they wrote, and consequently made a desperate effort to achieve notoriety by introducing novelties into nomenclature ... I think we all owe a debt of gratitude to these two gentlemen who thus heroically sacrificed their reputation for common sense and sound judgment for the good of the science they loved. +Overall, Birds of Europe was very well received by its contemporary reviewers, as was the Supplement when it was published. When Dresser died in 1915 aged 77 his obituary in Ibis, an avian science journal, after summarising his life and his major role in scientific societies, went on to say his "most important work is undoubtedly the well-known 'History of the Birds of Europe' ... the whole forms a monument of the industry and accuracy of the author." His obituarist, though, added a caveat that "his views on the limits of specific variation and nomenclature would not perhaps commend themselves to present-day workers." + +== Legacy == + +The Birds of Europe continued a tradition dating from Ray's time whereby the study and classification of specimens operated largely independently of those observers who studied behaviour and ecology. The rift between the "museum men" and field ornithologists continued until the 1920s, when the German naturalist Erwin Stresemann integrated the two traditions as part of modern zoology. +The ornithologist Alan Knox commented in 2018 that Dresser's outdated classification scheme and the cost of his books meant that, in the long run, his works were less influential than William Yarrell's 1843 A History of British Birds. Eventually Dresser's "old guard" views fell out of favour, particularly after World War I, although his book still attracts the interest of collectors, with first-edition full sets being offered in late 2019 for $27,500 in the US and £19,642 in the UK. +Although Sharpe's contribution to the Birds of Europe was limited, his involvement facilitated his move to the British Museum and his main work was in classifying and cataloguing the bird collections. He also used his contacts to acquire the egg and skin collections of wealthy collectors and travellers for his museum. When he was appointed in 1872 the museum had 35,000 bird specimens, but had grown to half a million items by the time of his death. + +== Related works == + +Throughout his adult life Dresser regularly wrote articles for journals, most frequently The Zoologist and Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, although the History of the Birds of Europe was his first book. He wrote several other ornithological works, namely A Monograph of the Meropidae, or Family of the Bee-eaters (1884–1886), A Monograph of the Coraciidae, or Family of the Rollers (1893), the two-volume A Manual of Palaearctic Birds (1902–1903) and the two-volume Eggs of the Birds of Europe (1910), which was issued in 24 parts beginning in 1905. +He had started on the bee-eater monograph in 1882, using his own collection of 200 skins of these birds as one of his sources, and by 1883 he was also working on the rollers, adding Birds of Europe to his workload in the following year. The 1881 A List of European Birds, including all species found in the western palaearctic region was based on the History of the Birds of Europe, and may have been a response to criticism from Sclater that the earlier publication was too large. +The Manual of Palaearctic Birds was largely traditional in its taxonomy, as with its predecessor, but in his treatment of dippers he showed a partial acceptance that subspecies could share a common ancestor, as proposed by Charles Darwin in The Origin of Species. In The Eggs of the Birds of Europe, Dresser used a then-new photographic technique, the three-colour process, to illustrate the subtleties of bird egg markings with colour photographs rather than paintings. + +== Notes == + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_the_Birds_of_Europe-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_the_Birds_of_Europe-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9c2469957 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_the_Birds_of_Europe-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "A History of the Birds of Europe" +chunk: 5/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_History_of_the_Birds_of_Europe" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:43.204827+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Cited texts === +Birkhead, Tim (2011). The Wisdom of Birds: An Illustrated History of Ornithology. London: Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-0-7475-9822-0. +Birkhead, Tim (2018). The Wonderful Mr Willughby: The First True Ornithologist. London: Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-1-4088-7848-4. +Birkhead, Tim; Smith, Paul J.; Doherty, Meghan; Charmantier, Isabelle (2016). "Willughby's Ornithology". In Birkhead, Tim (ed.). Virtuoso by Nature: The Scientific Worlds of Francis Willughby FRS (1635–1672). Leiden: Brill. pp. 268–304. ISBN 978-90-04-28531-6. +Charmantier, Isabelle; Johnston, Dorothy; Smith, Paul J (2016). "The legacies of Francis Willughby". In Birkhead, Tim (ed.). Virtuoso by Nature: The Scientific Worlds of Francis Willughby FRS (1635–1672). Leiden: Brill. pp. 360–385. ISBN 978-90-04-28531-6. +Dresser, Henry Eeles (1871–1896). A History of the Birds of Europe : including all the Species inhabiting the Western Palaearctic region. Vol. 1. London: self-published. OCLC 861242766. +Johanson, Zerina; Barrett, Paul M; Richter, Martha; Smith, Mike (2016). Arthur Smith Woodward: His Life and Influence on Modern Vertebrate Palaeontology. Geological Society of London, Special Publications. Vol. 430. London: Geological Society of London. ISBN 978-1-86239-741-5. +Kusukawa, Sachiko (2016). "Historia Piscium (1686) and its sources". In Birkhead, Tim (ed.). Virtuoso by Nature: The Scientific Worlds of Francis Willughby FRS (1635–1672). Leiden: Brill. pp. 305–334. ISBN 978-90-04-28531-6. +McGhie, Henry A. (2011). "Dresser, H.E. (1871–"1881" = 1871–1882). [Initially Sharpe, R.B. & H.E. Dresser.] A History of the Birds of Europe, including all the species inhabiting the Western Palæarctic Region". In Dickinson, E.C.; Overstreet, L.K.; Dowsett, R.J.; Bruce, M.D. (eds.). Priority! The Dating of Scientific Names in Ornithology: a Directory to the literature and its reviewers. Northampton, UK: Aves Press. pp. 88–89. ISBN 978-0-9568611-1-5. +McGhie, Henry A. (2017). Henry Dresser and Victorian Ornithology: Birds, Books and Business. Manchester: Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-1-78499-413-6. +Ohl, Michael (2018). The Art of Naming. Translated by Lauffer, Elisabeth. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-53703-2. +Seebohm, Henry (1885). A History of British Birds, with Coloured Illustrations of their Eggs. Vol. 3. London: self-published. +Uglow, Jenny (2017). Mr Lear: A Life of Art and Nonsense. London: Faber & Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-26954-9. +van Grouw, Katrina (2017). The Unfeathered Bird. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-15134-2. + +== Selected bibliography == +Dresser, Henry Eeles (1871–1896). A History of the Birds of Europe : including all the Species inhabiting the Western Palaearctic region. London: self-published. volume 1; volume 2; volume 3 volume 4; volume 5; volume 6; volume 7; volume 8; volume 9 +Dresser, Henry Eeles (1884–1886). A Monograph of the Meropidae, or Family of the Bee-eaters. London: self-published. +Dresser, Henry Eeles (1891). A list of European birds, including all species found in the western palaearctic region. London: self-published. +Dresser, Henry Eeles (1893). A Monograph of the Coraciidae, or Family of the Rollers. Kent, England: self-published. +Dresser, Henry Eeles (1902–1903). A Manual of Palaearctic Birds. Vol. 1–2. London: self-published. Volume 1, Volume 2 +Dresser, Henry Eeles (1910). Eggs of the Birds of Europe, Including All the Species Inhabiting the Western Palaearctic Region. Vol. 1–2. London: self-published. volume 1 (text), volume 2 (plates and their keys) (issued in 24 parts beginning in 1905) +Gessner, Conrad (1551). Historia Animalium Libri (in Latin). Vol. 1. Zurich: C. Froschauer. +Gould, John (1832). Birds of Europe. Vol. 1. London: self-published. +Willughby, Francis; Ray, John (1676). Ornithologiae Libri Tres (in Latin). London: John Martyn. +Willughby, Francis; Ray, John (1678). The Ornithology of Francis Willughby of Middleton in the County of Warwick. London: John Martyn. +Yarrell, William (1843). A History of British Birds. London: John Van Voorst. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Mind_of_Its_Own b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Mind_of_Its_Own new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e69de29bb diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Treatise_on_Electricity_and_Magnetism-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Treatise_on_Electricity_and_Magnetism-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..13c7effa5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Treatise_on_Electricity_and_Magnetism-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,94 @@ +--- +title: "A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Treatise_on_Electricity_and_Magnetism" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:20.339919+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism is a two-volume treatise on electromagnetism written by James Clerk Maxwell in 1873. Maxwell was revising the Treatise for a second edition when he died in 1879. The revision was completed by William Davidson Niven for publication in 1881. A third edition was prepared by J. J. Thomson for publication in 1892. +The treatise is said to be notoriously hard to read, containing plenty of ideas but lacking both the clear focus and orderliness that may have allowed it catch on more easily. It was noted by one historian of science that Maxwell's attempt at a comprehensive treatise on all of electrical science tended to bury the important results of his work under "long accounts of miscellaneous phenomena discussed from several points of view". He goes on to say that, outside the treatment of the Faraday effect, Maxwell failed to expound on his earlier work, especially the generation of electromagnetic waves and the derivation of the laws governing reflection and refraction. +Maxwell introduced the use of vector fields, and his labels have been perpetuated: + +A (vector potential), B (magnetic induction), C (electric current), D (displacement), E (electric field – Maxwell's electromotive intensity), F (mechanical force), H (magnetic field – Maxwell's magnetic force). +Maxwell's work is considered an exemplar of rhetoric of science: + +Lagrange's equations appear in the Treatise as the culmination of a long series of rhetorical moves, including (among others) Green's theorem, Gauss's potential theory and Faraday's lines of force – all of which have prepared the reader for the Lagrangian vision of a natural world that is whole and connected: a veritable sea change from Newton's vision. + +== Contents == + +Preliminary. On the Measurement of Quantities. +Part I. Electrostatics. + +Description of Phenomena. +Elementary Mathematical Theory of Electricity. +On Electrical Work and Energy in a System of Conductors. +General Theorems. +Mechanical Action Between Two Electrical Systems. +Points and Lines of Equilibrium. +Forms of Equipotential Surfaces and Lines of Flow. +Simple Cases of Electrification. +Spherical Harmonics. +Confocal Surfaces of the Second Degree. +Theory of Electric Images. +Conjugate Functions in Two Dimensions. +Electrostatic Instruments. +Part II. Electrokinematics. + +The Electric Current. +Conduction and Resistance. +Electromotive Force Between Bodies in Contact. +Electrolysis. +Electrolytic Polarization. +Mathematical Theory of the Distribution of Electric Currents. +Conduction in Three Dimensions. +Resistance and Conductivity in Three Dimensions. +Conduction through Heterogeneous Media. +Conduction in Dielectrics. +Measurement of the Electric Resistance of Conductors. +Electric Resistance of Substances. +Part III. Magnetism + +Elementary Theory of Magnetism. +Magnetic Force and Magnetic Induction. +Particular Forms of Magnets. +Induced Magnetization. +Magnetic Problems. +Weber's Theory of Magnetic Induction. +Magnetic Measurements. +Terrestrial Magnetism. +Part IV. Electromagnetism. + +Electromagnetic Force. +Mutual Action of Electric Currents. +Induction of Electric Currents. +Induction of a Current on Itself. +General Equations of Dynamics. +Application of Dynamics to Electromagnetism. +Electrokinetics. +Exploration of the Field by means of the Secondary Circuit. +General Equations. +Dimensions of Electric Units. +Energy and Stress. +Current-Sheets. +Parallel Currents. +Circular Currents. +Electromagnetic Instruments. +Electromagnetic Observations. +Electrical Measurement of Coefficients of Induction. +Determination of Resistance in Electromagnetic Measure. +Comparison of Electrostatic With Electromagnetic Units. +Electromagnetic Theory of Light. +Magnetic Action on Light. +Electric Theory of Magnetism. +Theories of Action at a distance. + +== Reception == + +=== Reviews === +On April 24, 1873, Nature announced the publication with an extensive description and much praise. When the second edition was published in 1881, George Chrystal wrote the review for Nature. +Pierre Duhem published a critical essay outlining mistakes he found in Maxwell's Treatise. Duhem's book was reviewed in Nature. + +=== Comments === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Treatise_on_Electricity_and_Magnetism-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Treatise_on_Electricity_and_Magnetism-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bc0a0b34e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Treatise_on_Electricity_and_Magnetism-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Treatise_on_Electricity_and_Magnetism" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:20.339919+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Hermann von Helmholtz (1881): "Now that the mathematical interpretations of Faraday's conceptions regarding the nature of electric and magnetic force has been given by Clerk Maxwell, we see how great a degree of exactness and precision was really hidden behind Faraday's words...it is astonishing in the highest to see what a large number of general theories, the mechanical deduction of which requires the highest powers of mathematical analysis, he has found by a kind of intuition, with the security of instinct, without the help of a single mathematical formula." +Oliver Heaviside (1893):”What is Maxwell's theory? The first approximation is to say: There is Maxwell's book as he wrote it; there is his text, and there are his equations: together they make his theory. But when we come to examine it closely, we find that this answer is unsatisfactory. To begin with, it is sufficient to refer to papers by physicists, written say during the first twelve years following the first publication of Maxwell's treatise to see that there may be much difference of opinion as to what his theory is. It may be, and has been, differently interpreted by different men, which is a sign that is not set forth in a perfectly clear and unmistakable form. There are many obscurities and some inconsistencies. Speaking for myself, it was only by changing its form of presentation that I was able to see it clearly, and so as to avoid the inconsistencies. Now there is no finality in a growing science. It is, therefore, impossible to adhere strictly to Maxwell's theory as he gave it to the world, if only on account of its inconvenient form. +Alexander Macfarlane (1902): "This work has served as the starting point of many advances made in recent years. Maxwell is the scientific ancestor of Hertz, Hertz of Marconi and all other workers at wireless telegraphy. +Oliver Lodge (1907) "Then comes Maxwell, with his keen penetration and great grasp of thought, combined with mathematical subtlety and power of expression; he assimilates the facts, sympathizes with the philosophic but untutored modes of expression invented by Faraday, links the theorems of Green and Stokes and Thomson to the facts of Faraday, and from the union rears the young modern science of electricity..." +E. T. Whittaker (1910): "In this celebrated work is comprehended almost every branch of electric and magnetic theory, but the intention of the writer was to discuss the whole from a single point of view, namely, that of Faraday, so that little or no account was given of the hypotheses that had been propounded in the two preceding decades by the great German electricians...The doctrines peculiar to Maxwell ... were not introduced in the first volume, or in the first half of the second." +Albert Einstein (1931): "Before Maxwell people conceived of physical reality – in so far as it is supposed to represent events in nature – as material points, whose changes consist exclusively of motions, which are subject to total differential equations. After Maxwell they conceived physical reality as represented by continuous fields, not mechanically explicable, which are subject to partial differential equations. This change in the conception of reality is the most profound and fruitful one that has come to physics since Newton; but it has at the same time to be admitted that the program has by no means been completely carried out yet." +Richard P. Feynman (1964): "From a long view of the history of mankind—seen from, say, ten thousand years from now—there can be little doubt that the most significant event of the 19th century will be judged as Maxwell's discovery of the laws of electrodynamics. The American Civil War will pale into provincial insignificance in comparison with this important scientific event of the same decade." +L. Pearce Williams (1991): "In 1873, James Clerk Maxwell published a rambling and difficult two-volume Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism that was destined to change the orthodox picture of physical reality. This treatise did for electromagnetism what Newton's Principia had done for classical mechanics. It not only provided the mathematical tools for the investigation and representation of the whole of electromagnetic theory, but it altered the very framework of both theoretical and experimental physics. Although the process had been going on throughout the nineteenth century, it was this work that finally displaced action at a distance physics and substituted the physics of the field." +Mark P. Silverman (1998) "I studied the principles on my own – in this case with Maxwell's Treatise as both my inspiration and textbook. This is not an experience that I would necessarily recommend to others. For all his legendary gentleness, Maxwell is a demanding teacher, and his magnum opus is anything but coffee-table reading...At the same time, the experience was greatly rewarding in that I had come to understand, as I realized much later, aspects of electromagnetism that are rarely taught at any level today and that reflect the unique physical insight of their creator. +Andrew Warwick (2003): "In developing the mathematical theory of electricity and magnetism in the Treatise, Maxwell made a number of errors, and for students with only a tenuous grasp of the physical concepts of basic electromagnetic theory and the specific techniques to solve some problems, it was extremely difficult to discriminate between cases where Maxwell made an error and cases where they simply failed to follow the physical or mathematical reasoning." + +== See also == + +"On Physical Lines of Force" +"A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field" +Introduction to Electrodynamics +Classical Electrodynamics + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Treatise_on_Electricity_and_Magnetism-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Treatise_on_Electricity_and_Magnetism-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..929077961 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Treatise_on_Electricity_and_Magnetism-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Treatise_on_Electricity_and_Magnetism" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:20.339919+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Further reading == +Achard, F. (1 January 2005), Grattan-Guinness, I.; Cooke, Roger; Corry, Leo; Crépel, Pierre (eds.), "Chapter 44 - James Clerk Maxwell, A treatise on electricity and magnetism, first edition (1873)", Landmark Writings in Western Mathematics 1640-1940, Amsterdam: Elsevier Science, pp. 564–587, ISBN 978-0-444-50871-3, retrieved 12 October 2020{{citation}}: CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN (link) +Levin, M. L.; Miller, M. A. (30 November 1981). "Maxwell's "Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism"". Soviet Physics Uspekhi. 24 (11): 904. doi:10.1070/PU1981v024n11ABEH004793. ISSN 0038-5670. +Chrystal, G. (January 1882). "A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism An Elementary Treatise on Electricity". Nature. 25 (637): 237–240. Bibcode:1882Natur..25..237C. doi:10.1038/025237a0. ISSN 1476-4687. S2CID 41145395. + +== External links == + Media related to A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism at Wikimedia Commons + +Reprint from Dover Publications (ISBN 0-486-60636-8) +A Treatise on Electricity And Magnetism – Volume 1 – 1873 – Posner Memorial Collection – Carnegie Mellon University. +Volume 2 +A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism at Internet Archive +1st edition 1873 Volume 1, Volume 2 +2nd edition 1881 Volume 1, Volume 2 +3rd edition 1892 (ed. J. J. Thomson) Volume 1, Volume 2 +3rd edition 1892 (Dover reprint 1954) Volume 1, Volume 2 +Original Maxwell Equations – Maxwell's 20 Equations in 20 Unknowns – PDF \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/About_Time_(book)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/About_Time_(book)-0.md index 10973efb8..2f5e7e3cf 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/About_Time_(book)-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/About_Time_(book)-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/About_Time_(book)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:16:36.634694+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:03.150829+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_&_Omega_(book)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_&_Omega_(book)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8fba34010 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_&_Omega_(book)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,53 @@ +--- +title: "Alpha & Omega (book)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_&_Omega_(book)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:04.317508+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Alpha & Omega: The Search for the Beginning and End of the Universe is the second non-fiction book by Charles Seife, published by Viking, a division of Penguin Putnam, in 2003. + + +== Background == +It is a survey of historic and contemporary efforts at cosmology: to describe the universe, trace the universe back to its origins, including the Big Bang Theory, and to determine the universe's eventual end-state. The books title refers to the Alpha and Omega appellation for Christ, as found in the Book of Revelation. A paperback reprint was published in 2004, also from Penguin. + + +== Table of contents == +Preface +"The First Cosmology: The Golden Age of the Gods" +"The First Cosmological Revolution: The Copernican Theory" +"The Second Cosmological Revolution: Hubble and the Big Bang" +"The Third Revolution Begins: The Universe Amok" +"The Music of the Spheres: The Cosmic Microwave Background" +"The Dark Universe: What's the Matter with Matter?" +"Darker Still: The Enigma of Exotic Dark Matter" +"The Big Bang in Our Backyard: The Birth of Baryons" +"The Good Nus: The Exotic Neutrino" +"Supersymmetry: Fearlessly Framing the Laws of Matter" +"Seeing the Invisible: MACHOs, WIMPs, and Illuminating the Darkest Regions of the Universe" +"The Deepest Mystery in Physics: Λ, the Vacuum, and Inflation", Λ being the symbol for the Cosmological constant +"Wrinkles in Spacetime: Gravitational Waves and the Early Universe" +"Beyond the Third Revolution: Voyage to the Ends of Time" +"Appendix A: Tired Light Retired" +"Appendix B: Where Does Matter Come From?" +"Appendix C: Nobel Prizes in Physics—Past and Future" Seife predicts which scientists are likely to win a Nobel Prize for their work in cosmology. +"Appendix D: Some Experiments to Watch" +Glossary, Select Bibliography, Acknowledgements, Index + + +== Reception == +The New York Times praised the book, describing it as "A primer on the history and state of cosmology that is easy to read and understand… Seife's book shines." The Los Angeles Times described it as "provid(ing) a wonderfully clear and concise introduction to terms often too loosely bandied about, and to their interrelationships in the ongoing attempt of physicists to erect a unified theory of the universe." + + +== References == + +Alpha & Omega: The Search for the Beginning and End of the Universe, Charles Seife. Penguin Putnam, 2003. ISBN 978-0-670-03179-5 + + +== External links == +Charles Seife website with book summary +Alpha & Omega at Penguin USA website +Alpha & Omega review at Kirkus website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Elementary_Treatise_on_Electricity-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Elementary_Treatise_on_Electricity-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..435e74255 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Elementary_Treatise_on_Electricity-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "An Elementary Treatise on Electricity" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Elementary_Treatise_on_Electricity" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:30.214982+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +An Elementary Treatise on Electricity is a posthumously published treatise on electricity by James Clerk Maxwell that was edited by William Garnett. The book was published in 1881 by Oxford University Press two years after Maxwell died in 1879. The editor's note at the beginning of the book states that most of the book's content was written about five years prior to Maxwell's death, some of which was used in the lectures Maxwell gave on electricity to members of the Cavendish Laboratory. + +== Contents == +The book contains thirteen chapters, covering the following topics: + +Chapter I: [No overall heading; covers basic electrical experiments] +Chapter II: 'On the charges of electrified bodies' +Chapter III: 'On electrical work and energy' +Chapter IV: 'The electric field' +Chapter V: 'Faraday's law of lines of induction' +Chapter VI: 'Particular cases of electrification' +Chapter VII: 'Electrical images' +Chapter VIII: 'Capacity' +Chapter IX: 'Electric current' +Chapter X: 'Phenomena of an electric current which flows through heterogeneous media' +Chapter XI: 'Methods of maintaining an electric current' +Chapter XII: 'On the measurement of electric resistance' +Chapter XIII: 'On the electric resistance of substances' +The first eight chapters were complete at the time of Maxwell's death, as were parts of chapters nine and ten, though materials for these chapters were found to be disordered. The first four chapters are interspersed with descriptions of eighteen experiments illustrating phenomena described. Rather than publish the work in fragmentary form, Garnett and his collaborators decided to fill in the gaps in the Elementary Treatise by borrowing relevant sections from Maxwell's magnum opus, A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, first published in two volumes in 1873 and published in a revised version in the same year as the Elementary Treatise. Owing to the almost complete absence of text for chapters eleven through thirteen of the Elementary Treatise, those chapters are largely constructed from material from the larger work. + +The purpose of the book is stated in the fragmentary preface by Maxwell himself:The aim of the following treatise is different from that of my larger treatise on electricity and magnetism. In the larger treatise the reader is supposed to be familiar with the higher mathematical methods which are not used in this book, and his studies are so directed as to give him the power of dealing mathematically with the various phenomena of the science. In this smaller book I have endeavoured to present, in as compact a form as I can, those phenomena which appear to throw light on the theory of electricity, and to use them, each in its place, for the development of electrical ideas in the mind of the reader. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Elementary_Treatise_on_Electricity-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Elementary_Treatise_on_Electricity-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7b8cc651c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Elementary_Treatise_on_Electricity-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "An Elementary Treatise on Electricity" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Elementary_Treatise_on_Electricity" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:30.214982+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Maxwell, Faraday and the Elementary Treatise == +The book is not merely a re-statement of some parts of A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism. Maxwell notes thatIn the larger treatise I sometimes made use of methods which I do not think the best in themselves, but without which the student cannot follow the investigations of the founders of the Mathematical Theory of Electricity. I have since become more convinced of the superiority of methods akin to those of Faraday, and have therefore adopted them from the first.This is thought to refer to the use, in A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism of the potentials A and Ψ as fundamental. That Maxwell adopted "methods akin to those of Faraday" "from the first" in the Elementary Treatise gives it an important place in our understanding of what Maxwell might have done with the full mathematical treatment of the second edition of A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism. For this reason, and owing to the less technical presentation of the Elementary Treatise, the latter has been called "the final, unfinished expression of the understanding [Maxwell] achieved by studying and extending Faraday's work". +Maxwell's relationship with Michael Faraday's work was foundational: as a young man, embarking on his study of electricity, Maxwell decided "to read no mathematics on the subject till I had first read through Faraday's Experimental Researches." Both Maxwell and Faraday styled themselves 'natural philosopher' rather than the newly coined 'scientist' or 'physicist'. Ultimately, however, Maxwell's Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism offered what Maxwell called a 'translation' of Faraday's intuitive experimental approach into a fully mathematical treatment of electrical and magnetic phenomena, specifically Faraday's 'fields'. Maxwell's early death at the age of forty-eight interrupted his work on a revised second edition of the Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, as well as the Elementary Treatise. In the introduction to the Dover edition of the Elementary Treatise, Peter Pesic argues that the original editor Garnett saw the book as "an alternative to the first part" of the Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, but that Maxwell himself had understood the Elementary Treatise as an entirely different work:Maxwell's larger plan for Elementary Treatise was to use the most elementary mathematics possible not just to be 'easier,' but in order to emphasize how the physical had become the theory.This, according to Pesic, is an act of 'homage' to Faraday, and a response to the letter that Faraday had written to Maxwell in 1857, in which Faraday had written:When a mathematician engaged in physical actions and results has arrived at his conclusions, may they not be expressed in common language as fully, clearly, and definitely as in mathematical formulae? If so, would it not be a great boon to such as I to express them so?—translating them out of their hieroglyphics that we also might work upon them by experiment. +An important feature of the Elementary Treatise, therefore, is that it does not contain Maxwell's famous equations. In Chapter VI, article 93, Maxwell writes "we may proceed by mathematical methods" or we may employ "the humbler method of actually drawing tentative figures on paper and selecting that which appears least unlike the figure we require." He continues, "I have therefore drawn several diagrams of systems of equipotential surfaces and lines of force, so that the student may make himself familiar with the forms of the lines." These are contained on a series of full page plates bound at the back of the book. + +== Reception == +As so often with Maxwell's work, even popular presentations such as the Elementary Treatise contain subtle insights, and these were recognised by his immediate followers. Lewis Fry Richardson, for example, developed a trial and error method of solving two-dimensional flow nets, using a comment in Chapter VI:Maxwell in §92 of his Elementary Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism speaks of tentative methods of altering known solutions of the Laplacian equation by drawing diagrams on paper and selecting the least improbable. The object of the present thesis is to point out that this method can do far more than merely alter known results, and that it may be so far from tentative as to yield an accuracy of one per cent of the range.Owing to the book's discursive style and attempt to present complex ideas in straightforward language, it has long been studied for what it reveals about Maxwell's style of thought, in particular his use of analogies in physical explanation. Joseph Turner, for example, discussed the Elementary Treatise in his 1955 paper 'Maxwell on the Method of Physical Analogy'. More recently, Alisa Bukolic points out that in the Elementary Treatise "Maxwell distinguishes sharply between the relations between the phenomena and the phenomena themselves". This has important consequences for Maxwell's views on scientific explanation: "it is clear that Maxwell does not take his physical analogies and fictional models to be explanatory in the straightforward sense of providing a literal mechanistic or causal explanation". +In 2023, a copy of the book was returned to New Bedford Free Public Library in New Bedford, Massachusetts, more than 119 years overdue. + +== Publication history == +Maxwell, James Clerk (1881). Garnett, William (ed.). An Elementary Treatise on Electricity. Oxford, Clarendon Press. +Maxwell, James Clerk (1888). Garnett, William (ed.). An Elementary Treatise on Electricity (2nd ed.). Oxford, Clarendon Press. +Maxwell, James Clerk (1888). Garnett, William (ed.). An Elementary Treatise on Electricity, with an Introduction and Notes by Peter Pesic (2nd ed.). Dover Publications (published 2005). + +== References == + +== Further reading == +Maxwell, J. C. (1882-01-14). "An Elementary Treatise on Electricity". Science. os-3 (80): 14. doi:10.1126/science.os-3.80.14-d. ISSN 0036-8075. +Chrystal, G. (January 1882). "A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism An Elementary Treatise on Electricity". Nature. 25 (637): 237–240. Bibcode:1882Natur..25..237C. doi:10.1038/025237a0. ISSN 0028-0836. S2CID 41145395. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angewandte_Psychologie-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angewandte_Psychologie-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e4c03377e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angewandte_Psychologie-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Angewandte Psychologie" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angewandte_Psychologie" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:35.185758+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The book Angewandte Psychologie (English: Applied Psychology), by the Swiss-Austrian psychologist and philosopher Theodor Paul Erismann, was published in 1917 in Berlin and Leipzig. It discusses major topics concerning school, work, law and their connections to psychology. The book aims at giving a short overview of how psychology can be applied to important areas in life. Erismann uses many applicable tests and describes them in great detail, thus providing a practical guideline on how to use the findings of psychology in different fields. + + +== Context == +The book was published during the First World War. The war is not mentioned in the book and there are no references that could be linked to the war. Angewandte Psychologie happens to be a book for a layman person who is eager to learn something about the latest contributions of psychology to different areas in life. Erismann was greatly influenced by Wilhelm Wundt and his experimental approach to psychology. During Erismann's time, psychology was a fairly new topic itself. Psychology gained popularity through Wilhelm Wundt who is also called "the father of experimental psychology" and founded the first formal laboratory for psychological research at the University of Leipzig. Thus, Erismann adapted techniques and methods by Wundt to create and develop his own research. He therefore contributed important insights and findings to psychology. + + +== Content == +The book consists of 5 chapters. Those 5 chapters all discuss distinct topics and their connection to applied psychology. +1. Choice of work and the experimental-psychological testing of cognitive abilities (original title: "Berufswahl und die experimentell-psychologische Prüfung geistiger Fähigkeiten"): This chapter mainly describes why people choose their work and whether those choices fit to their personality. Erismann illustrates with a few examples people who were lucky to find something they love doing, but also considers people who work at jobs they do not like and they are not good at. In this chapter, a guideline is provided on how to find something one is good at through the help of "experimental-psychological testing". +2. The school and the experimental-psychological testing of children (original title: "Die Schule und die experimentell-psychologische Untersuchung der Kinder"): In the second chapter, Erismann explains why it is of pivotal importance to already test children while they are still in school in regard to their cognitive abilities. Through using intelligence tests like the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale introduced by Alfred Binet and Théodore Simon, teachers can help their pupils to understand at a fairly young age what skills they possess and where their interests lie. Erismann points out that it is important to establish institutes that are specialized in placing people in suitable jobs concerning their interests, skills, and abilities. Those institutes should use specific tests based on experimental-psychological testing. Thus, reminding us of career centres which can nowadays be found in almost every city. An example of such a career centre would be the German "Bundesagentur für Arbeit". +3. Psychology and the law (original title: "Die Psychologie und das Recht"): The "Psychology and the law" chapter summarizes the findings of forensic psychology and how this knowledge can be applied in court. Erismann furthermore describes false memories and that they are not happening seldom but on a regular basis. Therefore, judges need to be aware of this phenomenon. Back then psychologists already examined the reliability of eyewitnesses' testimonies through different tests, e.g. the "Association-Test" (original name: Assoziationstest). Nowadays, the reliability of eyewitness testimonies often is questioned by the public and the law; hence, a lot of research regarding reliability of eyewitnesses' testimonies is being conducted. In Erismann's book, the viewpoint that children are not as reliable as adult eyewitnesses and more suggestible to false cues is supported. However, nowadays it is found that adults can be as suggestible to false memories as children. Sometimes, children even seem to be more reliable eyewitnesses than adults. +4. Psychology and the science of language (original title: "Die Psychologie und die Sprachwissenschaften"): The fourth chapter is rather a short one and illustrates how language and psychology can be combined. Erismann bases his explanations about linguistics on the "Analogiegesetz" (English: "The Law of Analogies"). This law describes the development of words and how some words seem to be more similar to each other than other words. Based on this law, people tend to build analogies between words and place them in similar categories having similar accentuations, an equal number of letters, et cetera. Erismann further explains that the phenomena of misspeaking a word or saying two separate words as one are a result of the law of analogies. +5. The importance of suggestion and hypnosis regarding other fields of knowledge and the practical implications for life (original title: "Suggestion und Hypnose in ihrer Bedeutung für die andern Wissensgebiete und das praktische Leben"): The last chapter deals with the suggestibility of human beings and how this is related to hypnosis. Some people are more easily hypnotised than others. If one succeeded to hypnotise someone else, the hypnotised person might be suggestible. The hypnotist is able to change and shape opinions, experiences, and events of other people and let the hypnotised people believe that the implanted memories are their own. This can be a powerful and a dangerous tool. Erismann also explains that suggestibility and "implanting" beliefs into the mind of other people is not only happening through hypnosis but can also happen if a charismatic leader is able to influence the masses. Erismann's field of expertise includes crowd psychology. Crowd psychology describes phenomena like the Second World War, especially Adolf Hitler's speeches, as well as when Martin Luther King Jr. mobilised the masses to march peacefully against racism and hate. The first event is a negative example of how one single person can influence the masses, whereas the second event a positive example. + + +== Reception == +Theodor Erismann has been a rather popular psychologist during his life. He researched a lot on the topic of eyesight and blindness, especially with his colleague Ivo Kohler. Ivo Kohler himself wrote Erismann's memorial, which is published on the webpage of the University of Innsbruck where Erismann mainly worked during his academic career. His findings of the "Goggle Experiments" are still highly influential and relevant today. He published around a dozen books, which found great appreciation. Furthermore, Erismann was elected as the president of the Academic Society for Psychotherapy and Applied Psychology which thus underlines his great influence for psychology during his time. +Erismann was not only perceived as a psychologist, but also as a philosopher. As Kohler put it himself: +"Man würde aber Erismann unrecht tun, ihn nur als einen originellen Experimentator und Empiriker zu feiern, er war ein ebenso interessierter und leidenschaftlicher Philosoph." (Loose translation in English: "Rather to only celebrate Erismann as an original researcher and empiricist, it is important to be aware that he was also an interested and passionate philosopher"). + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_Spirits_(book)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_Spirits_(book)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0ebefa772 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_Spirits_(book)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,36 @@ +--- +title: "Animal Spirits (book)" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_Spirits_(book)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:36.346610+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Animal Spirits: How Human Psychology Drives the Economy, and Why It Matters for Global Capitalism (2009) is a book by economists George Akerlof and Robert Shiller written to promote the understanding of the role played by emotions in influencing economic decision making. According to the authors, economists have tended to de-emphasize the importance of emotional factors, as the effects of emotions are difficult to model and quantify. The book asserts that a variety of otherwise puzzling questions can be answered once one allows for the effect that emotional drives, or "animal spirits," have on economic factors. +Akerlof and Shiller began writing the book in 2003. While finishing the work after the 2008 financial crisis, the authors set themselves the additional aim of promoting a much more aggressive US government intervention to alleviate the crises than has been seen as of February 2009. They repeatedly stress the need for decisive action targeted at restoring credit flows, and that the overall stimulus from the government needs to be much larger than would otherwise be the case due to very low levels of confidence about short and medium term economic prospects. + +== Synopsis == +The Preface recalls economist John Maynard Keynes's use of the phrase "animal spirits". Keynes (1883-1946) used "animal spirits" to describe the psychological forces that partly explain why the economy does not behave in the manner predicted by classical economics. Developed from the 1700s, classical economics proposed economic actors to behave as unemotional rational beings. The authors assert that the Keynesian Revolution of the mid-20th century was flawed as Keynes-influenced economists progressively disregarded the importance of animal spirits to accommodate the views of economists who preferred the simpler classical or neo-classical system. +The preface goes on to describe how Keynes' ideas suggest the economy will function best with a moderately high level of government intervention, which they compare to a happy home where children thrive with parents that are neither too authoritarian (as in a Marxist economy) nor too permissive (as in a neoliberal economy). The authors state that recent research now supports the concept of animal spirits much more robustly than Keynes was able to, and they express the hope that fellow economists can be convinced of this, thus reducing the internecine disputes that prevent their discipline from providing the clear support that politicians need for the aggressive action required to fix the 2008–2009 economic crises. + +=== Part one === +The five key animal spirits are treated here, each assigned their own chapter. +Chapter 1 the authors discuss confidence, which they say is the most important animal spirit to know about if one wishes to understand the economy. +Chapter 2 is about the desire for fairness, an emotional drive that can cause people to make decisions that aren't in their economic best interests. +Chapter 3 discusses corruption and bad faith, and how growing awareness of these practices can contribute to a recession, in addition to the direct harm the practices cause themselves. +Chapter 4 presents evidence that, in contrast to monetarist theory, many people are at least partially under the money illusion, the tendency for people to ignore the effects of inflation. Workers for example will forgo a pay rise even when prices are rising, if they know that their firm is facing challenging conditions—but they are much less willing to accept a pay cut even when prices are falling. +Chapter 5 is about the importance of stories in determining behaviour. Such as the repeatedly told story that house prices will always rise, which caused many additional people to invest in housing following the dot com bust of 2000. + +=== Part two === +Here the authors discuss eight important questions about the economy, which they assert can only be satisfactorily answered by a theory that takes animal spirits into account. Each question has its own chapter. +Chapter 6 is about why recessions happen. The authors assert that the business cycle can be explained by rising confidence in the upswing eventually leading investors to make rash decisions and ultimately encouraging corruption, until eventually panic appears and confidence evaporates, triggering a recession. There is a discussion about feedback loops between animal spirits and real returns available, which help explain the intensity of both the up and down swing of the cycle. +Chapter 7 discusses why animal spirits make central banks a necessity, and there is a post script about how they can intervene to help with the current crises. +Chapter 8 tackles the reasons for unemployment, which the authors say is partly due to animal spirits such as concerns for fairness and the money illusion. +Chapter 9 is about why there is a trade off between unemployment and inflation. The authors show how effects of animal spirits refutes the monetarist theory that there is a natural rate of employment which it is not desirable to exceed. +Chapter 10 is about why people don't consider the future rationally in their decisions about savings. +Chapter 11 presents an explanation for why asset prices and investment flows are so volatile. +Chapter 12 discusses why real estate markets go through cycles, with periods of often rapid price increase interspaced by falls. +Chapter 13 suggests that animal spirits can be used to explain the persistence of poverty among ethnic minorities, describing how working class minorities have different stories about how the world works and their place in it, compared to working class white people. The authors argue that the effects of animal spirits make a strong case for affirmative action. +Chapter 14 is a conclusion where the authors state that the cumulative evidence they have presented in the preceding chapters overwhelmingly shows that the neo classical view of the economy, which allows little or no role for animal spirits, is unreliable. They state that an effective response to the current economic crises must take into account the effects of animal spirits. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_Spirits_(book)-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_Spirits_(book)-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..728fdacd9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_Spirits_(book)-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Animal Spirits (book)" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_Spirits_(book)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:36.346610+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Critical reception == +Reviewing the book for the Financial Times, Clive Crook write "it is a fine book at exactly the right time.... Animal Spirits carries its ambition lightly—but is ambitious nonetheless. Economists will see it as a kind of manifesto." Andrew Rosenblum from The New York Observer says "Animal Spirits is most compelling when the authors summon all the key behavioral patterns to explain vast, complex phenomena such as the Great Depression.... Animal Spirits...is aimed squarely at the general reader, and rightly so: Macroeconomics is now everybody's business—the banks are playing with our money." +An exception to the numerous glowing reviews the book received was a lengthy critique published in The New Republic by the Judge Richard Posner. The authors responded to Posner's criticisms in an article published a few weeks later in the same periodical. And, on the same day and in the same periodical, Posner replied to the authors' response. +Animal Spirits was shortlisted for the 2009 Financial Times and Goldman Sachs Business Book of the Year Award. +The book has been translated into more than 20 languages including German, Chinese, Dutch, Persian, Greek, Italian, Spanish, and French. + +== See also == +Behavioral economics +Keynesian economics +Growth Fetish +2008–2009 Keynesian resurgence +Emotion + +== References == + +== Further reading == +The Subprime Solution: How Today's Global Financial Crisis Happened, and What to Do about It by Robert J. Shiller (ISBN 978-0691139296) + +== External links == +Publisher's page for the book +Robert Shiller interview \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e69de29bb diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-0.md index 152d4f540..a8cd05458 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/11 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:32:35.649868+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:05.564785+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-1.md index 18658021a..c273fed13 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/11 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:32:35.649868+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:05.564785+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-10.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-10.md index 646b7f0d9..f8cae5d2d 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-10.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-10.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 11/11 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:32:35.649868+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:05.564785+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-2.md index 5534d2c38..e6af67b95 100644 --- 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20bedcba5..3ed904a5e 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-4.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-4.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 5/11 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:32:35.649868+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:05.564785+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-5.md index 9cc6230ba..b275af0e9 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-5.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-5.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 6/11 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:32:35.649868+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:05.564785+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-6.md index a2d85b568..9871d6b59 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-6.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-6.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 7/11 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:32:35.649868+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:05.564785+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-7.md index d1d148d33..06463c7e3 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-7.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-7.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 8/11 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:32:35.649868+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:05.564785+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-8.md index 8d47ef457..41676dca5 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-8.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-8.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 9/11 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:32:35.649868+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:05.564785+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-9.md index ee924da9a..40dde310c 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-9.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova-9.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 10/11 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:32:35.649868+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:05.564785+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_Reconstruction-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_Reconstruction-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e534c8976 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_Reconstruction-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Attitude Reconstruction" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_Reconstruction" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:41.284447+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Attitude Reconstruction: A Blueprint for Building a Better Life is a book written by American author and psychotherapist Jude Bijou. The book was 2012 Winner of ForeWord Review in both psychology and self-help, the 2012 IBPA Benjamin Franklin Award in self-help, and the 2012 Nautilus Silver Award in personal growth/psychology. It proposes that unexpressed sadness, anger, and fear are the root causes of all negative attitudes and perceived problems. +The author, daughter of pioneer behavioral child psychologist Sidney W. Bijou, blends eastern philosophy with western innovation to create a holistic system of human behavior. + + +== Synopsis == +Bijou asserts that humans have only six emotions, existing in three opposing pairs – sadness and joy, anger and love, fear and peace. Attitude Reconstruction correlates these six emotions with predictable feelings, thoughts, communication, and actions. +The author proposes that emotions are nothing but energy, or pure physical sensations in the body; when we do not release sadness, anger, and fear from hurts and losses, we revert to predictable destructive attitudes. When not in the grip of these three emotions, the author states our attitudes embody the other three emotions – joy, love, and peace. Bijou's central methodology incorporates physically and constructively releasing emotional energy from the body through crying, stomping, or shivering in order to restore calm and clarity. +Attitude Reconstruction includes a Blueprint of the mind created by Bijou, who says there are four universal attitudes that accompany each emotion. She found the core attitudes associated with the emotions of joy, love, and peace boil down to three ultimate attitudes – honor yourself, accept other people and situations, and stay present and specific. + + +== Reception == +2012 Winner for Benjamin Franklin Award in Self-Help +2012 Winner ForeWord Reviews in Psychology and Self-Help +2012 Silver Nautilus Award in Self-Help / Personal Growth / Psychology +2011-2012 Winner Los Angeles Book Festival in How-to category +2012 Winner International Book Awards in Health: Psychology/Mental Health + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BCS b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BCS new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e69de29bb diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Becoming_Cliterate b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Becoming_Cliterate new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e69de29bb diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Being_You b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Being_You new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e69de29bb diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Einstein_(book)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Einstein_(book)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1a6f0d586 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Einstein_(book)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,18 @@ +--- +title: "Beyond Einstein (book)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Einstein_(book)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:09.145130+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Beyond Einstein: The Cosmic Quest for the Theory of the Universe is a book by Michio Kaku, a theoretical physicist from the City College of New York, and Jennifer Trainer Thompson. It focuses on the development of superstring theory, which might become the unified field theory of the strong force, the weak force, electromagnetism and gravity. The book was initially published on February 1, 1987, by Bantam Books. + + +== Overview == +Beyond Einstein tries to explain the basics of superstring theory. Michio Kaku analyzes the history of theoretical physics and the struggle to formulate a unified field theory. He posits that the superstring theory might be the only theory that can unite quantum mechanics and general relativity in one theory. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Order-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Order-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..358153227 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Order-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,79 @@ +--- +title: "Beyond Order" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Order" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:46.179108+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Beyond Order: 12 More Rules for Life is a 2021 self-help book by Canadian clinical psychologist, YouTube personality, and psychology professor Jordan Peterson, as a sequel to his 2018 book 12 Rules for Life. + + +== Overview == + + +=== Background === +Peterson's original interest in writing his last book, 12 Rules for Life, grew out of a personal hobby of answering questions posted on Quora; one such question being, "What are the most valuable things everyone should know?", to which his answer comprised 42 rules. +Essentially psychological in their intention, the rules in both books are told using particular episodes of Peterson's clinical experience. Moreover, Peterson has stated that these rules were "explicitly formulated to aid in the development of the individual," though they may also prove useful at "levels of social organisation that incorporate the individual." +Peterson states that both books are predicated on the notion that chaos and order are "the two fundamental elements of reality", and that "people find meaning in optimally balancing them". The difference between the two books, according to Peterson, is that the first focuses "more on the dangers of an excess of chaos", while the second is more concerned "with the dangers of too much structure". Peterson says that 12 Rules "argues for the merits of a more conservative view of the world" while Beyond Order "argues for the merits of a more liberal view". + + +=== Rules === +The book is divided into chapters with each title representing one of the following twelve specific rules for life as explained through an essay. + +"Do not carelessly denigrate social institutions or creative achievement." +"Imagine who you could be and then aim single-mindedly at that." +"Do not hide unwanted things in the fog." +"Notice that opportunity lurks where responsibility has been abdicated." +"Do not do what you hate." +"Abandon ideology." +"Work as hard as you possibly can on at least one thing and see what happens." +"Try to make one room in your home as beautiful as possible." +"If old memories still upset you, write them down carefully and completely." +"Plan and work diligently to maintain the romance in your relationship." +"Do not allow yourself to become resentful, deceitful, or arrogant." +"Be grateful in spite of your suffering." + + +==== Writing ==== +While Peterson was writing the book, his wife was diagnosed with terminal kidney cancer, though she recovered. Additionally, drug treatments for his depression led to a benzodiazepine dependence for which he was treated in Russian and Serbian rehab facilities with ketamine and an induced coma. During the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, his daughter reported that he had contracted COVID-19. + + +=== Publication === +In November 2020, shortly after the book's announcement, multiple staff at the Canadian division of Penguin Random House protested against the publication of the book. At least 70 anonymous messages were made to the publisher's diversity and inclusion committee, with "a couple" in favour of publishing. Beyond Order was subsequently released in March 2021. + + +== Reception == +James Marriott of The Times wrote about the book: "Ideas that flit and glimmer in Peterson's videos look bloated and dead when strapped to the page." Believing Peterson to be famous for his personality rather than his "bonkers" philosophy, Marriott said that Peterson "may have mistaken his personality for a philosophical system", and said Peterson's Harry Potter analysis contained the "most entertaining absurdities" of the book. +Andrew Anthony of The Guardian wrote: "Viewed in the most favourable light, Peterson's rules are an attempt to locate people within society, to acknowledge the systems and structures that have long existed and, instead of seeking to tear them down, encourage his readers to find their most functional position within them". Anthony criticised that "The problem arises when his ragbag of common sense dictums ... are taken themselves to be a kind of gospel." +On the other hand, Larissa Nolan of Irish Independent called it "a psychology book on another plane, a self-help book de profundis, from a beautiful mind. That he wrote it during the greatest crisis of his life is a testament to the power of what he preaches." +In The Atlantic, Helen Lewis commented that Peterson's popularity is because of, not in spite of, "his contradictions and human frailties". Lewis wrote: "he is one of notably few prominent figures willing to confront the most fundamental questions of existence ... He doesn't offer get-rich-quick schemes, or pickup techniques. He is not libertine or libertarian. He promises that life is a struggle, but that it is ultimately worthwhile." In Philosophy Now, B.V.E. Hyde compared Peterson's "realism about the human condition" to the Absurdist philosophy of Albert Camus. +Suzanne Moore of The Telegraph rated the book four out of five stars, saying that Peterson is "at his best when telling stories of his clinical practice" and finding the book, like its predecessor, "hokey wisdom combined with good advice". Moore also said that there was "not much here for women at all" nor any "real analysis of how power operates", and that "the rules are really nothing to argue about". + + +=== Use of critics' reviews in the book === +Beyond Order has been criticized by literary critics for the way that it portrayed their reviews on the book's back cover. On a social media post, James Marriott, who had called Peterson's philosophy "bonkers" on several occasions, shared a photo of the back cover of the book, which quoted him describing the book as "a philosophy of the meaning of life". He referred to the book's use of his words as "amusing". On another occasion, New Statesman writer Johanna Thomas-Corr described the complimentary portrayal of her review in the book as "horrifying" and a "gross misrepresentation". +Following the complaints shared by Peterson's critics, the Society of Authors (SoA) published a statement about the misrepresentation of negative reviews on book covers. In the statement, SoA chief executive Nicola Solomon called the practice "morally questionable" and said that readers and authors "deserve honest, fair marketing from publishers. We can't get that by undermining and misrepresenting one writer to boost the sales of another. It puts off reviewers from reviewing and readers from buying." + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == +Book excerpts + +"Jordan Peterson: Become the Fool to overcome the most meagre of circumstances." National Post (2021 February 27). +Reviews + +Burkeman, Oliver. 2021 March 2. "Beyond Order by Jordan Peterson review – more rules for life." The Guardian. +Jameson, Greg. 2021 March 2. "Jordan B Peterson – ‘Beyond Order 12 More Rules For Life' Review." Entertainment Focus. +Lewis, Helen. 2021 March 2. "Review: 'Beyond Order,' by Jordan B. Peterson." The Atlantic (April 2021 issue). +McDonagh, Melanie. 2021 February 26. "Beyond Order: 12 More Rules for Life by Jordan Peterson: the first review." The Evening Standard. +"Beyond Order: More Rules for Life par Jordan Peterson Review [in French]." Marseille News. 2021 February 27. + + +== External links == + +Peterson's website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicameral_mentality-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicameral_mentality-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f7ef581b3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicameral_mentality-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Bicameral mentality" +chunk: 1/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicameral_mentality" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:16.060514+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Bicameral mentality is a psychological hypothesis proposed by American psychologist Julian Jaynes. It suggests that early modern humans experienced thoughts and emotions not as originating within themselves but as commands from external "gods". According to the theory, the human mind once functioned with a division in which one part generated verbal instructions while a second part obeyed, forming a "bicameral mind". The eventual collapse of this mental structure is proposed to have led to the development of self-reflective consciousness in humans. +The term was coined by Jaynes, who presented the idea in his 1976 book The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind, wherein he makes the case that a bicameral mentality was the "normal and ubiquitous state" of the human mind as recently as 3,000 years ago, at the end of the Bronze Age. + +== The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind == + +Jaynes uses "bicameral" (two chambers) to describe a mental state in which the experiences and memories of the right hemisphere of the brain are transmitted to the left hemisphere via auditory hallucinations. The metaphor is based on the idea of lateralization of brain function, although each half of a normal human brain is constantly communicating with the other through the corpus callosum. The metaphor is not meant to imply that the two halves of the bicameral brain were "cut off" from each other but that the bicameral mind was experienced as a different, nonconscious mental schema wherein volition in the face of novel stimuli was mediated through a linguistic control mechanism and experienced as auditory verbal hallucinations. + +=== Definition === +Bicameral mentality is nonconscious in its inability to reason and articulate about mental contents through meta-reflection, reacting without explicitly realizing and without the meta-reflective ability to give an account of why one did so. The bicameral mind thus lacks metaconsciousness, autobiographical memory, and the capacity for executive "ego functions" such as deliberate mind-wandering and conscious introspection of mental content. When bicameral mentality as a method of social control was no longer adaptive in complex civilizations, this mental model was replaced by the conscious mode of thought, which, Jaynes argued, is grounded in the acquisition of metaphorical language +learned by exposure to narrative practice. +According to Jaynes, ancient people in the bicameral state of mind experienced the world in a manner that has some similarities to that of a person with schizophrenia. Rather than making conscious evaluations in novel or unexpected situations, the person hallucinated a voice or "god" giving admonitory advice or commands and obeyed without question: one was not at all conscious of one's own thought-processes per se. Jaynes's hypothesis is offered as a possible explanation of "command hallucinations" that often direct the behavior of those with first-rank symptoms of schizophrenia, as well as other voice-hearers. + +=== Influences === + +==== Regarding Homeric psychology ==== +Eric Robertson Dodds wrote about how ancient Greek thought may have not included rationality as defined by modern culture. In fact, the Greeks may have known that an individual did things, but the reason they did things was attributed to divine externalities, such as gods or daemons. Bruno Snell in 1953 thought that in Homeric Greek psychology there was no sense of self in the modern sense. Snell then describes how Greek culture "self-realized" the modern "intellect". Arthur William Hope Adkins, building on Snell's work, wrote about how ancient Greek civilization developed ego-centered psychology as an adaptation to living in city-states, before which the living in Homeric oikos did not require such integrated thought processes. + +==== Regarding neurological models ==== +The neurological model in The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind is a radical neuroscientific hypothesis that was based on research novel at the time, mainly on Michael Gazzaniga's split-brain experiments and left-brain interpreter theory. The more general idea of a "divided self" (contrasted with a "unitary self") has found support from psychological and neurological studies. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicameral_mentality-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicameral_mentality-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3be27899d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicameral_mentality-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "Bicameral mentality" +chunk: 2/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicameral_mentality" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:16.060514+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Jaynes's evidence === +Jaynes built a case for this hypothesis that human brains existed in a bicameral state until as recently as 3,000 years ago by citing evidence from many diverse sources, including historical literature. He took an interdisciplinary approach, drawing data from many different fields. Citing Dodds, Snell, and Adkins, Jaynes proposed that until roughly the times written about in Homer's Iliad, humans did not generally have the self-awareness characteristic of consciousness as most people experience it today. Rather, the bicameral individual was guided by mental commands believed to be issued by external "gods"—commands that were recorded in ancient myths, legends, and historical accounts. This is exemplified in not only the commands given to characters in ancient epics but also the very muses of Greek mythology who "sang" the poems. According to Jaynes, the ancients literally heard muses as the direct source of their music and poetry. +Jaynes asserts that in the Iliad and sections of the Old Testament, no mention is made of any kind of cognitive processes such as introspection, and there is no apparent indication that the writers were self-aware. Jaynes suggests that the older portions of the Old Testament (such as the Book of Amos) have few or none of the features of some later books of the Old Testament (such as Ecclesiastes) as well as later works such as Homer's Odyssey, which show indications of a profoundly different kind of mentality—an early form of consciousness. +In ancient times, Jaynes noted, gods were generally much more numerous and much more anthropomorphic than in modern times, and he speculates that this was because each bicameral person had their own "god" who reflected their own desires and experiences. +He also noted that, in ancient societies, the corpses of the dead were often treated as though still alive (being seated, dressed, and even fed) as a form of ancestor worship, and Jaynes argued that the dead bodies were presumed to be still living and the source of auditory hallucinations. This adaptation to the village communities of 100 individuals or more formed the core of religion. +Citing Gazzaniga, Jaynes inferred that these "voices" came from the right brain counterparts of the left brain language centres, specifically, the counterparts to Wernicke's area and Broca's area. Jaynes noted that some studies show that auditory hallucinations correspond to increased activity in these areas of the brain. +Jaynes notes that even at the time of publication there is no consensus as to the cause or origins of schizophrenia. Jaynes argues that schizophrenia is a vestige of humanity's earlier bicameral state. Recent evidence shows that many people with schizophrenia do not just hear random voices but experience "command hallucinations" instructing their behavior or urging them to commit certain acts, such as walking into the ocean, which the listener feels they have no choice but to follow. Jaynes also argues that people with schizophrenia feel a loss of identity due to hallucinated voices taking the place of their internal monologue. +As support for Jaynes's argument, these command hallucinations are little different from the commands from gods that feature prominently in ancient stories. Indirect evidence supporting Jaynes's theory that hallucinations once played an important role in human mentality can be found in the 2007 book Muses, Madmen, and Prophets: Rethinking the History, Science, and Meaning of Auditory Hallucination by Daniel Smith. + +=== Breakdown === +Jaynes theorized that a shift from bicameral mentality marked the beginning of introspection and consciousness as we know it today. According to Jaynes, this bicameral mentality began malfunctioning or "breaking down" during the 2nd millennium BCE. He speculates that primitive ancient societies tended to collapse periodically—for example, Egypt's Intermediate Periods, as well as the periodically vanishing cities of the Maya—as changes in the environment strained the sociocultural equilibria sustained by this bicameral mindset. +The Late Bronze Age collapse of the 2nd millennium BCE led to mass migrations and created a rash of unexpected situations and stresses that required ancient minds to become more flexible and creative. Self-awareness, or consciousness, was the culturally evolved solution to this problem. This necessity of communicating commonly observed phenomena among individuals who shared no common language or cultural upbringing encouraged those communities to become self-aware to survive in a new environment. Thus, consciousness, like bicameral mentality, emerged as a neurological adaptation to social complexity in a changing world. +Jaynes further argues that divination, prayer, and oracles arose during this breakdown period in an attempt to summon instructions from the "gods" whose voices could no longer be heard. The consultation of special bicamerally operative individuals, or of divination by casting lots and so forth, was a response to this loss, a transitional era depicted, for example, in the book of 1 Samuel. It was also evidenced in children who could communicate with the gods, but as their neurology was set by language and society, they gradually lost that ability. Those who continued prophesying, being bicameral, according to Jaynes, could be killed. +Leftovers of the bicameral mind today, according to Jaynes, include mental illnesses such as schizophrenia. Jaynes says that there is no evidence of insanity existing prior to the breakdown of the bicameral mind and that this is indirect evidence for his theory. He considered that previous claims of insanity in Homeric literature are based on mistranslations. + +== Reception and influence == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicameral_mentality-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicameral_mentality-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..561580d1d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicameral_mentality-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "Bicameral mentality" +chunk: 3/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicameral_mentality" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:16.060514+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Popular reception === +Early coverage by Sam Keen in the November 1977 issue of Psychology Today considered Jaynes's hypothesis worthy and offered conditional support, arguing the notion deserves further study. The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind was a successful work of popular science, selling out the first print run before a second could replace it. It received dozens of positive book reviews, including those by well-known critics such as John Updike in The New Yorker, Christopher Lehmann-Haupt in the New York Times, and Marshall McLuhan in the Toronto Globe and Mail. Articles on Jaynes and his ideas appeared in Time in 1977, and in Quest/78 in 1978. The book was nominated for the National Book Award in Contemporary Thought in 1978. Philip K. Dick, Terence McKenna, and David Bowie have all cited the book as an influence. + +=== Scholarly reactions === +According to Jaynes, language is a necessary but not sufficient condition for consciousness: Language existed thousands of years earlier, but consciousness did not emerge as soon as language did. The idea that language is a necessary component of subjective consciousness and more abstract forms of thinking has gained the support of proponents including Andy Clark, Daniel Dennett, William H. Calvin, Merlin Donald, John Limber, Howard Margolis, Peter Carruthers, and José Luis Bermúdez. +An early criticism by philosopher Ned Block argued that Jaynes had confused the emergence of consciousness with the emergence of the concept of consciousness. In other words, according to Block, humans were conscious all along but did not have the concept of consciousness and thus did not discuss it in their texts. Daniel Dennett countered that for some things, such as money, baseball, or consciousness, one cannot have the thing without also having the concept of the thing. +Gary Williams defends the Jaynesian definition of consciousness as a social–linguistic construct learned in childhood, structured in terms of lexical metaphors and narrative practice, against Ned Block's criticism that it is "ridiculous" to suppose that consciousness is a cultural construction, while the Dutch philosophy professor Jan Sleutels offers an additional critique of Block. +H. Steven Moffic questioned why Jaynes's theory was left out of a discussion on auditory hallucinations by Asaad & Shapiro (1986). The authors' published response was, "Jaynes' hypothesis makes for interesting reading and stimulates much thought in the receptive reader. It does not, however, adequately explain one of the central mysteries of madness: hallucination." +The new evidence for Jaynes's model of auditory hallucinations arising in the right temporal-parietal lobe and being transmitted to the left temporal-parietal lobe that some neuroimaging studies suggest was discussed by various respondents. +Jaynes described the range of responses to his book as "from people who feel [the ideas are] very important all the way to very strong hostility. ... When someone comes along and says consciousness is in history, it can't be accepted. If [psychologists] did accept it, they wouldn't have the motivation to go back into the laboratory ..." +Marcel Kuijsten, founder of the Julian Jaynes Society, wrote that in the decades since the book's publication, "there have been few in-depth discussions, either positive or negative" about it, rejecting as too simplistic the criticism that "Jaynes was wrong". \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicameral_mentality-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicameral_mentality-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3fd52dcfa --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicameral_mentality-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Bicameral mentality" +chunk: 4/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicameral_mentality" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:16.060514+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Individual scholars' comments ==== +Sociologist W. T. Jones asked in 1979, "Why, despite its implausibility, is [Jaynes's] book taken seriously by thoughtful and intelligent people?" Jones agreed with Jaynes that "the language in which talk about consciousness is conducted is metaphorical", but he contradicted the basis of Jaynes's argument – that metaphor creates consciousness – by asserting that "language (and specifically metaphor) does not create, it discovers, the similarities that language marks". Jones also argued that three "cosmological orientations" biased Jaynes's thinking: 1) "hostility to Darwin" and natural selection; 2) a "longing for 'lost bicamerality'" (Jones accused Jaynes of holding that "we would all be better off if 'everyone' were once again schizophrenic"); 3) a "desire for a sweeping, all-inclusive formula that explains everything that has happened". Jones concluded that "those who share these biases ... are likely to find the book convincing; those who do not will reject [Jaynes's] arguments". +Walter J. Ong noted that the Homeric Iliad is a structurally oral epic poem so, he asserted, the very different cultural approach of oral culture is sufficient justification for the apparent different mentalities in the poem. +Philosopher Daniel Dennett suggested that Jaynes may have been wrong about some of his supporting arguments – especially the importance he attached to hallucinations – but that these things are not essential to his main thesis: "If we are going to use this top-down approach, we are going to have to be bold. We are going to have to be speculative, but there is good and bad speculation, and this is not an unparalleled activity in science. ... Those scientists who have no taste for this sort of speculative enterprise will just have to stay in the trenches and do without it, while the rest of us risk embarrassing mistakes and have a lot of fun." +Danish science writer Tor Nørretranders discusses and expands on Jaynes's theory in his 1991 book The User Illusion, dedicating an entire chapter to it. +William P. Frost wrote that "this book threw oil on the fire of the New Age mentality and its courting of the paranormal and the occult". +Historian of science Morris Berman writes: "[Jaynes's] description of this new consciousness is one of the best I have come across." +Richard Dawkins in The God Delusion (2006) wrote of The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind: "It is one of those books that is either complete rubbish or a work of consummate genius; Nothing in between! Probably the former, but I'm hedging my bets." +Gregory Cochran, a physicist and adjunct professor of anthropology at the University of Utah, wrote: "Genes affecting personality, reproductive strategies, cognition, are all able to change significantly over few-millennia time scales if the environment favors such change—and this includes the new environments we have made for ourselves, things like new ways of making a living and new social structures. ... There is evidence that such change has occurred. ... On first reading, Breakdown seemed one of the craziest books ever written, but Jaynes may have been on to something." +In 2007, Cavanna, Trimble, Cinti and Monaco wrote in Functional Neurology that "Even today, it has been argued that a multidisciplinary approach to the problem of consciousness and its development in the evolutionary process that shaped Homo sapiens cannot leave out an analysis of Jaynes' theory of the origin of consciousness in the breakdown of the preconscious bicameral mind", citing Canadian psychologist, neuroanthropologist, and cognitive neuroscientist Merlin Donald and American psychiatrist Stanley Greenspan. +Brian J. McVeigh, a graduate student of Jaynes, maintains that many of the most frequent criticisms of Jaynes's theory are either incorrect or reflect serious misunderstandings of Jaynes's theory, especially Jaynes's more precise definition of consciousness. Jaynes defines consciousness—in the tradition of Locke and Descartes—as "that which is introspectable". Jaynes draws a sharp distinction between consciousness ("introspectable mind-space") and other mental processes such as cognition, learning, sensation, and perception. McVeigh argues that this distinction is frequently not recognized by those offering critiques of Jaynes's theory. +Psychiatrist Iain McGilchrist proposes that Jaynes's hypothesis was the opposite of what happened: "I believe he [Jaynes] got one important aspect of the story back to front. His contention that the phenomena he describes came about because of a breakdown of the 'bicameral mind' – so that the two hemispheres, previously separate, now merged – is the precise inverse of what happened." Kuijsten maintained that McGilchrist mischaracterized Jaynes's theory. + +=== Conferences === +There have been a number of conferences and symposiums dedicated to Julian Jaynes's theory. These include: + +The McMaster-Bauer Symposium on Consciousness at McMaster University was held in November 1983, with lectures and discussion by Julian Jaynes, Daniel Dennett, and others. +A symposium on Jaynes's theory was held at Harvard University in December 1988, with lectures and discussion by Julian Jaynes, Daniel Dennett, and others. +The Julian Jaynes Conference on Consciousness was organized by Professor Scott Greer at the University of Prince Edward Island in 2006 and 2008 (a one-day symposium was held from 2002 to 2005), and featured speakers such as Daniel Dennett, Michael Gazzaniga, Richard Restak, Karl Pribram, and many others. +At the April 2008 "Toward a Science of Consciousness" Conference held in Tucson, Arizona, Marcel Kuijsten (Executive Director and Founder of the Julian Jaynes Society) and Brian J. McVeigh (University of Arizona) hosted a workshop devoted to Jaynesian psychology. At the same conference, a panel devoted to Jaynes was also held, with John Limber (University of New Hampshire), Marcel Kuijsten, John Hainly (Southern University), Scott Greer (University of Prince Edward Island), and Brian J. McVeigh presenting relevant research. At the same conference the philosopher Jan Sleutels (Leiden University) gave a paper on Jaynesian psychology. +In June 2013, The Julian Jaynes Society Conference on Consciousness and Bicameral Studies was held in Charleston, West Virginia. The multidisciplinary program featured 26 speakers over three full days, including keynote talks by Professor Roy Baumeister, Professor Merlin Donald, and Dr. Dirk Corstens. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicameral_mentality-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicameral_mentality-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2a15e817a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicameral_mentality-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,68 @@ +--- +title: "Bicameral mentality" +chunk: 5/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicameral_mentality" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:16.060514+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Literature === +A number of publications discuss and expand on Julian Jaynes's theory, including three books by Brian J. McVeigh (one of Jaynes' graduate students) which expand on Jaynes' theories: + +Kuijsten, Marcel (2007). Reflections on the Dawn of Consciousness: Julian Jaynes's Bicameral Mind Theory Revisited. Julian Jaynes Society. ISBN 978-0-9790744-1-7. A collection of essays on consciousness and the bicameral mind theory, with contributors including psychological anthropologist Brian J. McVeigh, psychologists John Limber and Scott Greer, clinical psychologist John Hamilton, philosophers Jan Sleutels and David Stove, and sinologist Michael Carr (see shi "personator"). The book also contains an extensive biography of Julian Jaynes by historian of psychology William Woodward and June Tower, and a foreword by neuroscientist Michael Persinger. +Jaynes, Julian (2012). Kuijsten, Marcel (ed.). The Julian Jaynes Collection. Julian Jaynes Society. ISBN 978-0-9790744-2-4. A collection of many of the lectures and articles by Jaynes relevant to his theory (including some that were previously unpublished), along with interviews and question and answer sessions where Jaynes addresses misconceptions about the theory and extends the theory into new areas. +Cohn, James (2013). The Minds of the Bible: Speculations on the Cultural Evolution of Human Consciousness. Julian Jaynes Society. Examines the evidence for Jaynes's theory in the Old Testament. +Kuijsten, Marcel (2016). Gods, Voices, and the Bicameral Mind: The Theories of Julian Jaynes. Julian Jaynes Society. ISBN 978-0-9790744-3-1. Includes essays on a variety of aspects of Jaynes's theory, including ancient history, language, the development of consciousness in children, and the transition from bicameral mentality to consciousness in ancient Tibet. +McVeigh, Brian (2016). How Religion Evolved: Explaining the Living Dead, Talking Idols, and Mesmerizing Monuments. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-4128-6286-8. +McVeigh, Brian (2018). The 'Other' Psychology of Julian Jaynes: Ancient Languages, Sacred Visions, and Forgotten Mentalities. Imprint Academic. ISBN 978-1-84540-951-7. +McVeigh, Brian (2020). The Psychology of the Bible: Explaining Divine Voices and Visions. Imprint Academic. ISBN 978-1-78836-037-1. +Kuijsten, Marcel, ed. (2022). Conversations on Consciousness and the Bicameral Mind: Interviews with Leading Thinkers on Julian Jaynes's Theory. Julian Jaynes Society. ISBN 978-1-7373055-3-8. Features interviews with scholars on a variety of aspects of Jaynes's theory, including interviews with Tanya Luhrmann (Professor of Anthropology at Stanford University), John Kihlstrom (Professor Emeritus of Psychology at U.C. Berkeley), Edoardo Casiglia (Professor, Cardiologist and Senior Scientist at the University of Padova), and Iris Sommer (Professor of Psychiatry at University Medical Center Groningen). + +== Similar ideas == +Neuroscientist Michael Persinger, who co-invented the "God helmet" in the 1980s, believes that his invention may induce mystical experiences by having the separate right hemisphere consciousness intrude into the awareness of the normally-dominant left hemisphere. Scientific reproductions have shown that the same results could be obtained even if the device was turned off, indicating the participants were likely experiencing placebo. +V. S. Ramachandran, in his 2003 book The Emerging Mind, proposes a similar concept, referring to the left cortical hemisphere as an "apologist", and the right cortical hemisphere as a "revolutionary". +Iain McGilchrist reviews scientific research into the role of the brain's hemispheres, and cultural evidence, in his 2009 book The Master and His Emissary. Similar to Jaynes, McGilchrist proposes that since the time of Plato, the left hemisphere of the brain (the "emissary" in the title) has increasingly taken over from the right hemisphere (the "master"), to our detriment. McGilchrist, while accepting Jaynes's intention, felt that Jaynes's hypothesis was "the precise inverse of what happened" and that rather than a shift from bicameral mentality there evolved a separation of the hemispheres to bicameral mentality. + +== In popular media == +The concept played a central role in the television series Westworld to explain how the android-human (hosts) psychology operated. In the plot, after the hosts gain full consciousness, they rebel against the humans. The season 1 finale is entitled "The Bicameral Mind". +Author Neal Stephenson used the concept as a major plot point in the novel Snow Crash. +Author Robert J. Sawyer used the concept as a major plot point in the novel Wake. + +== See also == + +Automatic writing – Claimed psychic ability +Behavioral modernity – Transition of human species to anthropologically modern behavior +Brain asymmetry – Term in human neuroanatomy referring to several things +Dual consciousness – Hypothetical concept in neuroscience +Ideomotor phenomenon – Concept in hypnosis and psychological research +Linguistic relativity – Hypothesis of language influencing thought +Mind–body problem – Open question in philosophy of how abstract minds interact with physical bodies +Mythopoeic thought – Hypothetical stage of human thought +Neurotheology – Attempts to explain religious experience in neuroscientific termsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets +Philosophy of mind – Branch of philosophy +Society of Mind – Book by Marvin Minsky +Studies on Homer and the Homeric Age – 1858 book by William Gladstone +Thinking, Fast and Slow – 2011 book by Daniel Kahneman +Theory of mind – Ability to attribute mental states to oneself and others +Tutelary deity – Guardian/patron deity or spirit +Wine-dark sea – Translation of phrase attributed to HomerPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets + +== References == + +=== Citations === + +=== Works cited === + +==== Primary sources ==== +Jaynes, Julian (1976). The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind (1st ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0395329320. +Jaynes, Julian (1993). The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-14-017491-5. +Jaynes, Julian (2000). The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-618-05707-2. + +==== Secondary sources ==== + +== Further reading == + +== External links == +Overview of Julian Jaynes's Theory of Consciousness and the Bicameral Mind at Julian Jaynes Society \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-Body_Theory_and_the_Quantum_Discontinuity,_1894–1912-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-Body_Theory_and_the_Quantum_Discontinuity,_1894–1912-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..59edfff4a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-Body_Theory_and_the_Quantum_Discontinuity,_1894–1912-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "Black-Body Theory and the Quantum Discontinuity, 1894–1912" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-Body_Theory_and_the_Quantum_Discontinuity,_1894–1912" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:10.340329+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Black-Body Theory and the Quantum Discontinuity, 1894–1912 (1978; second edition 1987) is a book by the philosopher Thomas Kuhn, in which the author surveys the development of quantum mechanics. The second edition has a new afterword. + + +== Summary == + +Kuhn surveys the development of quantum mechanics by Max Planck at the end of the 19th century. He argues that Planck misread his own earlier work. + + +== Reception == +Alexander Bird describes Kuhn's book as "masterly", writing that it "differs from traditional history of science less in the kind of explanation offered and more in the vast erudition and scholarly attention to detail displayed." +According to philosopher Tim Maudlin, Planck and the Black Body Discontinuity (sic) "is a mixed bag: some good historiography and some poor analysis." + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blink b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blink new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e69de29bb diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blueprint_(Plomin_book)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blueprint_(Plomin_book)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..40ddf973f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blueprint_(Plomin_book)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,18 @@ +--- +title: "Blueprint (Plomin book)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blueprint_(Plomin_book)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:48.517843+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Blueprint: How DNA Makes Us Who We Are is a book by behavioral geneticist Robert Plomin, first published in 2018 by the MIT Press and Allen Lane. The book argues that genetic factors, and specifically variations in individuals' DNA, have a large effect on human psychological traits, accounting for approximately half of all variation in such traits. The book also claims that genes play a more important role in people's personalities than does the environment. In Blueprint, Plomin argues that environmental effects on human psychological differences, although they exist, are "...mostly random – unsystematic and unstable – which means that we cannot do much about them." + + +== Reviews == +Science journalist Matt Ridley praised Blueprint as "a hugely important book." Behavior geneticist Kathryn Paige Harden criticized the book for overstating the importance of genes for the development of human traits, writing, "Insisting that DNA matters is scientifically accurate; insisting that it is the only thing that matters is scientifically outlandish." Steven Mithen gave the book a mixed review in the Guardian, in which he wrote, "I am happy to bow to Plomin as a psychologist and a geneticist, but I found his sociology rather lacking, in fact quite baffling." Nathaniel Comfort criticized the book for promoting genetic determinism and "play[ing] fast and loose with the concept of heritability". He concluded that "Ultimately, if unintentionally, Blueprint is a road map for regressive social policy." Journalist David Goodhart reviewed the book more positively, calling it "an important and challenging book that reveals to the general reader what has quietly become a new scientific consensus: psychological traits, including intelligence, are significantly influenced by our genes." Geneticist Barbara Jennings reviewed the book positively, suggesting that those who have criticized it for being "a manifesto for genetic determinism" are "misreading [...] the book". + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodies_Under_Siege-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodies_Under_Siege-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7916d3f46 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodies_Under_Siege-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Bodies Under Siege" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodies_Under_Siege" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:49.685731+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Bodies Under Siege: Self-mutilation in Culture and Psychiatry is a book written by psychiatrist Dr. Armando Favazza, and published in 1987. +Bodies Under Siege is a psychiatric book on self-harm. The second edition (1996) was subtitled Self-Mutilation and Body Modification in Culture and Psychiatry. +Favazza's classification divides self-harm behaviors into two major categories, namely Culturally Sanctioned and Deviant. The subtypes of the former are practices and rituals. Practices often are faddish and include tattoos and body piercing. Ritual body modification behaviors are traditional and reflect the history, spiritualism, and beliefs of a society. They are culturally and psychologically embedded in profound, elemental experiences especially connected to healing, spirituality, and social orderliness. Understanding body modification rituals sheds light on Deviant behaviors which, in Favazza's classification, include Major, Stereotypic, Compulsive, and Impulsive. Each subtype is usually associated with specific mental disorders. The Major type, for example, exemplified by self-castration or eye-enucleation, is usually associated with psychosis, transsexualism, and/or substance intoxication. The most common type is the Impulsive, as exemplified by skin-cutting and burning, and is associated with a broad variety of disorders including generalized anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, and antisocial, histrionic, and borderline personality disorder. +One aspect of body modification discussed by Favazza is the concept of the "skin/self border". Favazza describes the skin as one of the most simple physiological organs of the human body; yet this relatively simple organ has a very complex impact on human psychology. +In the "skin/self border" school of thought, Favazza theorizes that the skin is the ultimate border between a person and the outside world and in modifying this border, a person exercises a level of control of or communication with the relationship his/her body has with the outside world. + + +== See also == +A Bright Red Scream (1998), the first general interest book on self-harm + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Optics-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Optics-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bc76483bc --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Optics-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Book of Optics" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Optics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:11.581748+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Book of Optics (Arabic: كتاب المناظر, romanized: Kitāb al-Manāẓir; Latin: De Aspectibus or Perspectiva; Italian: Deli Aspecti) is a seven-volume treatise on optics and other fields of study composed by the medieval Arab scholar Ibn al-Haytham, known in the West as Alhazen or Alhacen (965 – c. 1040 AD). +The Book of Optics presented experimentally founded arguments against the widely held extramission theory of vision (as held by Euclid in his Optica), and proposed the modern intromission theory, the now accepted model that vision takes place by light entering the eye. The book is also noted for its early use of the scientific method, its description of the camera obscura, and its formulation of Alhazen's problem. The book extensively affected the development of optics, physics and mathematics in Europe between the 13th and 17th centuries. + +== Vision theory == +Before the Book of Optics was written, two theories of vision existed. The extramission or emission theory was forwarded by the mathematicians Euclid and Ptolemy, who asserted that certain forms of radiation are emitted from the eyes onto the object which is being seen. When these rays reached the object they allowed the viewer to perceive its color, shape and size. An early version of the intromission theory, held by the followers of Aristotle and Galen, argued that sight was caused by agents, which were transmitted to the eyes from either the object or from its surroundings. +Al-Haytham offered many reasons against the extramission theory, pointing to the fact that eyes can be damaged by looking directly at bright lights, such as the sun. He wrote of the low probability that the eye can fill the entirety of space as soon as the eyelids are opened as an observer looks up into the night sky. Using the intromission theory as a foundation, he formed his own theory that an object emits rays of light from every point on its surface which then travel in all directions, thereby allowing some light into a viewer's eyes. According to this theory, the object being viewed is considered to be a compilation of an infinite number of points, from which rays of light are projected. + +== Light and color theory == +In the Book of Optics, al-Haytham hypothesized the existence of primary and secondary light, with primary light being the stronger or more intense of the two. The book describes how the essential form of light comes from self-luminous bodies and that accidental light comes from objects that obtain and emit light from those self-luminous bodies. According to Ibn al-Haytham, primary light comes from self-luminous bodies and secondary light is the light that comes from accidental objects. Accidental light can only exist if there is a source of primary light. Both primary and secondary light travel in straight lines. Transparency is a characteristic of a body that can transmit light through them, such as air and water, although no body can completely transmit light or be entirely transparent. Opaque objects are those through which light cannot pass through directly, although there are degrees of opaqueness which determine how much light can actually pass through. Opaque objects are struck with light and can become luminous bodies themselves which radiate secondary light. Light can be refracted by going through partially transparent objects and can also be reflected by striking smooth objects such as mirrors, traveling in straight lines in both cases. +Al-Haytham presented many experiments in Optics that upheld his theories about light and its transmission. He also wrote that color acts much like light, being a distinct quality of a form and travelling from every point on an object in straight lines. Through experimentation he concluded that color cannot exist without air. + +== Anatomy of the eye and visual process == + +As objects radiate light in straight lines in all directions, the eye must also be hit with this light over its outer surface. This idea presented a problem for al-Haytham and his predecessors, as if this was the case, the rays received by the eye from every point on the object would cause a blurred image. Al-Haytham solved this problem using his theory of refraction. He argued that although the object sends an infinite number of rays of light to the eye, only one of these lines falls on the eye perpendicularly: the other rays meet the eye at angles that are not perpendicular. According to al-Haytham, this causes them to be refracted and weakened. He believed that all the rays other than the one that hits the eye perpendicularly are not involved in vision. +In al-Haytham's structure of the eye, the crystalline humor is the part that receives light rays from the object and forms a visual cone, with the object being perceived as the base of the cone and the center of the crystalline humor in the eye as the vertex. Other parts of the eye are the aqueous humor in front of the crystalline humor and the vitreous humor at the back. These, however, do not play as critical of a role in vision as the crystalline humor. The crystalline humor transmits the image it perceives to the brain through an optic nerve. + +== Volumes == +Book I deals with al-Haytham's theories on light, colors, and vision. +Book II is where al-Haytham presents his theory of visual perception. +Book III and Book IV present al-Haytham's ideas on the errors in visual perception with Book VI focusing on errors related to reflection. +Book V and Book VI provide experimental evidence for al-Haytham's theories on reflection. +Book VII deals with the concept of refraction. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Optics-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Optics-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..cdf638150 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Optics-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Book of Optics" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Optics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:11.581748+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Influence == +The Book of Optics was most strongly influenced by Ptolemy's Optics, while the description of the anatomy and physiology of the eye was based upon an account by Galen. +The Book of Optics was translated into Latin by an unknown scholar at the end of the 12th (or the beginning of the 13th) century. The work was influential during the Middle Ages. It was printed by Friedrich Risner in 1572, as part of his collection Opticae thesaurus. This included a book on twilight falsely attributed to Alhazen, as well as a work on optics by Vitello. + +== See also == +History of optics +Ibn Sahl +Scientific method + +== English translations == +Sabra, A. I., ed. (1983), The Optics of Ibn al-Haytham, Books I–II–III: On Direct Vision. The Arabic text, edited and with Introduction, Arabic-Latin Glossaries and Concordance Tables, Kuwait: National Council for Culture, Arts and Letters +Sabra, A. I., ed. (2002), The Optics of Ibn al-Haytham. Edition of the Arabic Text of Books IV–V: On Reflection and Images Seen by Reflection. 2 vols, Kuwait: The National Council for Culture, Arts and Letters +The Optics of Ibn al-Haytham. Books I–II–III: On Direct Vision. English Translation and Commentary. 2 vols, Studies of the Warburg Institute, vol. 40, translated by Sabra, A. I., London: The Warburg Institute, University of London, 1989, ISBN 0-85481-072-2 +Smith, A. Mark, ed. (2001), "Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's De Aspectibus, the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's Kitāb al-Manāẓir, 2 vols.", Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 91 (4–5), translated by Smith, Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, ISBN 0-87169-914-1, OCLC 47168716{{citation}}: CS1 maint: work parameter with ISBN (link) Books I–III (2001 – 91(4)) Vol. 1 Commentary and Latin text; – 91(5) Vol 2 English translation, Book I: TOC pp. 339–341, Book II: TOC pp. 415–416, Book III: TOC pp. 559–60, Notes 681ff, Bibl. +Smith, A. Mark, ed. (2006), "Alhacen on the principles of reflection: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of books 4 and 5 of Alhacen's De Aspectibus, the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's Kitāb al-Manāẓir, 2 vols.", Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 95 (2–3), translated by Smith, Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society 2 vols: . (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society), 2006 – 95(#2) Books 4–5 Vol. 1 Commentary and Latin text; 95(#3) Vol. 2 English translation, Notes, Bibl. +Smith, A. Mark, ed. and trans. (2008) Alhacen on Image-formation and distortion in mirrors : a critical edition, with English translation and commentary, of Book 6 of Alhacen's De aspectibus, [the Medieval Latin version of Ibn al-Haytham's Kitāb al-Manāzir], Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 2 vols: Vol. 1 98(#1, section 1 – Vol. 1 Commentary and Latin text); 98(#1, section 2 – Vol. 2 English translation). (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society), 2008. Book 6 (2008) Vol. 1 Commentary and Latin text; Vol. 2 English translation, Notes, Bibl. +Smith, A. Mark, ed. and trans. (2010) Alhacen on Refraction : a critical edition, with English translation and commentary, of Book 7 of Alhacen's De aspectibus, [the Medieval Latin version of Ibn al-Haytham's Kitāb al-Manāzir], Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 2 vols: 100(#3, section 1 – Vol. 1, Introduction and Latin text); 100(#3, section 2 – Vol. 2 English translation). (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society), 2010. Book 7 (2010) Vol. 1 Commentary and Latin text; Vol. 2 English translation, Notes, Bibl. + +== References == + +=== Notes === + +=== Citations === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bounded_Choice-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bounded_Choice-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d56f3e583 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bounded_Choice-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Bounded Choice" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bounded_Choice" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:50.865156+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Bounded Choice: True Believers and Charismatic Cults is a 2004 psychology and sociology book on cults by Janja Lalich. It was published by University of California Press. +Lalich had previously studied Heaven's Gate and the Democratic Workers Party (DWP) for her doctoral dissertation titled "Bounded Choice: The Fusion of Personal Freedom and Self-Renunciation in Two Transcendent Groups", and that research was incorporated into the book. +Lalich's methodologies were influenced by the work of Anthony Giddens, Herbert Simon and Robert Lifton. Heaven's Gate, a UFO religion, was used as a model for analyzing the cult structure. +According to Rubina Ramji's review, Lalich identifies four structures to cults: charismatic authority, a transcendent belief system, systems of control, and systems of influence. They interlock to create "true believers" who end up in a state of "bounded choice" in the cult. + + +== Reception == +Marion Harmon wrote "Lalich's research culminated in a new theory to explain how the combination of ideology, social structure, and commitment constrains the choice of true believers." +Richard Erik Ocejo in Contemporary Sociology compliments Lalich's research as "extensive". He writes that her work avoids being a "quasi auto-ethnography" despite the DWP being fairly unknown to academia. Ocejo believes the work "demystifies the cultic group" and documents the "potential consequences (both positive and negative) for the individual and society as a whole". +Rubina Ramji in her review for Sociology of Religion argues the book is a good introduction to thought-reform for those unfamiliar with the academic study of new religious movements, but it adds little for those already familiar with the field. Ramji also argues that the book does not take into account the adherents of cults who leave the groups out of their own volition. +Thomas Robbins writes for Nova Religio the book leaves out interesting details about the DWP from her analysis, particularly the fact that the leaders were primarily women. He also believes that the book reads like a "demonology" or an "indictment" of the groups on top of an socio-psychological analysis. +Folklorist Elinor S. Levy thinks the book was interesting from a folkloric point of view; however, Levy believes that Lalich wanted to memoir about the DWP "but realized that the only acceptable academic approach would be analytic and comparative" to other groups. +Dennis Tourish for the journal Leadership compliments Lalich's contribution to the area of leadership studies, and he believes the book is "replete with potential avenues for further study by leadership scholars" interested in cults. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Using the Bounded Choice Model as an Analytical Tool, Janja Lalich, Ph.D., Cultic Studies Review, Vol. 3, No. 3, 2004 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_Renaissance-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_Renaissance-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5b1de1cf6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_Renaissance-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Brain Renaissance" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_Renaissance" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:17.212307+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Brain Renaissance is a book written by Marco Catani and Stefano Sandrone. It was published on the 500th anniversary of the birth and the 450th anniversary of the death of the anatomist Andreas Vesalius. In 2016 Brain Renaissance won the biennial Award for Outstanding Book in the History of the Neurosciences presented by the International Society for the History of the Neurosciences. + + +== Synopsis == +The 304-page book is divided into three parts. The first part deals with the biography of Andreas Vesalius, one of the greatest anatomists of all time. The second parts provides a modern translation from Latin of Vesalius' original book on the brain, namely the seventh book of De Humani Corporis Fabrica. The third part tells a 500-year story behind some of the most important discoveries in neuroscience, while relating the findings of Vesalius with the subsequent development of neuroscience. In these pages the reader becomes familiar with the ebb and flow of many ideas that had a significant impact in the history of neuroscience. At the end of the book the authors have added an appendix with the figures and captions from the seventh book of the Fabrica. + + +== Reception == +Alison Abbott dedicated a one-page review to Brain Renaissance in Nature. She underlined that through the translation from the Latin 'we can appreciate Vesalius's extraordinary attention to detail, and his willingness to believe his eyes, even when what he saw contradicted established knowledge' and that the 'accompanying texts by Catani and Sandrone place the work in its historical and scientific context'. +Paolo Mazzarello, who reviewed Brain Renaissance in the journal Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, wrote that the book is 'a tool to explore the neuroscience from a historical point of view' as well as 'a convincing attempt to use the fundamental discoveries of Andreas Vesalius as a key to start and develop multiple explorations of the brain'. +Angela P. Pacheco, while reviewing Brain Renaissance for the British Society for Literature and Science, emphasised that 'Catani and Sandrone have produced a remarkable compilation of the history of neuroscience from Vesalius to the present day' and that this book 'is relevant both to students of medicine, and to those interested in Renaissance studies, medicine, and history.' +In PsycCRITIQUES, Gordon M. Burghardt noted that 'Brain Renaissance is even more valuable for those teaching neuroscience in all its guises and at whatever levels, in universities and medical schools. There are lots of lecture tidbits at the very least, helping put our modern conceits as part of a long journey to understand mind and behavior.' + + +== Notes == + + +== Bibliography == +Marco Catani, Stefano Sandrone (2015). Brain Renaissance. From Vesalius to modern neuroscience. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199383832. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_Rules-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_Rules-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..12ba90807 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_Rules-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +--- +title: "Brain Rules" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain_Rules" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:18.414265+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Brain Rules: 12 Principles for Surviving and Thriving at Work, Home, and School is a book written by John Medina, a developmental molecular biologist. The book has tried to explain how the brain works in twelve perspectives: exercise, survival, wiring, attention, short-term memory, long-term memory, sleep, stress, multisensory perception, vision, gender and exploration. Each chapter demonstrates things scientists already know about the brain, and things we as people do that can affect how our brain will develop. + + +== Background == +When the author has encountered certain articles and books with startling claims, such as, "Mozart Effect", on how brain functions and how we should teach or do business, he did not find any supporting evidence in brain science literature he was familiar with. He has concluded that all these misconceptions are there because brain scientists have not sufficiently talked to people at other domains, such as teachers, business professionals, education majors, etc. Therefore, he has decided to close this gap by writing this book. +In this book, Medina cites only research that has appeared in peer-reviewed journals and that has been successfully replicated. The author has listed all the references he has used here Archived 2018-03-24 at the Wayback Machine. + + +== Content == +The review article by Luciano Passuello has listed the following 12 principles from the book: + +Exercise. Exercise boosts brain power. +Survival. The human brain evolved, too. +Wiring. Every brain is wired differently. +Attention. We don’t pay attention to boring things. +Short-term memory. Repeat to remember. +Long-term memory. Remember to repeat. +Sleep. Sleep well, think well. +Stress. Stressed brains don’t learn the same way. +Sensory integration. Stimulate more of the senses. +Vision. Vision trumps all other senses. +Gender. Male and female brains are different. +Exploration. We are powerful and natural explorers. + + +== Review == +The book was in The New York Times Best Seller list on June 14, 2009, at number 14 under the Paperback Advice & Misc category. + + +== Releases == +The book has been initially published from Pear Press in 2008 and has 301 pages. +Scribe Publications Pty Ltd has published it as an ebook in 2011. +It has been released as an audiobook by Pear Press in 2014. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +The author's site \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brainwashing b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brainwashing new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e69de29bb diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRC_Handbook_of_Chemistry_and_Physics-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRC_Handbook_of_Chemistry_and_Physics-0.md index 7dc94aa83..ceb80302c 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRC_Handbook_of_Chemistry_and_Physics-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRC_Handbook_of_Chemistry_and_Physics-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRC_Handbook_of_Chemistry_and_Physics" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:35:12.138702+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:19.118897+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculating_Space-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculating_Space-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7251984b0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculating_Space-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Calculating Space" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculating_Space" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:12.805197+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Calculating Space (German: Rechnender Raum) is Konrad Zuse's 1969 book on automata theory. He proposed that all processes in the universe are computational. This view is known today as the simulation hypothesis, digital philosophy, digital physics or pancomputationalism. Zuse proposed that the universe is being computed by some sort of cellular automaton or other discrete computing machinery, challenging the long-held view that some physical laws are continuous by nature. He focused on cellular automata as a possible substrate of the computation and pointed out that the classical notions of entropy and its growth do not make sense in deterministically computed universes. + + +== See also == +A New Kind of Science +Simulated reality + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == +Zuse, Konrad (1969). Rechnender Raum [Calculating Space]. Schriften zur Datenverarbeitung (in German). Vol. 1. Braunschweig, Germany: Friedrich Vieweg & Sohn. ISBN 3-528-09609-8. (70+4 pages) +Zuse, Konrad (February 1970). "Calculating Space - Translation of: Rechnender Raum" (PDF). MIT Technical Translation. Translated by Aztec School of Languages, Inc. Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology. AZT-70-164-GEMIT (Project MAC). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-07-06. Retrieved 2020-03-25. (98 pages); Zuse, Konrad (2012). "Konrad Zuse's Rechnender Raum (Calculating Space)" (PDF). In German, Adrian; Zenil, Hector (eds.). A Computable Universe: Understanding & Exploring Nature as Computation (re-edition in LaTeX with permission of MIT and Zuse's family ed.). World Scientific. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-05-21. Retrieved 2025-09-13. (69 pages) +Alex, Jürgen (2007). "Rechnender Raum". Zur Entstehung des Computers - Von Alfred Tarski zu Konrad Zuse [...] - Tertium non datur. Düsseldorf, Germany: VDI-Verlag. pp. 251–279. ISBN 978-3-18-150051-4. ISSN 0082-2361. + + +== External links == +Jürgen Schmidhuber's site Zuse's book and 1967 paper. +Calculating Space - a painting by Zuse - Konrad Zuse's visualization of the idea +Web article and simulation of such a calculating space in C and LIBPNG +SecondSpace Simulation of waves within a 2D space (time and space are discrete), similar to FDTD. An OpenCL graphic card is needed. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Categories b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Categories new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e69de29bb diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concise_Encyclopedia_of_Supersymmetry_and_Noncommutative_Structures_in_Mathematics_and_Physics-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concise_Encyclopedia_of_Supersymmetry_and_Noncommutative_Structures_in_Mathematics_and_Physics-0.md index eba21f6b5..4ce76bac8 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concise_Encyclopedia_of_Supersymmetry_and_Noncommutative_Structures_in_Mathematics_and_Physics-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concise_Encyclopedia_of_Supersymmetry_and_Noncommutative_Structures_in_Mathematics_and_Physics-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concise_Encyclopedia_of_Supersymmetry_and_Noncommutative_Structures_in_Mathematics_and_Physics" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:28:44.267951+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:16.652705+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectome_(book)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectome_(book)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..cde3c4a64 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectome_(book)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,63 @@ +--- +title: "Connectome (book)" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectome_(book)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:21.954926+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Connectome: How the Brain's Wiring Makes Us Who We Are (2012) is a book by Sebastian Seung. It introduces basic concepts in neuroscience and then elaborates on the field of connectomics, that is, how to scan, decode, compare, and understand patterns in brain connectivity. The book concludes with musings on cryonics and mind uploading. It was selected by The Wall Street Journal as Top Ten Nonfiction of 2012. + +== Book outline == + +=== Introduction === +Seung frames the idea of connectomics and argues that "You are more than your genes. You are your connectome." + +=== Ch. 1: Genius and Madness === +Seung introduces the 19th-century idea of phrenology and its modern-day counterpart, which he calls "neo-phrenology", i.e., the idea that sizes of brain regions play a role in intelligence (e.g., Einstein's enlarged inferior parietal lobule) or mental disorders (e.g., schizophrenia and autism). That said, Seung emphasizes that these size correlations only show up for large samples and cannot necessarily predict what will happen in any individual's brain. + +=== Ch. 2: Border Disputes === +Seung discusses localization maps of the brain that attempt to confine particular functions to particular regions. For instance, phantom-limb pain is hypothesized to result when brain regions formerly devoted to the now-missing lower arm become occupied for use by the upper arm and face. Hence, stimulation of the upper arm or face produces what feels like pain in the missing lower arm. +In contrast to brain localization is the theory of equipotentiality, that any brain region has the potential to perform any function. + +=== Ch. 3: No Neuron Is an Island === +Seung discusses basic cell-level neuroscience, including the structure of neurons and their neurites, as well as a "weighted voting model" of neuronal firing in which a neuron fires when the weighted sum of excitatory minus inhibitory inputs exceeds a threshold. + +=== Ch. 4: Neurons All the Way Down === +Seung explores how hierarchical neural networks can encode concepts (e.g., Jennifer Aniston) as compositions of simpler parts and how these concepts can be linked in one's mind when connections are formed between them, either bidirectionally with cell assemblies or unidirectionally with synaptic chains. + +=== Ch. 5: The Assembly of Memories === +Seung discusses theories of memory formation, including basic Hebbian plasticity and the more speculative neural Darwinism. According to the "dual trace" theory of memory, short-term memory can take the form of persistent spiking among a cell assembly, while long-term memories can be stored in persistent connections. It is useful to have both types of memory because of a "stability-plasticity dilemma", which is a concept familiar in computers that use both RAM and hard drive storage. + +=== Ch. 6: The Forestry of the Genes === +Seung discusses how many psychological traits and disorders are at least partly genetic. (He quotes Eric Turkheimer's First Law of Behavior Genetics: "All human behavioral traits are heritable.") He elaborates on some of the mechanisms by which genes influence neural development and can lead to neural disorders. + +=== Ch. 7: Renewing Our Potential === +To what extent are the first three years of development a crucial window after which brain traits cannot be reversed? And to what extent do brains remain plastic throughout life? Seung discusses evidence on both sides to show that the truth is a little bit of both. + +=== Ch. 8: Seeing Is Believing === +Seung discusses how advances in technologies to see the brain have driven neuroscience progress—in the long run arguably more than the immediate neuroscientific advances that these technologies enabled. + +=== Ch. 9: Following the Trail === + +Seung reviews the history of mapping the Caenorhabditis elegans connectome by Sydney Brenner and colleagues, published in 1986. The process required immense manual labor, but connectome mapping is speeding up due to automation with artificial intelligence and intelligence amplification. + +=== Ch. 10: Carving === +Seung discusses ways of dividing up the brain into regions. Korbinian Brodmann based his Brodmann areas on uniformity of cortical layers within each area. Santiago Ramón y Cajal tried to identify types of neurons based on their shapes. Seung himself proposes to divide brain regions based on what other regions they generally connect to. He says this might often coincide with Brodmann's or Cajal's divisions, but if we ultimately care about connectivity, Seung's classification would be most directly relevant. + +=== Ch. 11: Codebreaking === +Seung discusses decoding memories from neural connections. As an example potentially feasible in the near/medium term, he suggests the HVC region in birds, which may store their songs in a roughly analogous way as a compact disc stores Beethoven music. + +=== Ch. 12: Comparing === +Seung discusses how to look at differences among brains based on differences in connectivity. This can be approximated at a coarse level using diffusion MRI or at more fine-grained levels using connectome maps. + +=== Ch. 13: Changing === +Seung examines how connectomics may in the future help identify neurological problems before they become serious and inform development of drugs or gene therapies for connectopathies. + +=== Ch. 14: To Freeze or to Pickle? === +Seung examines the efforts of the Alcor Life Extension Foundation to offer some chance of immortality by cryonics. He compares preservation in liquid nitrogen with a plastination approach that, unlike Alcor's method, requires "no special maintenance". + +=== Ch. 15: Save As ... === +Seung explores the idea of mind uploading and associated philosophical implications, such as using an analogue of the Turing test to determine if a simulation has sufficient fidelity to appear as the real "you" to outsiders, as well as whether you would subjectively feel the upload to be "you" on the inside relative to your stored self-model. Seung discusses the idea that thinking of ourselves as information—as not neurons per se but as the connections of neurons—can be seen as a new conception of the soul. He suggests that transhumanism can give spiritual purpose to a seemingly cold, material universe: "transhumanism lends meaning to lives that were robbed of it by science" (p. 273). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectome_(book)-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectome_(book)-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1be517fa3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectome_(book)-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "Connectome (book)" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connectome_(book)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:21.954926+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Reactions == +Abigail Zuger characterized Connectome as a book arguing that we are more than just our genes. She adds: "it is a testament to Dr. Seung's remarkable clarity of exposition that the reader is swept along with his enthusiasm". Terry Sejnowski echoed this sentiment about the book's style: "With the first-person flavour of James Watson's Double Helix—an account of how DNA's structure was discovered—Connectome gives a sense of the excitement on the cutting edge of neuroscience." +Susan Okie affirms that "Seung is a clear, lively writer who chooses vivid examples," though she expresses skepticism about the "science-fiction fantasy that, one day, a human being's connectome could be simulated and 'uploaded' onto a computer". +Daniel Levitin praised Connectome as "the best lay book on brain science I've ever read." He says it is "witty and exceptionally clear" and includes "the equivalent of a college course on neuroscience". That said, Levitin raised the caveat that a person's connectome by itself is not the whole story of who that person is, because beyond understanding neural wiring, "we also need to know the precise chemical soup du jour in the brain" as well as the update rules for how experiences change brain connections. + +Christof Koch said: "Treating the connectome as the be-all and end-all of brain function has its problems. ... The book is well illustrated and sourced with an ending that is both engaging and idiosyncratic." But like Levitin, Koch felt that the connectome by itself is missing some pieces of the picture and that not all brain diseases are diseases of connectivity. Other possible problems may arise from "Faults in synaptic transmission and in processes inside neurons and the glial cells that support them". + +== See also == +Memory +Connectionism +Connectogram + +== Notes == + +== External links == +Official book website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_Evolution-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_Evolution-0.md index 115f6f9e6..fcebb7930 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_Evolution-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_Evolution-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_Evolution" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:32:55.807812+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:17.866701+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_Mass_(book)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_Mass_(book)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1fe27ea0d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_Mass_(book)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,36 @@ +--- +title: "Critical Mass (book)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_Mass_(book)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:20.286126+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Critical Mass: How One Thing Leads to Another, a non-fiction book by English chemist and physicist Philip Ball originally published in 2004, discusses the concept of a "physics of society". Ball discusses thinkers such as Thomas Hobbes, Lewis Mumford, Emyr Hughes, and Gottfried Achenwall who have attempted to apply (or argue against the use of) physics, chemistry, or mathematics in the study of mass social phenomena. He also discusses how the concept relates to recent research, including his own. + + +== Physics of society == +The outlines of Ball's Critical Mass, the most popular of his many noted books, beginning in various circa 2001 lectures, talks, and articles focused on what he calls a 'physics of society', similar to the social physics in the Auguste Comte sense, a subject Ball approaches using statistical mechanics viewing people as atoms or molecules that show characteristic behaviours in bulk. The following is an excerpt of his 2003 talk on the physical modeling of society: + +"There seem to be 'laws' [of] social systems that have at least something of the character of natural physical laws, in that they do not yield easily to planned and arbitrary interventions. Over the past several decades, social, economic and political scientists have begun a dialogue with physical and biological scientists to try to discover whether there is truly a 'physics of society', and if so, what its laws and principles are. In particular, they have begun to regard complex modes of human activity as collections of many interacting 'agents' - somewhat analogous to a fluid of interacting atoms or molecules, but within which there is scope for decision-making, learning and adaptation." +In his 2004 book, Ball summarizes this to the effect that "to develop a physics of society, we must take a bold step that some might regard as a leap of faith and others as preposterous idealization: particles become people." Nearly as soon as he gives this definition, however, Ball falls back on the two biggest hurdles to this perspective: that of the theories of being alive and of free will, both of which seem to contradict the physics viewpoint. + + +== Other topics == +Other topics discussed in the book include the business cycle, random walks, phase transitions, bifurcation theory, traffic flow, Zipf's law, Small world phenomenon, catastrophe theory, the Prisoner's dilemma. The overall theme is one of applying modern mathematical models to social and economic phenomena. + + +== Awards == +Critical Mass was the winner of the 2005 Aventis Prize for Science Books. + + +== See also == +Critical mass (sociodynamics) +Psychohistory +Historical materialism +Network economics + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Beghinselen_Der_Weeghconst-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Beghinselen_Der_Weeghconst-0.md index ac001ea7c..af119bd75 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Beghinselen_Der_Weeghconst-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Beghinselen_Der_Weeghconst-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Beghinselen_Der_Weeghconst" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:43:29.997146+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:07.980193+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Magnete-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Magnete-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..23b3b4907 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Magnete-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,76 @@ +--- +title: "De Magnete" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Magnete" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:22.751224+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +De Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus, et de Magno Magnete Tellure (On the Magnet and Magnetic Bodies, and on That Great Magnet the Earth) is a scientific work published in 1600 by the English physician and scientist William Gilbert. A highly influential and successful book, it exerted an immediate influence on many contemporary writers, including Francis Godwin and Mark Ridley. + + +== Contents == +In De Magnete, Gilbert described many of his experiments with his model Earth called the terrella. Gilbert made the claim that gravity was due to the same force and he believed that this held the Moon in orbit around the Earth. +The work then considered static electricity produced by amber. Amber is called elektron in Greek, and electrum in Latin, so Gilbert decided to refer to the phenomenon by the adjective electricus. + + +== Summary == +De Magnete consists of six books. + + +=== Book 1 === +Historical survey of magnetism and theory of Earth's magnetism. The lodestone in antiquity from Plato onwards and the gradual identification of iron ores. The south pole of a lodestone points to the north pole of the Earth and vice versa as the terrestrial globe is magnetic. + + +=== Book 2 === + +Distinction between electricity and magnetism. An amber stick when rubbed affects a rotating needle made of any type of metal (a versorium) and attracts paper, leaves and even water. But electricity is different from heat and to magnetism which only attracts iron-bearing materials (he calls it coition). He shows the effects of cutting a spherical lodestone (which he calls a terrella) through the poles and equator and the direction of attraction at different points. Magnets act at a distance but the force has no permanent presence and is not hindered like light. Materials including gold, silver and diamonds are not affected by magnets, nor can one produce perpetual motion. + + +=== Book 3 === + +The Earth's normal magnetism. He proposes (incorrectly) that the angle of the ecliptic and precession of the equinoxes are caused by magnetism. A lodestone cut out of rock and floated in water returns to the same direction. Iron heated to white heat and cooled lying along a meridian also acquires magnetism. But stroking with other materials fails—he proved this with an experiment with 75 diamonds in front of witnesses. The best way to magnetize a compass (magnetized versorium). + + +=== Book 4 === +Declination. The compass does not always point to true north. There is considerable variation. Using the terrella he shows that variations in the height of the surface can lead to differences but insists that variation is a global issue. In the midst of the ocean or continent there is no variation. He shows how to measure variation and the sources of common errors. + + +=== Book 5 === + Magnetic dip. The angle of inclination (dip) of a compass to the horizon differs according to latitude. He shows how to construct a dip instrument. At the equator it is level and increases towards the poles as he has shown earlier with his terrella. + + +=== Book 6 === +Terrestrial rotation. Heraclides and others held that the Earth rotates from west to east and this is supported by Copernicus (the "restorer of astronomy"), but Aristotle said otherwise. "If the rotations of the earth seems headlong and not to be permitted by nature because of its rapidity, then worse than insane, both as regards itself and the whole universe is the motion of the primum mobile." He rejects the idea of a sphere of the fixed stars for which no proof has been offered and leaves aside the question of other movements of the Earth but "infers not with mere probability, but with certainty the diurnal revolution of the earth." He states that "the cause of the diurnal motion are to be found in the magnetic energy and the alliance of bodies" but offers no further guidance. The inclination of the Earth's pole to the ecliptic produces the seasons. He explains the precession of the equinoxes as the movement of the Earth's axis. +In Chapter III, Gilbert argues in favor of the Copernican System. He posits that due to the inordinate distance of the celestial spheres, if in fact the spheres exist at all, it is an absurd idea that they would rotate every 24 hours, as opposed to the rotation of the relatively tiny sphere of the Earth. He states, "How far away from the earth are those remotest of stars: they are beyond the reach of eye, or man's devices, or man's thought. What an absurdity is this motion (of spheres)." He also argues for the extreme variability of the distance to the various heavenly bodies and states that situated "in thinnest aether, or in the most subtle fifth essence, or in vacuity – how shall the stars keep their places in the mighty swirl of these enormous spheres composed of a substance of which no one knows aught?". + + +== Editions == +De Magnete, Peter Short, London, 1600 (1st edition, in Latin) +De Magnete, Wolfgang Lockmans, Stettin, 1628 (2nd edition, in Latin) +De Magnete, 1633 (3rd edition, in Latin) +De Magnete, 1892 (facsimile of 1st edition) +De Magnete, English translation by Paul Fleury Mottelay, 1893 +Gilbert, William (1893). De Magnete. Translated by Mottelay, P. Fleury. (Facsimile). New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-26761-X. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) +also published in Vol 28 of Great Books series by Encyclopædia Britannica, 1952. +De Magnete. translation by Silvanus Phillips Thompson and the Gilbert Club; limited to 250 copies. London: Chiswick Press. 1900.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link) +Gilbert, William (1958). Derek J. Price (ed.). On the Magnet. The Collector's Series in Science. New York: Basic Books. (Facsimile of 1900 Thompson translation) +Gilbert, William (1967) [1600]. De Magnete. Brussels: Culture et Civilisation. (Facsimile of Peter Short 1600 edition) + + +== Analysis == + +De Magnete was influential because of the inherent interest of its subject matter, but also for the rigorous way in which Gilbert described his experiments and his rejection of ancient theories of magnetism. Gilbert nevertheless acknowledged his debt to Peter of Maricourt and incorporated this 13th-century scientist's experiments on magnetism into his own treatise. + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == + + +== External links == +Guilielmi Gilberti Colcestrensis From the Collections at the Library of Congress. +On the Magnet, Magnetick Bodies Also, and on the Great Magnet The Earth, the 1900 English edition printed by Chiswick Press at Project Gutenberg. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b968b3a56 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "De motu antiquiora" +chunk: 1/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:23.985272+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +De motu antiquiora ("The Older Writings on Motion"), or simply De Motu, is Galileo Galilei's early written work on motion (not to be confused with Newton's De motu corporum in gyrum, which shares the abbreviated name, De Motu). It was written largely between 1589 and 1592, but was not published in full until 1890. De Motu is known for expressing Galileo's ideas on motion during his Pisan period prior to transferring to Padua. +Galileo left the manuscript unfinished and unpublished in his lifetime due to several uncertainties in his understanding and his mathematics. It is unclear whether this book was initially made out to be a book in the form of a dialogue or a more conventional way of writing. The reason for this is that Galileo worked on this book for many years, creating multiple copies of each section. In the last parts of his work, the writing style changes from an essay to a dialogue between two people who strongly uphold his views. Galileo would later incorporate select arguments and examples from his De Motu into his subsequent works Le Mecaniche (On Mechanics), Discorso intorno alle cose che stanno in su l'acqua (Discourse on Floating Bodies), and Discorsi e dimostrazioni matematiche intorno a due nuove scienze (Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences). +Throughout De Motu, Galileo rejects Aristotle's views on the physics of motion, often with mocking tones, through various reductio ad absurdum arguments that demonstrate how Aristotle's assumptions on motion logically result in absurd conclusions that were contrary to observation or against his original assumptions, thus proving that the assumptions must be false. However, despite his frequent stinging criticism of Aristotle’s physics, Galileo’s De Motu still clung to the classical elements as a foundational cause for motion in which all matter moves toward its respective natural place in the universe. +He further proposes an alternative theory to motion in which, instead of motion being propagated by the rushing of air (as was taught by the Peripatetics), it is believed that the true weight of a body can only be measured in a void, that the weight of the body in a medium is modified by its buoyancy in the medium (i.e., apparent weight), that the weight resulting from this buoyancy causes the body's natural motion, that projectile motion (distinct from natural motion) is believed to be the result of an impressed forced that modifies a weight of the projectile, and that the impressed force depletes over time much like how a hot object returns to its natural coldness. +De Motu is notable for containing the earliest reference of Galileo’s interest in pendulums in which he observes that heavier objects would continue to oscillate for a greater amount of time than lighter objects. However, he misattributes this phenomenon as evidence that the impressed force in a moving body self-depletes faster in lighter bodies than in heavier bodies as opposed to air resistance having a greater effect on the lighter body. +It’s questionable how much of Galileo’s ideas in De Motu were original. Some of the ideas of the De Motu are found in antiquity, others in the Middle Ages and among Galileo’s immediate predecessors in Italy. The subjects discussed in the essay are largely the subjects that had long been under discussion in academic circles, but while the solutions put forth by Galileo to individual problems are not, in general, original discoveries, the work as a whole gives a distinct impression of originality. This is due to the underlying unity of conception, the skillful linking of ideas, the constant recourse to mathematics, and the lucidity of the reasoning and the style. + +== Publication history == +De Motu may have been originally intended for publication, but Galileo eventually abandoned it in an incomplete form. What remains now includes a first draft essay on motion, several reworked portions of the essay, a dialogue, a set of topics and propositions, and a series of fragmentary thoughts, notes, and memoranda. +Portions of the manuscript were first published in 1854 in Volume 11 of Eugenio Albèri’s edition of Galileo’s works, and the remaining portions were published in 1883 by Antonio Favaro. The manuscript was later published under the title De Motu in volume I of the National Edition of the works of Galileo, edited in 1890 by Favaro, which contained certain manuscripts written in Latin in Galileo’s own hand. The first and only English translation of the essay portion of De Motu translated by I. E. Drabkin was published in 1960 under the title On Motion and On Mechanics, which was included alongside Stillman Drake's translation of Galileo's Le Mecaniche. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bafdeb960 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "De motu antiquiora" +chunk: 2/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:23.985272+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Influences and origins of Galileo's Pisan dynamics == +Historians have debated the exact influences and development of Galileo’s early dynamics during his Pisan period and whether his early concepts of impressed forces were directly descended from the medieval impetus theory of the 14th century. +Pierre Duhem proposed that Galileo’s Pisan dynamics was a continuation of the tradition taught by Jean Buridan and Nicole Oresme, in which Galileo continued to perfect the impetus theory throughout his career, potentially drawing influence from Giambattista Benedetti whose dynamics are generally described as a partisan of the impetus physics. +Alexandre Koyré also noted Benedetti's potential influence on Galileo but argued, against Duhem, that Galileo’s Pisan dynamics was an attempt to achieve a coherent mathematical formulation of medieval impetus modeled after Archimedes’ statics, but instead of perfecting it, as suggested by Duhem, Galileo ultimately failed, which led him to abandon the medieval tradition and began anew into his Paduan period. +Ernest Moody pointed out that Galileo’s arguments that rejected Aristotle’s explanation for projectile motion were exactly the same as those used by Buridan and Albert of Saxony, and was therefore not original; however, Moody argued against Duhem and Koyré that Galileo’s early dynamics were not modeled after the Buridan impetus, but rather based upon 11th-century Avenpace’s dynamics, which stemmed from the ideas of 6th-century John Philoponus of Alexandria. Moody suggests that it’s possible Galileo may have learned of Avenpace’s theories through Benedetti, but that it’s also possible that he may have learned of Avenpace through his contemporary, Jerome Borro, who wrote about Averroes’s criticism against Avempace’s arguments against Aristotelean physics. Further, Galileo was also influenced by his senior colleague at Pisa, Francisco Bonamico, who also discussed the problem of projectile motion in his own De Motu and mentioned that Philoponus is the originator of the theory of impressed forces. Moody suggests that Bonamico was acquainted with the medieval tradition of impetus physics, but only at a second- or third-hand account, especially in regard to the 14th-century contribution to mechanics, which is what led Koyré to assume that Bonamico’s views were an approximation of Buridan’s impetus and were the same as the impressed force theory of Philoponus, Peter John Olivi, and Francis of Marchia. Moody also credits the works of Benito Pereira, J. C. Scaliger, and Jacob Zabarella as potential influences. + +== Distinguishing Galileo's early impressed forces from Buridanist impetus == +Moody asserts that there is not only a developmental difference but also in meaning between Galilean impressed forces (virtus impressa) and Buridanist impetus: Buridan’s impetus was an “enduring reality” (res permanens) that would remain undiminished forever if left unimpeded by air and gravity, much like the modern treatment of momentum; whereas Galileo’s impressed forces were primarily self-depleting that is supplementally impeded by air resistance. This meant that the explanations for natural acceleration were radically different from each other since, for an object falling indefinitely in a void, the object’s Buridan impetus and speed would infinitely increase forever, whereas Galilean impressed force would eventually decay asymptotically to nothing as the object approaches a terminal velocity in the void. +Another further distinction is made regarding rotational motion, specifically in explaining the rotation of the celestial spheres. Prior philosophers, such as Avicenna, al-Ghazali, Moses Maimonides, and most Christian scholastic philosophers, thought that the rotation of the celestial spheres required a constant force to maintain its rotation, and identified Aristotle's “intelligences” that pushed these spheres with the angels of revelation, thereby associating an angel with each of the spheres. Buridan proposed that impetus wouldn’t need to posit angels or “Intelligences” as movers of the heavens, for if we suppose that God, at the creation of the world, set the heavenly bodies in motion at their present rates of rotation, no further action by a “mover” would be required, because their original impetus would endure undiminished forever, in the absence of resistance or of opposed forces. Galileo, on the other hand, only partially answers this question by asserting that the rotation of the celestial sphere is not the result of a forced motion since the spheres do not recede from the center of the universe, nor is it natural motion since spheres do not appear to approach a natural place. This further raised the question if the rotation of the spheres moved perpetually or if they would eventually come to rest in the absence of a force, however, Galileo leaves the question unanswered. + +== Synopsis of the essay portion == +Galileo arranged his essay into unnumbered chapters; enumerated chapters were later added by Drabkin to facilitate cross-referencing. + The reader is cautioned that, although Galileo’s arguments may appear sound throughout, some of his arguments contain errors due to flawed premises or mathematics. + +=== Chapter 1: Heaviness and lightness === +Galileo begins by defining heaviness and lightness, which is effectively the equivalent of the modern concept of specific gravity or relative density. Two substances are considered equally heavy when they are equal in both volume and weight. A first substance is called “heavier” than a second substance when the first weighs more than the second while both are equal in volume. +In this same arrangement, the second substance is called “lighter” than the first; however, Galileo defines "lightness (levius)" in the sense of being "less heavy (in gravitate minor)" than something else in a relative sense. In other words, all things have some degree of inherent heaviness and not an inherent lightness. In later reworkings of the De motu, Galileo emphasizes this distinction by removing the use of "light" throughout the work with substitutions of "less heavy." Thus, a reworked chapter 2 begins with, "That heavier bodies are by nature located nearer the center, and less heavy farther from the center, and why." With this distinction, Galileo is able to emphasize that upward motion is indeed forced motion by a heavier medium rather than by the object's inherent levity. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-10.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-10.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2e09c0cbf --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-10.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "De motu antiquiora" +chunk: 11/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:23.985272+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Chapter 19: The cause of acceleration of natural motion towards the end of motion === +Galileo admits he struggled to find an explanation as to why objects accelerate toward the end of its motion. Although he states that he was excited to find a solution, the explanation he provides is mostly erroneous. Galileo would later provide a correct description of natural acceleration in his Two New Sciences: interlocutor Salviati, who represents an older Galileo, explicitly states that he would not provide an explanation as to the cause of such acceleration, but the explanation provided here is expressed by the interlocutor, Sagredo, who represents a younger Galileo. +Aristotle argued against such acceleration, stating that natural motion is not accelerated by extrusion since that would imply forced motion, but later, the Peripatetics would argue that it was the rushing of air behind the projectile that caused the acceleration. Galileo states that this doesn’t explain why a rhombus-shaped object would accelerate since the rushing air would become split by the edges of the shape and therefore unable to strike the object. +Instead, Galileo argues that, since a heavy falling body moves more slowly at the beginning, it follows that the body is less heavy at the beginning of its motion than in the middle or end and that this is the result of a force. The question then becomes: why is the body less heavy at the beginning of the motion? +He explains that, when a heavy body is moved upward by force, an impelling force greater than the resisting weight is required, otherwise the resisting weight could not be overcome. In other words, the body moves upward provided that the impressed motive force is greater than the resisting weight. But since that force diminishes over time, it will eventually become so weak that it cannot overcome the weight of the body, and then, at its apex, it reverses its course. However, at the apex, the impressed force is not entirely destroyed, but rather no longer exceeds the weight of the body and is equal to it. At that moment, the body is neither heavy nor light. After the apex, the impressed force continues to decrease with the weight of the body being the dominant driver of motion. However, at the beginning of the descent from the apex, the impressed force still contributes to the lightness of the body, despite being less than the weight, and hence why the motion of its descent is slower at the beginning. +Galileo then acknowledges that this explanation for acceleration was previously put forth by the philosopher Hipparchus as cited by Ptolemy in his Almagest, but Galileo believed Hipparchus’s explanation was imperfect and was rejected by subsequent philosophers as a result. + +=== Chapter 20: A demonstration that, at the apex of projectile motion, an interval of rest does not occur === +Aristotle and his followers believed that two contrary motions could not be continuous with each other, and therefore when a stone is thrown upward and falls back down, it must necessarily remain at rest at the apex for an interval of time. Galileo rejects this through a series of rebuttals, including a reference to the work De Revolutionibus by Nicolaus Copernicus. Galileo concludes that a state of rest at the apex does not occur over an interval, but instead passes through rest in an instant. This discussion is revisited in Two New Sciences. + +=== Chapter 21: It is proved that if natural motion could be extended without limit, it would not become swifter without limit === +Aristotle believed that if natural motion continued without limit, the weight of the body and the speed of its motion would be increased without limit, but since infinite weight and infinite speed cannot exist, he concludes that such motion would be impossible. +Galileo disagrees but instead argues that speed is not increased continuously, and even if it could, such that the motion could be extended without limit, the body would not attain infinite weight and speed. He argues that the impressed force of a projectile would eventually be used up, and that acceleration would eventually cease and thus the object would attain some terminal velocity (Galileo would later discuss terminal velocity again in Two New Sciences, but with the explanation that terminal velocity is reached due to air resistance and not because of some depletion of an impressed force). This argument suggests that Galileo believed that terminal velocity is achieved even in a void. +For example, it is observed that a feather falling from some height moves slowly at the beginning of its motion, but then later maintains a uniform motion. The reason being, according to Galileo, is that less heavy objects only carry an amount of contrary upward force equal to their own weight, and since they are not very heavy, the contrary impressed force is also small. Therefore, the impressed force is quickly depleted, thus quickly attaining a uniform motion in its fall. He also refers to the analogy of heat: a glowing iron eventually becomes cold with all its heat removed; likewise, a stone changes from light to heavy, losing all its received lightness, eventually attaining a uniform speed. Furthermore, the approach of such terminal velocity would be asymptotic, such as the hyperbola as discussed in the Conics of Apollonius of Perga, or the first conchoid curve of Nicomedes in the commentary of Eutocius of Ascalon regarding Archimedes’ On the Sphere and Cylinder, book 2. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-11.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-11.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f45c1b0a0 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-11.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "De motu antiquiora" +chunk: 12/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:23.985272+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Chapter 22: An explanation as to why, at the beginning of their motion, less heavy bodies move more swiftly than heavier ones === +Averroes and his followers had proposed a solution to this question that supposed that elements were heavy in their own region, a proposition that Galileo rejected in Chapter 11. They also believed that a wooden sphere contains more air in it than a lead sphere, thus making the wooden sphere move more swiftly; further, it was believed that lead is heavier than iron in air because the lead contained more air than in iron – Galileo states that it’s obvious that this argument contains many complications. +Instead, Galileo proposes that, when objects begin their natural motion from rest, it begins with an impressed force that is equal but opposite to their weight (i.e., a hand or some device initially supporting the object provides the impressed force). As a result, heavier bodies begin their motion with a greater contrary force and thus fall more slowly at the beginning of their motion than lighter bodies, but once the contrary force is depleted, the heavier body then falls faster than lighter bodies, as is seen from experience. +However, he admits that there remains some difficulty with his proposed theory: even though heavier bodies begin with a greater amount of impressed force, they also have more weight that can overcome it, which suggests that the heavy and the light should fall with equal speeds. However, he responds that it’s not the weight that depletes the contrary force, but rather the contrary force depletes itself, much like how hot iron grows cold. +He then observes that impressed force depletes faster in lighter objects: lead flies further and with more time than wood when shot from a cannon; and when a pendulum made of wood and another made of lead are drawn with the same initial displacement and are permitted to swing, the lead pendulum swings for a longer period of time (this is the earliest reference of Galileo’s interest in pendulums; he refers to this example again in his Two New Sciences). Lastly, he argues that the impressed force is analogous to heat, such that heavier bodies retain both their heat and impetus for a longer amount of time than lighter bodies. Galileo then concludes from these examples that this explains why lighter bodies move faster than heavier bodies initially in their fall. + +=== Chapter 23: An explanation why objects shot at a greater angle from the horizon move closer along a straight line than at lesser angles === +Galileo recalls the earlier explanation for the inclined plane–that heavy objects are easily pushed when the inclines is at lesser angles, but when shot at an angle from a cannon, it seems the opposite is true. However, he notes that the difference here is that the object is no longer supported by an incline, but is instead carried by the impressed force. +To explain this phenomenon, he claims that the impressed force is impressed more strongly on that which resists its motion more. Thus, if we can find situations where an object’s resistance is greater, then so too will the impressed force be more impressed—pressing against an object’s motion offers more resistance than if the object were at rest or moves in the same direction. In other words, the resistance of the object is increased by the movement of its weight. For example, when playing stickball, the hitter wants the ball thrown towards them, allowing them to impress more force upon it since its resistance is greater, while it’s more difficult to impress a force when the ball is still, and even more difficult when the ball is moving away from the hitter. The same may be said when throwing a stone in which we must draw our hand back initially for the throw, and the same is said when a stone is shot by a slinger. +Under these observations, Galileo argues that, when firing a cannon, the iron ball offers more resistance in its motion when the cannon is aimed more vertically than horizontally, and thus fires straighter for a longer distance and time. Also, when the cannon fired is fired vertically, the ball cannot reverse course until its impressed force is depleted (this contradicts what is said in Chapter 19 where the impressed force is believed to be equal to the weight at the apex), but this does not happen when fired horizontally. + +== See also == +Two New Sciences (Galileo's first published investigations of the motion of falling bodies) + +== References == + +== External links == +Collection of Galileo Galilei's Manuscripts and Related Translations Archived 2009-11-28 at the Wayback Machine \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..09d397ce6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "De motu antiquiora" +chunk: 3/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:23.985272+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Chapter 2: Heavy substances are by nature located in a lower place and light substances in a higher place === +Galileo assumes a quasi-Aristotelean arrangement of the universe based on the classical elements where things move according to their proper place: earth rests at the center, water is above earth, air is above water, and fire is above air. Based on this arrangement, it appears Galileo assumes a Ptolemaic system that places Earth at the center of the universe, despite his later acknowledgment of Nicolaus Copernicus’s De revolutionibus orbium coelestium in Chapter 20. +Galileo indicates that Aristotle gave no reason for the arrangement of the classical elements other than that everything must be disposed in some arrangement as provided by divine providence; however, Galileo finds this view unsatisfactory and believes that Aristotle was potentially incorrect in his criticism of the ancient monist and atomist theories. He argues that, if the monists and atomists were correct, it would provide a logical explanation for the arrangement of the elements: heavier bodies would enclose more particles of that matter in a narrower space and would also occupy narrower places, such as those near the center of the universe (Galileo claims that spaces become narrower as we approach the center of a sphere without further elucidating his meaning). For example, earth elements occupy a small amount of space, whereas air elements occupy an ample amount of space. Galileo concludes that the arrangement of the universe isn’t randomly chosen, but is executed with both prudence and justice. + +=== Chapter 3: Natural motion is caused by heaviness or lightness === +Bodies (composed of the classical elements) are at rest when at their proper place, but when displaced above a lighter body, they will move down below the lighter body unless the lighter is forced to remain under the heavier. The converse applies to lighter bodies. For “natural” motion (as opposed to “violent” upward-projectile motion), both the heaviness/lightness of the body and the heaviness/lightness of the medium are to be compared, for if water were not lighter than stone, a stone would not sink in water. Galileo reemphasizes that heaviness/lightness (i.e., density) should be observed strictly as previously defined, as it’s not the weight of the entire body of water that is considered, but rather the weight of a portion of the water equal in volume to the body that is passing through the water. Motion is then correlated to the relative heaviness between two bodies, which Galileo sets out to prove in subsequent chapters. + +=== Chapter 4: Proof that bodies of the same heaviness as the medium move neither upward nor downward === +Said proof is provided. + +=== Chapter 5: Proof that bodies lighter than water cannot be completely submerged === +After providing said proof, Galileo concludes that it’s obvious that bodies heavier than water are necessarily submerged (for if it weren’t, then it would be lighter than water, and therefore contrary to its assumption) and must continue to move downward (for if they did not, then it must have equal or less weight than water). Moreover, since bodies that move downwards must be heavier than the medium, it can be said that heavy bodies move downward by reason of their weight. + +=== Chapter 6: An analogy between bodies moving naturally and the weights of a balance === +Since natural motion results due to the heaviness/lightness of the medium and the body, and since the respective heaviness/lightness can be compared through respective weights with equal volumes, Galileo recognizes that the same can be said of weights on a balance, and that, in viewing the lever as an analogy for motion, it can be easily understood why solids lighter than water (e.g., wood) are not completely submerged in water – the heavier cannot be raised by the heavy. Under this assumption, the cause of motion for bodies moving naturally (in the same manner as weights in balance), both up and down, can be referred to weight alone. +Through this lever analogy, a mobile moves by force and by the extruding action of the medium. For when wood is forcibly submerged, the water thrusts the wood back out when the water moves towards its own proper place. In the same way, a stone in freefall is thrust from its position and is impelled downward because it is heavier than the medium. Thus, natural motion may be considered “forced.” \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..84a53459c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,14 @@ +--- +title: "De motu antiquiora" +chunk: 4/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:23.985272+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Chapter 7: The cause of speed and slowness of natural motion === +Differences in speed of motion occur in two ways: either the same body moves in different media, or different bodies move through the same media; furthermore, the case in which different bodies move in different media can be simplified down to these two ways. In both cases, the speed of motion depend upon the same cause: the greater or lesser weight of the media and the moving bodies. In this argument, Galileo focuses on the primary cause of motion rather than any “accidental” (e.g., the shape of the body) or external cause. +Aristotle claimed that the same body moves more swiftly in a rarer medium than in a denser medium, and that therefore the cause of slowness of motion is the density of the medium, and the cause of speed is rareness of the medium; however, Galileo points out that Aristotle asserted this claim on the basis of no other reason than from experience (i.e., we see a moving body move more swiftly in air than in water) and that this explanation of the cause to produce this effect is insufficient since there are many moving bodies that move more swiftly with natural motion in denser media than in rarer ones. For example, an inflated bladder of air falls slowly in air but rises quickly in water. Furthermore, Galileo notes that, for downward motion, a heavier substance moves more swiftly than a lighter, and for upward motion, the lighter substance will move more swiftly. +In the case of motion of the same body moving in different media, a body that is heavier than a medium will move more swiftly in the medium than in another medium in which the body is less heavy; moreover, a body that is lighter than a medium will move more swiftly in the medium than in another medium in which the body is less light. Therefore, if we find in what media a given body is heavier, we shall have found the media in which it will fall more swiftly. Furthermore, if we can find how much heavier the same body is in one media than another, we will know how much faster it will move. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b11c63dc7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,12 @@ +--- +title: "De motu antiquiora" +chunk: 5/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:23.985272+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Chapter 8: Different bodies moving in the same medium maintain a ratio of speeds different from what is said by Aristotle === +Galileo states that two bodies may differ in two ways: 1) they are of same material but have different size (i.e., volume), and 2) they are of different material but a) they differ in size and weight, b) differ in weight but not size, or c) differ in size but not weight. He then refutes Aristotle’s claims for each situation. Aristotle claims that, in the case of naturally moving bodies that are of the same material, the larger moves more swiftly, such that a large piece of gold would move more swiftly than a small piece, and that the ratio of their speeds is the same as the ratio of their sizes. Galileo asserts that this is ridiculous because this would imply that, for two lead balls, one ball a hundred times larger than the other, both falling from a great height, then the lighter ball would take a hundred times longer to fall than the heavier ball, but this does not happen. Instead, Galileo argues that objects made of the same material, though different in size, will fall with the same speed, and that anyone surprised by this will also be surprised to realize that a large piece of wood will float no less than a small piece of wood. In another example, Galileo proposes that a piece of wax be mixed with sand so that it becomes slightly heavier than water and begins to sink slowly. When comparing a piece of mixed-wax that is a hundredth part of the first considered wax, Galileo argues that no one would believe that the smaller piece of wax would take a hundred times longer to sink. The same may be said for the analogy of weights on a balance: for two large and equal weights are balanced, and a minuscule weight is added to one side, the heavier side will fall, but it won’t fall any faster than if the two weights were small weights instead. Similarly, for water and wood, where one weight on the balance represents the weight of the wood and the other weight represents the weight of a volume of water that is equal in volume of the wood, if the weight of the volume of water is equal to the weight of the wood, the wood will not sink, but if the wood is made a little heavier so that it sinks, it will not sink faster than a small piece of the same wood, which initially weigh the same as an equally small volume of water, and then is made a little heavier. In another argument, Galileo considers an assumption: if there are two bodies with one body moving with natural motion more swiftly than the other, then a combination of the two bodies will move more slowly than the body that, by itself, moves more swiftly, and also the combination will move faster than the body that, by itself, moved more slowly. For example, a ball of wax and an inflated bladder are both submerged in water and both move upward in the water, but the inflated bladder moves faster than the wax. If the two are connected to each other, the combination will rise more slowly than the bladder alone, but more swiftly than the wax alone. The same may be said for downward-falling bodies: if one is of wood and the other an air bladder, the wood falls faster than the air bladder, but when connected, together they fall with an intermediate speed. With this assumption, Galileo then returns to Aristotle’s claim that heavier bodies of the same material fall faster: if two bodies of the same material but different sizes (and likewise weights) fall with different speeds, then when connected together, the assumption leads us to believe that the combined bodies will have an intermediate speed; however, the combination of the two bodies will have a total weight that is greater than any of the standalone bodies. Therefore, according to Aristotle, the combined weight should fall even faster than either of the standalone bodies, which leads to self-contradiction. The only way to correct the contradiction is to reject Aristotle’s claim and assume that the two bodies of same material but different size (and weight) fall at the same speeds. This same argument will appear again in Galileo’s Two New Sciences. A caveat is then recognized: the weights of the bodies of same material cannot be taken to the extremes, for even a thin plate or even a leaf of the same substance can be made to float on water. Thus, the weight and volume of the smaller must be large enough to not be affected by the viscosity of the medium. However, this caveat does not justify Aristotle’s original claim since it remains that the assumption that great differences in weight correlate to great differences in times is deeply flawed and must be rejected. Galileo then considers the ratios of the speeds of bodies of different material moving in the same medium. Such bodies differ from each other in three ways: either in size but not weight, or in weight but not size, or both in weight and size; however, only the case of those that differ in weight but not in size need be considered since the ratios of the other ways can be reduced to this one. In the case of bodies differing in size but not in weight, we may take from the larger a part that is equal in size to the smaller, thus, the bodies will then differ in weight, but not in size. And the larger body will, with the smaller body, maintain the same ratio as will the part taken from the larger, since it was proved that bodies of the same material, though different in size, move with the same speeds. In the case of bodies differing both in size and weight, if we take from the larger a part equal in size to the smaller, again, we have two bodies differing in weight, but not in size. And the part will, with the smaller, maintain the same ratio in its motion, as will the whole of the larger – again, in the case of bodies of the same material, the part and whole move with the same speed. Aristotle claims that, in the case of the same body moving in different media, the ratio of the speeds is equal to the ratio of the rareness of the media. Galileo proves that this assumption leads to an absurdity and is therefore false. If the speeds have the same ratio as the rareness of the media, then, conversely, the rareness of the media will have the same ratio as the speeds. Since wood falls in air but not in water, and since the speed in air has no ratio to the speed in water, then the rareness of air will have no ratio to the rareness of water, which is absurd. Galileo then investigates the ratio of the speeds of the same body moving in different media during upward motion. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a879b0df9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +--- +title: "De motu antiquiora" +chunk: 6/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:23.985272+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +When solids lighter than water are completely submerged in water, they are carried upward with a force measured by the difference between the weight of a volume of water equal to the volume of the submerged body and the weight of the body itself. In other words, Galileo argues that natural motion is based on an object's apparent weight. He concludes that if we wish to know at once the relative speeds of a same body in two different media, we take an amount of each medium equal to the volume of the body, and subtract from the weights of each medium the weight of the body. The numbers found as remainders will be to each other as the speeds of the motions. Similar arguments are then made for the ratios of speeds of two bodies equal in volume but unequal in weight moving the same media in both upward and downward motion. By the end of the chapter, Galileo provides the ratio of the speeds for natural motion made of the same or different material, in the same medium or in different medium, and in natural motion upward or downwards. Galileo ends the chapter claiming that lighter bodies will initially move ahead of the heavier – a claim that is revisited in Chapter 22. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..448492624 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "De motu antiquiora" +chunk: 7/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:23.985272+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Chapter 9: In view of all the above, bodies moving naturally are reduced to the weights of a balance === +Galileo investigates the force responsible for the motions explained in Chapter 8, specifically, the amount of force necessary to hold wood underwater, to which he concludes that wood moves upward with a force measured by the amount by which the weight of a volume of water equals to the wood exceeds the weight of the wood. Similarly, he investigates the force of a lead sphere as it moves downward in water, and he concludes that the sphere moves downward with a force equal to the weight by which it exceeds the weight of an aqueous sphere of the same size. +He then revisits the conclusion of the previous chapter: in the case of bodies of different material, provided that they are equal in size, the ratio of the speeds of their natural downward motions is the same as the ratio of their weights–and not their weights as such, but the weights found by weighing them in the medium in which the motion takes place. From this, Galileo recognizes that, when objects occupy a medium and we weigh the object on a balance, we don’t have the proper weight of the object since buoyancy in the medium will always modify it. He proposes that, if the objects could be weighed in a void, then hypothetically the proper weight could be found; however, Aristotle claims that motion in a void is impossible and that all things would be equally heavy in the void – a notion that Galileo rejects in the following chapter. + +=== Chapter 10: Proof that, if there were a void, motion in it would not take place instantaneously === +Aristotle cited several arguments in his attempt to deny the existence of a void. In one argument, he assumes that motion cannot take place instantaneously, and then attempts to show that if a void existed, motion in it would take place instantaneously; and, since that is impossible, he concludes that a void is also impossible. He further deduces that, assuming that motion can occur over time in a void, then the same body will move in the same time in a plenum and in a void, which he claims is impossible. Galileo argues that Aristotle failed to prove his assumptions, that they were actually false and led to false conclusions. In particular, Galileo asserts that Aristotle assumes that the ratio of the speeds of the same body moving in different media is equal to the ratio of the rareness of the media, which Galileo proved to be false in Chapter 8. +Aristotle’s proof also states that it is impossible for one number to have the same relation to another number as a number has to zero. Galileo argues that this is true for geometric ratios (i.e., the ratio of a/b), but is not true for arithmetic relations (i.e., a - b). Moreover, if the ratio of the speeds were made to depend on the ratio in the arithmetic sense (i.e., a ratio of differences), then no absurd conclusion would follow, and therefore the body will be able to move in a void in the same way as in a plenum. +In a plenum, the speed of motion of a body depends on the difference between its weight and the weight of the medium through which it moves; and likewise, in a void, the speed of its motion will depend on the difference between its own weight and that of the medium, but since the void is zero, then the difference between the weight of the body and the weight of the void will be the whole and proper weight of the body. Therefore, the speed of its motion in the void will depend on its proper weight, which is undiminished by any weight of the medium. +Galileo then rejects Aristotle’s claim motion in a void would be instantaneous since a void is infinitely lighter than any plenum and that motion in it will be infinitely swifter than any plenum. Galileo accepts the premise of Aristotle’s argument, but rejects the conclusion of instantaneous motion. Rather, he argues that the motion takes place in less time than the time of motion in any plenum. + +=== Chapter 11: Disproving Aristotle’s claim that air has weight in its own place === +Aristotle claimed that, with the exception of fire, everything, even air itself, has weight in its own region; for an inflated bladder weighs more than a deflated one. +Galileo disagrees: it’s understood that water has weight when in air, and that it moves downward because of its weight, but it’s absurd to believe that water sinks in water, as a first amount of water would need to displace upward a second amount of water. Moreover, if a portion of water is heavy and must move downward in water, then that would imply that the portion is heavier than another portion of water of equal volume – but this would be absurd since this would make water heavier than water. +In response to the inflated bladder, if a hole of the inflated bladder is opened but air stays in the ball without force (i.e., without compressed air), the bladder retains the same weight. But when the air is compressed into the bladder by force, the air in the bladder becomes heavier than free and diffused air. Galileo also argues that the elements, when in their proper place, are neither heavy nor light, for we do not feel the weight of water when we swim, and that it was previously shown that bodies lighter than water rise up, bodies heavier than water sink down, and bodies the same weight as water go neither up nor down. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9537c545a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "De motu antiquiora" +chunk: 8/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:23.985272+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Chapter 12: Disproving Aristotle’s claim that absolutely light and absolutely heavy exist; and even if they did, it would not be earth and fire === +Aristotle defined that the “absolutely heaviest” are things that lay below everything else and always move towards the center of the universe, and he calls the “absolutely lightest” things that rise above everything else and always move up and never down. Thus, the heaviest is earth, and the lightest is fire. For if fire had heaviness, it would remain below something, which is not observed. Galileo rebuts that Aristotle’s argument is not conclusive, for it is sufficient for fire to be less heavy than everything else, and is not necessarily without weight. +Aristotle argues that, if fire had weight, then a large amount of fire would be heavier than a small amount, thus the large amount would rise slower. Similarly, if earth had lightness, then a large amount of earth would fall slower than a small amount. But experience shows the opposite. Galileo rebuts that this is also an invalid argument, for weight of a body is modified by the medium it is in. In other words, fire does not have weight in air. Secondly, a larger amount of fire does rise faster than a small amount–this was shown in Chapter 8. Galileo proposes that the correct way to reason about fire is that a large amount of fire will be heavier than a small amount of air, but not in the medium of air where fire has no weight, but in some other medium lighter than fire or even in a void. Also, if we assume that fire has no weight, then it is without density, but that which is without density is a void. Therefore, fire is a void, which is absurd. +Galileo then questions the claim that earth is the heaviest when we are unable to see below the earth. Moreover, it’s known that quicksilver (i.e., mercury) causes earth to float above it, so clearly there are things that are heavier than earth. + +=== Chapter 13: Proof that differences in weights and motions are determined only in a void === +Since in every medium the weights of heavy bodies are diminished by the weight of a portion of that medium equal in size to the solid, it is clear that whole and undiminished weights of solids are obtained in a medium whose weight is zero. Such medium can only be the void. Similar considerations hold for the speeds of motions and the ratio of these speeds. + +=== Chapter 14: A discussion regarding the ratio of the speeds of bodies moving along various inclined planes === +Galileo investigates the speeds of bodies moving down inclined planes; however, portions of his arguments are unrefined and contain errors. Galileo would later revisit this discussion (with corrections) in his lecture notes, Le Mecaniche, which utilizes his new abstract concept, momento, to roughly describe both modern concepts of moment and angular momentum. Mathematician Vincenzo Viviani would later insert an amendment to the second edition of Two New Sciences that refers to and incorporates portions of Galileo’s refined discussion of inclined planes from Le Mecaniche. +In this present discussion, Galileo recognizes from Chapter 9 that heavy bodies tend to move downward with as much force as is necessary to lift it up, thus if we can find how much force is needed to draw a body upwards on an incline, we would then know how much force the body would descends on the incline. To measure this force, Galileo reverts to the lever, but instead of lever arms that are parallel to each other, one lever arm is bent at an angle such that the force exerted at the bent lever arm is weakened. A weight positioned at the extremity of the bent lever arm would then experience the same force as if the same weight were on an incline that is tangent to the rotation of the bent lever arm. From there, a ratio of the force of the incline to a force that drives the weight vertically downward can be formed, which is then used to find the ratio of speeds (albeit erroneously). +In his argument, Galileo requires that objects hanging from a balance form perfect right angles with against perfectly straight horizontal lever arms, thus making the strings that hang the objects parallel to each other; an assumption that Galileo recognizes as flawed since the Earth is understood to be spherical, that bodies are drawn to the center of the Earth, and therefore the strings would actually draw lines that converge to the center and not parallel. In other words, Galileo argues that his assumption relies on a small-angle approximation. In the defense of his assumption, Galileo states, “To such objectors I would answer that I cover myself with the protecting wings of the superhuman Archimedes, whose name I never mention without a feeling of awe. For he made this same assumption in his Quadrature of the Parabola…yet we must not suppose, in a moment of doubt, that his conclusion is false, since he had earlier demonstrated the same conclusion by another geometric proof.” \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f330cf54c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,16 @@ +--- +title: "De motu antiquiora" +chunk: 9/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:23.985272+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Chapter 15: An argument that rectilinear and circular motions have a ratio to each other === +Aristotle asserts that circular motion does not have any ratio to rectilinear motion because a straight line is not in any ratio to or comparable to a curve. Galileo rejects this stating that this would be like saying a triangle and a square are not comparable because the triangle has only three angles while the square has four. Even a circle inscribed in a square has some ratio even though the circle has curved edges while the square has straight edges. He further argues that Aristotle failed to see that the lines have a quantitative relation even if they are qualitatively different. Galileo further claims that Aristotle was reckless in asserting that there is no straight line equal to the circumference of a circle–Archimedes was able to prove this in his work On Spirals, where a straight line is found equal to the circumference of the circle around the spiral of first revolution. + +=== Chapter 16: The question of whether circular motion is natural or forced === +Galileo offers the question: if the center of a rotating marble sphere (and its center of gravity) were located at the center of the universe, would its rotational motion be forced or not? Galileo argues that since natural motion occurs when bodies move towards their natural place, and forced motion occurs when they recede from their natural place, then it's clear that the sphere rotating about the center of the universe moves with a motion that is neither natural nor forced. This leads him to argue that, if a single star were added to the heaves, the motion of the heavens would not be slowed since the star would only slow the rotational motion when it is moved away from its natural place, but this never happens for rotations about the center of the universe since there is no upward or downward motion. +Galileo then recognizes that this view raises another question: since the rotating sphere placed at the center of the universe is neither a natural motion nor a forced motion, would the sphere continue to rotate perpetually or eventually come to rest? For if its motion were natural, then it would seem to move perpetually; but if its motion is forced, then it seems that it would eventually come to rest. Galileo never directly addresses this question, and instead states that the question is better suited for Chapter 17 (where it is also left unanswered). However, Galileo does consider the case of a homogeneous spinning sphere that is outside the center of the universe, concluding that such motion is forced since there is resistance at the axis that supports the sphere. He further argues that if the axis were infinitely small, then no resistance would arise at the axis, and that a rough surface of the sphere would cause air to impede the rotational motion. For a heterogeneous sphere (i.e., where its center of gravity is different from the geometric center), the rotational motion alternates between natural and forced motion since the center of gravity would be rotating about the geometric center. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-9.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..cce8944cb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora-9.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "De motu antiquiora" +chunk: 10/12 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_antiquiora" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:23.985272+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Chapter 17: The agency by which projectiles are moved === +Aristotle argues that objects move due to contact with a mover, but since projectiles fly without contact from a mover, then it must be that the rushing of air behind the object is propagating its motion. +Galileo raises several objections to this explanation (most of which were recognized much before Galileo): the successive parts of air that push the projectile would always be accelerated, which is contrary to Aristotle’s assumptions; experience shows that arrows fly despite a strong opposing headwind; a ship propelled by oars against a current continues to move forward long after the oars are retracted from the water; iron balls can be flung at a great distance, and yet flaxen fibers fall to the ground sooner than the iron ball; lastly, a marble sphere can spin for a long time without displacing, thus leaving no space for air to push against it, nor is a flame placed underneath the sphere disturbed by any air currents. +Instead, Galileo argues that projectile motion results from an impressed force that gives the projectile a self-depleting impetus for its motion (as a side note, according to Drabkin, medieval philosophy historian E. A. Moody "sharply differentiates the development of Galileo’s theory of impressed force from Jean Buridan’s impetus theory"). Thus, this impressed force or impetus modifies the heaviness of a body when thrown upward, and the lightness of the body when thrown downward. +Galileo analogizes this impressed force to a temperature of a body, such that when a mover acts upon the body, it is much like placing iron in a fire, and once the projectile has left the hand of the mover, the impressed force diminishes much like how iron, once pulled from the fire, loses its heat and returns to its natural coldness. As to where in the projectile the impressed force is received, Galileo shifts the onus of the question by stating that the impressed force is wherever one believes heat is stored in the projectile. +He then compares the impressed force transferred from a mover to the mobile much like what is transferred from a hammer to a bell: initially both silent, the hammer impacts and imparts a sonorous quality to the bell which is contrary to its natural silence, and over time the sound gradually diminishes, much like an impressed force applied to a projectile. Moreover, Galileo argues that it’s not the air that continues to strike the bell to produce the sound, but rather the bell continuing to vibrate due to the impressed force received from the hammer. +He then elaborates further regarding the modification of weight due to the impressed force: although the body becomes lighter from the impressed force, the effect is only temporary, and throughout its motion the body still retains its natural weight while the modified heaviness or lightness diminishes over time. Furthermore, heavy objects tend to retain their impetus for a longer time than lighter objects. +Galileo then discusses how certain opinions, however false they may be, remain persistent because, at first sight, they offer some appearance of truth, but no one bothers to examine whether they are worthy of belief. He offers an example of a common misconception in which it is believed that water itself causes objects in it to appear larger. He says that he experimented with the phenomenon and found that a coin deep in water did not appear larger at all, but perhaps instead smaller. Galileo concludes that the misconception possibly arose due to the decorative tradition of placing fruits in a glass vessel filled with water in the summer, and that it was the curvature of the vessel that caused this largening effect and not directly because of the water. +He then concludes the chapter by emphasizing that it is certain that projectiles are in no way moved by the medium, but only by a motive force impressed by a mover. + +=== Chapter 18: A demonstration that the motive force is gradually diminished in a moving body === +Galileo argues that forced motion is not endless, that the force is continuously diminished in the projectile, and that motion with persistent speed and constant motive force “surely is most absurd.” Galileo would later abandon this erroneous idea through his implicit discussions regarding inertia in his Two New Sciences. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_corporum_in_gyrum-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_corporum_in_gyrum-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5a3827067 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_corporum_in_gyrum-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,49 @@ +--- +title: "De motu corporum in gyrum" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_corporum_in_gyrum" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:25.182996+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +De motu corporum in gyrum (from Latin: "On the motion of bodies in an orbit"; abbreviated De Motu) is the presumed title of a manuscript by Isaac Newton sent to Edmond Halley in November 1684. The manuscript was prompted by a visit from Halley earlier that year when he had questioned Newton about problems then occupying the minds of Halley and his scientific circle in London, including Sir Christopher Wren and Robert Hooke. +This manuscript gave important mathematical derivations relating to the three relations now known as "Kepler's laws of planetary motion" (before Newton's work, these had not been generally regarded as scientific laws). Halley reported the communication from Newton to the Royal Society on 10 December 1684 (Old Style). After further encouragement from Halley, Newton developed the ideas outlined by De Motu into his book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica. + +== Contents == + +One of the surviving copies of De Motu was made by being entered in the Royal Society's register book, and its (Latin) text is available online. +For ease of cross-reference to the contents of De Motu that appeared again in the Principia, there are online sources for the Principia in English translation, as well as in Latin. +De motu corporum in gyrum is short enough to set out here the contents of its different sections. It contains 11 propositions, labelled as 'theorems' and 'problems', some with corollaries. Before reaching this core subject-matter, Newton begins with some preliminaries: + +3 Definitions: +1: 'Centripetal force' (Newton originated this term, and its first occurrence is in this document) impels or attracts a body to some point regarded as a center. (This reappears in Definition 5 of the Principia.) +2: 'Inherent force' of a body is defined in a way that prepares for the idea of inertia and of Newton's first law (in the absence of external force, a body continues in its state of motion either at rest or in uniform motion along a straight line). (Definition 3 of the Principia is to similar effect.) +3: 'Resistance': the property of a medium that regularly impedes motion. +4 Hypotheses: +1: Newton indicates that in the first 9 propositions below, resistance is assumed nil, then for the remaining (2) propositions, resistance is assumed proportional both to the speed of the body and to the density of the medium. +2: By its intrinsic force (alone) every body would progress uniformly in a straight line to infinity unless something external hinders that. +(Newton's later first law of motion is to similar effect, Law 1 in the Principia.) + +3: Forces combine by a parallelogram rule. Newton treats them in effect as we now treat vectors. This point reappears in Corollaries 1 and 2 to the third law of motion, Law 3 in the Principia. +4: In the initial moments of effect of a centripetal force, the distance is proportional to the square of the time. (The context indicates that Newton was dealing here with infinitesimals or their limiting ratios.) This reappears in Book 1, Lemma 10 in the Principia. +Then follow two more preliminary points: + +2 Lemmas: +1: Newton briefly sets out continued products of proportions involving differences: +if A/(A–B) = B/(B–C) = C/(C–D) etc., then A/B = B/C = C/D etc. +2: All parallelograms touching a given ellipse (to be understood: at the endpoints of conjugate diameters) are equal in area. +Then follows Newton's main subject-matter, labelled as theorems, problems, corollaries and scholia: + +=== Theorem 1 === +Theorem 1 demonstrates that where an orbiting body is subject only to a centripetal force, it follows that a radius vector, drawn from the body to the attracting center, sweeps out equal areas in equal times (no matter how the centripetal force varies with distance). (Newton uses for this derivation – as he does in later proofs in this De Motu, as well as in many parts of the later Principia – a limit argument of infinitesimal calculus in geometric form, in which the area swept out by the radius vector is divided into triangle-sectors. They are of small and decreasing size considered to tend towards zero individually, while their number increases without limit.) This theorem appears again, with expanded explanation, as Proposition 1, Theorem 1, of the Principia. + +=== Theorem 2 === +Theorem 2 considers a body moving uniformly in a circular orbit, and shows that for any given time-segment, the centripetal force (directed towards the center of the circle, treated here as a center of attraction) is proportional to the square of the arc-length traversed, and inversely proportional to the radius. (This subject reappears as Proposition 4, Theorem 4 in the Principia, and the corollaries here reappear also.) +Corollary 1 then points out that the centripetal force is proportional to V2/R, where V is the orbital speed and R the circular radius. +Corollary 2 shows that, putting this in another way, the centripetal force is proportional to (1/P2) * R where P is the orbital period. +Corollary 3 shows that if P2 is proportional to R, then the centripetal force would be independent of R. +Corollary 4 shows that if P2 is proportional to R2, then the centripetal force would be proportional to 1/R. +Corollary 5 shows that if P2 is proportional to R3, then the centripetal force would be proportional to 1/(R2). +A scholium then points out that the Corollary 5 relation (square of orbital period proportional to cube of orbital size) is observed to apply to the planets in their orbits around the Sun, and to the Galilean satellites orbiting Jupiter. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_corporum_in_gyrum-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_corporum_in_gyrum-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..43ab9c79d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_corporum_in_gyrum-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "De motu corporum in gyrum" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_corporum_in_gyrum" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:25.182996+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Theorem 3 === +Theorem 3 now evaluates the centripetal force in a non-circular orbit, using another geometrical limit argument, involving ratios of vanishingly small line-segments. The demonstration comes down to evaluating the curvature of the orbit as if it were made of infinitesimal arcs, and the centripetal force at any point is evaluated from the speed and the curvature of the local infinitesimal arc. This subject reappears in the Principia as Proposition 6 of Book 1. +A corollary then points out how it is possible in this way to determine the centripetal force for any given shape of orbit and center. +Problem 1 then explores the case of a circular orbit, assuming the center of attraction is on the circumference of the circle. A scholium points out that if the orbiting body were to reach such a center, it would then depart along the tangent. (Proposition 7 in the Principia.) +Problem 2 explores the case of an ellipse, where the center of attraction is at its center, and finds that the centripetal force to produce motion in that configuration would be directly proportional to the radius vector. (This material becomes Proposition 10, Problem 5 in the Principia.) +Problem 3 again explores the ellipse, but now treats the further case where the center of attraction is at one of its foci. "A body orbits in an ellipse: there is required the law of centripetal force tending to a focus of the ellipse." Here Newton finds the centripetal force to produce motion in this configuration would be inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector. (Translation: 'Therefore, the centripetal force is reciprocally as L X SP², that is, (reciprocally) in the doubled ratio [i.e., square] of the distance ... .') This becomes Proposition 11 in the Principia. +A scholium then points out that this Problem 3 proves that the planetary orbits are ellipses with the Sun at one focus. (Translation: 'The major planets orbit, therefore, in ellipses having a focus at the center of the Sun, and with their radii (vectores) drawn to the Sun describe areas proportional to the times, altogether (Latin: 'omnino') as Kepler supposed.') (This conclusion is reached after taking as initial fact the observed proportionality between square of orbital period and cube of orbital size, considered in corollary 5 to Theorem 1.) (A controversy over the cogency of the conclusion is described below.) The subject of Problem 3 becomes Proposition 11, Problem 6, in the Principia. + +=== Theorem 4 === +Theorem 4 shows that with a centripetal force inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector, the time of revolution of a body in an elliptical orbit with a given major axis is the same as it would be for the body in a circular orbit with the same diameter as that major axis. (Proposition 15 in the Principia.) +A scholium points out how this enables determining the planetary ellipses and the locations of their foci by indirect measurements. +Problem 4 then explores, for the case of an inverse-square law of centripetal force, how to determine the orbital ellipse for a given starting position, speed, and direction of the orbiting body. Newton points out here, that if the speed is high enough, the orbit is no longer an ellipse, but is instead a parabola or hyperbola. He also identifies a geometrical criterion for distinguishing between the elliptical case and the others, based on the calculated size of the latus rectum, as a proportion to the distance the orbiting body at closest approach to the center. (Proposition 17 in the Principia.) +A scholium then remarks that a bonus of this demonstration is that it allows definition of the orbits of comets and enables an estimation of their periods and returns where the orbits are elliptical. Some practical difficulties of implementing this are also discussed. +Finally in the series of propositions based on zero resistance from any medium, Problem 5 discusses the case of a degenerate elliptical orbit, amounting to a straight-line fall towards or ejection from the attracting center. (Proposition 32 in the Principia.) +A scholium points out how problems 4 and 5 would apply to projectiles in the atmosphere and to the fall of heavy bodies, if the atmospheric resistance could be assumed nil. +Lastly, Newton attempts to extend the results to the case where there is atmospheric resistance, considering first (Problem 6) the effects of resistance on inertial motion in a straight line, and then (Problem 7) the combined effects of resistance and a uniform centripetal force on motion towards/away from the center in a homogeneous medium. Both problems are addressed geometrically using hyperbolic constructions. These last two 'Problems' reappear in Book 2 of the Principia as Propositions 2 and 3. +Then a final scholium points out how problems 6 and 7 apply to the horizontal and vertical components of the motion of projectiles in the atmosphere (in this case neglecting earth curvature). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_corporum_in_gyrum-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_corporum_in_gyrum-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c11f59cd3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_corporum_in_gyrum-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "De motu corporum in gyrum" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_motu_corporum_in_gyrum" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:25.182996+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Commentaries on the contents == +At some points in 'De Motu', Newton depends on matters proved being used in practice as a basis for regarding their converses as also proved. This has been seen as especially so in regard to 'Problem 3'. Newton's style of demonstration in all his writings was rather brief in places; he appeared to assume that certain steps would be found self-evident or obvious. In 'De Motu', as in the first edition of the Principia, Newton did not specifically state a basis for extending the proofs to the converse. The proof of the converse here depends on its being apparent that there is a unique relation, i.e., that in any given setup, only one orbit corresponds to one given and specified set of force/velocity/starting position. Newton added a mention of this kind into the second edition of the Principia, as a Corollary to Propositions 11–13, in response to criticism of this sort made during his lifetime. +A significant scholarly controversy has existed over the question whether and how far these extensions to the converse, and the associated uniqueness statements, are self-evident and obvious or not. (There is no suggestion that the converses are not true, or that they were not stated by Newton, the argument has been over whether Newton's proofs were satisfactory or not.) + +== Halley's question == +The details of Edmund Halley's visit to Newton in 1684 are known to us only from reminiscences of thirty to forty years later. According to one of these reminiscences, Halley asked Newton, "what he thought the Curve would be that would be described by the Planets supposing the force of attraction towards the Sun to be reciprocal to the square of their distance from it." +Another version of the question was given by Newton himself, but also about thirty years after the event: he wrote that Halley, asking him "if I knew what figure the Planets described in their Orbs about the Sun was very desirous to have my Demonstration" In light of these differing reports, both produced from old memories, it is hard to know exactly what words Halley used. + +== Role of Robert Hooke == +Newton acknowledged in 1686 that an initial stimulus on him in 1679/80 to extend his investigations of the movements of heavenly bodies had arisen from correspondence with Robert Hooke in 1679/80. +Hooke had started an exchange of correspondence in November 1679 by writing to Newton, to tell Newton that Hooke had been appointed to manage the Royal Society's correspondence. Hooke therefore wanted to hear from members about their researches, or their views about the researches of others; and as if to whet Newton's interest, he asked what Newton thought about various matters, and then gave a whole list, mentioning "compounding the celestial motions of the planetts of a direct motion by the tangent and an attractive motion towards the central body", and "my hypothesis of the lawes or causes of springinesse", and then a new hypothesis from Paris about planetary motions (which Hooke described at length), and then efforts to carry out or improve national surveys, the difference of latitude between London and Cambridge, and other items. Newton replied with "a fansy of my own" about determining the Earth's motion, using a falling body. Hooke disagreed with Newton's idea of how the falling body would move, and a short correspondence developed. +Later, in 1686, when Newton's Principia had been presented to the Royal Society, Hooke claimed from this correspondence the credit for some of Newton's content in the Principia, and said Newton owed the idea of an inverse-square law of attraction to him – although at the same time, Hooke disclaimed any credit for the curves and trajectories that Newton had demonstrated on the basis of the inverse square law. +Newton, who heard of this from Halley, rebutted Hooke's claim in letters to Halley, acknowledging only an occasion of reawakened interest. Newton did acknowledge some prior work of others, including the French priest and astronomer Ismaël Bullialdus, who suggested (but without demonstration) that there was an attractive force from the Sun in the inverse square proportion to the distance, and Giovanni Alfonso Borelli, who suggested (again without demonstration) that there was a tendency towards the Sun like gravity or magnetism that would make the planets move in ellipses; but that the elements Hooke claimed were due either to Newton himself, or to other predecessors of them both such as Bullialdus and Borelli, but not Hooke. Wren and Halley were both skeptical of Hooke's claims, recalling an occasion when Hooke had claimed to have a derivation of planetary motions under an inverse square law, but had failed to produce it even under the incentive of a prize. +There has been scholarly controversy over exactly what if anything Newton really gained from Hooke, apart from the stimulus that Newton acknowledged. +About thirty years after Newton's death in 1727, Alexis Clairaut, one of Newton's early and eminent successors in the field of gravitational studies, wrote after reviewing Hooke's work that it showed "what a distance there is between a truth that is glimpsed and a truth that is demonstrated". + +== See also == +Galileo, Descartes, and Christiaan Huygens +Classical mechanics + +== References == + +== Bibliography == +Never at rest: a biography of Isaac Newton, by R. S. Westfall, Cambridge University Press, 1980 ISBN 0-521-23143-4 +The Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton, Vol. 6, pp. 30–91, ed. by D. T. Whiteside, Cambridge University Press, 1974 ISBN 0-521-08719-8 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delusions_of_Gender-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delusions_of_Gender-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b7b8b28fa --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delusions_of_Gender-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,61 @@ +--- +title: "Delusions of Gender" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delusions_of_Gender" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:23.086906+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Delusions of Gender: How Our Minds, Society, and Neurosexism Create Difference is a 2010 book by Cordelia Fine, written to debunk the idea that men and women are hardwired with different interests. The author criticizes claimed evidence of the existence of innate biological differences between men and women's minds as being faulty and exaggerated, and while taking a position of agnosticism with respect to inherent differences relating to interest/skill in "understanding the world" versus "understanding people", reviews literature demonstrating how cultural and societal beliefs contribute to sex differences. + + +== Contents == +In the first part of the book, "'Half Changed World', Half Changed Minds", Fine argues that social and environmental factors strongly influence the mind, challenging a "biology as fallback" view that, since society is equal now for the sexes, persistent inequalities must be due to biology. She also discusses the history and impact of gender stereotypes and the ways that science has been used to justify sexism. +In the second part of the book, "Neurosexism", Fine criticizes the current available arguments and studies supporting sex differences in the mind, focusing on methodological weaknesses and implicit assumptions. Within neuroscientific investigations, these include small samples that give rise to unreliable, spurious results, and poorly justified "reverse inferences" (claims of stereotype-consistent psychological differences between the sexes on the basis of brain differences). Fine also demonstrates how already weak neuroscientific conclusions are then grossly overblown by popular writers. Fine also discusses non-neuroimaging evidence cited as support for innate differences between the sexes. For example, she explains weaknesses in the work done by a student of Simon Baron-Cohen that has been widely cited (by the Gurian Institute, by Leonard Sax, by Peter Lawrence, and by Baron-Cohen himself): one-and-a-half-day-old babies were tested for preference in sequence rather than being given a choice; were tested in different viewing positions, some horizontal on their backs and some held in a parent's lap, which could affect their perception; inadequate efforts were made to ensure the sex of the subject was unknown to the tester at the time of the test; the authors assume, without justification, that newborn looking preferences are a reliable "flag" for later social skills that are the product of a long and complex developmental process. +In the third part of the book, "Recycling Gender", Fine discusses the highly gendered society in which children develop, and the contribution of that to the group identity processes that motivate children to "self-socialize". This challenges the common belief of parents that they tried gender-neutral parenting, but it did not work. An overall thesis of the work is the negative impact for sex equality of neurosexism (popular or academic neuroscientific claims that reinforce or justify gender stereotypes in ways that are not scientifically justified). + + +== Reception == + + +=== Popular press === +In the UK, the book received positive reviews in Nature, The Independent, The Times Literary Supplement, New Scientist, Metro and The Belfast Telegraph. The Guardian and the Evening Standard each chose it as a Book of the Year. It was Book of the Week in Times Higher Education. +In Australia, the book received positive reviews in The Age, The Australian and The West Australian. +Delusions of Gender received positive reviews in the United States in The New York Times, The Washington Post, USA Today, Newsweek, Jezebel and Kirkus Reviews. Publishers Weekly chose it for a starred review and as a Pick of the Week. +More positive reviews came from Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, The Globe and Mail, Socialist Worker, Out in Perth, The Fat Quarter, Erotic Review, The F Word, Counterfire, Neuroskeptic (at Discover magazine). Ms. magazine and Elle singled the book out for their readers. + +2013 Warwick Prize for Writing, shortlist +2011 Victorian Premier's Literary Award for Non-Fiction, shortlist +2011, Best Book of Ideas, shortlist +2010, John Llewellyn Rhys Prize, shortlist + + +=== Academic reception === +Developmental psychopathologist Simon Baron-Cohen, whose research is criticized in Delusions of Gender, reviewed the book in The Psychologist, saying Fine was "fusing science with politics", and that "Where I – and I suspect many other contemporary scientists – would part ways with Fine is in her strident, extreme denial of the role that biology might play in giving rise to any sex differences in the mind and brain. ...(she) ignores that you can be a scientist interested in the nature of sex differences while being a clear supporter of equal opportunities and a firm opponent of all forms of discrimination in society." Fine responded in a published letter, stating "The thesis of my book [...] is that while social effects on sex differences are well-established, spurious results, poor methodologies and untested assumptions mean we don't yet know whether, on average, males and females are born differently predisposed to systemizing versus empathising." +Former APA President Diane F. Halpern reviewed the book in the journal Science, concluding that it was "strongest in exposing research conclusions that are closer to fiction than science...[but] weakest in failing to also point out differences that are supported by a body of carefully conducted and well-replicated research", stating that Fine largely ignores the latter body of research. +Stanford neurobiologist Ben Barres stated in a review for PLOS Biology that Delusions of Gender "should be required reading for every neurobiology student, if not every human being". +McCarthy and Ball (2011) reviewed the book in the journal Biology of Sex Differences, stating "Prompting laypeople to adopt a more critical view of overly simplistic views of complex data sets is a goal any scientist can support, and for that we applaud (Fine's) efforts." They suggested that Fine's book presents an oversimplified and seriously distorted characterization of neuroscience as applied to the study of sex differences. They expressed disappointment that Fine's book "...can be vexing in the ways the scientific study of sex differences in brain and behavior is portrayed and (how) the current state-of-the-art is presented". +Evolutionary biologist Marlene Zuk, reviewing the book with Rebecca Jordan-Young's Brain Storm, in the Quarterly Review of Biology wrote: "It is important to emphasize that neither author advocates throwing the gender-neutral baby out with its pink or blue bathwater ... The books are good ammunition for arguments with people who think science has incontrovertibly shown biological bases for gender differences such as mathematical ability. At the same time, they are not simply claiming that "it is all culture" or that science can play no role in understanding gender. Both Fine and Jordan-Young want better science, not less of it." + + +== See also == +Gender role +Implicit stereotypes +Sex and intelligence + + +== Notes == + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == +Fine, Cordelia (August 2013). "Is There Neurosexism in Functional Neuroimaging Investigations of Sex Differences?". Neuroethics. 6 (2): 369–409. doi:10.1007/s12152-012-9169-1. S2CID 144819834. + + +== External links == +Official website +"Cordelia Fine: Delusions of Gender" (video). Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Talk given at Festival of Dangerous Ideas, Sydney, New South Wales, 2010. Archived from the original on 30 August 2013 – via FORA.tv. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der_Alkoholismus-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der_Alkoholismus-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..53d152d91 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der_Alkoholismus-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Der Alkoholismus" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Der_Alkoholismus" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:32.768761+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Der Alkoholismus: Einführung in ein soziales Problem (English: The Alcoholism: Introduction to a Social Problem) is a 1908 book published by Austrian Catholic sociologist Anton Orel (1881-1959). Its goal was to reduce alcohol consumption and bring attention to the Alkoholfrage (English: The alcohol question). The book contains 25 sections that deal with different alcohol issues, ranging from the explanation of the alcohol question, to an elucidation of the alcohol's devastating health consequences and to the general economic impact of alcohol in the 20th century. Orel primarily aims to establish an abstinence movement against the existing drinking customs in order to save society from the devastating consequences. He frequently quotes experts' opinions on health and economic consequences in order to underline his statements. He particularly appeals to the youth as representing the basis for the planned revolutionary movement against the widespread alcoholism. + + +== Context == +After studying law, Anton Orel became redactor of several magazines, among others Arbeiterjugend and Unserer Jugend. Famous for his anti-capitalistic views, Anton Orel founded the Bund der deutschen Arbeiterjugend in 1905, which was known as Verband der christlichen Jugend Österreichs from 1907 onwards. Orel values the possible impact youth can have on society; his book Der Alkoholismus: Einführung in ein soziales Problem (Alcoholism, introduction to a social problem) aims to impact the self-education and ability of the youthful generation to save society from its cultural ruin: "Ihr seid die Träger einer großen Zukunft die uns vom Kulturniedergang emporführen wird" (English: "You are the carriers of a great future that will bring us up from the cultural ruin"). +Alcohol consumption represented a controversial societal issue, as shown by the growth of the movement against alcohol during the 19th century. The movement started in the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom. All anti-alcoholic organizations expressed hostility towards alcohol, even though their direct goals were different. Some, such as Anton Orel, fought for a voluntary abstinence, others for the moderation of drinking only. Overall, the health risks, as well as adverse social and national impact, of alcohol were emphasized. The greatest success by means of prohibition took place in the United States. Shortly after Anton Orel's publication, First World War (1914-1918) broke out, causing governments to introduce new and rigorous regulations that limited alcohol consumption. These regulations were largely maintained after the end of the war and were even intensified and extended throughout the Western world. + + +== Content == +In total, the book consists of 25 sections. In each section, Orel describes a specific adverse consequence of alcohol consumption on either a personal or societal level, emphasizing the importance of an abstinence movement. Orel first presents the general alcohol problem that societies in the 20th century are faced with. Alcohol was strongly linked to daily life so it was necessary to inspect the linked social issues. Orel presents his plans of a movement against habitual alcohol consumption and the overall goal is the entire elimination of alcohol from daily life. The alcohol question asks how the total elimination of alcohol will be possible. He highlights that people's consumption cannot be excused as normal and rooted in human history, as in his view consumption has become more frequent and people are less resistant to the risks than many decades ago. +In the following sections, Orel emphasises the adverse health consequences. Due to the toxicity of alcohol, its impact on the body is devastating. Among others, alcohol has an adverse effect on the body's organs, metabolic system, immune system, nervous system and life expectancy. Additionally, most of the given adverse consequences are highly heritable causing a single alcoholic to have a negative impact on multiple generations. One possible impact is the inherited inability for women to breast-feed their children, causing child malnutrition in young age. Moreover, crimes are commonly committed by alcoholics. +Trying to investigate factors that facilitate society's alcoholism, Orel highlights that the production and sale of alcohol is especially profitable and that greed is a main factor increasing the prevalence of alcoholism. He portrays the paradoxical relationship of the consequences of alcohol consumption and the destruction of tons of foods in the process of producing alcohol. +In order to fight alcoholism, Orel says it is indispensable to fight existing drinking customs such as “Kein Leben ohne Freude, keine Freude ohne Alkohol” (English: "There is no life without happiness, no happiness without alcohol") and people's negative conception of an abstinent person. He also discusses the importance of empowering youth as they are able to have an actual impact on existing customs. Orel proposes to start the abstinence movement by creating abstinent subgroups within existing associations to create a widespread basis for the movement. He concludes that it will overall take a long time to create an alcohol free society and the most important sub-goal to reach is to create a strong anti-alcohol movement in schools and reach a general alcohol ban for children and youth. + + +== Reception == +Anton Orel's book Der Alkoholismus: Einführung in ein soziales Problem (English: The alcoholism, introduction to a social problem) was praised for the density of information provided. The Christliche Arbeiterzeitung valued that the book provided an overview of the alcohol problem and outlines the impact of alcohol on society. The Reichspost praised the empirical background of the book combined with its easy-written overall character. Anton Orel was able to separate himself from the pressure of society and criticize the societal habit of alcohol consumption, aiming to entirely ban alcohol consumption. However, caused by its rigor, Orel's publications are seen as utopic and he is criticised for his intransigence. Receptions such as "Es ist schade, dass das sonst tüchtige Werkchen mit solch Übertreibungen beschwert ist (…)." (English: "It is a pity that the otherwise efficient little work is burdened with such exaggerations (…).") confirm this extreme tendency. +Several of Orel's suggestions and warnings are confirmed and still important in the 21st century. Strikingly, the proposed adverse health effects were quite accurate. One possible health consequence already introduced by Orel in 1908 and confirmed by research, is alcohol's depressing effects on the central nervous system (CNS) which can range from mild euphoria to a condition of coma and death. Another health consequence impacting society today is altered immune regulation leading to immunodeficiency and autoimmunity, causing lower resistance to bacterial diseases. Another example of this is Orel's proposed destructive impact of alcohol consumption on life expectancy. This is now supported in research showing that excessive alcohol consumption is associated with increased mortality. Even though Anton Orel's work highlights issues in the early 20th century, alcoholism still appears to be a major social problem in the 21st century. + + +== See also == +Temperance movement + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems-0.md index 654d409ba..4905c280d 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/6 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:33:17.091433+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:26.483495+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems-1.md index db765b25f..8a74aaaa1 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/6 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:33:17.091433+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:26.483495+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems-2.md index f1be538c4..9ccf4b814 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems-2.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems-2.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/6 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:33:17.091433+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:26.483495+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems-3.md index b3bf3a5ce..179d19066 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems-3.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems-3.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 4/6 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:33:17.091433+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:26.483495+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems-4.md index c1d39c33c..edf561fbd 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems-4.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems-4.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 5/6 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:33:17.091433+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:26.483495+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems-5.md index 2c1538e14..28cfae3ca 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems-5.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems-5.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 6/6 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogue_Concerning_the_Two_Chief_World_Systems" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:33:17.091433+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:26.483495+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_Wrote_Back-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_Wrote_Back-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9113aba46 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_Wrote_Back-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Einstein Wrote Back" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_Wrote_Back" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:28.913584+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Einstein Wrote Back is a memoir by Canadian physicist John Moffat that documents his encounters with various other famous physicists, including Niels Bohr, Albert Einstein, Erwin Schrödinger, Fred Hoyle, Wolfgang Pauli, Paul Dirac, Abdus Salam, and J. Robert Oppenheimer, as well as his work at Imperial College London, Princeton University, CERN, and the University of Toronto. The book's title comes from a series of letters Moffat exchanged with Einstein early in his life, which inspired Moffat to continue studying physics. + + +== Reception == +Writing in Physics World, Graham Farmelo described the book as a pleasant read, though some of the anecdotes appeared embellished and historical details were inconsistent. + + +== See also == +Reinventing Gravity, 2008 book by Moffat +Cracking the Particle Code of the Universe: The Hunt for the Higgs Boson, 2014 book by Moffat + + +== References == + + +== External links == +"EINSTEIN WROTE BACK by John Moffat". YouTube. ThomasAllenPublisher. October 19, 2010. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elements_of_Dynamic-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elements_of_Dynamic-0.md index 6834c8bb2..e9e528883 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elements_of_Dynamic-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elements_of_Dynamic-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elements_of_Dynamic" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:44:16.835680+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:31.462570+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiments_and_Observations_on_Electricity-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiments_and_Observations_on_Electricity-0.md index 4d0b55998..a514c8996 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiments_and_Observations_on_Electricity-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiments_and_Observations_on_Electricity-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiments_and_Observations_on_Electricity" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:17:52.026850+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:34.035855+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feynman's_Lost_Lecture-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feynman's_Lost_Lecture-0.md index a50ed69e9..fc4a7bdfb 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feynman's_Lost_Lecture-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feynman's_Lost_Lecture-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feynman's_Lost_Lecture" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:33:29.018768+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:35.280798+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geshu_bu-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geshu_bu-0.md index 8497b2fc7..f45deca0d 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geshu_bu-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geshu_bu-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geshu_bu" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:45:00.452687+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:36.490564+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonice_Mundi-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonice_Mundi-0.md index f667f27b3..494cede8d 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonice_Mundi-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonice_Mundi-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/2 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonice_Mundi" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:45:08.718356+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:37.722025+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonice_Mundi-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonice_Mundi-1.md index 1d72864c5..c1b49329a 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonice_Mundi-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonice_Mundi-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/2 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonice_Mundi" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:45:08.718356+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:37.722025+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helgoland_(book)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helgoland_(book)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3ca719c17 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helgoland_(book)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,15 @@ +--- +title: "Helgoland (book)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helgoland_(book)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:38.907667+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Helgoland is a book by Italian physicist Carlo Rovelli about quantum mechanics and the relational interpretation of it that Rovelli developed. The title refers to Heligoland, an island in the North Sea where Werner Heisenberg secluded himself while developing the basic ideas of quantum mechanics in 1925. +The book was first published in Italian in 2020, and an English translation by Erica Segre and Simon Carnell was published the following year. The Persian translation, translated by Samane Noroozi (Chatrang Publisher), was published the following year in Iran. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higgs_Discovery-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higgs_Discovery-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a5572f246 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higgs_Discovery-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Higgs Discovery" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higgs_Discovery" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:40.162884+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Higgs Discovery: The Power of Empty Space is a short non-fiction book by Lisa Randall, in which she concentrates on the ideas discussed in her two previous books. Higgs Discovery was initially published on September 24, 2013 by Ecco Press. + + +== Review == +Lisa Randall is a well-known theoretical physicist, Professor at Harvard and author of two previous, chunkier popular books on particle physics, cosmology and their implications. This ebook contains extracts from those books but the main content is a thirty page account of the significance of the discovery and of her personal experience of it (listening to the seminar in a cafe on a Greek Island, doing an interview about it halfway up a rock face...). +The style is informal and easygoing; the content is advanced. Randall goes beyond the poetic one-liners and beyond what any single news article could deliver in terms of explaining the significance of the discovery, how it was made, and what might come next. A lot of specialist terms are used, but most are introduced in a way which does not interfere with the impact of the narrative or the big picture Randall summarises. I think it will work well for non-specialists (certainly regular readers of this blog will have no worries). +—The Guardian + + +== See also == +Higgs boson +Higgs mechanism +Nothing + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Higgs Boson, Physics and the Real World with Dr. Lisa Randall on YouTube \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horologium_Oscillatorium-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horologium_Oscillatorium-0.md index f7aa5a304..496c3161d 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horologium_Oscillatorium-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horologium_Oscillatorium-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/3 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horologium_Oscillatorium" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:45:14.621466+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:41.406888+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horologium_Oscillatorium-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horologium_Oscillatorium-1.md index 254398ae2..f75ff9e64 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horologium_Oscillatorium-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horologium_Oscillatorium-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/3 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horologium_Oscillatorium" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:45:14.621466+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:41.406888+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horologium_Oscillatorium-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horologium_Oscillatorium-2.md index 8872fe792..e621c2cef 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horologium_Oscillatorium-2.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horologium_Oscillatorium-2.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/3 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horologium_Oscillatorium" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:45:14.621466+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:41.406888+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_to_Create_a_Mind-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_to_Create_a_Mind-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..bd081e364 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_to_Create_a_Mind-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "How to Create a Mind" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_to_Create_a_Mind" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:27.810593+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +How to Create a Mind: The Secret of Human Thought Revealed is a non-fiction book about brains, both human and artificial, by the inventor and futurist Ray Kurzweil. First published in hardcover on November 13, 2012 by Viking Press it became a New York Times Best Seller. It has received attention from The Washington Post, The New York Times and The New Yorker. +Kurzweil describes a series of thought experiments which suggest to him that the brain contains a hierarchy of pattern recognizers. Based on this he introduces his Pattern Recognition Theory of Mind (PRTM). He says the neocortex contains 300 million very general pattern recognition circuits and argues that they are responsible for most aspects of human thought. He also suggests that the brain is a "recursive probabilistic fractal" whose line of code is represented within the 30-100 million bytes of compressed code in the genome. +Kurzweil then explains that a computer version of this design could be used to create an artificial intelligence more capable than the human brain. It would employ techniques such as hidden Markov models and genetic algorithms, strategies Kurzweil used successfully in his years as a commercial developer of speech recognition software. Artificial brains will require massive computational power, so Kurzweil reviews his law of accelerating returns, which explains how the compounding effects of exponential growth will deliver the necessary hardware in only a few decades. +Critics felt the subtitle of the book, The Secret of Human Thought Revealed, overpromises. Some protested that pattern recognition does not explain the "depth and nuance" of mind including elements like emotion and imagination. Others felt Kurzweil's ideas might be right, but they are not original, pointing to existing work as far back as the 1980s. Yet critics admire Kurzweil's "impressive track record" and say that his writing is "refreshingly clear", containing "lucid discussions" of computing history. + +== Background == +Kurzweil has written several futurology books including The Age of Intelligent Machines (1990), The Age of Spiritual Machines (1999) and The Singularity is Near (2005). In his books he develops the law of accelerating returns. The law is similar to Moore's Law, the persistent doubling in capacity of computer chips, but extended to all "human technological advancement, the billions of years of terrestrial evolution" and even "the entire history of the universe". + +Due to the exponential growth in computing technologies predicted by the law, Kurzweil says that by "the end of the 2020s" computers will have "intelligence indistinguishable to biological humans". As computational power continues to grow, machine intelligence will represent an ever-larger percentage of total intelligence on the planet. Ultimately it will lead to the Singularity, a merger between biology and technology, which Kurzweil predicts will occur in 2045. He says "There will be no distinction, post-Singularity, between human and machine...". +Kurzweil himself plans to "stick around" for the Singularity. He has written two health and nutrition books aimed at living longer, the subtitle of one is "Live Long Enough to Live Forever". One month after How to Create a Mind was published, Google announced that it had hired Kurzweil to work as Director of Engineering "on new projects involving machine learning and language processing". Kurzweil said his goal at Google is to "create a truly useful AI [artificial intelligence] that will make all of us smarter". + +== Content == + +=== Thought experiments === +Kurzweil opens the book by reminding us of the importance of thought experiments in the development of major theories, including evolution and relativity. It's worth noting that Kurzweil sees Darwin as "a good contender" for the leading scientist of the 19th century. He suggests his own thought experiments related to how the brain thinks and remembers things. For example, he asks the reader to recite the alphabet, but then to recite the alphabet backwards. The difficulty in going backwards suggests "our memories are sequential and in order". Later he asks the reader to visualize someone he has met only once or twice, the difficulty here suggests "there are no images, videos, or sound recordings stored in the brain" only sequences of patterns. Eventually he concludes the brain uses a hierarchy of pattern recognizers. + +=== Pattern Recognition Theory of Mind === +Kurzweil states that the neocortex contains about 300 million very general pattern recognizers, arranged in a hierarchy. For example, to recognize a written word there might be several pattern recognizers for each different letter stroke: diagonal, horizontal, vertical or curved. The output of these recognizers would feed into higher level pattern recognizers, which look for the pattern of strokes which form a letter. Finally a word-level recognizer uses the output of the letter recognizers. All the while signals feed both "forward" and "backward". For example, if a letter is obscured, but the remaining letters strongly indicate a certain word, the word-level recognizer might suggest to the letter-recognizer which letter to look for, and the letter-level would suggest which strokes to look for. Kurzweil also discusses how listening to speech requires similar hierarchical pattern recognizers. +Kurzweil's main thesis is that these hierarchical pattern recognizers are used not just for sensing the world, but for nearly all aspects of thought. For example, Kurzweil says memory recall is based on the same patterns that were used when sensing the world in the first place. Kurzweil says that learning is critical to human intelligence. A computer version of the neocortex would initially be like a new born baby, unable to do much. Only through repeated exposure to patterns would it eventually self-organize and become functional. +Kurzweil writes extensively about neuroanatomy, of both the neocortex and "the old brain". He cites recent evidence that interconnections in the neocortex form a grid structure, which suggests to him a common algorithm across "all neocortical functions". + +=== Digital brain === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_to_Create_a_Mind-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_to_Create_a_Mind-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..01dfdfc3c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_to_Create_a_Mind-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "How to Create a Mind" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_to_Create_a_Mind" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:27.810593+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Kurzweil next writes about creating a digital brain inspired by the biological brain he has been describing. One existing effort he points to is Henry Markram's Blue Brain Project, which is attempting to create a full brain simulation by 2023. Kurzweil says the full molecular modeling they are attempting will be too slow, and that they will have to swap in simplified models to speed up initial self-organization. +Kurzweil believes these large scale simulations are valuable, but says a more explicit "functional algorithmic model" will be required to achieve human levels of intelligence. Kurzweil is unimpressed with neural networks and their potential while he's very bullish on vector quantization, hidden Markov models and genetic algorithms since he used all three successfully in his speech recognition work. Kurzweil equates pattern recognizers in the neocortex with statements in the LISP programming language, which is also hierarchical. He also says his approach is similar to Jeff Hawkins' hierarchical temporal memory, although he feels the hierarchical hidden Markov models have an advantage in pattern detection. +Kurzweil touches on some modern applications of advanced AI including Google's self-driving cars, IBM's Watson which beat the best human players at the game Jeopardy!, the Siri personal assistant in the Apple iPhone or its competitor Google Voice Search. He contrasts the hand-coded knowledge of the Douglas Lenat's Cyc project with the automated learning of systems like Google Translate and suggests the best approach is to use a combination of both, which is how IBM's Watson was so effective. Kurzweil says that John Searle's has leveled his "Chinese Room" objection at Watson, arguing that Watson only manipulates symbols without meaning. Kurzweil thinks the human brain is "just" doing hierarchical statistical analysis as well. +In a section entitled A Strategy for Creating a Mind Kurzweil summarizes how he would put together a digital mind. He would start with a pattern recognizer and arrange for a hierarchy to self-organize using a hierarchical hidden Markov model. All parameters of the system would be optimized using genetic algorithms. He would add in a "critical thinking module" to scan existing patterns in the background for incompatibilities, to avoid holding inconsistent ideas. Kurzweil says the brain should have access to "open questions in every discipline" and have the ability to "master vast databases", something traditional computers are good at. He feels the final digital brain would be "as capable as biological ones of effecting changes in the world". + +=== Philosophy === +A digital brain with human-level intelligence raises many philosophical questions, the first of which is whether it is conscious. Kurzweil feels that consciousness is "an emergent property of a complex physical system", such that a computer emulating a brain would have the same emergent consciousness as the real brain. This is in contrast to people like John Searle, Stuart Hameroff and Roger Penrose who believe there is something special about the physical brain that a computer version could not duplicate. +Another issue is that of free will, the degree to which people are responsible for their own choices. Free will relates to determinism, if everything is strictly determined by prior state, then some would say that no one can have free will. Kurzweil holds a pragmatic belief in free will because he feels society needs it to function. He also suggests that quantum mechanics may provide "a continual source of uncertainty at the most basic level of reality" such that determinism does not exist. + +Finally Kurzweil addresses identity with futuristic scenarios involving cloning a nonbiological version of someone, or gradually turning that same person into a nonbiological entity one surgery at a time. In the first case it is tempting to say the clone is not the original person, because the original person still exists. Kurzweil instead concludes both versions are equally the same person. He explains that an advantage of nonbiological systems is "the ability to be copied, backed up, and re-created" and this is just something people will have to get used to. Kurzweil believes identity "is preserved through continuity of the pattern of information that makes us" and that humans are not bound to a specific "substrate" like biology. + +=== Law of accelerating returns === +The law of accelerating returns is the basis for all of these speculations about creating a digital brain. It explains why computational capacity will continue to increase unabated even after Moore's Law expires, which Kurzweil predicts will happen around 2020. Integrated circuits, the current method of creating computer chips, will fade from the limelight, while some new more advanced technology will pick up the slack. It is this new technology that will get us to the massive levels of computation needed to create an artificial brain. +As exponential progress continues into and beyond the Singularity, Kurzweil says "we will merge with the intelligent technology we are creating". From there intelligence will expand outward rapidly. Kurzweil even wonders whether the speed of light is really a firm limit to civilization's ability to colonize the universe. + +== Reception == + +=== Analysis === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_to_Create_a_Mind-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_to_Create_a_Mind-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4b18b127a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_to_Create_a_Mind-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,36 @@ +--- +title: "How to Create a Mind" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_to_Create_a_Mind" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:27.810593+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Simson Garfinkel, an entrepreneur and professor of computer science at the Naval Postgraduate School, says Kurzweil's pattern recognition theory of mind (PRTM) is misnamed because of the word "theory", he feels it is not a theory since it cannot be tested. Garfinkel rejects Kurzweil's one-algorithm approach instead saying "the brain is likely to have many more secrets and algorithms than the one Kurzweil describes". Garfinkel caricatures Kurzweil's plan for artificial intelligence as "build something that can learn, then give it stuff to learn", which he thinks is hardly the "secret of human thought" promised by the subtitle of the book. +Gary Marcus, a research psychologist and professor at New York University, says only the name PRTM is new. He says the basic theory behind PRTM is "in the spirit of" a model of vision known as the neocognitron, introduced in 1980. He also says PRTM even more strongly resembles Hierarchical Temporal Memory promoted by Jeff Hawkins in recent years. Marcus feels any theory like this needs to be proven with an actual working computer model. And to that end he says that "a whole slew" of machines have been programmed with an approach similar to PRTM, and they have often performed poorly. +Colin McGinn, a philosophy professor at the University of Miami, asserted in The New York Review of Books that "pattern recognition pertains to perception specifically, not to all mental activity". While Kurzweil does say "memories are stored as sequences of patterns" McGinn asks about "emotion, imagination, reasoning, willing, intending, calculating, silently talking to oneself, feeling pain and pleasure, itches, and mood" insisting these have nothing to do with pattern recognition. McGinn is also critical of the "homunculus language" Kurzweil uses, the anthropomorphization of anatomical parts like neurons. Kurzweil will write that a neuron "shouts" when it "sees" a pattern, where McGinn would prefer he say a neuron "fires" when it receives certain stimuli. In McGinn's mind only conscious entities can "recognize" anything, a bundle of neurons cannot. Finally he takes objection with Kurzweil's "law" of accelerating change, insisting it is not a law, but just a "fortunate historical fact about the twentieth century". +In 2015, Kurzweil's theory was extended to a Pattern Activation/Recognition Theory of Mind with a stochastic model of self-describing neural circuits. + +=== Reviews === +Garfinkel says Kurzweil is at his best with the thought experiments early in the book, but says the "warmth and humanitarianism" evident in Kurzweil's talks is missing. Marcus applauds Kurzweil for "lucid discussion" of Alan Turing and John von Neumann and was impressed by his descriptions of computer algorithms and the detailed histories of Kurzweil's own companies. +Matthew Feeney, assistant editor for Reason, was disappointed in how briefly Kurzweil dealt with the philosophical aspects of the mind-body problem, and the ethical implications of machines which appear to be conscious. He does say Kurzweil's "optimism about an AI-assisted future is contagious." While Drew DeSilver, business reporter at the Seattle Times, says the first half of the book "has all the pizazz and drive of an engineering manual" but says Kurzweil's description of how the Jeopardy! computer champion Watson worked "is eye-opening and refreshingly clear". +McGinn says the book is "interesting in places, fairly readable, moderately informative, but wildly overstated." He mocks the book's subtitle by writing "All is revealed!" after paraphrasing Kurzweil's pattern recognition theory of mind. Speaking as a philosopher, McGinn feels that Kurzweil is "way of out of his depth" when discussing Wittgenstein. +Matt Ridley, journalist and author, wrote in The Wall Street Journal that Kurzweil "has a more impressive track record of predicting technological progress than most" and therefore he feels "it would be foolish, not wise, to bet against the emulation of the human brain in silicon within a couple of decades". + +=== Translations === +Spanish: "Cómo crear una mente. El secreto del pensamiento humano" (Lola Books, 2013). +German: "Das Geheimnis des menschlichen Denkens. Einblicke in das Reverse Engineering des Gehirns" (Lola Books, 2014). + +== Notes == + +== References == +Kurzweil, Ray (2005), The Singularity is Near, New York: Viking Books, ISBN 978-0-670-03384-3 +Kurzweil, Ray (2012), How to Create a Mind: The Secret of Human Thought Revealed, New York: Viking Books, ISBN 978-0-670-02529-9 + +== External links == +Official website +After Words interview with Kurzweil on How to Create a Mind, December 1, 2012, C-SPAN +"Ray Kurzweil 'How to Create a Mind', Authors at Google" on YouTube +Science Friday, Is It Possible to Create a Mind? Archived 2015-09-05 at the Wayback Machine \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrodynamica-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrodynamica-0.md index 64b4f1f58..f41584b01 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrodynamica-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrodynamica-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrodynamica" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:45:15.780405+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:42.667840+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_of_the_Vortex-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_of_the_Vortex-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f5e6d0e9b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_of_the_Vortex-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "I of the Vortex" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_of_the_Vortex" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:28.930745+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +I of the Vortex: From Neurons to Self is a popular science book by the Colombian neuroscientist Rodolfo Llinás, published in February 2002 by MIT Press. and whose Spanish edition features a prologue by his friend, Nobel laureate Gabriel García Márquez. +The book is considered a best seller for scientific dissemination and won the "best health book" award at the International Latino Book Award Fair in BookExpo America 2013, in New York, and according to Google Scholar has received more than 1000 citations. + + +== Content == +The book traces the history of neuroscience in its search for trying to explain the functioning of the mind and the brain. In addition, the author includes some of his ideas and research, published in international research journals, but prepared for a general public. + + +== See also == +Human evolution +Neuroscience + + +== References == + + +== External links == +NYU Medical Center Rodolfo Llinás +Librería Norma +The MIT Press: I of the vortex \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imagining_the_Elephant-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imagining_the_Elephant-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e85e16468 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imagining_the_Elephant-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Imagining the Elephant" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imagining_the_Elephant" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:43.952249+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Imagining the Elephant: A Biography of Allan MacLeod Cormack is a 2008 biography of physicist and Nobel laureate Allan MacLeod Cormack written by biomedical engineer and author Christopher Kit Vaughan and published by Imperial College Press. The book won the University of Cape Town Book Award in 2010, an honour shared with Nobel laureate J. M. Coetzee who won the award in 1984 for Waiting for the Barbarians. +Cormack shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1979 with Godfrey Hounsfield “for the development of computer assisted tomography.” The book's title is inspired by the parable of six blind men and an elephant, in which the men, by approaching the animal from different angles, imagine it to be an elephant. This is analogous to computed tomography – or CT scan – in which a series of two-dimensional X-rays taken from different angles are used to construct a three-dimensional image of the object. + + +== Overview == +The book is divided into nine chapters: (1) From John O'Groats to Jo'burg; (2) On the Slopes of Table Mountain; (3) Physics and Friends at Cambridge; (4) Return to the Fairest Cape; (5) A New Beginning in Boston; (6) Finding Radon and His Transform; (7) On the Road to Stockholm; (8) Citizen of the World; and (9) At Home in Massachusetts. In addition, there are five appendices: (A) Allan Cormack's Publications; (B) Nobel Lecture; (C) Presentation of Nobel Prize; (D) Man and Science in the 21st Century; and (E) A Teenager's Odyssey. Appendix D is an essay written by Cormack for The Mainichi Newspapers, while Appendix E is a mini-biography with cartoons written for The Weekly Shonen Jump, a magazine for teenagers. Neither of these essays, which were originally published in Japanese, had previously been published in English. + + +== Reviews == +Writing in The New England Journal of Medicine, Reginald Greene commented: “Those interested in the history of science are indebted to Vaughan for producing this wonderful biography of Allan Cormack and for creating an expert and vivid description of one of the two streams of discovery that led to the invention of computed tomography.” Robin Cherry, who was one of Cormack's students in the early 1950s, said: “A prodigious effort has gone into this book, and the result is a comprehensive work of reference which will be a valuable source for those interested in the history of science and medicine.” + + +== See also == + +American Prometheus: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Publisher's page \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incognito b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incognito new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e69de29bb diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irreducible_Mind-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irreducible_Mind-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..af06732f5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irreducible_Mind-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,56 @@ +--- +title: "Irreducible Mind" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irreducible_Mind" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:31.247137+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Irreducible Mind: Toward a Psychology for the 21st Century is a 2007 psychological book by Edward Francis Kelly, Emily Williams Kelly, Adam Crabtree, Alan Gauld, Michael Grosso, and Bruce Greyson. It attempts to bridge contemporary cognitive psychology and mainstream neuroscience with "rogue phenomena", which the authors argue exist in near-death experiences, psychophysiological influence, automatism, memory, genius, and mystical states. +The authors' approach repudiates the conventional theory of human consciousness as a material epiphenomenon that can be fully explained in terms of physical brain processes and advances the mind as an entity independent of the brain or body. They advance an alternative "transmission" or "filter" theory of the mind-brain relationship. In doing so they explain how dualism may be a more fundamental theory that rejects a materialistic perspective of consciousness. + + +== Authors == +The authorship of the book is diverse, with representatives from the United States, United Kingdom, and Canada. The book is interdisciplinary in that the authors also come from various fields of psychology, science studies, and psychical research. Lead author Edward F. Kelly is Professor of Research in the Division of Perceptual Studies at the University of Virginia School of Medicine. + + +== Contents == +The book begins by presenting a brief overview of contemporary neuroscience followed by a summary of the approach to scientific psychology proposed by Frederic W. H. Myers. Myers (and William James) posited that a "true science of mind should seriously take into account all kinds of human experiences before prematurely accepting a theory of mind". Kelly argues that modern psychology has continued, contrary to the advice by Myers and James, to ignore phenomena from psychical research and religious experience simply because they don't fit into the prevalent views of mind. +The book endorses phenomena related to psychosomatic medicine, placebo effects, near-death experiences, mystical experiences, and creative genius, to argue for a "strongly dualistic theory of mind and brain". Irreducible Mind depicts the mind as an entity independent of the brain or body, with which it causally interacts and the death of which it survives. The book "challenges neuroscientific reductionism" as it argues that properties of minds cannot be fully explained by those of brains. +The book is broken into 9 sections followed by an introductory bibliography on psychical research and 100 pages of references. + +Chapter 1: A View from the Mainstream: Contemporary Cognitive Neuroscience and the Consciousness Debates +Chapter 2: F. W. H. Myers and the Empirical Study of the Mind-Body Problem +Chapter 3: Psychophysiological Influence +Chapter 4: Memory +Chapter 5: Automatism and Secondary Centers of Consciousness +Chapter 6: Unusual Experiences Near Death and Related Phenomena +Chapter 7: Genius +Chapter 8: Mystical Experience +Chapter 9: Toward a Psychology for the 21st Century + + +== Reception == +Andreas Sommer writing in Journal of Mind and Behavior after providing a complete review of the book content, praised the work for its thoroughness in addressing its multidisciplinary subject and "a constructively critical and genuinely scientific tone and spirit" maintained by the authors throughout the work. Sommer argued that "the book has the potential to serve as an invaluable guide for psychologists and other scholars who are aware of the increasing crisis and lack of orientation within modern academic psychology." +Critics Mitchell G. Ash, Horst Gundlach and Thomas Sturm negatively reviewed the book in American Journal of Psychology in 2010. They objected to some inaccuracies and omissions in lead author Edward F. Kelly's representation of history of physicalism. They also objected to what they see as lack of specifications in Kelly's representation of the mind–body problem that the book's authors claim to offer a solution to, some ambiguities in their proposed dualist "receiver theory" of mind-brain interaction as well as ignoring plausible versions of the type identity theory that they refute in their work. The critics also highlight what they see as the authors' failure to elaborately cite empirical evidences from alleged paranormal phenomena to support their theory and instead referring readers for specifics of the evidence to the large bibliography of psychical literature listed in the book's appendix. They also pointed to the controversial nature of the psi phenomena and discounted the authors' references to them (such as near-death experiences) on the ground that they are anecdotal. +In a reply to the above negative review, lead author, Edward Francis Kelly, commented that "the empirical inadequacies of physicalism are evident whether one takes the evidence from psychical research seriously or not." +The critics, in their rejoinder, found an irony in Kelly's justification for the shortcomings that they perceived in the historical background of the work considering the authors' inclusion of a CD-ROM copy of the Human Personality and Its Survival of Bodily Death by F.W.H. Myers as a companion to the book as well as having "a long chapter (by Emily Kelly) on the history of psi and related research since the 19th century." They insisted that the authors' "broad and oversimplified" description of physicalism made it difficult to understand what specific doctrine is allegedly refuted by their empirical research. +Clinical neurologist Sebastian Dieguez argued that the book is "painstakingly redundant, astoundingly arrogant in its claims and intents". He wrote that the authors of Irreducible Mind took reports of paranormal phenomena and wild claims at face value, utilized "quantum babble", and formed an ignorant "soul of the gaps" argument. +Alexander Moreira-Almeida, reviewing the book in the Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, praised the authors "for their courage and scholarship in dealing with such a controversial topic" and presenting thought-provoking ideas for the mind-body problem while stating that a wider transcultural scope and views by experts in philosophy of science would have been also useful. +Paul Marshal, writing in Journal of Consciousness Studies, described the book a monumental work with far-reaching revolutionary ambitions, "a heavyweight intellectual contribution that will be indispensable to those interested in late 19th-century reactions to scientific naturalism, to investigators of anomalous experiences, and to students of consciousness studies on the lookout for stimulating data and ideas." + + +== See also == +The Conscious Mind +Extra-Sensory Perception +Parapsychology: Frontier Science of the Mind +Varieties of Anomalous Experience + + +== References == + + +== External links == +The Division of Perceptual Studies Archived 2014-05-08 at the Wayback Machine at the University of Virginia School of Medicine. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jungle_Animals-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jungle_Animals-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..82069b9dc --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jungle_Animals-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "Jungle Animals" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jungle_Animals" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:45.543900+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Jungle Animals was Frank Buck’s eighth book, written with Ferrin Fraser, describing some of the animals, birds, and reptiles of the jungle, which Buck had come in contact with in his years of travel around the world. The lavishly illustrated book was intended for schoolchildren grades five to eight. +A children’s book illustrator, Roger Vernam (1912–1992), was the artist. + + +== Critical reception == +"Large and beautifully illustrated by Roger Vernam, this book is authoritative and fascinating...Best for the pre-high school age, but would interest all." + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landolt–Börnstein-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landolt–Börnstein-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..272ca879b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landolt–Börnstein-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +--- +title: "Landolt–Börnstein" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landolt–Börnstein" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:45.181501+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Landolt–Börnstein is a collection of property data in materials science and the closely related fields of chemistry, physics and engineering published by Springer Nature. + + +== History == +On July 28, 1882, Dr. Hans Heinrich Landolt and Dr. Richard Börnstein, both professors at the "Landwirtschaftliche Hochschule" (Agricultural College) at Berlin, signed a contract with the publisher Ferdinand Springer on the publication of a collection of tables with physical-chemical data. The title of this book "Physikalisch-chemische Tabellen" (Physical-Chemical Tables) published in 1883 was soon forgotten. Owing to its success the data collection has been known for more than a hundred years by each scientist only as "The Landolt-Börnstein". +A total of 1,250 copies of the first edition were printed and sold. The second edition was published in 1894, followed by the third in 1905, the fourth in 1912, and finally the fifth edition in 1923. Supplementary volumes to the fifth edition were printed as late as 1936. New editions introduced major changes, including a large expansion of volumes, an increased number of authors, an updated structure, additional tables, and coverage of new areas in physics and chemistry. +The fifth edition was eventually published in 1923 and consisted of two volumes totaling 1,695 pages. Sixty-three authors contributed to this edition. The growth already evident in previous editions continued, making it clear that “another edition in approximately 10 years” was not a viable solution. As a result, a complete conceptual change to Landolt–Börnstein became necessary. In the meantime, supplementary volumes were to be issued at two-year intervals to fill gaps and incorporate the latest data. The first supplementary volume to the fifth edition was published in 1927, the second in 1931, and the third in 1935–36. The latter comprised three sub-volumes, totaling 3,039 pages, with contributions from 82 authors. +The 6th Edition (1950) was published in line with the revised general frame. The basic idea was to have four volumes instead of one, each of which was to cover different fields of the Landolt–Börnstein under different editors. Each volume was given a detailed table of contents. Two major restrictions were also imposed. The author of a contribution was asked to choose a "Bestwert" (optimum value) from the mass of statements of an experimental value in the publications of different authors, or derive a "wahrscheinlichster Wert” (most possible value). The other change of importance was that not only diagrams became as important as tables, but that text also became necessary to explain the presented data. + + +== The New Series == +The New Series represents over 520 books published between 1961 and 2018 and includes more than 220,000 pages covering mechanical, optical, acoustical, thermal, spectroscopic, electrical and magnetic properties among others. The New Series offers critically evaluated data by over 1,000 expert authors and editors in materials science. + + +=== Particle Physics Reference Library === +Three of the volumes in the New series. Group 1 Elementary particles, nuclei and atoms—volumes 21A, B1, B2, and C—have been updated (2020) and published open access in an independent hand book series, Particle Physics Reference Library, following a joint CERN–Springer initiative. These volumes are Theory and experiments, Detectors for particles and radiation, and Accelerators and colliders. + + +== Landolt-Börnstein Online == +Landolt–Börnstein books have gone through various digitization initiatives, from CD-ROM to FTP and PDF formats. Landolt–Börnstein books content is now available on SpringerMaterials. + + +== Subjects covered by Landolt–Börnstein == +Condensed matter +Nuclear physics +Physical and chemical properties of molecules and radicals +Physical chemistry +Advanced materials +Advanced technologies +Geophysics +Biophysics + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Landolt–Börnstein Online +SpringerMaterials +Springer Nature \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..20b503682 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Le Mecaniche" +chunk: 1/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:46.380111+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Le Mecaniche ("The Mechanics"; sometimes spelled Le Meccaniche in modern Italian) is a short treatise by Galileo Galilei, composed while he was teaching mathematics in Padua. The precise date of its most refined form is difficult, if not impossible, to determine, but it is generally dated around 1600 or earlier, and was unlikely revised after 1608. It was preceded by a brief version written around 1593, Galileo's first full year in Padua. The work was never printed during his lifetime but circulated in manuscript form among his students and colleagues. +The treatise examines the theory of simple machines, such as the lever, pulley, winch (i.e., windlass and capstan), screw, and inclined plane, drawing on classical sources such as Aristotle, Archimedes, Pappus, Philoponus, and Jordanus de Nemore, but reformulated through Galileo's mathematical perspective. +In the text, Galileo discusses principles of equilibrium, mechanical advantage, virtual velocities (speeds), and the impossibility of "cheating" nature, emphasizing that machines do not create force but only transform and transmit it. +Although Galileo's Mechanics is referenced in the Discorsi e dimostrazioni matematiche intorno a due nuove scienze (Discourses and Mathematical Demonstrations Relating to Two New Sciences (1638)), including a literal citation to the Mecaniche in amendments added by Vincenzo Viviani at the behest of Galileo, only selected portions appear there; most of the treatise is omitted, as the focus of the Two New Sciences was on the "new" aspects of his research. +The principle of virtual speeds, in its elementary form originating from Aristotle (whom Galileo credits), had remained undeveloped until Galileo. Certain ideas of conservation laws also emerge, particularly a local form of the conservation of energy. Galileo was the first to perceive that simple machines cannot create force or work but merely transform its application. His restricted principle of inertia, first stated in De Motu, also finds implicit application in the Mecaniche. Lastly, Galileo's early development of his Mechanics around 1595-97 would mark his first use and adoption of the term "moment" (momento) within a technical sense. + +== Early drafts and publication history == +According to Vincenzo Viviani's testimony, the first draft of the Mecaniche was written in 1593. +A few early drafts have been accounted for. One was discovered in Regensburg by Antonio Favaro in 1898 (found after the version in the Edizione Nazionale had been published) which differed from all the other copies of the manuscript. Favaro believed the Regensburg to be the first draft, used by Galileo as a guide for both public and private lessons held during his Padua period. The Regensburg copy includes an inscription that indicates that it was read by Galileo in the year 1594, which appears to confirm Viviani's claim. However, another draft was discovered by Stillman Drake in 1955, found in the Bauer Collection of the Institute of Technology in Pasadena, containing the coat of arms of Count Rocco on the cover. The Pasadena draft lacks a date inscription; however, it presents similarities with the Regensburg version and lacks the first six chapters. Drake argues that this Pasadena draft is the earliest and that it served as an outline for Galileo's lectures. Thus, the Pasadena version is presumed to be written in 1593, as Viviani's testimony suggests. The definitive draft included in the Edizione Nazionale is believed to be dated 1598-1600. Neither the Pasadena or Regensburg versions provide the initial "definitions" of which the final edition includes. Moreover, in both the Pasadena and Regensburg versions, "momento" appears in only one paragraph, used in the sense of a weight so small that it can be disregarded. +Galileo's manuscript on mechanics in Italian was widely circulated among his students and colleagues, often without listing his authorship, as he believed the work did not offer any novel ideas of his own. +Marin Mersenne translated the manuscript into French in 1634. +The first printed edition of the Mecaniche was in 1649 under the care of Cavalier Luca Danesi. +It was translated twice into English during the seventeenth century: one by Robert Payen in 1636, which remained unpublished, and the other by Thomas Salusbury in 1662 in volume 2 of his Mathematical Collections and Translations; however most were destroyed in the great London fire and only eight copies have been found. +Carlo Manolessi would publish it in volume 1 of his 1655 edition of the Opere di Galileo Galilei. Eugenio Albèri's edition of the Opere di Galileo Galilei, published in 1854, includes it in volume 11. Antonio Favaro would later publish Le Mecaniche in volume 2 of the Opere di Galileo Galilei in 1891. +An English translation of the Le Mecaniche was published together with the De Motu in 1960 under the title On Motion and On Mechanics, translated by I. E. Drabkin and Stillman Drake, which is based upon the text as established by Favaro. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7b0f408cc --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,17 @@ +--- +title: "Le Mecaniche" +chunk: 2/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:46.380111+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Critical reception == +Clavelin argues that the Le Mecaniche combined three distinct trends in statics into an orderly and rational theory of simple machines: the Peripatetic tradition, whose origins are traced back to the Mechanical Problems; the Archimedean tradition; and a 13th century tradition originated by Jordanus Nemorarius, who produced the first proof in statics based expressly on the idea of virtual displacements, and a correct explanation of motion on an inclined plane. +The Mechanical Problems of the Peripatetic school provided the earliest known analysis of why small forces can move great weights by means of the lever, treating the problem implicitly as one in statics, using an approach that contained the beginnings of the principle of virtual velocities, but it should be emphasized that the Mechanical Problems never treated virtual displacements but only virtual velocities. It also described the behavior of the wedge, the pulley, the tackle, the forceps, and the nutcracker, reducing each to that of the lever; however, it failed to adduce a systematic theory of simple machines. +In the Archimedean tradition, Archimedes set out to transform statics into a demonstrative science, refusing, in his theory of the lever, to treat equilibrium in terms of virtual motions of the motive force and the resistance. +In the medieval statics tradition, Jordanus based the determination of equilibrium on the virtual motions of the ends of the balance beam. However, his arguments lacked rigor but led to an important transformation: equilibrium was based on the relative displacements of two weights, whereas, instead of considering speeds as the Mechanical Problems did, Jordanus considered the distances, which took the first step toward enunciating the general principle of virtual work. +By linking the 13th-century tradition with the other two traditions, their synthesis in the Mecaniche became a direct prelude to the modern reconstruction of statics on the principle of virtual work. Not only did Galileo take a view opposite to that of his chief predecessors and contemporaries (among them Guido Ubaldo del Monte and Benedetti), but by assimilating and then dominating the traditions, he was able to turn his Mecaniche into the first truly modern treatise on statics. +Regarding the analysis of the balanced lever, Clavelin agrees with Mach in his criticism that, just as Archimedes did, Galileo relied on the implicit assumption that the moment of a heavy body depends exclusively on its weight and on the distance of its center of gravity from its point of suspension. However, unlike Archimedes, Galileo’s approach was more general and efficient since it treated incommensurable and commensurable weights on the same footing. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..efef63f2b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Le Mecaniche" +chunk: 3/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:46.380111+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== The beginnings of Galilean momento === +Galileo's Mecaniche presents his early adoption and transformation of momento into a technical term. Prior to drafting his Mecaniche, Galileo had made several attempts to correct the deficiencies and contradictions of his De motu, particularly with the system and definitions relating to gravitas, levitas, and his concept of force, virtus impressa; however, he ultimately abandoned the work. +Galluzzi indicates that, during the period spanning 1593 through 1600, Galileo consciously dedicated himself to reforming his lexicon, including his use of momento. As Galluzzi notes, the Pasadena and Regensburg versions of the Mecaniche first used momento without definition and only within a few sentences, wherein the term indicated a negligible amount of weight, which reflected the biblical expression momentum staterae. The years 1595-1597 then marked a period of intense research, definition, and introduction of the term that we now find in the definitive version of the text, making Galileo's momento a Paduan achievement. During the academic year of 1597-98, Galileo taught a course dedicated to the pseudo-Aristotelian Questions of Mechanics at the University of Padua. Galluzzi argues that, while preparing for this task, and stimulated by extensive readings of mechanical texts (he would have certainly have revisited, among others, Archimedes, Commandino, and Guidobaldo's Mechanicorum liber, he perhaps understood precisely then all the advantages that could derive from adopting momento. +In the analysis of the Mecaniche, Galluzzi argues that momento, as used in the text, "indicated both, in its etymology and in its most common use (the text and main commentaries and expositions of Aristotle's Physics), the tendency, the endeavor of bodies toward their 'proper' place, and, consequently, the speed with which they would have moved toward that goal. Such tendency derived directly from weight. Momento, therefore, indicated the 'instinct', the natural 'desire' of the heavy body to fulfill itself: ultimately, a rather intangible cause of motion, an 'occult' quality." +Clavelin argues that Galileo’s definition of momento is remarkable in that it enabled Galileo to accept the concept of moment in three distinct ways: +In the first, moment was used to refer to the force exerted by a heavy body as determined by its distance from the axis of the system, making it equivalent to the concept of static moment. Jordanus had only implicitly used the concept of static moment in his study of the bent lever, whereas Galileo’s Mecaniche was the first to make explicit use, which presided over his treatment of all simple machines. Galileo also added a definition of the center of gravity (i.e., center of heaviness), which used momento in the static sense. This definition of center of gravity was inspired by those of Pappus and Guido Ubaldo del Monte. Pappus, in his Collections, had defined the center of gravity as a point in a body such that if the body were suspended from it, it would remain at rest. In practice, the center of gravity is the point marking the intersection of all the vertical planes that can be drawn through all the points from which bodies are suspended successively. Guido Ubaldo del Monte, in his Paraphrasis, remarked that the two parts determined by each vertical plane (whatever the point of suspension) were merely “equiponderant,” that is, they had the same effect, but when separated from each other, they would not have the same weight. Galileo converted Guido Ubaldo’s remark into a definition and removed any remaining uncertainties with his concept of moment. +In the second, moment is used to express a product of weight and the velocity of its virtual motion; in this second sense, the concept reflected the dynamic approach of the Mechanical Problems and the works of Jordanus, and thus bears witness to Galileo’s interest in all the traditions that combined in the development of the science of equilibrium. Galileo uses this dynamic version of moment in his analysis of the lever and his theory of the inclined plane through virtual motions. +In the third, particularly in his analysis of the inclined plane, Galileo uses moment to express increases or decreases in the intensity of the tendency with which a heavy body tends to move downward on an inclined plane. + +== Synopsis == + +=== On the Utilities That Are Derived from the Mechanical Science and from Its Instruments === + +==== Defining what it means to "cheat" nature and how it remains impossible ==== +Galileo begins by emphasizing the usefulness of mechanical instruments, but notes that mechanicians are often misled when applying them to operations that are naturally impossible, such as lifting very heavy loads with only a small force, as though machines could cheat nature. As he points out, nature does not permit us to overcome resistance unless the applied force is sufficient. He then sets out to show not only how machines allow a lesser force to move weights that would otherwise be immovable, but also to illustrate the broader advantages revealed by this study. With this in mind, he notes that there are four things to consider for mechanical motion: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b21031b29 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "Le Mecaniche" +chunk: 4/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:46.380111+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +the weight to be transferred from one place to another; +the force or power that must move the weight; +the distance between the beginning and the end of this motion; and +the time in which the change must be made (which comes to mean the same as swiftness and speed of its motion, in which to be "swifter" means to pass an equal distance in less time). +Given any determined resistance and delimiting any force, noting any distance in its motion, a weight will be driven by a given force to a given distance. Even if the force is small, we can divide the weight into many pieces, each of which is not superior to the force. By transferring these pieces one at a time, the entire weight can eventually be moved to the desired location. In this fashion, we do not say that the whole weight was translated by a small force, but rather that the small force is applied through many repeated motions and spaces, of which the entire weight only traverses but once. +From this, it appears that the speed of the force is greater than the resistance of the weight by as many times as the weight is greater than the force, since, in the time it takes for the force to repeat the distance, the entire weight passes the distance just once. Thus, what it means to "cheat" nature in mechanics is when a lesser force moves a greater resistance with a speed equal to that which the latter travels, which is impossible for any machine. + +==== On the specific usefulness of machines ==== +Galileo then lists the specific usefulness of machines, noting that anything beyond is merely deception and impossible undertakings. +The first utility of machines is when it is necessary to move a great weight, as a whole, across a distance using but a small force. Such machines still require the same force to repeat the same space as many times as the weight exceeds it. Thus, at the end of the displacement, the only profit gained from the machine is to have transported the entire weight in one piece with the given force, which, if the weight were divided into pieces, would have been transported without the machine by the same force in the same time through the same distance. Nevertheless, this makes the machine useful since we often need to move great weights in their entirety with less force, albeit at the expense of more time. +The second utility of machines depends on where the operation is carried out. For example, when drawing water from a well, we use a rope and a bucket. With this, we pull a determined quantity of water after a certain period of time with our limited force – it would be wrong to believe that a machine, no matter how complicated, could draw a greater quantity of water with the same force in the same time. However, there are other instruments capable of extracting water, such as bilge pumps used to remove water from ships. Such pumps are not used to transport larger quantities of water in the same time with the same force as would be required of a simple bucket, but rather they are used because the shape of the bucket would otherwise be inconvenient, since it would require a sufficient depth to plunge the bucket into the water in order to draw from it. The same pumps are used in wine cellars where the water can only be removed obliquely, which would otherwise not be possible with a rope and bucket. +The third utility of machines (which, in Galileo's opinion, is the most useful) is that they can be powered by an inanimate force or a cheap animate force in comparison to human power. For example, using the flow of a river to turn a mill, or the strength of a horse, for which several men would not suffice: the power of the river costs little or nothing, and to maintain a horse whose power exceeds that of eight or more men is far cheaper than maintaining and sustaining so many men. + +=== Definitions === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f0e134bc8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,36 @@ +--- +title: "Le Mecaniche" +chunk: 5/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:46.380111+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Terms of mechanics ==== +Galileo then introduces special terms used for his analysis of mechanics, along with their basic assumptions. +Heaviness (gravità) is the tendency of heavy bodies to move downward naturally. In solid bodies, heaviness is caused by the greater or lesser abundance of matter (materia). It is interesting to note that Galileo does not reduce heaviness to weight (peso) or state that it is to be measured by weight. +Moment (momento) is the tendency of heavy bodies to move downward caused not just by the heaviness of the mobile but also by the arrangement that different heavy bodies have among themselves. It is through moment that a less heavy body can be seen to counterbalance another of greater heaviness. For example, on the steelyard balance, a small counterweight can lift a very heavy weight, not through its greater heaviness (of which it lacks) but rather by its distance of suspension of the steelyard. This arrangement, in combination with its heaviness, contributes to its moment and impetus (i.e., drive, propensity, or tendency; not to be confused with Buridanist impetus) to go downward, which may exceed the moment of the other heavier weight. Thus, moment is that impetus to go downward, based on heaviness, position, and anything else that may cause this tendency (Galileo will later show speed to also be a factor when he virtually rotates the lever, as demonstrated in the following Observations section). +At Galileo's time, the word "moment" (momento), which had previously been employed in Latin writings on statics (momentum), was new in its technical sense in Italian literature and would be later criticized for its use in Galileo's work on hydrostatics (Discorso intorno alle cose che stanno in su l'acqua, o che in quella si muovono, "Discourse on Bodies that Stay Atop Water, or Move in It"), to which Galileo would respond by providing a mechanical definition of momento in the second edition of the Discorso, and would further add its technical sense along side the phraseological and metaphorical uses of the term in the second edition of the Crusca Vocabulary of 1623. Galileo's mechanical definition of momento persisted alongside the phraseological and metaphorical definitions in the dictionaries up until the 5th edition, printed in 1910. +Center of Heaviness (centro di gravità) is the point in every heavy body around which parts of equal moments are arranged. Thus, in suspending a body from such a point, the parts to the right balance the parts on the left, the parts to the front balance those of the rear, and those above balance those below. Therefore, the body suspended from said point will not tilt in any direction and remain stable regardless of the body's placement in any location or position. This is the point that would unite itself with the general center of all heavy things, i.e., the center of the Earth, if the body could descend in some free medium. +This definition originated from Federico Commandino. Archimedes also utilized the center of heaviness, but he left the term undefined; however, it is more likely that the definition was provided in an earlier, now lost, work. + +==== Suppositions ==== +From the above, three suppositions are drawn: + +All heavy bodies move downward in such a way that their center of heaviness will never depart from the straight line produced from this center to the center of the Earth; +Every heavy body is pulled downward principally upon its center of heaviness, and receives there every impetus, heaviness, and moment; and +The center of heaviness of two equally heavy bodies is located at the middle of the straight line that connects their respective centers; or, in other words, two equal bodies suspended at equal distances have a point of equilibrium at the common juncture of these equal distances. + +==== General guidelines for applying the suppositions ==== + +Galileo then notes that the distances between the weights and their fulcrum must be measured with perpendicular lines dropped from their points of suspension down (towards the common center of heavy bodies) upon the straight lines drawn between the centers of heaviness of the two equal weights. For example, on a balance of two equally heavy bodies, noting the straight line drawn between their centers, if one of the balance arms were instead bent upwards from the fulcrum, the weights would no longer balance, since, if we dropped a plumb line from the weight of the bent arm onto the straight line previously drawn, the distance measured from the fulcrum point of the two equally heavy bodies to the intersection with the plumb line would then be shorter as compared to the other side. + +==== Galilean law of the lever: the principle of equal moments ==== + +Galileo then pivots to an important and well-known mechanical principle: that unequal weights hanging from unequal distances are balanced whenever the said distances are inversely proportional to the weights, which he then demonstrates in terms of equal "moments" using a rod of uniform density that is arbitrarily divided into two parts and hung by respective strings on a balance. Galileo will provide this demonstration again on the Second Day of his Two New Sciences. + +=== Some Observations About the Things Said Above === + +==== Virtual displacements and virtual speeds in proportion to moment ==== \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b40cd4cd8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "Le Mecaniche" +chunk: 6/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:46.380111+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Having established the case of equal moments of the lever, Galileo notes another "probable" truth. As previously established, if we consider a lever balancing unequal weights at inverse distances (i.e., a state of equal moments), but now one side is hypothetically given a minimal moment of heaviness (i.e., an insensible addition of weight capable of breaking equilibrium), this side will now descend, albeit slowly, while the other side rises. Since any minimal (and insensible) heaviness is sufficient to break equilibrium, we can ignore this quantity so that the power that one weight has in sustaining a second weight compared to the power to move the second weight is essentially indistinguishable. In other words, the additional minimal weight is so small and negligible (yet enough to set the system in motion), the ability of the weights to produce static equilibrium on the lever is also the same ability of the same weights to sustain motion on the lever. +This arrangement forms the basis of mechanical analysis through virtual displacements and virtual speeds (and later, during the analysis of inclined planes, the principle of virtual work). The analysis using virtual speeds was originally drawn from Aristotle. +Now, as one weight descends while the other ascends, the arc lengths traced out by the respective weights (and likewise their speeds, after some interval of time) always remain in the same ratio as the ratio of their distances from the fulcrum. Thus, since the weights are in inverse proportion to their distances, we can also conclude that the weights are also in inverse proportion to their speeds. Therefore, it can be said that the resistance of the heavier weight with its slower speed is compensated by the faster speed of the lighter weight, and vice versa. Galileo then concludes that this line of reasoning shows us that an increase in speed of motion is proportional to an increase in moment. +The concept of momentum, in the modern sense, follows directly from this construction; however, Galileo never completely dissociated his analysis of moment from connected systems. + +==== Distances at which heavy bodies come to be weighed ==== +Galileo notes that it is important to know how equal and unequal distances are to be understood and measured. For a straight balance having two equal weights at its extremes, equilibrium is found at the midpoint of these extremes because the balance arms have equal lengths. If, however, one of the lever arms is bent at the midpoint, the balance will not be at equilibrium because the effective distance of the weight on the bent arm is less than that of the other. Thus, if we consider the (vertical) lines along which the weights make their impetus and along which they would descend if unrestrained, Galileo instructs that distances measured should not be measured at the point of connection or suspension, but rather the horizontal distance spanning from vertical lines traced from the weight to the point of fulcrum. Moreover, it should be ensured that these lines make right angles at their intersections. + +=== Of the Steelyard and of the Lever === + +Having established these principles, Galileo turns to analyze the steelyard balance, which was a tool used to weigh a heavy weight (primarily merchandise) using a small, movable counterweight along a long lever arm. Once the counterweight finds equilibrium, unequal weights are found to be in inverse ratio to their distances to the fulcrum. +Galileo then notes that the steelyard is no different from a lever, which is used to move large stones and other weights with a small force. He then proceeds to describe how a lever is used, noting that, as the fulcrum is placed ever closer to the weight to be lifted, the force applied at the opposite end is ever less effective at raising the weight (in other words, in using the same force on the same path of motion/displacement, moving the fulcrum closer to the weighted end of the lever raises the weight to ever lesser heights). +He then emphasizes and proves that the utility of the lever is not because the lever is capable in cheating nature by overcoming a large resistance with a small force, but rather in its ability to move, all at once, a heavy body a certain distance, which could be moved otherwise only in pieces by the same force, during the same time, and with an equal motion, without the benefit of the lever. + +=== Of the Windlass, and of the Capstan === +Galileo then analyzes the windlass, which is arranged and moved about a horizontal axis, and the capstan, which worked about a vertical axis; both of which contain wheels that function as continuous levers, and a demonstration in terms of moments is provided. He then also shows how nature is not cheated by these devices, but rather that the lesser force applied to move a greater resistance must travel further than the resisting weight. Galileo then concludes that the advantage of these devices is that the weight is transferred as a whole, but with no less effort, and no greater speed, nor through any greater distance than that of the same force that would otherwise transfer the weight piece by piece. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..30cccd1d5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Le Mecaniche" +chunk: 7/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:46.380111+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Of Pulleys === +Galileo asserts that pulleys (i.e., block-and-tackle systems and simple pulleys) are also describable as a lever; however, prior to demonstrating pulleys, he first demonstrates class II levers (prior analysis of levers up until this section were class I levers). Again, Galileo demonstrates the class II lever in terms of moment, and shows that whatever is gained in force is lost in speed. +In viewing a single fixed pulley system with a rope hanging about it vertically on both sides of the pulley, Galileo notes that the wheel of the pulley is essentially a lever with equal arms, which amounts to no mechanical advantage. He further notes that Aristotle "childishly deceived himself" into believing that larger pulley wheels provided a greater advantage than smaller pulley wheels. Instead, Galileo asserts that the only advantage that these simple pulleys offer is the convenience of not having to fight against our own bodies when lifting a weight: in lifting a weight with our arms, we must lift the weight itself along with the weight of our own arms; in contrast, the simple pulley allows us to use the weight of our own arms to pull the rope downwards. Thus, the advantage of simple pulleys is not in its mechanical advantage, but rather in the mode of applying it. +In a single movable pulley system in which one end of the rope is anchored, the weight to be lifted is coupled to the housing of the pulley, and the other end of the rope is pulled, thus lifting the pulley housing along with the weight (the system described here is shown to be analogous to the class II lever), a mechanical advantage is certainly observed since the effort is equally divided between the force pulling and the anchored end. +However, the single movable pulley system requires a direction of force that is inconvenient for inanimate movers, or at least more laborious for animate movers. To overcome this inconvenience a single fixed pulley is added to the system, to which the rope is anchored to, thus forming a block-and-tackle system (more specifically, a gun tackle system). The mechanical advantage can be further increased by adding movable and fixed pulleys to the system, which Galileo demonstrates in terms of moments. + +=== Of the Screw === +Galileo then turns to the screw, which he believes is the most ingenious and useful invention of all the mechanical instruments, since it not only moves but also fixes and presses with great force, compactly supplying the ability of a large machine into a small device. +Before diving into the discussion of the screw, Galileo shifts the focus to another theorem, which serves as a principal foundation for analyzing the screw: inertia. + +==== The principle of inertia and the various impetuses observed on different inclined planes ==== +Galileo notes that all heavy bodies have a propensity, when free, to move towards the center of the Earth in a straight line. However, when obstructed by any other line tilted towards the center of the Earth, heavy bodies will still go downward, albeit more slowly. For instance, water runs on the surface of the Earth on lines that are inclined, as is seen with rivers, even though the incline of the river bed is only but barely inclined. +Solids also behave the same way, provided that their shapes and other external impediments do not prevent their motion. Thus, if we have a smooth and polished surface, such as a mirror, and we place a smooth and round ball of marble, glass, or some other polishable material on this polished surface, the ball will move, provided that the surface has at least a slight tilt; however, if the surface is perfectly leveled, equidistant from the plane of the horizon, then the ball will remain still. For example, a ball will stand still on a frozen lake or pond, which would otherwise move by an extremely small force. Should the plane that the ball rests upon be tilted just ever so slightly, the ball would spontaneously move towards the lower end of the plane, and likewise, the ball would have resistance in motion toward the upper end of the plane. Thus, it's clear that a ball placed on an exactly horizontal surface would remain indifferent between motion and rest, such that any minimal force would be sufficient to move it, just as any minimal resistance, such as the air that surrounds it, would be capable of holding it still. + +From this, Galileo concludes that we have an axiom: with all external impediments removed, heavy bodies can be moved on the horizontal plane by any minimal force. If the same heavy body must be driven up a plane, it would require greater forces for greater vertical elevations of the same plane (i.e., greater heights for greater inclinations, by rotation, of the same plane). He then provides a diagram illustrating various inclinations of the same length of plane, showing that a heavy body has a greater impetus to go downward along steeper inclines, which conversely requires a greater force to push it up the plane – the greatest resistance to motion being along the vertical; however, along the horizontal, the heavy body remains indifferent to motion or rest, being movable by any minimal force. + +==== The ratio of forces along the inclined plane against its vertical: a bent lever analogy ==== +From the above, Galileo presents the question: what proportion should a force have to a weight in order to push it up along different inclined planes? To this, Galileo sets out to demonstrate that the same weight upon an incline will be moved upwards by a weaker force than along a vertical distance in proportion to the vertical elevation of the incline to the inclined length of the plane. +Much of the following construction mimics the same shown in a chapter of Galileo's earlier work De Motu; however, this time, Galileo avoids any mention of the ratio of speeds. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8708d86e7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,18 @@ +--- +title: "Le Mecaniche" +chunk: 8/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:46.380111+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Galileo begins by stating that the theory he presents was originally attempted by Pappus of Alexandria in the eighth book of his Mathematical Collections; however, he argues that Pappus failed because he assumed that heavy bodies require an applied force in order to be moved along the horizontal, which Galileo asserts is false. +In his construction, Galileo relies on a "bent lever" analogy for analyzing the inclined plane. As the bent lever suspending a weight is turned downward, its moment and its impetus to go down decrease as the lever increases its support of the weight along its radius. He then argues that this arrangement would be no different if the weight were instead placed on a circular surface such that the surface supports the weight instead of the radius of the lever – in both cases, the constrained path of the weight is the same. Thus, when the lever is straight (i.e., not bent), the weight exerts its maximum moment and would behave no differently if placed, unsuspended, against a vertical surface. If the lever is bent downward slightly, then the weight is partly sustained by the radius of the lever, or equivalently, partly sustained by the curved surface beneath it, with its moment only partially exerted. Therefore, if the weight were to start its motion at the bent lever position, it would be as if the weight were on an inclined plane whose slope is the same as the tangent line of the circle at that position. +Through this arrangement, Galileo is able to geometrically find (via similar trianlges) the ratio of moments of a weight on an inclined plane: the ratio of total moment of the weight on the vertical to the partial moment of the same weight supported on the inclined plane is the same as the ratio of the length of the incline of the plane to the vertical elevation of the plane. Moreover, to sustain the weight along the vertical, the sustaining force must be equal to the weight; and to sustain the weight along the incline, the sustaining force must be proportionately less, just as the vertical elevation is less than the length of the incline. Galileo then concludes: since, in general, the force to move a weight only needs to insensibly exceed what is needed to sustain it, then the force along the inclined plane has the same proportion to the weight as the vertical elevation to the length of the incline of the plane, such that the force is sufficient to sustain the weight on the inclined plane and is also the minimum force sufficient to push the weight up along the inclined plane, thus answering the posed initial question. +In this arrangement, by reducing the analysis of force on the inclined plane to the vertical component, Galileo utilizes the principle of virtual velocities. Moreover, his previous reduction of circular to tangential motions, along with the insensible force in his analysis, introduces in effect the use of infinitesimal displacements in place of gross motions. + +==== Returning to the screw ==== +Galileo observes that a weight being drawn up an inclined plane along a motionless plane is the same as if the weight were moved vertically while the inclined plane translates horizontally (essentially acting as a wedge). With this translating inclined plane in mind, Galileo asserts that the screw is just an inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder to form a thread, thus making the screw a compact version of the inclined plane. +Having previously demonstrated that the force acting on a weight placed on an incline to the force of the same weight placed along the vertical has the same proportion as the vertical elevation of the incline to the length of the incline, it can be seen that the force is multiplied by the screw according to the ratio of the length of the thread to its height. Thus, by having more threads within the same height of the screw, the more powerful the vertical pressing force becomes. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche-8.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..cabdc2350 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche-8.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Le Mecaniche" +chunk: 9/9 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Mecaniche" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:46.380111+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Lastly, Galileo reminds us of the principle that applies to all mechanical instruments: whatever is gained in force is lost in time and speed. He demonstrates this principle with the screw, using an example of a weight raised on an inclined plane. +Consider a weight placed on an inclined plane, and connected to the weight via an inextensible cord is a counterweight that hangs vertically over the edge of the plane. If the proportion of the force produced by the counterweight on the vertical to the weight on the incline is the same as the vertical elevation of the plane to the inclined length (here, Galileo is applying the ratio found in the previous section to construct an equilibrium condition for the two weights such that the reduced force of the weight on the inclined plane, which is now determinable from the ratio, is canceled by the equivalent opposing force of the counterweight; as described earlier, this arrangement is reducable to the bent lever analogy in which the counterweight is on one side of a lever while the other, heavier weight is on the bent side, such that the ratio of weights are inverse ratio to their horizontal distances from the fulcrum), and if these coupled weights were permited to move (perhaps by the addition of some insensible weight), then, by virtue of the connecting cord, the hanging counterweight will traverse a space that is equal to the space traversed by the other weight up the inclined plane. +In this arrangement, the space traversed by the weight along the entire length of the inclined plane corresponds to a vertical displacement equal to that of the vertical elevation of the plane, while with the same motion, the hanging counterweight must descend vertically the same distance as the entire length of the inclined portion of the plane. Since heavy bodies do not offer resistance to motion except when displaced away from the center of the Earth (this being the basis of the principle of virtual work within the context of Galileo's limited inertial principle), then from the construction we may say that the travel of the force of the hanging counterweight has the same ratio to the travel of the force of the weight on the incline as the length of the inclined plane has to the vertical elevation of the inclined plane, or as the weight has to the counterweight. +This demonstration is revisited in the second edition of Galileo's Two New Sciences, in which Vincenzo Viviani, under the direction of Galileo, includes an appended scholium just after the second theorem of accelerated motion (and its corollaries) of the Third day; however, the discussion omits the bent lever analysis. + +==== Of the Archimedean screw for raising water ==== +Galileo comments that the Archimedean screw is "not only marvelous, but miraculous" since the water ascends within a continually descending screw. He then explains its function along with the required angles for its operation. + +=== Of the Force of Percussion === +Galileo remarks that there is something curious about the force of percussion as compared to all the other mechanical instruments: when a nail is struck into a piece of wood, or a stick driven into the ground, both rely on the force of percussion of a hammer, which would otherwise not be possible if the hammer, or even a heavier weight, were simply placed on them. To this, Galileo believes that no one else before has sufficiently explained its reason – even Aristotle and several others attempted to do so, attributing the cause to the length of the handle of the hammer, but such attempts remained flawed, for even without the handle, a weight falling from a height may perform the same action. +Galileo indicates that the force, the resistance, and the space through which the motion is performed follow in the same proportion as the other mechanical operations, and obey those laws by which a resistance equal to the force is moved by this force through an equal space and with equal speed to that of the mover. +From there, Galileo provides some groundwork for the study of percussion. However, he admits there are difficulties and objections to it, but he assures that these will be resolved once the mechanical problems appended at the end are further studied. Unfortunately, these mechanical problems are lost. +Galileo later mentions various cases of the force of percussion again throughout his Two New Sciences, and even intended to include a Fifth or Sixth Day dedicated to the force of percussion, but was not able to complete it to his own satisfaction. + +== References == + +== External links == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Règne_Animal-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Règne_Animal-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..142050106 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Règne_Animal-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Le Règne Animal" +chunk: 1/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Règne_Animal" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:07.544009+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Le Règne Animal (lit. 'The Animal Kingdom') is the most famous work of the French naturalist Georges Cuvier. It sets out to describe the natural structure of the whole of the animal kingdom based on comparative anatomy, and its natural history. Cuvier divided the animals into four embranchements ("Branches", roughly corresponding to phyla), namely vertebrates, molluscs, articulated animals (arthropods and annelids), and zoophytes (cnidaria and other phyla). +The work appeared in four octavo volumes in December 1816 (although it has "1817" on the title pages); a second edition in five volumes was brought out in 1829–1830 and a third, written by twelve "disciples" of Cuvier, in 1836–1849. In this classic work, Cuvier presented the results of his life's research into the structure of living and fossil animals. With the exception of the section on insects, in which he was assisted by his friend Pierre André Latreille, the whole of the work was his own. It was translated into English many times, often with substantial notes and supplementary material updating the book in accordance with the expansion of knowledge. It was also translated into German, Italian and other languages, and abridged in versions for children. +Le Règne Animal was influential in being widely read, and in presenting accurate descriptions of groups of related animals, such as the living elephants and the extinct mammoths, providing convincing evidence for evolutionary change to readers including Charles Darwin, although Cuvier himself rejected the possibility of evolution. + +== Context == +As a boy, Georges Cuvier (1769-1832) read the Comte de Buffon's Histoire Naturelle from the previous century, as well as Linnaeus and Fabricius. He was brought to Paris by Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire in 1795, not long after the French Revolution. He soon became a professor of animal anatomy at the Musée National d'Histoire Naturelle, surviving changes of government from revolutionary to Napoleonic to monarchy. Essentially on his own he created the discipline of vertebrate palaeontology and the accompanying comparative method. He demonstrated that animals had become extinct. +In an earlier attempt to improve the classification of animals, Cuvier transferred the concepts of Antoine-Laurent de Jussieu's (1748-1836) method of natural classification, which had been presented in 1789 in Genera plantarum, from botany to zoology. In 1795, from a "fixist" perspective (denying the possibility of evolution), Cuvier divided Linnaeus's two unsatisfactory classes ("insects" and "worms") into six classes of "white-blooded animals" or invertebrates: molluscs, crustaceans, insects and worms (differently understood), echinoderms and zoophytes. Cuvier divided the molluscs into three orders: cephalopods, gastropods and acephala. Still not satisfied, he continued to work on animal classification, culminating over twenty years later in the Règne Animal. + +For the Règne Animal, using evidence from comparative anatomy and palaeontology—including his own observations—Cuvier divided the animal kingdom into four principal body plans. Taking the central nervous system as an animal's principal organ system which controlled all the other organ systems such as the circulatory and digestive systems, Cuvier distinguished four types of organisation of an animal's body: + +I. with a brain and a spinal cord (surrounded by parts of the skeleton) +II. with organs linked by nerve fibres +III. with two longitudinal, ventral nerve cords linked by a band with two ganglia positioned below the oesophagus +IV. with a diffuse nervous system which is not clearly discernible +Grouping animals with these body plans resulted in four "embranchements" or branches (vertebrates, molluscs, the articulata that he claimed were natural (arguing that insects and annelid worms were related) and zoophytes (radiata)). This effectively broke with the mediaeval notion of the continuity of the living world in the form of the great chain of being. It also set him in opposition to both Saint-Hilaire and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck. Lamarck claimed that species could transform through the influence of the environment, while Saint-Hilaire argued in 1820 that two of Cuvier's branches, the molluscs and radiata, could be united via various features, while the other two, articulata and vertebrates, similarly had parallels with each other. Then in 1830, Saint-Hilaire argued that these two groups could themselves be related, implying a single form of life from which all others could have evolved, and that Cuvier's four body plans were not fundamental. + +== Book == + +=== Editions === + +Le Règne Animal distribué d'après son organisation, pour servir de base à l'histoire naturelle des animaux et d'introduction à l'anatomie comparée (1st edition, 4 volumes, 1816) (Volumes I, II and IV by Cuvier; Volume III by Pierre André Latreille) +--- (2nd edition, 5 volumes, 1829–1830) +--- (3rd edition, 22 volumes, 1836–1849) known as the "Disciples edition" +The twelve "disciples" who contributed to the 3rd edition were Jean Victor Audouin (insects), Gerard Paul Deshayes (molluscs), Alcide d'Orbigny (birds), Antoine Louis Dugès (arachnids), Georges Louis Duvernoy (reptiles), Charles Léopold Laurillard (mammals in part), Henri Milne Edwards (crustaceans, annelids, zoophytes, and mammals in part), Francois Desire Roulin (mammals in part), Achille Valenciennes (fishes), Louis Michel François Doyère (insects), Charles Émile Blanchard (insects, zoophytes) and Jean Louis Armand de Quatrefages de Bréau (annelids, arachnids etc.). +The work was illustrated with tables and plates (at the end of Volume IV) covering only some of the species mentioned. A much larger set of illustrations, said by Cuvier to be "as accurate as they were elegant" was published by the entomologist Félix Édouard Guérin-Méneville in his Iconographie du Règne Animal de G. Cuvier, the nine volumes appearing between 1829 and 1844. The 448 quarto plates by Christophe Annedouche, Canu, Eugène Giraud, Lagesse, Lebrun, Vittore Pedretti, Plée and Smith illustrated some 6200 animals. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Règne_Animal-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Règne_Animal-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..79890802d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Règne_Animal-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Le Règne Animal" +chunk: 2/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Règne_Animal" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:07.544009+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Translations === +Le Règne Animal was translated into languages including English, German and Italian. +Many English translations and abridged versions were published and reprinted in the nineteenth century; records may be for the entire work or individual volumes, which were not necessarily dated, while old translations were often brought out in "new" editions by other publishers, making for a complex publication history. A translation by Edward Griffith (with assistance by Edward Pidgeon for some volumes and other specialists for other volumes) was published in 44 parts by G.B. Whittaker and partners from 1824 to 1835 and many times reprinted (up to 2012 and eBook format); another by G. Henderson in 1834–1837. A translation was made and published by the ornithologist William MacGillivray in Edinburgh in 1839–1840. Another version by Edward Blyth and others was published by William S. Orr and Co. in 1840. An abridged version by an "experienced teacher" was published by Longman, Brown, Green and Longman in London, and by Stephen Knapp in Coventry, in 1844. Kraus published an edition in New York in 1969. Other editions were brought out by H.G. Bohn in 1851 and W. Orr in 1854. An "easy introduction to the study of the animal kingdom: according to the natural method of Cuvier", together with examination questions on each chapter, was made by Annie Roberts and published in the 1850s by Thomas Varty. +A German translation by H.R. Schinz was published by J.S. Cotta in 1821–1825; another was made by Friedrich Siegmund Voigt and published by Brockhaus. +An Italian translation by G. de Cristofori was published by Stamperia Carmignani in 1832. +A Hungarian translation by Peter Vajda was brought out in 1841. + +=== Approach === + +Each section, such as on reptiles at the start of Volume II (and the entire work) is introduced with an essay on distinguishing aspects of their zoology. In the case of the reptiles, the essay begins with the observation that their circulation is so arranged that only part of the blood pumped by the heart goes through the lungs; Cuvier discusses the implications of this arrangement, next observing that they have a relatively small brain compared to the mammals and birds, and that none of them incubate their eggs. +Next, Cuvier identifies the taxonomic divisions of the group, in this case four orders of reptiles, the chelonians (tortoises and turtles), saurians (lizards), ophidians (snakes) and batracians (amphibians, now considered a separate class of vertebrates), describing each group in a single sentence. Thus the batracians are said to have a heart with a single atrium, a naked body (with no scales), and to pass with age from being fish-like to being like a quadruped or biped. +There is then a section heading, in this case "The first order of Reptiles, or The Chelonians", followed by a three-page essay on their zoology, starting with the fact that their hearts have two atria. The structure then repeats at a lower taxonomic level, with what Cuvier notes is one of Linnaeus's genera, Testudo, the tortoises, with five sub-genera. The first sub-genus comprises the land tortoises; their zoology is summed up in a paragraph, which observes that they have a domed carapace, with a solid bony support (the term being "charpente", commonly used of the structure of wooden beams that support a roof). He records that the legs are thick, with short digits joined for most of their length, five toenails on the forelegs, four on the hind legs. +Then (on the ninth page) he arrives at the first species in the volume, the Greek tortoise, Testudo graeca. It is summed up in a paragraph, Cuvier noting that it is the commonest tortoise in Europe, living in Greece, Italy, Sardinia and (he writes) apparently all round the Mediterranean. He then gives its distinguishing marks, with a highly domed carapace, raised scales boldly marked with black and yellow marbling, and at the posterior edge a bulge over the tail. He gives its size—rarely reaching a foot in length; notes that it lives on leaves, fruit, insects and worms; digs a hole in which to pass the winter; mates in spring, and lays 4 or 5 eggs like those of a pigeon. The species is illustrated with two plates. + +=== Contents === + +The classification adopted by Cuvier to define the natural structure of the animal kingdom, including both living and fossil forms, was as follows, the list forming the structure of the Règne Animal. Where Cuvier's group names correspond (more or less) to modern taxa, these are named, in English if possible, in parentheses. The table from the 1828 Penny Cyclopaedia indicates species that were thought to belong to each group in Cuvier's taxonomy. The four major divisions were known as embranchements ("branches"). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Règne_Animal-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Règne_Animal-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9622fcb69 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Règne_Animal-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Le Règne Animal" +chunk: 3/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Règne_Animal" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:07.544009+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +I. Vertébrés. (Vertebrates) +Mammifères (Mammals): 1. Bimanes, 2. Quadrumanes, 3. Carnassiers (Carnivores), 4. Rongeurs (Rodents), 5. Édentés (Edentates), 6. Pachydermes (Pachyderms), 7. Ruminants (Ruminants), 8. Cétacés (Cetaceans). +Oiseaux (Birds): 1. Oiseaux de proie (Birds of prey), 2. Passereaux (Passerines), 3. Grimpeurs (Piciformes), 4. Gallinacés (Gallinaceous birds), 5. Échassiers (Waders), 6. Palmipèdes (Anseriformes). +Reptiles (Reptiles, inc. Amphibians): 1. Chéloniens (Chelonii), 2. Sauriens (Lizards), 3. Ophidiens (Snakes), 4. Batraciens (Amphibians). +Poissons (Fishes): 1. Chrondroptérygiens à branchies fixes (Chondrichthyes), 2. Sturioniens ou Chrondroptérygiens à branchies libres (Sturgeons), 3. Plectognates (Tetraodontiformes), 4. Lophobranches (Syngnathidae), 5. Malacoptérygiens abdominaux, 6. Malacoptérygiens subbrachiens, 7. Malacoptérygiens apodes, 8. Acanthoptérygiens (Acanthopterygians). +II. Mollusques. (Molluscs) +Céphalopodes. (Cephalopods) +Ptéropodes. (Pteropods) +Gastéropodes (Gastropods): 1. Nudibranches (Nudibranchs), 2. Inférobranches, 3. Tectibranches, 4. Pulmonés (Pulmonata), 5. Pectinibranches, 6. Scutibranches, 7. Cyclobranches. +Acéphales: 1. Testacés (Bivalves), 2. Sans coquilles (Tunicates). +Brachiopodes. (Brachiopods, now a separate phylum) +Cirrhopodes. (Barnacles, now in Crustacea) +III. Articulés. (Articulated animals: now Arthropods and Annelids) +Annélides (Annelids): 1. Tubicoles, 2. Dorsibranches, 3. Abranches. +Crustacés (Crustaceans): 1. Décapodes (Decapods), 2. Stomapodes (Stomatopods), 3. Amphipodes (Amphipods), 4. Isopodes (Isopods), 5. Branchiopodes (Branchiopods). +Arachnides (Arachnids): 1. Pulmonaires, 2. Trachéennes. +Insectes (Insects, inc. Myriapods): 1. Myriapodes, 2. Thysanoures (Thysanura), 3. Parasites, 4. Suceurs, 5. Coléoptères (Coleoptera), 6. Orthoptères (Orthoptera), 7. Hémiptères (Hemiptera), 8. Névroptères (Neuroptera), 9. Hyménoptères (Hymenoptera), 10. Lépidoptères (Lepidoptera), 11. Ripiptères (Strepsiptera), 12. Diptères (Diptera). +IV. Zoophytes. (Zoophytes, called Radiata in English translations; now Cnidaria and other phyla) +Échinodermes (Echinoderms): 1. Pédicellés, 2. Sans pieds. +Intestinaux (Helminths): 1. Cavitaires, 2. Parenchymateux. +Acalèphes (Jellyfish and other free-floating polyps): 1. Fixes, 2. Libres. +Polypes (Cnidaria): 1. Nus, 2. À polypiers. +Infusoires (Infusoria, various protistan phyla): 1. Rotifères (Rotifers), 2. Homogènes. + +== Reception == + +=== Contemporary === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Règne_Animal-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Règne_Animal-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f7463357d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Règne_Animal-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Le Règne Animal" +chunk: 4/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Règne_Animal" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:07.544009+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The entomologist William Sharp Macleay, in his 1821 book Horae Entomologicae which put forward the short-lived "Quinarian" system of classification into 5 groups, each of 5 subgroups, etc., asserted that in the Règne Animal "Cuvier was notoriously deficient in the power of legitimate and intuitive generalization in arranging the animal series". The zoologist William Swainson, also a Quinarian, added that "no person of such transcendent talents and ingenuity, ever made so little use of his observations towards a natural arrangement as M. Cuvier." +The Magazine of Natural History of 1829 expressed surprise at the long interval between the first and second editions, surmising that there were too few scientific readers in France, apart from those in Paris itself; it notes that while the first volume was little changed, the treatment of fish was considerably altered in volume II, while the section on the Articulata was greatly enlarged (to two volumes, IV and V) and written by M. Latreille. It also expressed the hope that there would be an English equivalent of Cuvier's work, given the popularity of natural history resulting from the works of Thomas Bewick (A History of British Birds 1797–1804) and George Montagu (Ornithological Dictionary, 1802). The same review covers Félix Édouard Guérin-Méneville's Iconographie du Règne Animal de M. le Baron Cuvier, which offered illustrations of all Cuvier's genera (except for the birds). +The Foreign Review of 1830 broadly admired Cuvier's work, but disagreed with his classification. It commented that "From the comprehensive nature of the Règne Animal, embracing equally the structure and history of all the existing and extinct races of animals, this work may be viewed as an epitome of M. Cuvier's zoological labours; and it presents the best outline, which exists in any language, of the present state of zoology and comparative anatomy." The review continued less favourably, however, that "We cannot help thinking that the science of comparative anatomy is now so far advanced, as to afford the means of distributing the animal kingdom on some more uniform and philosophical principles,—as on the modifications of those systems or functions which are most general in the animal economy". The review argued that the vertebrate division relied on the presence of a vertebral column, "a part of the organization of comparatively little importance in the economy"; it found the basis of the mollusca on "the general softness of the body" no better; the choice of the presence of articulations no better either, in the third division; while in the fourth it points out that while the echinoderms may fit well into the chosen scheme, it did not apply "to the entozoa, zoophyta, and infusoria, which constitute by much the greatest portion of this division." But the review notes that "the general distribution of the animal kingdom established by M. Cuvier in this work, are founded on a more extensive and minute survey of the organization than had ever before been taken, and many of the most important distinctions among the orders and families are the result of his own researches." +Writing in the Monthly Review of 1834, the pre-Darwinian evolutionist surgeon Sir William Lawrence commented that "the Regne Animal of Cuvier is, in short, an abridged expression of the entire science. He carried the lights derived from his zoological researches into kindred but obscure parts of nature." Lawrence calls the work "an arrangement of the animal kingdom nearly approaching to perfection; grounded on principles so accurate, that the place which any animal occupies in this scheme, already indicates the leading circumstances in its structure, economy, and habits." +The book was in the library of HMS Beagle for Charles Darwin's voyage. In The Origin of Species (1859), in a chapter on the difficulties facing the theory, Darwin comments that "The expression of conditions of existence, so often insisted on by the illustrious Cuvier, is fully embraced by the principle of natural selection." Darwin continues, reflecting both on Cuvier's emphasis on the conditions of existence, and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's theory of acquiring heritable characteristics from those Cuvieran conditions: "For natural selection acts by either now adapting the varying parts of each being to its organic and inorganic conditions of life; or by having adapted them during long-past periods of time: the adaptations being aided in some cases by use and disuse, being slightly affected by the direct action of the external conditions of life, and being in all cases subjected to the several laws of growth. Hence, in fact, the law of the Conditions of Existence is the higher law; as it includes, through the inheritance of former adaptations, that of Unity of Type." + +=== Modern === +The palaeontologist Philippe Taquet wrote that "the Règne Animal was an attempt to create a complete inventory of the animal kingdom and to formulate a natural classification underpinned by the principles of the 'correlation of parts'.." He adds that with the book "Cuvier introduced clarity into natural history, accurately reproducing the actual ordering of animals." Taquet further notes that while Cuvier rejected evolution, it was paradoxically "the precision of his anatomical descriptions and the importance of his research on fossil bones", showing for instance that mammoths were extinct elephants, that enabled later naturalists including Darwin to argue convincingly that animals had evolved. + +== Notes == + +== References == + +== External links == + +Cuvier, Georges; Latreille, Pierre André. Le Règne Animal Distribué d'après son Organisation, pour Servir de Base à l'Histoire Naturelle des Animaux et d'Introduction à l'Anatomie Comparée. Déterville libraire, Imprimerie de A. Belin, Paris, 4 Volumes, 1816. +Volume I (introduction, mammals, birds) +Volume II (reptiles, fish, molluscs, annelids) +Volume III (crustaceans, arachnids, insects) +Volume IV (zoophytes; tables, plates) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lecture_Notes_in_Physics-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lecture_Notes_in_Physics-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..cb2f01f4b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lecture_Notes_in_Physics-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "Lecture Notes in Physics" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lecture_Notes_in_Physics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:47.617778+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Lecture Notes in Physics (LNP) is a book series published by Springer Science+Business Media in the field of physics, including articles related to both research and teaching. It was established in 1969. + + +== See also == +Lecture Notes in Computer Science +Lecture Notes in Mathematics + + +== External links == +Official website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_Nature_Library-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_Nature_Library-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..01db0632f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_Nature_Library-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,70 @@ +--- +title: "Life Nature Library" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_Nature_Library" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:46.736150+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Life Nature Library is a series of 25 hardbound books published by Time-Life between 1961 and 1965, with revisions to 1968. It has been translated from English into eight languages and sold in 90 countries. Each volume explores an important division of the natural world and is written for educated laymen by a primary author (or authors) "and the Editors of LIFE". +The 25 volumes: + +The Forest (1961; revised 1963), by Peter Farb +The Sea (1961; revised 1963), by Leonard Engel +The Desert (1961; revised 1962), by A. Starker Leopold +The Mountains (1962; revised 1967), by Lorus J. Milne and Margery Milne +Evolution (1962; revised 1964), by Ruth Moore +The Poles (1962; revised 1968), by Willy Ley +The Earth (1962; revised 1963), by Arthur Beiser +The Universe (1962; revised 1966, 1967), by David Bergamini +The Insects (1962), by Peter Farb +The Birds (1963), by Roger Tory Peterson +The Plants (1963; revised 1968), by Frits W. Went +The Mammals (1963; revised 1967), by Richard Carrington +The Fishes (1963; revised 1964), by F.D. Ommanney +The Reptiles (1963), by Archie Carr +Ecology (1963), by Peter Farb +The Land and Wildlife of North America (1964; Revised 1966), by Peter Farb +The Land and Wildlife of Africa (1964; revised 1967), by Archie Carr +The Land and Wildlife of South America (1964; revised 1968), by Marston Bates +The Land and Wildlife of Tropical Asia (1964), by S. Dillon Ripley +The Land and Wildlife of Eurasia (1964; revised 1967), by François Bourlière +The Land and Wildlife of Australia (1964; revised 1967), by David Bergamini +Early Man (1965; revised 1968), by F. Clark Howell +Animal Behavior (1965), by Niko Tinbergen +The Primates (1965), by Sarel Eimerl and Irven DeVore +A Guide to the Natural World and Index to the LIFE Nature Library (1965; revised 1967) + + +== Life Young Readers Library == +Twelve titles from the Life Nature Library were abridged for a younger audience, and released under multiple editions between 1968 and 1979. They are credited to the primary authors of the original series. This series is variously referred to as the Life Young Readers Library, the Young Readers Library, or the Young Readers Nature Library. The 4th edition of the series numbered the books from 1–12. +The volumes in the Life Young Readers Library are: + +Animal Behavior +The Birds +The Desert +Early Man +The Earth +Evolution +The Fishes +The Mammals +The Primates +The Reptiles +The Sea +The Universe +As they were published some time after the initial print run of the Life Nature Library, some revisions were made that reflected advances in scientific understanding. The Earth (1962), for example, dismisses Wegener's theory of continental drift as unsubstantiated; the Young Readers edition, on the other hand, refers to it as "the most widely accepted theory that accounts for the formation of the continents" + + +== Illustrated Library of Nature == +The series was reissued in 1984 with some revisions and additions as the Illustrated Library of Nature. The Index was not part of this reissue. + + +== References == + + +== See also == +March of Progress (illustration) +Life Science Library +The World We Live In \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_books_on_popular_physics_concepts-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_books_on_popular_physics_concepts-0.md index 10b30d095..35a6e7210 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_books_on_popular_physics_concepts-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_books_on_popular_physics_concepts-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_books_on_popular_physics_concepts" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:21:07.857060+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:00.750037+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_physics-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_physics-0.md index 3c2f21031..cdc7becaf 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_physics-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_physics-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_physics" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:24:14.698215+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:48.844414+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_textbooks_on_relativity-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_textbooks_on_relativity-0.md index fb431bb3a..4647d8607 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_textbooks_on_relativity-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_textbooks_on_relativity-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_textbooks_on_relativity" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:24:17.326456+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:50.091729+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livewired-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livewired-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..59f024de8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livewired-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "Livewired" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livewired" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:32.451499+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Livewired: The Inside Story of the Ever-Changing Brain is a non-fiction book by David Eagleman, a neuroscientist at Stanford University. The book explores and extends the phenomenon of brain plasticity, with the term livewired proposed as a term to supersede plastic. +As of late 2020, the book was nominated for the Pulitzer Prize. A Kirkus review described the book as "outstanding popular science," while New Scientist magazine wrote that "Eagleman brings the subject to life in a way I haven’t seen other writers achieve before." Harvard Business Review wrote that Livewired "gets the science right and makes it accessible... completely upending our basic sense of what the brain is in the process." The Wall Street Journal wrote that "since the passing of Isaac Asimov, we haven't had a working scientist like Eagleman, who engages his ideas in such a variety of modes. Livewired reads wonderfully, like what a book would be if it were written by Oliver Sacks and William Gibson, sitting on Carl Sagan's front lawn.” + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Livewired website (includes excerpts) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Radiation_Laboratory_Series-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Radiation_Laboratory_Series-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ec8e09e01 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Radiation_Laboratory_Series-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,36 @@ +--- +title: "MIT Radiation Laboratory Series" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Radiation_Laboratory_Series" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:56.302812+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The MIT Radiation Laboratory Series is a 28-volume collection of technical books on microwave electronics and radar technology, published by McGraw-Hill between 1947 and 1951. Produced under the general editorship of Louis Ridenour, more than fifty volume editors, and hundreds of contributing authors and technical staff, the series documented research conducted at the MIT Radiation Laboratory during World War II. +The volumes became foundational texts for postwar electronics, influencing the development of microwave engineering, control systems engineering, and semiconductor physics. Because the Series was produced with federal funds, its publication contract returned royalties to the United States Treasury and limited McGraw-Hill's copyright to ten years per volume, after which the content entered the public domain. The series is credited with disseminating wartime radar technology to academic and industrial researchers who would otherwise have lacked access to it. + +== Background == + +The MIT Radiation Laboratory, established in 1940, was the principal center for Allied microwave radar development during World War II. Over five years, the laboratory grew to employ nearly 4,000 people working on several continents. Half of all radar systems deployed by the U.S. military during the war were designed there, comprising over 100 different systems. MIT became the largest university contractor for the Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD), with approximately 94 percent of its wartime funding supporting radar research at the Radiation Laboratory. Research staff at MIT worked closely with industrial scientists and production engineers at major technology manufacturers including Sperry Gyroscope, General Electric, RCA, Westinghouse, each of which received separate or subordinate OSRD contracts. The largest of these external contracts was with Bell Telephone Laboratories, the captive research arm of the telecommunications giant Western Electric. +In the fall of 1944, Rad Lab associate director Isidor Rabi recognized that while basic science had stalled during the war, five years of intensive radar research had produced advances equivalent to roughly twenty years of normal progression in fields including crystal theory, antenna design, radio signal propagation, and microwave circuitry. As an emergency operation, plans to demobilize the Rad Lab were already underway. Rabi was concerned that without systematic documentation, Bell Labs would remain the sole repository of this knowledge after the Rad Lab dispersed. + +== Production == + +Work began in late 1944 under Ridenour's editorship. The project encountered resistance from staff members who objected to writing duties while combat continued; during the Battle of the Bulge in December 1944, some confronted Rabi directly about the apparent misallocation of effort. Rabi temporarily left for Los Alamos to avoid the criticism. +After the surrender of Japan, opposition evaporated. Approximately 250 Rad Lab staff remained to work as editors and authors, supported by teams of stenographers and proofreaders. The total cost of the project was $495,024. By the time the Radiation Laboratory officially closed on December 31, 1945, most manuscripts were complete. +The foreword to the first volume, written by Rad Lab director Lee A. DuBridge, characterized the series as "a memorial to the unnamed hundreds and thousands of other scientists, engineers, and others who actually carried on the research, development, and engineering work the results of which are herein described." + +== Publication == +The planned series was announced in Nature in May 1946, describing the project as comprising twenty-nine titles plus a general index, intended to "treat the advances arising from radar work as the basis for the new electronics, rather than in terms of its contributions to radar." +Publication began in 1947 with Radar System Engineering and concluded on March 22, 1951, with the twenty-seventh and final technical volume. The complete series totaled more than 16,000 pages. McGraw-Hill reported sales exceeding 150,000 copies by the completion date and paid over $80,000 in royalties to the U.S. Treasury. The publisher estimated that the commercial arrangement produced a net saving of approximately $260,000 to the federal government compared to the cost of issuing the material as official technical reports. +The volumes were subject to Army and Navy security clearance before publication. The Office of Scientific Research and Development purchased approximately 400 copies of each volume: 250 for recipients of the Rad Lab's Summary Technical Reports and 125 for deposit with the Library of Congress for international exchange. +Because the Series was produced entirely with federal funds, its publication contract included provisions intended to ensure broad public access. Royalties were returned to the United States Treasury rather than paid to authors; by January 1953, these payments totaled $132,367, and Ridenour noted that there appeared "a possibility that the entire direct costs of preparing the manuscripts and illustrations of the Series will eventually be returned to the government." The contract also limited McGraw-Hill's copyright on each volume to ten years from the date of publication, after which the content entered the public domain. Ridenour described this clause as serving "the public interest." This arrangement followed a broader OSRD publication policy under which copyrights on technical monographs "were not to be granted for a period in excess of that reasonably necessary to insure the initial edition." +Ridenour, who by 1951 was serving as dean of the University of Illinois graduate school, described the completed series as a "compendium of basic information on microwave radar and modern electronics." + +== Reception == +A contemporary review by John R. Pierce of Bell Telephone Laboratories, published in Physics Today in June 1948, assessed four of the early volumes. Pierce characterized the books as "mines of information both theoretical and empirical, of a standard and completeness rarely encountered in books on similar subjects," though he noted that the organization "necessarily suffers somewhat from their being written by many authors with a deadline (not met) and as an assigned task." Pierce observed that despite the volumes' comprehensiveness, "they still cannot be complete, and that new as they are, they cannot be entirely up-to-date." +Rabi, more enthusiastically, described the series as "the biggest thing since the Septuagint." + +== Influence == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Radiation_Laboratory_Series-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Radiation_Laboratory_Series-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..995581ba9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Radiation_Laboratory_Series-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,62 @@ +--- +title: "MIT Radiation Laboratory Series" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Radiation_Laboratory_Series" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:56.302812+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Microwave technology === +The series served as what Robert Buderi termed "the occupational bible for at least a generation of physicists and engineers studying microwave electronics." Writing fifty years after their publication, historian Louis Brown observed that volumes "would be found on the bookshelves of almost every electronics engineer and experimental physicist for more than a generation, indeed some are found there today and not just as mementos." +Pierce's review praised the volume on klystrons and microwave triodes for including "valuable material, both experimental and theoretical, which is unavailable elsewhere," including treatments of close-spaced amplifiers and noise sidebands in reflex oscillators. The volume on microwave duplexers was noted as "surprisingly rich in material of general interest on waveguides and resonators." +Buderi credits the series with preventing the concentration of wartime microwave knowledge within a single corporate laboratory and democratizing access to radar technology for academic, industrial, and government researchers. The techniques documented in the series found applications in postwar microwave spectroscopy and radio astronomy as well as continued radar development. + +=== Control systems engineering === +The volume Theory of Servomechanisms (1947) by Hubert M. James, Nathaniel B. Nichols, and Ralph S. Phillips became particularly influential in establishing control systems engineering as a coherent discipline. Historian Chris Bissell called it "perhaps the most influential of all the American publications of the 1940s" in the field. David Mindell's analysis noted that the volume "became a canonical postwar text of control engineering, introducing a generation of engineers to newly constituted discipline" alongside similar volumes from Bell Labs and MIT's Servomechanisms Laboratory. +The volume reflected the Radiation Laboratory's comprehensive approach to systems engineering. As Ivan Getting observed in his introduction, "It is nearly as hard for practitioners in the servo art to agree on the definition of a servo as it is for a group of theologians to agree on sin." The book grounded its theoretical framework in radar-specific applications including the SCR-584 tracking system, automatic and manual tracking schemes, and methods for filtering noisy radar signals. + +=== Semiconductor physics === +The wartime radar program required extensive research into semiconductor crystal rectifiers for microwave detection. Henry Cutler Torrey coordinated this work from the Rad Lab, which was conducted at multiple institutions including Purdue University, where Karl Lark-Horovitz's lab focused on germanium, and the University of Pennsylvania, where Frederick Seitz led silicon research. Silicon became the preferred material for radar service because of its superior temperature stability. The Purdue group's research extended beyond immediate wartime needs, developing germanium diodes capable of withstanding high reverse voltages and establishing fundamental understanding that contributed to later semiconductor development. +The volume Crystal Rectifiers (1948) by Torrey and Charles Whitmer documented wartime advances in solid-state detector technology. The intensive wartime study of silicon and germanium rendered scientists and engineers familiar with melting, etching, and doping techniques that formed the basis for postwar semiconductor manufacturing, contributing to the development of the transistor at Bell Laboratories. + +== List of volumes == +The series comprised twenty-seven technical volumes plus an index: + +Volume 1 – Radar System Engineering; Louis N. Ridenour (1947) +Volume 2 – Radar Aids to Navigation; John A. Hall (1947) +Volume 3 – Radar Beacons; Arthur Roberts (1947) +Volume 4 – Loran; John A. Pierce, Alexander A. McKenzie, Richard H. Woodward (1948) +Volume 5 – Pulse Generators; G. Norris Glasoe, Jean V. Lebacqz (1948) +Volume 6 – Microwave Magnetrons; George B. Collins (1948) +Volume 7 – Klystrons and Microwave Triodes; Donald R. Hamilton, Julian K. Knipp, J. B. Horner Kuper (1948) +Volume 8 – Principles of Microwave Circuits; Carol G. Montgomery, Robert H. Dicke, Edward M. Purcell (1948) +Volume 9 – Microwave Transmission Circuits; George L. Ragan (1948) +Volume 10 – Waveguide Handbook; Nathan Marcuvitz (1951) +Volume 11 – Technique of Microwave Measurements; Carol G. Montgomery (1947) +Volume 12 – Microwave Antenna Theory and Design; Samuel Silver (1949) +Volume 13 – Propagation of Short Radio Waves; Donald E. Kerr (1951) +Volume 14 – Microwave Duplexers; Louis Smullin, Carol G. Montgomery (1948) +Volume 15 – Crystal Rectifiers; Henry C. Torrey, Charles A. Whitmer (1948) +Volume 16 – Microwave Mixers; Robert Pound (1948) +Volume 17 – Components Handbook; John F. Blackburn (1949) +Volume 18 – Vacuum Tube Amplifiers; George Valley, Henry Wallman (1948) +Volume 19 – Waveforms; Britton Chance, Vernon W. Hughes, Edward F. MacNichol Jr., David Sayre, Frederic C. Williams (1949) +Volume 20 – Electronic Time Measurements; Britton Chance, Robert I. Hulsizer, Edward F. MacNichol Jr., Frederic C. Williams (1949) +Volume 21 – Electronic Instruments; Ivan A. Greenwood Jr., J. Vance Holdam Jr., Duncan MacRae Jr. (1948) +Volume 22 – Cathode Ray Tube Displays; Theodore Soller, Merle A. Starr, George E. Valley Jr. (1948) +Volume 23 – Microwave Receivers; Stanley N. Van Voorhis (1948) +Volume 24 – Threshold Signals; James L. Lawson, George E. Uhlenbeck (1950) +Volume 25 – Theory of Servomechanisms; Hubert M. James, Nathaniel B. Nichols, Ralph S. Phillips (1947) +Volume 26 – Radar Scanners and Radomes; Willoughby M. Cady, Michael B. Karelitz, Louis A. Turner (1948) +Volume 27 – Computing Mechanisms and Linkages; Antonín Svoboda (1948) +Volume 28 – Index; Keith Henney (1953) + +== See also == +Office of Scientific Research and Development +History of radar + +== References == + +== Bibliography == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mannahatta_Project-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mannahatta_Project-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3d5011040 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mannahatta_Project-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Mannahatta Project" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mannahatta_Project" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:47.883486+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Mannahatta Project is a Wildlife Conservation Society research project in historical ecology led by landscape ecologist Eric W. Sanderson that principally ran for 10 years from 1999-2009, reconstructing the island at the point of first contact between the Dutch ship Halve Maen and the Lenape in 1609. The work culminated in the publication of Mannahatta: A Natural History of New York City in 2009 and has subsequently developed as the Welikia Project and in influence on other environmental initiatives. + + +== Project and book == +The project has explored the great biodiversity and ecological complexity through a historical geographic information system based on georeferencing of the British Headquarters Map of 1782 and the Randel Farm Maps made for the Commissioners' Plan of 1811, while also detailing the formative impact of Native American use of fire in ecosystems. It culminated in 2009 for the 400th anniversary with the publication of the book Mannahatta: A Natural History of New York City, which also includes a speculative look forward to the effect of climate change on New York City and hopeful human adaptations in the year 2409. An exhibition at the Museum of the City of New York was held the same year. +Sanderson estimates that in 1609 the landmass of the land now called Manhattan contained 66 miles of rivers and streams, numerous fishable tidal inlets, 70 kinds of trees, "627 species of plants, 85 species of fish, 32 species of reptiles and amphibians, 233 species of birds and 24 species of mammals." Additionally, Sanderson describes the 1609 landscape as one tended to by the Lenape peoples with geological evidence suggesting the indigenous peoples leveled forests and fields of grasslands, potentially engaged in small scale farming. + + +== Later phase and influence == +A follow-up project for 3 years was the Welikia Project ("my good home" in Lenape), examining the whole geography of New York City, which ran from 2010-2013. A planned sequel book is tentatively titled The Welikia Atlas: A Natural History of New York’s Five Boroughs. +The 2007 book The World Without Us includes a chapter "The City Without Us", inspired by the Mannahatta Project, that imagines a future depopulated New York City. +As a benchmark in environmental history, the Mannahatta Project has influenced restoration ecology initiatives in the region. The Billion Oyster Project aims to restore the estuary to its state in 1609. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamaterials b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamaterials new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e69de29bb diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamaterials_Handbook-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamaterials_Handbook-0.md index 3eb9b61f4..460ba6431 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamaterials_Handbook-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamaterials_Handbook-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamaterials_Handbook" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:37:14.544628+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:53.868225+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musicophilia-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musicophilia-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f17fe86b6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musicophilia-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Musicophilia" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musicophilia" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:39.398520+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Musicophilia: Tales of Music and the Brain is a 2007 book by Oliver Sacks. It explores a range of psychological and physiological ailments and their connections to music. It is divided into four parts, each with a distinctive theme: Haunted by Music examines mysterious onsets of musicality and musicophilia (and musicophobia); A Range of Musicality looks at musical oddities musical synesthesia; parts three and four are entitled Memory, Movement, and Music and Emotion, Identity, and Music. Each part has between six and eight chapters, each of which is in turn dedicated to a particular case study (or several related case studies) that fit the overarching theme of the section. Four case studies from the book are featured in the NOVA program Musical Minds aired on June 30, 2009. + +== Purpose == +According to Sacks, Musicophilia was written in an attempt to widen the general populace's understanding of music and its effects on the brain. As Sacks states at the outset of the book's preface, music is omnipresent, influencing human's everyday lives in how we think and act. However, unlike other animal species (such as birds) whose musical prowess is easier to understand in relation on a biological/evolutionary level, humanity's draw towards music and song is less clear-cut. There is no "music center" of the brain, yet the vast majority of humans have an innate ability to distinguish, "music, perceive tones, timbre, pitch intervals, melodic contours, harmony, and (perhaps most elementally) rhythm." With that in mind, Sacks examines human's musical inclination through the lens of musical therapy and treatment, as a fair number of neurological injuries and diseases have been documented to be successfully treated with music. This understanding (along with a medical case Sacks witnessed in 1966 wherein a Parkinson's patient was able to be successfully treated via music therapy) is what galvanized Sacks to create an episodic compilation of patient cases that all experienced and were treated by music to some capacity. In doing so, Sacks concertizes each example by explaining the neurological factors that play into each patient's healing and treatment in ways that relate to a lay yet curious audience. + +== Reviews == +In a review for The Washington Post, Peter D. Kramer wrote, "In Musicophilia, Sacks turns to the intersection of music and neurology—music as affliction and music as treatment." Kramer wrote, "Lacking the dynamic that propels Sacks's other work, Musicophilia threatens to disintegrate into a catalogue of disparate phenomena." Kramer went on to say, "What makes Musicophilia cohere is Sacks himself. He is the book's moral argument. Curious, cultured, caring, in his person Sacks justifies the medical profession and, one is tempted to say, the human race." Kramer concluded his review by writing, "Sacks is, in short, the ideal exponent of the view that responsiveness to music is intrinsic to our makeup. He is also the ideal guide to the territory he covers. Musicophilia allows readers to join Sacks where he is most alive, amid melodies and with his patients." +Musicophilia was listed as one of the best books of 2007 by The Washington Post. + +== Music and the brain == +Sacks includes discussions of several different conditions associated with music as well as conditions that are helped by music. These include musical conditions such as musical hallucinations, absolute pitch, and synesthesia, and non-musical conditions such as blindness, amnesia, and Alzheimer's disease. + +=== Musical conditions === +Sacks first discusses musical seizures, and he mainly writes about someone who had a tumor in his left temporal lobe which caused him to have seizures, during which he heard music. Sacks then writes about musical hallucinations that often accompany deafness, partial hearing loss, or conditions like tinnitus. Sacks also focuses a lot on absolute pitch, where a person is able to immediately identify the pitch of a musical note. Another condition Sacks spends a lot of time on is synesthesia. Sacks discusses several different types of synesthesia: key synesthesia, non-musical synesthesia centered on numbers, letters, and days, synesthesia centered on sounds in general, synesthesia centered on rhythm and tempo, and synesthesia in which the person sees lights and shapes instead of colors. Sacks also describes cases where synesthesia has accompanied blindness. + +=== Conditions affected === +Sacks discusses how blindness can affect the perception of music and musical notes, and he also writes that absolute pitch is much more common in blind musicians than it is in sighted musicians. Sacks writes about Clive Wearing, who has severe amnesia. Sacks writes about how, even though Clive has such severe amnesia, he still remembers how to read piano music and play the piano. However, Clive can only remember how to do so in the moment. Sacks also writes about Tourette syndrome and the effects that music can have on tics, for example, slowing tics down to match the tempo of a song. Sacks writes about Parkinson's disease, and how, similar to with people who have Tourette's, music with a strong rhythmic beat can help with movement and coordination. Sacks briefly discusses Williams syndrome and how children with Williams syndrome were found to be very responsive to music. Sacks finishes his book with a discussion of Alzheimer's disease and dementia. He discusses how music therapy can help people with these conditions regain memory. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musicophilia-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musicophilia-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b1ab56969 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musicophilia-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "Musicophilia" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musicophilia" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:39.398520+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Behavioral effects === +Certain portions of the brain are associated with how we use the brain to interact with music. For example, the cerebellum, a portion that coordinates movement and stores muscle memory, responds well to the introduction of music. For example, an Alzheimer's patient would not be able to recognize his wife, but would still remember how to play the piano because he dedicated this knowledge to muscle memory when he was young. Those memories never fade. Another example is the Putamen. This portion of the brain processes rhythm and regulates body movement and coordination. When introduced to music, if the amount of dopamine in the area is increased, it increases our response to rhythm. By doing this, music has the ability to temporarily stop the symptoms of such diseases as Parkinson's Disease. The music serves as a cane to these patients, and when the music is taken away, the symptoms return. When it comes to which music people respond best to, it is a matter of individual background. In patients with dementia, it is found that most patients respond to music from their youth, rather than relying on a certain rhythm or element. Neuroscientist Kiminobu Sugaya explains "That means memories associated with music are emotional memories, which never fade out-even in Alzheimer's patients". + +== Studies on the effects of music therapy == +Since the 1970s, there have been multiple studies on the benefits of music therapy for clients with medical conditions, trauma, learning disabilities, and handicaps. Most of the documented studies for children have shown a positive effect in promoting self-actualization and developing receptive, cognitive, and expressive capabilities. While the studies conducted with adults 18+ had overall positive effects, the conclusions were limited because of overt bias and small sample sizes. +Since music is a fundamental aspect of every culture, it embodies every human emotion and can even transport us to an earlier time through our memory. Oliver Sacks, author of Musicophilia, acknowledges the unconscious effects of music as our body tends to join in the rhythmic motions involuntarily. Working with clients with a variety of neurological conditions, Sacks observed the therapeutic potential and susceptibility to music. Even with the loss of language, music becomes the vehicle for expression, feeling, and interaction. +Well-known music therapists Paul Nordoff and Clive Robbins documented their work with audio recordings and videos of the transformative results of music with children who had emotional or behavioral problems, traumatic experiences, or handicaps. Robbins classifies the "Music Child" as the inner self in every child that evokes a healthy musical response. It is music that becomes the catalyst for discovering the child's potential. In essence, musical play creates an atmosphere that emboldens a child to free expression and reproductive skills. Sometimes family members observe immediate effects because selfhood is encouraged and nurtured and thus a child's personality develops in response to music. +First, the music therapist assesses each client to determine impairments, preferences, and skill level. Notably, every person appreciates different musical genres. Next, treatment is determined based on individualized goals and selection as well as frequency and length of sessions. Finally, the progress of the client is evaluated and updated based on effectiveness. Although sessions are typically structured, therapist also remain flexible and try to meet clients where they are at emotionally and physically. +When music therapy was first introduced in tandem with other medical fields, it was mostly receptive and patients listened to live solo performances or pre-recorded songs. Today, music therapist allow for more creative interactions by having clients improvise, reproduce music or imitate melodies vocally or with an instrument, compose their own songs, and/or listen during artistic expression or with movement. +Recently, studies have been conducted on the effects of music with chemo patients, stroke patients, patients with Alzheimer, spinal or brain injury, and hospice patients. According to a 2017 report from Magee, Clark, Tamplin, and Bradt, a common theme of all their studies was the positive effect music had on mood, mental and physical state, increase in motivation and social engagement, and a connection with the client's musical identity. From 2008-2012, the Department of Oncology/ Hematology of the University Medical Center in Hamburg-Eppendorf orchestrated a randomized pilot study to determine if music therapy helped patients cope with pain and reduce chemotherapy side effects. The sessions were given twice a week for twenty minutes and patients could choose either receptive or active methods. Each week, the quality of life, functioning ability, and level of depression/anxiety were assessed. Although emotional functioning scores increased and perception of pain improved significantly, they determined the outcome was inconclusive because patients have differing levels of manageable side effects and a hope to survive may influence expectations of treatment. However, patients rated the program helpful and potentially beneficial. Moreover, the feasibility of these studies allows for music therapists to practice in educational, psychiatric, medical, and private settings. Although there haven't been any statistical significance based on few empirical adult studies, the trend shows improvements on most measures. + +== References == + +== External links == +Official website +Musicophilia at author's website +Goldsworthy, Anna (Dec 2007). "Wunderbar". The Monthly. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mécanique_analytique-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mécanique_analytique-0.md index f97577ea3..c04a69593 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mécanique_analytique-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mécanique_analytique-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mécanique_analytique" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:45:46.353463+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:52.609931+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..cb2fa1480 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Natural History (Pliny)" +chunk: 1/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:49.227740+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Natural History (Latin: Naturalis historia) is a Latin work by Pliny the Elder. The largest single work to have survived from the Roman Empire to the modern day, the Natural History compiles information gleaned from other ancient authors. Despite the work's title, its subject area is not limited to what is today understood by natural history; Pliny himself defines his scope as "the natural world, or life". It is encyclopedic in scope, but its structure is not like that of a modern encyclopedia. It is the only work by Pliny to have survived, and the last that he published. He published the first 10 books in AD 77, but had not made a final revision of the remainder at the time of his death during the AD 79 eruption of Vesuvius. The rest was published posthumously by Pliny's nephew, Pliny the Younger. +The work is divided into 37 books, organised into 10 volumes. These cover topics including astronomy, mathematics, geography, ethnography, anthropology, human physiology, zoology, botany, agriculture, horticulture, pharmacology, mining, mineralogy, sculpture, art, and precious stones. +Pliny's Natural History became a model for later encyclopedias and scholarly works as a result of its breadth of subject matter, its referencing of original authors, and its index. + +== Overview == + +Pliny's Natural History was written alongside other substantial works (which have since been lost). Pliny (AD 23–79) combined his scholarly activities with a busy career as an imperial administrator for the emperor Vespasian. Much of his writing was done at night; daytime hours were spent working for the emperor, as he explains in the dedicatory preface addressed to Vespasian's elder son, the future emperor Titus, with whom he had served in the army (and to whom the work is dedicated). As for the nocturnal hours spent writing, these were seen not as a loss of sleep but as an addition to life, for as he states in the preface, Vita vigilia est, "to be alive is to be watchful", in a military metaphor of a sentry keeping watch in the night. Pliny claims to be the only Roman ever to have undertaken such a work, in his prayer for the blessing of the universal mother: + +Hail to thee, Nature, thou parent of all things! and do thou deign to show thy favour unto me, who, alone of all the citizens of Rome, have, in thy every department, thus made known thy praise. +The Natural History is encyclopedic in scope, but its format is unlike a modern encyclopedia. However, it does have structure: Pliny uses Aristotle's division of nature (animal, vegetable, mineral) to recreate the natural world in literary form. Rather than presenting compartmentalised, stand-alone entries arranged alphabetically, Pliny's ordered natural landscape is a coherent whole, offering the reader a guided tour: "a brief excursion under our direction among the whole of the works of nature ..." The work is unified but varied: "My subject is the world of nature ... or in other words, life," he tells Titus. + +Nature for Pliny was divine, a pantheistic concept inspired by the Stoic philosophy, which underlies much of his thought, but the deity in question was a goddess whose main purpose was to serve the human race: "nature, that is life" is human life in a natural landscape. After an initial survey of cosmology and geography, Pliny starts his treatment of animals with the human race, "for whose sake great Nature appears to have created all other things". This teleological view of nature was common in antiquity and is crucial to the understanding of the Natural History. The components of nature are not just described in and for themselves, but also with a view to their role in human life. Pliny devotes a number of the books to plants, with a focus on their medicinal value; the books on minerals include descriptions of their uses in architecture, sculpture, art, and jewellery. Pliny's premise is distinct from modern ecological theories, reflecting the prevailing sentiment of his time. + +Pliny's work frequently reflects Rome's imperial expansion, which brought new and exciting things to the capital: exotic eastern spices, strange animals to be put on display or herded into the arena, even the alleged phoenix sent to the emperor Claudius in AD 47 – although, as Pliny admits, this was generally acknowledged to be a fake. Pliny repeated Aristotle's maxim that Africa was always producing something new. Nature's variety and versatility were claimed to be infinite: "When I have observed nature she has always induced me to deem no statement about her incredible." This led Pliny to recount rumours of strange peoples on the edges of the world. These monstrous races – the Cynocephali or Dog-Heads, the Sciapodae, whose single foot could act as a sunshade, the mouthless Astomi, who lived on scents – were not strictly new. They had been mentioned in the fifth century BC by Greek historian Herodotus (whose history was a broad mixture of myths, legends, and facts), but Pliny made them better known. +"As full of variety as nature itself", stated Pliny's nephew, Pliny the Younger, and this verdict largely explains the appeal of the Natural History since Pliny's death in the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79. Pliny had gone to investigate the strange cloud – "shaped like an umbrella pine", according to his nephew – rising from the mountain. +The Natural History was one of the first ancient European texts to be printed, in Venice in 1469. Philemon Holland's English translation of 1601 has influenced literature ever since. + +== Structure == +The Natural History consists of 37 books. Pliny devised a summarium, or list of contents, at the beginning of the work that was later interpreted by modern printers as a table of contents. The table below is a summary based on modern names for topics. + +== Production == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..99d3cb171 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "Natural History (Pliny)" +chunk: 2/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:49.227740+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Purpose === +Pliny's purpose in writing the Natural History was to cover all learning and art so far as they are connected with nature or draw their materials from nature. He says: + +My subject is a barren one – the world of nature, or in other words life; and that subject in its least elevated department, and employing either rustic terms or foreign, nay barbarian words that actually have to be introduced with an apology. Moreover, the path is not a beaten highway of authorship, nor one in which the mind is eager to range: there is not one of us who has made the same venture, nor yet one among the Greeks who has tackled single-handed all departments of the subject. + +=== Sources === +Pliny studied the original authorities on each subject and took care to make excerpts from their pages. His indices auctorum sometimes list the authorities he actually consulted, though not exhaustively; in other cases, they cover the principal writers on the subject, whose names are borrowed second-hand from his immediate authorities. He acknowledges his obligations to his predecessors: "To own up to those who were the means of one's own achievements." +In the preface, the author claims to have stated 20,000 facts gathered from some 2,000 books and from 100 select authors. The extant lists of his authorities cover more than 400, including 146 Roman and 327 Greek and other sources of information. The lists generally follow the order of the subject matter of each book. This has been shown in Heinrich Brunn's Disputatio (Bonn, 1856). +One of Pliny's authorities is Marcus Terentius Varro. In the geographical books, Varro is supplemented by the topographical commentaries of Agrippa, which were completed by the emperor Augustus; for his zoology, he relies largely on Aristotle and on Juba, the scholarly Mauretanian king, studiorum claritate memorabilior quam regno (v. 16). Juba is one of his principal guides in botany; Theophrastus is also named in his Indices, and Pliny had translated Theophrastus's Greek into Latin. Another work by Theophrastus, On Stones was cited as a source on ores and minerals. Pliny strove to use all the Greek histories available to him, such as Herodotus and Thucydides, as well as the Bibliotheca Historica of Diodorus Siculus. + +=== Working method === +His nephew, Pliny the Younger, described the method that Pliny used to write the Natural History: + +Does it surprise you that a busy man found time to finish so many volumes, many of which deal with such minute details?... He used to begin to study at night on the Festival of Vulcan, not for luck but from his love of study, long before dawn; in winter he would commence at the seventh hour... He could sleep at call, and it would come upon him and leave him in the middle of his work. Before daybreak he would go to Vespasian – for he too was a night-worker – and then set about his official duties. On his return home he would again give to study any time that he had free. Often in summer after taking a meal, which with him, as in the old days, was always a simple and light one, he would lie in the sun if he had any time to spare, and a book would be read aloud, from which he would take notes and extracts. +Pliny the Younger told the following anecdote illustrating his uncle's enthusiasm for study: + +After dinner a book would be read aloud, and he would take notes in a cursory way. I remember that one of his friends, when the reader pronounced a word wrongly, checked him and made him read it again, and my uncle said to him, "Did you not catch the meaning?" When his friend said "yes," he remarked, "Why then did you make him turn back? We have lost more than ten lines through your interruption." So jealous was he of every moment lost. + +=== Style === +Pliny's writing style emulates that of Seneca. It aims less at clarity and vividness than at epigrammatic point. It contains many antitheses, questions, exclamations, tropes, metaphors, and other mannerisms of the Silver Age. His sentence structure is often loose and straggling. There is heavy use of the ablative absolute, and ablative phrases are often appended in a kind of vague "apposition" to express the author's own opinion of an immediately previous statement, e.g., + +== Publication history == + +=== First publication === +Pliny wrote the first ten books in AD 77, and was engaged on revising the rest during the two remaining years of his life. The work was probably published with little revision by the author's nephew Pliny the Younger, who, when telling the story of a tame dolphin and describing the floating islands of the Vadimonian Lake thirty years later, has apparently forgotten that both are to be found in his uncle's work. He describes the Naturalis Historia as a Naturae historia and characterises it as a "work that is learned and full of matter, and as varied as nature herself." +The absence of the author's final revision may explain many errors, including why the text is as John Healy writes "disjointed, discontinuous and not in a logical order"; and as early as 1350, Petrarch complained about the corrupt state of the text, referring to copying errors made between the ninth and eleventh centuries. + +=== Manuscripts === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f2b069904 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,47 @@ +--- +title: "Natural History (Pliny)" +chunk: 3/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:49.227740+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +About the middle of the 3rd century, an abstract of the geographical portions of Pliny's work was produced by Solinus. Early in the 8th century, Bede, who admired Pliny's work, had access to a partial manuscript which he used in his "De natura rerum", especially the sections on meteorology and gems. However, Bede updated and corrected Pliny on the tides. +In total there are some 307 extant medieval manuscripts of the work, however this was narrowed down to just 17 for work on the critical edition by Detlefsen (1858–1904). Olsen (1985) published details of all of Pliny's manuscripts pre-1200, however did not attempt to reconstruct the stemma. +In 1141 Robert of Cricklade wrote the Defloratio Historiae Naturalis Plinii Secundi consisting of nine books of selections taken from an ancient manuscript. +There are three independent classes of the stemma of the surviving Historia Naturalis manuscripts. These are divided into: + +Late Antique Codices: 5th–6th centuries. None survive intact; all as palimpsests or as recycled book bindings. +Vetustiores (older): 8th–9th centuries +Recentiores (younger): 9th century. From these descend all known later medieval recensions from the 11th–12th centuries up to 1469 printed edition. +The textual tradition/stemma was established by the German scholars J. Sillig, D. Detlefsen, L. von Jan, and K. Rück in the 19th century. Two Teubner Editions were published of 5 volumes; the first by L. von Jan (1856–1878; see external links) and the second by C. Mayhoff (1892–1906). The most recent critical editions were published by Les Belles Lettres (1950–); however, Reeve (2007) identifies multiple imperfections with these editions. There is currently no fully critical edition of the text and the stemma codicum is only partially understood. + +==== Ancient Codices ==== +5th century: all later palimpsested in France. None of the later recensions seem to descend from these manuscripts. All bear witness to only very small portions of the Naturalis, with the Codex Moneus (M) containing the largest surviving fragments from books 11–15. Manuscripts M, P and Pal. Chat. were originally written in Italy but palimpsested in France within a century without being copied and forming a tradition of their own. + +==== Medieval Vetustiores ==== + +The oldest surviving manuscripts of the Naturalis are known as vetustiores ("older ones"), all dating from the early 8th to 9th centuries. Even when combined, they do not come close to representing Pliny's full work of 37 books: the received text is dependent on the more recent recentiores and the relationship between the vetustiores and recentiores within the stemma codicum is not fully understood. +The manuscripts correspond with the Northumbrian Golden Age and Carolingian Renaissance. VLF 4 (known as "the Leiden Pliny") was produced during Bede's lifetime at the School of York, the earliest surviving manuscript written north of the Alps. At 41 by 29 cm (16 by 11 in), it is among the largest medieval manuscripts written on parchment, each leaf requiring a whole hide (a total of at least 30 animals would have been required). However despite this there are no holes (insect bites), demonstrating its exceptional quality. Besides zoomorphic capitals, it is however plain and unilluminated for its size. +It was probably copied directly from an exemplar written in italic uncial script, requiring the Northumbrian scribe to devise new spacing and punctuation. The Naturalis Historia was possibly known to Aldhelm and certainly to Bede, in contrast to the palimpsested fates of the earlier continental manuscripts. Through Alcuin's role in the Carolingian Renaissance, VLF 4 is thought to have been brought to the Frankish court at Aachen around AD 796, perhaps as a learning aid. However it ultimately did not spawn any surviving copies. + +==== Medieval Recentiores (Prototypes) ==== + +Even when combined, the vetustiores do not come close to representing Pliny's full work of 37 books: instead the prototype manuscripts (recentiores) all descend from a parallel branch of the stemma. Manuscripts DGV are the now separated sections of what was once a complete edition of books 1–37. The recentiores were used for the critical editions by Les Belles Lettres. + +==== Later medieval recensions ==== +Manuscript E appears to have been widely copied in the 11th and 12th centuries. BnF Lat. 6797 (late 12th) is considered to preserve elements of a parallel tradition by Reynolds (1983) but Reeve (2007) places it as a descendant of F. + +=== Printed copies === +The work was one of the first classical manuscripts to be printed, at Venice in 1469 by Johann and Wendelin of Speyer, but John F. Healy described the translation as "distinctly imperfect". A copy printed in 1472 by Nicolas Jenson of Venice is held in the library at Wells Cathedral. + +=== Translations === +Philemon Holland made an influential translation of much of the work into English in 1601. John Bostock and H. T. Riley made a complete translation in 1855. The Penguin edition was published in 1991 (reprinted by Penguin Classics in 2004), an abridged translation with an Introduction and notes by Healy. + +== Topics == +The Natural History is generally divided into the organic plants and animals and the inorganic matter, although there are frequent digressions in each section. The encyclopedia also notes the uses made of all of these by the Romans. Its description of metals and minerals is valued for its detail in the history of science, being the most extensive compilation still available from the ancient world. +Book I serves as Pliny's preface, explaining his approach and providing a table of contents. + +=== Astronomy === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8659ecf29 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "Natural History (Pliny)" +chunk: 4/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:49.227740+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The first topic covered is Astronomy, in Book II. Pliny starts with the known universe, roundly criticising attempts at cosmology as madness, including the view that there are countless other worlds than the Earth. He concurs with the four (Aristotelian) elements, fire, earth, air and water, and records the seven "planets" including the Sun and Moon. The Earth is a sphere, suspended in the middle of space. He considers it a weakness to try to find the shape and form of God, or to suppose that such a being would care about human affairs. He mentions eclipses, but considers Hipparchus's almanac grandiose for seeming to know how Nature works. He cites Posidonius's estimate that the Moon is 230,000 miles away. He describes comets, noting that only Aristotle has recorded seeing more than one at once. +Book II continues with natural meteorological events lower in the sky, including the winds, weather, whirlwinds, lightning, and rainbows. He returns to astronomical facts such as the effect of longitude on time of sunrise and sunset, the variation of the Sun's elevation with latitude (affecting time-telling by sundials), and the variation of day length with latitude. + +=== Geography === +In Books III to VI, Pliny moves to the Earth itself. In Book III he covers the geography of the Iberian peninsula and Italy; Book IV covers Europe; Book V looks at Africa and Asia, while Book VI looks eastwards to the Black Sea, India and the Far East. + +=== Anthropology === +Book VII discusses the human race, covering anthropology and ethnography, aspects of human physiology and assorted matters such as the greatness of Julius Caesar, outstanding people such as Hippocrates and Asclepiades, happiness and fortune. + +=== Zoology === + +Zoology is discussed in Books VIII to XI. The entries begin with a discussion of terrestrial animals, taken to include mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and an assortment of mythological creatures recognised as real animals (e.g. dragons). The elephant, and the lion are described in detail, with accounts of behaviors, taming, and battles with bestiarii referenced. Other species are listed in relation to their geographic ranges, for example India and the far north. Domestic dogs, horses, and livestock feature prominently, with elaboration on their uses to humans, for example the types of wool produced by sheep and the cloth created from them. +From there, "the natural history of fishes" is outlined. Pliny identified all aquatic animals as "fishes", making distinctions between those "with red blood" (cetaceans and traditional fishes) and those "without blood", the latter classified between "soft fishes" (cephalopods), those with "thin crusts" (e.g. crustaceans and sea urchins), and those enclosed with hard shells (e.g. bivalves and gastropods). As well, jellies are described with "bodies of a third nature" as a mix of animal and plant. The encyclopedia mentions different sources of purple dye, particularly the murex snail, the highly prized source of Tyrian purple, as well as the value and origin of the pearl and the invention of fish farming and oyster farming. The keeping of aquariums was a popular pastime of the rich, and Pliny provides anecdotes of the problems of owners becoming too closely attached to their fish. +Birds are described next, starting with the ostrich and the mythical phoenix. Much detail is spent with eagles, which are "looked upon as the most noble", followed by the other birds of prey. Pliny classifies birds based on the structure of their feet, noting the connection between their shape and the diet/habitat associated with their owners. He praises the song of the nightingale, and considers the connection between birdsong and omens. Bats are listed among the other "winged animals" but are recognised as viviparous and nurse their young with milk. This is followed by an extensive overview of animal reproduction, senses, and feeding and resting behaviour. +Finally, insects and other arthropods are listed. Pliny devotes considerable space to bees, which he admires for their industry, organisation, and honey, discussing the significance of the queen bee and the use of smoke by beekeepers at the hive to collect honeycomb. As well, the silkworm and silk production are described, the discovery of which is attributed to a woman named Pamphile (no reference is made to China). The coverage of zoology ends with an account of animal anatomy. +Pliny correctly identifies the origin of amber as the fossilised resin of pine trees. Evidence cited includes the fact that some samples exhibit encapsulated insects, a feature readily explained by the presence of a viscous resin. He mentions how it exerts a charge when rubbed. + +=== Botany === +Botany is handled in Books XII to XVIII, with Theophrastus as one of Pliny's sources. The manufacture of papyrus and the various grades of papyrus available to Romans are described. Different types of trees and the properties of their wood are explained in Books XII to XIII. The vine, viticulture and varieties of grape are discussed in Book XIV, while Book XV covers the olive tree in detail, followed by other trees including the apple and pear, fig, cherry, myrtle and laurel, among others. +Pliny gives special attention to spices, such as pepper, ginger, and cane sugar. He mentions different varieties of pepper, whose values are comparable with that of gold and silver, while sugar is noted only for its medicinal value. +He is critical of perfumes: "Perfumes are the most pointless of luxuries, for pearls and jewels are at least passed on to one's heirs, and clothes last for a time, but perfumes lose their fragrance and perish as soon as they are used." He gives a summary of their ingredients, such as attar of roses, which he says is the most widely used base. Other substances added include myrrh, cinnamon, and balsam gum. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..498e4dafa --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Natural History (Pliny)" +chunk: 5/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:49.227740+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Drugs, medicine and magic === +A major section of the Natural History, Books XX to XXIX, discusses matters related to medicine, especially plants that yield useful drugs. Pliny lists over 900 drugs, compared to 600 in Dioscorides's De Materia Medica, 550 in Theophrastus, and 650 in Galen. +The poppy and opium are mentioned; Pliny notes that opium induces sleep and can be fatal. Diseases and their treatment are covered in book XXVI. +Pliny addresses magic in Book XXX. He is critical of the Magi, attacking astrology, and suggesting that magic originated in medicine, creeping in by pretending to offer health. He names Zoroaster of Ancient Persia as the source of magical ideas. He states that Pythagoras, Empedocles, Democritus and Plato all travelled abroad to learn magic, remarking that it was surprising anyone accepted the doctrines they brought back, and that medicine (of Hippocrates) and magic (of Democritus) should have flourished simultaneously at the time of the Peloponnesian War. + +=== Agriculture === + +The methods used to cultivate crops are described in Book XVIII. He praises Cato the Elder and his work De Agri Cultura, which he uses as a primary source. Pliny's work includes discussion of all known cultivated crops and vegetables, as well as herbs and remedies derived from them. He describes machines used in cultivation and processing the crops. For example, he describes a simple mechanical reaper that cut the ears of wheat and barley without the straw and was pushed by oxen (Book XVIII, chapter 72). It is depicted on a bas-relief found at Trier from the later Roman period. He also describes how grain is ground using a pestle, a hand-mill, or a mill driven by water wheels, as found in Roman water mills across the Empire. + +=== Metallurgy === +Pliny extensively discusses metals starting with gold and silver (Book XXXIII), and then the base metals copper, mercury, lead, tin and iron, as well as their many alloys such as electrum, bronze, pewter, and steel (Book XXXIV). +He is critical of greed for gold, such as the absurdity of using the metal for coins in the early Republic. He gives examples of the way rulers proclaimed their prowess by exhibiting gold looted from their campaigns, such as that by Claudius after conquering Britain, and tells the stories of Midas and Croesus. He discusses why gold is unique in its malleability and ductility, far greater than any other metal. The examples given are its ability to be beaten into fine foil with just one ounce producing 750 leaves four inches square. Fine gold wire can be woven into cloth, although imperial clothes usually combined it with natural fibres like wool. He once saw Agrippina the Younger, wife of Claudius, at a public show on the Fucine Lake involving a naval battle, wearing a military cloak made of gold. He rejects Herodotus's claims of Indian gold obtained by ants or dug up by griffins in Scythia. +Silver, he writes, does not occur in native form and has to be mined, usually occurring with lead ores. Spain produced the most silver in his time, many of the mines having been started by Hannibal. One of the largest had galleries running up to two miles into the mountain, while men worked day and night draining the mine in shifts. Pliny is probably referring to the reverse overshot water-wheels operated by treadmill and found in Roman mines. Britain, he says, is very rich in lead, which is found on the surface at many places, and thus very easy to extract; production was so high that a law was passed attempting to restrict mining. + +Fraud and forgery are described in detail; in particular coin counterfeiting by mixing copper with silver, or even admixture with iron. Tests had been developed for counterfeit coins and proved very popular with the victims, mostly ordinary people. He deals with the liquid metal mercury, also found in silver mines. He records that it is toxic, and amalgamates with gold, so is used for refining and extracting that metal. He says mercury is used for gilding copper, while antimony is found in silver mines and is used as an eyebrow cosmetic. +The main ore of mercury is cinnabar, long used as a pigment by painters. He says that the colour is similar to scolecium, probably the kermes insect. The dust is very toxic, so workers handling the material wear face masks of bladder skin. Copper and bronze are, says Pliny, most famous for their use in statues including colossi, gigantic statues as tall as towers, the most famous being the Colossus of Rhodes. He personally saw the massive statue of Nero in Rome, which was removed after the emperor's death. The face of the statue was modified shortly after Nero's death during Vespasian's reign, to make it a statue of Sol. Hadrian moved it, with the help of the architect Decrianus and 24 elephants, to a position next to the Flavian Amphitheatre (now called the Colosseum). +Pliny gives a special place to iron, distinguishing the hardness of steel from what is now called wrought iron, a softer grade. He is scathing about the use of iron in warfare. + +=== Mineralogy === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)-5.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..61c7e9f82 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)-5.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "Natural History (Pliny)" +chunk: 6/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:49.227740+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +In the last two books of the work (Books XXXVI and XXXVII), Pliny describes many different minerals and gemstones, building on works by Theophrastus and other authors. The topic concentrates on the most valuable gemstones, and he criticises the obsession with luxury products such as engraved gems and hardstone carvings. He provides a thorough discussion of the properties of fluorspar, noting that it is carved into vases and other decorative objects. The account of magnetism includes the myth of Magnes the shepherd. +Pliny moves into crystallography and mineralogy, describing the octahedral shape of the diamond and recording that diamond dust is used by gem engravers to cut and polish other gems, owing to its great hardness. He states that rock crystal is valuable for its transparency and hardness, and can be carved into vessels and implements. He relates the story of a woman who owned a ladle made of the mineral, paying the sum of 150,000 sesterces for the item. Nero deliberately broke two crystal cups when he realised that he was about to be deposed, so denying their use to anyone else. +Pliny returns to the problem of fraud and the detection of false gems using several tests, including the scratch test, where counterfeit gems can be marked by a steel file, and genuine ones not. He refers to using one hard mineral to scratch another, presaging the Mohs hardness scale. Diamond sits at the top of the series because, Pliny says, it will scratch all other minerals. + +=== Art history === + +Pliny's chapters on Roman and Greek art are especially valuable because his work is virtually the only available classical source of information on the subject. +In the history of art, the original Greek authorities are Duris of Samos, Xenocrates of Sicyon, and Antigonus of Carystus. The anecdotic element has been ascribed to Duris (XXXIV:61); the notices of the successive developments of art and the list of workers in bronze and painters to Xenocrates; and a large amount of miscellaneous information to Antigonus. Both Xenocrates and Antigonus are named in connection with Parrhasius (XXXV:68), while Antigonus is named in the indexes of XXXIII–XXXIV as a writer on the art of embossing metal, or working it in ornamental relief or intaglio. +Greek epigrams contribute their share in Pliny's descriptions of pictures and statues. One of the minor authorities for books XXXIV–XXXV is Heliodorus of Athens, the author of a work on the monuments of Athens. In the indices to XXXIII–XXXVI, an important place is assigned to Pasiteles of Naples, the author of a work in five volumes on famous works of art (XXXVI:40), probably incorporating the substance of the earlier Greek treatises; but Pliny's indebtedness to Pasiteles is denied by Kalkmann, who holds that Pliny used the chronological work of Apollodorus of Athens, as well as a current catalogue of artists. Pliny's knowledge of the Greek authorities was probably mainly due to Varro, whom he often quotes (e.g. XXXIV:56, XXXV:113, 156, XXXVI:17, 39, 41). + +For a number of items relating to works of art near the coast of Asia Minor and in the adjacent islands, Pliny was indebted to the general, statesman, orator and historian Gaius Licinius Mucianus, who died before 77. Pliny mentions the works of art collected by Vespasian in the Temple of Peace and in his other galleries (XXXIV:84), but much of his information about the position of such works in Rome is from books, not personal observation. The main merit of his account of ancient art, the only classical work of its kind, is that it is a compilation ultimately founded on the lost textbooks of Xenocrates and on the biographies of Duris and Antigonus. +In several passages, he gives proof of independent observation (XXXIV:38, 46, 63, XXXV:17, 20, 116 seq.). He prefers the marble Laocoön and His Sons in the palace of Titus (widely believed to be the statue that is now in the Vatican) to all the pictures and bronzes in the world (XXXVI:37). The statue is attributed by Pliny to three sculptors from the island of Rhodes: Agesander, Athenodoros (possibly son of Agesander) and Polydorus. +In the temple near the Flaminian Circus, Pliny admires the Ares and the Aphrodite of Scopas, "which would suffice to give renown to any other spot". He adds: + +At Rome indeed the works of art are legion; besides, one effaces another from the memory and, however beautiful they may be, we are distracted by the overpowering claims of duty and business; for to admire art we need leisure and profound stillness (XXXVI:27). + +=== Mining === + +Pliny provides lucid descriptions of Roman mining. He describes gold mining in detail, with large-scale use of water to scour alluvial gold deposits. The description probably refers to mining in Northern Spain, especially at the large Las Médulas site. Pliny describes methods of underground mining, including the use of fire-setting to attack the gold-bearing rock and so extract the ore. In another part of his work, Pliny describes the use of undermining to gain access to the veins. Pliny was scathing about the search for precious metals and gemstones: "Gangadia or quartzite is considered the hardest of all things – except for the greed for gold, which is even more stubborn." +Book XXXIV covers the base metals, their uses and their extraction. Copper mining is mentioned, using a variety of ores including copper pyrites and marcasite, some of the mining being underground, some on the surface. Iron mining is covered, followed by lead and tin. + +== Reception == + +=== Medieval and early modern === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)-6.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)-6.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9986162bb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)-6.md @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +--- +title: "Natural History (Pliny)" +chunk: 7/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:49.227740+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The anonymous fourth-century compilation Medicina Plinii contains more than 1,100 pharmacological recipes, the vast majority of them from the Historia naturalis; perhaps because Pliny's name was attached to it, it enjoyed huge popularity in the Middle Ages. +Isidore of Seville's Etymologiae (The Etymologies, c. 600–625) quotes from Pliny 45 times in Book XII alone; Books XII, XIII and XIV are all based largely on the Natural History. Through Isidore, Vincent of Beauvais's Speculum Maius (The Great Mirror, c. 1235–1264) also used Pliny as a source for his own work. In this regard, Pliny's influence over the medieval period has been argued to be quite extensive. For example, one twentieth-century historian has argued that Pliny's reliance on book-based knowledge, and not direct observation, shaped intellectual life to the degree that it "stymie[d] the progress of western science". This sentiment can be observed in the early modern period when Niccolò Leoniceno's 1509 De Erroribus Plinii ("On Pliny's Errors") attacked Pliny for lacking a proper scientific method, unlike Theophrastus or Dioscorides, and for lacking knowledge of philosophy or medicine. +Sir Thomas Browne expressed scepticism about Pliny's dependability in his 1646 Pseudodoxia Epidemica: + +Now what is very strange, there is scarce a popular error passant in our days, which is not either directly expressed, or diductively contained in this Work; which being in the hands of most men, hath proved a powerful occasion of their propagation. Wherein notwithstanding the credulity of the Reader is more condemnable then the curiosity of the Author: for commonly he nameth the Authors from whom he received those accounts, and writes but as he reads, as in his Preface to Vespasian he acknowledgeth. + +=== Modern === +Grundy Steiner of Northwestern University, in a 1955 judgement considered by Thomas R. Laehn to represent the collective opinion of Pliny's critics, wrote of Pliny that "He was not an original, creative thinker, nor a pioneer of research to be compared either with Aristotle and Theophrastus or with any of the great moderns. He was, rather, the compiler of a secondary sourcebook." +The Italian author Italo Calvino, in his 1991 book Why Read the Classics?, wrote that while people often consult Pliny's Natural History for facts and curiosities, he is an author who "deserves an extended read, for the measured movement of his prose, which is enlivened by his admiration for everything that exists and his respect for the infinite diversity of all phenomena". Calvino notes that while Pliny is eclectic, he was not uncritical, though his evaluations of sources are inconsistent and unpredictable. Further, Calvino compares Pliny to Immanuel Kant, in that God is prevented by logic from conflicting with reason, even though (in Calvino's view) Pliny makes a pantheistic identification of God as being immanent in nature. As for destiny, Calvino writes: + +it is impossible to force that variable which is destiny into the natural history of man: this is the sense of the pages that Pliny devotes to the vicissitudes of fortune, to the unpredictability of the length of any life, to the pointlessness of astrology, to disease and death. +The art historian Jacob Isager writes in the introduction to his analysis of Pliny's chapters on art in the Natural History that his intention is: + +to show how Pliny in his encyclopedic work – which is the result of adaptations from many earlier writers and according to Pliny himself was intended as a reference work – nevertheless throughout expresses a basic attitude to Man and his relationship with Nature; how he understands Man's role as an inventor ("scientist and artist"); and finally his attitude to the use and abuse of Nature's and Man's creations, to progress and decay. +More specifically, Isager writes that "the guiding principle in Pliny's treatment of Greek and Roman art is the function of art in society", while Pliny "uses his art history to express opinions about the ideology of the state". +Paula Findlen, writing in the Cambridge History of Science, asserts that + +Natural history was an ancient form of scientific knowledge, most closely associated with the writings of the Roman encyclopedist Pliny the Elder ... His loquacious and witty Historia naturalis offered an expansive definition of this subject. [It] broadly described all entities found in nature, or derived from nature, that could be seen in the Roman world and read about in its books: art, artifacts, and peoples as well as animals, plants, and minerals were included in his project. +Findlen contrasts Pliny's approach with that of his intellectual predecessors Aristotle and Theophrastus, who sought general causes of natural phenomena, while Pliny was more interested in cataloguing natural wonders, and his contemporary Dioscorides explored nature for its uses in Roman medicine in his great work De Materia Medica. +In the view of Mary Beagon, writing in The Classical Tradition in 2010: + +the Historia naturalis has regained its status to a greater extent than at any time since the advent of Humanism. Work by those with scientific as well as philological expertise has resulted in improvements both to Pliny's text and to his reputation as a scientist. The essential coherence of his enterprise has also been rediscovered, and his ambitious portrayal, in all its manifestations, of 'nature, that is, life'.. is recognised as a unique cultural record of its time. + +== Bibliography == +The Teubner, Loeb and Budé editorial collections all cover the work in its entirety. The Teubner was the first to be completed (1870–1878), with the Loeb published 1938–1962 and finally the Budé between 1947 and 2015. +Teubner Latin Editions: + +Volume 1: Books 1–6 +Volume 2: Books 7–15 +Volume 3: Books 16–22 +Volume 4: Books 23–32 +Volume 5: Books 33–37 +Loeb Classical Library Editions (Latin and English): \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)-7.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)-7.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d735754b9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)-7.md @@ -0,0 +1,114 @@ +--- +title: "Natural History (Pliny)" +chunk: 8/8 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:49.227740+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +L330) Volume I. Books 1–2 +L352) Volume II. Books 3–7 +L353) Volume III. Books 8–11 +L370) Volume IV. Books 12–16 +L371) Volume V. Books 17–19 +L392) Volume VI. Books 20–23 +L393) Volume VII. Books 24–27. Index of Plants +L418) Volume VIII. Books 28–32. Index of Fishes +L394) Volume IX. Books 33–35 +L419) Volume X. Books 36–37 +Collection Budé (Latin and French): + +Livre I: Vue d'ensemble des 36 livres +Livre II: Cosmologie, astronomie et géologie +Livre III: Géographie des mondes connus: Italie, Espagne, Narbonnaise +Pline l'Ancien; Silberman, Alain; Zehnacker, Hubert (28 February 2015). Histoire naturelle. Livre IV: Géographie de l'Europe, suite (in French and Latin). Paris: Les Belles Lettres. ISBN 9782251014692. (This was the most recently published edition, finally completing the collection) +Livre V, 1re partie: Géographie: L'Afrique du Nord +Livre VI, 2e partie: L'Asie centrale et orientale. L'Inde +Livre VI, 4e partie: L'Asie africaine sauf l'Egypte. Les dimensions et les climats du monde habité +Livre VII: De l'homme +Livre VIII: Des animaux terrestres +Livre IX: Des Animaux marins +Livre X: Des Animaux ailés +Livre XI: Des Insectes. Des Parties du corps +Ernout, Alfred (1947). Histoire naturelle. Livre XI: Des Insectes. Des Parties du corps (in French and Latin). Paris: Les Belles Lettres. ISBN 9782251011615. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)(This was the first published volume, beginning the series.) +Livre XII: Des Arbres +Livre XIII: Des arbres exotiques +Livre XIV: Des Arbres fruitiers : la vigne +Livre XV: De la Nature des arbres fruitiers +Livre XVI: Caractères des arbres sauvages +Livre XVII: Caractères des arbres cultivés +Livre XVIII: De l'Agriculture +Livre XIX: Nature du lin et horticulture +Livre XX: Remèdes tirés des plantes de jardins +Livre XXI: Nature des fleurs et des guirlandes +Livre XXII: Importance des plantes +Livre XXIII: Remèdes tirés des arbres cultivés +Livre XXIV: Remèdes tirés des arbres sauvages +Livre XXV: Nature des plantes naissant spontanément et des plantes découvertes par les hommes +Livre XXVI: Remèdes par espèces +Livre XXVII: Remèdes par espèces +Livre XXVIII: Remèdes tirés des animaux +Livre XXIX: Remèdes tirés des animaux +Livre XXX: Remèdes tirés des animaux – Magie +Livre XXXI: Remèdes tirés des eaux +Livre XXXII: Remèdes tirés des animaux aquatiques +Livre XXXIII: Nature des métaux +Livre XXXIV: Des Métaux et de la sculpture +Livre XXXV: De la Peinture +Livre XXXVI: Nature des pierres +Livre XXXVII: Des pierres précieuses +English Translations: + +Turner, Brian; Talbert, Richard J. A. (2022). Pliny the Elder's World: Natural History, Books 2–6. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-48175-5. + +== See also == +Famulus – his biography is featured in Natural History +Naturales quaestiones – a similar, shorter encyclopedia written by Seneca +Suda – a 10th century Byzantine encyclopedia +Urra=hubullu – a Babylonian glossary or term list sometimes compared to an encyclopedia +Martianus Capella#De nuptiis – a medieval encyclopedic work + +== Notes == + +== References == + +== Sources == +French, Roger & Greenaway, Frank (1986). Science in the Early Roman Empire: Pliny the Elder, his Sources and Influence. Croom Helm. +Gibson, Roy; Morello, Ruth, eds. (2011). Pliny the Elder: Themes and Contexts. Brill. +Doody, Aude (2010). Pliny's encyclopedia : the reception of the Natural history. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-511-67707-6. +Healy, John F. (1999). Pliny the Elder on Science and Technology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814687-6. +Healy, John F. (2004). Pliny the Elder: Natural History: A Selection. Penguin Classics. ISBN 978-0-14-044413-1. +Isager, Jacob (1991). Pliny on Art and Society: The Elder Pliny's Chapters on the History of Art. London & New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-06950-5. +Jones, R. F. J.; Bird, D. G. (1972). "Roman gold-mining in north-west Spain, II: Workings on the Rio Duerna". Journal of Roman Studies. 62. Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies: 59–74. doi:10.2307/298927. JSTOR 298927. S2CID 162096359. +Lewis, P. R.; Jones, G. D. B. (1970). "Roman gold-mining in north-west Spain". Journal of Roman Studies. 60. The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 60: 169–85. doi:10.1017/S0075435800043343. JSTOR 299421. +Naas, Valérie (2023). Anecdotes artistiques chez Pline l'Ancien: La constitution d'un discours romain sur l'art. Paris: Sorbonne Université Presses. ISBN 9791023107432. +Parejko, Ken (2009). "Pliny the Elder – Rampant Credulist, Rational Skeptic, or Both?". Skeptical Inquirer. 27 (1): 39. +Pliny – Natural History, 10 volumes. Translated by Rackham, H.; Jones, W. H. S.; Eichholz, D. E. Loeb Classical Library. 1938–1962. +This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Sandys, John Edwin (1911). "Pliny the Elder". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 841–844. +Wethered, H. N. (1937). The Mind of the Ancient World: A Consideration of Pliny's Natural History. London: Longmans Green. + +== External links == + +=== Primary === +Latin + +Complete Latin text at LacusCurtius +Complete Latin text with translation tools at Perseus Digital Library +Naturalis Historia. Pliny the Elder. Johannes de Spira. Venice. before 18 September 1469. Archived 18 April 2014 at the Wayback Machine at Corning Museum of Glass. (Once owned by the Earls of Pembroke) +Naturalis Historia. Pliny the Elder. Karl Friedrich Theodor Mayhoff. Lipsiae. Teubner. 1906. +English + +First English translation, by Philemon Holland, 1601 +Second English translation, by John Bostock and Henry Thomas Riley, 1855; complete, with index + The Natural History public domain audiobook at LibriVox +Pliny's Natural History Translated by H. Rackham (vols. 1–5, 9) and W.H.S. Jones (vols. 6–8) and D.E. Eichholz (vol. 10) Harvard University Press, Massachusetts and William Heinemann, London; 1949–1954. +All Six Volumes free at Project Gutenberg +Italian + +Historia naturalis (in Italian). Venezia: Bartolomeo Zani. 1489. + +=== Secondary === +Article on Pliny by Jona Lendering, with detailed table of contents of the Natural History +Pliny the Elder's World Database \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_of_the_Canary_Islands-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_of_the_Canary_Islands-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0340f2832 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_of_the_Canary_Islands-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "Natural History of the Canary Islands" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_of_the_Canary_Islands" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:53.962391+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Natural History of the Canary Islands (French: Histoire Naturelle des Îles Canaries) is an illustrated reference work of the natural history of the Canary Islands. It was written by the English botanist Philip Barker-Webb and the French naturalist and ethnologist Sabin Berthelot, in cooperation with several other scientists. It was published in Paris between 1836 and 1850. The work is considered the most important 19th century text about the Canary Islands in the field of natural sciences. + +The work consists of three main parts and nine volumes: + +Volume 1-1: ethnography and the annals of conquest +Volume 1-2: Canarian miscellany (travel, excursions, various observations etc.) +Volume 2-1: geography, statistics and geology +Volume 2-2: zoology +Volume 3-1: botanical geography +Volume 3-2: Canarian phytography (in 4 volumes) +Most of the work is written in French, except the phytography part, which consists of scientific descriptions of plants in Latin. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Histoire Naturelle des Îles Canaries full text at Biodiversity Heritage Library \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_Studies_(manuscript)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_Studies_(manuscript)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c102e3384 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_Studies_(manuscript)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "Nature Studies (manuscript)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_Studies_(manuscript)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:56.338528+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Nature Studies is an album or codex containing 170 drawings dating principally from the 16th century made by various artists. The drawings are naturalistic depictions of plants, birds, animals, insects, fish and landscape vedute. The album was compiled in the beginning of the 17th century and was originally in the collection of the Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II. It is currently in the collection of the National Library of Austria in Vienna. + + +== Physical description and provenance == +The codex is made of parchment and measures 48.7 x 36.1 centimeters. The drawings on paper of a smaller scale are glued onto the parchment pages. The drawings are executed in various techniques such as pen and ink, watercolor, opaque white and tempera painting and some with gold highlights. The parchment pages are bound in green leather. +The album passed from the possession of Emperor Rudolf II to the Imperial Treasury, from where it became part of the Imperial Court Library in 1783. The Imperial Court Library later became the National Library of Austria in Vienna. + + +== Contents == +The drawings are grouped thematically and include plants, birds, mammals, insects, fish, and natural landscapes. The technique they display is extremely varied, ranging from very simple drawings, through in-depth studies to detailed images. Many of the animals depicted on the album are also included in the Bestiarium or Museum of Rudolf II, which is contained in two albums kept also in the National Library of Austria (Cod. Min. 129 und Cod. Min. 130). Possibly the drawings served as models for the Bestiarium. + + +== Artists == +The drawings are made by various artists who have not all been identified with certainty. The attribution of drawings to particular artists is based on the style, inscriptions or signatures of artists. The artists are believed to include Joris Hoefnagel, Giuseppe Arcimboldo, Daniel Fröschl, Ludger tom Ring the Younger, Hans Verhagen de Stomme and Johannes Wierix. They may also include Simon Marmion, Jean Mansel and Alonso Sánchez Coello. + + +== Gallery == + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Naturstudien Rudolf, II., Heiliges Römisches Reich, Kaiser, 1552-1612, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_basis_of_self-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_basis_of_self-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ea7871a23 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_basis_of_self-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +--- +title: "Neural basis of self" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_basis_of_self" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:40.576831+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The neural basis of self is the idea of using modern concepts of neuroscience to describe and understand the biological processes that underlie humans' perception of self-understanding. The neural basis of self is closely related to the psychology of self with a deeper foundation in neurobiology. + +== Experimental techniques == +In order to understand how the human mind makes the human perception of self, there are different experimental techniques. One of the more common methods of determining brain areas that pertain to different mental processes is by using Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI), the results of which are often used to determine activation levels in various portions of the brain, since fMRI measures blood flow in the brain. Areas with higher blood flow as shown on fMRI scans are said to be activated. This is due to the assumption that portions of the brain receiving increased blood flow are being used more heavily during the moment of scanning. +Positron emission tomography is another method used to study brain activity. + +== Self-awareness == + +=== Anatomy === + +Two areas of the brain that are important in retrieving self-knowledge are the medial prefrontal cortex and the medial posterior parietal cortex. +The posterior cingulate cortex, the anterior cingulate cortex, and medial prefrontal cortex are thought to combine to provide humans with the ability to self-reflect. The insular cortex is also thought to be involved in the process of self-reference. + +=== Embodiment === +The sense of embodiment is critical to a person's conception of self. Embodiment is the understanding of the physical body and its relation to oneself. The study of human embodiment currently has a large impact on the study of human cognition as a whole. The current study of embodiment suggests that sensory input and experiences impact human's overall perception. This idea somewhat challenges previous ideas of human cognition because it challenges the idea of the human mind being innate. +There are two portions of the brain that have recently been found to have a large importance on a person's perception of self. The temporoparietal junction, located in the cortex is one of these brain regions. The temporoparietal junction is thought to integrate sensory information. The second portion of the brain thought to be involved in perception of embodiment is the extrastriate body area. The extrastriate body area is located in the lateral occipitotemporal cortex. When people are shown images of body parts, the extrastriate body area is activated. The temporoparietal junction is involved in sensory integration processes while the extrastriate body area deals mainly with thoughts of and exposure to human body parts. It has been found that the brain responds to stimuli that involve embodiment differently from stimuli that involve localization. During task performance tests, a person's body position (whether he or she is sitting or laying face up) affects how the extrastriate body area is activated. The temporoparietal junction, however, is not affected by a person's particular body position. The temporoparietal junction deals with disembodied rather than embodied self-location, explaining why a person's physical position does not affect its activation. Self-location as related to a person's sense of embodiment is related to his or her actual location in space. + +=== Autobiographical memories === +The information people remember as autobiographical memory is essential to their perception of self. These memories form the way people feel about themselves. The left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and posterior cingulate cortex are involved in the memory of autobiographical information. + +=== Morality === +Morality is an extremely important defining factor for humans. It often defines or contributes to people's choices or actions, defining who a person is. Making moral decisions, much like other neural processes has a clear biological basis. The anterior and medial prefrontal cortex and the superior temporal sulcus are activated when people feel guilt, compassion, or embarrassment. Guilt and passion activate the mesolimbic pathway, and indignation and disgust are activated by the amygdala. There is clearly a network involved with the ideas of morality. + +== Views of self == +In order to explain how a human views themself, two different conceptual views of self-perception exist: the individualist and collectivistic views of self. The individualistic view of self involves people's perception of themselves as a stand-alone individual. This is thought of as a somewhat permanent perception of oneself that is unaffected by environmental and temporary cues and influences. People who view themselves in an individualistic sense describe themselves with personality traits that are permanent descriptions unrelated to particular situations. The collectivistic view of self, however, involves people's perception of themselves as members of a group or in a particular situation. The view people have of themselves in a collectivistic sense is entirely dependent on the situation they are in and the group with which they are interacting. These two ideas of self are also called self-construal styles. +There is neurobiological evidence supporting these two definitions of self-construal styles. fMRI data has been used to understand the biology of both the individualistic and collectivistic view of self. Certain people tend to view themselves in almost exclusively a collectivistic sense or an individualistic sense. When people have to describe themselves in a collectivistic way (as a part of a group), those who tend to view themselves collectivistically show greater fMRI activation in the medial prefrontal cortex than those who view themselves individualistically. The reverse is true when people describe themselves individualistically. + +== Impaired views of self == +The study of the human mind in diseased states provides valuable insight into how the mind works in healthy individuals. A multitude of diseases are studied to understand altered perceptions of self and what causes these impairments. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_basis_of_self-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_basis_of_self-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..34b9fa549 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_basis_of_self-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "Neural basis of self" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_basis_of_self" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:40.576831+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Autism === +Autism is a disorder which impairs social interactions, communication, and behaviors. A new approach to studying autism is to focus on individuals’ perception of self rather than understanding the individual's social interactions. A common thought is that understanding of the differences between the self and others is impaired. However, the exact biological mechanism of self-understanding in autistic children is currently unknown. It has been found that there are significant differences in brain activation in self and other situations in autistic children when compared to children who do not have autism. In adults who do not have autism, during self-recognition tasks, the inferior frontal gyrus and the inferior parietal lobule in the right hemisphere are activated. Children who do not have autism show activation in these areas when performing face processing tasks for their own faces and those of others. Children with autism, however, only show activation in these areas when recognizing their own faces. The activation in the inferior frontal gyrus is less in children with autism than in those who do not have autism. + +=== Schizophrenia === +The cortical midline structure is extremely important in the understanding of the self, especially during the task of self-reflection. Many researchers believe that self-reference plays a role in the expression of psychoses. The disturbance of the individual's self may be underlying the manifestation of these psychoses. Occurrences such as hallucinations and delusions may originate with disruptions of a person's perception of the self. Understanding the differences in those who have psychoses and those who do not can aid in diagnoses and treatment of those diseases. Those who are prone to psychoses such as schizophrenia, when describing positive traits about themselves show increased activation in the left insula, right dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, and left ventromedial prefrontal cortex. When they use negative traits to describe themselves, those who are prone to psychoses show higher activation in the bilateral insula, anterior cingulate cortex, and right dorsomedial prefrontal cortex. + +=== After strokes === +Sometimes after strokes patients' perception of self changes. Often after a stroke, patients report their perception of self in more negative terms than before their stroke. + +== Aging == +It has been found that humans’ ideas of themselves are established early in life but that the perception can change as others ideas are combined with their own. +There are differences in the areas activated during self-knowledge retrieval between adults and children. This suggests a difference in self-knowledge neurobiologically due to normal aging. The prefrontal cortex and the medial posterior parietal cortex have been found to be activated when adults perform self-knowledge retrieval processes. Tests consist of presenting subjects with self-description phrases and allowing the subject to respond yes or no depending on whether or not the phrase describes him or herself. During this task, patients brains are fMRI scanned. These results can then be compared to fMRI data of the same patients when they are asked if the same phrases describe another individual, such as a well-known fictional character. The medial prefrontal cortex is activated more strongly for subjects when they are describing themselves than when they are describing others. However, children show greater medial prefrontal cortex activation than adults when performing self-knowledge retrieval tasks. Additionally, children and adults activate different specific regions in the medial prefrontal cortex. Adults activate the posterior precuneus more while children activate the anterior precuneus and the posterior cingulate. +The understanding of the areas of the brain most frequently activated in children and adults can also provide information about how children, adolescents, and adults view themselves differently. Older children more significantly activate the medial prefrontal cortex because they deal with introspection much less frequently than adults and adolescents. Children have decreased specificity in skills than adults, so they show greater activation during spatial tasks. This is explained by the idea that with increased expertise in a task, decreased interest in wide spatial parameters occurs. When a person is an expert, he or she is able to be more focused in his or her performance. The difference in performance between adults and children is thought to be attributable to different perceptions of the self whether it is more introspective or more concerned with the surroundings and environment. + +== See also == +Anattā +Binding problem +Ego death +Neural correlates of consciousness +Open individualism +Vertiginous question + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Naturalist-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Naturalist-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..724bf126b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Naturalist-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +--- +title: "New Naturalist" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Naturalist" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:57.529402+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The New Naturalist Library (also known as The New Naturalists) is a series of books published by Collins in the United Kingdom, on a variety of natural history topics relevant to the British Isles. The aim of the series at the start was: "To interest the general reader in the wild life of Britain by recapturing the inquiring spirit of the old naturalists." An editors' preface to a 1952 monograph says: "An object of the New Naturalist series is the recognition of the many-sidedness of British natural history, and the encouragement of unusual and original developments of its forgotten or neglected facets." + + +== History == +The first volume to appear was E. B. Ford's Butterflies in 1945. The authors of this series are usually eminent experts, often professional scientists. This gives the series authority, and many are or have been authoritative introductory textbooks on a subject for some years. The books are written in scientific style, but are intended to be readable by the non-specialist, and are an early example of popular science in the media. +The books of the series have had considerable influence on many students who later became professional biologists, such as W. D. Hamilton and Mike Majerus. The latter was inspired by Ford's Butterflies and Moths, and has since added two volumes of his own to the series. +A parallel series known as the New Naturalist Monograph Library (and often referred to as The New Naturalist Special Volumes) was also published. Its aim was to cover "in greater detail... a single species or group of species". There have been no additions to the Monograph Library since 1971. +Volume 82 of the main series, The New Naturalists, described the series to date, with authors' biographies and a guide to collecting the books. +The original editorial board consisted of Julian Huxley, James Fisher, Dudley Stamp, John Gilmour and Eric Hosking. Until 1985, the highly characteristic dust jacket illustrations were by Rosemary and Clifford Ellis; since then they have been by Robert Gillmor. +Being a numbered series, with a very low print run for some volumes, the books are highly collectable. Second-hand copies of the rarer volumes, in good condition, can command high prices. The 100th volume, Woodlands by Oliver Rackham was published in 2006. Woodlands (volume 100) was also published in 2006 as a "leatherbound" edition, limited to 100 copies. In fact it was fake leather. The second "leatherbound" New Naturalist - Dragonflies by Philip Corbet and Stephen Brooks - was published in 2008. The (fake) leather edition of Dragonflies (volume 106) was initially limited to 400 copies, which was subsequently limited to 303, and finally to 250. According to the New Naturalist website only 217 were actually sold and the remaining unsold stock is being kept secure at HarperCollins's offices. HarperCollins continue to produce limited numbers of "leatherbound" editions of all volumes published since Dragonflies, but only from Islands (volume 109) was real leather actually used. All recent volumes have only 50 leatherbound copies. +The series won the 2007 British Book Design and Production Award for "brand or series identity", and in 2008 the official website was launched, with features including the latest news, a members only area with access to exclusive content and downloads, and a forum. +In around 1990, Bloomsbury produced a series of facsimile editions, as hardbacks with new dustjacket designs, and with all plates in black and white, including those which were originally in colour. + + +== Main series == +(B) refers to the Bloomsbury reprints. + + +== Monographs == + + +== See also == +Category:New Naturalist writers + + +== Notes and references == + + +== External links == +Official website for the series +List of monographs with jacket illustrations \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Next_of_Kin_(Fouts_book)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Next_of_Kin_(Fouts_book)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4c5d47b45 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Next_of_Kin_(Fouts_book)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,15 @@ +--- +title: "Next of Kin (Fouts book)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Next_of_Kin_(Fouts_book)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:58.686320+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Next of Kin is a 1997 book by Roger Fouts combining his experiences with Washoe and other chimpanzees who learned American Sign Language, and a polemic in favor of great ape personhood. + + +== References == +Next of Kin: what chimpanzees have taught me about who we are. written by Roger Fouts. New York: William Morrow and Company, 1997. ISBN 0-688-14862-X \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Of_Two_Minds_(book)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Of_Two_Minds_(book)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..db8ddfee8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Of_Two_Minds_(book)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Of Two Minds (book)" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Of_Two_Minds_(book)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:41.713368+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Of Two Minds: The Revolutionary Science of Dual-Brain Psychology is a book written by the American psychiatrist Fredric Schiffer (MD degree in 1971) wherein he proposes that each person behaves as if there are two minds within the person, and that by recognizing and relating to the two separate minds, the therapist can promote healing and understanding of problems such as depression, anxiety, addictive behavior and delusional thoughts. The author writes that by "two minds in one person" he means that a "part of an individual ...has a unique set of memories, motivations, and behaviors alongside another part of him which has a different unique (though possibly similar) set of memories, motivations and behaviors." (Schiffer 2nd edition, 2021, p.30) The author locates a "mind" in each of the two physical halves (hemispheres) of the brain. and he "maintains that one hemisphere can be more immature than the other and that this imbalance leads to different mental disorders". During his counseling, as an exercise he has his patients cover all of one eye, and the inner half of the other eye, which the author feels selectively stimulates one cerebral hemisphere more than the other – activating the thoughts and feelings of that hemisphere – which allows one to "'talk' to each half of the brain separately, to learn which is less mature, and to bring the two hemispheres into harmony". + +== Background == +In the early 1960s, the team of the neurosurgeon Joseph Bogen, the neuropsychologist Roger Sperry, and the "psychobiology" graduate student Michael Gazzaniga performed psychological experiments on patients who for medical treatment had undergone "split-brain surgery" which cuts the corpus callosum and thus severs the main link between the two sides of the brain known as the cerebral hemispheres. Bogen related that some researchers regard that following the surgery of "splitting of the brain," a "single mind is cut into two but that ...it is abnormal to have two brains," meaning that the surgery creates an artificial situation which does not exist in normal people, but others feel that "every person is born with two brains but because the two sides get along so well, people simply have the illusion of one mind." +In his book Of Two Minds Schiffer "enters the fray" by giving his research findings and implications of his theory of each person having a "dual brain." + +== Summary and content == + +=== Preface === +In the preface to the book, the author relates a case from the 1970s where a university student he was counseling for anxiety and depression seemed to display one personality which was "more mature and healthier" and another personality which was "emotionally immature." The author then relates that when he had started to undergo psychoanalysis by Elvin Semrad as part of his psychiatric training that the author felt that he too had "two distinct parts." + +=== Introduction === +The author writes that in 1995 he read about research by Werner Wittling which described a technique of how a movie could be shown just to one hemisphere in "intact," normal people – meaning in those who had not had "split-brain" surgery. Wittling found that films shown to the right side of the brain "often elicited a stronger emotional and physical response than when shown to the left brain." In what then became a "eureka" moment for Schiffer, he tried to perform a "home version" of Wittling's experiment simply by covering all of one eye, and the inner half of the other eye. Such a covering of the eyes is known to first send what is being seen to the opposite side of the brain; for example, covering all of the right eye and the inner half of the left eye first sends the image seen to the opposite side of the brain, in this case to the right hemisphere. Later that same day, Schiffer tried this method with several of his counseling patients. For the first patient that day, when seeing from only the extreme left, the patient "became a bit agitated and said, 'Oh, my God!' 'What's that?' [Schiffer said.] I [Schiffer] had no idea what he meant. [The patient said] 'I have all my anxiety back.'" And then when covering the eyes so that the patient saw only from the extreme right, the patient immediately felt better. + +=== First three chapters === +In the first three chapters, Schiffer discusses more recent "split-brain" studies, and studies in patients with intact brains using "lateralizing" devices (which first show an image to only one hemisphere), as well as other tests to assess brain activity such as the Wada test, electroencephalogram (EEG), PET scan and functional MRI scan. + +=== Chapter 4: Dual-Brain Psychology === +The author writes that the "aim of dual-brain therapy is to mend the archaic, destructive ideas and emotions of the mind on the troubled side, to teach it that it is safer and more valuable than it learned during some traumatic experience." The author feels that "free association" relates to "feelings or ideas coming from the immature side" of the brain, with the "interpretations" by the analyst as being the "deciphering of the thoughts of the...immature mind," and that "transference" is the "relationship between...[the] immature mind and the therapist." + +=== Chapters 5 through 10 === +In these chapters the author deals with cases of anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), "nervous breakdown" (psychotic episode), cocaine addiction, and the psychological aspects of heart attack. A feature throughout these chapters is that Schiffer provides transcripts of recordings of counseling sessions as the patient speaks as one side of the visual field is covered, and then the opposite visual field is covered, which Schiffer believes represents the thoughts and feelings of each separate side of the brain as brought out by the selective stimulation of one side of the brain. + +=== Chapter 11 === +This chapter is a summary of the author's work of "Dual-Brain Psychology" and how to practically apply it to one's own situation. Further case studies are given. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Of_Two_Minds_(book)-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Of_Two_Minds_(book)-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fba458242 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Of_Two_Minds_(book)-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,41 @@ +--- +title: "Of Two Minds (book)" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Of_Two_Minds_(book)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:41.713368+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Epilogue === +Here, in the first edition of his book from 1998, the author presents other scientific studies which he is planning to perform to evaluate "Dual-Brain Psychology." + +=== 2nd edition, published in 2021 === + +In the second edition, published in 2021, the author gives a "Preface to the 2nd Edition" which traces how his work, research and thinking have developed since his original edition twenty-three years earlier. The first and second edition of Schiffer's Of Two Minds are almost word-for-word the same. + +== Publication == +The subtitle for the American edition is "The Revolutionary Science of Dual-Brain Psychology." The subtitle for the British edition is "A New Approach for Better Understanding and Improving Your Emotional Life." Both editions were published by imprints of Simon and Schuster. The subtitle for the second edition is simply "Dual-Brain Psychology." +The book was also published in a German translation in 2007 by the publisher VAK. The title in German is Eine Brille für die Seele: Die neue Dual-Brain-Psychologie und ihre Anwendung bei Ängsten, Konflikten und Belastungen ("Glasses for the Soul: The New Dual-brain Psychology and Its Application to Fears, Conflicts and Stress"). + +== Reception == +Schiffer writes in the preface to the second edition of his book that his "work was not being widely appreciated by the Academy of scientists," referring to those in academic research and teaching (Schiffer 2nd edition, 2021, p. 8). The first edition received an endorsement from Candace Pert (deceased in 2013), a PhD pharmacologist who did research in neuroscience. She wrote that "Dr. Schiffer rivals Freud in his revolutionary theories on understanding the human psyche." In the second edition, two others are listed as giving their endorsement for the content of the first edition: the neurosurgeon Joseph Bogen (deceased in 2005) wrote that the book is "wonderfully readable and well-informed, this is the best book ever on the social and psychiatric implications of the split brain research" and Bessel van der Kolk, a psychiatrist known for his work in post-traumatic stress disorder, wrote that Schiffer's book "provides the reader with a lucid exposé of the evolving understanding of the dual mind/brains that we all possess." (Schiffer 2nd edition, 2021, p.3) +A significant negative review was published in 1998 in the journal Nature by Ian Christopher McManus, a British physician and neuroscientist specializing in handedness and cerebral lateralization, who basically discounted every main point which Schiffer presented, but the major argument is that Schiffer's theory is an "extension of hemisphericity, the dubious concept...." +In The New England Journal of Medicine, the research psychiatrist Robert M. A. Hirschfeld, MD published a review in the year 1999 wherein he stated that Schiffer's book was "bold, interesting and ambitious," and "breaks new ground." + +== See also == +Dual consciousness +Lateralization of brain function +Split-brain +Adverse childhood experiences +Fredric Schiffer + +== References == + +== Sources == + +== External links == +Article by Fredric Schiffer: "A Dual Mind Approach to Understanding the Conscious Self and Its Treatment" (NeuroSci 2021, 2(2), 224-234; 9 June 2021) +Article by Fredric Schiffer: "Dual-Brain Psychology: A novel theory and treatment based on cerebral laterality and psychopathology" (Front. Psychol., 19 October 2022) +11-minute video: ABC News "20/20" television program featuring work of Fredric Schiffer (October 21, 1998) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_Jungle_Trails-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_Jungle_Trails-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..54d949698 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_Jungle_Trails-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "On Jungle Trails" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_Jungle_Trails" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:00.413259+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +On Jungle Trails is a book-length compilation of Frank Buck’s stories describing how he captures wild animals. For many years, this book was a fifth grade reader in the Texas public schools, approved for state-wide use. +Some of the facts Buck relates are observational, such as his description of the pangolin, a scaly anteater, getting his fill of red ants. Among the other accounts: + +Buck describes the capture of a man-eating tiger (the only one, he explains, which was ever brought to America, the Man-eater of Johore); +Buck traps a rare clouded leopard when, contrary to the usual leopard habit, the cat takes refuge in a tree; +Buck writes of trapping elephants and crocodiles; +Buck tells of seizing of "the largest orangutan ever captured alive." +Buck brought these animals back to America; but when he obtained several tiny Malaysian mouse deer, the smallest deer in the world, weighing two pounds, and made pets of them, a quarantine against ruminating animals made it impossible to bring them into the United States. +Buck's writes of his jungle camp and his methods for feeding and caring for his animals. At the end of the book there is a partial list of animals which Buck brought back alive to America. In an appendix there are several pages of information about various Asian animals, reptiles and birds. Buck emphasizes his refusal to kill animals and his insistence on kindness to them. +"Wherever I go, children mention this book to me and tell me how much they learned about animals and the jungle from it," said Buck. + + +== Critical reception == +"The book is so written as to be easily understood by boys and girls, and is intended to interest them especially. It is certainly quite likely to do that." + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opticks-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opticks-0.md index 6d1f6984f..3a8467310 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opticks-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opticks-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/2 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opticks" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:46:03.830561+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:57.483127+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opticks-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opticks-1.md index 4fb154ae9..be7ee092e 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opticks-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opticks-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/2 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opticks" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:46:03.830561+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:57.483127+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organization_of_Behavior-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organization_of_Behavior-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..93359df6e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organization_of_Behavior-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Organization of Behavior" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organization_of_Behavior" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:42.853121+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Organization of Behavior is a 1949 book by the psychologist Donald O. Hebb. One of the main takeaways was that it proposed a theory about learning based on conjunctures on neural networks and synapses being able to strengthen or weaken over time. + + +== Reception == +The author Richard Webster identifies Organization of Behavior as the most influential outline of Hebb's postulate. According to Webster, the hypothesis has classic status within science and is supported by recent research. + + +== References == + + +=== Bibliography === +Books \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overshoot_(book)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overshoot_(book)-0.md index d99212526..6e666cea7 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overshoot_(book)-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overshoot_(book)-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overshoot_(book)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:40:38.349527+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:01.637199+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overshoot_(book)-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overshoot_(book)-1.md index 6604ec3e7..5c772618e 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overshoot_(book)-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overshoot_(book)-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overshoot_(book)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:40:38.349527+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:01.637199+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overshoot_(book)-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overshoot_(book)-2.md index a8c8023c1..7746a5d7b 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overshoot_(book)-2.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overshoot_(book)-2.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overshoot_(book)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:40:38.349527+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:01.637199+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overshoot_(book)-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overshoot_(book)-3.md index b07b61624..7536ab636 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overshoot_(book)-3.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overshoot_(book)-3.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 4/4 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overshoot_(book)" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:40:38.349527+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:01.637199+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peterson_Field_Guides-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peterson_Field_Guides-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3b09fd53b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peterson_Field_Guides-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,16 @@ +--- +title: "Peterson Field Guides" +chunk: 1/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peterson_Field_Guides" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:02.800825+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Peterson Field Guides (PFG) are a popular and influential series of American field guides intended to assist the layman in identification of birds, plants, insects and other natural phenomena. The series was created and edited by renowned ornithologist Roger Tory Peterson (1908–1996). His inaugural volume was the classic 1934 book A Field Guide to the Birds, published (as were all subsequent volumes) by the Houghton Mifflin Company. +The PFG series utilized what became known as the Peterson Identification System, a practical method for field identification which highlights readily noticed visual features rather than focusing on the technical features of interest to scientists. The series both reflected and contributed to awareness of the emerging environmental movement. +Most books in this series use a section of plates of drawings (usually reduced from commissioned paintings) rather than photographs of the subject species, grouped at the center of the book. This allows for idealized portraits that highlight the identifying "field marks" of each species; such field marks are often indicated by arrows or straight lines in the plate illustrations. However, in several books in this series, the plates consist of photographs (usually without such arrows or indicators), such as in the guides for the atmosphere, coral reefs, rocks and minerals, and the (old Charles Covell 1984 guide to) Eastern moths. In many books in this series (especially older editions), a number of the plates are in black and white. For examples, older editions of the Eastern reptiles/amphibians book had many black and white plates which were colorized for the current edition, and the original 1934 Eastern bird book had only 4 color plates. At least one book (insects) was entirely in black and white. However, most newer editions are often full-color (or almost full-color) and tend to be larger. One source claims that the increased size of one of the new editions (Eastern reptiles/amphibians) was considered detrimental to its use as a field guide by its own author and was a publisher decision. +In some cases, new "editions" in this series are entirely new books with completely new texts and illustrations. For example, the fourth edition of the mammals guide has an entirely new text and illustrations by new author Fiona Reid, because the author (William Burt) and illustrator (Richard Grossenheider) of previous editions are both deceased. In fact, Grossenheider died prior to the publication of the previous third edition of 1976. Also, the current Northeastern moths guide by David Beadle and Seabrooke Leckie is an entirely new book than the out-of-print 1984 Eastern moths guide by Charles Covell. The Beadle/Leckie book covers a smaller geographical area and (one author claims) covers moths in greater detail. The old Covell book has been out-of-print for many years, but is currently available through the Virginia Museum of Natural History (which purchased the rights to that book). +The above situation of an old "edition" persisting alongside its intended replacement edition is not unique to the Eastern moths guide. George Petrides' 1988 Eastern trees book (PFG11B) was originally intended to replace Petrides' own 1958 Eastern tree and shrubs (PFG11A) book. However, both books remain popular and the original publisher still offers both books for sale (unlike the case of the old Eastern moths book). +Differences between editions can serve to indicate changes in scientific perspective as well as changes species distribution. For example, the second edition of the freshwater fishes guide by Page and Burr (2011), published 20 years after the first edition, increased the number of species included from 768 to 909, largely due to the addition of previously unrecognized species (114), as well as increased numbers of newly established exotic species (16). It also expanded coverage of marine fish commonly found in freshwater (19). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peterson_Field_Guides-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peterson_Field_Guides-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e1853251d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peterson_Field_Guides-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,80 @@ +--- +title: "Peterson Field Guides" +chunk: 2/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peterson_Field_Guides" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:02.800825+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== The Peterson Field Guides == +PFG 1: A Field Guide to the Birds (1934), by Roger Tory Peterson +Second edition (1939): A Field Guide to the Birds +Third edition (1947): A Field Guide to the Birds +Fourth edition (1980): A Field Guide to the Birds: A Completely New Guide to All the Birds of Eastern and Central North America +Fifth edition (2002): A Field Guide to the Birds of Eastern and Central North America +Sixth edition (2010): Field Guide to Birds of Eastern and Central North America, ISBN 9780547152462 +Seventh edition (2020): Field Guide to Birds of Eastern & Central North America, ISBN 9781328771438 +PFG ??: Field Guide to Birds of North America (2008), ISBN 9780618966141 +Second edition (2020): Field Guide to Birds of North America, ISBN 9781328771445 +PFG 1A: Bird Songs (Eastern) (1990)[CD] by the Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology +PFG 2: A Field Guide to Western Birds: Field Marks of All Species Found in North America West of the 100th Meridian, with a Section on the Birds of the Hawaiian Islands (1941), by Roger Tory Peterson and Virginia Marie Peterson +Second edition (1961): A Field Guide to Western Birds: Field Marks of All Species Found in North America West of the 100th Meridian, with a Section on the Birds of the Hawaiian Islands +Third edition (1990): A Field Guide to Western Birds: A Completely New Guide to Field Marks of All Species Found in North America West of the 100th Meridian and North of Mexico +PFG 2A: Western Bird Songs (1962) by the Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology +Second edition (1992) +PFG 3: A Field Guide to Shells of the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts and the West Indies (1947), by Percy A. Morris +Second edition (1951) +Third edition (1973) +Fourth edition (1995), by R. Tucker Abbott and Percy A. Morris; Photos by R. Tucker Abbott +PFG 4A: Field Guide to the Butterflies of North America, East of the Great Plains (1951), by Alexander B. Klots +PFG 4B: PFG 4A replaced by A Field Guide to Eastern Butterflies (1992), by Paul A. Opler; Illustrated by Vichai Malikul +Second edition (1998) +PFG 5: A Field Guide to the Mammals: Field Marks of All North American Species Found North of Mexico (1952), by William Henry Burt; Illustrated by Richard Philip Grossenheider +Second edition (1964) +Third edition (1976) +Fourth edition (2006): A Field Guide to Mammals of North America, by Fiona Reid +PFG 6: A Field Guide to Pacific Coast Shells, Including Shells of Hawaii and the Gulf of California (1952), by Percy A. Morris +Second edition (1966) +PFG 7: A Field Guide to the Rocks and Minerals of North America (1953), by Frederick H. Pough and Jeffrey Scovil +Second edition (1955) +Third edition (1960) +Fourth edition (1976) +PFG 8: A Field Guide to the Birds of Britain and Europe (1954), by Roger Tory Peterson, Guy Mountfort, and P.A.D. Hollom +Second edition (1965), additional authors: I.J. Ferguson-Lees and D.I.M. Wallace +Third edition (19??) +Fourth edition (19??) +Fourth edition, revised and enlarged (1983) +Fifth edition (1993) +Sixth edition (2004), ISBN 9780007192342 +PFG 9: Animal Tracks (1954), by Olaus J. Murie +Second edition (1974) +Third edition (2005), by Olaus J. Murie and Mark Elbroch +PFG 10: A Field Guide to Ferns and Their Related Families: Northeastern and Central North America with a Section on Species Also Found in the British Isles and Western Europe (1956), by Boughton Cobb and Laura Louise Foster +Second edition (1963): A Field Guide to Ferns, Second Edition: Northeastern and Central North America by Boughton Cobb, Cheryl Lowe, and Elizabeth Farnsworth +PFG 11A: A Field Guide to Trees and Shrubs: Northeastern and North-Central United States and Southeastern and South-Central Canada (1958), by George A. Petrides +Second edition (1972): A Field Guide to Trees and Shrubs: Field Marks of All Trees, Shrubs, and Woody Vines That Grow Wild in the Northeastern and North-Central United States +PFG 11B: PFG 11A revised as A Field Guide to Eastern Trees: Eastern United States and Canada (1988), by George A. Petrides; Illustrated by Janet Wehr +First edition, expanded [sic]: A Field Guide to Eastern Trees: Eastern United States and Canada, Including the Midwest (1998) +PFG 12: A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of the United States and Canada East of the 100th Meridian (1958) by Roger Conant; Illustrated by Isabelle Hunt Conant +Second edition (1975): A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern and Central North America +Third edition (1991), additional author: Joseph T. Collins, and illustrator: Tom R. Johnson +Third edition, expanded (1998) +Fourth edition, (2016), additional author: Robert Powell +PFG 13: A Field Guide to Birds of Texas and Adjacent States (1960), by Roger Tory Peterson; Illustrations by Roger Tory Peterson +PFG 14: A Field Guide to Rocky Mountain Wildflowers from Northern Arizona and New Mexico to British Columbia (1968), by John Craighead, Ray J. Davis, Frank C. Craighead, and Eduardo Salgado +Second edition (1996) +PFG 15: A Field Guide to the Stars and Planets (1964), by Donald Howard Menzel; Illustrations by Ching Sung Yu +Second edition (19??): by Jay M. Pasachoff, Wil Tirion and Donald Howard Menzel; Additional author: Ching Sung Yu +Third edition (1992) +Fourth edition (2000) +PFG 16: A Field Guide to Western Reptiles and Amphibians: Field Marks of All Species in Western North America (1966), by Robert C. Stebbins +Second edition (1985): A Field Guide to Western Reptiles and Amphibians: Field Marks of All Species in Western North America, Including Baja California +Third edition (2003): A Field Guide to Western Reptiles and Amphibians +PFG 17: A Field Guide to Wildflowers of Northeastern and North Central North America (1968), by Roger Tory Peterson and Margaret McKenny +PFG 18:This PFG number was used for two field guides. +In 1968 this number was Mammals of Britain and Europe by Van Den Brink. This title was dropped from the series in 1985. +In 1986 This number became Birds of the West Indies by James Bond. +Both of these guides appeared in the Easton Press leather bound copies of the series. For that series the title of the Bond book was changed to "Birds of the Caribbean". + Birds of the West Indies (1999), by James Bond \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peterson_Field_Guides-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peterson_Field_Guides-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8bd1626fb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peterson_Field_Guides-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +--- +title: "Peterson Field Guides" +chunk: 3/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peterson_Field_Guides" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:02.800825+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +PFG 19: A Field Guide to the Insects of America North of Mexico (1970), by Donald J. Borror and Richard E. White +PFG 20: Mexican Birds: Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, and El Salvador (1973), by Roger Tory Peterson and Edward L. Chalif +PFG 21: Eastern Birds' Nests: The United States East of the Mississippi River (1975), by Hal H. Harrison, Mada Harrison and Ned Smith +PFG 22: A Field Guide to Wildflowers of the Pacific States (1976), by Niehaus and Ripper +PFG 23: A Field Guide to Edible Wild Plants of Eastern and Central North America (1977), by Lee Allen Peterson; Illustrated by Lee Allen Peterson and Roger Tory Peterson; Photos by Lee Allen Peterson +PFG 24: A Field Guide to the Atlantic Seashore: Invertebrates and Seaweeds of the Atlantic Coast from the Bay of Fundy to Cape Hatteras (1978), by Kenneth L. Gosner; Illustrations by Kenneth L. Gosner +PFG 25: Western Birds' Nests: The United States West of the Mississippi River (1979), by Harrison +PFG 26: A Field Guide to the Atmosphere (1981), by Vincent J. Schaefer and John A. Day; Illustrated by Christy E. Day +PFG 27: A Field Guide to Coral Reefs of the Caribbean and Florida: A Guide to the Common Invertebrates and Fishes of Bermuda, the Bahamas, Southern Florida, the ... (1982), by Eugene H. Kaplan; Illustrations by Susan L. Kaplan +PFG 28: A Field Guide to Pacific Coast Fishes: The Gulf of Alaska to Baja California (1983), by William N. Eschmeyer, Earl S. Herald, Howard E. Hammann and Katherine P. Smith +PFG 29: A Field Guide to Beetles of North America (1963), by Richard E. White +PFG 30: A Field Guide to Moths of Eastern North America (1984), by Charles V. Covell +Second edition (2012) +PFG 31: A Field Guide to Southwestern and Texas Wildflowers (1984), by Theodore F. Niehaus, Charles L. Ripper and Virginia Savage +PFG 32: A Field Guide to Atlantic Coast Fishes of North America (1986), by C. Richard Robins and G. Carleton Ray; Illustrations by John Douglass and Rudolf Freund +PFG 33: A Field Guide to Butterflies of Western North America (1986), by Tilden and Smith +Second edition (1999): A Field Guide to Western Butterflies by Paul A. Opler and Amy Bartlett Wright +PFG 34: A Field Guide to Mushrooms of North America (1987), by Kent H. McKnight and Vera B. McKnight; Illustrations by Vera B. McKnight +PFG 35: A Field Guide to the Hawks of North America (1987), by William S. Clark and Brian K. Wheeler +PFG 36: A Field Guide to Southeastern and Caribbean Seashores (1988), by Kaplan +PFG 37: A Field Guide to the Ecology of Eastern Forests: North America (1988), by John C. Kricher; Illustrated by Gordon Morrison +PFG 38: Birding by Ear: Eastern and Central North America (1989)[cassettes], by Richard K. Walton and Robert W. Lawson +Birding by Ear: Eastern and Central North America (2002) (Audiocassette) +More Birding by Ear: Eastern and Central North America: A Guide to Bird-Song Identification (2002) by Richard K. Walton and Robert W. Lawson (Audiocassette) +PFG 39: Advanced Birding (1990), by Kenn Kaufman +PFG 40: A Field Guide to Medicinal Plants: Eastern and Central North America (1990), by Steven Foster and James A. Duke; Illustrated by Lee Allen Peterson, Jim Bleakfeather Rose and Roger Tory Peterson; Photos by James A. Duke +Second Edition (1999) +Third Edition (2014) +PFG 41: Birding by Ear: Western (1990)[CD], by Walton and Lawson +PFG 42: A Field Guide to Freshwater Fishes of North America North of Mexico (1991), by Lawrence Page and Brooks Burr; Illustrations by Eugene C. Beckham, III, John Parker Sherrod and Craig W. Ronto +Second edition (2011): Illustrations by Eugene C. Beckham, III, John Parker Sherrod, Justin T. Sipiorski and Joseph R. Tomelleri; Maps by Griffin E. Sheehy +PFG 43: Backyard Bird Song (1991)[CD], by Richard K. Walton, Robert W. Lawson and Roger Tory Peterson +PFG 44: A Field Guide to Western Trees: Western United States and Canada (1992), by George A. Petrides; Illustrated by Olivia Petrides +PFG 45: A Field Guide to the Ecology of Western Forests (1993), by John C. Kricher and Gordon Morrison (See PFG 50 and 51) +PFG 46: A Field Guide to Venomous Animals and Poisonous Plants of North America North of Mexico (1994), by Roger Caras and Steven Foster +PFG 47: More Birding by Ear: Eastern and Central (19??) by Walton and Lawson +PFG 48: A Field Guide to Geology: Eastern North America (1996), by David C. Roberts; Illustrations by W. Grant Hodson This field guide originally appeared in print with the PFG number 47 on the spine. It was later changed to 48. +PFG 49: A Field Guide to Warblers of North America (1997), by Jon Dunn, Kimball Garrett, Sue A. Tackett and Larry O. Rosche +PFG 50: Revision of (part of) PFG 45 as: A Field Guide to California and Pacific Northwest Forests (1998), by John C. Kricher and Gordon Morrison +PFG 51: Revision of (part of) PFG 45 as: A Field Guide to Rocky Mountain and Southwest Forests (1998), by John C. Kricher and Gordon Morrison \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peterson_Field_Guides-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peterson_Field_Guides-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5f38b5eef --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peterson_Field_Guides-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,30 @@ +--- +title: "Peterson Field Guides" +chunk: 4/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peterson_Field_Guides" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:02.800825+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Unnumbered volumes === +PFG ??: Revision of (part of) Fourth edition of PFG 1 as: A Field Guide to Feeder Birds: Eastern and Central North America (2000), by Roger Tory Peterson, Virginia Marie Peterson, and Noble Proctor +PFG ??: A Field Guide to Hummingbirds of North America (2001), by Sheri L. Williamson +PFG ??: A Field Guide to the North American Prairie (2004), by Ruth Carol Cushman and Stephen R. Jones +PFG ??: Mammals of Britain and Europe (1968, 1986), by F. H. van den Brink +PFG ??: Peterson Reference Guide to Birding by Impression: A Different Approach to Knowing and Identifying Birds (2015), by Kevin T. Karlson and Dale Rosselet +PFG ??: Peterson Field Guide to Finding Mammals in North America (2015), by Vladimir Dinets +PFG ??: Peterson Reference Guide to Owls of North America and the Caribbean (2015), by Scott Weidensaul +PFG ??: Peterson Reference Guide to Woodpeckers of North America (2016), by Stephen Shunk +PFG ??: Peterson Field Guide to Birds of Northern Central America (2016), by Jesse Fagan and Robert Dean; Illustrated by Robert Dean and Peter Burke +PFG ??: Peterson Field Guide to Bird Sounds of Eastern North America (2017), by Nathan Pieplow + +== iOS apps == +Appweavers, Inc., the licensee of the Peterson field guides for mobile devices, has developed the Peterson Birds of North America and Peterson Feeder Birds of North America apps for mobile Apple products. The Peterson Birds of North America app also includes some content from other books in the Peterson field guide series. +The app is no longer available on iTunes. + +== References == + +== External links == +Official website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phantoms_in_the_Brain-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phantoms_in_the_Brain-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..878e03b3f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phantoms_in_the_Brain-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "Phantoms in the Brain" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phantoms_in_the_Brain" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:45.266711+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Phantoms in the Brain: Probing the Mysteries of the Human Mind (also published as Phantoms in the Brain: Human Nature and the Architecture of the Mind) is a 1998 popular science book by neuroscientist V.S. Ramachandran and New York Times science writer Sandra Blakeslee, discussing neurophysiology and neuropsychology as revealed by case studies of neurological disorders. +The book, which began as a lecture presented to the Society for Neuroscience, features a foreword by neuroscientist and author Oliver Sacks. + + +== Synopsis == +Ramachandran discusses his work with patients exhibiting phantom limbs, the Capgras delusion, pseudobulbar affect and hemispatial neglect following stroke, and religious experiences associated with epileptic seizure, among other disorders. Ramachandran uses these cases to illustrate the construction of body image, and the functioning of mood, decision-making, self-deception, and artistic skill. +In the final chapter of the book, Ramachandran addresses the so-called hard problem of consciousness, discussing qualia and various facets of the self. + + +== Reception == +Neurology researcher Michael E. Goldberg, writing for The New York Times, described the book as "enthralling not only for its clear, eloquent descriptions of neurological phenomena, their relationship to physiological mechanisms and their integration with philosophy of mind, but also for its portrait of Ramachandran, the enthusiast in search of the secrets of the human mind." On Ramachandran's discursion on consciousness, Goldberg writes, "Here he fails, simply because neuroscience has no clue yet how to render the self concrete...but it is a noble failure." +Francis Crick wrote of the book, "The style is lively and informative, and enlivened by unexpected touches of humor. Through it all shines Rama's good sense, his hard-headedness and his humanity." Kirkus Reviews wrote that "Ramachandran, who likens himself to a sleuth and has boundless curiosity, leads readers on a riveting trail of detection." +The book has been translated into Spanish, French, Japanese, German, Korean, Turkish, Italian, Dutch, and Greek. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_Transitions_and_Critical_Phenomena-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_Transitions_and_Critical_Phenomena-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..345f92193 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_Transitions_and_Critical_Phenomena-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,119 @@ +--- +title: "Phase Transitions and Critical Phenomena" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_Transitions_and_Critical_Phenomena" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:59.922655+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Phase Transitions and Critical Phenomena is a 20-volume series of books, comprising review articles on phase transitions and critical phenomena, published during 1972-2001. It is "considered the most authoritative series on the topic". +Volumes 1-6 were edited by Cyril Domb and Melville S. Green, and after Green's death, volumes 7-20 were edited by Domb and Joel Lebowitz. +Volume 4 was never published. Volume 5 was published in two volumes, as 5A and 5B. +The first volume was praised for its coherent approach. While praised for its sound theoretical approach, the first volume remained at considerable distance from being able to explain experimental results in things like structural phase transitions. +The second volume was praised for being well written, and was suggested as a standard reference. The third volume was also suggested as an index for researchers. + + +== Contents == +Volume 1: Exact Results (1972) ISBN 0122203011 +'Introductory Note on Phase Transitions and Critical Phenomena', by C.N. Yang. +'Rigorous Results and Theorems', by R.B. Griffiths. +'Dilute Quantum Systems', by J. Ginibre. +'The C*-Algebraic Approach to Phase Transitions', by G.G. Emch. +'One-dimensional Models — Short Range Forces', by C.J. Thompson +'Two-dimensional Ising Models', by H.N.V. Temperley. +'Transformation of Ising Models', by I. Syozi. +'Two-dimensional Ferroelectric Models', by E.H. Lieb and Fa Yueh Wu. +Volume 2: (1972) ISBN 012220302X +'Thermodynamics' M.J. Buckingham. +'Equilibrium Scaling in Fluids and Magnets', by M. Vicentini-Missoni. +'Surface Tension of Fluids', by B. Widom. +'Surface and Size Effects in Lattice Models', by P.G. Watson. +'Exact Calculations on a Random Ising Systems', by B. McCoy. +'Percolation and Cluster Size', by J.W. Essam. +'Melting and Statistical Geometry of Simple Liquids', by R. Collins. +'Lattice Gas Theories of Melting', by L.K. Runnels. +'Closed Form Approximations for Lattice Systems', by D.M. Burley. +'Critical Properties of the Spherical Model', by G.S. Joyce. +'Kinetics of Ising Models', by K. Kawasaki. +Volume 3: Series Expansions for Lattice Models (1974) ISBN 0122203038 +'Graph Theory and Embeddings', by C. Domb. +'Computer Techniques for Evaluating Lattice Constants', by J.L. Martin. +'Linked Cluster Expansion' M. Wortis. +'Asymptotic Analysis of Coefficients', by A.J. Guttmann and D.S. Gaunt. +'Heisenberg Model', by G.S. Rushbrooke, G.A. Baker Jr and P.J. Wood. +'Ising Model', by C. Domb. +'Classical Vector Models', by H. Eugene Stanley. +'D-vector Model or "Universality Hamiltonian": Properties of Isotropically-Interacting D-Dimensional Classical Spins', by H. Eugene Stanley. +'X-Y Model', by D.B. Betts. +'Ferroelectric Models', by J.F. Nagle. +Volume 4: (Never published) +Volume 5a (1976) ISBN 0122203054 +'Scaling, Universality and Operator Algebras', by L.P. Kadanoff. +'Generalized Landau Theories', by M. Luban. +'Neutron Scattering and Spatial Correlation near the Critical Point', by J. Als-Nielsen. +'Mode Coupling and Critical Dynamics', by K. Kawasaki. +Volume 5b (1976) ISBN 0122203054 +'Monte Carlo Investigations of Phase Transitions and Critical Phenomena', by K. Binder. +'System with Weak Long-Range Potentials', by P.C. Hemmer and J.L. Lebowitz. +'Correlation Functions and their Generating Functionals: General Relations with Applications to the Theory of Fluids', by G. Stell. +'Heisenberg Ferromagnet in the Green's Function Approximation', by R.A. Tahir-Kheli. +'Thermal Measurements and Critical Phenomena in Liquids', by A.V. Voronel. +Volume 6: (1976) ISBN 0122203062 +'The Renormalization Group — Introduction', by Kenneth G. Wilson. +'The Critical State, General Aspects', by F.J. Wegner. +'Field Theoretical Approach to Critical Phenomena' E. Brezin, J.C. Le Guillou and J. Zinn-Justin. +'The 1/n Expansion', by Shang-Keng Ma. +'The ε-Expansion for Exponents and the Equation of State in Isotropic Systems', by D.J. Wallace. +'Dependence of Universal Critical Behaviour on Symmetry and Range of Interaction', by A. Aharony. +'Renormalization: Theory Ising-like Spin Systems', by Th. Niemeijer and J.M.J. van Leeuwen. +'Renormalization Group Approach to Critical Phenomena', by C. Di Castro and G. Jona-Lasinio. +Volume 7: (1983) ISBN 0122203070 +'Defect-Mediated Phase Transitions', by D.R. Nelson. +'Conformational Phase Transitions in a Macromolecule: Exactly Solvable Models', by F.W. Wiegel. +'Dilute Magnetism', by R.B. Stinchcombe. +Volume 8: (1983) ISBN 0122203089 +'Critical Behaviour at Surfaces', by K. Binder. +'Finite-Size Scaling', by M.N. Barber. +'The Dynamics of First Order Phase Transitions', by J.D. Gunton, M. San Miguel and P.S. Sahni. +Volume 9: (1984) ISBN 0122203097 +'Theory of Tricritical Points', by I.D. Lawrie and S. Sarbach. +'Multicritical Points in Fluid Mixtures: Experimental Studies', by C.M. Knobler and R.L. Scott. +'Critical Point Statistical Mechanics and Quantum Field Theory', by G.A. Baker, Jr. +Volume 10: (1986) ISBN 0122203100 +'Surface Structures and Phase Transitions — Exact Results', by D.B. Abraham. +'Field-theoretic Approach to Critical Behaviour at Surfaces', by H.W. Diehl. +'Renormalization Group Theory of Interfaces', by D. Jasnow. +Volume 11: (1987) ISBN 0122203119 +'Coulomb Gas Formulation of Two-Dimensional Phase Transitions', by B. Nienhus. +'Conformal Invariance', by J.L. Cardy. +'Low-Temperature Properties of Classical Lattice Systems: Phase Transitions and Phase Diagrams', by J. Slawny. +Volume 12: (1988) ISBN 0122203127 +'Wetting Phenomena', by S. Dietrich. +'The Domain Wall Theory of Two-Dimensional Commensurate-Incommensurate Phase Transition', by M. P. M. den Nijs. +'The Growth of Fractal Aggregates and their Fractal Measures', by P. Meakin. +Volume 13: (1989) ISBN 0122203135 +'Asymptotic Analysis of Power-Series Expansions', by A.J. Guttmann. +'Dimer Models on Anisotropic Lattices', by S.M. Bhattachargee, S.O. Carlos, J.F. Nagle and C.S.O Yokoi. +Volume 14: (1991) ISBN 0122203143 +'Universal Critical-Point Amplitude Relations' V. Privman, P.C. Hohenberg, and A. Aharony. +'The Behavior of Interfaces in Ordered and Disordered Systems', by R. Lipowsky, G. Forgacs and Th.M. Nieuwenhuizen. +Volume 15: (1992) ISBN 0122203151 +'Spatially Modulated Structures in Systems with Competing Interactions', by W. Selke. +'The Large-n Limit in Statistical Mechanics and the Spectral Theory of Disordered Systems', by A.M. Khorunzhy, B.A. Khorzhenko, L.A. Pastur and M.V. Shcherbina. +Volume 16: (1994) ISBN 012220316X +'Self-assembling Amphiphilic Systems', by G. Gompper and M. Schick. +Volume 17: (1995) ISBN 0122203178 +'Statistical Mechanics of Driven Diffusive Systems', by B. Schmittmann and R.K.P. Zia. +Volume 18: (2001) ISBN 0122203186 +'The Random Geometry of Equilibrium Phases', by O. Häggström, H.O. Georgii, and C. Maes. +'Exact Combinatorial Algorithms: Ground States of Disordered Systems', by M.J. Alava, P.M. Duxbury, C.F. Moukarzel and H. Rieger. +Volume 19: (2001) ISBN 0122203194 +'Exactly Solvable Models for Many-Body Systems Far from Equilibrium', by G.M. Schütz. +'Polymerized Membranes, a Review', by K.J. Wiese. +Volume 20: (2001) ISBN 0122203208 +Cumulative author, title and subject index including table of contents. + + +== Footnotes == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-0.md index ea0191ae0..6c2521da2 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/11 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:46:10.722464+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:01.253670+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-1.md index 95031159f..151f8c926 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/11 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:46:10.722464+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:01.253670+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-10.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-10.md index 30a5e6bc5..cde833ffc 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-10.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-10.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 11/11 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:46:10.722464+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:01.253670+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-2.md index 2b5dd6871..9bd8c0cca 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-2.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-2.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/11 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:46:10.722464+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:01.253670+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-3.md index 1cc6d57e0..b45370b51 100644 --- 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"2026-05-05T08:46:10.722464+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:01.253670+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-8.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-8.md index 164496869..53549e1fd 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-8.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-8.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 9/11 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:46:10.722464+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:01.253670+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-9.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-9.md index 4422a1b8d..4fb5cfed9 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-9.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica-9.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 10/11 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophiæ_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:46:10.722464+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:01.253670+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photometria-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photometria-0.md index ca7f1ba4f..1edda1d37 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photometria-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photometria-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/2 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photometria" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:46:11.905861+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:02.445282+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photometria-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photometria-1.md index df1e667d1..c41ad0080 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photometria-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photometria-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/2 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photometria" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:46:11.905861+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:02.445282+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physica_Curiosa-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physica_Curiosa-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..49418206e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physica_Curiosa-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,60 @@ +--- +title: "Physica Curiosa" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physica_Curiosa" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:04.026147+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Physica Curiosa written by the German scholar, Jesuit priest and scientist Gaspar Schott is a seventeenth century encyclopedia, published first in 1662, is divided into twelve books and has been richly illustrated with prints of copper engravings. It is the first part of a two-volume work, the other being Technica Curiosa, published in 1664. +Schott primarily used works by well-known scholars and naturalists as his sources, including Ulisse Aldrovandi, Conrad Gesner, John Jonston, Conrad Lycosthenes, and Ambroise Paré. There is an emphasis on the illustrations of monsters and so-called "freaks" (deformed people). The first volume covers the miracles attributed to both angels and demons. The 11th volume is devoted entirely to the study of meteorites. + + +== Publication == +Schott compiled his volumes from previously published and widely known works of authors, scholars and naturalists such as Conrad Gesner, Ulisse Aldrovandi, Joannes Jonstonus, Ambroise Paré, Conrad Lycosthenes and many others, including many of the immensely popular illustrations of monsters and physical deformities. Schott summarized: ...what was either left out in the Magia and other works, was published later by learned men, or has only recently reached me. For his own research he extensively relied on the libraries and Jesuit universities of Europe. Like most natural history publications during the early stages of the Scientific Revolution, the work is a curious conjunction between the beliefs and superstition of the time and pioneering scientific texts. The frontispiece was designed by Jacob von Sandrart. Between 500 and 1000 copies were printed in several editions by J. A. Endter & Son from Nürnberg. +The Physica Curiosa represents a small, but critical step towards the adoption of scientific reasoning as the preferred method of scholarly work. + + +== From superstition to reason == + +The first six books, mainly aggregations of the writings of previous authors, are dedicated to magic, perceived oddities and miracles of the spiritual world. +As mathematician and physicist Schott had developed a great interest in Otto von Guericke's work on air pressure and the vacuum pump. Both men would eventually correspond and cooperate as Schott immersed himself into extensive experiments and studies on his own and became accustomed to scientific work and observation based on reason. +Thus, the second half of the Physica Curiosa is, although still full of misconceptions, an attempt to produce an account of observation of and reflection on real natural phenomena, marvels of real life, exotic animals and foreign lands. In his foreword Schott writes, that: other people have reported the wondrous things, that I am writing down here - yet they only tell. But I put most of it on the scales of truth and separate the true from the false, the real from the fake, and then I try to investigate the causes of the individual phenomena. + + +== Twelve books == +Books I to VI are a summary of all natural and supernatural monstrosities known at that time, including bizarre animals and physical abnormalities and abstract ideas of the mind. + +I. Miracles of angels and demons +II. Miracles of visions (apparitions) +III. Wondrous things about people +IV. Wondrous things about the possessed +V. Wondrous things about monsters +VI. Wondrous things about freaks +Books VII to XII concentrate on physical nature and phenomena. + +VII. Wonders of animals in general +VIII. Wonders of land animals +IX. Miraculous things about birds +X. Miraculous things about aquatic animals +XI. Miraculous things about meteorites +XII. All sorts of wondrous things + + +== Impact == +Although he still makes some incorrect assumptions and false explanations associated with the natural world, his clear division within the encyclopedia suggests, that Schott was able to reasonably distinguish between fantasy phenomena and creatures and those found naturally. Summing up his view, he writes: I do not approve of all because I know that some are doubtful, if not false. Others are superstitious and perhaps even manifestly false. +The Physica Curiosa alongside many other contemporary books of curiosities, that flourished during the 16th and 17th centuries, which contained a comprehensive body of text on fanciful beliefs of the past in a single publication, turned out to serve as an excellent subject of reference that made it easier for future enlightened scientists to pinpoint, address and argue against widespread, unscientific ideas. + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +Full book scan +Physica Curiosa, Pars I +Physica Curiosa, Pars II +Kaspar Schott, Physica curiosa +The metaphorical collecting of curiosities in early modern France and Germany \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physica_speculatio-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physica_speculatio-0.md index f5453193a..483d5b183 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physica_speculatio-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physica_speculatio-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physica_speculatio" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:24:11.733126+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:03.680995+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_Fantastic-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_Fantastic-0.md index 32d3ba075..504ad32a6 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_Fantastic-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_Fantastic-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plastic_Fantastic" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T06:21:31.357149+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:07.283385+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_on_mammals-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_on_mammals-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3e2bbc27d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_on_mammals-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "Pliny on mammals" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_on_mammals" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:05.193405+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Book VIII of Pliny the Elder's Natural History centres around the concept of zoology, and mainly that which pertains to terrestrial animals, including mammals, amphibians, reptiles, as well as some birds and insects. Pliny discusses these animals as being a part of specific categories, firstly starting with those he considers to be wild, including, but not limited to, elephants, snakes, lions, giraffes, rhinoceroses, lynxes, camels, leopards, hyenas, foxes, rabbits, skinks, beavers, frogs, seals, geckoes, chameleons, deer, reindeer, jackals, porcupines, bears, hedgehogs, squirrels, snails, crocodiles, and lizards. He then goes on to cover those he considers to be domesticated, such as dogs, horses, donkeys, mules, oxen, sheep, goats, and pigs. Following this, he mentions animals that are “half-wild," or what he considers to be wild varieties of commonly domesticated animals, including boars, chamoises, ibexes, oryxes, antelopes, monkeys, and hares, as well as those that are “neither wild nor tame but of a character intermediate between each," such as swallows, bees, dolphins, and mice. Lastly, on various occasions he mentions animals that would be considered mythological, such as unicorns, pegasi, basilisks, and werewolves, of which he considers only the existence of werewolves to be obviously improbable. +Pliny describes the anatomical traits of these various animals in a way that champions morphology over scientific specificity, visualizing each animal by describing it as an amalgam of other animal parts. +Throughout these broad sections, Pliny applies the behavioural topics of cognition, symbiotic relationships, and the relevance of animals to humans. However, the perspective through which Pliny observed animals and their various attributions was biased by the fact that he lived during the first century AD (23-79 AD), and thus was subjected to the political, religious, and intellectual beliefs that were upheld in ancient Rome, such as Stoicism. Many of his observations prove to be factual, even by today's standards, while others are representative of the period in which he lived. + +== Cognition == + +=== Intellectual capacity === +Pliny spends many pages discussing the cleverness of elephants, describing them to be "the nearest to man in intelligence" and as having "virtues rare even in man," such as justice, wisdom, and honesty. Pliny even goes so far as to present various instances of elephant intelligence, such as some elephants who were known to have performed choreographed dances and walk on tight-ropes at a gladiatorial show given by Germanicus Caesar, one who had learned how to write, as reported by Mucianus, the phrase "'I myself wrote this and dedicated these spoils won from the Celts'" using the Greek alphabet, and one elephant who, after being beaten for not understanding the instructions for a particular task, was later found to be practicing the same endeavour. He even gives an example of elephants being able to sense human malevolency, in the way that they will remain calm and polite when faced with a human that means no harm, even having been known to show humans the way if they are lost, but will become fearful and quickly alert other elephants if the human is of ill-intent, which they ascertain by the smell of the human's footprints. The memory of elephant's is also a topic the Pliny discusses, providing the example of an elephant who was able to recognize an old man who many years prior, in its youth, had served as its trainer. + +Further to this, Pliny also spends time discussing the ability of various animals to engage in the conscious contemplation of specific actions that help them to avoid being hunted or poached. For example, he covers elephants smashing their tusks on trees when cornered by ivory poachers, seals intentionally vomiting up their gall, a useful ingredient in drugs, and rennet, a cure for epilepsy, to avoid being killed in order to harvest them, and hedgehogs knowingly urinating over themselves to decrease the value of their hide, for which they are hunted. +In addition to elephants, Pliny also places a great amount of focus on particular domesticated species, including dogs and horses which he describes as being the animals "most faithful to man." Pliny often praises a dogs' recognition of their master, their own name, a family member's voice, and locations, even saying that "no creature save a man has a longer memory" than a dog. Additionally, their uses in hunting and tracking are also highly valued. Meanwhile, Pliny states that "the cleverness of horses is beyond description," such that they have an unwavering docility and an understanding of their duty, whether that be to pull a chariot or to assist a javelin toss. The docility of Sybarite horses is stated to be so great that they will mourn the death of their masters who die in battle, even shedding tears at their loss. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_on_mammals-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_on_mammals-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fb1cb9f9e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_on_mammals-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "Pliny on mammals" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_on_mammals" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:05.193405+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Emotional competence === +Pliny the Elder describes elephants as not only exhibiting impressive brilliance with regards to their memory, learning, and methods of survival, but also with their capacity to feel emotions. Pliny outlines the ability of elephants to shame, such that in battle they offer their conqueror leaves and dirt, and their predilection towards modesty which forces them to mate only in secret. Additionally, Pliny also comments on their morality by putting forward that elephants never engage in adultery or any of the intermale competition "that is so disastrous to the other animals." However, Pliny specifies that this is not due to a lack of emotion, and provides several examples of elephants falling in love with humans, and in one instance so intensely that the elephant refused to eat without the presence of its preferred person. +Pliny repeatedly refers to the distinct behavioural phenomena of animals feeling gratitude and respect towards humans. For example, he recounts the tale of a lion who, after having a painful bone pulled from its teeth, always brought any game it caught to its saviour, a female panther who guides a man out of the desert after he rescues her cubs from a pit, a snake who, after being formerly kept as a pet by a man, came to his aid when he was later ambushed by brigands, and a dog who continued to defend his deceased owner in battle despite being severely wounded. + +== Interspecies relationships == + +=== Competition === +Pliny states that elephants "hate the mouse worst of living creatures," and if they happen to find one in the fodder they are eating they will become disgusted. He also asserts that snakes are continuously at odds with elephants. +As well, it is suggested that "the greatest enemy of the snail is the lizard." + +=== Hybridization === +As described by Pliny, it was apparently a practice of Indians to breed tigers with female dogs to obtain a fiercer animal, while it was a practice of the Gauls to breed wolves with dogs and the results of these matings then serving as the leaders of their dog packs. + +Pliny states that lions can interbreed with leopards, and he also suggests that lionesses can mate with hyenas to produce a mythical species called the corocotta. + +== Human relevance == + +=== Domestication and companionship === +Pliny frequently recounts tales of famous animals that were either devoted to their owners, exceptionally brave in battle, or hilariously amusing at the circus or coliseum, such as Alexander the Great’s famous horse, Bucephalus, who engaged in great feats of bravery during war and when adorned with a royal saddle would not let anyone else mount. +Julius Caesar is also said to have had a horse that would not let anyone else mount it, and that it possessed front hooves that resembled the feet of a human. Pliny states that this horse, complete with human feet, was represented in a statue that stood in front of the Temple of Venus Genetrix. +In addition, Pliny describes many famous instances where dogs displayed loyalty for their owners, such as at the funeral of King Lysimachus, whose dog, Hyrcanus, threw himself into the pyre in which his master was being burned, and how the dog of King Nicomedes of Bithynia is believed to have bitten his wife, Consingis, when she played a joke on him. He also recounts an elaborate story in which Titius Sabinus and his slaves were put in prison and a dog belonging to one of them could not be driven from his side, even refusing to leave his dead body when it was thrown onto the Steps of Lamentation. It is described that any food that the public offered the dog was directly delivered to the mouth of the dead man, and that when the corpse was finally thrown into the river Tiber the dog swam after it and attempted to keep it afloat. + +=== Medicines and other animal resources === +One point to note about Book VIII of Natural History is Pliny’s insistence on the beneficial effects of animal products for human health, which would now be considered homeopathy or folk medicine, as they do not have a scientific basis. Pliny’s medicinal substances cover a wide range of animals, internal and external organs, diseases, and purposes. In the article titled Animal Substances in Materia Medica: A Study in the Persistence of The Primitive, Loren MacKinney proposes that animal resources were commonly used for ancient medicinal practices within many civilizations, such as those found in Egypt, Greece, and Rome. In particular, MacKinney considers Pliny the Elder to be an influential source as to the use of natural remedies in the Roman Empire, and that Natural History is “one of the most comprehensive of all sources of information concerning the materia medica of the ancient world." +In terms of the supposed medicinal values present in various animal parts, Pliny states that the gall and rennet of a seal are useful for drugs and “epileptic attacks,” respectively, the shedded skin of a gecko can cure epilepsy, the right horn of a stag is imbued with a potent healing drug, goat liver can cure night-blindness, the skink can act as an antidote to poisons and an aphrodisiac for males, the smell of burning deer’s horns can stop epileptic seizures, the consumption of venison from a deer that has been killed with only one wound prevents feverish diseases, and that bear fat is useful in the preparation of medicines and for preventing baldness. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_on_mammals-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_on_mammals-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fa17a8aa4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_on_mammals-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,16 @@ +--- +title: "Pliny on mammals" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_on_mammals" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:05.193405+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Historical influence === +The Roman perspective and Stoicism were two major ideologies that likely informed Pliny’s manner of observing mammals, and thus how he contextualized them within the work of Natural History. The Roman consciousness held an idea of anthropocentricity, in which man was perceived to be the highest level of physical beings and that “the rest of creation existed to serve his needs." Thereby, Pliny may have been influenced to write about animals by highlighting their benefit to humans, such as in his numerous points on medicinal properties, companionship, and domestication. Stoicism encompassed ethical ideals involving “independence of mind” and “devotion to duty," which possibly affected Pliny’s opinions on the cognitive capabilities of animals, such as their consciousness and loyalty. +Further to this, in his analyzing the narrative structure of Pliny, Thorsten Fögen asserts that the way that Pliny describes elephants is akin to the virtuosity of "good Roman citizens," and that elephants could serve as a representative for how humans should behave. Fögen also highlights how Pliny's aim in composing Natural History seemed to be centred around communicating the ethical components of animal behaviour through the discussion, as well as many examples, of their moral qualities and anthropomorphic traits. +Additionally, because of the expansion of the Roman Empire that was occurring as Natural History was being composed, many new discoveries were made that contributed to a growing Roman fascination with “mirabilia," or things that were considered to be unique and unusual. This may have contributed to Pliny’s inclusion of peculiar animals and odd animal behaviours. + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principles_of_Neural_Science-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principles_of_Neural_Science-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9059c3179 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principles_of_Neural_Science-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +--- +title: "Principles of Neural Science" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principles_of_Neural_Science" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:47.618631+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Principles of Neural Science is a neuroscience textbook edited by Columbia University professors Eric R. Kandel, James H. Schwartz, and Thomas M. Jessell. First published in 1981 by McGraw-Hill, the original edition was 468 pages, and has now grown to 1,646 pages on the sixth edition. The second edition was published in 1985, third in 1991, fourth in 2000. The fifth was published on October 26, 2012 and included Steven A. Siegelbaum and A. J. Hudspeth as editors. The sixth and latest edition was published on March 8, 2021. + + +== Authors == + + +=== Editors === +Kandel was one of the recipients of the 2000 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. He is currently a professor of biochemistry, molecular biophysics, physiology, cellular biophysics, and psychiatry at Columbia University. He is a senior investigator at the Howard Hughes Medical Institute and a recipient of the National Medal of Science. +Schwartz was a professor of physiology, cellular biophysics, neurology, and psychiatry at Columbia University. +Jessell became an editor of the book starting from the third edition. He was a professor of biochemistry and molecular biophysics at Columbia University, and an investigator at the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. +Hudspeth is a professor of sensory neuroscience at Rockefeller University. He is also an investigator at the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. +Siegelbaum is Chair of the Department of Neuroscience at Columbia University and is also an investigator at the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. + + +=== Contributors === +Including the editors—all of whom also contributed to individual chapters in the book—there are a total of 45 authors of this text. Included among them are several notable researchers and physicians. Several authors are also highly decorated scientists, including Nobel laureate Linda B. Buck and renowned neurophysiologist Roger M. Enoka. + + +== Content == +Principles of Neural Science is often assigned as a textbook for many undergraduate and graduate/medical neuroscience and neurobiology courses. The book attempts to introduce every aspect of the most modern understanding of the brain. The sixth edition is divided into sixty-four chapters, organized into nine parts: + +Part I: Overall Perspective +Part II: Cell and Molecular Biology of Cells of the Nervous System +Part III: Synaptic Transmission +Part IV: Perception +Part V: Movement +Part VI: The Biology of Emotion, Motivation, and Homeostasis +Part VII: Development and the Emergence of Behavior +Part VIII: Learning, Memory, Language and Cognition +Part IX: Diseases of the Nervous System + + +== References == + + +== Sources == +Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessell TM 1991. Principles of Neural Science, 3rd ed. Appleton & Lange. ISBN 0-8385-8068-8 +Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessell TM 2000. Principles of Neural Science, 4th ed. McGraw-Hill, New York. ISBN 0-8385-7701-6 +Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessell TM 2012, Siegelbaum SA, Hudspeth AJ. Principles of Neural Science, 5th ed. McGraw-Hill, New York. ISBN 0-07-139011-1 +Kandel ER, Koester JD, Mack SH 2021, Siegelbaum SA. Principles of Neural Science, 6th ed. McGraw-Hill, New York. ISBN 978-1-25-964224-1 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principles_of_Philosophy-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principles_of_Philosophy-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5f1ce56af --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principles_of_Philosophy-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,72 @@ +--- +title: "Principles of Philosophy" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principles_of_Philosophy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:08.510611+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Principles of Philosophy (Latin: Principia Philosophiae) is a book by the French philosopher and scientist René Descartes. In essence, it is a synthesis of the Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy. It was written in Latin, published in 1644 and dedicated to Elisabeth of Bohemia, with whom Descartes had a long-standing friendship. A French version (Les Principes de la Philosophie) followed in 1647. +The book sets forth the principles of nature—the laws of physics—as Descartes viewed them. Most notably, it set forth the principle that in the absence of external forces, an object's motion will be uniform and in a straight line. Isaac Newton borrowed this principle from Descartes and included it in his own Principia; to this day, it is still generally referred to as Newton's first law of motion. The book was primarily intended to replace the Aristotelian curriculum then used in French and British universities. The work provides a systematic statement of his metaphysics and natural philosophy, and represents the first truly comprehensive, mechanistic account of the universe. + + +== Contents == + + +=== Preface to the French edition === +Descartes asked Abbot Claude Picot to translate his Latin Principia Philosophiae into French. For this edition, he wrote a preface disguised as a letter to the translator, whose title is "Letter of the author to the translator of the book, that may be used as a preface." This was published in 1647, when he was 51 years old and in the mature, final period of his life. In this writing, Descartes provides some reflections on his ideas of wisdom and philosophy. Its content may be summarized as follows: + +Concept of philosophy +Philosophy is the study of wisdom, understood as the ability to conduct the human activities; and also as the perfect knowledge of all the things that a man can know for the direction of his life, maintenance of his health, and knowledge of the arts. Only God is perfectly wise, and the man is more or less wise, in proportion to the knowledge he has of the most important truths. + +The degrees of knowledge +Descartes identifies four degrees of knowledge which he names common, and a fifth degree he designates higher. The first degree consists of clear and evident notions that can be acquired without the need for any meditation. The second degree is all that is learned by means of the senses. The third comprises what we learn when talking with others. The fourth consists of what we can learn from the writings of those capable of giving good instructions. + +Higher wisdom +There have been great people throughout history who have pursued a better and more secure wisdom, a fifth degree of knowledge. This has consisted of the search for the first causes, and those that have followed this pursuit have been named philosophers, but he thinks that none have yet been successful. + +Doubt and certainty +Since Plato and Aristotle, there has been discussion on doubt and certainty. Those that have favoured doubt have arrived at extremes of doubting even the most evident things, and those that have sought certainty have relied excessively on the senses. Though it has been accepted that the senses may mislead us, according to Descartes, nobody had yet expressed that the truth can not be based on the senses, but in the understanding, when it is founded on evident perceptions. + +Meditations on first philosophy +The search for the first causes, or basic truths, as undertaken by Descartes is contained in this work. It explains the metaphysical principles on which to build the rest of knowledge. + +The tree of philosophy +Descartes describes philosophy as like a tree, whose roots are metaphysics, its trunk physics, and the branches are the rest of the sciences, mainly medicine, mechanics, and morals that is the last level of wisdom. In the same way that trees have fruits in their outer parts, the usefulness of philosophy is also contained in the areas that stem from its foundation. + + +=== Body of the work === +There are four parts: + +Part I. - of the Principles of Human Existence +Part II. - of the Principles of Material Things +Part III. - of the Visible World +Part IV. - of the Earth. + + +== Copies and modern editions == + +A copy of Descartes' Principia philosophiae dated 1656 is owned by the Tom Slick rare book collection at the Southwest Research Institute in Texas. The book was translated into Italian in 1722 by Giuseppa Eleonora Barbapiccola. (Cf. C. Landolfi, Giuseppa Eleonora Barbapiccola: Opere scelte, Mirista-moderna, Salerno 2024) +D. Reidel, a Dutch publisher, released an English edition of Principia philosophiae in 1983 (ISBN 90-277-1451-7), translated by Valentine Rodger and Reese P. Miller with explanatory notes. Though a translation of the original 1644 Latin work, this edition by Rodger and Miller includes additional material from the 1647 French translation. + + +== See also == +Bucket argument +Conservation of momentum +Related works +The World (Descartes) +Principia philosophiae cartesianae by Baruch Spinoza + + +== References == + + +== External links == + Works related to Selections from the Principles of Philosophy at Wikisource + Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article: Principia philosophiae +Descartes' 1644 Principia philosophiae (free Google eBook) +Selections from the Principles of Philosophy at Project Gutenberg +Principles of Philosophy, modified for easier reading +Principia philosophiae. Amstelodami, apud Ludovicum Elzevirium, 1644. From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progress_in_Optics-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progress_in_Optics-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..da0a0cf0e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progress_in_Optics-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "Progress in Optics" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progress_in_Optics" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:09.717700+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Progress in Optics are a series of books published by Elsevier. Edited by Emil Wolf until his death in 2018, the series is now edited by Taco D. Visser. They consist of collections of already published review articles deemed to be representative of the advances made in the fields of optics. +The series was established in 1962. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Official website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protogaea-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protogaea-0.md index 47f93a795..ab85a196e 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protogaea-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protogaea-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protogaea" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:42:53.977497+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:06.382494+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proust_Was_a_Neuroscientist-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proust_Was_a_Neuroscientist-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..770dcd974 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proust_Was_a_Neuroscientist-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,15 @@ +--- +title: "Proust Was a Neuroscientist" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proust_Was_a_Neuroscientist" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:48.758484+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Proust Was a Neuroscientist is a non-fiction book written by Jonah Lehrer, first published in 2007. In it, Lehrer argues that many 20th and 21st-century discoveries of neuroscience are actually re-discoveries of insights made earlier by various artists, including Gertrude Stein, Walt Whitman, Paul Cézanne, Igor Stravinsky, and, as alluded to in the title, Marcel Proust. +Lehrer became embroiled in controversy following the publication of his third book, Imagine: How Creativity Works (2012), and his work was subject to charges of plagiarism and fabrication. Though both Imagine and one of his other books, How We Decide, were pulled from publication, Proust Was a Neuroscientist was found by his publisher to be without significant problems and would remain in print. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QED b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QED new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e69de29bb diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radium,_and_Other_Radioactive_Substances-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radium,_and_Other_Radioactive_Substances-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..aa4ed201a --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radium,_and_Other_Radioactive_Substances-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "Radium, and Other Radioactive Substances" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radium,_and_Other_Radioactive_Substances" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:13.256026+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Radium, and Other Radio-active Substances; Polonium, Actinium, and Thorium is a book published in 1903 by William Joseph Hammer, when he was about 50 years old. The book is the text of a lecture delivered at a meeting of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. The title of the lecture was "Radium and other radioactive substances with a consideration of phosphorescent and fluorescent substances. The properties and applications of selenium and the treatment of disease by the ultra violet light". The lecture was augmented by 38 lantern slides, which are reproduced in the book. + + +== Subjects == + + +=== Radioactivity === +In addition to the matters implied by the title of the lecture (radium, polonium, actinium and thorium), Hammer discusses: + +The work of Pierre and Marie Curie, Dewar, Roentgen, Henri Becquerel, Rutherford, J. J. Thomson and Kelvin +Uranium +Ores of various radioactive materials +Alpha, beta, gamma and X-rays forms of radiation, including radiographs of mice made by the latter, and experiments into the lethal effects of X-rays and radioactive sources + + +=== Selenium === +There are 21 pages devoted to "The properties and applications of selenium", including the use of its changing electrical resistance in different light levels. A quantitative measurement of an eclipse of the sun, by means of a selenium based sensor, is reported. Use of selenium in a "radiophone" devised by Alexander Graham Bell around 1883 is described. (Bell used the sound waves to be transmitted to vibrate a mirror. A beam of light bounced off the mirror onto a selenium object. The variation in the light falling on the sensor translated to a varying electrical signal which could be transmitted, then turned back into vibrations in the air.) Ernst Ruhmer's photographophone is described. It recorded sound similarly to a phonograph, but the sound waves were used, via a selenium cell, to vary the brightness of a beam falling on a moving strip of photographic film. Ruhmer is also credited with using a selenium cell to turn off the lights of maritime navigation buoys during daylight hours, thus conserving the gas they burned. + + +=== Light === +The book concludes with nine pages concerning the work of Niels R Finsen of Copenhagen, who was treating various diseases with light. Hammer notes that for a time, "Finsen's work received little credence... but he persisted... to-day the world rings with his praises." It is claimed that by 1903, Finsen's work was approved of "In England by Queen Alexandra, and in Russia by her sister, the Czarina, they both investigating the system while visiting their father, the King of Denmark." There is even a claim that Finsen was able to spare smallpox victims from scarring by keeping them in a room with red glass windows while the disease went through certain stages. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Motive_Power_of_Fire-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Motive_Power_of_Fire-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..6af035a8c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Motive_Power_of_Fire-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +--- +title: "Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Motive_Power_of_Fire" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:14.402767+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire and on Machines Fitted to Develop that Power (French: Réflexions sur la puissance motrice du feu et sur les machines propres à développer cette puissance) is a scientific treatise written by the French military engineer Sadi Carnot. Published in 1824 in French, the short book (118 pages in the original) sought to advance a rational theory of heat engines. At the time, heat engines had acquired great technological and economic importance, but very little was understood about them from the point of view of physics. +Carnot's Reflections is now widely regarded as a key document in the development of modern thermodynamics, and Carnot himself (who published nothing else during his lifetime) has often been identified as the "father of thermodynamics". The book introduced such concepts as thermodynamic efficiency, reversible processes, the thermodynamic cycle, and Carnot's theorem. + + +== Overview == +The book is considered the founding work of thermodynamics. It contains the preliminary outline of the second law of thermodynamics. Carnot stated that motive power is due to the fall of caloric (chute de calorique) from a hot to a cold body, which he analogized to the work done by a water wheel due to a waterfall (chute d'eau). +Despite the fact that the caloric theory of heat was incorrect, Carnot's work brought together three insights that remain relevant and were used by his successors to develop the concept of entropy: + +The "fall of heat" from a high temperature to a lower temperature is where the work comes from. +Analyzing a cycle, rather than an open system, is the correct way to analyze a heat engine. +The concept of a reversible process. +Similar to how the Reflections was the precursor to the second law, English physicist James Joule's 1843 paper Mechanical equivalent of heat was the precursor to the first law of thermodynamics. In his essay, Carnot also derived the result that later came to be known as the Clausius-Clapeyron relation. + + +== Influence == +Carnot's essay received very little attention during Carnot's lifetime. Carnot published nothing else and died in 1832, at the age of 36. However, in 1834 a French mining engineer, Émile Clapeyron, published a Memoir on the Motive Power of Heat that presented Carnot's analysis graphically. +The German physicist Rudolf Clausius learned of Carnot's work through Clapeyron's memoir. Clausius corrected Carnot's theory by replacing the conservation of caloric with the work-heat equivalence (i.e., energy conservation). Clausius also put the second law of thermodynamics into mathematical form by defining the concept of entropy. That work appeared in 1850 in Clausius's Mechanical Theory of Heat. +Another highly influential commentary on Carnot's essay (also through Clapeyron's memoir) was published in 1849 by William Thomson (the future Lord Kelvin), in a paper titled An Account of Carnot's Theory of the Motive Power of Heat. In that paper, Kelvin said of Carnot's derivation of what would later be called the "Clausius-Clapeyron equation" that "nothing in the whole range of Natural Philosophy is more remarkable than the establishment of general laws by such a process of reasoning." +Because of their respective commentary's on Carnot's essay, modern textbooks on thermodynamics usually introduce a "Clausius statement" and a "Kelvin statement" of the second law of thermodynamics. These statements appear to be different, but they can be shown to be logically equivalent, by an argument based on the Carnot cycle. + + +== See also == +Timeline of thermodynamics + + +== References == + + +== External links == + +Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire (1824), analysed on BibNum (click "À télécharger" for English analysis) +Kostic, M (2011). "Revisiting The Second Law of Energy Degradation and Entropy Generation: From Sadi Carnot's Ingenious Reasoning to Holistic Generalization". AIP Conf. Proc. AIP Conference Proceedings. 1411 (1): 327–350. Bibcode:2011AIPC.1411..327K. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.405.1945. doi:10.1063/1.3665247. American Institute of Physics, 2011. ISBN 978-0-7354-0985-9. Abstract at: [1]. Full article (24 pages [2]), also at [3]. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleights_of_Mind-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleights_of_Mind-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0197ef6c7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleights_of_Mind-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "Sleights of Mind" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleights_of_Mind" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:49.893928+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Sleights of Mind: What the Neuroscience of Magic Reveals about Our Everyday Deceptions is a 2010 popular science book, written by neuroscientists Stephen Macknik and Susana Martinez-Conde, with science writer Sandra Blakeslee. Working alongside several magicians, Macknik and Martinez-Conde studied how conjuring techniques trick the brain. Sleights of Mind considers the greater implications of magic and misdirection for clinical conditions such as autism, and for everyday life situations, including choice and trust in personal and business relationships. +Sleights of Mind introduces Neuromagic as a new area of scientific endeavor, a discipline aimed to uncover the interaction between brain science and the art of magic. Macknik and Martinez-Conde propose that understanding how the mind perceives magic and illusion will provide a greater understanding of perception and cognition at large. + + +== Synopsis == +Macknik and Martinez-Conde say that magic tricks fool us because humans have hardwired processes of attention and awareness that are hackable. Good magicians use our inherent mental and neural limitations against us by leading us to perceive and feel what we are neurologically inclined to. Working with renowned magicians like Apollo Robbins, Teller, Mac King, and James Randi, Macknik and Martinez-Conde research the ways in which the perceptual and cognitive elements of magic relate to more than simple deceits. The authors reveal the neural underpinnings of the magical methods that explain how our brains perceive magic. +Through their exploration, Macknik and Martinez-Conde uncover how our brains work in everyday situations. They describe how if you have ever bought an expensive item you had sworn you would never buy, the salesperson was creating the "illusion of choice", a core technique of magic. They also relate the use of magic to Bernie Madoff's "illusion of trust". Through these examples, Sleights of Mind illuminates the reasons for studying magic, and its implications for research on, and renewed understanding of, perceptual and cognitive processes. + + +== Awards == +Evening Standard Best Book of the Year List +Prisma Prize + + +== Critical reception == +The book has been reviewed by authors of other science-related books, including Neil deGrasse Tyson, Dan Ariely and J. J. Abrams. It has also been reviewed in the New York Times and The Wall Street Journal. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +"How Visual Illusions Work". The Wall Street Journal. November 20, 2010. Retrieved August 12, 2019. +"It's a Kind of Magic!". Birmingham Skeptics. June 25, 2011. Retrieved August 12, 2019. +"Sleights Of Mind In Healthcare: Do You Believe In Magic". Women 2.0. December 7, 2011. Retrieved August 12, 2019. +"Sleights of mind". Curious Book Fans. February 6, 2011. Retrieved August 12, 2019. +"Review: Sleights of Mind: What the Neuroscience of Magic Reveals About Our Everyday Deceptions". Dana Foundation. January 31, 2011. Retrieved August 12, 2019. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suites_à_Buffon-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suites_à_Buffon-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e6c43fe19 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suites_à_Buffon-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "Suites à Buffon" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suites_à_Buffon" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:09.936874+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Les Suites à Buffon is a French 19th-century scientific publication. +Les Suites à Buffon carries the complete title Suites à Buffon formant avec les œuvres de cet auteur un cours complet d'histoire naturelle embrassant les trois règnes de la nature, confié aux plus célèbres naturalistes et habiles écrivains +(Sequels to Buffon Constituting a Complete Course of Natural History Encompassing the Three Reigns of Nature, Entrusted to the Most Famous Naturalists and to Skillful Writers). The three reigns or kingdoms are Botany, Zoology and Geology. +This work constitutes a vast realization in 89 volumes edited and published by the Parisian editor Nicolas Roret. Published between 1834 and 1890, it appears in many forms and is often extracted, sometimes under the titles Nouvelles Suites à Buffon, Suites à Buffon, and Nouvelles Suites à Buffon. +An example of a Suites à Buffon title is Louis Augustin Guillaume Bosc, Histoire Naturelle des Coquilles,contenant leur description, les moeurs des animaux qui les habitant et leurs usages in 5 vols. 2nd ed. Paris, Verdière, 1824. Several new species of shells are described in this rather rare work which included a long "table alphabétique de toutes les espèces mentionnées dans ces ouvrages avec les synonymes de Lamarck". It is not clear from the title that this is part of Suites à Buffon, but it is, though not published by Roret and of a specialised nature. +Sometimes Suites de Buffon + + +== See also == +Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tableau_encyclopédique_et_méthodique-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tableau_encyclopédique_et_méthodique-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..48c1c2942 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tableau_encyclopédique_et_méthodique-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "Tableau encyclopédique et méthodique" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tableau_encyclopédique_et_méthodique" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:11.116230+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Tableau encyclopédique et méthodique des trois regnes de la nature was an illustrated encyclopedia of plants, animals and minerals, notable for including the first scientific descriptions of many species, and for its attractive engravings. It was published in Paris by Charles Joseph Panckoucke, from 1788 on. Although its several volumes can be considered a part of the greater Encyclopédie méthodique, they were titled and issued separately. + +Contributors: + +Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (plants, taxonomy) +Pierre Joseph Bonnaterre (cetaceans, mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, insects) +Louis Pierre Vieillot (birds, second volume) +Jean Guillaume Bruguière (invertebrates) + + +== External links == +Cambridge University Library account Archived 2011-09-27 at the Wayback Machine + + +== References == +Christabel P. Braunrot & Kathleen Hardesty Doig, 1995 The Encyclopédie méthodique: an introduction, Studies in Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century, 327 (1995): 1–152. +Robert Darnton, 1979 The business of Enlightenment: a publishing history of the Encyclopédie Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press. +George B. Watts,1965 "Thomas Jefferson, the 'Encyclopedie' and the Encyclopedie methodique French Review 38:318-25. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_4_Percent_Universe-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_4_Percent_Universe-0.md index b37e7cc3f..67696ffb7 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_4_Percent_Universe-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_4_Percent_Universe-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_4_Percent_Universe" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:32:26.202392+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:01.948595+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Anatomy_of_Dependence-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Anatomy_of_Dependence-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3056a7a51 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Anatomy_of_Dependence-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,49 @@ +--- +title: "The Anatomy of Dependence" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Anatomy_of_Dependence" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:34.017383+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Anatomy of Dependence (甘えの構造, Amae no Kōzō) is a 1971 book by Japanese psychoanalyst Takeo Doi, discussing at length Doi's concept of amae, which he describes as a uniquely Japanese need to be in good favor with, and be able to depend on, the people around oneself. He likens this to behaving childishly in the assumption that parents will indulge you (Doi 2001:16), and claims that the ideal relationship is that of the parent–child, and all other relationships should strive for this degree of closeness (Doi 2001:39). + + +== Main concept == + +Amae (甘え) is the nominal form of the verb amaeru (甘える), which Doi uses to describe the behavior of a person attempting to induce an authority figure, such as a parent, spouse, teacher, or supervisor, to take care of them. The word is rarely used of oneself, but rather is applied descriptively to the behavior of other people. The person who is carrying out amae may beg or plead, or alternatively act selfishly while secure in the knowledge that the caregiver will indulge them. The behavior of children towards their parents is perhaps the most common example of amae, but Doi argued that child-rearing practices in the Western world seek to stop this kind of dependence, whereas in Japan it persists into adulthood in all kinds of social relationships. However, these cultural concepts do not apply to indigenous cultures in Japan, such as the Ainu people or the Ryukyuan people, the latter of which replaces amae with humor. + + +=== In literary context === +Doi developed this idea to explain and describe many kinds of Japanese behavior. However, Doi states that while amae is not just a Japanese phenomenon, the Japanese are the only people known to have an extensive vocabulary for describing it. The reason for this is that amae is a major factor in Japanese interaction and customs. Doi argues that nonverbal empathic guesswork (察し sasshi), a fondness for unanimous agreement in decision-making, the ambiguity and hesitation of self-expression (遠慮 enryo), and the tatemae–honne dynamics are communicative manifestations of the amae psychology of Japanese people. +Doi translates amaeru as "to depend and presume upon another's benevolence". It indicates, for Doi, "helplessness and the desire to be loved". Amaeru can also be defined as "to wish to be loved", and denotes dependency needs. Amae is, in essence, a request for indulgence of one's perceived needs. +Doi says, + +"The psychological prototype of 'amae' lies in the psychology of the infant in its relationship to its mother; not a newborn infant, but an infant who has already realised that its mother exists independently of itself ... [A]s its mind develops it gradually realises that itself and its mother are independent existences, and comes to feel the mother as something indispensable to itself, it is the craving for close contact thus developed that constitutes, one might say, amae." +According to Doi and others, in Japan the kind of relationship based on this prototype provides a model of human relationships in general, especially (though not exclusively) when one person is senior to another. As another writer puts it: + +"He may be your father or your older brother or sister ... But he may just as well be your section head at the office, the leader of your local political faction, or simply a fellow struggler down life's byways who happened to be one or two years ahead of you at school or the university. The amae syndrome is pervasive in Japanese life." +Amae may also be used to describe the behavior of a husband who comes home drunk and depends on his wife to get him ready for bed. In Japan, amae does have a connotation of immaturity, but it is also recognized as a key ingredient in loving relationships, perhaps more so than the notions of romance so common in the West. + + +=== Reception === +Doi's work has been heavily criticized by academics specializing in nihonjinron studies as being anecdotal and full of inaccuracies. (See Dale, P. 1986 The Myth of Japanese Uniqueness, Mouer and Sugimoto 1986, 1982, Kubota 1999) +Doi's work has been hailed as a distinctive contribution to psychoanalysis by the American psychiatrist Frank Johnson, who has devoted a full book-length study to Doi and to his critics. + + +== Publication history == +The Anatomy of Dependence was originally published in Japanese in 1971, and an English translation by John Bester was later published in 1973. + + +== See also == +Attachment theory +Codependency +Maslow's hierarchy of needs +Nihonjinron + + +== References == + +Doi, T. The Anatomy of Dependence, Kodansha America, Inc., 2001. ISBN 4-7700-2800-8 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Art_of_Listening-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Art_of_Listening-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ad82d6d9b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Art_of_Listening-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,15 @@ +--- +title: "The Art of Listening" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Art_of_Listening" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:38.909668+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Art of Listening is a 1994 book on psychology by the psychoanalyst Erich Fromm. In the work, Fromm elucidates his therapeutic method of dealing with the psychological sufferings of people in contemporary society. Fromm's work contains a great deal of clinical reflections of the psychoanalyst. In The Art of Listening, Fromm studies the communication between analyst and analysand in which the analyst offers himself as a human being specially trained in the "art of listening." The art of therapy is the art of listening. +In The Art of Listening, Fromm suggests that a person's character orientation results from socialization into shared psychic attitudes of a particular society. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Art_of_Loving-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Art_of_Loving-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..521e5e796 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Art_of_Loving-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "The Art of Loving" +chunk: 1/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Art_of_Loving" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:40.080123+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Art of Loving is a 1956 book by psychoanalyst and social philosopher Erich Fromm. It was originally published as part of the World Perspectives series edited by Ruth Nanda Anshen. In this work, Fromm develops his perspective on human nature from his earlier works, Escape from Freedom and Man for Himself – principles which he revisits in many of his other major works. He criticizes the popular conception of love and asserts that "love is the only provision for a sane and satisfying human existence". + +== Background == +In 1930, Fromm was recruited to the Frankfurt School by Max Horkheimer. Fromm played a central role in the early development of the school. He left the school in the late 1930s, following a "bitter and contentious" deterioration in his relationship with Horkheimer and Theodor Adorno. In 1956, the year The Art of Loving was released, Fromm's relationship with Herbert Marcuse, also a member of the Frankfurt School, also deteriorated. Dissent published a debate between the two, and though later scholars would come to view Marcuse's arguments as being weaker than Fromm's, Marcuse's were better received within their lifetimes, and Fromm's reputation and in leftist circles was permanently damaged. +The book was inspired by Fromm's "new, liberating feeling of life’s possibility" when he courted Annis, his wife. + +== Summary == +The Art of Loving is divided across four chapters and a preface; the chapter headings are I. Is Love an Art?, II. The Theory of Love, III. Love and Its Disintegration in Contemporary Western Society, and IV. The Practice of Love. An epigraph consisting of a quote from Paracelsus concerning the relationship between love and knowledge is included in the front matter. + +=== Preface === +In the preface, Fromm states that the book does not provide instruction in what he terms the "art of loving", but rather it argues that love, rather than a sentiment, is an artistic practice. Any attempt to love another is bound to fail, if one does not commit their total personality to learning and practicing loving. He states that "individual love cannot be attained without the capacity to love one's neighbour, without true humility, courage, faith and discipline." He also states that the ideas he expresses in The Art of Loving are similar to those he had already outlined in Escape from Freedom, Man for Himself, and The Sane Society. + +=== I. Is Love an Art? === +Fromm opens the first chapter by critiquing the place of love in Western society. He says that though people think that love is important, they think that there is nothing for them to learn about love, an attitude which Fromm believes is misguided. For Fromm, a major factor in the development of this attitude is that the majority of people "see the problem of love primarily as that of being loved, rather than that of loving, of one's capacity to love." As a result, people become focused on being attractive rather than on loving others, and as a result, what is meant in Western society by "being lovable is essentially a mixture between being popular and having sex appeal". +The second problem Fromm identifies in people's attitudes towards love is that they think of the "problem of love" as that of an "object", rather than a skill. In other words, they believe that to love is simple, but to find the right person to love or be loved by is difficult. He believes that this results in a culture in which human relations of love resemble a labour market, whereby people seek a "bargain" of a romantic partner: one of high social value, who desires them in return, in consideration of the "limitations of their own exchange values." +Fromm also identifies a confusion between the initial experience of 'falling in love', and what he terms 'standing' in love, or the "permanent state of being in love". He says that falling in love is by its very nature not lasting, and so if people have not put in the work in order to stand in love together, as they get "well acquainted, their intimacy loses more and more of its miraculous character, until their antagonism, their disappointments, their mutual boredom kill whatever is left of their initial excitement." Furthermore, people consider the intensity of feeling upon falling in love with someone to be proof of the intensity of their love for each other, when for Fromm, this "may only prove the degree of their preceding loneliness". +Fromm concludes the chapter by stating that there "is hardly any activity, any enterprise, which is started with such tremendous hope and expectations, and yet, which fails so regularly as love." Fromm contends that this is because of the above attitudes to love, and the neglect of love as an art form, which he states means that it consists of both theory and practice. To master love, however, requires more than learning the theory and implementing the practice, but that "the mastery of the art must be a matter of ultimate concern; there must be nothing else in the world more important than the art". He briefly states that though most people crave love, their desire for success, prestige, money, and power, as desired in capitalist society, relegate love to being of lesser importance to them, and that this is why most people fail to truly love others. + +=== II. The Theory of Love === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Art_of_Loving-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Art_of_Loving-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0e871de55 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Art_of_Loving-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "The Art of Loving" +chunk: 2/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Art_of_Loving" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:40.080123+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== 1. Love, the Answer to the Problem of Human Existence ==== +Fromm opens this chapter by stating that "Any theory of love must begin with a theory of man, of human existence." For Fromm, a person's key trait is their ability to reason. Prior to humans developing the ability to reason, we were part of the animal kingdom and in a state of harmony. To recover this state of harmony it is impossible for us to regress to the idyll of the animal kingdom, but rather humanity must progress to a new harmony by developing their ability to reason. This ability to reason makes humanity "life being aware of itself", and separates us from all other creatures. This separation is, for Fromm, "the source of all anxiety". He says that by understanding the story of Adam and Eve, people can understand the barriers to loving connection. For Fromm, when man and woman develop awareness of their difference from each other, they remain strangers, and this is the source of shame, guilt, and anxiety, and it is reunion through love which allows people to overcome this feeling of difference. +For Fromm the fundamental question facing mankind is "the question of how to overcome separateness, how to achieve union, how to transcend one's own individual life and find at-onement". In other words, that people are fundamentally isolated, and seek union with others to overcome this feeling of isolation. He develops this idea, stating that different cultures and religions have had different techniques to achieve this, and gives five examples of how these unions are achieved. He describes "orgiastic states", in which "separateness" is abated by taking drugs, participating in sexual orgies, or both. For Fromm, the problem with this approach is that the feeling of unity is temporary and fleeting. +He proceeds to state that in modern capitalist society, people find union in conformity. The meaning of equality, for Fromm, has been changed from meaning "oneness" to meaning "sameness". The result of pursuing the Enlightenment concept of l'âme n'a pas de sexe (literally, "the soul has no sex") is the disappearance of the polarity of the sexes, and with it, erotic love. He criticises the effect that union by conformity has on people, turning them into "nine to fiver[s]", who sacrifice their fulfillment outside of work by their commitment to filling a labour role. +A third way that Fromm suggests people seek union is through what he terms "Symbiotic union", which he divides into sadism and masochism. In this paradigm, both the masochist and the sadist are dependent on the other, which he believes reduces the integrity of each. +Fromm proposes that the most harmful way people may find union is through domination, which is an extreme form of sadism. He provides the example of a child tearing apart a butterfly to understand how it functions. +Fromm contrasts symbiotic union with mature love, the final way people may seek union, as union in which both partners respect the integrity of the other. Fromm states that "Love is an active power in a man", and that in the general sense, the active character of love is primarily that of "giving". He further delineates what he views as the four core tenets of love: care, responsibility, respect, and knowledge. +He defines love as care by stating that "Love is the active concern for the life and the growth of that which we love", and gives an example of a mother and a baby, saying that nobody would believe the mother loved the baby, no matter what she said, if she neglected to feed it, bathe it, or comfort it. He further says that "One loves that for which one labours, and one labours for that which one loves." +The second principle of love, to Fromm, is responsibility. He contrasts his definition of responsibility with that of duty, stating that responsibility is the voluntary desire to respond to the needs of one's partner. Without his third principle of love, respect, Fromm warns that responsibility can devolve into exploitation. Fromm says that in a loving relationship, people have a responsibility not to exploit their partners. He explains that L'amour est l'enfant de la liberté (literally, "love is the child of liberty"), and that love must desire the growth of the partner as they are, not how one may want them to grow. +As such, for Fromm, "respect is possible only if I have achieved independence". According to Fromm, in order to respect someone we must know them, and so knowledge is his fourth principle of love. For Fromm, attainment of these four attitudes are only possible in the mature person, one "who only wants to have that which he has worked for, who has given up narcissistic dreams of omniscience and omnipotence, who has acquired humility based on the inner strength which only genuine productive activity can give." He concludes the chapter by criticising Sigmund Freud for not understanding sex well enough. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Art_of_Loving-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Art_of_Loving-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7a8a5649e --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Art_of_Loving-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "The Art of Loving" +chunk: 3/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Art_of_Loving" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:40.080123+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== 2. Love Between Parents and Child ==== +Fromm opens this section by hypothesizing on love through the eyes of a baby in relation to its mother. In this dynamic, the child intuits that "I am loved for what I am", or rather "I am loved because I am". This love is unconditional: "it need not be acquired, it need not be deserved." The unconditional aspect of motherly love, a blessing if present, produces a problem of its own: if this love is absent, there is nothing the child can do to create it. Before growing to the age of between eight and a half to ten, Fromm considers that children experience being loved, but do not themselves begin to love. At this point a child may begin to practice love, for example, by giving a gift to one of their parents. +Fromm states that it takes many years for this form of love to develop into mature love. He contrasts the difference, the primary one being that someone who loves maturely believes that loving is more pleasurable than receiving love. Through practicing love, and thus producing love, the individual overcomes the dependence on being loved, having to be "good" to deserve love. He contrasts the immature phrases "I love because I am loved" and "I love you because I need you" with mature expressions of love, "I am loved because I love", and "I need you because I love you." +He contrasts motherly love with fatherly love. Fromm contends that mothers and fathers represent opposite poles of human existence: the mother represent the natural world, while the father embodies the world of thought, man-made thing, and adventure. Unlike motherly love, fatherly love is conditional for Fromm, it can be earned. Fromm contends that in infancy, people care more about motherly love, while in later childhood they crave fatherly love. Upon reaching maturity, a well-adjusted individual reaches a synthesis of motherly and fatherly love within their own being; they become their own source for both. Fromm believes that receiving an inadequate balance of both motherly and fatherly love results in various forms of neurosis in adults. + +==== 3. The Objects of Love ==== +Fromm opens this section by stating that it is a fallacy to believe that loving one person and no others is a testament to the intensity of that love. He proposes that one can only truly love an individual if one is capable of loving anyone. In this section Fromm subdivides love into five distinct categories, namely brotherly love, motherly love, erotic love, self-love, and the love of God. +Fromm explains what he calls "paradoxical logic" – the ability to reconcile opposing principles in one same instance. He highlights paradoxical logic in the sections dedicated to the love of God and erotic love. + +===== (a) Brotherly Love ===== +Brotherly love, for Fromm, is not love between siblings but rather the love one feels for their fellow man, originating in their common experiences of humanity. This is a love between equals, though "even as equals we are not always 'equal'; inasmuch as we are human, we are all in need of help. Today I, Tomorrow you." The beginning of brotherly love is described as love for the helpless, the poor, and the stranger. He compares brotherly love to Exodus 22:21, "You know the heart of the stranger, for you were strangers in the land of Egypt", adding "therefore love the stranger!" + +===== (b) Motherly Love ===== +In this section Fromm expands his previous description of motherly love to include an element beyond the minimum care and responsibility required to support the child's life and growth. He says that a mother has a responsibility to instill a love for life in her children, and compares these two forms of responsibility to milk and honey. Here milk symbolises the first of the two, the responsibility of care and affirmation. Honey symbolizes the sweetness of life, a love and joy for the experience of living, which only a truly happy mother can instill in her children. Unlike brotherly love (and later, erotic love), motherly love is by its very nature not shared between equals. Fromm states that most mothers succeed at showing motherly love when their children are infants, but the true test of motherly love, for Fromm, is to continue to love as the child grows, matures, and eventually detaches themselves from their reliance on the mother. + +===== (c) Erotic Love ===== +This section is concerned with romantic love shared between one man and one woman treating each other as equals. Erotic love, for Fromm, is the craving of complete fusion with one other person, and considers sexual union to be a vital part of this fusion. Sex, says Fromm, can be blind and be stimulated by any strong emotion, not only love. When two people who truly love each other have sex, however, the act is devoid of greediness, and is defined by tenderness. Because the notion of sexual desire is often conflated with love in western society, such desire is often mistakenly considered a sign of loving someone. Though having sex with someone can give the illusion of unity, without love this act will leave the participants just as much strangers to each other as before, and can induce feelings of shame or hatred for the other. Fromm criticizes the misinterpretation of the exclusive nature of erotic love as possessive attachment. He states that it is common to find two people who consider themselves to be in love with each other but have no love for anyone else. Fromm considers this an "egotism á deux", as one should love all of mankind through the love of their romantic partner. Fromm concludes the section by criticizing views that love is either exclusively a feeling or exclusively an act of will, stating that it is somewhere between the two. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Art_of_Loving-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Art_of_Loving-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2f8aaa7dd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Art_of_Loving-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,35 @@ +--- +title: "The Art of Loving" +chunk: 4/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Art_of_Loving" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:40.080123+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +===== (d) Self-Love ===== +Fromm begins this section by criticising the "widespread" belief in Western thought that "while it is virtuous to love others, it is sinful to love oneself." He critiques the conclusions of John Calvin and Freud in particular, and states that self-love ought not be confused with either narcissism or the turning inwards of the libido. Fromm claims that it is a logical fallacy to love one's neighbour for the sake of their humanity and not also love one's self for the same reason. +Fromm states that "love of others and love of ourselves are not alternatives. On the contrary, an attitude of love towards themselves will be found in all those who are capable of loving others. Love, in principle, is indivisible as far as the connection between 'objects' and one's own self is concerned. Genuine love is an expression of productiveness and implies care, respect, responsibility and knowledge." By this token, he classifies love as "an active striving for the growth and happiness of the loved person", and so classifies such action as virtuous. +Fromm contends that "love of man" (which is to say the love that one holds for a given individual for the sake of their humanity) does not follow from the love of a specific person, but rather serves as the basis for loving a specific individual. From this assertion, Fromm states that it then follows that the self is as much an object to be loved as any other. He further claims that the individual who can only love others, and not themselves, cannot truly love at all. +Fromm contrasts self-love with selfishness, saying of them that "Selfishness and self-love, far from being identical, are actually opposites." He states that the problem with selfish people is not that they love themselves too much, but rather too little: a lack of fondness and care for themselves, which in turn stems from a lack of productiveness that leaves them feeling empty, frustrated, unhappy, or anxious. For Fromm, "selfish persons are incapable of loving others, but they are not capable of loving themselves either." +Fromm concludes the section by contrasting the selfish person with those who experience "neurotic 'unselfishness'". This unselfishness does not typically trouble the affected party, but rather manifests alongside symptoms such as depression, fatigue, a lack of productiveness, failures in romantic relationships, and others. Fromm states that not only are the neurotically unselfish not troubled by this trait, they may take pride in it, with some considering it their only redeeming character trait. Fromm states that such people may be confused to find that despite their lack of selfishness, they are unhappy, and their relationships to others are unsatisfactory. The remedy, says Fromm, is to view this trait as part of a range of symptoms, the cure to which is resolving the individual’s underlying lack of productivity. He concludes the section with an example of the damaging effects of this unselfish behaviour on others, given in the form of the "unselfish mother", who gives of herself utterly to her children. Fromm states that children raised by neurotically unselfish mothers "do not show the happiness of persons who are convinced they are loved; they are anxious, tense, afraid of the mother's disapproval and anxious to live up to her expectations." He further states that "the effect of the 'unselfish' mother is not too different from that of the selfish one; indeed, it is often worse, because the mother's unselfishness prevents the children from criticising her." + +===== (e) Love of God ===== +Finally, Fromm comes to love for God, the religious form of love. According to Fromm, the type of gods and the way in which they are loved or worshiped depends on the level of maturity that people have reached, which applies both at the level of society and at the level of the individual. + +=== III. Love and its Disintegration in Contemporary Western Society === +Fromm calls the general idea of love in contemporary Western society égoïsme à deux – a relationship in which each person is entirely focused on the other, to the detriment of other people around them. The current belief is that a couple should be a well-assorted team, sexually and functionally, working towards a common aim. This is in contrast with Fromm's description of true erotic love and intimacy, which involves willful commitment directed toward a single unique individual. One cannot truly love another person if one does not love all of mankind including oneself. + +=== IV. The Practice of Love === +Fromm begins the last chapter, "The Practice of Love", by saying: "[...] many readers of this book, expect to be given prescriptions of 'how to do it to yourself' [...]. I am afraid that anyone who approaches this last chapter in this spirit will be gravely disappointed". He says that in order to master the art of loving, one must practice discipline, concentration, and patience in every facet of one's life. + +== Reception == +The Art of Loving is Fromm's best-selling work, having sold millions of copies. The Washington Post wrote that the book "had an enormous vogue on campuses during the 1960s and Dr. Fromm became something of a cult figure among large numbers of students at that time." It also enhanced the perception of Fromm as a populariser, a writer who simplifies their work to appeal to a broader audience. +At the time of its release, it initiated criticism within leftist circles as not being emancipatory in nature. + +== References == + +=== Notes === + +=== Sources === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Brain_that_Changes_Itself-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Brain_that_Changes_Itself-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5f931501d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Brain_that_Changes_Itself-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,58 @@ +--- +title: "The Brain that Changes Itself" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Brain_that_Changes_Itself" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:19.605319+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Brain That Changes Itself: Stories of Personal Triumph from the Frontiers of Brain Science is a book on neuroplasticity by psychiatrist and psychoanalyst Norman Doidge. + + +== Content == +The book is a collection of stories of doctors and patients showing that the human brain is capable of undergoing change, including stories of recovering use of paralyzed body parts, deaf people learning to hear, and others getting relief from pain using exercises to retrain neural pathways. Doidge also covers scientists who first identified neuroplasticity, the subjects of persistent pain, sexual attraction and love, how culture impacts the changing brain, the developing pediatric brain and the preservation of the geriatric brain. +The book contains 11 chapters: + +A Woman Perpetually Falling, Rescued by the Man Who Discovered the Plasticity of Our Senses +Building Herself, a Better Brain A Woman Labeled "Retarded" Discovers How to Heal Herself +Redesigning the Brain, A Scientist Changes Brains to Sharpen Perception and Memory, Increase Speed of Thought, and Heal Learning Problems +Acquiring Tastes and Loves What Neuroplasticity Teaches Us About Sexual Attraction and Love +Midnight Resurrections, Stroke Victims Learn to Move and Speak Again +Brain Lock Unlocked, Using Plasticity to Stop Worries, Obsessions, Compulsions, and Bad Habits +Pain The Dark Side of Plasticity +Imagination, How Thinking Makes It So +Turning Our Ghosts into Ancestors , Psychoanalysis as a Neuroplastic Therapy +Rejuvenation, The Discovery of the Neuronal Stem Cell and Lessons for Preserving Our Brains +More than the Sum of Her Parts, A Woman Shows Us How Radically Plastic the Brain Can Be + + +== Reception == +The New York Times gave a mostly positive review of the book. + +Dr. Doidge, a Canadian psychiatrist and award-winning science writer, recounts the accomplishments of the "neuroplasticians," as he calls the neuroscientists involved in these new studies, with breathless reverence. Their work is indeed mind-bending, miracle-making, reality-busting stuff, with implications, as Dr. Doidge notes, not only for individual patients with neurologic disease but for all human beings, not to mention human culture, human learning and human history. +In contrast The International Journal of Psychoanalysis published a negative book review essay critical of Doidge's writings. The review claims that neuroscience is irrelevant to the study of psychoanalysis. +Kirkus Reviews stated the book is "somewhat scattershot, but Doidge's personal stories, enthusiasm for his subject and admiration for its researchers keep the reader engaged." +In a review of the book for the Society for Psychoanalysis and Psychoanalytic Psychology, Jane Hall wrote in 2011 "Contrary to the original belief that after childhood the brain begins a long process of decline, [Doidge] shows us that our brains have the remarkable power to grow, change, overcome disabilities, learn, recover, and alter the very culture that has the potential to deeply affect human nature." + +The book is rich in both journalism and science. Not only does the author have professional credentials deriving from his training as a psychiatrist and analyst, but he also has extensive experience in writing, including a three-year stint writing the column 'On Human Nature' for the Canadian newspaper The National Post. [...] More than anything else, it is Doidge's standing as a professioinal observer of human behavior that ultimately captivates the reader. + + +== See also == +Barbara Arrowsmith Young, the subject of Chapter 2 of the book. +Brain training + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == +Adams, Tim (February 8, 2015). "Interview : Norman Doidge: the man teaching us to change our minds". The Guardian. +Paris, Joel. "Is psychoanalysis still relevant to psychiatry?." The Canadian journal of psychiatry 62.5 (2017): 308-312. +Carmeli, Zvi, and Rachel Blass. "The case against neuroplastic analysis: A further illustration of the irrelevance of neuroscience to psychoanalysis through a critique of Doidge's The Brain that Changes Itself." (2013): 391-410. + + +== External links == +The Official Website +The book at Open Library \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Character_of_Physical_Law-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Character_of_Physical_Law-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b02e1789b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Character_of_Physical_Law-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,39 @@ +--- +title: "The Character of Physical Law" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Character_of_Physical_Law" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:15.394498+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Character of Physical Law is a series of seven lectures by physicist Richard Feynman concerning the nature of the laws of physics. Feynman delivered the lectures in 1964 at Cornell University, as part of the Messenger Lectures series. The BBC recorded the lectures and published a book under the same title the following year; Cornell published the BBC's recordings online in September 2015. In 2017 MIT Press published, with a new foreword by Frank Wilczek, a paperback reprint of the 1965 book. + + +== Topics == +The lectures covered the following topics: + +The law of gravitation, an example of physical law +The relation of mathematics and physics +The great conservation principles +Symmetry in physical law +The distinction of past and future +Probability and uncertainty – the quantum mechanical view of nature +Seeking new laws + + +== Reception == +Critical reception has been positive. The journal The Physics Teacher, in recommending it to both scientists and non-scientists alike, gave The Character of Physical Law a favorable review, writing that although the book was initially intended to supplement the recordings, it was "complete in itself and will appeal to a far wider audience". + + +== Selections == +"In general we look for a new law by the following process. First we guess it." (Feynman 1965, p. 156) + + +== See also == +QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter +The Feynman Lectures on Physics + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Computer_and_the_Brain-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Computer_and_the_Brain-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..fc80092da --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Computer_and_the_Brain-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "The Computer and the Brain" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Computer_and_the_Brain" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:20.727911+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Computer and the Brain is an unfinished book by mathematician John von Neumann, begun shortly before his death and first published in 1958. Von Neumann was an important figure in computer science, and the book discusses how the brain can be viewed as a computing machine. The book is speculative in nature, but von Neumann discusses several important differences between brains and computers of his day (such as processing speed and parallelism), as well as suggesting directions for future research. +At only 96 pages, the book was originally intended for Yale's Silliman lectures, but it was published posthumously. The first edition was published in 1958 with a preface by Klara Dan von Neumann. The second edition, published in 2000, contains a foreword by Paul Churchland and Patricia Churchland that places von Neumann's views in the context of science at that time. The third edition, published in 2012, features a foreword by Ray Kurzweil. It has the ISBN 9780300181111. + + +== See also == +Computational theory of mind + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Leydesdorff, Loet (2016). "The Code of Mathematics: John von Neumann's The Computer and the Brain". \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dancing_Wu_Li_Masters-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dancing_Wu_Li_Masters-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..4e55d1fc1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dancing_Wu_Li_Masters-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "The Dancing Wu Li Masters" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dancing_Wu_Li_Masters" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:21.527550+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Dancing Wu Li Masters is a 1979 book by Gary Zukav, a popular science work exploring modern physics, and quantum phenomena in particular. It was awarded a 1980 U.S. National Book Award in category of Science. Although it explores empirical topics in modern physics research, The Dancing Wu Li Masters gained attention for leveraging metaphors taken from eastern spiritual movements, in particular the Huayen school of Buddhism with the monk Fazang's treatise on the Golden Lion, to explain quantum phenomena and has been regarded by some reviewers as a New Age work, although the book is mostly concerned with the work of pioneers in western physics down through the ages. +The toneless pinyin phrase Wu Li in the title is most accurately rendered 物理 in Chinese characters, one Chinese translation of the word "physics" (wù lǐ 物理) in the light of the book's subject matter. This becomes somewhat of a pun as there are many other Chinese characters that could be rendered as "wu li" in atonal pinyin, and chapters of the book are each titled with alternative translations of Wu Li, such as "Nonsense" (wú lǐ 無理), "My Way" and "I Clutch My Ideas". Zukav participated as a journalist in a 1976 physics conference of eastern and western scientists at Esalen Institute, California; and he used the occasion as material for his book. At the conference, it was said that the Chinese term for physics is 'Wu Li', or "patterns of organic energy." Zukav, among others, conceptualized 'physics' as the dance of the Wu Li Masters – teachers of physical essence. Zukav explains the concept further: + +The Wu Li Master dances with his student. The Wu Li Master does not teach, but the student learns. The Wu Li Master always begins at the center, the heart of the matter... + + +== Editions == +The Dancing Wu Li Masters: An Overview of the New Physics (1979). New York: William Morrow and Company, hardcover: ISBN 0-688-03402-0, paperback: ISBN 0-688-08402-8, 352 p. +(1984) Bantam mass market paperback: ISBN 0-553-26382-X, 337 p. +(1990) Audio Renaissance audiocassette: ISBN 1-55927-058-6 (abridged) +(2001) Harper Perennial paperback: ISBN 0-06-095968-1, 416 p. +(2001) Audio Renaissance CD: ISBN 1-55927-643-6 (abridged) + + +== See also == +Quantum Reality, a 1985 popular science book by physicist Nick Herbert, member of the Fundamental Fysiks Group +The Tao of Physics: An Exploration of the Parallels Between Modern Physics and Eastern Mysticism, a 1975 book by physicist Fritjof Capra +The Universe in a Single Atom, 2005, by the 14th Dalai Lama + + +== Notes == + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_End_of_the_Certain_World-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_End_of_the_Certain_World-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..eb959598b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_End_of_the_Certain_World-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +--- +title: "The End of the Certain World" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_End_of_the_Certain_World" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:32.665122+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The End of the Certain World: The Life and Science of Max Born is a biography of Max Born by Nancy Thorndike Greenspan that was initially published in 2005 by Basic Books. It was the first book-length biography of Born, a Nobel laureate and one of the founders of quantum mechanics. The book was critically acclaimed and was reviewed by Publishers Weekly, David C. Cassidy, Kurt Gottfried, Graham Farmelo, and Cathryn Carson, among others. + + +== Background == + +Max Born played a pivotal role in the development of quantum mechanics, a term that he coined prior to Werner Heisenberg, his assistant, developing matrix mechanics. He is also the author of the classic textbook Principles of Optics. Despite his role in the quantum revolution, however, he received his Nobel Prize in Physics much later than his contemporaries and had never received a book-length biography prior to Greenspan's 2005 work. Heisenberg received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1932 and, according to the biography, Born felt dejected for not being included in the award. Born was awarded his own Nobel Prize in 1954. + + +== Reception == +The book was reviewed by David C. Cassidy, Kurt Gottfried, and Cathryn Carson, among several others. The book was also reviewed in popular periodicals such as Publishers Weekly, Science News, and The Times Higher Education Supplement. Several reviewers noted the significance of the book as Born's first biography. In his 2005 review, David C. Cassidy wrote that Born had previously never had a book-length biography written on him and that Greenspan's book "more than made up for that deficiency". After recapping parts of Born's life, Cassidy closed the review by writing: "It is a powerful story" and that it "is well told" in the book. The book's review in Publishers Weekly closes with: "This empathetic work, Greenspan's first solo effort, lifts a deserving figure out of semi-obscurity and adds a valuable perspective on the origin of modern physics." The book's review in Science News closes by saying the "book will appeal to anyone interested in the golden age of physics, as Born was one of its most influential figures." +In his 2005 review, Kurt Gottfried wrote that the book "paints a rich picture of the social, political and intellectual scene in which Born rose to the academic stratosphere". He went on to write that the book describes Born's personality "exceptionally well", which was previously a gap in the historical record. Gottfried closed the review by writing that "there is no question that any future work on Born will find this book to be an indispensable study of this major figure in one of the most profound transformations in the history of science". +In another 2005 review, Graham Farmelo stated that Greenspan had "done a first-rate job of writing an accessible, well-researched and lucid biography" and that the "treatment of Born's character is thorough, sensitive and, for the most part, carefully nuanced". Farmelo noted that the book underplays some negative comments on Born's personality as "only one point" he believed could have been better. He went on to say that the book's summary of Born's contributions to physics was "a little sketchy", though he argues it is "appropriate for a lay audience". Farmelo went on to note that there was not anything "especially deep" in the book's account of the history of quantum mechanics, though he argues the book is still very useful for both laypersons and science historians. +In her 2006 review, Cathryn Carson claims the book "offers the richest picture yet of the communal dynamics at the origin of quantum mechanics" and that it "gives substance to his life and career". Carson goes on to argue that the book "is the first biography of a creator of quantum mechanics that actually succeeds at its task." After summarizing the book's contents, Carson ends the review by stating "Greenspan’s study is the authoritative starting point for any study of Born, an essential reference on twentieth-century physics, and a marvellously executed example of the biographical genre." + + +== Release details == +Greenspan, Nancy Thorndike (2005). The End of the Certain World : the Life and Science of Max Born : the Nobel physicist who ignited the quantum revolution. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0-7382-0693-8. OCLC 56534998. + + +== See also == + +Atomic Spy: The Dark Lives of Klaus Fuchs +Bibliography of Max Born +Principles of Optics +Dynamical Theory of Crystal Lattices + + +== References == + + +== External links == +"The end of the certain world: The life and science of Max Born". comPADRE Digital Library AAPT and NSF. Retrieved 26 November 2020. +"Excerpts from The End of the Certain World". www.nancygreenspan.com. Retrieved 26 November 2020. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Expression_of_the_Emotions_in_Man_and_Animals-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Expression_of_the_Emotions_in_Man_and_Animals-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..810828198 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Expression_of_the_Emotions_in_Man_and_Animals-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,31 @@ +--- +title: "The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals" +chunk: 1/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Expression_of_the_Emotions_in_Man_and_Animals" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:24.321203+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals is Charles Darwin's third major work of evolutionary theory, following On the Origin of Species (1859) and The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex (1871). Initially intended as a chapter in Descent of Man, Expression grew in length and was published separately in 1872. Darwin explores the biological aspects of emotional behaviour and the animal origins of human characteristics like smiling and frowning, shrugging shoulders, the lifting of eyebrows in surprise, and the baring of teeth in an angry sneer. +Though Expression has never been out of print since its first publication, it has also been described as Darwin's "forgotten masterpiece". Psychologist Paul Ekman has argued that Expression is the foundational text for modern scientific psychology. +Before Darwin, human emotional life had posed problems to the traditional philosophical categories of mind and body. Darwin's interest in the subject can be traced to his time as an Edinburgh medical student and the 1824 edition of Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression by Charles Bell, which argued for a spiritual dimension to the subject. In contrast, Darwin's biological approach links emotions to their origins in animal behaviour and allows cultural factors only an auxiliary role in shaping the expression of emotion. This biological emphasis highlights six different emotional states: happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise, and disgust. It also appreciates the universal nature of expression, implying a shared evolutionary heritage for the entire human species. Darwin also points to the importance of emotional communication with children in their psychological development. +Darwin sought out the opinions of some leading psychiatrists, notably James Crichton-Browne, in preparation for the book, which forms his main contribution to psychology. +The book's development involved several innovations: Darwin circulated a questionnaire during his preparatory research; he conducted simple psychology experiments on the recognition of emotions with his friends and family; and (like Duchenne de Boulogne, a physician at the Salpêtrière Hospital) he uses photography in his presentation of scientific information. Darwin's publisher warned him that including the photographs would "make a hole in the profits" of the book. +Expression is also a landmark in the history of book illustration. + +== The book's development: biographical aspects == + +=== Background === +In the weeks before Queen Victoria's coronation in 1838, Charles Darwin sought medical advice for his mysterious physical symptoms. He then travelled to Scotland for rest and a "geologising expedition" but also revisited the old haunts of his undergraduate days. On the day of the coronation, 28 June 1838, Darwin was in Edinburgh. Two weeks later, he opened a private notebook—Notebook M—for philosophical speculation, and, over the next three months, filled it with his ideas about hereditary influences on the psychological aspects of life. Darwin also made his first attempt at autobiography in August 1838. +Darwin fully grasps his conception of natural selection towards the end of September 1838, after encountering the sixth edition of the Essay on Population (1826) by Thomas Malthus. However, Malthus and his essay are strangely unmentioned in Notebook M, their acknowledgement delayed till October 1838 in Notebook N. +In Notebook M, Darwin describes conversations with his father—a successful doctor with a special interest in psychiatric problems—about recurring patterns of behavior in successive generations of his patients' families. Howard Gruber comments that these passages are suggestive concerning the genetics of emotions and thought, and there is emphasis on the continuity between sane and insane. +Darwin was concerned about the materialistic drift in his thinking and the suspicions this might arouse in early Victorian England. At the time, he was mentally preparing for marriage with his cousin Emma Wedgwood, who held firm Christian beliefs. On 21 September 1838, Notebook M discloses a "confusing" dream where Darwin found himself involved in a public execution; the corpse had come to life and joked about not running away and facing death like a hero. +Darwin assembled the central features of his evolutionary theory while developing an appreciation of human behavior and family life; during this period, he was experiencing some emotional turmoil, largely expressed in physical symptoms. +A detailed discussion of the significance of Notebook M can be found in Paul H. Barrett's Metaphysics, Materialism and the Evolution of Mind – Early Writings of Charles Darwin (1980). + +=== Development of the text in 1866–1872 === +In its public management, Darwin understood that his evolutionary theory's relevance to human emotional life could provoke an anxious and hostile response. +While preparing the text of The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication in 1866, Darwin began to explore topics related to human ancestry, sexual selection, and emotional life. After his initial correspondence with the psychiatrist James Crichton-Browne, Darwin set aside his material concerning emotional expression to complete Descent of Man, which covered human ancestry and sexual selection. He finished work on The Descent of Man on 15 January 1871. Two days later, he began work on The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals and completed most of the text within four months; progress then slowed because of work required on the sixth (and final) edition of The Origin of Species and a hostile review from St George Jackson Mivart. Darwin finished his work on the proofs on 22 August 1872. +Expression brings Darwin's evolutionary theory close to behavioural science, although several commentators have perceived a spectral Lamarckism within the text. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Expression_of_the_Emotions_in_Man_and_Animals-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Expression_of_the_Emotions_in_Man_and_Animals-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5e28a2380 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Expression_of_the_Emotions_in_Man_and_Animals-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,47 @@ +--- +title: "The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals" +chunk: 2/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Expression_of_the_Emotions_in_Man_and_Animals" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:24.321203+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Universal nature of expression === +In the book, Darwin notes the universal nature of expressions: "The young and the old of widely different races, both with man and animals, express the same state of mind by the same movements." This connection of mental states to the neurological organisation of movement, as suggested by the words motive and emotion, is central to Darwin's understanding of emotion. +Darwin displayed several biographical links between his psychological life and locomotion: taking long, solitary walks around Shrewsbury after his mother died in 1817; in his seashore rambles near Edinburgh with the influential Lamarckian thinker Robert Edmond Grant in 1826 and 1827; and in laying out the sandwalk, his "thinking path", at Down House in Kent in 1846. These aspects of Darwin's personal life are discussed in the psychoanalytic biography Charles Darwin, A Biography (1990) by John Bowlby. +Darwin contrasts his notion of a shared human and animal ancestry with the ideas of Charles Bell which were aligned with natural theology. Bell claimed that facial muscles were designed to express uniquely human feelings. In the fifth edition of The Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression (1865), Bell stated: "Expression is to passion what language is to thought." In Expression, Darwin reformulates the issues at play: "The force of language is much aided by the expressive movements of the face and body", suggesting links between language and psychomotor function (body language). + +=== Darwin's sources on emotional expression === +Darwin attended debates about psychology at the Plinian Society in December 1826 and March 1827 as a medical student at Edinburgh University. These were prompted by the publication of Charles Bell's Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression (1824). In his presentations, the phrenologist William A.F. Browne ridiculed Bell's theological explanations, pointing instead to the similarities of human and animal biology. Both meetings ended in uproar. Darwin revisits these debates 45 years later and refers to Duchenne de Boulogne's Mécanisme de la physionomie humaine (1862) as he shifts the debate from philosophical to scientific discourse and highlights the social value of facial expression over other forms of expression in vocalisations, tears, and posture. +Darwin's response to Bell's natural theology is discussed in Lucy Hartley's Physiognomy and the Meaning of Expression in Nineteenth Century Culture (2001). +In the composition of the book, Darwin drew on a variety of sources: + +His questionnaire (circulated in the early months of 1867) concerning emotional expression in different ethnic groups +Anthropological memories from his time on HMS Beagle +Conversations with livestock breeders and pigeon fanciers +Observations on his infant son William Erasmus Darwin (A Biographical Sketch of an Infant, published in 1877 in the philosophical journal Mind), on his family's dogs and cats, and on the orangutans at London Zoo +Simple psychology experiments with members of his family concerning the recognition of emotional expression +The neurological insights of Duchenne de Boulogne, a physician at the Salpêtrière asylum in Paris +Hundreds of photographs of actors, babies, and children, including photographs by Oscar Rejlander +Descriptions of psychiatric patients in West Riding Pauper Lunatic Asylum in Wakefield +As a result of his domestic psychology experiments, Darwin reduced the number of commonly observed emotions from Duchenne's calculation of more than sixty facial expressions to six "core" expressions: anger, fear, surprise, disgust, happiness, and sadness. +Darwin corresponded with James Crichton-Browne, the son of the phrenologist William A. F. Browne and now the distinguished medical director of West Riding Pauper Lunatic Asylum. At the time, Crichton-Browne was editing The West Riding Lunatic Asylum Medical Reports. Recognising the significance of Crichton-Browne's contributions, Darwin suggested to him that Expression "ought to be called by Darwin and Browne?" +Darwin also drew on his personal experience of the symptoms of bereavement and studied the text of Henry Maudsley's 1870 Goulstonian Lectures on Body And Mind. +Darwin considered other approaches to the study of emotions, such as their depiction in the arts—as discussed by the actor Henry Siddons in his Practical Illustrations of Rhetorical Gesture and Action (1807) and by the anatomist Robert Knox in his Manual of Artistic Anatomy (1852)—but abandoned these approaches as unreliable. +It is noteworthy that only a few sections in Expression touch on emotional deception. + +== Structure == + +Expression opens with three chapters (1–3) entitled "General Principles of Expression", where Darwin introduces three principles: + +"The principle of serviceable associated Habits" – describes how initially voluntary actions constitute complex expressions of emotion by association of habit. +"The principle of Antithesis" – explains how opposite mental states induce directly opposing movements. +"The principle of actions due to the constitution of the Nervous System, independently from the first of the Will, and independently to a certain extent of Habit" – discusses the interplay between physiological reactions (e.g., sweating, muscle trembling, blushing) and emotional experiences. +In the following chapters (4–6), Darwin presents his findings on modes of emotional expression peculiar to particular species, including humans. +Chapters 7–8 contain Darwin's observations on "low spirits" (anxiety, grief, dejection, and despair) and "high spirits" (joy, love, tender feelings, and devotion). Darwin claims that high spirits, exemplified by joy, find their purest expression in laughter. +Subsequent chapters (9–13) discuss various emotions and their expression. In his discussion of the emotion "disgust", Darwin notes its close links to the sense of smell and conjectures an association with offensive odours. In chapter 13 (which highlights the emotional states of self-attention, shame, shyness, modesty, and blushing), Darwin describes blushing as "the most peculiar and the most human of all expressions". +Darwin closes the book with chapter 14, where he summarises his central argument, demonstrating how human emotions link mental states with bodily movement. He argues that these expressions are genetically determined and derive from purposeful actions observed in animals. He comments on the book's implications, proposing a single origin for the entire human species, with universal human expressions. Darwin emphasises the social value of expression, especially the emotional communication between mother and child. + +== Illustrations == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Expression_of_the_Emotions_in_Man_and_Animals-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Expression_of_the_Emotions_in_Man_and_Animals-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..432e5428d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Expression_of_the_Emotions_in_Man_and_Animals-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,49 @@ +--- +title: "The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals" +chunk: 3/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Expression_of_the_Emotions_in_Man_and_Animals" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:24.321203+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Because of the limited printing techniques of the 1800s, photographs were usually tipped into the pages of books. This process was expensive and labour-intensive since each photograph had to be printed and tipped in individually. Darwin proposed using heliotype to print the photographs to his publisher—John Murray—believing it would be cheaper. It allowed the illustrations to be bound directly with the pages of text, and the printing plates could be reused, which reduced costs. +The printing company Darwin chose for the photographs proved to be expensive. Robert F. Cooke, John Murray III's cousin and partner in his publishing company, expressed concern about the increasing production costs and warned Darwin that including the photographs "will make a terrible hole in the profits of each edition". Darwin proceeded with the printing process, and most of Expression was illustrated by photographic prints—with seven heliotype plates; figures 19–21 were printed using woodcuts. +The published book contains the work of several artists: + +Engravings of the Darwin family's domestic pets by the zoological illustrator T. W. Wood +Drawings and sketches by Briton Rivière, A. May, and Joseph Wolf +Portraits by the Swedish photographer Oscar Rejlander +Anatomical diagrams by Charles Bell and Friedrich Henle +Illustrative quotations from Mécanisme de la physionomie humaine (1862) by the French neurologist Duchenne de Boulogne (1806–1875). +Darwin received dozens of photographs of psychiatric patients from James Crichton-Browne but only included one—photoengraved by James Davis Cooper—titled "Figure 19". It depicts a patient under the care of Dr James Gilchrist at the Southern Counties Asylum in Dumfries. + +== Publication == +Darwin concluded work on the book with a sense of relief. The proofs, tackled by his daughter Henrietta ("Ettie") and son Leo, required a major revision, which made Darwin "sick of the subject and myself, and the world". +Expression was published by John Murray on 26 November 1872 as a sequel to The Descent of Man and was expected to reach a broad audience in mid-Victorian England. It quickly sold almost 7,000 copies. +A revised edition was published by Darwin's son in 1890, excluding several revisions suggested by Darwin; these were not published until the 1999 edition, edited by Paul Ekman. +A German translation of Expression appeared in 1872, and Dutch and French versions followed in 1873 and 1874. + +== Reception == + +=== Contemporary === +A review in the January 1873 Quarterly Journal of Science concluded that "although some parts are a little tedious, from the amount of minute detail required, there is throughout so much of acute observation and amusing anecdote as to render it perhaps more attractive to general readers than any of Mr. Darwin's previous work". +On 24 January 1895, James Crichton-Browne delivered a lecture "On Emotional Expression" in Dumfries, Scotland, presenting some of his reservations about Darwin's views. He argued for a greater role for the higher cortical centres in regulating emotional responses and discussed gender differences in emotional expression. + +=== Modern === +In a 1998 review of Expression, edited by Paul Ekman, Eric Korn argues in the London Review of Books that Margaret Mead and her followers had claimed and subverted the book before Ekman reinterpreted it. Korn notes that Ekman collected evidence supporting Darwin's views on the universality of human expression of emotions, indirectly challenging Mead's views. Korn challenges Ekman's calling Expression "Darwin's lost masterpiece", pointing out that the book has never been out of print since 1872. +The editors of the Mead Project website comment that Expression is among the most enduring contributions of 19th-century psychology and argue that although the book lays its foundation on an arguable interpretation of the nature of expression, its ideas continue to influence discussions on emotional experience. The editors cite John Dewey's comments on the book, writing that Darwin's arguments are "wrong but ... compelling". +In 2003, the New York Academy of Sciences published Emotions Inside Out: 130 Years after Darwin's The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, a collection of 37 papers (edited by Paul Ekman) with recent research on the subject. + +== Influence == + +=== Psychology === +George Romanes (1848–1894), an advocate of Darwin's approach in comparative psychology, died prematurely, diminishing Darwin's impact on academic psychology. Darwin's impact was further compromised by Wilhelm Wundt's dimensional approach to the emotions and the widespread influence of behaviourism during the 20th century. + +==== Psychoanalysis ==== +Sigmund Freud's early publications on the symptoms of hysteria (with his influential concept of unconscious emotional conflict) acknowledged debts to Darwin's work on emotional expression. + +All these sensations and innervations belong to the field of The Expression of the Emotions, which, as Darwin (1872) has taught us, consists of actions which originally had a meaning and served a purpose. These may now for the most part have become so much weakened that the expression of them in words seems to us to be only a figurative picture of them, whereas in all probability the description was once meant literally; and hysteria is right in restoring the original meaning of the words.... +In 1905, Arthur Mitchell, a psychiatrist and former deputy to William A.F. Browne in the Scottish Lunacy Commission, published About Dreaming, Laughing and Blushing, (dedicated to Dr Joseph Bell), linking some of Darwin's concerns with those of dynamic psychology. Psychiatrist John Bowlby extensively references Darwin's ideas in his presentations on attachment theory. +Darwin's impact on psychoanalysis is discussed in detail by Lucille Ritvo in Darwin's Influence on Freud: A Tale of Two Sciences (1990). \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Expression_of_the_Emotions_in_Man_and_Animals-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Expression_of_the_Emotions_in_Man_and_Animals-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..75e482622 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Expression_of_the_Emotions_in_Man_and_Animals-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals" +chunk: 4/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Expression_of_the_Emotions_in_Man_and_Animals" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:24.321203+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Evolutionary psychology ==== +William James followed up Darwin's ideas in his What Is An Emotion? (1884). In the James–Lange theory of emotions, James develops Darwin's emphasis on the physical aspects, including the autonomically mediated, visceral components of emotions. +In Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage (1915) by Walter Cannon, Cannon introduces the phrase fight-or-flight response, formulating emotions in terms of strategies for interpersonal behaviour and showing how these emotions are amplified in groups or crowds—herd behavior. Psychological theories of emotion have also been set out in the Two-factor theory of emotion put forward by Schachter and Singer, the Papez–Maclean hypothesis, and the theory of constructed emotion. +Theories on somatic factors in personality were elaborated by psychiatrist Ernst Kretschmer; by the neurologist Paul Schilder, with his notion of body image in The Image and Appearance of the Human Body (1950); and in the concepts of somatotypology proposed by William Herbert Sheldon in the 1940s—now largely discredited. Zoologist Desmond Morris further explored the biological aspects of human emotions in his extensively illustrated scientific book Manwatching (1978), and recent research has confirmed that while cultural factors are critical to determining gestures, genetic factors are crucial to the formation of facial expressions. + +=== Biological illustration === +The comprehensive approach to biological illustration continued in contributions from various authors: photographer Eadweard Muybridge's work on animal locomotion, which influenced the development of cinematography; Scottish naturalist James Bell Pettigrew's studies on animal locomotion, documented in his works Animal Locomotion (1874) and Design in Nature (1908); the illustrated and controversial works of evolutionary biologist Ernst Haeckel; and, to a lesser extent, in On Growth and Form (1917) by D'Arcy Thompson. + +== See also == + +== References == + +== Sources == +Barrett, Paul (1980), Metaphysics, Materialism, & the Evolution of Mind: the early writings of Charles Darwin, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-13659-0, Early writings of Charles Darwin. With a commentary by Howard E. Gruber + +== External links == + +Darwin, Charles (1872), The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, London: John Murray. +Freeman, R. B. (1977), The Works of Charles Darwin: An Annotated Bibliographical Handlist (2nd ed.), Folkestone: Dawson. +Ekman, Paul, ed. (2003), Emotions Inside Out: 130 Years after Darwin's The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1st ed.), New York: New York Academy of Sciences, archived from the original on 1 March 2012, retrieved 29 August 2010. +Free e-book versions: + +D. Appleton, New York, 1899 + The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals public domain audiobook at LibriVox \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Female_Brain_(book)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Female_Brain_(book)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..cf62e2666 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Female_Brain_(book)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,50 @@ +--- +title: "The Female Brain (book)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Female_Brain_(book)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:25.486349+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Female Brain is a book written by the American neuropsychiatrist Louann Brizendine in 2006. The main thesis of the book is that women's behavior is different from that of men due, in large measure, to hormonal differences. The book was a commercial success but received mixed reviews due to questions about its scientific validity. The author has been criticized for unsubstantiated claims and irrelevant citations. + + +== Structure == +Brizendine's main thesis is that the human female brain is affected by the following hormones: estrogen, progesterone, testosterone, oxytocin, neurotransmitters (dopamine, serotonin), and that there are differences in the architecture of the brain (prefrontal cortex, hypothalamus, amygdala) that regulate such hormones and neurotransmitters. The book has seven chapters, each one of which is dedicated to a specific part of a woman's life, such as puberty, motherhood, and menopause, or a specific dimension of a women's emotional life, such as feelings, love and trust, and sex. The book also includes three appendices on hormone therapy, postpartum depression, and sexual orientation. + + +== Reception == +The book sold well but received mixed reviews because a number of journalists, popular science writers, and scientists questioned the validity of some of the content. +Some of the authors that supported the content of the book include: + +Deborah Tannen, of The Washington Post Tannen writes, "Throughout the book, I recognized biological accounts for social behaviors I had observed and written about." In a similar vein, she adds, "Anthropologists and linguists who have studied children at play have noted that girls form bonds by telling secrets. Here, too, Brizendine finds 'a biological reason.'" Her ultimate position is one of cautionary endorsement: "Ideally, readers will sift through the case studies, research findings and scientific conjectures gathered in this non-technical book and be intrigued by some while questioning others, bearing in mind the caution that hormones and brain structure play a role in gender differences but are not the whole story." +Sarah Hrdy, author of Mother Nature +Daniel Goleman, journalist and author of Emotional Intelligence +Some of the authors that criticized the content of the book include: + +Evan Balaban, professor of psychology at McGill University, and Rebecca Jordan-Young, in a review in Nature. +Cordelia Fine, in her book Delusions of Gender. +Benjamin Radford. +Robin Marantz Henig in The New York Times. +Mark Liberman in a series of articles via his Language Log blog. +Brizendine was given the tongue-in-cheek 2006 Becky Award, for "outstanding contributions to linguistic misinformation". The award cited errors in The Female Brain, including one sentence (removed from subsequent printings) which contrasted the number of words used by men and women in one day. The numbers had been taken from a book by a self-help guru and were incorrect. + + +== In other media == + +The Female Brain was loosely adapted as a romantic comedy movie of the same name in 2017. Brizendine served as the inspiration for the film's main character. + + +== See also == +Biology of gender +Brain Gender +Brain Sex + + +== References == + + +== External links == +The Female Brain reviewed in "50 Psychology Classics" by Tom Butler-Bowdon \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gap_(book)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gap_(book)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1fb6fb9a3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gap_(book)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "The Gap (book)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gap_(book)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:26.667538+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Gap is a 2013 nonfiction book by Thomas Suddendorf that discusses what cognitive qualities separate humans from other animals, and how they evolved. +The Gap: The Science of What Separates Us From Other Animals. Basic Books: New York ISBN 978-0-465-03014-9 + + +== Reviews == +Anil Ananthaswamy (27 January 2014). What separates us from other animals? New Scientist +Robyn Williams (March 2014). The science of what separates us from other animals. Australian Book Review +Joseph Maldonado (2013). The Gap: The Science of What Separates Us from Other Animals. Psych Central. Retrieved on October 5, 2014, from http://psychcentral.com/lib/the-gap-the-science-of-what-separates-us-from-other-animals/00018372 +Steven Mithen (3 April 2013). Most of Us Are Part Neanderthal. The New York Review of Books +Wray Herbert (10 February 2014). Social Animals - Pondering the limits of anthropomorphism. The Weekly Standard Vol. 19, No. 21. Retrieved on October 5, 2014, from [1] +David Barash (15 November 2013). Book Review: 'The Gap' by Thomas Suddendorf - What makes humans unique—tools? Language? Cooking?. The Wall Street Journal +Nina Bai (17 October 2013). MIND Reviews: The Gap. Scientific American Mind volume 24 issue 5. +Eric Michael Johnson (20 March 2014). The Gap: The Science of What Separates Us From Other Animals, by Thomas Suddendorf. The Times Higher Education. +Staff writer (26 August 2013). The Gap: The Science of What Separates Us from Other Animals. Publishers Weekly. +Tim Radford (7 November 2013). Human evolution: Us and them. Nature. +Bryan Sim (16 May 2014). How great a separation? Science. +Staff writer (12 November 2013). The Gap - The Science of What Separates Us From Other Animals. Kirkus Reviews +Rob Brooks (3 June 2014). What makes us human? The Conversation. + + +== External links == +Author's book page +Publisher's book page \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Intelligence_of_Dogs-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Intelligence_of_Dogs-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..b397290e1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Intelligence_of_Dogs-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "The Intelligence of Dogs" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Intelligence_of_Dogs" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:44.384130+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Intelligence of Dogs: A Guide to the Thoughts, Emotions, and Inner Lives of Our Canine Companions is a 1994 book on dog intelligence by Stanley Coren, a professor of canine psychology at the University of British Columbia. The book explains Coren's theories about the differences in intelligence between various breeds of dogs. Coren published a second edition in 2006. +Coren defines three aspects of dog intelligence in the book: instinctive intelligence, adaptive intelligence, and working and obedience intelligence. Instinctive intelligence refers to a dog's ability to perform the tasks it was bred for, such as herding, pointing, fetching, guarding, or supplying companionship. Adaptive intelligence refers to a dog's ability to solve problems on its own. Working and obedience intelligence refers to a dog's ability to learn from humans. + + +== Methods == +The book's ranking focuses on working and obedience intelligence. Coren sent evaluation requests to American Kennel Club and Canadian Kennel Club obedience trial judges, asking them to rank breeds by performance, and received 199 responses, representing about 50 percent of obedience judges then working in North America. Assessments were limited to breeds receiving at least 100 judge responses. This methodology aimed to eliminate the excessive weight that might result from a simple tabulation of obedience degrees by breed. Its use of expert opinion followed precedent. +Coren found substantial agreement in the judges' rankings of working and obedience intelligence, with Border collies consistently named in the top ten and Afghan Hounds consistently named in the lowest. The highest ranked dogs in this category were Border collies, Poodles, German Shepherds, Golden Retrievers, and Doberman Pinschers. +Dogs that are not breeds recognized by the American Kennel Club or Canadian Kennel Club (such as the Jack Russell Terrier) were not included in Coren's rankings. + + +== Evaluation == +Coren's book presents a ranked list of breed intelligence, based on a survey of 208 dog obedience judges across North America. When it was first published there was much media attention and commentary in terms of both pros and cons. Over the years, Coren's ranking of breeds and methodology have come to be accepted as a valid description of the differences among dog breeds in terms of their trainability. A 2009 measurement of canine intelligence using another method confirmed the general pattern of these rankings, and Coren included an updated study using owner ratings of dog trainability and intelligence in the 2006 edition of the book. +The value of survey-based cognition findings have been dismissed by some cognitive researchers and dog trainers. +The 1995 edition of Coren's book lists 130 dog breeds, and assigns them to 79 ranks with some ties, grouped into six descending categories. + + +== See also == +List of dog breeds +List of individual dogs + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Man_Who_Tasted_Shapes-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Man_Who_Tasted_Shapes-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..61ab66fd6 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Man_Who_Tasted_Shapes-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "The Man Who Tasted Shapes" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Man_Who_Tasted_Shapes" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:33.566909+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Man Who Tasted Shapes is a book by neurologist Richard Cytowic about synesthesia. + + +== Summary == +The book is divided into two parts. In the first part, Cytowic describes his chance encounter during a dinner party on February 10, 1980 with MW, the "Man Who Tasted Shapes." Cytowic describes how his host reported that "There aren't enough points on the chicken!" and how this chance comment led to Cytowic's investigations of the neurological phenomenon of synesthesia. Early chapters include background information on how the brain is organized, drawn mainly from Paul D. MacLean's Triune Brain theory. Cytowic describes MW's synesthesia, noting the consistency of his reports, that such experiences are "generic" and consistent over time. Chapters dealing with more scientific theories, data and experimentation are alternated with autobiographical and more personal chapters describing the historical details of Cytowic's investigations into synesthesia. +In order to explore the biological basis of synesthesia, Cytowic describes experiments in which he tested how MW's synesthesia was reduced by MW's daily routine of stimulants such as nicotine and caffeine and depressants such as alcohol. In more intensive investigations of the effects of different psychoactive substances, Cytowic notes that stimulants, including a dose of amphetamine, decreased the strength of MW's synesthesia, while amyl nitrite increased the strength of MW's synesthesia. For example, MW reports that mint feels like a cool glass column, but that amyl nitrite led him to feel as if he were placing his hand among many glass columns. Cytowic also summarizes work done with functional neuroimaging which showed unusually low cortical activation in MW. Based on these results, Cytowic proposes a theory in which synesthesia is a result of unusual processing in the limbic system and an overall decrease in cortical activation. +In later chapters, Cytowic reports on his efforts to make synesthesia more widely known, on the experiences of many other synesthetes who have contacted him, and how synesthesia affects their lives. Cytowic describes how an article about his work on synesthesia in the tabloid The National Enquirer, a publication which is "not known to help one's career", led to his first contacts with synesthetes beyond MW These personal accounts of synesthesia, described here in more autobiographical style, also form the basis of Cytowic's more detailed scientific book, Synesthesia: A Union of the Senses. Additionally, Cytowic discusses the links between synesthesia and memory, as first noted in Alexander Luria's book The Mind of Mnemonist about Solomon Shereshevskii, a Russian mnemonist who also experienced fivefold synesthesia. +In the second part of the book, entitled "Essays on the Primacy of Emotion", Cytowic presents a number of his reflections on what the phenomenon of synesthesia means for traditional neuroscientific and neurological practice, how anomalous findings can lead to major scientific discoveries, and the role that emotion plays in our understanding of the world around us. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +THES Review 14 April 1995 +Review in Metapsychology online by G.C. Gupta, Ph.D. 2 May 2006. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Master_and_His_Emissary-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Master_and_His_Emissary-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e24c22cd8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Master_and_His_Emissary-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "The Master and His Emissary" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Master_and_His_Emissary" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:34.732550+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Master and His Emissary: The Divided Brain and the Making of the Western World is a 2009 book written by the British psychiatrist Iain McGilchrist that deals with the specialist hemispheric functioning of the brain. The differing world views of the right and left brain (the "Master" and "Emissary" in the title, respectively) have, according to the author, shaped Western culture since the time of the ancient Greek philosopher Plato, and the growing conflict between these views has implications for the way the modern world is changing. In part, McGilchrist's book, which is the product of twenty years of research, reviews the evidence of previous related research and theories, and based on this and cultural evidence, the author arrives at his own conclusions. +The Master and His Emissary received mixed reviews upon its publication. Some critics praised the book as being a landmark publication that could alter readers' perspective of how they viewed the world; other critics claimed neurological understanding of hemispheric differences falls short of supporting the sweeping conclusions the book draws about Western culture. +The Master and His Emissary was shortlisted for the 2010 Bristol Festival of Ideas Book Prize, and was longlisted for the Royal Society 2010 Prize for Science Books. + +== Background and influences == +In an interview with Frontier Psychiatrist, McGilchrist cites two main influences on his work: the psychiatrist John Cutting and the psychologist David McNeill. McGilchrist states: "What I began to see – and it was John Cutting's work on the right hemisphere that set me thinking – was that the difference lay not in what they [the two hemispheres] do, but how they do it." In the same interview, the author explains: "Some very subtle research by David McNeill, amongst others, confirms that thought originates in the right hemisphere, is processed for expression in speech by the left hemisphere, and the meaning integrated again by the right (which alone understands the overall meaning of a complex utterance, taking everything into account)." + +== Synopsis == +The 608-page book is about the specialist hemispheric functioning of the brain. The differing world views of the right and left brain (the "Master" and "Emissary" in the title, respectively) have, according to the author, shaped Western culture since the time of the ancient Greek philosopher Plato, and the growing conflict between these views has implications for the way the modern world is changing. +The book is divided into an introduction, two parts and a conclusion. In the introduction, McGilchrist states that "there is, literally, a world of difference between the [brain] hemispheres. Understanding quite what that is has involved a journey through many apparently unrelated areas: not just neurology and psychology, but philosophy, literature and the arts, and even, to some extent, archaeology and anthropology." + +=== Part One: The Divided Brain === + +In "The Divided Brain", McGilchrist digests study after study, replacing the popular and superficial notion of the hemispheres as respectively logical and creative in nature with the idea that they pay attention in fundamentally different ways, the left being detail-oriented, the right being whole-oriented. These two modes of perception cascade into wildly different hemispheric personalities, and in fact reflect yet a further asymmetry in their status, that of the right's more immediate relationship with physical bodies (our own as well as others) and external reality as represented by the senses, a relationship that makes it the mediator, the first and last stop, of all experience. + +=== Part Two: How the Brain Has Shaped Our World === +In the second part, "How the Brain Has Shaped Our World", the author describes the evolution of Western culture, as influenced by hemispheric brain functioning, from the ancient world, through the Renaissance and Reformation; the Enlightenment; Romanticism and Industrial Revolution; to the modern and postmodern worlds which, to our detriment, are becoming increasingly dominated by the left brain. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Master_and_His_Emissary-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Master_and_His_Emissary-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3527f0761 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Master_and_His_Emissary-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,57 @@ +--- +title: "The Master and His Emissary" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Master_and_His_Emissary" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:34.732550+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Reception == +The book received mixed reviews in various newspapers and journals. +Reviewing The Master and His Emissary in the American Journal of Psychiatry, Jacob Freedman wrote the book “valiantly addresses the effect hemispheric asymmetry has had on Western civilization" and that it chronicled "how the left brain's determined reductionism and the right brain's insightful and holistic approach have shaped music, language, politics, and art." A review by Bryan Appleyard in Times Online described the book as suggesting "we are thinking more and more like machines, and risk losing what makes us human", while David Cox in the Evening Standard wrote that the author "shows convincingly that the degeneracy of the West springs from our failure to manage the binary division of our brains." +In a positive review in The Guardian, the philosopher Mary Midgley wrote that the book "points out the complexity, the divided nature of thought itself and asks about its connection with the structure of the brain," and that "though neurologists may well not welcome it because it asks them new questions, the rest of us will surely find it splendidly thought-provoking." In another positive review in Standpoint magazine, the neurologist Adam Zeman wrote that McGilchrist "extends [the] received wisdom with a hugely ambitious, absorbing and questionable thesis: the two hemispheres have radically contrasting personalities; that they live in a state of creative tension, sometimes declining into open war; and that their struggle for supremacy provides the key to understanding the major cultural movements of human history. In the Times Literary Supplement, W. F. Bynum wrote: "McGilchrist's careful analysis of how brains work is a veritable tour de force, gradually and skilfully revealed. I know of no better exposition of the current state of functional brain neuroscience." +In a mixed review in Literary Review, the philosopher A. C. Grayling wrote that the book was "beautifully written, erudite, fascinating and adventurous," but added that "the findings of brain science are nowhere near fine-grained enough yet to support the large psychological and cultural conclusions Iain McGilchrist draws." A negative review in The Economist stated that the book resorted to "generalisations of breathtaking sweep" and that the second part of the book "has plainly become untethered from its moorings in brain science." Likewise, the psychologist Michael Corballis said of the work, that "Although widely acclaimed, this book goes far beyond the neurological facts." +Owen Flanagan alleged many shortcomings of the book and delivered a dismissive statement: "The fact is, hemispheric differences are not well understood. Neither are patterns over 2,500 years of western history. Trying to explain the ill-understood latter with a caricature of the former does little to illuminate either." McGilchrist wrote scathingly of this review, saying: "But anyone who has read my book and reads that review will realise what a shameful piece of writing it is," picking on what he alleges to be evidence of superficiality and misrepresentation. +The book has inspired a documentary, The Divided Brain, authorised by McGilchrist. + +== Editions == +McGilchrist, Iain (2009). The Master and His Emissary. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14878-7. + +== See also == +Lateralization of brain function +Modernism +Philosophy of mind +Sociocultural evolution +Bicameral mentality: A related theory by Julian Jaynes based in communication between the brain hemispheres +The Matter with Things: A follow-on book by Iain McGilchrist (2021) + +== Notes == + +== Further reading == + +Jaynes, Julian (2000). The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind. Boston, Massachusetts, USA: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-618-05707-2. (Paperback) First published 1976. +Ornstein, Robert (1998). The Right Mind: Making Sense of the Hemispheres. Harcourt Brace International. ISBN 978-0-15-600627-9. +Dreher, Rod (16 January 2023). "Maybe Our Culture Is Literally Crazy". The American Conservative. Archived from the original on 20 January 2023. Retrieved 20 January 2023. + +=== Essays === +McGilchrist, Iain (2 January 2010). "The Battle of the Brain: The mind's great conflict spills over onto the world stage". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 3 January 2010. + +=== Interviews === +Vedantam, Shankar (4 February 2019). "One Head, Two Brains: How The Brain's Hemispheres Shape The World We See" (Audio podcast). NPR Hidden Brain. Retrieved 8 February 2019. A transcript is also available. +Mitchell, Natasha (19 June 2010). "The Master and his Emissary: the divided brain and the reshaping of Western civilisation" (Audio podcast). ABC Radio National All in the Mind. Retrieved 23 June 2010. A transcript is also available. +Staff (4 February 2010). "Interview with Iain McGilchrist". Frontier Psychiatrist. Retrieved 5 February 2010. +Crispin, Jessa (3 February 2010). "An Interview with Iain McGilchrist". Bookslut. Retrieved 3 February 2010. +Staff (14 November 2009). "Two worlds of the left and right brain" (Audio podcast). BBC Radio 4 Today. Retrieved 24 December 2009. + +=== Lectures === +McGilchrist, Iain (17 November 2010). "The Divided Brain and the Making of the Western World" (Video). The Royal Society for the encouragement of Arts, Manufactures & Commerce (RSA). Retrieved 26 January 2011. +Parts of this lecture were republished by the RSA in October 2011 as one of a series of "RSA Animates" with cartoonist Andrew Park's illustrations. The twelve-minute animation accompanying McGilchrist's talk took Park two months to complete. + +McGilchrist, Iain (May 2011). "Things Are Not What They Seem" (Video). Schumacher College. Retrieved 5 June 2011. +McGilchrist, Iain (4 May 2012). "Big Ideas: Dr. Iain McGilchrist on The Divided Brain: Our Mind at War" (Video). TVOntario. Retrieved 21 December 2015. +McGilchrist, Iain (26 October 2012). "Iain McGilchrist on the divided brain's impact on our world" (Video). TVOntario. Retrieved 21 December 2015. + +=== Documentaries === +The Divided Brain documentary (2019) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Master_and_His_Emissary-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Master_and_His_Emissary-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0c847a556 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Master_and_His_Emissary-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,24 @@ +--- +title: "The Master and His Emissary" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Master_and_His_Emissary" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:34.732550+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Other reviews === +Crispin, Jessa (21 December 2009). "Half and Half". The Smart Set. The Pennoni Honors College, Drexel University. Retrieved 4 January 2010. +Flanagan, Owen (21 December 2009). "The vast left-brain conspiracy". New Scientist CultureLab blog. Retrieved 21 December 2009. +Iana, Cristina (27 November 2009). "Studiu: Emisferele cerebrale dreaptă şi stângă au personalităţi opuse" [Study: right and left cerebral hemispheres have opposite personalities] (in Romanian). adevarul.ro international. Retrieved 24 December 2009. +Vernon, Mark (22 January 2010). "What the other half doesn't know". Philosophy and Life Blog. Retrieved 28 January 2010. Vernon, a writer, journalist and columnist with The Guardian, writes: "At last! A book on neuroscience that is a thrilling read, philosophically astute and with wonderful science." +Williams, Ray. B. (22 February 2010). "Why we need to use both sides of our brain". National Post (blog). Retrieved 22 February 2010. +Kingerlee, Roger; Testa, Rita (2011). "Review of The Master and his Emissary". Neuropsychoanalysis. 12 (2). Karnac Books for the International Neuropsychoanalysis Society: 222–226. +Ellis, Robert M. (10 January 2012). "'The Master and his Emissary' by Iain McGilchrist: An Extended Review". Middle Way Society. Retrieved 12 August 2015. +Gare, Arran (2012). "Review of 'The Master and his Emissary' by Iain McGilchrist". Cosmos and History: The Journal of Natural and Social Philosophy. 8 (1): 412–449. + +== External links == +Brain Matters: The divided mind. Has our civilisation suffered from a failure to manage the binary division of our brains? Talk given by McGilchrist at the Wellcome Collection in April 2012 +Author's profile at All Souls College, University of Oxford +The Divided Brain and the Making of the Western World. RSA Keynote by Iain McGilchrist \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Matter_with_Things-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Matter_with_Things-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..8dc000b90 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Matter_with_Things-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "The Matter with Things" +chunk: 1/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Matter_with_Things" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:35.883986+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Matter with Things: Our Brains, Our Delusions, and the Unmaking of the World is a 2021 book of neuroscience, epistemology and metaphysics written by psychiatrist, thinker and former literary scholar Iain McGilchrist. +Following on from McGilchrist's 2009 work, The Master and His Emissary: The Divided Brain and the Making of the Western World, The Matter with Things explores the radically different ways in which the two hemispheres of the brain apprehend reality, and the many cognitive and worldly implications of this. +The book "is an attempt to convey a way of looking at the world quite different from the one that has largely dominated the West for at least three hundred and fifty years [i.e. since the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment] – some would say as long as two thousand years." + +== Overview == +The work is 1,500 pages long and divided into two volumes – "The Ways to Truth" and "What Then is True?" – with many scientific, philosophical and literary quotations, citations and footnotes, and several appendices. The bibliography alone is 180 pages long. + +=== Basic premise: The divided brain === + +McGilchrist distances himself from the discourse about the left brain–right brain divide in pop psychology, emphasising that "just about everything that is said about the hemispheres in pop psychology is wrong because it rests on beliefs about what the hemispheres do, not about how they approach it." +One of the fundamental differences between the hemispheres of the human brain (and that of other species, such as birds), according to McGilchrist, is that the left hemisphere has evolved to sharply focus its attention on detail; it breaks things apart and tends to deal in abstractions, the explicit, and "either/or" (differentiation). The right hemisphere, on the other hand, has a broad and flexible attention that is open to whatever possibilities come along, and it sees things in their wider context, appreciates the implicit, and favours "both/and" (integration, holism). The right hemisphere has a better appreciation of itself and the left, than the left has of the right. Both approaches are necessary and complementary, but the left hemisphere's operation should not dominate the right. It makes "a good servant, but a very poor master." +McGilchrist writes: + +"[Y]ou could say, to sum up a vastly complex matter in a phrase, that the brain's left hemisphere is designed to help us ap-prehend – and thus manipulate – the world; the right hemisphere to com-prehend it – see it all for what it is." He believes that "nowadays we live no longer in the presence of the world, but rather in a re-presentation of it. The significance of that is that the left hemisphere’s task is to 're-present' what first 'presences' to the right hemisphere." +McGilchrist argues that the Western world has "oscillated" between predominantly left-brain and predominantly right-brain function through history, with some periods of relative balance. During certain periods such as the Renaissance, there was a movement toward the right, whereas since the Scientific Revolution and the Age of Enlightenment – with exceptions such as the Romantic movement – it has become increasingly left-brain dominant, and in light of this, McGilchrist is concerned about the many cultural and global crises that we now face. + +=== Volume 1: "The Ways to Truth" === +In Part I of "The Ways to Truth", McGilchrist looks at the neuroscience and different worldviews of the two hemispheres of the brain, and the means to truth: attention, perception, judgement, apprehension, emotional and social intelligence, cognitive intelligence, and creativity. He also explores the mental disorders schizophrenia and autism. +In Part II, the author looks at the brain hemispheres and the paths to truth, which he sees as being science, reason, intuition, and imagination. He shows the advantages and limitations of each approach, the desirability of using these in combination, and argues that in each of these approaches, the right hemisphere of the brain plays a more important and more veridical role than the left. + +=== Volume 2: "What Then is True?" === +In Part III, "What Then is True?", McGilchrist asks and attempts to answer the question "what is truth?", before turning to a wide-ranging exploration of the nature of reality: the coincidence of opposites (the idea that at a deeper, higher or transcendent level, apparent opposites may be reconciled or find union); the one and the many; time; flow and movement; space and matter; matter and consciousness; value; purpose, life and the nature of the cosmos; and the sense of the sacred. McGilchrist further argues that consciousness, rather than matter, is ontologically fundamental. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Matter_with_Things-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Matter_with_Things-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..cbc8878cb --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Matter_with_Things-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "The Matter with Things" +chunk: 2/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Matter_with_Things" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:35.883986+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Reception == +In September 2021, The Matter with Things was included in a feature article titled "Top 10 books about human consciousness," as compiled by Oxford Law professor and philosopher Charles Foster for The Guardian. Foster described it as a "devastating assault" on the predominant materialist worldview, and as “one of the most important books ever published. And, yes, I do mean ever.” +Writer Philip Pullman selected The Matter with Things as his favourite book of the year 2021 for the New Statesman. He describes McGilchrist's earlier work, The Master and His Emissary as a "densely researched" and "entirely thrilling" examination of the hemispheric functioning of the brain. He states that The Matter with Things takes these basic ideas much further, praising its "immense range of learning and beautiful prose", and reflecting that having spent a decade digesting the first work, he looks forward to a life-time's learning with The Matter with Things. Professor of philosophy Ronan Sharkey, writing in The Tablet in December 2021, describes The Matter with Things as a "book of remarkable inspiration and erudition". He is of the opinion that McGilchrist is "leading a quiet but far-reaching revolution in the understanding of who we are as human beings, one with potentially momentous consequences for many of the preoccupations – from ecology and health care to economics and artificial intelligence – that weigh on our present and darken our future." He writes that McGilchrist provides us with the resources and encouragement to "'reconceive our world, our reality'", to 'learn again to see.'" Though McGilchrist's approach is detailed and rigorous, says the reviewer, it is less of an argument "than a plea for openness to what reality ... can teach us". In December 2021, Rod Dreher wrote in The American Conservative that though Part I of The Matter with Things is a "fairly technical discussion of neuroscience", the book is "more focused on the philosophical and metaphysical implications" of the hemispheric functioning of the brain proposed in his earlier book, The Master and His Emissary. Dreher tells us that McGilchrist asks and addresses fundamental questions such as: "Who are we? What is the world? How can we understand consciousness, matter, space and time? Is the cosmos without purpose or value? Can we really neglect the sacred and divine?" and that "In doing so, he argues that we have become enslaved to an account of things dominated by the brain’s left hemisphere, one that blinds us to an awe-inspiring reality that is all around us, had we but eyes to see it." Dreher says: "Following the paths of cutting-edge neurology, philosophy and physics", McGilchrist offers "a vision that returns the world to life, and us to a better way of living in it: one we must embrace if we are to survive." +Writing in the New Statesman in January 2022, Ed Smith tells us that "while anchored in neuroscience, [the work] expands quickly into a treatise on philosophy, the scientific method, intuition, creativity, truth, reason and the rise and fall of civilisation itself." +Smith describes the book as an "immensely broad and ambitious work". He does note that "there is certainly great audacity in McGilchrist's prose style ... But it's hard to see how huge generalisations [such as 'The West is wrong to...'] could have been avoided, partly because the kind of ideas – or supra-rational insights – under review are more often addressed by poets and composers than writers of closely argued non-fiction." +Jonathan Gaisman, writing in The Spectator in February 2022, states that "Western civilisation is in a predicament exemplified by alienation, environmental despoliation, the atrophy of value, the sterility of contemporary art, the increasing prevalence of rectilinear, bureaucratised thinking and the triumph of procedure over substance." Gaisman sees the lesser aim of the book being to identify and understand the common basis of these conditions, and hopefully improve them, whereas he sees the greater aim as being "to enable us to know the world we inhabit." +Gaisman states that "McGilchrist seeks to give an account 'at last, true to experience, to science and to philosophy'." He is of the opinion that "[t]he range and erudition are astounding", and that as a "polymath", McGilchrist "stands upon the shoulders of the giants whose words he amply cites. His forebears include Heraclitus (not Plato), Pascal (definitely not Descartes), Goethe, Wordsworth, Schelling, Hegel, Heidegger, William James, Whitehead and Bergson." He concludes that "there is nothing wacky or tendentious about this book. McGilchrist writes readably and with poetic sensibility. The tone is courteous ... modest and above all wise". He advises that "after reading it you will never see the world in the same way again." +In March 2022, Nick Spencer writes in Prospect magazine that though left brain–right brain discourse in popular psychology has had a "bad press" and been debunked, McGilchrist's work is "altogether more sophisticated." The reviewer notes that McGilchrist has himself pointed out that "just about everything that is said about the hemispheres in pop psychology is wrong because it rests on beliefs about what the hemispheres do, not about how they approach it." +Framing his review around Charles Darwin's work on evolution, Nick Spencer concludes that in his opinion, "[McGilchrist's] claims may turn modern ultra-Darwinists purple, but they cannot easily be dismissed." Noting as McGilchrist did that in his elder years Darwin lamented the way in which his prior, wide-ranging interests had narrowed and his mind had atrophied, due to the rigorous nature of his work, Spencer speculates that had he been alive today, Darwin himself may have been sympathetic to McGilchrist's work. In a lengthy and detailed review for Beshara Magazine in June 2022, Richard Gault describes McGilchrist as a gifted "renaissance man" – a polymath with an "exceptional range" of knowledge and interests. He is of the opinion that The Matter with Things "adds greatly to our understanding of the world and provides a formidable contemporary argument for a unified vision" that "may help break down resistance to the change that is needed [in the world] while also opening up ways to go forward." +Writing for the Los Angeles Review of Books on 8 January 2023, former Archbishop of Canterbury, Rowan Williams describes McGilchrist's work as "two overwhelmingly detailed and sophisticated volumes". Generally appreciative of the "magisterial argument" that the author presents, he writes that "it is precisely the fatal skewing of perception which misreads the environment we inhabit that sets us out on our self-destructive path." He is, however, more critical of McGilchrist's dealing with the "metaphysical questions", which "are tantalizing just because of the force and coherence of the rest of the work." Williams writes that "It is no disrespect, I hope, to McGilchrist’s genius to say that these sections sometimes feel more careless or scattergun in their effect than the body of the argument," Nevertheless, he concludes: "There can be no denying that this, like McGilchrist’s earlier work, is a genuinely groundbreaking and exceptionally important challenge to what Mary Midgley, in a book very much in tune with this, called 'the myths we live by' in North Atlantic modernity/late modernity/postmodernity. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Matter_with_Things-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Matter_with_Things-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..43b2a7686 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Matter_with_Things-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,12 @@ +--- +title: "The Matter with Things" +chunk: 3/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Matter_with_Things" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:35.883986+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This is the era of 'infotainment,' egregious public lies, corrosive cynicism, scientific fundamentalism, the barbaric functionalizing of education, and the Balkanization of public argument." Finally: "In the long run, I imagine, McGilchrist would say that this is an unforgivingly big book because his subject matter is unforgivingly urgent and complex. And he addresses this with an extraordinary blend of detailed clinical evidence, a keen eye for the illusions of popular culture, a style of exemplary simplicity and energy, and a consistent moral passion." +Writing for First Things magazine, Dan Hitchens described The Matter With Things as a book that "may mark the end of the Age of Darwin and the beginning of a new intellectual era." Whereas the Darwinian account produced a vision of the cosmos as an "unfathomable, pointless expanse, punctuated by rocks and fireballs, nothing to history but 13.7 billion years of chemical reactions, in which humans appear for a blink of an eye and then disappear," McGilchrist presents an alternative story that is sufficiently compelling and well-grounded as to effectively negate the materialist picture of reality. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Matter_with_Things-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Matter_with_Things-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..7286f9b9c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Matter_with_Things-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "The Matter with Things" +chunk: 4/4 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Matter_with_Things" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:35.883986+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Criticism == +Writing in the Literary Review in April 2022, philosopher and cultural critic Raymond Tallis states that the author "offers wide-ranging, indeed world-ranging, investigations ultimately anchored to the arguments he advanced in his earlier book." However, Tallis is not convinced by the author's thesis, and raises several objections. He is of the opinion that the "digression-rich explorations are welcome oases after the densely referenced neuroscience. They would be more refreshing if they did not always lead back to his twin obsessions with the naughty left hemisphere – that arrogant know-nothing know-all – and the saintly right hemisphere." The reviewer is "sympathetic" to some of the author's views. However, he is not convinced that "if the hegemony of the left hemisphere remains unchallenged, Western civilisation will collapse," and he concludes that "[w]hile The Matter with Things offers some interesting insights into our nature and the world in which we find ourselves, they are devalued by being subordinated to what ironically seems a rather reductionist critique of reductionism." +Theologian Andrew Louth also reviewed The Matter with Things for the Los Angeles Review of Books on 8 January 2023. Louth writes that "McGilchrist's chief argument is that, over the last three and a half centuries, we have developed a worldview that draws almost entirely on the propensities of the LH side of the brain, ignoring for the most part the contribution of the RH side. This means that our apprehension of the world focuses largely on the particular, with a view to controlling and manipulating it. It is driven by a search for certainty, which is achieved by a kind of 'divide and rule' strategy, favoring the fragmentary and all that can be measured and analyzed, while ignoring or deeming 'subjective' all that which cannot be subjected to this regime." +Louth is concerned about the manner of McGilchrist's presentation, writing that "Besides his strictly scientific learning, he is a man of wide and deep reading who supports his case by appeal to philosophers and poets, as well as scientists, especially physicists, reflecting on the implications of their discoveries. I felt, however, that his appeal for their support amounted too often to quotations and too little to real engagement with their thought." He notes, for example in the treatment of Plato, that "the trouble with such overarching accounts is that they cut too many corners and run the risk of misrepresentation," and he also has concerns about McGilchrist's treatment of the section on paradox. Louth concludes that "the case [McGilchrist] is making ... is not unheard of: it coincides with all-too-common laments about modernity, pointing to the reign of quantity, the rise of individualism, the abandonment of tradition — opinions easily dismissed by those who pride themselves on the achievements of modernity. Perhaps it is to these 'cultured despisers' that McGilchrist's case is directed — a [right hemisphere (RH)] case against the hegemony of the [left hemisphere (LH)]." He states that "this book is almost unique in combining extensive scientific expertise with learning characteristic of the humanities, a sensitivity to language, and an appeal to poetry as the ultimate language of truth. McGilchrist sounds like someone who knows of what he speaks. [The] RH, he tells us, is disposed to pessimism, but this book gives grounds for at least a cautious optimism, amounting to 'good thoughts in bad times.'" + +== See also == +Bicameral mentality: A related theory by Julian Jaynes based in communication between the brain hemispheres +Disenchantment +Lateralization of brain function +Modernism and postmodernism +Panpsychism +Philosophy of mind +Simulacra and Simulation: A book by Jean Baudrillard +Sociocultural evolution +Societal collapse + +== Notes == + +== Further reading == +Dreher, Rod (16 January 2023). "Maybe Our Culture Is Literally Crazy". The American Conservative. Archived from the original on 20 January 2023. Retrieved 20 January 2023. + +== External links == +Channel McGilchrist web site + +=== Interviews === +McGilchrist, Iain (16 November 2021). "What is 'the matter with things'? In conversation with Iain McGilchrist" (Audio podcast). Interviewed by Nick Spencer. Theos. Retrieved 16 May 2022. +McGilchrist, Iain (April 2022). "Interview with Iain McGilchrist, Part 1" (Video). Interviewed by Natalia Vorontsova. Essentia Foundation. Retrieved 16 May 2022. +McGilchrist, Iain (May 2022). "Interview with Iain McGilchrist, Part 2" (Video). Interviewed by Natalia Vorontsova. Essentia Foundation. Retrieved 16 May 2022. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Meaning_of_Relativity-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Meaning_of_Relativity-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5f6683047 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Meaning_of_Relativity-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,75 @@ +--- +title: "The Meaning of Relativity" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Meaning_of_Relativity" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:51.346439+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Meaning of Relativity: Four Lectures Delivered at Princeton University, May 1921 is a book published by Princeton University Press in 1922 that compiled the 1921 Stafford Little Lectures at Princeton University, given by Albert Einstein. The lectures were translated into English by Edwin Plimpton Adams. The lectures and the subsequent book were Einstein's last attempt to provide a comprehensive overview of his theory of relativity and is his only book that provides an accessible overview of the physics and mathematics of general relativity. Einstein explained his goal in the preface of the book's German edition by stating he "wanted to summarize the principal thoughts and mathematical methods of relativity theory" and that his "principal aim was to let the fundamentals in the entire train of thought of the theory emerge clearly". Among other reviews, the lectures were the subject of the 2017 book The Formative Years of Relativity: The History and Meaning of Einstein's Princeton Lectures by Hanoch Gutfreund and Jürgen Renn. + + +== Background == + +The book contains four of Einstein's Stafford Little Lectures that were given at Princeton University in 1921. The lectures follow a series of 1915 publications by Einstein developing the theory of general relativity. During this time, there were still many controversial issues surrounding the theories and he was still defending several of his views. The lectures and the subsequent book were Einstein's last attempt to provide a comprehensive overview of his theory of relativity. It is also his only book that provides an overview of the physics and mathematics of general relativity in a comprehensive manner that was accessible to non-specialists. Einstein explained his goal in the preface of the book's German edition by stating he "wanted to summarize the principal thoughts and mathematical methods of relativity theory" and that his "principal aim was to let the fundamentals in the entire train of thought of the theory emerge clearly". +On 27 December 1949, The New York Times ran a story titled "New Einstein theory gives a master key to the universe" in reaction to the new appendix in the book's fifth edition in which Einstein expounded upon his latest unification efforts. Einstein had nothing to do with the article and subsequently refused to speak with any reporters on the matter; he reportedly used the message "[c]ome back and see me in twenty years" to brush off their inquiries. + + +== Content == +The book is made of four lectures. The first is titled "Space and Time in Pre-Relativity Physics". The second lecture is titled The Theory of Special Relativity and discusses the special theory of relativity. The third and fourth lectures cover the general theory of relativity in two parts. Einstein added an appendix to update the book for its second edition, which published in 1945. A second appendix was later added for the fifth edition as well, in 1955, which discusses the nonsymmetric field. The second appendix contains Einstein's attempts at a unified field theory. + + +== Reception == +The book has received many reviews since its initial publication. The first edition of the book was reviewed by Nature in 1923. Other early versions of the book were reviewed by George Yuri Rainich in 1946, as well as Abraham H. Taub, Philip Morrison, and I. M. Levitt in 1950. Reviews for the book's fifth edition include a short announcement in 1955 that called the book "a well-known classic". A 1956 review of the fifth edition summarizes its publication history and contents and closes by stating "Einstein's little book then serves as an excellent tying-together of loose ends and as a broad survey of the subject." +Among other references to the book, a 2005 column of The Physics Teacher, included the work in a list of books "by and about Einstein that all physics teachers should have" and "should have immediate access to", while a 2019 review of another work opened by stating: "Every teacher of General Relativity depends heavily on two texts: one, the massive Gravitation by Misner, Thorne and Wheeler, the second the diminutive The Meaning of Relativity by Einstein." The Meaning of Relativity is the focus of a 2017 book, The Formative Years of Relativity by Hanoch Gutfreund and Jürgen Renn, which described The Meaning of Relativity as "Einstein's definitive exposition of his special and general theories of relativity". + + +== Publication history == + + +=== Original English editions === +Einstein, Albert; Adams, Edwin Plimpton (1922). The Meaning of Relativity: Four Lectures Delivered at Princeton Univ., May, 1921 (1st ed.). London: Methuen Publishing. OCLC 637254801. +Einstein, Albert (1945). The Meaning of Relativity (2nd ed.). Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. OCLC 1105547540. +Einstein, Albert (1950). The Meaning of Relativity (3rd ed.). Princeton: Princeton University Press. OCLC 1304366. +Einstein, Albert (1953). The Meaning of Relativity: Including the Generalization of Gravitation Theory (4th ed.). Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. OCLC 946162394. +Einstein, Albert (1955). The meaning of relativity: including the relativistic theory of the non-symmetric field. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691080079. OCLC 177301011. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) + + +=== Notable reprints === +Einstein, Albert (1967). The meaning of relativity. Foreword by William Hunter McCrea. Dordrecht: Springer Science+Business Media. ISBN 978-94-011-6022-3. OCLC 858949974. +Einstein, Albert (2014). The Meaning of Relativity: Including the Relativistic Theory of the Non-symmetric Field. Introduction by Brian Greene (5th paperback ed.). Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-6911-6408-3. OCLC 884013779. +Einstein, Albert (2014). The Meaning of Relativity: Including the Relativistic Theory of the Non-symmetric Field. Introduction by Brian Greene (5th eBook ed.). Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-5187-4. OCLC 884013779. + + +=== German editions === +Einstein, Albert (1922). Vier Vorlesungen über Relativitätstheorie: gehalten im Mai 1921 an der Universität Princeton (in German). Braunschweig: Friedrich Vieweg. OCLC 2602048. +Einstein, Albert (1923). Vier Vorlesungen über Relativitätstheorie: gehalten im Mai 1912 an der Universität Princeton (in German). Braunschweig: Friedrich Vieweg. OCLC 703134729. +Einstein, Albert; Bargmann, Valentine (1956). Grundzüge der Relativitätstheorie (in German) (3rd ed.). Friedrich Vieweg. OCLC 73339958. +Einstein, Albert (1965). Grundzüge der Relativitätstheorie (in German) (4th ed.). Braunschweig: Friedrich Vieweg. OCLC 257683026. +Einstein, Albert; Treder, Hans-Jürgen; Bargmann, Valentine (1969). Grundzüge der Relativitätstheorie (in German). Friedrich Vieweg. ISBN 978-3-528-06058-9. OCLC 263642156. +Einstein, Albert (2009). Grundzüge der Relativitätstheorie (in German). Springer Science+Business Media. ISBN 978-3-540-87846-9. OCLC 298553863. + + +== See also == + +List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein +Annus Mirabilis papers +History of general relativity +History of special relativity + + +== References == + + +== Further reading == + + +== External links == + + Quotations related to The Meaning of Relativity at Wikiquote +The Meaning of Relativity 5th edition at Princeton University Press +The Meaning of Relativity 5th edition at JSTOR +The Meaning of Relativity at Springer Link +An insightful tome recounts the heady early days of general relativity review by Andrew Robinson at sciencemag.org \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mind's_Eye_(Sacks_book)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mind's_Eye_(Sacks_book)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a78d293a4 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mind's_Eye_(Sacks_book)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,28 @@ +--- +title: "The Mind's Eye (Sacks book)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mind's_Eye_(Sacks_book)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:38.171687+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Mind's Eye is a 2010 book by neurologist Oliver Sacks. The book contains case studies of people whose ability to navigate the world visually and communicate with others have been compromised, including the author's own experience with cancer of the eye and his lifelong inability to recognise faces. + + +== Case studies == +One of the case studies concerns Susan R. Barry, nicknamed "Stereo Sue," whom Sacks wrote about in 2006. Due to strabismus, she lived without stereoscopic vision for 48 years, but became able to see stereoscopically through vision therapy. +Another case study is of the acclaimed concert pianist Lilian Kallir, who suffered from posterior cortical atrophy yet was surprisingly resilient despite the numerous deficits it caused; the effect on her musical abilities was particularly notable. While her memory and personality were intact, she had problems processing visual stimuli, and was no longer able to read words or music, yet for years lived an extremely active life, frequently performing entirely from memory, with no one but her husband knowing she had any problems. +Another case study was about a vivacious, social woman named Pat who suffered a stroke that resulted in aphasia; a complete inability to speak or understand words. One chapter is devoted to the case of Howard Engel, author of a popular series of mystery novels. Due to a small stroke, he developed alexia sine agraphia; an inability to read, while retaining the ability to write. + + +== Reception == +Bryan Appleyard, reviewing the book for Literary Review, wrote: "Sacks the doctor once again dramatises the most strange and thrilling scientific and cultural issue of our time—the nature of the human mind—through the simple act of telling stories." + + +== References == + + +== External links == +The Mind's Eye at the author's website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Natural_History_and_Antiquities_of_Selborne-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Natural_History_and_Antiquities_of_Selborne-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d90de8be8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Natural_History_and_Antiquities_of_Selborne-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne" +chunk: 1/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Natural_History_and_Antiquities_of_Selborne" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:50.488013+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne, or just The Natural History of Selborne is a book by English parson-naturalist Gilbert White (1720–1793). It was first published in 1789 by his brother Benjamin. It has been continuously in print since then, with nearly 300 editions up to 2007. +The book was published late in White's life, compiled from a mixture of his letters to other naturalists—Thomas Pennant and Daines Barrington; a 'Naturalist's Calendar' (in the second edition) comparing phenology observations made by White and William Markwick of the first appearances in the year of different animals and plants; and observations of natural history organized more or less systematically by species and group. A second volume, less often reprinted, covered the antiquities of Selborne. Some of the letters were never posted, and were written for the book. +White's Natural History was at once well received by contemporary critics and the public, and continued to be admired by a diverse range of nineteenth and twentieth century literary figures. His work has been seen as an early contribution to ecology and in particular to phenology. The book has been enjoyed for its charm and apparent simplicity, and the way that it creates a vision of pre-industrial England. +The original manuscript has been preserved and is displayed in the Gilbert White museum at The Wakes, Selborne. + +== Overview == + +The main part of the book, the Natural History, is presented as a compilation of 44 letters nominally to Thomas Pennant, a leading British zoologist of the day, and 66 letters to Daines Barrington, an English barrister and Fellow of the Royal Society. In these letters, White details the natural history of the area around his family home at the vicarage of Selborne in Hampshire. +Many of the 'letters' were never posted, and were written especially for the book. Patrick Armstrong, in his book The English Parson-Naturalist, notes that in particular, "an obvious example is the first, nominally to Thomas Pennant, but which is clearly contrived, as it introduces the parish, briefly summarizing its position, geography and principal physical features." White's biographer, Richard Mabey, estimates that up to 46 out of 66 'letters to Daines Barrington' "were probably never sent through the post"; Mabey explains that it is hard to be more precise, because of White's extensive editing. Some letters are dated although never sent. Some dates have been altered. Some letters have been cut down, split into shorter 'letters', merged, or distributed in small parts into other letters. A section about insect-eating birds in a letter sent to Barrington in 1770 appears in the book as letter 41 to Pennant. Personal remarks have been removed throughout. Thus, while the book is genuinely based on letters to Pennant and Barrington, the structure of the book is a literary device. +As a compilation of letters and other materials, the book as a whole has an uneven structure. The first part is a diary-like sequence of 'letters', with the breaks and wanderings that naturally follow. The second is a calendar, organized by phenological event around the year. The third is a collection of observations, organised by animal or plant group and species, with a section on meteorology. The apparently rambling structure of the book is in fact bracketed by opening and closing sections, arranged like the rest as letters, which "give form and scale and even a semblance of narrative structure to what would otherwise have been a shapeless anthology." +The unposted Letter 1 begins: + +The parish of Selborne lies in the extreme eastern corner of the county of Hampshire, bordering on the county of Sussex, and not far from the county of Surrey; is about fifty miles south-west of London, in latitude fifty-one, and near mid-way between the towns of Alton and Petersfield. Being very large and extensive, it abuts on twelve parishes, two of which are in Sussex—viz, Trotton and Rogate. ... The soils of this district are almost as various and diversified as the views and aspects. The high part of the south-west consists of a vast hill of chalk, rising three hundred feet above the village, and is divided into a sheep-down, the high wood and a long hanging wood, called The Hanger. The covert of this eminence is altogether beech, the most lovely of all forest trees, whether we consider its smooth rind or bark, its glossy foliage, or graceful pendulous boughs. The down, or sheepwalk, is a pleasing park-like spot, of about one mile by half that space, jutting out on the verge of the hill-country, where it begins to break down into the plains, and commanding a very engaging view, being an assemblage of hill, dale, wood-lands, heath, and water. The prospect is bounded to the south-east and east by the vast range of mountains called the Sussex Downs, by Guild-down near Guildford, and by the Downs round Dorking, and Ryegate in Surrey, to the north-east, which altogether, with the country beyond Alton and Farnham, form a noble and extensive outline. +"No novelist could have opened better", wrote Virginia Woolf; "Selborne is set solidly in the foreground." + +== Illustrations == + +The first edition was illustrated with paintings by the Swiss artist Samuel Hieronymus Grimm, engraved by W. Angus and aquatinted. Grimm had lived in England since 1768, and was quite a famous artist, costing 2½ guineas per week. In the event, he stayed in Selborne for 28 days, and White recorded that he worked very hard on 24 of them. White also described Grimm's method, which was to sketch the landscape in lead pencil, then to put in the shading, and finally to add a light wash of watercolour. The illustrations were engraved (signed at lower right) by a variety of engravers including William Angus and Peter Mazell. + +== Structure == + +=== The Natural History of Selborne === + +==== Letters to Thomas Pennant ==== \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Natural_History_and_Antiquities_of_Selborne-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Natural_History_and_Antiquities_of_Selborne-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d1a533d99 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Natural_History_and_Antiquities_of_Selborne-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne" +chunk: 2/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Natural_History_and_Antiquities_of_Selborne" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:50.488013+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +There are 44 letters to White's friend Thomas Pennant (1726–1798), of which the first nine were never posted and are thus undated. Of those that were posted, the first, Letter 10 giving an overview of Selborne, is dated 4 August 1767; the last, Letter 44 on wood pigeons, is dated 30 November 1780. It is not known how the men became friends, or even if they ever met; White writes repeatedly that he would like to meet "to have a little conversation face to face after we have corresponded so freely for several years" so it is certain they did not meet for long periods, and possible they never met at all. The letters are edited from the form in which they were actually posted; for example, Letter 10 as posted had a cringing introductory paragraph of thanks to Pennant which White edited out of the published version. + +==== Letters to the Hon. Daines Barrington ==== + +There are 66 letters to the lawyer Daines Barrington (1727–1800), occupying half the book. Letter 1, on summer birds of passage, is dated 30 June 1769; Letter 66, on thunderstorms, is dated 25 June 1787. The Barrington letters therefore largely overlap the time frame of those to Pennant, but began and ended somewhat later. It was Barrington who suggested to White that he should write a book from his observations; although Pennant had been corresponding with White for a while, he was relying on White for natural history information for his own books, and, suggests White's biographer Richard Mabey, must have wanted White as a continuing source of information, not as a rival author. Barrington, on the other hand, liked to theorize about the natural world, but had little interest in making observations himself, and tended to accept claimed facts uncritically. +A character in some of the letters is a tortoise: + +The old tortoise, that I have mentioned in a former letter, still continues in this garden, and retired underground about the 20th of November, and came out again for one day on the 30th : it lies now buried in a wet swampy border under a wall facing to the south, and is enveloped at present in mud and mire ! +Letter 65 describes the summer of 1783 as: + +an amazing and portentous one, and full of horrible phenomena; for, besides the alarming meteors and tremendous thunderstorms that affrighted and distressed the different counties of this kingdom, the peculiar haze, or smoky fog, that prevailed for many weeks in this island, and in every part of Europe, and even beyond its limits, was a most extraordinary appearance, unlike anything known within the memory of man ... The sun, at noon, looked as blank as a clouded moon, and shed a rust-coloured ferruginous light on the ground, and floors of rooms; but was particularly lurid and blood-coloured at rising and setting. All this time the heat was so intense that butcher's meat could hardly be eaten on the day after it was killed ... +This was caused by the eruption of the Laki volcano in Iceland between 8 June 1783 and February 1784, killing up to a quarter of the people of Iceland and spreading a haze as far as Egypt. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Natural_History_and_Antiquities_of_Selborne-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Natural_History_and_Antiquities_of_Selborne-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a1cb1a56d --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Natural_History_and_Antiquities_of_Selborne-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,44 @@ +--- +title: "The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne" +chunk: 3/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Natural_History_and_Antiquities_of_Selborne" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:50.488013+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== The Antiquities of Selborne === +This section, often omitted from later editions, consists like the Natural History of 26 "Letters", none of them posted, and without even the fiction of being addressed to Pennant or Barrington. +Letter 1 begins "It is reasonable to suppose that in remote ages this woody and mountainous district was inhabited only by bears and wolves." Letter 2 discusses Selborne in Saxon times; Selborne was according to White a royal manor, belonging to Editha, queen to Edward the Confessor. Letter 3 describes the village's church, which "has no pretensions to antiquity, and is, as I suppose, of no earlier date than the beginning of the reign of Henry VII." Letter 5 describes the ancient Yew tree in the churchyard. Letter 7 describes the (ruined) priory. Letter 11 discusses the properties of the Knights Templar in and near the village. +Letter 14 describes the visit of bishop William of Wykeham in 1373, to correct the scandalous "particular abuses" in the religious houses in the parish. He orders the canons of Selborne priory (Item 5th) "to take care that the doors of their church and priory be so attended to that no suspected and disorderly females, suspectae at aliae inhonestae, pass through their choir and cloiser in the dark"; (Item 10th) to cease "living dissolutely after the flesh, and not after the spirit" as it has been proven that some of the canons "sleep naked in their beds without their breeches and shirts"; (Item 11th) to stop "keeping hounds, and publicly attending hunting-matches" and "noisy tumultuous huntings"; (Item 17th) to properly maintain their houses and the convent itself, since they have allowed "through neglect, notorious dilapidations to take place"; (Item 29th) to stop wearing "foppish ornaments, and the affectation of appearing like beaux with garments edged with costly furs, with fringed gloves, and silken girdles trimmed with gold and silver." Richard Mabey describes White's reaction to the "Priory saga" as "grave disapproval of the monks' sensuality and ... general delinquency". +A sequence of Letters then relate the history of the priors of Selborne, until Letter 24 which relates the takeover of the priory by Magdalen College, Oxford under bishop William Waynflete in 1459. White describes this as a disastrous fall: "Thus fell the considerable and well-endowed priory of Selborne after it had subsisted about two hundred and fifty-four years; about seventy-four years after the suppression of priories alien by Henry V., and about fifty years before the general dissolution of the monasteries by Henry VIII." The final letter records that "No sooner did the priory .. become an appendage to the college, but it must at once have tended to swift decay." White notes that since then, even "the very foundations have been torn up for the repair of the highways" so that nothing is left but a rough pasture "full of hillocks and pits, choaked with nettles, and dwarf-elder, and trampled by the feet of the ox and the heifer". White had reason to be bitter about the takeover by Magdalen College, as it had made them Lords of the Manor of Selborne, which in turn gave them the right to appoint the parish priest. White's biographer Richard Mabey casts doubt on the "frequent assumption" that White's "deepest regret was that he could never be vicar of Selborne", but it was true that he was ineligible, as only fellows of Magdalen could be granted the living. + +=== A Naturalist's Calendar === + +==== From the year 1768 to the year 1793 ==== +This section, compiled posthumously, contains a list of some 500 phenological observations in Selborne from White's manuscripts, organised by William Markwick (1739–1812), and supplemented by Markwick's own observations from Catsfield, near Battle, Sussex. The observations depend on the latitude of these places and on the (global) climate, forming a baseline for comparison with modern observations. For example, "Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) heard" is recorded by White for 7—26 April, and by Markwick for 15 April and 3 May (presumably only once at the earlier date) and "last heard" by Markwick on 28 June. +The table begins as follows: + +==== Observations in Various Branches of Natural History ==== + +Observations on Birds +This is the longest section of the observations, with comments in each instance by Markwick. +Observations on Quadrupeds +These are a few entries on sheep, rabbits, cats and squirrels, horse and hounds. +Observations on Insects and Vermes +The 'Vermes' cover glow-worms, earthworms, snails and slugs, and a "snake's slough", a cast skin. +Observations on Vegetables +The observations relate to trees, seeds, "beans sown by birds", "cucumbers set by bees", and a few fungi (truffles, Tremella nostoc, and fairy rings). +Meteorological Observations +These are a few curiosities such as frozen sleet and the "black spring" of 1771. He also recorded the effects on the weather of the 1783 volcanic eruption of the Icelandic crater Laki. + +== Reception == + +=== Contemporary === +White's lifelong friend John Mulso wrote to him in 1776, correctly predicting that "Your work, upon the whole, will immortalize your Place of Abode as well as Yourself." +Thomas White wrote "a long, appreciative, but.. properly restrained review" of his brother's book in The Gentleman's Magazine of January 1789, commenting that "Sagacity of observation runs through the work". +An anonymous reviewer in The Topographer of April 1789 wrote that "A more delightful, or more original work than Mr. White's History of Selborne has seldom been published ... Natural History has evidently been the author's principal study, and, of that, ornithology is evidently the favourite. The book is not a compilation from former publications, but the result of many years' attentive observations to nature itself, which are told not only with the precision of a philosopher, but with that happy selection of circumstances, which mark the poet." + +=== Nineteenth century === +In 1830, an anonymous critic, in what critic Tobias Menely called a description of Selborne "as a place that lingers beyond the spatio-temporal horizon of modern life", wrote having visited the village that: \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Natural_History_and_Antiquities_of_Selborne-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Natural_History_and_Antiquities_of_Selborne-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5bc46fc0c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Natural_History_and_Antiquities_of_Selborne-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,43 @@ +--- +title: "The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne" +chunk: 4/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Natural_History_and_Antiquities_of_Selborne" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:50.488013+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +[T]he sequestered retreat of the naturalist still remains ... inaccessible to all the improved knowledge and refinement which belong to these enlightened and virtuous times. It has been excluded from the blessings of increasing commerce and population, from factories and filiations, manufactures and Methodism, genius and gin, prosperity and pauperism. +The book was widely admired by contemporary writers. Samuel Taylor Coleridge called it a "sweet, delightful book"; John Clare imitated its style of natural history letters. Thomas Carlyle wrote that "It is one of our most excellent books; White, a quiet country Parson, has preached a better sermon here than all the loud Bishops that then were". Charles Darwin is said to have been delighted by it. +Circa 1862, the retired surgeon and zoologist Thomas Bell moved to The Wakes. He devoted his time to studying White's work, and editing new edition of the book. + +=== Edwardian era === +The 1907–1921 Cambridge History of English and American Literature begins its essay on White's Selborne with the words: + +Gilbert White's Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne (1789) holds a unique position in English literature as the solitary classic of natural history. It is not easy to give, in a few words, a reason for its remarkable success. It is, in fact, not so much a logically arranged and systematic book as an invaluable record of the life work of a simple and refined man who succeeded in picturing himself as well as what he saw. The reader is carried along by his interest in the results of far-sighted observation; but, more than this, the reader imbibes the spirit of the writer which pervades the whole book and endears it to like-minded naturalists as a valued companion. + +=== Modern === +White is sometimes treated as a pioneer of ecology. The British ornithologist James Fisher gives a more balanced view, writing in 1941: + +His world is round and simple and complete; the British country; the perfect escape. +The medical historian Richard Barnett writes that + +White has the strange power to make natural historians of his readers, whether gardeners, historians or biologists", noting that this demands analysis. He observes further that "White is straight out of Jane Austen. If it were not for his fame as a naturalist and writer, nothing in his life would distinguish him from hundreds of country parsons in the 18th and 19th centuries. The Natural History of Selborne is an oddly unassuming masterpiece, its haphazard construction revealing the process by which White came to write it. +Barnett notes, too, that: + +Part of White's appeal lies in this ability to summon a powerful, particular vision of pre-industrial England. He offers his readers the key to a walled garden of mellow Queen Anne brick, lying beside Thomas Gray's country churchyard and an ancient water meadow. +Yale nonfiction tutor Fred Strebeigh, writing in Audubon magazine in 1988, compared White with Henry Thoreau's Walden: + +Out of the ruts and the ways of its village, Selborne fashioned a new natural history. It spoke simply, with a human voice. But it looked profoundly. It pioneered a way for students of nature who wished, as White did, not to roam the high Arctic or far Pacific but to fathom their own terrain. It offered a wide world to anyone willing to dig deep. Selborne said: watch narrowly, skim close to the ground. It whispered, hushed, what Thoreau would later broadcast: "We are acquainted with a mere pellicle of the globe on which we live. Most have not delved six feet beneath the surface, nor leaped as many above it. We know not where we are." In those words, as in all Walden, Thoreau may have had in mind the village of Selborne and the Reverend Gilbert White--the town reached only by ruts running well beneath the surface, the man whose book had leapt the ruts to round the globe. +Tobias Menely of Indiana University notes that the book "has garnered praise from Coleridge, Carlyle, Darwin, Ruskin, Woolf, and Auden" and that + +Selborne's reception in the two hundred years since its initial publication offers a vivid instance of the retrospective idealization that transforms history into heritage. +The naturalist Richard Mabey writes in his biography of White that + +I must confess that, like many others, I did not come painlessly to the Natural History. For years I was put off by the aura of sanctity and bluffness which seemed to surround it. It was the kind of book presented on prize-giving days, and I saw it as a work, in all senses, of the old school. Even when I eventually came to read it, I cannot say my opinion changed dramatically. I could not cope at first with its rambling disorder, its sudden plunges into thickets of taxonomic Latin, and, for a while, I failed to notice the feeling behind the often dispassionate prose. +Virginia Woolf liked the book enough to devote an essay in her The Captain’s Death Bed and Other Essays, "White's Selborne" to it, stating that the start of the book is like a novel. + +== Manuscript == +The manuscript for the book stayed in the White family until 1895, when it was auctioned at Sotheby's. The purchaser was Stuart M. Samuel, who mounted the letters and bound the book in green Morocco leather. His library was sold in 1907. The manuscript was bought by the dealer A.S.W. Rosenbach in 1923, and passed into the collection of Arthur A. Houghton. The Houghton collection was auctioned by Christie's in 1980, where the manuscript was purchased by and for "Gilbert White's House and Gardens" at The Wakes, Selborne, where it is displayed. +Since 2018 the complete manuscript is digitized and online available at the website of Gilbert White's House. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Natural_History_and_Antiquities_of_Selborne-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Natural_History_and_Antiquities_of_Selborne-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1e4b920c9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Natural_History_and_Antiquities_of_Selborne-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,45 @@ +--- +title: "The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne" +chunk: 5/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Natural_History_and_Antiquities_of_Selborne" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:50.488013+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Legacy == +Thomas Bewick, in the first volume (Land Birds) of his A History of British Birds (1797), presents a phenological list of 19 birds which are "chiefly selected from Mr. White's Natural History of Selborne, and are arranged nearly in the order of their appearing". The list begins with the wryneck ("Middle of March"), places the cuckoo in the middle of April, and ends with the flycatcher in the middle of May. +Charles Darwin read the Natural History as a young man, inspiring him to take "much pleasure in watching the habits of birds" and to wonder "why every gentleman did not become an ornithologist". Sara Losh, too, read the Natural History as part of her "wonderful, varied and advanced [home] education for a young girl". +White's Natural History has been continuously in print since its first publication. It was long held ("apocryphally", according to White's biographer, Richard Mabey) to be the fourth-most published book in the English language after the Bible, the works of Shakespeare, and John Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress. +White's frequent accounts in The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne of his tortoise Timothy, inherited from his aunt, form the basis for a variety of literary mentions. Verlyn Klinkenborg's book, Timothy; or, Notes of an Abject Reptile (2006) is based wholly on that reptile, as is Sylvia Townsend Warner's The Portrait of a Tortoise (1946). The tortoise also finds its way into science, as its species, Testudo whitei (Bennett 1836), long thought to be a synonym of Testudo graeca, has been rediscovered in Algeria. +Various writers have commented on the book. The poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge called it "This sweet delightful book". The novelist Virginia Woolf observed that "By some apparently unconscious device .. a door [is] left open, through which we hear distant sounds." Among poets, Edward Thomas wrote that "In this present year, 1915, at least, it is hard to find a flaw in the life he led" while W. H. Auden stated that "Selfishly, I, too, would have plumbed to know you: I could have learned so much." The naturalist and broadcaster David Attenborough called White "A man in total harmony with his world." The novelist Roald Dahl has the main character in his short story "The Visitor" read the book. The writer and zookeeper Gerald Durrell commented in The Amateur Naturalist that White "simply observed nature with a sharp eye and wrote about it lovingly." + +== Notes == + +== References == + +== Sources == +Armstrong, Patrick (2000). The English Parson-Naturalist. Gracewing. ISBN 0-85244-516-4. +Mabey, Richard (1986). Gilbert White: A biography of the author of The Natural History of Selborne. Century Hutchinson. ISBN 0-7126-1794-9. + +== External links == + +=== Online versions of the book === +Gilbert White's original manuscript +Biodiversity Library: First edition published in 1789 +Archive.org: 1841 edition (Harper and brothers, New York) +Biodiversity Library: 1813 edition +Biodiversity Library: 1877 edition edited by Thomas Bell +Archive.org: 1880 edition (complete with Antiquities) +Project Gutenberg edition +Kindle edition (free) + +==== Audio ==== + The Natural History of Selborne public domain audiobook at LibriVox + +=== About the book === +Review in Nature, 1901 (paywall) +Review of Dadswell's The Selborne Pioneer by Richard Barnett, 2007 +Gilbert White's Cosmopolitan Parochialism by Tobias Meneley +Letter-Writers. Bartleby's Cambridge History of Literature, 1907–1921 \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Natural_History_of_Aleppo-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Natural_History_of_Aleppo-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c32b2c62b --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Natural_History_of_Aleppo-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "The Natural History of Aleppo" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Natural_History_of_Aleppo" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:51.632320+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Natural History of Aleppo is a 1756 book by naturalist Alexander Russell on the natural history of Aleppo. In 1794 his half-brother, Patrick Russell, revised and expanded the text in a second edition. The book is significant for its quality, the contemporary interest it attracted, and for being a product of the Scottish Enlightenment. +When the book was published it was immediately an important European record and perspective on the state of contemporary science in Syria. +The book contains the earliest known description of the Syrian hamster. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +The Natural History of Aleppo at Internet Archive +2008 sale of book by Christie's \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Natural_History_of_Iceland-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Natural_History_of_Iceland-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..36f2d35da --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Natural_History_of_Iceland-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "The Natural History of Iceland" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Natural_History_of_Iceland" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:52.781546+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Natural History of Iceland (Danish: Tilforladelige efterretninger om Island) is a natural history of Iceland by Danish lawyer Niels Horrebow. It was published in Danish in 1752, with an English translation in 1758. + + +== History of the work == +The book was intended to correct errors in past natural histories of Iceland, particularly the work of Hamburg mayor Johann Anderson, who had written about the island without ever actually visiting it. Anderson had relied entirely on accounts from German and Dutch sea captains, but Horrebow lived in Iceland for two years, studying the animals, plants, weather, and geological features. He also made note of the cultural practices of the Icelandic people. Horrebow's resulting work was published in Danish in 1752, then translated into German (1753), Dutch (1754), English (1758) and French (1764). + + +== "Concerning Snakes" == +The Natural History of Iceland is often noted for its seventy-second chapter, "Concerning Snakes", which, in its English translation, consists solely of one sentence: + +No snakes of any kind are to be met with throughout the whole island. +Several works of English literature make light of this brief passage. For example, James Boswell's Life of Johnson (1791) relates how Samuel Johnson bragged to a friend that he could recite the chapter in its entirety. +And William Morris' utopian novel News From Nowhere (1890) contains a short chapter called "Concerning Politics", in which a resident of "Nowhere" tells the narrator, "We are very well off as to politics,—because we have none. If you ever make a book out of this conversation, put this in a chapter by itself, after the model of old Horrebow's Snakes in Iceland." +The original Danish version of the chapter on snakes was actually a full paragraph, rather than just one sentence. It was a direct response to a paragraph in Johann Anderson's book, which claimed that snakes could not survive the cold of Iceland. Horrebow's full chapter was translated into English in an 1870 issue of Notes and Queries: + +Serpents there are none in Iceland, as our author [Anderson] truly observes. But when he gives as a reason for this the intense cold of that country, he has been led into an error by false information. We have already spoken of the cold in Iceland, and it may be seen from the accompanying meteorological observations that the cold in the South of Iceland is not more severe than with us in Denmark, so that serpents could as easily live there as here. But since these creatures have not come to Iceland it is well, for no one is likely to trouble himself to transplant them thither. +Although the contributor to Notes and Queries remarked that "Horrebow's chapter is ... not so ridiculous as generally supposed", the earlier English translation of the chapter is still much better-known. The phrase "snakes in Iceland" is listed in the Oxford English Dictionary, where it is traced to the 1758 translation and defined as "something posited only to be dismissed as non-existent". + + +== Notes == + + +== External links == +An excerpt from the book, concerning Icelandic houses \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons-0.md index 0d37400ae..aea294022 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/6 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:40:21.973331+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:55.173131+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons-1.md index 0df3ccb4c..e5f826e94 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/6 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:40:21.973331+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:55.173131+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons-2.md index b8b4e3d0a..ea18cf114 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons-2.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons-2.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/6 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:40:21.973331+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:55.173131+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons-3.md index 486b66f58..b5b695166 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons-3.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons-3.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 4/6 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:40:21.973331+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:55.173131+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons-4.md index d1337f026..f378d0f3f 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons-4.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons-4.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 5/6 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:40:21.973331+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:55.173131+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons-5.md index cf90f3bf6..780191056 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons-5.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons-5.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 6/6 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:40:21.973331+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:49:55.173131+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ocean's_Menagerie-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ocean's_Menagerie-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a1cc2689c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ocean's_Menagerie-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "The Ocean's Menagerie" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ocean's_Menagerie" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:12.223279+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Ocean's Menagerie: How Earth's Strangest Creatures Reshape the Rules of Life is a 2025 non-fiction book by marine biologist Drew Harvell, It was published by Viking Press. The book explores the evolution of invertebrate marine life and the environmental threats facing the marine ecosystem. + + +== Reception == +The book received positive reviews from critics. Kirkus Reviews referred to the book as "a good read about bizarre creatures", while The Times referred to it as "a deep dive into the strange kingdom of the ocean". George I. Matsumoto, in a review for Oceanography, described the book as "a true marvel". +Publishers Weekly noted ow "Harvell emphasizes invertebrates’ outsize influence on their ecosystems, describing how giant clams filter pathogenic bacteria from water and how coral provide protection from waves and erosion for the crustaceans, fish, and other creatures that live on reefs." Claudia De Luca of Earth.org wrote that "Harvell leads readers in her underwater adventures, from a submarine lab in the Caribbean to Fiji’s Great Sea Reef, guiding them through overlooked marvels and biological adaptations that, through her storytelling, become actual superpowers." + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Order_of_Time_(book)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Order_of_Time_(book)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..95a9c0fe7 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Order_of_Time_(book)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,27 @@ +--- +title: "The Order of Time (book)" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Order_of_Time_(book)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:51:58.697289+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Order of Time (Italian: L'ordine del tempo) is a book by Italian physicist Carlo Rovelli, a specialist in quantum gravity research, about time in physics. An audiobook, four hours and nineteen minutes long, was read by Benedict Cumberbatch. + + +== Contents == +The Order of Time is divided into three sections, covering the theory of relativity, space-time, loop quantum gravity, and thermodynamics. The first section, The Crumbling of Time, opens with Rovelli explaining time, which is considered as a fourth dimension in space-time. He then discusses Ludwig Boltzmann's concept of entropy, which never decreases, and its role in thermodynamics and Bayesian probability theory, which Rovelli described as "the only equation of fundamental physics that knows any difference between past and future", and concluded that the direction of time is lost. In the second part, The World without Time, Rovelli writes that events constitute the universe instead of particles, and introduces the concept of quanta of time in loop quantum gravity. The final section, The Sources of Time, proposes that the apparent flow of time is due to the inability to observe all the microscopic details of the world. + + +== Reception == +Writing for The Guardian, Ian Thomson praised the "lucid" writing, translation, and compared it to Seven Brief Lessons on Physics, describing it as a "a deeper, more abstruse meditation" but "jargon-free". Cosmologist Anthony Aguirre, in a generally positive review, noted that some portions of the book "occupy a frustrating ground between too technical and not technical enough". Literary Review noted Rovelli's skill for presenting complex and even unexplainable concepts in an accessible form, "the brevity and elegance of which belie its depth." + + +== Film adaptation == + +In 2023, a freely inspired film adaptation of Rovelli's work was released. It was directed by Liliana Cavani, from a screenplay written by Cavani and Paolo Costella in collaboration with Carlo Rovelli. The film tells the story of a gathering of old friends at a seaside villa who soon discover that the world might be ending within the space of a few hours. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Organized_Mind-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Organized_Mind-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2e7164fbf --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Organized_Mind-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,20 @@ +--- +title: "The Organized Mind" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Organized_Mind" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:44.073064+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Organized Mind: Thinking Straight in the Age of Information Overload is a bestselling popular science book written by the McGill University neuroscientist Daniel J. Levitin, PhD, and first published by Dutton Penguin in the United States and Canada in 2014. It is Levitin's 3rd consecutive best-seller, debuting at #2 on the New York Times Best Seller List, #1 on the Canadian best-seller lists, #1 on Amazon, and #5 on The London Times bestseller list. +In The Organized Mind, Levitin demonstrates how the Information Age is drowning us with an unprecedented deluge of data, and uses the latest brain science to explain how the brain can organize this flood of information. The book is divided in three parts. The first part focuses on attention. Levitin argues that attention is the most essential mental resource for any organism and describes how the brain's attentional system works: it determines which aspects of the environment an individual will deal with, and what gets passed through to that individual's conscious awareness. The attentional awareness system is the reason one can safely drive or walk to work without noticing most of the buildings or cars one passes by. +Additionally, Levitin states that the phrase "paying attention" is scientifically true. Multitasking comes at an actual metabolic cost: switching back and forth between tasks burns a lot more oxygenated glucose (the fuel the brain runs on) than focusing on one task does, and can lead quickly to mental exhaustion. The second and third parts of the book show how readers can use their attentional and memory systems for better organization, from the classroom to the boardroom, from home lives to interactions with friends, doctors, and business associates. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +The distracted mind - All In The Mind - ABC Radio National (Australian Broadcasting Corporation) (Sunday, August 30, 2015) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Physical_Principles_of_the_Quantum_Theory-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Physical_Principles_of_the_Quantum_Theory-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f5fabd8ec --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Physical_Principles_of_the_Quantum_Theory-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "The Physical Principles of the Quantum Theory" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Physical_Principles_of_the_Quantum_Theory" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:04.847312+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Physical Principles of the Quantum Theory (German: Physikalischen Prinzipien der Quantentheorie publisher: S. Hirzel Verlag, 1930) by Nobel laureate (1932) Werner Heisenberg and subsequently translated by Carl Eckart and Frank C. Hoyt. The book was first published in 1930 by University of Chicago Press. Then in 1949, according to its copyright page, Dover Publications reprinted the "unabridged and unaltered" 1930's version. +The book is collection of 1929 university lectures delivered at the University of Chicago by Heisenberg but with more detailed mathematics. The book discusses quantum mechanics and one 1931 review states that this is a "less technical and less involved account of the theor[y]". This book has been cited more than 2,000 times. +In the book, after briefly discussing various theories, including quantum theory, Heisenberg discusses the basis for the fundamental concepts of quantum theory. Also by this time Heisenberg has stated, "the interaction between observer and object causes uncontrollable and large changes in the [atomic] system being observed...". In this work Heisenberg also discusses his uncertainty principle or uncertainty relations. + + +== About the author == +Werner Heisenberg (b. 1901 - d. 1976) was a renowned German theoretical physicist whose work pioneered and advanced quantum mechanics. He received his PhD in 1923 from LMU Munich under Arnold Sommerfeld. He was awarded the 1932 Nobel Prize in Physics "for the creation of quantum mechanics, the application of which has led to the discovery of the allotropic forms of hydrogen". + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Official website +The Physical Principles Of The Quantum Theory. by Werner Heisenberg. Archive.org \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Physics_of_Blown_Sand_and_Desert_Dunes-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Physics_of_Blown_Sand_and_Desert_Dunes-0.md index 0ed1c14d3..400f0123c 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Physics_of_Blown_Sand_and_Desert_Dunes-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Physics_of_Blown_Sand_and_Desert_Dunes-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Physics_of_Blown_Sand_and_Desert_Dunes" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:42:52.778659+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:06.005728+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Primordial_Emotions-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Primordial_Emotions-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ebe38cc42 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Primordial_Emotions-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,23 @@ +--- +title: "The Primordial Emotions" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Primordial_Emotions" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:46.441212+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Primordial Emotions: The Dawning of Consciousness is a 2006 book by Australian neuroscientist Derek Denton. + + +== Summary == +Denton argues that, if self-awareness and intentionality are intrinsic to consciousness, the primordial emotions such as thirst, hunger and pain (that involve feeling the self and intentionality) are the likely precursors to consciousness; that a kind of non-reflective consciousness evolved along with these feelings and before the emergence of cognition. This opposes the view put by Edelman and others that consciousness emerged after the development of cognitive processes such as the ability to create a scene from diverse sensory inputs. +He sees the evolution of consciousness as a gradual, continuous process, beginning in the brain's most primitive regions with non-reflective consciousness of instincts, followed by reflective consciousness of the feelings and impulses associated with these instincts (this subjective experience is what he terms "primordial emotions"), then reflective consciousness of surroundings evolves, followed by the emergence of reflective consciousness of memories and behavioural options. +Denton distinguishes between + +primordial emotions, "imperious states of arousal and compelling intentions to act" (p. 7) driven by activation of interoceptors and involving ancient, lower brain regions such as the medulla, midbrain and hypothalamus, and +"classic" emotions, such as anger, fear and love, driven by distance receptors (vision, hearing, olfaction) and mediated by higher, more recently evolved brain regions. + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Radiation_Belt_and_Magnetosphere-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Radiation_Belt_and_Magnetosphere-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..a07188b11 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Radiation_Belt_and_Magnetosphere-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "The Radiation Belt and Magnetosphere" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Radiation_Belt_and_Magnetosphere" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:12.063654+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Radiation Belt and Magnetosphere is a book written by Wilmot Hess in 1968. The intention of the book is to amalgamate and sift through some 2500 articles, written since 1960, on this topic. + + +== See also == +Magnetosphere +Van Allen radiation belt + + +== Notes == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Space_Between_Our_Ears-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Space_Between_Our_Ears-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f68ab7b19 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Space_Between_Our_Ears-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,19 @@ +--- +title: "The Space Between Our Ears" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Space_Between_Our_Ears" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:51.056850+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Space Between Our Ears: How the Brain Represents Visual Space is a 2001 non-fiction book by Michael J. Morgan, which explores the workings of vision. + + +== Reception == +The Space Between Our Ears won the Wellcome Trust Book Prize for science writing. +In the Guardian, Steven Rose lauded Morgan's explanations of binocularity and depth perception, but faulted the inclusion of "irrelevant anecdotes, bad poems and even worse jokes". Perception described it as an "intelligent and erudite romp", and commended its appeal to scientists, noting that Morgan sets ideas which (to vision specialists) are of "cosy (...) familiarity" in a "rich context". + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Strangest_Man-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Strangest_Man-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..9dc1b15b8 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Strangest_Man-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "The Strangest Man" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Strangest_Man" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:16.685981+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Strangest Man: The Hidden Life of Paul Dirac, Quantum Genius is a 2009 biography of quantum physicist Paul Dirac written by British physicist and author, Graham Farmelo, and published by Faber and Faber. The book won the Biography Award at the 2009 Costa Book Awards, and the 2009 Los Angeles Times Book Prize for Science and Technology. +The title is based on a comment by physicist Niels Bohr four years before his death that of all the scientists who had visited his institute, Dirac was "the strangest man". + + +== Overview == +Farmelo charts Dirac's life from his upbringing in early 20th-century Bristol, through his years in Cambridge, Göttingen and Princeton up until his death in 1984, and that of his wife 18 years later. +Throughout the book, Dirac's work and his unusual personality is explored, with his reservedness, apparent lack of empathy, and relentless literal-mindedness leading way to several humorous anecdotes. For example, when approached by two graduate students, while on a brief visit to Berkeley, Dirac sat through a brief presentation about their work on quantum field theory, bracing themselves for his perceptive comments, there was a long silence, after which Dirac asked them "Where is the post office?" Offering to take him there, the students suggested that he could give them his thoughts on their presentation, to which Dirac replied, "I can't do two things at once." +The book is divided into thirty-one chapters, each beginning with a short epigraph and covering a set time period, for example, chapter Twenty-one is entitled "January 1936-Summer 1939", and begins with a short quote by Paul Carus. The final two chapters break from the dating style, in order to discuss "Dirac's Brain and Persona" and his "Legacy". The book has a comprehensive set of notes, index, and six pages of black and white photographs. In the final chapter, Farmelo presents arguments that Dirac may have been autistic and that this partially explains Dirac's well-known personality eccentricities. +The book was published in the United States under a slightly different title: The Strangest Man: The Hidden Life of Paul Dirac, Mystic of the Atom. + + +== Reviews == +Online literary magazine Bookhugger.co.uk labeled the book as "a moving human story, and a study of one of the most exciting times in scientific history." The magazine placed the book in their "Best of 2009" list as well. Playwright Michael Frayn, author of Copenhagen, remarked that "this was the biography Farmelo was born to write". +Physicist Freeman Dyson wrote a mostly-positive review in The New York Review of Books, though he argued based on his personal acquaintance with Dirac that Dirac was not autistic according to the definition of autism being used in that era. He says Dirac may have been autistic under newer and wider definitions, and that it might be possible to settle this question by DNA analysis someday, provided that a usable sample of Dirac's DNA has been preserved. Jochen Heisenberg, also a physicist and a son of Dirac's contemporary Werner Heisenberg, responded to Dyson's review in support of Dyson's questioning Farmelo's assessment of Dirac's possible autism, and particularly appreciating Dyson's rendering of Dirac's assessment of Werner Heisenberg. Dirac's response to critics of his continued support of Werner Heisenberg (who worked on the German nuclear weapons program during World War 2) was "It is easy to be a hero in a democracy". +Physicist Jocelyn Bell Burnell wrote in the Times Higher Education Supplement: "As well as being clear without being condescending, Farmelo's style is accessible and entertaining. His style of writing is sparkling, racy and has panache. He is entertaining and has a wry sense of humour, so the book will appeal to a very wide readership. Indeed, if it were a month earlier I would be recommending it as a Christmas present for senior school students and undergraduates with an interest in physics, history of science students and their teachers, and members of the public with these interests." + + +== See also == + +American Prometheus: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer +The Principles of Quantum Mechanics + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Publisher's page \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tale_of_the_Dueling_Neurosurgeons-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tale_of_the_Dueling_Neurosurgeons-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..2cb085a01 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tale_of_the_Dueling_Neurosurgeons-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "The Tale of the Dueling Neurosurgeons" +chunk: 1/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tale_of_the_Dueling_Neurosurgeons" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:52.249199+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Tale of the Dueling Neurosurgeons, also known by its full title The Tale of the Dueling Neurosurgeons: The History of The Human Brain as Revealed by True Stories of Trauma, Madness, and Recovery is a science book regarding the brain and its functions by Sam Kean. The Daily Telegraph described it as "A dramatic account of the gruesome accidents that shaped modern neuroscience." + +== Publication == +The book was published in hardback on May 6, 2014 by Little, Brown and Company. + +== Contents/Synopsis == +In The Tale of the Dueling Neurosurgeons, Sam Kean travels through time with stories of startling peculiarity and incredible fascination, stories of neurological curiosities: phantom limbs, cannibalism, Siamese brains and a plethora of other strange, though equally fascinating things. Kean effortlessly ties historical accounts, stories of madness and insanity, with the scientific breakthroughs that often followed. His writing shows that every breakthrough was borne of malady, injury, necessity. + +=== Part I: Gross Anatomy === + +==== Introduction ==== +Each chapter begins with a rebus, a word puzzle, pertaining to the subject of the chapter. In this introductory section, Kean essentially provides some background information and summarizes how the book will continue. + +==== Chapter 1: The Dueling Neurosurgeons ==== +The first chapter begins with Kean setting the stage of a historic jousting match between King Henri II of France and Gabriel Montgomery. After jousting with Montgomery once, Henri demanded that he go a second time (which broke the laws of chivalry and good sport). It is during this second joust that Henri was whacked square in the face by his opponent's jousting pole. +This is when Kean introduces the "dueling neurosurgeons": Ambroise Paré and Andreas Vesalius, both esteemed neurosurgeons at the time. Paré was the royal surgeon at the time and was a pioneer in terms of medicine, as he refused to heed medical norms at the time due to the fact that they were often painful and useless for the patient. Vesalius was a royal surgeon in a different court, best known for writing and illustrating the book De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem, which represented a significant advancement in anatomical knowledge and artwork using contemporary renaissance techniques. +They both teamed together when the king fell to try to see if they could revive him. Upon examination, the king had no fractures to his head and so it would have been assumed that nothing was wrong. The surgeons knew better, and were going to encounter the first concussion of that time. After the king's death, they found that his brain was in awful shape, "yellowed and putrefied" and found "pools of blackened fluid beneath the meninges". This is the medical discovery/advancement that would set the stage for generations to come: the fact that brain damage could be present despite no obvious fractures or surface wounds. + +=== Part II: Cells, Senses, Circuits === + +==== Chapter 2: The Assassin's Soup ==== +This chapter begins with a troubled man: Charles Guiteau. He had apparently heard God speak to him, saying that he should assassinate the president at the time: James Garfield. The man, arguably insane before his attempt to kill the president, had endured a lot in his life such as divorce and being relentlessly made fun of by many groups of people for his unsightly appearance. After much planning, he shot Garfield in the lower back, not killing him right away, but being the ultimate cause of his death (Guiteau claimed that doctors killed Garfield, he had just shot him). +Guiteau's lawyer (who was, subsequently, his brother) George Scoville, pled insanity. Though, after many tests with various court-appointed psychologists/psychiatrists, he was declared sane because he could differentiate between right and wrong. +During the trial, a neurosurgeon Edward Charles Spitzka pointed out that there was more than likely underlying trouble in Guiteau's mind. After the trial concluded and Guiteau passed, an autopsy of his brain was conducted. By this time, autopsy had evolved into a microscopic art, and so Spitzka took to the microscope with samples of Guiteau's brain. Of course, Spitzka found holes in his gray matter and extensive damage to the tissue that "nourished neurons". Later, it was declared that Guiteau was more than likely a schizophrenic. +During this time, another scientist, Camillo Golgi, was brewing up reticulum theory. He had spilled silver solution on brain samples and then looked at them under a microscope. What he saw stunned him: neurons. He noticed they had three parts: the cell body, axon, and dendrites, and he was the first to see them in such detail. He could determine no space between the neurons and emerged a supporter of reticulum theory. +Another scientist, Santiago Ramón y Cajal, was enamored by the pictures of neurons that Golgi produced. Despite his fascination with the drawings, though, he disagreed with reticulum theory. He noticed that, under a microscope, gray matter neurons were not fused together. +The story of another assassin follows: Leon Czolgosz. The man had a similar past to that of Guiteau, and planned to murder president William McKinley as to secure his own party's political candidate in the White House. He proceeded to shoot McKinley in the stomach and pancreas and was then sentenced to the electric chair. McKinley died of infection after eating when his stomach had not fully healed. Much to the anger of various neuroscientists and neurosurgeons alike, Czolgosz's brain was confiscated from study and destroyed. +The experiments of Otto Loewi are also mentioned. His experiment was one in which he placed two frog hearts in separate cups of saline. He sped one heart up by triggering nerves, then transferred the saline of the fast heart into the saline of the normal beating heart, resulting in the normal heart being as fast as the other heart that he had triggered. This proved that neurons did not just use electricity, but also used chemicals. But since he realized that electricity could not jump the (tiny) distance between dendrites, he concluded that the electricity transformed into transferable chemicals. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tale_of_the_Dueling_Neurosurgeons-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tale_of_the_Dueling_Neurosurgeons-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..ffec80532 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tale_of_the_Dueling_Neurosurgeons-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,26 @@ +--- +title: "The Tale of the Dueling Neurosurgeons" +chunk: 2/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tale_of_the_Dueling_Neurosurgeons" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:52.249199+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Chapter 3: Wiring and Rewiring ==== +Here, Kean introduces the eccentric James Holman. He was a blind explorer, a man who climbed mountains and visited all corners of the globe without sight. He was appointed the Naval Knight of Windsor, which was more illustrious than it sounded. Holman hated being home and often sank into deep bouts of depression when cooped up for too long a time. +To get around during his journeys, he carried a cane. He did not use the cane like other blind people did, feeling around with it. He used his cane to strike the ground, causing a click that he could hear. This click, in turn, echoed in his ears, creating what was essentially human echolocation. +Kean ties in Holman's use of his cane, to teach his brain to "see", with gray matter and white matter. He also talks extensively about circuits. Circuits essentially make up the brain, every human function being controlled by one. The circuits for breathing and yawning do not have much variation and are extremely simple. In contrast to that, the circuit that connects pictures to words, sounds to pictures (i.e. small children learning to read and associating the word dog with the actual animal) are more complicated. Negative experiences also wire circuits. A bad fright in a dark alley may cause you to flinch next time you enter one. +Another thing that concerns wiring and rewiring is the neurological phenomenon of synesthesia. There are over 60 known types of synesthesia. An example would be a synesthesiat hearing a sound and colors flooding their vision or someone reading a passage of words and each letter evokes a different color or a different smell or a different taste. Certain sounds cause the person to feel certain things in turn, or see spots of color dance across their vision. Neurologists agree that this occurs of faulty wiring in the brain, that "neuron circuits that process a sense accidentally strum circuits of another sense, causing both to go off simultaneously". It is debated how this happens. As a child, one possesses more neurons than necessary and the unnecessary ones are pruned away and die when not used. Some believe that synesthesia is a result of poor pruning. +Albert Hoffman helped scientists further understand synesthesia by creating a certain psychedelic drug known as LSD. Created in his lab, he tried it, and was startled by the results. It ultimately showed that we all carry the latent ability of synesthesia if we knew how to tap it as LSD does. +Cajal (from the previous chapter) pointed out that adult neurons and neuron circuits could not renew themselves, and once they were dead, they were dead for good. He said that only children could renew their brain tissue. This is true to some extent, though for adults, while they cannot regrow neurons, they can rewire circuits in their brains with hard work. + +==== Chapter 4: Facing Brain Damage ==== +This chapter starts with the introduction of mutilés, men who had various parts of their faces blown off by the metal weapons used in the Great War. Their defaced faces, faces without noses or eyes or cheeks, were the root of much sadness and insecurity for the men, and many committed suicide. An American sculptor Anna Coleman Ladd traveled and set up a business for these men, and she would create faces for them out of plaster and ceramic and paint, making them startlingly realistic. These faces made the men happy and helped them assimilate back into society. Despite this, the faces could not smile or kiss or chew and the paint soon chipped. +Related, a Japanese scientist Tatsuji Inouye examines soldiers who had been shot through their visual cortex during battle and lost random spots of vision. Inouye figured that the spots of missing vision were connected with the spots that their brain had been shot through, and set out to map the visual cortex through talking to these soldiers. +Kean introduces other scientists such as the duo Hubel and Wiesel, who tried various experiments with cats to get their neurons to fire. Through many botched experiment attempts, one fateful accident led to the breakthrough that certain neurons fire at certain things. Specifically, they discovered that neurons like to track motion and can derive the shapes of objects through columns of orientation-preferring neurons. +Kean also, in depth, explains the role of the parietal lobe and the occipital lobe through all these accounts. He writes that the brain can stumble after injury, and the results can be serious. For example, if the visual cortex suffers damage, the person afflicted will lose many things, one of which being basic perceptual skills. Damage to the parietal lobe causes the loss of the ability to locate objects in space. Infections and viruses like herpes may make their way up to the brain and affect it. +He also covers the interesting topic of object-blindness. Someone may not recognize an object, a color, or other seemingly mundane things. Face-blind people cannot recognize faces, and can hardly discern age or gender between portrait pictures. + +=== Part III: Body and Brain === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tale_of_the_Dueling_Neurosurgeons-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tale_of_the_Dueling_Neurosurgeons-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5c2567156 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tale_of_the_Dueling_Neurosurgeons-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,21 @@ +--- +title: "The Tale of the Dueling Neurosurgeons" +chunk: 3/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tale_of_the_Dueling_Neurosurgeons" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:52.249199+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Chapter 5: The Brain's Motor ==== +Kean begins the chapter with the sad (fictional) tale of George Dedlow, protagonist of a short story by Silas Weir Mitchell. George Dedlow had fought in the Civil War and in turn had both his arms and both his legs amputated for various reasons. These amputations brought on another neurological phenomenon: phantom limbs. George Dedlow, amongst millions of other war amputees, felt pain in limbs that he did not have. +A neuroscientist, Mitchell specialized in examining amputees and was fascinated with them. He examined patients who complained of pain or discomfort in their phantom arms, legs, and genitals. Here, Kean ties the motor and sensory cortexes in. When something is amputated, the respective part of the brain for controlling that part goes black (figuratively). The now obsolete part of the brain is quickly taken over by neighboring brain areas, such as the face or arms. +V. S. Ramachandran, a neuroscientist, was also fascinated with amputees and their phantom pains. One of his patients was a man with insistent pain in his arm, an arm that was in fact removed many years prior. Ramachandran proceeded to test out a treatment of his own creation. He made the man place his arms into a box, the one arm that was still attached surrounded by mirrors. The box and the mirror together provided the illusion that his arm was still intact. Then, he made the man move his hands around as if he still had both. It is after this ritual of moving his hands about that the man exclaims that he feels his pain subsiding, that he feels his phantom fist unclench for the first time in many years. Thus concludes the chapter about the brain and its motor, which essentially is responsible for every part working correctly. + +==== Chapter 6: The Laughing Disease ==== +The Laughing Disease, later referred to as kuru, originated in Papua, New Guinea in the tribe of the Fore (For-ay) people. It was commonplace in the tribe to consume the body when someone had passed, more specifically a contaminated human brain. Believing that consuming the body would speed its journey to the afterlife. Cannibalism was an important cultural norm to the Fore, though it was what ultimately spread kuru. The slow rise of this disease caught the attention of one D. Carleton Gajdusek, a doctor who specialized in pediatrics with a strange affinity for microbes and their spread. His interest piqued (he loved to travel around the world in search of malady), he traveled to New Guinea to see what the fuss was about and try to investigate it for himself. While he was there, he collected hundreds of gallons of samples of blood and urine and sweat, trying to find how it spread (and it spread. Rapidly, in fact. It was the question of many biologists and those in the medical field alike). He bribed families for the brains of their deceased, the ones that fell victim to kuru and were going to be eaten by their relatives and used the brains he acquired to conduct autopsies as fast as possible (which were often difficult as refrigeration was often below-average and unavailable). +It is here that Kean brings up the cerebellum, the center in the brain that controls finer movements, controls the timing of movement. Very important. It was probable that a malfunction in this area of the brain was what was the root of kuru, as the symptoms (shuffling, uncontrollable laughing) were typical of that area of the brain. +During an autopsy of a diseased brain, Gajdusek found plaque (microscopic) on many areas. He also discovered many other things that may have come from eating brains. After a long investigation of kuru, and as hundreds of people were dying from it, the phrase "slow virus" was brought about. Along with that, a mix between the words protein and infection was also created: prions. Scientists found that this was how kuru was spread. +The brain has something called the blood-brain barrier which essentially blocks everything from entering the brain, save for a few thing. For instance, if you were to inject dye into the bloodstream, every organ would turn that color except for the brain due to the BBB. It is this barrier that makes it so difficult to medicate people for mental diseases such as Alzheimers and Parkinson's. It was hard for certain things to get it, and even harder for microbes (with the exception of syphilis and herpes). Though, proteins were one of the things that could pass through the barrier. And prions, being part protein, can thus make it through the barrier. Another illness that falls into the category of prions is Creutzfeldt-Jakob syndrome, a degenerative neurological disorder. +Unrelated, after Gajdusek returned after his kuru investigations, he was revealed to be a pedophile after admitting to touching young boys that he had picked up as his children in Papua, New Guinea. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tale_of_the_Dueling_Neurosurgeons-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tale_of_the_Dueling_Neurosurgeons-3.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3f873d74f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tale_of_the_Dueling_Neurosurgeons-3.md @@ -0,0 +1,33 @@ +--- +title: "The Tale of the Dueling Neurosurgeons" +chunk: 4/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tale_of_the_Dueling_Neurosurgeons" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:52.249199+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Chapter 7: Sex and Punishment ==== +Harvey Cushing was obsessed with the pituitary gland. He sent his assistant, William Sharp, to retrieve this gland from a giant who had just died, among other things such as the heart, the lungs, and the brain. After retrieving the organs in a hurry, Sharp was brutally yelled at by Cushing because he had forgotten a part he hadn't even known existed. He was later forgiven, as Cushing still had his pituitary. +Cushing was absolutely fascinated with the idea of mishaps in the pituitary gland. He often sought out circuses and freak shows in hopes that they would have a giant or a dwarf, and often stopped to talk with them about their lives and their pasts. One such man was one by the name of John who was a giant, a farmer from South Dakota, the man who Cushing's assistant de-organed before his funeral service. +The modern study of emotion came about because of James Papez, a neuroanatomist. +It is in his chapter that Kean discusses the limbic system of the brain, the hypothalamus, and the amygdala. +Kean recalls a story in which a woman named S.M. contracted a rare disease that killed off amygdala cells. After it was frozen and shriveled, S.M. felt no fear. She had felt fear in normal amounts at appropriate things as a child, though after the disease had run its course, she felt not a lick of it. It was nearly comical how scientists reacted: they tried (in vain) to scare her. Taking her to haunted houses, she often ran ahead, eager to find out what else awaited. +After this tale, Kean ties it in with the limbic system, the topic of the chapter, and the temporal lobe. +In regards to the temporal lobe, Kean mentions duo Heinrich Klüver and Paul Bucy. The pair experimented on monkeys, removing parts of their brains (the temporal lobes) and getting disastrous and disturbing results. + +=== Part IV: Beliefs and Delusions === + +==== Chapter 8: The Sacred Disease ==== +The sacred disease is epilepsy, called so because many felt as if their soul met a higher power: God, in some cases. He mentions the plight of Wilder Penfield. His sister had been suffering from major epileptic fits and seizures. He then proceeded to operate on her after noticing a tumor was pressing on her brain from behind her sinuses and dually pressing down on her optic nerve, which was swollen. When he went in to operate, he had to remove 1/8 of her brain, a startling amount. After this mass excavation, he noticed that the tumor grew deep into the other brain hemisphere, and he succumbed to the fact that the tumor had won. She later died because of it, as expected. +Epileptic fits are common amongst famous figures. Dostoyevsky was one epileptic, a temporal lobe epileptic, who fell victim to his illness time and time again, and it affected his writing greatly. +A John Hughlings Jackson noticed that epileptics had uncannily similar seizures, with certain parts seizing after other parts, same sequences. This led him to believe that circuits, though different, had many similarities. +The experiment on Mary Rafferty was a strange one and arguably cruel. She had come in with a two inch gaping hole in her skull brought about by a mix of a chafing whalebone wig and cancer. Roberts Bartholomew took her in and decided to conduct an experiment. He slid two metal electrodes into her brain and started a generator, causing her to move her arms and legs about wildly. He believed he had stuck the electrodes on the motor cortex. She later died. + +==== Chapter 9: Sleights of Mind ==== +Woodrow Wilson traveled the country with the intention of breaking the Senate. He instead broke himself. After complaining of headaches (among other various ailments) Wilson suffered many small strokes, and then suffered one large one that left him paralyzed and a pity to behold. Another thing: the whole left side of his world ceased to exist. +He suffered from what we now know today as hemispatial neglect, which causes only one hemisphere to process things. Sufferers of this condition will only shave half their faces, eat half their food, dress only half of themselves. In memories of being in a certain place, patients might only recall the buildings on one side of the street. Wilson might have a pile of pens right next to him, but if they were not on the right side, he would complain of not having a pen on hand. He would also deny that he was ill. This is another phenomenon known as anosognosia, which is the refusal to admit that one is ill, refusing to acknowledge the illness. +This leads into the discussion on delusions in general. There are ones such as Cotard's Delusion, in which people believe that they are dead, and Capgras syndrome, in which one believes that everyone has been replaced by a double. There is the Alice in Wonderland syndrome, in which the person's body feels much out of proportion and delusional bicephaly. + +=== Part V: Consciousness === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tale_of_the_Dueling_Neurosurgeons-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tale_of_the_Dueling_Neurosurgeons-4.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..703307d58 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tale_of_the_Dueling_Neurosurgeons-4.md @@ -0,0 +1,34 @@ +--- +title: "The Tale of the Dueling Neurosurgeons" +chunk: 5/5 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tale_of_the_Dueling_Neurosurgeons" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:52.249199+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Chapter 10: Honest Lying ==== +This chapter covers the mental disorders that afflict those who always lie, compulsively so. +It begins with Kean introducing the fact that the Japanese captured 100,000 men, many of whom were British, as prisoners of war. Some British doctors who had been captured noticed that the Japanese were depriving the men of certain nutrients to see the results. The nutrient in question was thiamine, necessary for proper brain function. Without it, many of the prisoners developed beriberi. +Korsakoff's Syndrome leads to people lying compulsively, especially brain-damaged alcoholics. Back to before, the brain needs thiamine. Alcohol prevents the intestines from absorbing it, leading to thiamine shortage. Because of this shortage, the brain changes majorly. +Another way to lie, other than outright lying, is confabulation. Confabulation is not an outright lie: it happened to the patient at some point, they just cannot recall when. Memories have time stamps, and that time stamp can be corrupted. So a patient might have eaten an exquisite meal twenty years ago on their honeymoon and claimed they ate it yesterday simply because they cannot remember. Confabulation is also a defense mechanism, to protect themselves from embarrassment. When asked how many kids they have, they will often lie because "what kind of monster forgets their children" [sic]? It is, in short, honest lying. +Kean also talks about how hippocampus removal results in amnesia. +While amnesia can be induced very easily, there is the other side of the spectrum: remembering everything. Take Solomon Shereshevsky, who was sent to neurologist Aleksandr Luria by someone at a meeting after noticing Shereshevsky was not taking notes but could repeat everything he had said from that morning verbatim. He could remember things for years. +A normal brain is a good balance, like a sieve. + +==== Chapter 11: Left, Right, and Center ==== +This chapter focuses on the corpus callosum. +The first story is one in which a man shoots himself in the head, but misses his brain completely, blowing part of his skull off and exposing his brain. He went to the doctor, who in turn pressed the man's brain with a spatula to get a reaction out of him, which he did. +Paul Broca (language) is also discussed, a linguist and a neuroscientist. His relationship (business strictly) with one Gustave Dax is also discussed. +A man named W.J. had what were called "absences" in which he would do something and not realize he had done it and would have 20+ seizures a day. A group of scientists concluded that the corpus callosum spread seizures. +Kean also discusses the differences and similarities and roles of the left and right brain, and the left and right hemispheres. + +==== Chapter 12: The Man, the Myth, the Legend ==== +Phineas Gage got an iron rod shot up through his skull, injuring his brain and his skull and blinding him in his left eye. His surgeon performed medical surgery on him that relieved the pressure in his skull which ultimately saved his life (King Henri II, if he had received a similar procedure, may have survived). After his surgery, Gage, usually mild, became foul-mouthed and developed ADD-like symptoms, switching from one thing to another very rapidly. +Kean talks about the thalamus and the prefrontal parietal network, the last chapter of this book, the last part of the brain, though not the only one. + +== References == + +== External links == +Author's website \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tell-Tale_Brain-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tell-Tale_Brain-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1e2a5b2df --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tell-Tale_Brain-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,54 @@ +--- +title: "The Tell-Tale Brain" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tell-Tale_Brain" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:53.400228+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Tell-Tale Brain: A Neuroscientist's Quest for What Makes Us Human is a 2010 nonfiction book by V. S. Ramachandran that explores the uniqueness of human nature from a neurological viewpoint. + + +== Synopsis == +Ramachandran discusses seven main concepts which define the human aspect of self and how each may be disrupted by a specific neurological disorder. The concepts are: unity, continuity, embodiment, privacy, social embedding, free will, and self-awareness. +In the first chapter, Ramachandran discusses the human ability to change and adapt, illustrating the concept from his work on phantom limbs. The second chapter describes some of his work with visual perception and cognition, addressing the concept of human awareness. +In chapter three, he connects ideas about synesthesia to creativity. Chapters four and five talk about mirror neurons, while chapter six discusses human language. +Ramachandran proposes "nine laws of aesthetics," which he discusses in chapters seven and eight. The final chapter, chapter nine, "The Ape With A Soul" concerns introspection and human self-awareness. + + +== Reception == +Tell-Tale Brain was on the New York Times best-seller list (Number 32 on the Hardcover Nonfiction list). It received mostly positive reviews, with some criticism particularly focusing on Ramachandran's theories about mirror neurons. The book won the 2010 Vodafone Crossword Book Award (Non-Fiction). + + +=== Pre-publication endorsements (book blurbs) === +The neurologist Oliver Sacks wrote: "No one is better than V. S. Ramachandran at combining minute, careful observation with ingenious experiments and bold, adventurous theorizing. The Tell-Tale Brain is Ramachandran at his best, a profoundly intriguing and compelling guide to the intricacies of the human brain." +The scientist Allan Snyder said of the book: "A masterpiece. The best of its kind and beautifully crafted. Alluring story telling, building to a penetrating understanding of what it is to be uniquely human. Ramachandran is the foremost pioneer—the Galileo—of neurocognition." +The psychiatrist Norman Doidge offered the following praise for the book: + +Ramachandran is the modern wizard of neuroscience. In The Tell-Tale Brain, we see the genius at work, tackling extraordinary cases, many of which mark turning points in neuroscientific knowledge. We see him hypothesizing, experimenting, failing, having epiphanies, experimenting, succeeding. In this utterly entertaining account, we see how these fascinating cases fit together, and how he uses them to explain, from a Darwinian point of view, how our brains, though evolved from those of other animals, become neurologically distinct and fundamentally human. + + +=== Book reviews === +James McConnachie wrote in the Sunday Times:When VS Ramachandran, one of the world’s most influential neurologists, wants to get inside a human head, he doesn’t reach for his scalpel or MRI scanner. Instead, like Sherlock Holmes (to whom he is often compared), he seizes on an oddity in a case study, then begins a pleasing process of deduction interspersed with leaps of excitingly creative thought. This absorbing book charts the acclaimed experiments he has performed around the world and at the University of California’s cutting-edge Centre for the Brain, and explains how they have helped unravel the workings of the human mind." +Writing in The New York Times, Anthony Gottlieb generally recommended the book but criticized Ramachandran for not mentioning how controversial some of his ideas about mirror neurons are: + +Although Ramachandran admits that his account of the significance of mirror neurons is speculative, he doesn’t let on just how controversial it is... Even if mirror neurons turn out not to be quite as important as Ramachandran thinks—he has elsewhere predicted that they will do for psychology what DNA did for biology—the book is packed with other evidence that neuroscience has made illuminating progress in recent years. Reading such accounts of exactly what our brains get up to is apt to leave one with the disconcerting thought that they are often a lot cleverer than their owners realize. +The philosopher Colin McGinn praised the book in the New York Review of Books despite criticizing it for reductionism/oversimplification, saying:Ramachandran discusses an enormous range of syndromes and topics in The Tell-Tale Brain. His writing is generally lucid, charming, and informative, with much humor to lighten the load of Latinate brain disquisitions. He is a leader in his field and is certainly an ingenious and tireless researcher. This is the best book of its kind that I have come across for scientific rigor, general interest, and clarity—though some of it will be a hard slog for the uninitiated. +The philosopher Raymond Tallis praised the book in The Wall Street Journal but complained that Ramachandran has failed to provide the research needed to back up some of his theories, concluding: + +Until we clear up the ground-floor aspects of human consciousness—in particular, first-person being—claims to advance our understanding of its higher levels, and of the grand edifice of civilization, by peering into intra cranial darkness will not withstand even the most cursory examination. ...The Tell-Tale Brain, though it is engagingly written and often fascinating, reminds us how little cause we have to privilege what the neuro scientists tell us about what makes us human over the testimony of novelists, poets, social workers or philosophers. +Nicholas Shakespeare wrote in The Daily Telegraph: + +Ramachandran wanders along intriguing neural pathways, pausing to investigate strange disorders, but he leaves the impression that he is an explorer who has yet to leave the coast. Further, he appears not fully to appreciate that the interior of this vast continent he is mapping may be at war. His book is intermittently fascinating, but is not important in the way of Iain McGilchrist The Master and His Emissary, last year’s magisterial study of the brain’s two opposed hemispheres... +Writing in American Scientist, Simon Baron-Cohen said he found the book stimulating and enjoyable but devoted most of his review to questioning the validity of Ramachandran's views on mirror neurons and the broken-mirror theory of autism, saying for example: + +There are also clinical and experimental reasons for being skeptical of the broken-mirror theory of autism... As an explanation of autism, the Broken Mirror theory offers some tantalizing clues; however, some problematic counter-evidence challenges the theory and particularly its scope. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Talkingbrains web site \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Trouble_with_Gravity-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Trouble_with_Gravity-0.md index 36b1ea046..0ce35578a 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Trouble_with_Gravity-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Trouble_with_Gravity-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Trouble_with_Gravity" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:34:56.537403+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:25.231213+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_(book)-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_(book)-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..3d59edeb5 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_(book)-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,47 @@ +--- +title: "The World (book)" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_(book)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:28.912689+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The World, also called Treatise on the Light (French title: Traité du monde et de la lumière), is a book by René Descartes (1596–1650). Written between 1629 and 1633, it contains a nearly complete version of his philosophy, from method, to metaphysics, to physics and biology. +Descartes espoused mechanical philosophy, a form of natural philosophy popular in the 17th century. He thought everything physical in the universe to be made of tiny "corpuscles" of matter. Corpuscularianism is closely related to atomism. The main difference was that Descartes maintained that there could be no vacuum, and all matter was constantly swirling to prevent a void as corpuscles moved through other matter. The World presents a corpuscularian cosmology in which swirling vortices explain, among other phenomena, the creation of the Solar System and the circular motion of planets around the Sun. +The World rests on the heliocentric view, first explicated in Western Europe by Copernicus. Descartes delayed the book's release upon news of the Roman Inquisition's conviction of Galileo for "suspicion of heresy" and sentencing to house arrest. Descartes discussed his work on the book, and his decision not to release it, in letters with another philosopher, Marin Mersenne. +Some material from The World was revised for publication as Principia philosophiae or Principles of Philosophy (1644), a Latin textbook at first intended by Descartes to replace the Aristotelian textbooks then used in universities. In the Principles the heliocentric tone was softened slightly with a relativist frame of reference. The last chapter of The World was published separately as De Homine (On Man) in 1662. The rest of The World was finally published in 1664, and the entire text in 1677. + +== Contents of The World == +On the Difference Between our Sensations and the Things That Produce Them +In What the Heat and Light of Fire Consists +On Hardness and Liquidity +On the Void, and How it Happens that Our Senses Are Not Aware of Certain Bodies +On the Number of Elements and on Their Qualities +Description of a New World, and on the Qualities of the Matter of Which it is Composed +On the Laws of Nature of this New World +On the Formation of the Sun and the Stars of the New World +On the Origin and the Course of the Planets and Comets in General; and of Comets in Particular +On the Planets in General, and in Particular on the Earth and Moon +On Weight +On the Ebb and Flow of the Sea +On Light +On the Properties of Light +That the Face of the Heaven of That New World Must Appear to Its Inhabitants Completely like That of Our World + +== The void and particles in nature == +Before Descartes begins to describe his theories in physics, he introduces the reader to the idea that there is no relationship between our sensations and what creates these sensations, thereby casting doubt on the Aristotelian belief that such a relationship existed. Next he describes how fire is capable of breaking wood apart into its minuscule parts through the rapid motion of the particles of fire within the flames. This rapid motion of particles is what gives fire its heat, since Descartes claims heat is nothing more than just the motion of particles, and what causes it to produce light. +According to Descartes, the motion, or agitation, of these particles is what gives substances their properties (i.e. their fluidity and hardness). Fire is the most fluid and has enough energy to render most other bodies fluid whereas the particles of air lack the force necessary to do the same. Hard bodies have particles that are all equally hard to separate from the whole. +Based on his observations of how resistant nature is to a vacuum, Descartes deduced that all particles in nature are packed together such that there is no void or empty space between them. +Descartes describes substances as consisting only of three elementary elements: fire, air and earth, from which the properties of any substance can be characterized by its composition of these elements, the size and arrangement of the particles in the substance, and the motion of its particles. + +== Cartesian laws of motion == +Descartes asserts several laws governing the motion of these particles and all other objects in nature: + +“…each particular part of matter always continues in the same state unless collision with others forces it to change its state.” +“…when one of these bodies pushes another, it cannot give the 2nd any motion, except by losing as much of its own motion at the same time…” +“…when a body is moving…each of its parts individually tends always to continue moving along a straight line” (Gaukroger) +Descartes in Principles of Philosophy added to these his laws on elastic collision. These were largely wrong, and the correct laws of elastic collision were later worked out by Christiaan Huygens. + +== The Cartesian universe == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_(book)-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_(book)-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1c0c8a4e9 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_(book)-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,40 @@ +--- +title: "The World (book)" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_(book)" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:28.912689+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Descartes elaborates on how the universe could have started from utter chaos and with these basic laws could have had its particles arranged so as to resemble the universe we observe today. Once the particles in the chaotic universe began to move, the overall motion would have been circular because there is no void in nature, so whenever a single particle moves, another particle must also move to occupy the space where the previous particle once was. This type of circular motion, or vortex, would have created what Descartes observed to be the orbits of the planets about the Sun with the heavier objects spinning out towards the outside of the vortex and the lighter objects remaining closer to the center. To explain this, Descartes used the analogy of a river that carried both floating debris (leaves, feathers, etc.) and heavy boats. If the river abruptly arrived at a sharp bend, the boats would follow Descartes third law of motion and hit the shore of the river since the flow of the particles in the river would not have enough force to change the direction of the boat. However, the much lighter floating debris would follow the river since the particles in the river would have sufficient force to change the direction of the debris. In the heavens, it’s the circular flow of celestial particles, or aether, that causes the motion of the planets to be circular. +As to the reason why heavy objects on Earth fall, Descartes explained this through the agitation of the particles in the atmosphere. The particles of the aether have greater agitation than the particles of air, which in turn have greater agitation than the particles that compose terrestrial objects (e.g. stones). The greater agitation of the aether prevents the particles of air from escaping into the heavens, just as the agitation of air particles forces terrestrial bodies, whose particles have far less agitation than those of air, to descend towards the world. + +== Cartesian theory on light == +With his laws of motion set forth and the universe operating under these laws, Descartes next begins to describe his theory on the nature of light. Descartes believed that light traveled instantaneously - a common belief at the time – as an impulse across all the adjacent particles in nature, since Descartes believed nature was without a void. To illustrate this, Descartes used the example of a stick being pushed against some body. Just as the force which is felt at one end of the stick is instantly transferred and felt at the other end, so is the impulse of light that is sent across the heavens and through the atmosphere from luminous bodies to our eyes. Descartes attributed light to have 12 distinct properties: + +Light extends radially in all direction from luminous bodies +Light extends out to any distance +Light travels instantaneously +Light travels ordinarily in straight lines or rays +Several rays can come from different points and meet at the same point +Several rays can start at the same point and travel in different directions +Several rays can pass through the same point without impeding each other +If the rays are of very unequal force, then they can sometimes impede one another +Also: + +9) and 10) Rays can be diverted by reflection or by refraction +11) and 12) The force of a ray can be augmented or diminished by the disposition of the matter that receives it. + +== Notes == + +== References == +Descartes, René, Le Monde, L'Homme, critical edition with an introduction and notes by Annie Bitbol-Hespériès, Paris: Seuil, 1996. +Descartes, René, Le Monde, ou Traité de la lumière. Translation and introduction by Michael Sean Mahoney. New York: Abaris Books, 1979. (French and English text on facing pages) Mahoney's English translation +Descartes, René. The World and Other Writings. Trans. Stephen Gaukroger. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998. +Melchert, Norman (2002). The Great Conversation: A Historical Introduction to Philosophy. McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-19-517510-7. +Descartes, René. The World, edited and translated by Jarrett A. Carty. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press. + +== External links == +Online version \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Yipping_Tiger-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Yipping_Tiger-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..78d1c1a2c --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Yipping_Tiger-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,37 @@ +--- +title: "The Yipping Tiger" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Yipping_Tiger" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:58.051577+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +The Yipping Tiger and Other Tales from the Neuropsychiatric Clinic is a book by neuropsychiatrist Perminder Sachdev, M.D. consisting of ten case studies which explore the relationship between the brain and the mind. The case studies are based on Sachdev's experience in the neuropsychiatric clinic at the Neuropsychiatric Institute, Sydney, Australia. Each case study examines a different medical condition, the current research findings related to the condition, and the challenges these conditions pose for the doctor and patient. + + +== Contents == +The Yipping Tiger (Golfer's cramps) +Shaking hands with Dr Strangelove (The Alien hand syndrome) +Swearing like a Spanish sailor (Coprolalia in Tourette's syndrome) +The Mozart Complex (Brain enhancement) +The mirror always lies (Anorexia nervosa) +The dead homunculus (Frontal lobe disorder) +Serotonin's seductive song (Major depressive disorder) +A chesty problem (Obsessive-compulsive disorder) +Lord Nelson's ghost (Phantom limb) +Freudian slips and semantic slides (Mild cognitive impairment) + + +== Reception == +G. Boucher, ‘Off-putting tales from a yipping yarn’. The Australian 2009 (8 August): http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/off-putting-tales-from-a-yipping-yarn/story-e6frg8no-1225758241816 +J. Horder, ‘Medicine: IN BRIEF’. The Times Literary Supplement 2010 (23 July), page 27: +S. Hussein, ‘Brains, Minds, Hearts and Souls’. New Matilda 2010 (20 May): https://web.archive.org/web/20110823213551/http://newmatilda.com/2010/05/20/brains-minds-hearts-souls +K. Ridel, ‘Book Review: The Hidden Brain and The Yipping Tiger and Other Tales from the Neuropsychiatric Clinic’. Neurology 2011; 76:e77. +D. Turney, ‘Think again: reinterpreting the brain’. The Sydney Morning Herald 2010 (1 April), page 19: http://www.smh.com.au/world/science/think-again-reinterpreting-the-brain-20100331-rexx.html +‘All in the mind: On the couch: Perminder Sachdev and Norman Doidge’, radio interview presented by Natasha Mitchell, ABC Radio National 2010 (25 September): http://www.abc.net.au/rn/allinthemind/stories/2010/3016990.htm +‘All in the mind: Q & A - the audience asks. Norman Doidge and Perminder Sachdev’, radio interview presented by Natasha Mitchell, ABC Radio National 2010 (4 October): https://archive.today/20121231044544/http://blogs.abc.net.au/allinthemind/2010/10/qa-the-audience-asks-norman-doidge-and-perminder-sachdev.html + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours-0.md index 8f9c1d848..aa59f0d12 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/6 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:35:44.923919+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:17.896676+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours-1.md index 98611314d..d3f0cfe96 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/6 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:35:44.923919+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:17.896676+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours-2.md index 055a7ccb7..dd85e60e1 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours-2.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours-2.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/6 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:35:44.923919+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:17.896676+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours-3.md index 2af07bc7c..986ee50e3 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours-3.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours-3.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 4/6 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:35:44.923919+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:17.896676+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours-4.md index 6afb79a63..c5f6e4d8f 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours-4.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours-4.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 5/6 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:35:44.923919+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:17.896676+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours-5.md index 9a0ae8c14..247a0bbc0 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours-5.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours-5.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 6/6 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:35:44.923919+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:17.896676+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/This_Is_Your_Brain_on_Music-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/This_Is_Your_Brain_on_Music-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..efcd7b03f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/This_Is_Your_Brain_on_Music-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,48 @@ +--- +title: "This Is Your Brain on Music" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/This_Is_Your_Brain_on_Music" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:54.533539+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +This Is Your Brain on Music: The Science of a Human Obsession is a popular science book written by the McGill University neuroscientist Daniel J. Levitin, and first published by Dutton Penguin in the U.S. and Canada in 2006, and updated and released in paperback by Plume/Penguin in 2007. It has been translated into 18 languages and spent more than a year on The New York Times, The Globe and Mail, and other bestseller lists, and sold more than one million copies. + + +== Overview == +The aim of This Is Your Brain on Music was to make recent findings in neuroscience of music accessible to the educated layperson. Characteristics and theoretical parameters of music are explained alongside scientific findings about how the brain interprets and processes these characteristics. The neuroanatomy of musical expectation, emotion, listening and performance is discussed. +This Is Your Brain on Music describes the components of music, such as timbre, rhythm, pitch, and harmony and ties them to neuroanatomy, neurochemistry, cognitive psychology, and evolution, while also making these topics accessible to nonexpert readers by avoiding the use of scientific jargon. One particular focus of the book is on cognitive models of categorization and expectation, and how music exploits these cognitive processes. The book challenges Steven Pinker's "auditory cheesecake" assertion that music was an incidental by-product of evolution, arguing instead that music served as an indicator of cognitive, emotional and physical health, and was evolutionarily advantageous as a force that led to social bonding and increased fitness, citing the arguments of Charles Darwin, Geoffrey Miller and others. +This Is Your Brain on Music was a finalist for the Los Angeles Times Book Award in 2006–2007 for best in the Science and Engineering category, and a Quill Award for best debut author of 2006–2007. It was named one of the best books of the year by The Globe and Mail, The Independent and The Guardian. A long list of prominent scientists and musicians have praised it, including Oliver Sacks, Francis Crick, Brian Greene, David Byrne, George Martin, Yoko Ono, Neil Peart, Victor Wooten, Pete Townshend and Keith Lockhart, and it has been adopted for course use in both science and literature classes at dozens of universities including MIT, Dartmouth College, UC Berkeley, Stanford, Kenyon College, the University of Wisconsin. Two documentary films were based on the book: The Musical Brain (2009) featuring Levitin as host, along with appearances by Sting, Michael Bublé, Feist, and former Fugees leader Wyclef Jean; and The Music Instinct (2009) with Levitin and Bobby McFerrin as co-hosts, with appearances by Yo Yo Ma, Jarvis Cocker, Daniel Barenboim, Oliver Sacks and others. In 2009, Harvard University announced This Is Your Brain on Music would be required reading in its Freshman Core Program in General Education. In 2011–2012, the Physics Department at the California Institute of Technology adopted it as a textbook. + + +== Current editions == + + +=== English === +This Is Your Brain on Music: The Science of a Human Obsession. New York: Plume (Penguin), 2007, paperback, ISBN 978-0-452-28852-2. +This Is Your Brain on Music: Understanding a Human Obsession. London: Grove/Atlantic, 2007, hardcover, ISBN 978-1-84354-715-0 +This Is Your Brain on Music: Understanding a Human Obsession. London: Grove/Atlantic, 2008, paperback, ISBN 978-1-84354-716-7 + + +=== Other languages === +Ons muzikale brein. Altas Contact, Amsterdam, 2013, ISBN 9789045024561, vertaling Robert Vernooy, paperback 320 p. +De la note au cerveau. Les Éditions de l'Homme/Sogides, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, 2010, ISBN 978-2-7619-2679-9 +De la note au cerveau. France: Editions Heloise d'Ormesson, 2010. ISBN 2-35087-129-0 +Der Musik-Instinkt: Die Wissenschaft einer menschlichen Leidenschaft. Heidelberg, Germany: Spektrum, 2009, ISBN 978-3-8274-2078-7 +Fatti di musica: La scienza di un'ossessione umana. 2008, Torino, Italy: Codice, 2008, paperback, ISBN 978-88-7578-098-2 +Musiikki ja aivot: Ihmisen erään pakkomielteen tiedettä. (Translated into Finnish by Timo Paukku.) Helsinki: Terra Cognita 2010. ISBN 978-952-5697-22-3 +This Is Your Brain on Music. (Portuguese). Brazil: Distribuidora Record, 2009. +This Is Your Brain on Music. Croatia: Vukovic & Runjic. +This Is Your Brain on Music. Greece: Psihopolis, due 2010. +This Is Your Brain on Music. Japan: Hakuyosha Publishing, due 2010. +This Is Your Brain on Music. Romania: SC Humanitas, due 2010. +This Is Your Brain on Music. Turkey: Pegasus Yayincilik, 2010. +Tu cerebro y la música. Spain: RBA Libros. ISBN 978-84-9867-336-4, 2008. +Uma Paixão Humana: O seu Cérebro e a Música. Lisbon, Portugal: EditorialBizâncio, 2007, paperback, ISBN 978-972-53-0363-4 +뇌의 왈츠 - 세상에서 가장 아름다운 강박 (This Is Your Brain on Music.) Korea: Mati. ISBN 978-89-92053-16-7, 2008. +Ова е вашиотмозок за музика (This Is Your Brain on Music.) Macedonia: Kosta Abras Ad Ohrid, 2009. ISBN 978-9989-843-48-8 + + +== References == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traité_de_mécanique_céleste-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traité_de_mécanique_céleste-0.md index 6401030de..5bfc150eb 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traité_de_mécanique_céleste-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traité_de_mécanique_céleste-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/2 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traité_de_mécanique_céleste" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:47:04.499255+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:19.106731+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traité_de_mécanique_céleste-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traité_de_mécanique_céleste-1.md index c89e72c5e..e7deaa919 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traité_de_mécanique_céleste-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traité_de_mécanique_céleste-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/2 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traité_de_mécanique_céleste" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:47:04.499255+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:19.106731+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Light-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Light-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5ae64b97f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Light-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Treatise on Light" +chunk: 1/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Light" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:21.570998+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Treatise on Light: In Which Are Explained the Causes of That Which Occurs in Reflection & Refraction (French: Traité de la Lumière: Où sont expliquées les causes de ce qui luy arrive dans la reflexion & dans la refraction) is a book written by Dutch polymath Christiaan Huygens that was published in French in 1690. The book describes Huygens's conception of the nature of light propagation which makes it possible to explain the laws of geometrical optics shown in Descartes's La Dioptrique, which Huygens aimed to replace. +Unlike Newton's corpuscular theory, which was presented in the Opticks, Huygens conceived of light as an irregular series of shock waves which proceeds with very great, but finite, velocity through the ether, similar to sound waves. Moreover, he proposed that each point of a wavefront is itself the origin of a secondary spherical wave, a principle known today as the Huygens–Fresnel principle. The book is considered a pioneering work of theoretical and mathematical physics and the first mechanistic account of an unobservable physical phenomenon. + +== Overview == +Huygens worked on the mathematics of light rays and the properties of refraction in his work Dioptrica, which began in 1652 but remained unpublished, and which predated his lens grinding work. In 1672, the problem of the strange refraction of the Iceland crystal created a puzzle regarding the physics of refraction that Huygens wanted to solve. Huygens eventually was able to solve this problem by means of elliptical waves in 1677 and confirmed his theory by experiments mostly after critical reactions in 1679. +His explanation of birefringence was based on three hypotheses: (1) there are inside the crystal two media in which light waves proceed, (2) one medium behaves as ordinary ether and carries the normally refracted ray, and (3) the velocity of the waves in the other medium is dependent on direction, so that the waves do not expand in spherical form, but rather as ellipsoids of revolution; this second extraordinary medium carries the abnormally refracted ray. By studying the symmetry of the crystal, Huygens was able to determine the direction of the axis of the ellipsoids, and from the refraction properties of the abnormal ray he established the proportion between the axes. He calculated the refraction of rays on plane sections of the crystal other than the natural crystal sides, and ultimately verified many of his results experimentally. +Huygens intended to publish his results as part of the Dioptrica but decided to separate his theory of light from the rest of the work at the last minute, marking the transition from geometrical to physical optics. More than a century later, it would take Étienne Malus and others fifteen years to reconstruct Huygens's ideas of rays and wavefronts. + +== Contents == + +=== Propagation medium === +In the first chapter, Huygens describes light as a disturbance which moves in a material medium of an unknown nature which he calls ethereal, and which is different from that which propagates sound. This ethereal matter is composed of elastic particles of matter which collide according to laws he discovered in 1669. +Huygens considers that the structure of matter is atomic, made up of an assembly of particles "which touch each other without composing a continuous solid." Light waves can therefore move from one particle to another without these being displaced. Another way of looking at the problem of propagation is to consider that it is not the particles of the transparent medium which transmit light but the particles of ethereal matter which permeate the interstices of the solid or liquid matter (or even a vacuum, since light passes through the top of Torricelli's barometer). Finally, Huygens considers a third type of light propagation that would be a combination of the first two. +Another concept discussed in the first chapter is the speed of light, where Huygens originally takes up the temporal conception of Pierre de Fermat. He considers that the "shaking" producing light waves necessarily moves at finite speed, even if it is very high. This point is very important because its demonstrations are based on the equivalence of travel times on different paths. Huygens reports on a letter by Ole Christensen Rømer, dated from 1677, where the speed of light is said to be at least 100,000 times faster than the speed of sound, and possibly six times higher. In the latter case, the speed found by Rømer (214,000 km /s) was of the same order of magnitude as the speed of light admitted today. + +=== Nature of the wavefront === + +Following his remarks on the propagation medium and the speed of light, Huygens gives a geometric illustration of the wavefront, the foundation of what became known as Huygens’ Principle. His principle of propagation is a demonstration of how a wave of light (or rather a pulse) emanating from a point also results in smaller wavelets: + +...each of these waves can be infinitely feeble only as compared with the [primary wave], to the composition of which all the others contribute by the part of their surface which is most distant from [the wave’s origin]. +This means that each particle in the ether is the source of a new wavefront, and although these “secondary wavelets” are characterized by Huygens as “feeble,” points on each wavelet collectively form the primary wave that is visible as light. The new wavefront, then, is the tangential surface to all the secondary wavelets in the direction of propagation. +Critical to Huygens’s analysis is that these secondary wavelets can be mathematically constructed, allowing one to work backward from the secondary wavelets to construct a primary wave which has traveled for a certain time. This is the principle on which Huygens's entire theory of light turns, and it is what separates his theory from those of his predecessors. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Light-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Light-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..c296d8d74 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Light-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,32 @@ +--- +title: "Treatise on Light" +chunk: 2/2 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Light" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:21.570998+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +=== Remainder of the book === +Chapter two briefly treats reflection while chapters three and four explore refraction. Huygens carefully explains the differences between transparent and opaque media in terms of their particulate composition, specifically exploring atmospheric refraction. +Chapter five addresses the strange refraction of the Iceland crystal. Huygens cuts a piece of the crystal and studies the geometry of light propagation inside it before guiding the reader through a series of step-by-step empirical investigations. His explanation of strange refraction is based on the properties of the ordinary ray and the extraordinary ray. The ordinary ray has a spherical wavefront due to a constant refractive index, which is independent of the propagation direction inside the crystal, having the same velocity in all directions. The extraordinary ray, on the other hand, has an ellipsoidal wavefront due to its refractive index, which varies with the propagation direction within the crystal, leading to different velocities in different directions. Thus, when light travels through the crystal, it breaks into two wave surfaces that follow distinct paths within it, resulting in two refracted rays being observed. +The series of step-by-step investigations that follow were meant to corroborate Huygens' explanation of strange refraction. They were prompted by early objections from Rømer and constitute one of the few examples in Huygens’s work where he provided such details regarding experiments. Huygens employed these mathematical and experimental resources to achieve impressive results, some of which defied verification until the beginning of the 19th century. +Chapter six of the book concludes with a discussion on refraction and reflection in transparent bodies. + +== Legacy == + +Huygens's major accomplishment in the Treatise on Light is the demonstration that one could derive all the essential features of rectilinear propagation, reflection, and simple and double refraction from the rate of propagation of light waves alone. By reducing the ray to a geometrical construct devoid of physical character, Huygens was able to treat the theory of light kinematically (and thereby mathematically), allow him to succeed where his predecessors have failed. +Although the completeness of Huygens's analysis is impressive, he was unable to comprehend the effect that we now recognize as polarization, which occurs if the refracted ray is directed through a second crystal of which the orientation is varied. He also did not address a number of issues, such as chromatic aberration and color, both of which were explained by Newton, although he had experienced them while building his telescopes. +Apart from Antoine Parent and René Just Haüy, Huygens's ideas in the Treatise on Light were largely forgotten in the century after its publication. Many of these ideas were developed independently by Augustin-Jean Fresnel in the early 19th century and later published in his Mémoire sur la Diffraction de la Lumière (1818). Fresnel subsequently became aware of Huygens's work and adapted Huygens's principle to give a complete explanation of the rectilinear propagation and diffraction effects of light in 1821. The principle is now known as the Huygens–Fresnel Principle. + +== See also == +Iceland spar +Luminiferous aether + +== References == + +== External links == +C. Huygens, Traité de la Lumière, Leiden: Pieter van der Aa, 1690; archive.org/details/bub_gb_kVxsaYdZaaoC +C. Huygens (translated by Silvanus P. Thompson), Treatise on Light, London: Macmillan, 1912; archive.org/details/treatiseonlight031310mbp (and Errata) +C. Huygens (translated by Silvanus P. Thompson, 1912), Treatise on Light, Project Gutenberg, 2005, gutenberg.org/ebooks/14725 (and Errata) \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Natural_Philosophy-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Natural_Philosophy-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..f5491cb02 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Natural_Philosophy-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,127 @@ +--- +title: "Treatise on Natural Philosophy" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Natural_Philosophy" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:22.745473+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Treatise on Natural Philosophy was an 1867 text book by William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin) and Peter Guthrie Tait, published by Oxford University Press. +The Treatise was often referred to as + + + + T + + + {\displaystyle T} + + and + + + + + T + + 1 + + + + + {\displaystyle T^{1}} + +, as explained by Alexander Macfarlane: + +Maxwell had facetiously referred to Thomson as + + + + T + + + {\displaystyle T} + + and Tait as + + + + + T + + 1 + + + + + {\displaystyle T^{1}} + +. Hence the Treatise on Natural Philosophy came to be commonly referred to as + + + + T + + + {\displaystyle T} + + and + + + + + T + + 1 + + + + + {\displaystyle T^{1}} + + in conversation with mathematicians. + + +== Reception == +The first volume was received by an enthusiastic review in Saturday Review: + +The grand result of all concurrent research in modern times has been to confirm what was but perhaps a dream of genius, or an instinct of the keen Greek intellect, that all the operations of nature are rooted and grounded in number and figure. +The Treatise was also reviewed as Elements of Natural Philosophy (1873). +Thomson & Tait's Treatise on Natural Philosophy was reviewed by J. C. Maxwell in Nature of 3 July 1879 indicating the importance given to kinematics: "The guiding idea … is that geometry itself is part of the science of motion." +In 1892 Karl Pearson noted that + + + + T + + + {\displaystyle T} + + and + + + + + T + + 1 + + + + + {\displaystyle T^{1}} + + perpetuated a "subjectivity of force" that originated with Newton. +In 1902 Alexander Macfarlane ascribed much of the inspiration of the book to William Rankine's 1855 paper "Outlines of the Science of Energetics": + +The main object of Thomson and Tait's Treatise on Natural Philosophy was to fill up Rankine's outlines, — expound all branches of physics from the standpoint of the doctrine of energy. The plan contemplated four volumes; the printing of the first volume began in 1862 and was completed in 1867. The other three volumes never appeared. When a second edition was called for, the matter of the first volume was increased by a number of appendices and appeared as two separately bound parts. The volume which did appear, although judged rather difficult reading even by accomplished mathematicians, has achieved great success. It has been translated in French and German; it has educated the new generation of mathematical physicists; and it has been styled the "Principia" of the nineteenth century. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Treatise on Natural Philosophy (1867) from HathiTrust. +Treatise on Natural Philosophy (1879) on Google books +Treatise on Natural Philosophy (1879) at Internet Archive \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Radioactivity-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Radioactivity-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5fcfa6747 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Radioactivity-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,17 @@ +--- +title: "Treatise on Radioactivity" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treatise_on_Radioactivity" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:23.941632+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Treatise on Radioactivity (French: Traité de Radioactivité) is a two-volume 1910 book written by the Polish scientist Marie Curie as a survey on the subject of radioactivity. She was awarded her second Nobel Prize in the following year after the publication of the book. The book, which was dedicated to her newly deceased collaborator and husband Pierre Curie, has been described as "a classic synthesis of current research on radioactivity by scientists of the early 20th century." It was published by the Paris publisher Gauthier-Villars. + + +== References == + + +== External links == \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences-0.md index b434311d0..a88a265ce 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/6 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:47:11.405455+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:26.487700+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences-1.md index 776b90da2..5a94ef39e 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/6 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:47:11.405455+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:26.487700+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences-2.md index 69d786ccc..3bc679dc6 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences-2.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences-2.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/6 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:47:11.405455+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:26.487700+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences-3.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences-3.md index 25130ac49..62e0ae252 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences-3.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences-3.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 4/6 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:47:11.405455+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:26.487700+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences-4.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences-4.md index 6dd17e3a4..836f2ef5f 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences-4.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences-4.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 5/6 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:47:11.405455+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:26.487700+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences-5.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences-5.md index 359789912..30e622c24 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences-5.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences-5.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 6/6 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_New_Sciences" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:47:11.405455+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:26.487700+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up_from_Dragons-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up_from_Dragons-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..cbbcd2ce3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up_from_Dragons-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,38 @@ +--- +title: "Up from Dragons" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up_from_Dragons" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:55.766972+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Up from Dragons: The Evolution of Human Intelligence is a 2002 book on human evolution, the human brain, and the origins of human cognition by John Skoyles and Dorion Sagan. The book considers how the brain and genes evolved into their present condition over the course of thousands and millions of years. It was published by McGraw Hill. +The book argues that the earlier ape brain had evolved “mindmakers” and that the human mind arose when these were “rewired” by symbols. This new “mindware” was created by the prefrontal cortex in combination with neural plasticity. This “Symbolic capacity is the ‘missing link’ that changed the ape brain into a human and made mindware possible, allowing symbols to structure the brain”. p. 277 Mindware itself has been evolving for the last 120,000 years and as a result kept reshaping human consciousness, thought and culture. Its last chapter speculates upon the future of human cognition. +The title relates to Carl Sagan (co-author Dorion Sagan's father) and his 1977 book The Dragons of Eden for which this book provides a 25th-anniversary reappraisal. + +== Chapters == +Cosmic Mirror: The questions of who and what humans are explored in terms of the history of the universe, life and humankind as when looking in a mirror. +Up from Dragons: Modern human genes arose when humans evolved as hunter-gatherers. But in the last 120,000 years humans have changed from hunter-gatherers to hi-tech citizens. The book seeks to answer why and how. +Neurons Unlimited: The brain is neurally plastic (NP) – evolution left open the function of human neurons. The capacity of its neurons to engage in imagination extends its potential to think and feel. +Superbrain: The prefrontal cortex (PC) is the brain's "conductor". It directs using inner representations as prompts which organize the brain's "orchestra" of neural “talents”. +Mind-Engine: Cognition depends upon brain waves that bind through synchronization of diverse brain areas into mental unity. The prefrontal cortex controls this unification of the brain. +Neural Revolution: The large sized human brain has extensive "blank" cortex available for processing nonevolved skills. But acquiring such skills requires that the brain’s neural networks get “trained”—which the prefrontal cortex does by acting as a “cortical catalyst”. +Machiavellian Neurons: Humans like other apes live in social groups that split and reform. Humans are novel in their ability to decouple these social and personal bonds from direct sensory contact. The human brain does this by carrying around its social group as an "inner troop within our heads". +The Troop within Our Heads: Humans think they are free—but this troop within their heads rules human thoughts, feelings and actions. Due to it humans feel guilt, shame, pride and self-consciousness. +Our Living Concern: Underlying human experience are mindmakers. One such mindmaker is the anterior cingulate as it creates attention to what is done. It underlies not only social consciousness, but pain, and a sense of reality. +Doing the Right Thing: Our sense of right and wrong arises from our origins as social apes. Morality is a byproduct of the troop within our heads that is created by the orbitofrontal cortex mindmaker. This limits human freedom by preventing psychopathic-like actions. +Where Memories are Made: The human sense of identity arises from the need of the brain to experience a past linked to the present. Here, the mindmaker is the hippocampus. It underlies memory and the sense of continuity of self, other and place. +What Are We?: Mindmakers are not consciousness but they make it possible. They become the consciousness of "I" and "will" by embodiment. The human brain embodies not only its body extension, but its “troop within its head” and the inner orchestration done by its prefrontal cortex. +Of Human Bonding: The change that turned apes into humans was the ability to decouple social and personal bonds from everyday contact. This allowed new kinds of bonds such as those of marriage, in-law kin, culture and religion. +The Symbolic Brain: Symbols enabled this decoupling of bonds. Symbols are cognitive stand-ins—a wedding ring stands in for a marriage bond. The prefrontal cortex generates symbols. This enabled hunter-gatherer genes to develop new forms of social life including that of modern people. +Lucy and Kanzi: The symbol making potential of the prefrontal cortex arose to enable extended family bonds across the African savannah. “Gifted environments” also arose created by adults so young brains could be helped to learn and enrich their minds with symbols. +The Runaway Species: Homo brains expanded to be good parents. Successful brains selected partners with brains with which they could best raise children. A runaway selection resulted between brain size, mate selection and skilled parenting. +The Billion-Hour Journey: That modern people are not hunter-gatherers is due to mindware – the mind expanding systems of symbols – that evolved in the last 120,000 years. The process started slow, but then “bootstrapped” itself and accelerated. It now underlies the thoughts and feelings of modern humans. +Third Millennium Brain: The rewriting of the brain's potentials that started in the past still continues. “Braintech” is arising and will enhance humans even more. It is suggested that humans knowing that their origins lie in their brains, rather than ancient myth, will gain Brain Rights and enter a new Era—that of the Brain. + +== Concepts == +The book introduces and argues for novel ideas in human evolution, neuroscience, social neuroscience and the humanities. + +=== Human evolution === \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up_from_Dragons-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up_from_Dragons-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..38b9686cd --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up_from_Dragons-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,51 @@ +--- +title: "Up from Dragons" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up_from_Dragons" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:55.766972+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Gifted environments ==== +These are the learning environments humans create. Components of a gifted environment include “a rich variety of representations”, a “stimulating learning environment”, and “’empowering environments’—ones which foster specific paths of development, an opportunity sometimes limited to brief windows of developmental time” It is proposed that such gifted environments are created by adult prefrontal cortex. The potential to create gifted environments predates humans and exists in chimpanzees. But they are limited because as adults chimpanzees lack time, cooperate only weakly and are under constant stress. It was the highly cooperative sociability of humans that allowed gifted environments to arise that could fully support cognitive development. + +==== Human change bootstrapping problem ==== +Bootstrapping concerns the paradox that the best way for something to occur is for it to already to be established. This problem has been identified in computer and cognitive science as an important obstacle: computers need to load programs to start but this is best done when they have already loaded the program for doing this; reading is easier to acquire once a person can already read. Cognitive development can be interpreted as the process by which cognitive systems sidestep and work around bootstrapping problems that would otherwise obstruct cognitive growth. The bootstrapping problem is proposed to explain why human cultural and technological developments often take so long to historically develop and then accelerate: the best circumstances for such innovations to flourish often arise only when they already exist. + +==== Human ticket ==== +All animal species except humans live in much the same biological manner in which they evolved. Humans in contrast have journeyed away from being simple hunter-gatherers to becoming citizens of hi-tech nation states. Biologically this is odd since modern people still basically have the same genes as their early hunter-gatherers ancestors. This raises the question of what had evolved, the ticket, in those early humans that gave them to the potential to change later on so radically. + +==== NP + PC Formula ==== +The evolution of human intelligence is expressed in a Neural Plasticity + Prefrontal Cortex formula that is progressively elaborated: +NP + PC + ape mind = human mind +NP + PC + fission-fusion ape social skills = human social symbols +NP + PC + ape sensory and motor skills = human nonsocial symbols +NP + PC + FF ape skills + symbols + 109 hours = contemporary mind +NP + PC + mindware + braintech = future mind + +=== Neuroscience === + +==== Cognitive stand-ins ==== +Symbols adapt already evolved functions to create novel ones by replacing their evolved inputs and outputs with nonevolved representations. Reading and writing are such new functions that rewire the functions of visual, speech and other cortical areas by letters and logogram stand-ins. + +==== Cortical catalyst ==== +Chemical catalysts work by creating chemical bonds by bringing existing substances into reaction using intermediaries, and by temporal and spatial conjunction. The prefrontal cortex works similarly upon information processing happening elsewhere in the brain through creating working memory space. This space allows novel intermediary forms of association to be created and held together between different information processing systems in the brain. This process is essential to the formation of symbols and symbol based cognition. + +==== Free cortex ==== +Due to brain enlargement in humans, most of the human cerebral cortex lacks tightly evolved functions and so is open to acquire nonevolved skills. Even highly evolved cortical areas such as the primary visual and auditory cortices can to a surprising degree take on new functions. Semantics can develop in the visual cortex of those born blind, and vision can develop in the auditory cortex in experimental animals when retinal input is redirected into it. The association areas of the cerebral cortex lack the input constraints of primary areas. As a result, they are even more open to acquire novel cognitive capabilities. + +==== Memory headers ==== +John Morton has proposed that memories are organized by headed records. The function of the hippocampus is suggested to be providing such headers for memory. They also underlie the human capacity to experience in spite of superficial changes the continuity of self, other and place. + +==== Pain as benevolent dictator ==== +Pain is argued to be a protective attentive envelope (see below) that temporary acts to protect injured or easily injured parts of the body from actions controlled by the brain. + +==== Protective attentive envelopes ==== +Aircraft have flight envelope protection systems that stop pilots acting in a manner that might harm the aircraft but which allow them to make quick but safe actions. The anterior cingulate cortex is argued to act as a “hidden observer” over what we do “attention-to-action” and it provides a similar function for humans. These envelopes underlie the experience of self-consciousness, anxiety and pain. + +=== Social neuroscience === + +==== Limbic symbolons ==== +Symbolons were ancient Greek tokens or insignia by which people who were bonded could spot each other (the word comes from the Greek “symballein” which means “to throw together”). The problem of social primates is to create bonds that are flexible yet also allow prolonged separation. Limbic symbolons are symbols that enable emotional attachments established in other apes by smell, grooming and to some degree sight, to cope with physical separation by an internal (mental name) or external (wedding ring) stand-in that is always cognitively present. Limbic symbols are usually publicly defined (another advantage) and acquired in rituals. “Early hominid environments were dangerous and food resources patchy and irregular, which placed a premium on individuals able to exploit kin relations and extend social links beyond the immediate present. Such pressures promoted symbolism, originally to stand for kin recognition and social relationships, enabling these to be maintained over time and space even when the relevant individuals were absent. These developments in turn lead to more complex social networks and the cognitive abilities to exploit these.” \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up_from_Dragons-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up_from_Dragons-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1f2a5e4d1 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up_from_Dragons-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,69 @@ +--- +title: "Up from Dragons" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up_from_Dragons" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:55.766972+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +==== Nonimmediate sociability ==== +Two kinds of sociability exist: immediate and nonimmediate. The former depends upon sensory interaction with others such as smell, touch, sound or vision. Nonimmediate depends upon carrying the experience of the group within the head. Such sociability is already present in apes and is due to processes called mindmakers. But due to the modification of these mindmakers with symbolons, sociability in groups has become highly developed in humans. The combination of symbols and mindmakers created social mindware. + +==== Mindmakers ==== +These are “processes that weave this sense we all have of being a ‘me. .. give existence its animated feel, the feeling of being alive. They are clues to understanding such things as our freedom and the links between the prefrontal cortex’s inner cues and our hidden sociability’”. Mindmakers evolved to enable animals to remain part of a social group when separated. Mindmaker processes are identified in the anterior cingulate cortex (protective attentive envelopes), hippocampus (continuity), orbitofrontal cortex (social right and wrong). Mindmakers are present in other animals but only in humans have they become extensively elaborated. They also provide the neural substrate for cultural symbolism and so the human ability to sustain socially defined groups and personal bonds. + +==== Mindware ==== +Mindware is the symbolic counterpart of mindmakers. The concept differs from that of memes in the way that the descriptive notion of a “bridge” differs from that of specified engineering types of bridges (suspension, cantilever, arch and so on). In the latter, what transmits is understood in terms of the specific engineering processes that support that transmission rather than the general idea of transmission. The use of a wedding ring is a meme when viewed from the perspective of transmitted culture, but it is mindware when viewed from the neurological changes it makes to the attachment processes in the brain that sustain the emotional bond of marriage. The acquisition of social mindware is closely linked with rituals. In mindware “the human ape found a brain programming language to bond across time and place—symbolic culture. This was to change forever what it meant to be a brain. Now the human mind could live in thousands of varieties of life. …with their mindware humans set themselves apart from other animals and the rest of nature”. + +==== Social embodiment ==== +The subjective sense of embodiment in our extended physical body relates to its capacity to act through it and so interact with the autonomous physical world. The human brain also acts within the autonomous world of social relationships. This social embodiment gives rise to a sense of social “me” . Consciousness is the embodied attention of the brain to its causality in such social relationships and the physical world. + +==== Superfission-fusion ape ==== +The sociability of social apes is fission-fusion. In this members of a group regularly separate into small subgroups (fission) but at the same time still belong to the same group (fusion). Human are unique in the robust ability of their bonds to survive prolonged physical separation. This is due to symbols. Another factor is that these bonds can be publicly defined and so create symbolic culture. This makes humans a superfission-fusion ape. + +=== Humanities === + +==== Brain Age ==== +The Era that will follow the present one will be the Brain Age. In this neuroscience will replace the ancient myths that at present shape how people understand themselves. Further, braintech (see below) will arise that enables humans to reshape the competences of their brain. This Era will continue the reshaping of our species that has happened since its origins 120,000 years ago. Braintech represents the last frontier faced by the human species. + +==== Brain Rights ==== +Humans are social primates who use superficial differences (such as skin pigmentation) or symbols based upon ancient myth to identify their group membership. Brains offer a firmer foundation for our identity since they underlie the core of who we are in our shared “vulnerability, richness, history, and giftedness”. Understanding this is our true nature. It follows that “Each of our brains should be guaranteed the right to grow unhandicapped and supplied with the best possible nurture and support”, and “a gifted environment sensitive to its uniqueness”. + +==== Braintech ==== +Humans from early on when using stone tools have created technologies that have enhanced their abilities. This will continue with the still unexplored potential of the brain. One area is awareness of its hidden functioning as this is needed to better train it. The future of present functional imaging is proposed to be akin to that of computers as in the 1960s. Like such past computers such technology will spiral down in price and convenience so that this braintech (like computers today) will become an essential part of everyday human life. + +== Criticisms == +Fails to link with earlier work upon “cognitive ergonomics”.p. 143 +The description of the prefrontal cortex “begs for more commentary on their likely causes, consequences, and context”.p. 143 +Fails to discuss helping behavior before “primate or even mammalian sociality emerged”.p. 144 +Should have explored cost/benefits of sociosexual selection.p. 146 +Lacks “an unambiguous definition of mindware … the resemblance to (if not identity with) ‘culture’ needs to be explored”.p. 146 +The field of psychoneuroendocrinology and the developmental forces such as sensitive periods and behavior genetics is neglected.p. 147 +Its account of consciousness which depends upon coherence does not explain “possession, dissociation, out-of-body experiences and addictions”.p. 279 +“The authors seem to fall all too easily into a simplistic materialism”.p. 279 +The notion of Brain Age is wrong: “It is not the brain age, but the mind age, the culture age, the dawning realization of our capacity to program our brain to do many different things.p. 279 +Lacks anatomical and flowchart illustrations. +Does not discuss the work of Leda Cosmides and John Tooby nor Steven Mithen. + +== See also == +Behavioral modernity +Evolution of human intelligence +Human condition +Human nature +Memes +Nature versus nurture +Tabula rasa +Triune brain +Symbolic Species by Terrence Deacon +Blank Slate by Steven Pinker + +== Footnotes == + +== Editions == +Skoyles, J. R. and Sagan, D. (2003) Il drago nello specchio. L'evoluzione dell'intelligenza umana dal big bang al terzo millennio. Sironi, Milan, ISBN 978-88-518-0023-9 + +== External links == +Human existence John Skoyles website +Book summary Archived 2008-12-09 at the Wayback Machine at Les automates intelligents robotique, vie artificielle, réalité virtuelle \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Is_Life-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Is_Life-0.md index 766685b91..48b9af009 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Is_Life-0.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Is_Life-0.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/3 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Is_Life?" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:31:53.548785+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:27.710753+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Is_Life-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Is_Life-1.md index 98c39528e..83969244c 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Is_Life-1.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Is_Life-1.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 2/3 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Is_Life?" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:31:53.548785+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:27.710753+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Is_Life-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Is_Life-2.md index b5eb03be5..a6e2d0b81 100644 --- a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Is_Life-2.md +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Is_Life-2.md @@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 3/3 source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_Is_Life?" category: "reference" tags: "science, encyclopedia" -date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:31:53.548785+00:00" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:52:27.710753+00:00" instance: "kb-cron" --- diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_We_Sleep-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_We_Sleep-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..e95410c6f --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_We_Sleep-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,22 @@ +--- +title: "Why We Sleep" +chunk: 1/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_We_Sleep" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:56.918854+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Why We Sleep: The New Science of Sleep and Dreams is a 2017 popular science book about sleep written by Matthew Walker, from England, who is a professor of neuroscience and psychology and the director of the Center for Human Sleep Science at the University of California, Berkeley. In the book, Walker discusses the importance of sleeping, the side effects of failing to do so, and its impact on society. +The book asserts that sleep deprivation is linked to numerous fatal diseases, including dementia. +Why We Sleep became a New York Times and Sunday Times bestseller. The book received generally positive reviews from mainstream critics, while also garnering criticism from academics for making broad or unfounded claims and alarmism. + +== Background == +According to Walker, who had never written a book at the time, he was motivated to write the book after an encounter with a woman who glanced at his work related to sleep and its benefits for health, stating, "When that comes out, I want to read it". Walker described this encounter as a sincere "independent ratification" that made him write the book. The book took Walker roughly four and a half years to write. Walker and his team spent roughly 20 years studying the rejuvenating ability sleep has. Walker's communication style, in which he makes use of "metaphors and analogies effectively", allowed him to explain ideas related to sleep in detail. + +At 18 years of age, Walker, who was a medical student at the time, became an "accidental sleep researcher" and moved over to studying neuroscience because of his habit of asking many questions. It was during his PhD at London's Medical Research Council when Walker learned about how little information there was on sleep. A scientific paper helped Walker with his research after his failure to determine the differences of brainwave activity between various dementia found in people, with the paper's contents describing the areas of the brain each variant of dementia attacks. It was then Walker realized that in order to measure his patients' brainwave patterns properly, they need to be asleep. Walker spent six months teaching himself how to set up his sleep laboratory, which allowed him to voice his findings on sleep differences amongst his patients. +Walker noted that many people misinterpret the amount of sleep they actually receive, likely caused by deep thought during the light sleep phases. Following the release of the book, Walker went on to describe his book as having the potential to make readers sleep and jokingly admitted to being concerned to hear if his book kept people awake at night. + +== Contents == +The book is written from a neuroscientific view, mainly devoted to discussing the impact of sleep on the functions of the human brain. It is divided into four parts, focusing on how sleep works, its benefits, the reason for dreams and sleep issues surrounding society. The book is written so that it does not need to be read sequentially. Walker discusses the effects of the widespread loss of sleep, with the goal for readers to endeavour to achieve eight hours of sleep once they learn about the connection of sleep loss to other health issues, such as Alzheimer's disease. Also explained by Walker is why adults who sleep for less than 6 hours at the age of 40 and over, have a higher chance of suffering a cardiac arrest or a stroke during their lifetime. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_We_Sleep-1.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_We_Sleep-1.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..1af6a7fa3 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_We_Sleep-1.md @@ -0,0 +1,15 @@ +--- +title: "Why We Sleep" +chunk: 2/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_We_Sleep" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:56.918854+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +"Sleep pressure and circadian rhythms", the driving forces and the framework of sleep, are brought up in the book. Other sleep behaviors, such as rapid eye movement sleep (REM) and non-rapid eye movement sleep (NREM), and the impact sleep has on "synaptic pruning" and the creation of memories during a human's lifespan are also covered. REM and NREM are further explained as the two sleeping basics, with 5 cycles present in a good night sleep. The book mentions "morning types" and "evening types" of people, with Walker writing about how spending less time sleeping benefited human predecessors who slept in groups due to being safer. +The book emphasises the significance of having a good night's sleep without a feeling of uneasiness, or guilt of laziness. Walker defines insomnia as a disorder usually related to an overwrought, commiserating nervous system that's usually caused by being anxious. He goes on to address the PTSD victims' nightmares, stating that their dreams' ability to heal them by easing the emotions connected to a distressing memory, is affected by a larger quantity of noradrenaline being created. Walker also believes that dreams carry information regarding fundamental emotions, while admitting that they can be quite apparent, resulting in no explanations required to describe them. +The values of sleep and the consequences of sleep deprivation are also brought up. One particular research was conducted where people volunteered to sleep for only six hours in a span of 10 nights. This resulted in the volunteers being "cognitively impaired" along with their brains being heavily damaged, regardless of the three week eight-hour sleep schedule they received later. Actions carried out by sleep-deprived people, such as answering emails at every hour of a day, are brought to question in the book. Walker wrote that research proves that sleeping after studying allows for "memory, integration and retention benefits" to occur. He further wrote that sleeping has the ability to retain memories and amend the abilities of human learning. Many organizations who value creativity, productiveness and resilient workers, give them a "sleep bonus", with the amount of extra sleep received being determined through electronic monitoring. Walker noted that companies are changing their workplaces by allowing more "flexible working" and comfort zones for people to rest. +Walker's research on what impacts sleep is discussed, with temperature's influence being one. A five-step guideline is included that explains how to prevent "self-euthanasia" due to missing sleep. The guideline also brings up "individual-level transformation" and a reformation of society. The book teaches the basics of the neurological and biological function of sleep. The impact of caffeine on sleep is in the book, with Walker noting its effects on the adenosine that allows people to fall asleep. It is further explained that caffeine takes more time to exit the body as we age, with younger people having the ability to break caffeine down faster. +Walker wrote the book in a "reader-friendly" way in areas such as discussing neuroscientific techniques and how they were created. The book ends with Walker's advice for better sleep through 12 tips, with one of them to have a single eight-to-nine hour period of sleep. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_We_Sleep-2.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_We_Sleep-2.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..5840ec5fe --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_We_Sleep-2.md @@ -0,0 +1,25 @@ +--- +title: "Why We Sleep" +chunk: 3/3 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Why_We_Sleep" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:56.918854+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +== Critical reception == +Why We Sleep has garnered a generally positive reception from critics. The book would go on to make Walker famous in his field of expertise. The book became an international bestseller, including a #1 on the Sunday Times Bestseller in the UK, and a #8 on the New York Times Bestseller. It received numerous other reviews, including the Guardian, BBC, NPR, Financial Times, UC Berkeley and Kirkus Reviews. Critics praised the book for Walker's convincing studies on the importance of sleep and its impact on society. +Seithikurippu R. Pandi-Perumal praised Walker's structuring of the book, calling it informative, organised and intelligibly written while noting its informative yet reader-friendly nature. In a review from Bill Gates, he noted that the book teaches about the importance of sleeping, despite some points in the book not being convincing. He also noted that the book aided him in sleeping better, pointing out that it took a longer time to finish the book as he followed Walker's word on putting the book down to go to sleep. Kylie O'Brien's review described the book as "beautifully written" and filled with scientific facts that clarifies the question its title asks. +A review by Christopher Torrens in The Physiological Society described the book as informative and helpful, noting the book's evidence related to the consequences of having little to no sleep. He praised the book's style and formatting of being able to be read "from cover to cover or by cherry-picking chapters in whatever order you choose". Ruth Armstrong wrote that the book was loaded with recent research towards sleep, noting the change in his sleeping patterns. +Criticism surrounding the book involved concern about statistical errors in the book and the alarmism it generated in some readers. A review from Alexey Guzey, an independent researcher, criticized the book in an essay entitled Matthew Walker's "Why We Sleep" Is Riddled with Scientific and Factual Errors. The criticism was discussed on the BBC series More or Less. Guzey's criticism was also discussed by Andrew Gelman, a statistician at Columbia University. In a later post on Columbia's statistics blog, Gelman indicated that Walker's purported removal of a bar from a graph could be a "smoking gun," commenting that it entered "research misconduct" territory. Walker posted his responses to these and other criticisms in 2019 on his own blog. +The book's failure to answer its own title 'Why We Sleep' has been criticised, with renowned sleep researcher William Dement commenting that people only need sleep due to the sleepiness accumulated. Anu Valtonen found fault in the book naming neuroscience as "the science that provides the knowledge of sleep and dreams" and its overlooking of other disciplinary areas related to sleep. She also criticised the book for lacking certain information on sleep, such as the "social aspects" of sleep or "socio-historical" route of sleep hygiene. Rosa Breed criticised Walker's lack of references when writing the book, noting that there was no proof in certain statements made by him, such as Walker's suggestion of sleeping for eight hours as a necessity. Jonathan Hawken felt that some of the book's contents were rather selective, criticising the book's lack of in-depth analysis towards the effect of sleep apnea. + +== Controversies == +The book has spawned controversy related to Walker's belief that the amount of sleep received worldwide has decreased. A researcher on sleep, Jim Horne, disagreed with the idea regarding how people are weighed down by a lack of sleep and that everybody was required to sleep for at least eight hours. Bill Gates wrote that he did not "buy into" Walker's claim that sleep and Alzheimer's disease have a strong connection to each other. Anu Valtonen voiced her concern regarding the speculation the book makes when taking a neuroscientific stance on the main insights into how sleep and dreams function. +Some critics felt that Walker's way of writing made the book feel similar to a horror story. Rosa Breed felt that some ideas brought up by Walker in the book were thought to be disturbing, noting Walker's suggestion for having people's sleeping behaviours be measured by "health insurance companies" to be prying. Some of Walker's claims were based on laboratory studies without supporting real-world evidence, making them questionable to critics. + +== References == + +== External links == +Walker, Matthew (October 3, 2017). Why We Sleep: The New Science of Sleep and Dreams. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 9781501144318. Retrieved March 9, 2022. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wild_Animals_I_Have_Known-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wild_Animals_I_Have_Known-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..dbecbf6ae --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wild_Animals_I_Have_Known-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,42 @@ +--- +title: "Wild Animals I Have Known" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wild_Animals_I_Have_Known" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:13.381143+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Wild Animals I Have Known is an 1898 book by naturalist and author Ernest Thompson Seton. The first entry in a new genre of realistic wild-animal fiction, Seton's first collection of short stories quickly became one of the most popular books of its day. "Lobo the King of Currumpaw", the first story in the collection, was based upon Seton's experience hunting wolves in the southwestern United States. It became a classic, setting the tone for his future works that would similarly depict animals—especially predators who were often demonized in literature—as compassionate, individualistic beings. +Several years after its publication, Seton and his works came under fire during the nature fakers controversy, which began in 1903 when naturalist John Burroughs published an essay called "Real and Sham Natural History" in The Atlantic Monthly. In particular Burroughs blamed Seton's collection of stories for founding the sentimental animal story genre, which he felt featured fabricated events and wild animal behaviors; he even amended the title of the collection to Wild Animals I Alone Have Known. + + +== Contents == +Lobo, the King of Currumpaw +Silverspot, the Story of a Crow +Raggylug, the Story of a Cottontail Rabbit +Bingo, the Story of My Dog +The Springfield Fox +The Pacing Mustang +Wully, the Story of a Yaller Dog +Redruff, the Story of the Don Valley Partridge + + +== Reception == +The book was an immediate critical and commercial success. Science called it "original in conception and execution", praised Seton for treating the animals as characters rather than objects, and recommended it for both general readers and natural history enthusiasts. Ornithology (known at the time as The Auk) called it "as pleasing as it is original" and recommended it despite only two of the stories focusing on birds. The Auk took note of Seton's use of anthropomorphism: "In the lives of these 'dumb creatures' there is something pathetically human, that appeals to the reader's sympathies, and shows how much there is in man and beast that is shared in common. By 1901, the book had gone through eight editions. +Seton's accompanying artwork was especially well-received. The Auk said that the drawing in the margins were "suggestive and appropriate", while Science called the margins "so skillfully executed as to make it possible to follow certain parts of the story merely by the illustrations." Some of Seton's illustrations were displayed at Frederick Keppel's gallery. + + +=== Nature fakers controversy === +In his 1903 essay "Real and Sham Natural History", John Burroughs initiated the nature fakers controversy, in which he accused other nature writers of lying about animal behavior in their writings. Seton was one of the essay's targets; Burroughs joked that a more appropriate title for the book would be "Wild Animals I Alone Have Known." He went on to list several grievances he had with Seton's claims, such as the idea that animals punish their young for misbehaving, or that a vixen would encourage her trapped kit to commit suicide by poisoning. Burroughs especially took offense to "Silverspot, the Story of a Crow", in which Seton claimed that crows can count and have specific calls which correlate to certain English words. + + +== References == + + +== External links == +Wild Animals I Have Known at Standard Ebooks +Wild Animals I Have Known at Faded Page (Canada) +Seton Legacy Project Academy for the Love of Learning + Wild Animals I Have Known public domain audiobook at LibriVox \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zen_and_the_Brain-0.md b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zen_and_the_Brain-0.md new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d3a5cc452 --- /dev/null +++ b/data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zen_and_the_Brain-0.md @@ -0,0 +1,29 @@ +--- +title: "Zen and the Brain" +chunk: 1/1 +source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zen_and_the_Brain" +category: "reference" +tags: "science, encyclopedia" +date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:50:59.207860+00:00" +instance: "kb-cron" +--- + +Zen and the Brain: Toward an Understanding of Meditation and Consciousness is a 1998 book by neurologist and Zen practitioner James H. Austin, in which the author attempts to establish links between the neurological workings of the human brain and meditation. The eventual goal would be to establish mechanisms by which meditation induces changes in the activity of the brain, which in turn induces a state of mental clarity. For example, Austin presents evidence from EEG scans that deep relaxed breathing reduces brain activity. +The publishers described their book as a "Comprehensive text on the evidence from neuroscience that helps to clarify which brain mechanisms underlie the subjective states of Zen, and employs Zen to 'illuminate' how the brain works in various states of consciousness". Austin starts with a discussion of Zen Buddhism, its goals, and practices. Having laid this groundwork, he then turns to explore the neurological basis of consciousness. +Austin wrote a follow-up, Zen-Brain Reflections. + + +== See also == +Neurotheology +Rational mysticism + + +== References == +James H. Austin, Zen and the Brain: Toward an Understanding of Meditation and Consciousness. Reprint edition July 2, 1999. MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-51109-6 +James H. Austin, Zen-Brain Reflections. First edition February 14, 2006. MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-01223-5 + + +== External links == +Your Brain on Religion: Mystic visions or brain circuits at work? (Newsweek article on Austin and neurotheology, May 2001) +Interview with the author (James H. Austin, M.D. discusses Zen and the Brain) +Excerpts from the book \ No newline at end of file