Scrape wikipedia-science: 2384 new, 2694 updated, 5201 total (kb-cron)
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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_accounting_articles-0.md
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---
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title: "Index of accounting articles"
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chunk: 1/1
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source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_accounting_articles"
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category: "reference"
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tags: "science, encyclopedia"
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date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:36.783155+00:00"
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instance: "kb-cron"
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---
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This page is an index of accounting topics.
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== A ==
|
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Accounting ethics - Accounting information system - Accounting research - Activity-Based Costing - Assets
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|
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== B ==
|
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Balance sheet
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- Big Four auditors
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- Bond
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- Bookkeeping
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- Book value
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|
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|
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== C ==
|
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Cash-basis accounting
|
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- Cash-basis versus accrual-basis accounting
|
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- Cash flow statement
|
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- Certified General Accountant
|
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- Certified Management Accountants
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- Certified Public Accountant
|
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- Chartered accountant
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- Chart of accounts
|
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- Common stock
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- Comprehensive income
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- Construction accounting
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- Convention of conservatism
|
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- Convention of disclosure
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- Cost accounting
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- Cost of capital
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- Cost of goods sold
|
||||
- Creative accounting
|
||||
- Credit
|
||||
- Credit note
|
||||
- Current asset
|
||||
- Current liability
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||||
|
||||
|
||||
== D ==
|
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Debitcapital reserve
|
||||
- Debit note
|
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- Debt
|
||||
- Deficit (disambiguation)
|
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- Depreciation
|
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- Diluted earnings per share
|
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- Dividend
|
||||
- Double-entry bookkeeping system
|
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- Dual aspect
|
||||
|
||||
|
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== E ==
|
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E-accounting
|
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- EBIT
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- EBITDA
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- Earnings per share
|
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- Engagement Letter
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- Entity concept
|
||||
- Environmental accounting
|
||||
- Expense
|
||||
- Equity
|
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- Equivalent Annual Cost
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== F ==
|
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Financial Accounting Standards Board
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- Financial accountancy
|
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- Financial audit
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||||
- Financial reports
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- Financial statements
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- Fixed assets
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- Fixed assets management
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- Forensic accounting
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||||
- Fraud deterrence
|
||||
- Free cash flow
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- Fund accounting
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||||
|
||||
|
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== G ==
|
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Gain
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- General ledger
|
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- Generally Accepted Accounting Principles
|
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- Going concern
|
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- Goodwill
|
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- Governmental Accounting Standards Board
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|
||||
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== H ==
|
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Historical cost - History of accounting
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||||
|
||||
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== I ==
|
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Income
|
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- Income statement
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- Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales
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- Institute of Chartered Accountants of Scotland
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- Institute of Management Accountants
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||||
- Intangible asset
|
||||
- Interest
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||||
- Internal audit
|
||||
- International Accounting Standards Board
|
||||
- International Accounting Standards Committee
|
||||
- International Accounting Standards
|
||||
- International Federation of Accountants
|
||||
- International Financial Reporting Standards
|
||||
- Inventory
|
||||
- Investment
|
||||
- Invoices
|
||||
- Indian Accounting Standards
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== J ==
|
||||
Job costing
|
||||
- Journal
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||||
|
||||
|
||||
== L ==
|
||||
Lean accounting
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||||
- Ledger
|
||||
- Liability
|
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- Long-term asset
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- Long-term liabilities
|
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- Loss on sale of residential property
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||||
|
||||
|
||||
== M ==
|
||||
Maker-checker
|
||||
- Management accounting
|
||||
- Management Assertions
|
||||
- Mark-to-market accounting
|
||||
- Matching principle
|
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- Materiality
|
||||
- Money measurement concept
|
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- Mortgage loan
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|
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|
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== N ==
|
||||
Negative assurance
|
||||
- Net income
|
||||
- Notes to the Financial Statements - net worth
|
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|
||||
|
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== O ==
|
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OBERAC
|
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- One-for-one checking
|
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- Online Accounting
|
||||
- Operating expense
|
||||
- Ownership equity
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== P ==
|
||||
Payroll
|
||||
- Petty cash
|
||||
- Philosophy of Accounting
|
||||
- Preferred stock
|
||||
- P/E ratio
|
||||
- Positive accounting
|
||||
- Positive assurance
|
||||
- PricewaterhouseCoopers
|
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- Profit and loss account
|
||||
- Pro-forma amount
|
||||
- Production accounting
|
||||
- Project accounting
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== R ==
|
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Retained earnings
|
||||
- Revenue
|
||||
- Revenue recognition
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== S ==
|
||||
Sales journal
|
||||
- Security
|
||||
- Social accounting
|
||||
- Spreadsheet
|
||||
- Statement of changes in equity
|
||||
- Statutory accounting principles
|
||||
- Stock option
|
||||
- Stock split
|
||||
- Share capital
|
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- Shareholder
|
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- Shareholders' equity
|
||||
- South African Institute of Chartered Accountants
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- Sunk cost
|
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== T ==
|
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Three lines of defence
|
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- Throughput accounting
|
||||
- Trade credit
|
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- Treasury stock
|
||||
- Trial balance
|
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== U ==
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UK generally accepted accounting principles
|
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- Unified Ledger Accounting
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- U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission
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- US generally accepted accounting principles
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- Work sheet
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- Write off
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== See also ==
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Outline of accounting
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Outline of business
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Outline of economics
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Outline of management
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Outline of marketing
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Outline of production
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Index of auditing-related articles
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507
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_linguistics_articles-0.md
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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_linguistics_articles-0.md
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---
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title: "Index of linguistics articles"
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chunk: 1/1
|
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source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_linguistics_articles"
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category: "reference"
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tags: "science, encyclopedia"
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date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:57.009286+00:00"
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instance: "kb-cron"
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---
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Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. Someone who engages in this study is called a linguist.
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== A ==
|
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Abbreviation -
|
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Abessive case -
|
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Ablaut -
|
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Absolutive case -
|
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Abugida -
|
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Accusative case -
|
||||
Acute accent -
|
||||
Accent (phonetics) -
|
||||
Accent (sociolinguistics) -
|
||||
Acronym -
|
||||
Adessive case -
|
||||
Adjective -
|
||||
Adjunct -
|
||||
Adposition -
|
||||
Adpositional phrase -
|
||||
Adverb -
|
||||
Adverbial -
|
||||
Adverbial phrase -
|
||||
Affix -
|
||||
Affricate consonant -
|
||||
Agglutination -
|
||||
Agglutinative language -
|
||||
Allative case -
|
||||
Allomorph -
|
||||
Allophone -
|
||||
Alphabet -
|
||||
Analytic language -
|
||||
Anaphora -
|
||||
Animacy -
|
||||
Anthropological linguistics -
|
||||
Alveolar consonant -
|
||||
Antonym -
|
||||
Aorist -
|
||||
Applied linguistics -
|
||||
Approximant -
|
||||
Areal feature -
|
||||
Article -
|
||||
Articulatory gestures -
|
||||
Articulatory phonetics -
|
||||
Aspect -
|
||||
Asterisk -
|
||||
Attrition -
|
||||
Attraction -
|
||||
Augment (Bantu languages) -
|
||||
Augment (Indo-European) -
|
||||
Auxiliary verb
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== B ==
|
||||
Back-formation -
|
||||
Backronym -
|
||||
Bilabial consonant -
|
||||
Breathy voice -
|
||||
Breve
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C ==
|
||||
Calque -
|
||||
Capitalization -
|
||||
Capitonym -
|
||||
Cardinal vowel -
|
||||
Case -
|
||||
Case in tiers -
|
||||
Cedilla -
|
||||
Chiasmus -
|
||||
Circumfix -
|
||||
Circumflex -
|
||||
Clefting -
|
||||
Click consonant -
|
||||
Closed-class word -
|
||||
Cognate -
|
||||
Cognitive science -
|
||||
Coherence -
|
||||
Colloquialism -
|
||||
Comitative case -
|
||||
Comparative -
|
||||
Comparative linguistics -
|
||||
Comparative method -
|
||||
Compound noun and adjective -
|
||||
Compound verb -
|
||||
Computer-assisted language learning -
|
||||
Computational linguistics -
|
||||
Conjugation -
|
||||
Conjunct -
|
||||
Conjunction -
|
||||
Consonant -
|
||||
Constructed language -
|
||||
Context -
|
||||
Contrastive analysis -
|
||||
Contrastive linguistics -
|
||||
Conversation analysis -
|
||||
Copula -
|
||||
Corpus linguistics -
|
||||
Cranberry morpheme -
|
||||
Creaky voice -
|
||||
Creole language -
|
||||
Cryptanalysis -
|
||||
Cuneiform
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== D ==
|
||||
Dangling modifier -
|
||||
Dative case -
|
||||
Decipherment -
|
||||
Declension -
|
||||
Defective verb -
|
||||
Descriptive linguistics -
|
||||
Dental consonant -
|
||||
Derivation -
|
||||
Determiner -
|
||||
Diacritic -
|
||||
Diaeresis -
|
||||
Dialect -
|
||||
Dictionary -
|
||||
Diphthong -
|
||||
Diplomatics -
|
||||
Discourse -
|
||||
Disjunct -
|
||||
Dislocation -
|
||||
Double acute accent -
|
||||
Dual grammatical number
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== E ==
|
||||
Eggcorn -
|
||||
Ecolinguistics -
|
||||
Elative case -
|
||||
Endangered language -
|
||||
English pronunciation -
|
||||
Entailment -
|
||||
Ergative case -
|
||||
Error -
|
||||
Essive case -
|
||||
Ethnologue -
|
||||
Etymology -
|
||||
Etymologist -
|
||||
Eurolinguistics -
|
||||
Evolution of languages -
|
||||
Evolutionary linguistics -
|
||||
Example-based machine translation -
|
||||
Exegesis -
|
||||
Expletive -
|
||||
Expletive attributive
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== F ==
|
||||
False cognate -
|
||||
False friend -
|
||||
Figleaf-
|
||||
Formal language -
|
||||
Fricative consonant -
|
||||
Function word -
|
||||
Fusional language -
|
||||
Future perfect -
|
||||
Future tense
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== G ==
|
||||
Gender -
|
||||
General semantics -
|
||||
Genitive case -
|
||||
Germanic umlaut -
|
||||
Gerund -
|
||||
Glottal consonant -
|
||||
Glottal stop -
|
||||
Glottochronology -
|
||||
Government -
|
||||
Grammar -
|
||||
Grammatical gender -
|
||||
Grammatical mood -
|
||||
Grammatical number -
|
||||
Grammatical voice -
|
||||
Grave accent -
|
||||
Great consonant shift -
|
||||
Great Vowel Shift -
|
||||
Grimm's law -
|
||||
Guttural consonant
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== H ==
|
||||
Hacek -
|
||||
Heaps' law -
|
||||
Hermeneutics -
|
||||
Hiatus (linguistics) -
|
||||
High rising terminal -
|
||||
Historical-comparative linguistics -
|
||||
Historical linguistics -
|
||||
History of linguistics -
|
||||
Homonym -
|
||||
Hypernym -
|
||||
Hyponym
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== I ==
|
||||
I-mutation -
|
||||
Ideogram -
|
||||
Idiolect -
|
||||
Idiom -
|
||||
Illative case -
|
||||
Impersonal pronoun -
|
||||
Impersonal verb -
|
||||
Implication (pragmatics) -
|
||||
Indo-European languages -
|
||||
Inessive case -
|
||||
Infinitive -
|
||||
Infix -
|
||||
Inflected language -
|
||||
Inflection -
|
||||
Initialism -
|
||||
Initial-stress-derived noun -
|
||||
Instructive case -
|
||||
Interjection -
|
||||
Interactional linguistics -
|
||||
International Phonetic Alphabet -
|
||||
IPA chart for English -
|
||||
Irregular verb
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== J ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== K ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== L ==
|
||||
Labiodental consonant -
|
||||
Langue and parole -
|
||||
Language -
|
||||
Language acquisition -
|
||||
Language attrition -
|
||||
Language education -
|
||||
Language families and languages -
|
||||
Language game -
|
||||
The Language Instinct -
|
||||
Language isolate -
|
||||
Laryngeal theory -
|
||||
Lateral consonant -
|
||||
Lemma -
|
||||
Lexeme -
|
||||
Lexical semantics -
|
||||
Lexicography -
|
||||
Lexicology -
|
||||
Lexicon -
|
||||
Linguist -
|
||||
Linguistic anthropology -
|
||||
Linguistic ecology -
|
||||
Linguistic layers -
|
||||
Linguistic relativity -
|
||||
Linguistics -
|
||||
Linguistics basic topics -
|
||||
Liquid consonant -
|
||||
List of linguists -
|
||||
Loanword -
|
||||
Locative case
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== M ==
|
||||
Machine translation -
|
||||
macron -
|
||||
Manner of articulation -
|
||||
Mass noun -
|
||||
Mathematical linguistics -
|
||||
Meaning -
|
||||
Meronymy -
|
||||
Metathesis -
|
||||
Minimal pair -
|
||||
Mispronunciation -
|
||||
Modality -
|
||||
Mood -
|
||||
Mora -
|
||||
Morpheme -
|
||||
Morphology -
|
||||
Mutual intelligibility
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== N ==
|
||||
Nasal consonant -
|
||||
Nasal stop -
|
||||
Natural language -
|
||||
Natural language processing -
|
||||
Natural language understanding -
|
||||
Negative raising -
|
||||
Neologism -
|
||||
Neurolinguistics -
|
||||
Nomenclature -
|
||||
Nominative case -
|
||||
Noun -
|
||||
Noun phrase -
|
||||
Null morpheme
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== O ==
|
||||
Onomasiology -
|
||||
Onomatopoeia -
|
||||
Open class word -
|
||||
Optimality theory -
|
||||
Origin of language -
|
||||
Orthography -
|
||||
Object–subject–verb -
|
||||
Object–verb–subject -
|
||||
Oxytone
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== P ==
|
||||
Palatal consonant -
|
||||
Paradigm -
|
||||
Paroxytone -
|
||||
Part of speech -
|
||||
Participle -
|
||||
Particle -
|
||||
Partitive case -
|
||||
Past tense -
|
||||
Perfect (grammar) -
|
||||
Persuasion -
|
||||
Pharyngeal consonant -
|
||||
Philology -
|
||||
Philosophy of language -
|
||||
Phonation -
|
||||
Phone -
|
||||
Phonetics -
|
||||
Phonetic complement -
|
||||
Phonetic transcription -
|
||||
Phonology -
|
||||
Phoneme -
|
||||
Phonemics -
|
||||
Phrase -
|
||||
Phrase structure rules -
|
||||
Pidgin -
|
||||
Place of articulation -
|
||||
Pleonasm -
|
||||
Pluperfect -
|
||||
Polysemy -
|
||||
Polysynthetic language -
|
||||
Portmanteau -
|
||||
Possessive case -
|
||||
Postalveolar consonant -
|
||||
Postposition -
|
||||
Pragmatics -
|
||||
Prefix -
|
||||
Preposition -
|
||||
Prepositional phrase -
|
||||
Prescription and description -
|
||||
Present tense -
|
||||
Presupposition -
|
||||
Preterite -
|
||||
Principles of interpretation -
|
||||
Profanity -
|
||||
Prolative case -
|
||||
Pronoun -
|
||||
Pronunciation -
|
||||
Prosody (linguistics) -
|
||||
Proparoxytone -
|
||||
Pseudo-acronym -
|
||||
Pseudo-Anglicism -
|
||||
Psycholinguistics -
|
||||
Punctuation
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Q ==
|
||||
Quirky subject
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== R ==
|
||||
Radical -
|
||||
Retroflex consonant -
|
||||
Retronym -
|
||||
Rhetoric -
|
||||
Rhotics -
|
||||
Romanization -
|
||||
Rounded vowel
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== S ==
|
||||
SAMPA -
|
||||
Schwa -
|
||||
Second language -
|
||||
Semantics -
|
||||
Semantic class -
|
||||
Semantic feature -
|
||||
Semantic property -
|
||||
Semiotics -
|
||||
Semivowel -
|
||||
Sentence -
|
||||
Sentence function -
|
||||
Shall -
|
||||
Sign -
|
||||
Sign language -
|
||||
Sociolinguistics -
|
||||
Sociolect -
|
||||
Sociophonetics -
|
||||
Slack voice -
|
||||
Slang -
|
||||
Sound change -
|
||||
Sound pattern of English -
|
||||
SOV -
|
||||
Speaker recognition -
|
||||
Specialised lexicography -
|
||||
Speech communication -
|
||||
Speech act -
|
||||
Speech disorder -
|
||||
Speech processing -
|
||||
Speech recognition -
|
||||
Speech synthesis -
|
||||
Speech therapy -
|
||||
Spiritus asper -
|
||||
Split infinitive -
|
||||
Standard language -
|
||||
Stop consonant -
|
||||
Stratificational linguistics -
|
||||
String grammar -
|
||||
Structuralism -
|
||||
Stylistics -
|
||||
Subcategorization -
|
||||
Superlative -
|
||||
Suppletion -
|
||||
Subject -
|
||||
SVO -
|
||||
Supine -
|
||||
Syllabary -
|
||||
Syllable -
|
||||
Synonym -
|
||||
Syntactic ambiguity -
|
||||
Syntactic categories -
|
||||
Syntax -
|
||||
Synthetic language
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== T ==
|
||||
Tagmemics -
|
||||
Telicity -
|
||||
Tense -
|
||||
Tense–aspect–mood -
|
||||
Terminology -
|
||||
Text linguistics -
|
||||
Text types -
|
||||
Thematic role -
|
||||
Theoretical linguistics -
|
||||
Thesaurus -
|
||||
Thou -
|
||||
Time–manner–place -
|
||||
Tonal language -
|
||||
Tone (linguistics) -
|
||||
Tongue-twister -
|
||||
Transcription -
|
||||
Transformational-generative grammar -
|
||||
Translation -
|
||||
Translative case -
|
||||
Truth condition -
|
||||
T–V distinction -
|
||||
Typology
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== U ==
|
||||
Uninflected word -
|
||||
Universal grammar -
|
||||
Uvular consonant
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== V ==
|
||||
V2 word order -
|
||||
Variety -
|
||||
Velar consonant -
|
||||
Verb -
|
||||
Verb–object–subject -
|
||||
Verb phrase -
|
||||
Verb–subject–object -
|
||||
Verbal noun -
|
||||
Verner's law -
|
||||
Vocative case -
|
||||
Vowel -
|
||||
Vowel harmony -
|
||||
Vowel stems -
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== W ==
|
||||
Weak suppletion -
|
||||
Will (verb) -
|
||||
Word -
|
||||
Word-sense disambiguation -
|
||||
Writing -
|
||||
Writing systems -
|
||||
Wug test
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== X ==
|
||||
X-bar theory
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Y ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Z ==
|
||||
Zipf's law
|
||||
459
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_phonetics_articles-0.md
Normal file
459
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_phonetics_articles-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,459 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Index of phonetics articles"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_phonetics_articles"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:09.282005+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== A ==
|
||||
Acoustic phonetics
|
||||
Active articulator
|
||||
Affricate
|
||||
Airstream mechanism
|
||||
Alexander John Ellis
|
||||
Alexander Melville Bell
|
||||
Alfred C. Gimson
|
||||
Allophone
|
||||
Alveolar approximant (ɹ)
|
||||
Alveolar click (ǃ)
|
||||
Alveolar consonant
|
||||
Alveolar ejective (tʼ)
|
||||
Alveolar ejective affricate (tsʼ)
|
||||
Alveolar ejective fricative (sʼ)
|
||||
Alveolar flap (ɾ)
|
||||
Alveolar lateral approximant (l, l̥)
|
||||
Alveolar lateral ejective affricate (tɬʼ)
|
||||
Alveolar lateral ejective fricative (ɬʼ)
|
||||
Alveolar lateral flap (ɺ)
|
||||
Alveolar nasal (n)
|
||||
Alveolar ridge
|
||||
Alveolar trill (r, r̥)
|
||||
Alveolo-palatal consonant
|
||||
Alveolo-palatal ejective fricative (ɕʼ)
|
||||
Apical consonant
|
||||
Approximant consonant
|
||||
Articulatory phonetics
|
||||
Aspirated consonant (◌ʰ)
|
||||
Auditory phonetics
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== B ==
|
||||
Back vowel
|
||||
Basis of articulation
|
||||
Bernd J. Kröger
|
||||
Bilabial click (ʘ)
|
||||
Bilabial consonant
|
||||
Bilabial ejective (pʼ)
|
||||
Bilabial flap (ⱱ̟)
|
||||
Bilabial nasal (m)
|
||||
Bilabial trill (ʙ)
|
||||
Breathy voice
|
||||
Bidental consonant
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C ==
|
||||
Cardinal vowel
|
||||
Central vowel
|
||||
Checked vowel
|
||||
Click consonant
|
||||
Close back rounded vowel (u)
|
||||
Close back unrounded vowel (ɯ)
|
||||
Close central rounded vowel (ʉ)
|
||||
Close central unrounded vowel (ɨ)
|
||||
Close front rounded vowel (y)
|
||||
Close front unrounded vowel (i)
|
||||
Close vowel
|
||||
Close-mid back rounded vowel (o)
|
||||
Close-mid back unrounded vowel (ɤ)
|
||||
Close-mid central rounded vowel (ɵ)
|
||||
Close-mid central unrounded vowel (ɘ)
|
||||
Close-mid front rounded vowel (ø)
|
||||
Close-mid front unrounded vowel (e)
|
||||
Close-mid vowel
|
||||
Co-articulated consonant
|
||||
Coarticulation
|
||||
Comparison of ASCII encodings of the International Phonetic Alphabet
|
||||
Consonant
|
||||
Consonant cluster
|
||||
Continuant
|
||||
Creaky voice
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== D ==
|
||||
Daniel Jones
|
||||
David Abercrombie
|
||||
Dental click (ǀ)
|
||||
Dental consonant
|
||||
Dental ejective (t̪ʼ)
|
||||
Dental ejective fricative (θʼ)
|
||||
Dental nasal (n̪)
|
||||
Diphthong
|
||||
Dorsal consonant
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== E ==
|
||||
Eclipsis
|
||||
Ejective consonant
|
||||
Eli Fischer-Jørgensen
|
||||
Elision
|
||||
Epenthesis
|
||||
Epiglottal consonant
|
||||
Epiglottal flap (ʡ̯)
|
||||
Epiglottal plosive (ʡ)
|
||||
Epiglottal trill (ʢ)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== F ==
|
||||
Formant
|
||||
Fortis (phonetics)
|
||||
Fortis and lenis
|
||||
Free vowel
|
||||
Fricative consonant
|
||||
Front vowel
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== G ==
|
||||
Gemination
|
||||
Georg Heike
|
||||
Glide
|
||||
Glottis
|
||||
Glottal consonant
|
||||
Glottalic consonant (ingressive, egressive)
|
||||
Glottal stop (ʔ)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== H ==
|
||||
Hard palate
|
||||
Henry Sweet
|
||||
High rising terminal
|
||||
Hush consonant
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== I ==
|
||||
Ian Maddieson
|
||||
Ilse Lehiste
|
||||
Implosive consonant
|
||||
Ingressive speech
|
||||
International Phonetic Alphabet
|
||||
International Phonetic Association
|
||||
Intonation
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== J ==
|
||||
J. C. Catford
|
||||
John C. Wells
|
||||
John Laver
|
||||
John Local
|
||||
John Ohala
|
||||
John Samuel Kenyon
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== K ==
|
||||
Kenneth Lee Pike
|
||||
Kenneth N. Stevens
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== L ==
|
||||
Labialization
|
||||
Labial-palatal approximant (ɥ)
|
||||
Labial-palatal consonant
|
||||
Labial-uvular consonant
|
||||
Labial-uvular plosive (q͡p)
|
||||
Labial-velar approximant (w)
|
||||
Labial-velar consonant
|
||||
Labial-velar nasal (ŋ͡m)
|
||||
Labiodental approximant (ʋ)
|
||||
Labiodental consonant
|
||||
Labiodental ejective fricative (fʼ)
|
||||
Labiodental flap (ⱱ)
|
||||
Labiodental nasal (ɱ)
|
||||
Lateral click (ǁ)
|
||||
Laminal consonant
|
||||
Lateral consonant
|
||||
Length (phonetics)
|
||||
Lenis
|
||||
Lexical stress
|
||||
Lilias Armstrong
|
||||
Linguolabial consonant
|
||||
Lips
|
||||
Liquid consonant
|
||||
List of consonants
|
||||
List of vowels
|
||||
Luciano Canepari
|
||||
Ludmilla A. Chistovich
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== M ==
|
||||
Manner of articulation
|
||||
Mark Liberman
|
||||
Median consonant
|
||||
Metathesis
|
||||
Mid central vowel (ə)
|
||||
Mid vowel
|
||||
Monophthong
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== N ==
|
||||
Nasal consonant
|
||||
Nasal stop
|
||||
Nasal vowel
|
||||
Nasalization
|
||||
Near-close back rounded vowel (ʊ)
|
||||
Near-close front rounded vowel (ʏ)
|
||||
Near-close front unrounded vowel (ɪ)
|
||||
Near-close vowel
|
||||
Near-open central vowel (ɐ)
|
||||
Near-open front unrounded vowel (æ)
|
||||
Near-open vowel
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== O ==
|
||||
Obsolete and nonstandard symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet
|
||||
Occlusion
|
||||
Open back rounded vowel (ɒ)
|
||||
Open back unrounded vowel (ɑ)
|
||||
Open front rounded vowel (ɶ)
|
||||
Open front unrounded vowel (a)
|
||||
Open vowel
|
||||
Open-mid back rounded vowel (ɔ)
|
||||
Open-mid back unrounded vowel (ʌ)
|
||||
Open-mid central rounded vowel (ɞ)
|
||||
Open-mid central unrounded vowel (ɜ)
|
||||
Open-mid front rounded vowel (œ)
|
||||
Open-mid front unrounded vowel (ɛ)
|
||||
Open-mid vowel
|
||||
Oral consonant
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== P ==
|
||||
Palatal approximant (j, j̊)
|
||||
Palatal click (ǂ)
|
||||
Palatal consonant
|
||||
Palatal ejective (cʼ)
|
||||
Palatal lateral approximant (ʎ)
|
||||
Palatal lateral ejective affricate (cʎ̝̥ʼ)
|
||||
Palatal lateral flap (ʎ̯)
|
||||
Palatal nasal (ɲ, ɲ̟)
|
||||
Palatalization
|
||||
Palato-alveolar ejective affricate (tʃʼ)
|
||||
Palato-alveolar ejective fricative (ʃʼ)
|
||||
Palatography
|
||||
Pāṇini
|
||||
Passive articulator
|
||||
Peter Ladefoged
|
||||
Peter Roach (phonetician)
|
||||
Pharyngeal consonant
|
||||
Pharyngealization
|
||||
Philip Lieberman
|
||||
Phonation
|
||||
Phone
|
||||
Phoneme
|
||||
Phonetic palindrome
|
||||
Phonetics
|
||||
Phonetic transcription
|
||||
Pitch accent
|
||||
Place of articulation
|
||||
Plosive consonant
|
||||
Postalveolar consonant
|
||||
Postalveolar nasal (n̠)
|
||||
Preaspiration
|
||||
Prenasalized consonant
|
||||
Prosody
|
||||
Pulmonic egressive
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== R ==
|
||||
R-colored vowel
|
||||
Retroflex approximant (ɻ)
|
||||
Retroflex click (‼)
|
||||
Retroflex consonant
|
||||
Retroflex ejective (ʈʼ)
|
||||
Retroflex ejective affricate (ʈʂʼ)
|
||||
Retroflex ejective fricative (ʂʼ)
|
||||
Retroflex flap (ɽ)
|
||||
Retroflex nasal (ɳ)
|
||||
Retroflex lateral approximant (ɭ)
|
||||
Retroflex lateral flap (ɺ̢)
|
||||
Retroflex trill (ɽr)
|
||||
Rhotic consonant
|
||||
Rounded vowel
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== S ==
|
||||
Sandhi
|
||||
SAMPA
|
||||
Semivowel
|
||||
Sibilant consonant
|
||||
Sj-sound (ɧ)
|
||||
Slack voice
|
||||
Jennifer Smith (sociolinguist)
|
||||
Sociophonetics
|
||||
Sonorant
|
||||
Source–filter model of speech production
|
||||
Spectrogram
|
||||
Speech organ
|
||||
Speech perception
|
||||
Stress accent
|
||||
Stress (linguistics)
|
||||
Stricture
|
||||
Syllable
|
||||
Syncope
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== T ==
|
||||
Table of vowels
|
||||
Tap or flap consonant
|
||||
Teeth
|
||||
Tenseness
|
||||
Tonal language
|
||||
Tone sandhi
|
||||
Tongue
|
||||
Trill consonant
|
||||
Triphthong
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== U ==
|
||||
Unrounded vowel
|
||||
Uvula
|
||||
Uvular consonant
|
||||
Uvular ejective (qʼ)
|
||||
Uvular ejective affricate (qχʼ)
|
||||
Uvular ejective fricative (χʼ)
|
||||
Uvular flap (ɢ̆)
|
||||
Uvular nasal (ɴ)
|
||||
Uvular trill (ʀ)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== V ==
|
||||
Velar approximant (ɰ)
|
||||
Velar consonant
|
||||
Velar ejective (kʼ)
|
||||
Velar ejective affricate (kxʼ)
|
||||
Velar ejective fricative (xʼ)
|
||||
Velar lateral approximant (ʟ)
|
||||
Velar lateral ejective affricate (kʟ̝̊ʼ)
|
||||
Velar lateral flap (ʟ̆)
|
||||
Velar nasal (ŋ)
|
||||
Velaric egressive
|
||||
Velarization
|
||||
Velum
|
||||
Vocal cords
|
||||
Vocal stress
|
||||
Vocal tract
|
||||
Voice onset time
|
||||
Voiced alveolar affricate (dz)
|
||||
Voiced alveolar fricative (z, ð̠)
|
||||
Voiced alveolar implosive (ɗ)
|
||||
Voiced alveolar lateral affricate (dɮ)
|
||||
Voiced alveolar lateral fricative (ɮ)
|
||||
Voiced alveolar plosive (d)
|
||||
Voiced alveolo-palatal affricate (dʑ)
|
||||
Voiced alveolo-palatal fricative (ʑ)
|
||||
Voiced bilabial fricative (β)
|
||||
Voiced bilabial implosive (ɓ)
|
||||
Voiced bilabial plosive (b)
|
||||
Voiced consonant
|
||||
Voiced dental affricate (d̪z̪, dð)
|
||||
Voiced dental fricative (z̪), (ð)
|
||||
Voiced dental plosive (d̪)
|
||||
Voiced epiglottal fricative (ʢ)
|
||||
Voiced glottal fricative (ɦ)
|
||||
Voiced implosive consonant
|
||||
Voiced labial-velar plosive (ɡ͡b)
|
||||
Voiced labiodental affricate (b̪v)
|
||||
Voiced labiodental fricative (v)
|
||||
Voiced labiodental plosive (b̪)
|
||||
Voiced palatal affricate (ɟʝ)
|
||||
Voiced palatal fricative (ʝ)
|
||||
Voiced palatal implosive (ʄ)
|
||||
Voiced palatal plosive (ɟ)
|
||||
Voiced palato-alveolar affricate (dʒ)
|
||||
Voiced pharyngeal fricative (ʕ)
|
||||
Voiced postalveolar fricative (ʒ)
|
||||
Voiced retroflex affricate (ɖʐ)
|
||||
Voiced retroflex fricative (ʐ)
|
||||
Voiced retroflex implosive (ᶑ)
|
||||
Voiced retroflex plosive (ɖ)
|
||||
Voiced uvular affricate (ɢʁ)
|
||||
Voiced uvular fricative (ʁ)
|
||||
Voiced uvular implosive (ʛ)
|
||||
Voiced uvular plosive (ɢ)
|
||||
Voiced velar affricate (ɡɣ)
|
||||
Voiced velar fricative (ɣ)
|
||||
Voiced velar implosive (ɠ)
|
||||
Voiced velar lateral affricate (ɡʟ̝)
|
||||
Voiced velar lateral fricative (ʟ̝)
|
||||
Voiced velar plosive (ɡ)
|
||||
Voiceless alveolar affricate (ts)
|
||||
Voiceless alveolar fricative (s, θ̠)
|
||||
Voiceless alveolar lateral affricate (tɬ)
|
||||
Voiceless alveolar lateral fricative (ɬ)
|
||||
Voiceless alveolar nasal (n̥)
|
||||
Voiceless alveolar plosive (t)
|
||||
Voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate (tɕ)
|
||||
Voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative (ɕ)
|
||||
Voiceless bilabial fricative (ɸ)
|
||||
Voiceless bilabial nasal (m̥)
|
||||
Voiceless bilabial plosive (p)
|
||||
Voiceless consonant
|
||||
Voiceless dental affricate (t̪s̪, tθ)
|
||||
Voiceless dental fricative (s̪, θ)
|
||||
Voiceless dental plosive (t̪)
|
||||
Voiceless epiglottal fricative (ʜ)
|
||||
Voiceless glottal fricative (h)
|
||||
Voiceless labial-velar fricative (ʍ)
|
||||
Voiceless labial-velar plosive (k͡p)
|
||||
Voiceless labiodental affricate (p̪f)
|
||||
Voiceless labiodental fricative (f)
|
||||
Voiceless labiodental plosive (p̪)
|
||||
Voiceless palatal affricate (cç)
|
||||
Voiceless palatal fricative (ç)
|
||||
Voiceless palatal lateral affricate (cʎ̥˔)
|
||||
Voiceless palatal lateral fricative (ʎ̝̊)
|
||||
Voiceless palatal nasal (ɲ̊)
|
||||
Voiceless palatal plosive (c)
|
||||
Voiceless pharyngeal fricative (ħ)
|
||||
Voiceless postalveolar affricate (tʃ)
|
||||
Voiceless postalveolar fricative (ʃ)
|
||||
Voiceless retroflex affricate (ʈʂ)
|
||||
Voiceless retroflex fricative (ʂ)
|
||||
Voiceless retroflex lateral fricative (ꞎ)
|
||||
Voiceless retroflex nasal (ɳ̊)
|
||||
Voiceless retroflex plosive (ʈ)
|
||||
Voiceless retroflex trill (ɽr̥)
|
||||
Voiceless uvular affricate (qχ)
|
||||
Voiceless uvular fricative (χ)
|
||||
Voiceless uvular nasal (ɴ̥)
|
||||
Voiceless uvular plosive (q)
|
||||
Voiceless uvular trill (ʀ̥)
|
||||
Voiceless velar affricate (kx)
|
||||
Voiceless velar fricative (x)
|
||||
Voiceless velar lateral affricate (kʟ̝̊)
|
||||
Voiceless velar lateral fricative (ʟ̝̊)
|
||||
Voiceless velar nasal (ŋ̊)
|
||||
Voiceless velar plosive (k)
|
||||
Voicing
|
||||
Vowel
|
||||
Vowel backness
|
||||
Vowel harmony
|
||||
Vowel height
|
||||
Vowel hiatus
|
||||
Vowel length
|
||||
Vowel reduction
|
||||
Vowel roundedness
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== W ==
|
||||
Whispering
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== X ==
|
||||
X-SAMPA
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Y ==
|
||||
Yi Tso-lin
|
||||
108
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_(metaphor)-0.md
Normal file
108
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_(metaphor)-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,108 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Iron (metaphor)"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_(metaphor)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:58.214234+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Iron, when used metaphorically, refers to certain traits of the metal iron. Used as an adjective and sometimes as a noun, it refers to something stern, harsh, strong, unyielding, inflexible, rigid, sturdy, strong, robust, hard.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== List of iron metaphors ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Persons and characters ===
|
||||
Iron Duke (disambiguation)
|
||||
Iron Felix (disambiguation)
|
||||
Iron Lady (disambiguation)
|
||||
Iron Man (disambiguation)
|
||||
Iron Mike (disambiguation)
|
||||
Princess Iron Fan (disambiguation)
|
||||
Otto von Bismarck, known as the Iron Chancellor
|
||||
Iron Chef, a Japanese cooking show
|
||||
Joseph LaFlesche, known as Iron Eye
|
||||
Iron Eyes Cody, Sicilian-American actor
|
||||
The Iron Heinrich, a rough translation of the German fairy tale The Frog Prince
|
||||
Iron Heroes, a variant book of rules for the game Dungeons & Dragons
|
||||
Iron John, a German fairy tale
|
||||
Eon Kid, English title of the TV series Iron Kid
|
||||
Iron Lad, a fictional superhero
|
||||
Iron Maniac, an evil alternative universe character of fictional Marvel superhero Iron Man
|
||||
Iron Munro, a fictional superhero
|
||||
Persephone, known as the Iron Queen
|
||||
Hossein Khosrow Ali Vaziri, known as the Iron Sheik
|
||||
Iron Shell, Brule Sioux chief
|
||||
Iron Tail, Oglala Sioux warrior
|
||||
Tigran Petrosian, known as Iron Tigran
|
||||
Timur as a name, meaning iron in Turkic languages, widespread in Western and Central Asia since the days of the Mongol Empire
|
||||
Hadid is an Arabic name (both given and surname) literally meaning "iron"
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Animals and plants ===
|
||||
Iron Bird (disambiguation)
|
||||
Iron Butterfly (disambiguation)
|
||||
Iron Dragon (disambiguation)
|
||||
Iron Eagle (disambiguation)
|
||||
Iron Monkey (disambiguation)
|
||||
Iron Wolf (disambiguation)
|
||||
Iron horse (disambiguation)
|
||||
Iron wood (disambiguation)
|
||||
Ferrocalamus (iron bamboo)
|
||||
Iron cobra, a "construct" in the game Dungeons & Dragons
|
||||
Iron condor, an option trading strategy utilizing two vertical spreads
|
||||
Iron Kong, a fictional character from the science fiction media franchise Zoids
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Body parts ===
|
||||
Iron Fist (disambiguation)
|
||||
Iron Hand (disambiguation)
|
||||
Iron Hands (disambiguation)
|
||||
Iron lung (disambiguation)
|
||||
See Joseph LaFlesche
|
||||
The Iron Heel, a 1908 dystopian novel
|
||||
Iron Palm, a body of training techniques in various Chinese martial arts
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Geography ===
|
||||
Iron City (disambiguation)
|
||||
Iron Mountain (disambiguation)
|
||||
Iron River (disambiguation)
|
||||
Iron Range, regions around Lake Superior in the United States and Canada
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Other iron metaphors ===
|
||||
Iron Bird (disambiguation)
|
||||
Iron Curtain (disambiguation)
|
||||
Iron Maiden (disambiguation)
|
||||
Iron Triangle (disambiguation)
|
||||
Unguided bomb, known as an iron bomb
|
||||
Iron Brigade, a Civil War brigade
|
||||
Iron cage, a sociology term
|
||||
Iron Fire, a Danish power and speed metal band
|
||||
Iron Guard, a historical far-right movement in Romania
|
||||
Iron harvest, an annual "harvest" collected by Belgian and French farmers after ploughing their fields
|
||||
Iron Helix, a 1993 video game
|
||||
Iron Seed, a 1994 DOS video game
|
||||
Iron shirt, a form of hard style martial art exercise
|
||||
Iron Sunrise, a 2004 hard science fiction novel
|
||||
Iron Will, a 1994 film
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Gallery ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Iron (disambiguation)
|
||||
Big Iron, a country ballad
|
||||
The dictionary definition of iron at Wiktionary
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Further reading ==
|
||||
Theodore Wertime and James Muhly, eds., The Coming of the Age of Iron (Yale, 1980, ISBN 0-300-02425-8) (hardcover)
|
||||
"Iron, Master of Them All" from the University of Iowa Museum of Art and Project for the Advanced Study of Art and Life in Africa, discussing various metaphors (associated with iron) in African cultures.
|
||||
41
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leipzig–Jakarta_list-0.md
Normal file
41
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leipzig–Jakarta_list-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Leipzig–Jakarta list"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leipzig–Jakarta_list"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:02.231607+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The Leipzig–Jakarta list of 100 words is used by linguists to test the degree of chronological separation of languages by comparing words that are resistant to borrowing. The Leipzig–Jakarta list became available in 2009. The word list is named after the cities of Leipzig, Germany, and Jakarta, Indonesia, the places where the list was conceived and created.
|
||||
In the 1950s, the linguist Morris Swadesh published a list of 200 words called the Swadesh list, allegedly the 200 lexical concepts found in all languages that were least likely to be borrowed from other languages. Swadesh later whittled his list down to 100 items. The Swadesh list, however, was based mainly on intuition, according to Martin Haspelmath and Uri Tadmor. In origin, the words in the Swadesh lists were chosen for their universal, culturally independent availability in as many languages as possible, regardless of their "stability". Nevertheless, the stability of the resulting list of "universal" vocabulary under language change and the potential use of this fact for purposes of glottochronology have been analyzed by numerous authors, including Marisa Lohr 1999, 2000.
|
||||
The Swadesh list was put together by Morris Swadesh on the basis of his intuition. Similar more recent lists, such as the Dolgopolsky list (1964) or the Leipzig–Jakarta list, are based on systematic data from many different languages, but they are not yet as widely known nor as widely used as the Swadesh list. Although he was one of the pioneers of glottochronology and lexicostatistics, his theories were often controversial, and some have been deprecated by later linguists.
|
||||
The Loanword Typology Project, with the World Loanword Database (WOLD), published by the Max Planck Digital Library, was established to rectify this problem. Experts on 41 languages from across the world were given a uniform vocabulary list and asked to provide the words for each item in the language on which they were an expert, as well as information on how strong the evidence was that each word was borrowed. The 100 concepts that were found in most languages and were most resistant to borrowing formed the Leipzig–Jakarta list. Only 62 items on the Leipzig–Jakarta list and on the 100-word Swadesh list overlap, hence a 38% difference between the two lists.
|
||||
A quarter of the words in the Leipzig–Jakarta list are human body parts: mouth, eye, leg/foot, navel, liver, knee, etc. Six animal words appear on the list: fish, bird, dog, louse, ant and fly – animal species that are present wherever humans are as well.
|
||||
The items house, name, rope and to tie are products of human culture, but are probably found in all present-day human societies. Haspelmath and Tadmor drew the conclusion that "rope is the most basic of human tools and tying is the most basic technology".
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== List ==
|
||||
Lexical items in the Leipzig–Jakarta list are ranked by semantic stability, i.e. words least likely to be replaced by other words as a language evolves. The right two columns indicate inclusion on the 100-word and 207-word Swadesh lists.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Other differences with the Swadesh list ==
|
||||
Items on the 100-word Swadesh list but not on the Leipzig–Jakarta list:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
ASJP list
|
||||
Swadesh list
|
||||
Dolgopolsky list
|
||||
Comparative method
|
||||
Holle lists
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
Loanwords in the World's Languages: A Comparative Handbook, Martin Haspelmath and Uri Tadmor (editors), 2009, de Gruyter Publishing
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
The Leipzig-Jakarta list on Concepticon
|
||||
337
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Banach_spaces-0.md
Normal file
337
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Banach_spaces-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,337 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of Banach spaces"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Banach_spaces"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:55.569651+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
In the mathematical field of functional analysis, Banach spaces are among the most important objects of study. In other areas of mathematical analysis, most spaces which arise in practice turn out to be Banach spaces as well.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Classical Banach spaces ==
|
||||
According to Diestel (1984, Chapter VII), the classical Banach spaces are those defined by Dunford & Schwartz (1958), which is the source for the following table.
|
||||
Glossary of symbols for the table below:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
F
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle \mathbb {F} }
|
||||
|
||||
denotes the field of real numbers
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
R
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle \mathbb {R} }
|
||||
|
||||
or complex numbers
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
C
|
||||
|
||||
.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle \mathbb {C} .}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
K
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle K}
|
||||
|
||||
is a compact Hausdorff space.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
p
|
||||
,
|
||||
q
|
||||
∈
|
||||
|
||||
R
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle p,q\in \mathbb {R} }
|
||||
|
||||
are real numbers with
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
1
|
||||
<
|
||||
p
|
||||
,
|
||||
q
|
||||
<
|
||||
∞
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle 1<p,q<\infty }
|
||||
|
||||
that are Hölder conjugates, meaning that they satisfy
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
1
|
||||
q
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
1
|
||||
p
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
1
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{q}}+{\frac {1}{p}}=1}
|
||||
|
||||
and thus also
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
q
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
p
|
||||
|
||||
p
|
||||
−
|
||||
1
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle q={\frac {p}{p-1}}.}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
Σ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle \Sigma }
|
||||
|
||||
is a
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
σ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle \sigma }
|
||||
|
||||
-algebra of sets.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
Ξ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle \Xi }
|
||||
|
||||
is an algebra of sets (for spaces only requiring finite additivity, such as the ba space).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
μ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle \mu }
|
||||
|
||||
is a measure with variation
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
|
||||
|
||||
μ
|
||||
|
||||
|
|
||||
|
||||
.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle |\mu |.}
|
||||
|
||||
A positive measure is a real-valued positive set function defined on a
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
σ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle \sigma }
|
||||
|
||||
-algebra which is countably additive.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Banach spaces in other areas of analysis ==
|
||||
The Asplund spaces
|
||||
The Hardy spaces
|
||||
The space
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
BMO
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle \operatorname {BMO} }
|
||||
|
||||
of functions of bounded mean oscillation
|
||||
The space of functions of bounded variation
|
||||
Sobolev spaces
|
||||
The Birnbaum–Orlicz spaces
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
L
|
||||
|
||||
A
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
μ
|
||||
)
|
||||
.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle L^{A}(\mu ).}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
Hölder spaces
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
C
|
||||
|
||||
k
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
(
|
||||
Ω
|
||||
)
|
||||
.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle C^{k}(\Omega ).}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
Lorentz space
|
||||
ba space
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Banach spaces serving as counterexamples ==
|
||||
James' space, a Banach space that has a Schauder basis, but has no unconditional Schauder Basis. Also, James' space is isometrically isomorphic to its double dual, but fails to be reflexive.
|
||||
Tsirelson space, a reflexive Banach space in which neither
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
ℓ
|
||||
|
||||
p
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle \ell ^{p}}
|
||||
|
||||
nor
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
c
|
||||
|
||||
0
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle c_{0}}
|
||||
|
||||
can be embedded.
|
||||
W.T. Gowers construction of a space
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
X
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle X}
|
||||
|
||||
that is isomorphic to
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
X
|
||||
⊕
|
||||
X
|
||||
⊕
|
||||
X
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle X\oplus X\oplus X}
|
||||
|
||||
but not
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
X
|
||||
⊕
|
||||
X
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle X\oplus X}
|
||||
|
||||
serves as a counterexample for weakening the premises of the Schroeder–Bernstein theorem
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of mathematical spaces – Mathematical set with some added structurePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
|
||||
List of topologies – List of concrete topologies and topological spaces
|
||||
Minkowski distance – Vector distance using pth powers
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
Diestel, Joseph (1984), Sequences and series in Banach spaces, Springer-Verlag, ISBN 0-387-90859-5.
|
||||
Dunford, N.; Schwartz, J.T. (1958), Linear operators, Part I, Wiley-Interscience.
|
||||
139
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Boolean_algebra_topics-0.md
Normal file
139
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Boolean_algebra_topics-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,139 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of Boolean algebra topics"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Boolean_algebra_topics"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:58.151075+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of topics around Boolean algebra and propositional logic.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Articles with a wide scope and introductions ==
|
||||
Algebra of sets
|
||||
Boolean algebra (structure)
|
||||
Boolean algebra
|
||||
Field of sets
|
||||
Logical connective
|
||||
Propositional calculus
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Boolean functions and connectives ==
|
||||
Ampheck
|
||||
Analysis of Boolean functions
|
||||
Balanced Boolean function
|
||||
Bent function
|
||||
Boolean algebras canonically defined
|
||||
Boolean function
|
||||
Boolean matrix
|
||||
Boolean-valued function
|
||||
Conditioned disjunction
|
||||
Evasive Boolean function
|
||||
Exclusive or
|
||||
Functional completeness
|
||||
Logical biconditional
|
||||
Logical conjunction
|
||||
Logical disjunction
|
||||
Logical equality
|
||||
Logical implication
|
||||
Logical negation
|
||||
Logical NOR
|
||||
Majority function
|
||||
Material conditional
|
||||
Minimal axioms for Boolean algebra
|
||||
Peirce arrow
|
||||
Read-once function
|
||||
Sheffer stroke
|
||||
Sole sufficient operator
|
||||
Symmetric Boolean function
|
||||
Symmetric difference
|
||||
Zhegalkin polynomial
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Examples of Boolean algebras ==
|
||||
Boolean domain
|
||||
Complete Boolean algebra
|
||||
Interior algebra
|
||||
Two-element Boolean algebra
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Extensions of Boolean algebras ==
|
||||
Derivative algebra (abstract algebra)
|
||||
Free Boolean algebra
|
||||
Monadic Boolean algebra
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Generalizations of Boolean algebras ==
|
||||
De Morgan algebra
|
||||
First-order logic
|
||||
Heyting algebra
|
||||
Lindenbaum–Tarski algebra
|
||||
Skew Boolean algebra
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Syntax ==
|
||||
Algebraic normal form
|
||||
Boolean conjunctive query
|
||||
Canonical form (Boolean algebra)
|
||||
Conjunctive normal form
|
||||
Disjunctive normal form
|
||||
Formal system
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Technical applications ==
|
||||
And-inverter graph
|
||||
Logic gate
|
||||
Boolean analysis
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Theorems and specific laws ==
|
||||
Boolean prime ideal theorem
|
||||
Compactness theorem
|
||||
Consensus theorem
|
||||
De Morgan's laws
|
||||
Duality (order theory)
|
||||
Laws of classical logic
|
||||
Peirce's law
|
||||
Stone's representation theorem for Boolean algebras
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== People ==
|
||||
Boole, George
|
||||
De Morgan, Augustus
|
||||
Jevons, William Stanley
|
||||
Peirce, Charles Sanders
|
||||
Stone, Marshall Harvey
|
||||
Venn, John
|
||||
Zhegalkin, Ivan Ivanovich
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Philosophy ==
|
||||
Boole's syllogistic
|
||||
Boolean implicant
|
||||
Entitative graph
|
||||
Existential graph
|
||||
Laws of Form
|
||||
Logical graph
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Visualization ==
|
||||
Truth table
|
||||
Karnaugh map
|
||||
Venn diagram
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Unclassified ==
|
||||
Boolean function
|
||||
Boolean-valued function
|
||||
Boolean-valued model
|
||||
Boolean satisfiability problem
|
||||
Boolean differential calculus
|
||||
Indicator function (also called the characteristic function, but that term is used in probability theory for a different concept)
|
||||
Espresso heuristic logic minimizer
|
||||
Logical matrix
|
||||
Logical value
|
||||
Stone duality
|
||||
Stone space
|
||||
Topological Boolean algebra
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,62 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of Latin-script alphabets"
|
||||
chunk: 1/5
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Latin-script_alphabets"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:01.086550+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The lists and tables below summarize and compare the letter inventories of some of the Latin-script alphabets. In this article, the scope of the word "alphabet" is broadened to include letters with tone marks, and other diacritics used to represent a wide range of orthographic traditions, without regard to whether or how they are sequenced in their alphabet or the table.
|
||||
Parentheses indicate characters not used in modern standard orthographies of the languages, but used in obsolete and/or dialectal forms.
|
||||
|
||||
== Letters contained in the ISO basic Latin alphabet ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Alphabets that contain only ISO basic Latin letters ===
|
||||
|
||||
Among alphabets for natural languages the English,[36] Indonesian, and Malay alphabets only use the 26 letters in both cases.
|
||||
Among alphabets for constructed languages the Ido and Interlingua alphabets only use the 26 letters, while Toki Pona uses a 14-letter subset.
|
||||
|
||||
==== Extended by ligatures ====
|
||||
German (ß), Scandinavian (æ)
|
||||
|
||||
==== Extended by diacritical marks ====
|
||||
Spanish (ñ), German (ä, ö, and ü)
|
||||
|
||||
==== Extended by multigraphs ====
|
||||
Filipino (ng)
|
||||
Old French (ch)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Alphabets that contain all ISO basic Latin letters ===
|
||||
Among alphabets for natural languages the Afrikaans,[54] Aromanian, Azerbaijani (some dialects),[53] Basque,[4] Celtic British, Catalan,[6] Cornish, Czech,[8] Danish,[9] Dutch,[10] Emilian-Romagnol, Filipino,[11] Finnish, French,[12], German,[13] Greenlandic, Hmong, Hungarian,[15] Javanese, Karakalpak,[23] Kurdish, Modern Latin, Luxembourgish, Norwegian,[9] Oromo[65], Papiamento[63], Portuguese, Quechua, Rhaeto-Romance, Romanian, Slovak,[24] Spanish,[25] Sundanese, Swedish, Tswana,[52] Venda,[51] Võro, Walloon,[27] West Frisian, Xhosa, Zhuang, Zulu alphabets include all 26 letters, at least in their largest version.
|
||||
Among alphabets for constructed languages the Interglossa and Occidental alphabets include all 26 letters.
|
||||
The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) includes all 26 letters in their lowercase forms, although g is always single-storey (ɡ) in the IPA and never double-storey ().
|
||||
|
||||
=== Alphabets that do not contain all ISO basic Latin letters ===
|
||||
This list is based on official definitions of each alphabet. However, excluded letters might occur in non-integrated loan words and place names.
|
||||
|
||||
The I is used in two distinct versions in Turkic languages: dotless (I ı) and dotted (İ i). They are considered different letters, and case conversion must take care to preserve the distinction. Irish traditionally does not write the dot, or tittle, over the small letter i, but the language makes no distinction here if a dot is displayed, so no specific encoding and special case conversion rule is needed as it is for Turkic alphabets.
|
||||
|
||||
==== Statistics ====
|
||||
The chart above lists a variety of alphabets that do not officially contain all 26 letters of the ISO basic Latin alphabet. In this list of 104 languages, at least one language lacks one of every letter. For each of the 26 basic ISO Latin alphabet letters, the number of alphabets in the list above using it is as follows:
|
||||
|
||||
== Letters not contained in the ISO basic Latin alphabet ==
|
||||
|
||||
Some languages have extended the Latin alphabet with ligatures, modified letters, or digraphs. These symbols are listed below.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Additional letters by type ===
|
||||
|
||||
==== Independent letters and ligatures ====
|
||||
|
||||
==== Letter–diacritic combinations: connected or overlaid ====
|
||||
|
||||
=== Other letters in collation order ===
|
||||
The tables below are a work in progress. Eventually, table cells with light blue shading will indicate letter forms that do not constitute distinct letters in their associated alphabets. Please help with this task if you have the required linguistic knowledge and technical editing skill.
|
||||
For the order in which the characters are sorted in each alphabet, see collating sequence.
|
||||
|
||||
==== Letters derived from A–H ====
|
||||
|
||||
==== Letters derived from I–O ====
|
||||
|
||||
==== Letters derived from P–Z ====
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of Latin-script alphabets"
|
||||
chunk: 2/5
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Latin-script_alphabets"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:01.086550+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== Notes ===
|
||||
↑↑↑↑ In classical Latin, the digraphs ⟨ch⟩, ⟨ph⟩, ⟨rh⟩, ⟨th⟩ were used in loanwords from Greek, but they were not included in the alphabet. The ligatures ⟨æ⟩, ⟨œ⟩ and ⟨w⟩, as well as lowercase letters, were added to the alphabet only in Middle Ages. The letters ⟨j⟩ and ⟨u⟩ were used as typographical variants of ⟨i⟩ and ⟨v⟩, respectively, roughly until the Enlightenment. ↑↑↑↑ In Afrikaans, ⟨c⟩ and ⟨q⟩ are only (and ⟨x⟩ and ⟨z⟩ almost only) used in loanwords. ↑↑↑↑ Albanian officially has the digraphs ⟨dh, gj, ll, nj, rr, sh, th, xh, zh⟩, which is sufficient to represent the Tosk dialect. The Gheg dialect supplements the official alphabet with 6 nasal vowels, namely ⟨â, ê, î, ô, û, ŷ⟩. ↑↑↑↑ Arbëresh officially has the digraphs ⟨dh, gj, hj, ll, nj, rr, sh, th, xh, zh⟩. Arbëresh has the distinctive ⟨hj⟩, which is considered as a letter in its own right. ↑↑ Achomi also has the digraph ⟨a'⟩. ↑↑↑↑ Azeri only uses the letter ⟨ä⟩ as a substitute for ⟨ə⟩ if the latter cannot be used (it was replaced by the schwa one year later because it is the most common letter). These cases should be avoided! The letters ⟨w⟩, ⟨đ⟩, ⟨ŋ⟩, ⟨q̇⟩, ⟨ć⟩ (or the digraph ⟨ts⟩), and the digraph ⟨dz⟩ are only used in certain dialects. ↑ Bambara also has the digraphs: ⟨kh⟩ (only present in loanwords), ⟨sh⟩ (also written as ⟨ʃ⟩; only present in some dialects). Historically, ⟨è⟩ was used instead of ⟨ɛ⟩, ⟨ny⟩ was used instead of ⟨ɲ⟩, and ⟨ò⟩ was used instead of ⟨ɔ⟩ in Mali. ↑↑↑↑ Basque has several digraphs: ⟨dd, ll, rr, ts, tt, tx, tz⟩. The ⟨ü⟩, which represents /ø/, is required for various words in its Zuberoan dialect. ⟨c, q, v, w, y⟩ are used in foreign words, but are officially considered part of the alphabet. ↑↑↑↑ Belarusian also has several digraphs: ⟨ch, dz, dź, dž⟩. ↑↑↑↑ Bislama also has the digraph ⟨ng⟩. ↑↑↑↑ Breton also has the digraphs ⟨ch, c'h, zh⟩. ⟨c, q, x⟩ are used in foreign words or digraphs only. ↑↑↑ Catalan also has a large number of digraphs: ⟨dj, gu, gü, ig, ix, ll, l·l, ny, qu, qü, rr, ss, tg, tj, ts, tx, tz⟩. The letters ⟨k, q, w, y⟩ are only used in loanwords or the digraphs mentioned. ↑↑ The Alphabet of Chad also uses the unique letters ⟨n̰⟩ and ⟨r̰⟩. ↑↑↑ Chamorro also has the digraphs ⟨ch, ng⟩. ⟨c⟩ used only in digraphs. ↑↑↑↑ Corsican has the trigraphs: ⟨chj, ghj⟩. ↑↑↑↑↑↑↑↑ Croatian Gaj's alphabet also has the digraphs: ⟨dž, lj, nj⟩. There are also four tone markers that are sometimes used on vowels to avoid ambiguity in homophones, but this is generally uncommon. Gaj's alphabet has been adopted by the Serbian and Bosnian standards and that it has complete one-to-one congruence with Serbian Cyrillic, where the three digraphs map to Cyrillic letters ⟨џ⟩, ⟨љ⟩ and ⟨њ⟩, respectively. Rarely and non-standardly, digraph ⟨dj⟩ is used instead of ⟨đ⟩ (like it was previously) (Cyrillic ⟨ђ⟩). Montenegrin variant additionally uses ⟨ś⟩ and ⟨ź⟩ to indicate dialectal pronunciation. ↑↑ Cypriot Arabic also has the letters ⟨Θ⟩ and ⟨Δ⟩. ↑↑↑↑ Czech also has the digraph ⟨ch⟩, which is considered a separate letter and is sorted between ⟨h⟩ and ⟨i⟩. While ⟨á, ď, é, ě, í, ň, ó, ť, ú, ů, ý⟩ are considered separate letters, in collation they are treated merely as letters with diacritics. However, ⟨č, ř, š, ž⟩ are sorted as separate letters. ⟨q, w, x⟩ occur only in loanwords. ↑ Dakelh also contains the letter ⟨'⟩, which represents the glottal stop. The letters ⟨f, p, r, v⟩ are only used in loanwords. ↑↑↑↑↑↑ The Norwegian alphabet is currently identical with the Danish alphabet. ⟨c⟩ is part of both alphabets and is not used in native Danish or Norwegian words (except some proper names), but occurs quite frequently in well-established loanwords in Danish. Norwegian and Danish use ⟨é⟩ in some words such as én, although ⟨é⟩ is considered a diacritic mark, while ⟨å, æ, ø⟩ are letters. ⟨q, w, x, z⟩ are not used except for names and some foreign words. ↑ Dinka also has the digraphs: ⟨dh, nh, ny, th⟩. ⟨h⟩ is only present in these digraphs. Dinka also used the letters ⟨ä, ë, ï, ö, ɛ̈, ɔ̈⟩ (the last two which do not exist as precomposed characters in Unicode)
|
||||
↑↑↑ The status of ⟨ij⟩ as a letter, ligature or digraph in Dutch is disputed. ⟨c⟩ (outside the digraph ⟨ch⟩), ⟨q⟩, ⟨x⟩, and ⟨y⟩ occur mostly in foreign words. Letters with grave and letters with circumflex occur only in loanwords. ↑↑↑ English generally now uses extended Latin letters only in loan words, such as fiancé, fiancée, and résumé. Rare publication guides may still use the dieresis on words, such as "coöperate", rather than the now-more-common "co-operate" (UK) or "cooperate" (US). For a fuller discussion, see articles branching from Lists of English words of international origin, which was used to determine the diacritics needed for more unambiguous English. However, an ⟨é⟩ or ⟨è⟩ is sometimes used in poetry to show that a normally silent vowel is to be pronounced, as in "blessèd". ↑↑↑↑ Filipino [and also applicable in or to Tagalog, which is the topmost influencer and contributor language of Filipino, among the rest of the other influencer and contributor languages of the Philippines and foreign languages for Filipino's evolution, further development, and further enrichment; it (Tagalog) is also the de facto historical, traditional, and linguistic basis of Filipino and the de jure or official basis of Filipino's both predecessor Philippine national and official language/s or language phase/s or stage/s since 1937 (as a national language) and 1946 (as an official language), which is lastly institutionally, officially, and constitutionally named or renamed as or into Pilipino from 1959 to 1987, before being constitutionally and officially replaced by Filipino as the national and an official language since 1987] also uses the digraph ⟨ng⟩, even originally with a large tilde that spanned both ⟨n⟩ and ⟨g⟩ (as in ⟨n͠g⟩) when a vowel follows the digraph. (The use of the tilde over the two letters is now rare). Only ⟨ñ⟩ is required for everyday use (only in loanwords). The accented vowels are used in dictionaries to indicate pronunciation, and ⟨g⟩ with tilde is only present in older works. ⟨Ë⟩ and ⟨ë⟩ are new variants of ⟨E⟩ and ⟨e⟩, respectively, and we're introduced in 2013 by the Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino (Commission on the Filipino Language)'s "Ortograpiyang Pambansa" (National Orthography) and in 2014 by the Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino (Commission on the Filipino Language)'s KWF Manwal sa Masinop na Pagsulat (KWF Manual on Provident Writing) to represent and preserve the schwa vowel sound /ə/ in non-Tagalog Filipino words of Philippine origin or from the other languages of the Philippines that natively have this vowel sound in their languages. ↑↑↑ Uppercase diacritics in French are often (incorrectly) thought of as being optional, but the official rules of French orthography designate accents on uppercase letters as obligatory in most cases.
|
||||
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|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of Latin-script alphabets"
|
||||
chunk: 5/5
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Latin-script_alphabets"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:01.086550+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
⟨i⟩ or ⟨u⟩] and, when both are closed, generally over the first". In this context, the use of ⟨ï⟩ is rare, but part of the normative orthography. ↑ Swedish uses ⟨é⟩ in well integrated loan words like idé and armé, although ⟨é⟩ is considered a modified ⟨e⟩, while ⟨å⟩, ⟨ä⟩, ⟨ö⟩ are letters. ⟨á⟩ and ⟨à⟩ are rarely used words. ⟨w⟩ and ⟨z⟩ are used in some integrated words like webb and zon. ⟨q⟩, ⟨ü⟩, ⟨è⟩, and ⟨ë⟩ are used for names only, but exist in Swedish names. For foreign names ⟨ó⟩, ⟨ç⟩, ⟨ñ⟩ and more are sometimes used, but usually not. Swedish has many digraphs and some trigraphs. ⟨ch, dj, lj, rl, rn, rs, sj, sk, si, ti, sch, skj, stj⟩ and others are usually pronounced as one sound. ↑↑↑↑ Tswana also has the digraphs: ⟨kg, kh, ng, ph, th, tl, tlh, ts, tsh, tš, tšh⟩. The letters ⟨c⟩, ⟨q⟩, and ⟨x⟩ only appear in onomatopoeic and loanwords. The letters ⟨v⟩ and ⟨z⟩ only appear in loanwords. ↑↑↑↑ Turkmen had a slightly different alphabet in 1993–1995 (which used some rare letters) ⟨ý⟩ was written as ⟨ÿ⟩ (capital ⟨¥⟩), ⟨ň⟩ as ⟨ñ⟩, ⟨ş⟩ as ⟨¢⟩ (capital ⟨$⟩), and ⟨ž⟩ as ⟨⌠⟩ (capital ⟨£⟩) (so that all characters were available in Code page 437). In the new alphabet, all characters are available in ISO/IEC 8859-2. ↑↑↑ Ulithian also has the digraphs: ⟨ch, l', mw, ng⟩. ⟨c⟩ is used only in digraphs. ↑ Uzbek also has the digraphs: ⟨ch, ng, sh⟩ considered as letters. ⟨c⟩ is used only in digraphs. ⟨g'⟩, ⟨o'⟩ and apostrophe ⟨'⟩ are considered as letters. These letters have preferred typographical variants: ⟨gʻ⟩, ⟨oʻ⟩, and ⟨ʼ⟩ respectively. ↑↑↑↑ Venda also has the digraphs and trigraphs: ⟨bv, bw, dz, dzh, dzw, fh, hw, kh, khw, ng, ny, nz, ṅw, ph, pf, pfh, sh, sw, th, ts, tsh, tsw, ty, ṱh, vh, zh, zw⟩. ⟨c, j, q⟩ are used in foreign words. ↑↑↑↑ Vietnamese has seven additional base letters: ⟨ă â đ ê ô ơ ư⟩. It uses five tone markers that can go on top (or below) any of the 12 vowels (⟨a, ă, â, e, ê, i, o, ô, ơ, u, ư, y⟩); e.g.: grave accent (⟨à, ằ, ầ, è, ề, ì, ò, ồ, ờ, ù, ừ, ỳ⟩), hook above (⟨ả, ẳ, ẩ, ẻ, ể, ỉ, ỏ, ổ, ở, ủ, ử, ỷ⟩), tilde (⟨ã, ẵ, ẫ, ẽ, ễ, ĩ, õ, ỗ, ỡ, ũ, ữ, ỹ⟩), acute accent (⟨á, ắ, ấ, é, ế, í, ó, ố, ớ, ú, ứ, ý⟩), and dot below (⟨ạ, ặ, ậ, ẹ, ệ, ị, ọ, ộ, ợ, ụ, ự, ỵ⟩). It also uses several digraphs and trigraphs ⟨ch, gh, gi, kh, ng, ngh, nh, ph, th, tr⟩ but they are no longer considered letters. ↑↑↑↑ Walloon has the digraphs and trigraphs: ⟨ae, ch, dj, ea, jh, oe, oen, oi, sch, sh, tch, xh⟩. The letter ⟨x⟩ outside the digraph ⟨xh⟩ is in some orthographies, but not the default two. The letter ⟨q⟩ is in some orthographies, but not in the default two. Also in some orthographies are ⟨à⟩, ⟨ì⟩, ⟨ù⟩, and even ⟨e̊⟩ and ⟨o̊⟩ (which are not available as a precomposed character in Unicode, so ⟨ë⟩ and ⟨ö⟩ are used as substitutes)
|
||||
↑↑↑↑ Welsh has the digraphs ⟨ch⟩, ⟨dd⟩, ⟨ff⟩, ⟨ng⟩, ⟨ll⟩, ⟨ph⟩, ⟨rh⟩, ⟨th⟩. Each of these digraphs is collated as a separate letter, and ⟨ng⟩ comes immediately after ⟨g⟩ in the alphabet. It also frequently uses circumflexes, and occasionally uses diaereses, acute accents and grave accents, on its seven vowels (⟨a, e, i, o, u, w, y⟩), but accented characters are not regarded as separate letters of the alphabet. ↑↑↑↑ Xhosa has a large number of digraphs, trigraphs, and even one tetragraph are used to represent various phonemes: ⟨bh, ch, dl, dy, dz, gc, gq, gr, gx, hh, hl, kh, kr, lh, mb, mf, mh, nc, ndl, ndz, ng, ng', ngc, ngh, ngq, ngx, nh, nkc, nkq, nkx, nq, nx, ntl, ny, nyh, ph, qh, rh, sh, th, ths, thsh, ts, tsh, ty, tyh, wh, xh, yh, zh⟩. It also occasionally uses acute accents, grave accents, circumflexes, and diaereses on its five vowels (⟨a, e, i, o, u⟩), but accented characters are not regarded as separate letters of the alphabet. ↑↑↑ Yapese has the digraphs and trigraphs: ⟨aa, ae, ch, ea, ee, ii, k', l', m', n', ng, ng', oe, oo, p', t', th, th', uu, w', y'⟩. ⟨q⟩, representing the glottal stop, is not always used. Often an apostrophe is used to represent the glottal stop instead. ⟨c⟩ is used only in digraphs. ⟨h⟩ is used only in digraphs and loanwords. ⟨q⟩ is used only in loanwords. ↑↑↑↑ Yoruba uses the digraph ⟨gb⟩. Also, vowels take a grave accent, an acute accent, or no accent, depending on tone. Although the "dot below" diacritic is widely used, purists prefer a short vertical underbar (Unicode COMBINING VERTICAL LINE BELOW U+0329) - this resembles the IPA notation for a syllabic consonant, attached to the base of the letter (⟨e⟩, ⟨o⟩ or ⟨s⟩). The seven Yoruba vowels (⟨a⟩, ⟨e⟩, ⟨ẹ⟩, ⟨i⟩, ⟨o⟩, ⟨ọ⟩, ⟨u⟩) can be uttered in three different tones: high (acute accent); middle (no accent) and low (grave accent). The letters ⟨m⟩ and ⟨n⟩, when written without diacritics, indicate nasalisation of the preceding vowel. ⟨m⟩ and ⟨n⟩ also occur as syllabics - in these circumstances, they take acute or grave tonal diacritics, like the vowels. Middle tone is marked with a macron to differentiate it from the unmarked nasalising consonants. A tilde was used in older orthography (still occasionally used) to indicate a double vowel. This is tonally ambiguous, and has now been replaced by showing the paired vowels, each marked with the appropriate tones. However, where a double vowel has the tonal sequence high-low or low-high, it may optionally be replaced by a single vowel with a circumflex (high-low) or caron (low-high), e.g. á + à = ⟨â⟩; à + á = ⟨ǎ⟩. ↑↑ Zuni contains the glottal stop ⟨'⟩ and the digraph: ⟨ch⟩; ⟨c⟩ is only used in that digraph. The other digraphs ⟨kw⟩, ⟨sh⟩, and ⟨ts⟩ are not part of the alphabet.
|
||||
|
||||
== Miscellaneous ==
|
||||
Africa Alphabet
|
||||
African reference alphabet
|
||||
Beghilos
|
||||
Gaj's Latin alphabet, is the only script of both the Croatian and Bosniak standard languages in current use, and one of the two scripts of both the Serbian and Montenegrin standard languages alongside the Cyrillic alphabet.
|
||||
Initial Teaching Alphabet
|
||||
International Phonetic Alphabet
|
||||
Łatynka for Ukrainian
|
||||
Leet (1337 alphabet)
|
||||
Romani alphabet for most Romani languages
|
||||
Sámi Latin alphabet
|
||||
Standard Alphabet by Lepsius
|
||||
Tatar alphabet, similar to Turkish alphabet and Jaꞑalif as a part of Uniform Turkic alphabet
|
||||
Uralic Phonetic Alphabet
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Diacritic
|
||||
Latin-script alphabet
|
||||
Latin-script multigraph
|
||||
Latin script in Unicode
|
||||
Ligature
|
||||
List of Latin-script letters
|
||||
List of precomposed Latin characters in Unicode
|
||||
Romanization
|
||||
Writing systems of Africa
|
||||
Categories
|
||||
Letters with diacritics
|
||||
Latin-script ligatures
|
||||
Phonetic transcription symbols
|
||||
|
||||
== Footnotes ==
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Michael Everson's Alphabets of Europe
|
||||
Typo.cz Information on Central European typography and typesetting
|
||||
Letter database of the Institute of Estonian Language
|
||||
Unicode language coverage tables
|
||||
Diacritics Project – All you need to design a font with correct accents
|
||||
102
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russian_language_topics-0.md
Normal file
102
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russian_language_topics-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,102 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of Russian language topics"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russian_language_topics"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:15.976545+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The list of Russian language topics stores articles on grammar and other language-related topics that discuss (or should discuss) peculiarities of the Russian language (as well as of other languages) or provide examples from Russian language for these topics.
|
||||
The list complements the Category:Russian language and does not overlap with it.
|
||||
The "—" marks articles where the information about Russian language is inadequate or missing.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Categories ==
|
||||
|
||||
Category:Cyrillic alphabets
|
||||
Category:Cyrillic letters
|
||||
Category:Cyrillization
|
||||
Category:Language comparison
|
||||
Category:Russian language
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Articles ==
|
||||
|
||||
Adposition
|
||||
Assimilation (linguistics) (also reasonably covered in Russian phonology)
|
||||
Barbarism (linguistics)
|
||||
Capitalization
|
||||
Clitic
|
||||
Code-switching
|
||||
Compound (linguistics)
|
||||
Consonant mutation
|
||||
Continuous and progressive aspects
|
||||
Copula
|
||||
Cyrillic script
|
||||
Diacritic
|
||||
Diminutive
|
||||
Double negative
|
||||
Expressive loan
|
||||
False cognate
|
||||
Filler (linguistics) —
|
||||
Foreign language influences in English —
|
||||
Four-letter word
|
||||
Frequentative
|
||||
Gemination
|
||||
Gender-neutrality in languages with grammatical gender
|
||||
Gobbledygook
|
||||
Grammatical aspect
|
||||
Grammatical cases:
|
||||
Accusative case
|
||||
Dative case
|
||||
Genitive case
|
||||
Instrumental case
|
||||
Locative case
|
||||
Nominative case
|
||||
Prepositional case
|
||||
Vocative case
|
||||
Grammatical mood
|
||||
Hypothetical mood
|
||||
Hypocorism
|
||||
Iotation
|
||||
Khalyava
|
||||
Language game —
|
||||
Letter Zyu
|
||||
List of ethnic slurs
|
||||
List of offensive terms per nationality
|
||||
List of Russian federal subject name etymologies
|
||||
Malapropism#Examples in Russian language
|
||||
Measure word
|
||||
Metasyntactic variable
|
||||
Minimal pair
|
||||
Minced oath —
|
||||
Mondegreen
|
||||
Mojibake
|
||||
Morse code
|
||||
Morse code for Russian language —
|
||||
Non-native pronunciations of English
|
||||
Palatalization
|
||||
Palindrome
|
||||
Pangram --> List of pangrams
|
||||
Patronymic
|
||||
Paschal greeting
|
||||
Piphilology
|
||||
Placeholder name (kadigan)
|
||||
Phonemes
|
||||
Alveolar trill
|
||||
Sibilant consonant
|
||||
Voiceless velar fricative
|
||||
Pseudo-anglicism
|
||||
Relaxed pronunciation
|
||||
Russification
|
||||
Shibboleth —
|
||||
Slavic languages
|
||||
Stress (linguistics)
|
||||
Isochrony —
|
||||
Titlo
|
||||
T-V distinction
|
||||
Unstressed vowel —
|
||||
Untranslatability
|
||||
Zaum
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,158 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of Russian linguists and philologists"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russian_linguists_and_philologists"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:17.360181+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This list of Russian linguists and philologists includes notable linguists from the Russian Federation, the Soviet Union, the Russian Empire and other predecessor states of Russia.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== A ==
|
||||
Vasily Abaev, prominent researcher of Iranian languages
|
||||
Solomon Adlivankin, Soviet linguist, the founder of Perm derivatology school, took part in compiling Akchim dialect dictionary
|
||||
Vladimir Admoni, linguist, literary critic, translator and poet, worked on the theory of grammar, historic and modern German syntax, defended Joseph Brodsky in court in 1964
|
||||
Alexander Afanasyev, leading Russian folklorist, recorded and published over 600 Russian fairy tales, by far the largest folktale collection by any one man in the world
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== B ==
|
||||
Ivan Baudouin de Courtenay, co-inventor of the concept of phoneme and the systematic treatment of alternations, pioneer of synchronic analysis and mathematical linguistics
|
||||
Victor Bayda, linguist specializing in Celtic and Germanic languages
|
||||
Alexander Belskiy, Soviet specialist in literary criticism, famous Anglicist, founder of philological faculty at Perm State University, founder of Foreign literature Department at PSU
|
||||
Otto von Böhtlingk, prominent Indologist and Sanskrit grammarian
|
||||
Fyodor Buslaev, philologist and folklorist, representative of the Mythological school of comparative literature
|
||||
Yakov Brandt, Sinologist
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== D ==
|
||||
Vladimir Dal, greatest Russian language lexicographer of the 19th century, folklorist and turkologist, author of the Explanatory Dictionary of the Live Great Russian language
|
||||
Vladimir Dybo, a main figure in the Moscow School of Comparative Linguistics
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== E ==
|
||||
Tamara Erofeyeva, leader of school «Sociolinguistic study of urban language», head of Socio- and Psycholinguistics school at Department of General and Slavonic linguistics at Perm State National Research University, Honorary Figure of Russian Higher Education
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== F ===
|
||||
Elena Fedorova, scholar of antiquity; doctor of philology, specialising in classical philology and cultural history
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== G ==
|
||||
Dmitry Gerasimov, medieval translator, diplomat and philologist, correspondent of European Renaissance scholars
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== H ==
|
||||
Eugene Helimski, a long-range comparative linguist
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== I ==
|
||||
Vladislav Illich-Svitych, founder of Nostratic linguistics and the Moscow School of Comparative Linguistics
|
||||
Vyacheslav Ivanov, founder of glottalic theory of Indo-European consonantism
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== J ==
|
||||
Roman Jakobson, literary theorist and preeminent linguist of the 20th century, a founder of phonology, made numerous contributions to Slavic linguistics, author of Jackobson's Communication Model
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== K ==
|
||||
Pyotr Kafarov, prominent sinologist, developed the cyrillization of Chinese, discovered and published many invaluable manuscripts, including The Secret History of the Mongols
|
||||
Alexander Kibrik, eminent typologist and caucasologist
|
||||
Andrej Kibrik, specialist in linguistic typology, cognitive linguistics, discourse analysis, and Athabaskan languages
|
||||
Valeriya Kirpichenko, linguist, translator, specialist in Arabic literature, professor at the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences
|
||||
Yuri Knorozov, linguist, epigrapher and ethnographer, deciphered the ancient Maya script, proposed a decipherment for the Indus script
|
||||
Rimma Komina, Soviet and Russian specialist in literary criticism, the Dean of philological faculty at Perm State University (1977–1982)
|
||||
Andrey Korsakov, eminent linguist and language philosopher, specialised in the Germanic languages and English grammar, suggested philosophic reasoning for the parts of speech system and philosophic understanding of syntactic categories
|
||||
Margarita Kozhina, Soviet and Russian linguist, specialist in stylistics, the founder of Perm school of functional stylistics
|
||||
Nikolay Krushevsky, co-inventor of the concept of phoneme and the systematic treatment of alternations
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== L ==
|
||||
Gerasim Lebedev, pioneer of Indology, introduced Bengali script typing to Europe, founded the first European-style drama theater in India
|
||||
Dmitry Likhachov, major 20th century expert on Old East Slavic language and literature
|
||||
Mikhail Lomonosov, polymath scientist and artist, wrote a grammar that reformed Russian literary language by combining Old Church Slavonic with vernacular tongue
|
||||
Nikolay Lvov, polymath artist and scientist, compiled the first significant collection of Russian folk songs, published epic bylinas
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== M ==
|
||||
Sergey Malov, turkologist, classified the Turkic alphabets, deciphered ancient Orkhon script
|
||||
Nicholas Marr, put forth a pseudo-linguistic Japhetic theory on the origin of language
|
||||
Igor Melchuk, structural linguist, author of Meaning-Text Theory
|
||||
Anatoly Moskvin, philologist and linguist, arrested in 2011 after the bodies of 26 mummified young women were discovered in his home.
|
||||
Leonid Murzin, Soviet and Russian linguist, the head of Perm derivatology school; he founded the Institute of dynamic linguistics
|
||||
Vladimir Müller, linguist and lexicographer, author of popular English–Russian dictionary
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== N ==
|
||||
Sergei Nikolaev, a long-range comparative linguist
|
||||
Semyon Novgorodov, Yakut politician and linguist, creator of written Yakut language (Sakha scripts)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== O ==
|
||||
Sergei Ozhegov, author of the most widely used explanatory dictionary of Russian language
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== P ==
|
||||
Ilia Peiros, a long-range comparative linguist known for his work on Austric languages
|
||||
Stephan of Perm, 14th century missionary, converted Komi Permyaks to Christianity and invented the Old Permic script
|
||||
Yevgeny Polivanov, linguist, orientalist and polyglot, developed the cyrillization of Japanese
|
||||
Nicholas Poppe, prominent Altaic languages researcher
|
||||
Vladimir Propp, formalist scholar, major researcher of folk tales and mythology
|
||||
Tatyana Proskuryakova, Mayanist scholarand archaeologist, deciphered the ancient Maya script
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== R ==
|
||||
|
||||
George de Roerich, major 20th century Tibetologist
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== S ==
|
||||
Franz Anton Schiefner, prominent tibetologist, Finnic and Caucasus languages researcher
|
||||
Isaac Jacob Schmidt, first researcher of Mongolian
|
||||
Aleksey Shakhmatov, founder of textology, prepared major 20th century reforms of Russian orthography, pioneered the systematic research of Old Russian and medieval Russian literature
|
||||
Lev Shcherba, phonetist and phonologist, author of the glokaya kuzdra phrase
|
||||
Fyodor Shcherbatskoy, Indologist, initiated the scholarly study of Buddhist philosophy in the West
|
||||
Vitaly Shevoroshkin, a long-range comparative linguists
|
||||
Ivan Snegiryov, early collector of Russian proverbs and researcher of lubok prints
|
||||
Izmail Sreznevsky, leading 19th century Slavist, published Codex Zographensis, Codex Marianus and Kiev Fragments
|
||||
Georgiy Starostin, son of Sergei Starostin and long-range comparative linguistic researcher
|
||||
Sergei Starostin, prominent supporter of Altaic languages theory, proposed Dené–Caucasian languages macrofamily, reconstructed a number of Eurasian proto-languages
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== T ==
|
||||
Vasily Tatischev, geographer, ethnographer and historian, compiled the first encyclopedic dictionary of Russian
|
||||
Chukchi Tenevil, reindeer herder who created a writing system for the Chukchi language
|
||||
Nikolai Trubetzkoy, principal developer of phonology and inventor of morphophonology, defined phoneme, a founder of the Prague School of structural linguistics
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== U ==
|
||||
|
||||
Dmitry Ushakov, author of the academic Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== V ==
|
||||
Matrena Vakhrusheva, linguist and philologist, wrote the first Mansi-Russian dictionary and a pioneer in the development of Mansi literature and orthography for the Mansi language
|
||||
Max Vasmer, leading Indo-European, Finno-Ugric and Turkic etymologist, author of the 'Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language
|
||||
Viktor Vinogradov, linguist and philologist, founder of the Russian Language Institute
|
||||
Alexander Vostokov, coined the term Old Church Slavonic, discovered Ostromir Gospel (the most ancient East Slavic book), pioneer researcher of the Russian grammar
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Z ==
|
||||
Andrey Zaliznyak, author of the comprehensive systematic description of Russian inflection, prominent researcher of the Old Novgorod dialect and birch bark documents, proved the authenticity of the Tale of Igor's Campaign
|
||||
L. L. Zamenhof, inventor of Esperanto, the most widely spoken constructed international auxiliary language
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of linguists
|
||||
List of Russian scientists
|
||||
List of Russian historians
|
||||
Linguistics of the Soviet Union
|
||||
Moscow School of Comparative Linguistics
|
||||
Russian language
|
||||
Russian literature
|
||||
Science and technology in Russia
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of Serbo-Croatian words of Greek origin"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Serbo-Croatian_words_of_Greek_origin"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:21.339660+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Greek influence was widespread throughout the Balkans during the Middle Ages, influencing the languages within it, including Serbo-Croatian. Many words of Greek origin were borrowed from other languages, while most others came via contact with the Greeks. Some words are present and common in the modern vernaculars of Serbo-Croatian: hiljada (хиљада), tiganj (тигањ), patos (патос). Almost every word of the Serbian Orthodox ceremonies are of Greek origin: parastos (парастос).
|
||||
|
||||
AG stands for Ancient Greek origin.
|
||||
MG stands for Modern Greek origin.
|
||||
C stands for Cyrillic (script).
|
||||
L stands for Latin (script).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Arabic-Persian-Greek-Serbian Conversation Textbook
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
"Grecizmi u srpskom jeziku". ЈУЖНОСЛОВЕНСКИ филолог. Srpska akademija nauka i umetnosti: 375–403. GGKEY:00RD5D429DG.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,38 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of Serbo-Croatian words of Turkish origin"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Serbo-Croatian_words_of_Turkish_origin"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:22.585909+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Serbo-Croatian vernacular has over time borrowed and adopted a lot of words of Turkish origin. The Ottoman conquest of the Balkans began a linguistical contact between Ottoman Turkish and South Slavic languages, a period of influence since at least the late 14th up until the 20th century, when large territories of Shtokavian-speaking areas became conquered and made into provinces of the Ottoman Empire, into what was collectively known as Rumelia. As the Ottoman Turkish language itself extensively borrowed from Arabic, Persian and Central Asian Turkic languages other than itself, many words of such origins also entered Serbo-Croatian via Turkish. Numerous migrations in the war-torn Western Balkans helped spread Shtokavian and its enriched vernacular. Some Turkisms in Serbo-Croatian have entered the language through other languages, such as Italian, while some words of Greek origin have been adopted in their Turkish forms.
|
||||
Over the passage of time, many Turkish loanwords were completely adopted into standardized varieties of Serbo-Croatian and are no longer considered loanwords, if not for lack of true synonyms. Numerous such Turkisms (e.g. bakar, alat, sat, čarape, šećer, or boja) are often preferred to later introduced Germanisms and Latinisms (farba, kolur, tinta, pigment). This is mostly the case with the Croatian variety of Serbo-Croatian, which has historically been more stringent to internationalisms. Out of all four varieties of the language, Bosnian has by far introduced and retained the most of Turkisms, largely due to its cultural Islamic ties. Turkish loanwords underwent pronunciation changes, principally on gender suffixes and adaptations of ö, ü, ı that are non-existent in Serbo-Croatian. Turkisms are also commonly called "Orientalisms".
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Characteristics ==
|
||||
Turkisms often end in one of the following suffixes: –luk, –ci, –li, which come from the original –lik, –çi, –lı. Other suffixes include –ak, –hana, –ija, –suz and –uk. Persian –dār is also a common suffix. Many Serbo-Croatian words that are not of Turkish, Arabic or Persian origin have adopted these suffixes (e.g. kamiondžija, bezobrazluk, lopovluk), showing that influence of Turkish onto Serbo-Croatian extends past loanwords, into morphology and other linguistic characteristics.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Number of Turkish loanwords ==
|
||||
|
||||
There is an uncertainly high number of Turkish loanwords (a lot of which are themselves loanwords from Arabic and Persian) in the modern Serbo-Croatian language, mostly contained within the prestige Shtokavian dialect, and fewer in Kajkavian and Chakavian. The first edition of Srpski rječnik from 1818 listed around 2,500 Turkisms among 26,270 total words (~9,5%), while the second edition from 1852 listed around 3,700 out of 40,000 (~9,25%).
|
||||
Orientalist expert Olga Zirojević deems that a lot more Turkish loanwords have been used in Serbia's distant past - around 8,000 - than in the present, which is estimated to be around 3,000. First dictionary of Turkisms in Serbia was written by Djordje Popović-Daničar in 1884, called Turkish and other Eastern words in our language (Turske i druge istočanske reči u našem jeziku). The book contains around 6,000 words. Another academic, Dušan Marjanović, compiled a corpus of 5,000 Turkisms in early 1930s.
|
||||
A prominent Sharia and jurist writer Abdulah Škaljić spent several years at the Institute for the study of folklore of University of Sarajevo thoroughly documenting Turkisms in the folk literature of Bosnia and Herzegovina. He subsequently created the most comprehensive dictionary of Turkisms, first published in 1957 in two volumes, then called Turkisms in the vernacular and folk literature of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Turcizmi u narodnom govoru i narodnoj književnosti Bosne i Hercegovine). Encouraged by great interest among domestic and international scientists and the demand for the dictionary, Škaljić expanded his research to the entirety of Serbo-Croatian-speaking area. In 1965 he published the dictionary named Turkisms in the Serbo-Croatian language (Turcizmi u srpskohrvatskom jeziku), which after several additions and revisions ended up having 8,742 words and 6,878 terms.
|
||||
An academic research in the Croatian dialectological field was done by Silvana Vranić and Sanja Zubčić at the University of Rijeka. They analyzed a corpus of 443 Shtokavian, 122 Chakavian and 95 Kajkavian phrasemes typical of Croatian speech, in which they found 118, 45 and 29 Turkisms respectively. The ratio of phrasemes per Turkisms was found to be 4.1, 2.7 and 3.3 respectively, showing that Shtokavian contains the most Turkisms, although not equally distributed along regions where it is spoken - the most were found in Dalmatian Hinterland at 39%, then Slavonia at 36%, and Lika at 25%.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== List of loanwords ==
|
||||
Only a number of Turkish loanwords are common to all four standardized varieties of Serbo-Croatian. Many more Turkisms lie in the vernacular speeches, which vary across regions and cultures. A large number of such loanwords are mainly found in the Bosnian standard, and are considered colloquial or non-existent in other varieties. The following is a non-exhaustive list thereof.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Food and cuisine loanwords ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Arabic-Persian-Greek-Serbian Conversation Textbook
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
325
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_abstract_algebra_topics-0.md
Normal file
325
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_abstract_algebra_topics-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,325 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of abstract algebra topics"
|
||||
chunk: 1/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_abstract_algebra_topics"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:35.563780+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
In mathematics, more specifically algebra, abstract algebra or modern algebra is the study of algebraic structures, which are sets with specific operations acting on their elements. Algebraic structures include groups, rings, fields, modules, vector spaces, lattices, and algebras over a field. The term abstract algebra was coined in the early 20th century to distinguish it from older parts of algebra, and more specifically from elementary algebra, the use of variables to represent numbers in computation and reasoning. The abstract perspective on algebra has become so fundamental to advanced mathematics that it is simply called "algebra", while the term "abstract algebra" is seldom used except in pedagogy.
|
||||
|
||||
== Basic language ==
|
||||
Algebraic structures are defined primarily as sets with operations.
|
||||
|
||||
Algebraic structure
|
||||
Subobjects: subgroup, subring, subalgebra, submodule etc.
|
||||
Binary operation
|
||||
Closure of an operation
|
||||
Associative property
|
||||
Distributive property
|
||||
Commutative property
|
||||
Unary operator
|
||||
Additive inverse, multiplicative inverse, inverse element
|
||||
Identity element
|
||||
Cancellation property
|
||||
Finitary operation
|
||||
Arity
|
||||
Structure preserving maps called homomorphisms are vital in the study of algebraic objects.
|
||||
|
||||
Homomorphisms
|
||||
Kernels and cokernels
|
||||
Image and coimage
|
||||
Epimorphisms and monomorphisms
|
||||
Isomorphisms
|
||||
Isomorphism theorems
|
||||
There are several basic ways to combine algebraic objects of the same type to produce a third object of the same type. These constructions are used throughout algebra.
|
||||
|
||||
Direct sum
|
||||
Direct limit
|
||||
Direct product
|
||||
Inverse limit
|
||||
Quotient objects: quotient group, quotient ring, quotient module etc.
|
||||
Tensor product
|
||||
Advanced concepts:
|
||||
|
||||
Category theory
|
||||
Category of groups
|
||||
Category of abelian groups
|
||||
Category of rings
|
||||
Category of modules (over a fixed ring)
|
||||
Morita equivalence, Morita duality
|
||||
Category of vector spaces
|
||||
Homological algebra
|
||||
Filtration (algebra)
|
||||
Exact sequence
|
||||
Functor
|
||||
Zorn's lemma
|
||||
|
||||
== Semigroups and monoids ==
|
||||
Semigroup
|
||||
Subsemigroup
|
||||
Free semigroup
|
||||
Green's relations
|
||||
Inverse semigroup (or inversion semigroup, cf. [1])
|
||||
Krohn–Rhodes theory
|
||||
Semigroup algebra
|
||||
Transformation semigroup
|
||||
Monoid
|
||||
Aperiodic monoid
|
||||
Free monoid
|
||||
Monoid (category theory)
|
||||
Monoid factorisation
|
||||
Syntactic monoid
|
||||
|
||||
== Group theory ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Structure ===
|
||||
Group (mathematics)
|
||||
Lagrange's theorem (group theory)
|
||||
Subgroup
|
||||
Coset
|
||||
Normal subgroup
|
||||
Characteristic subgroup
|
||||
Centralizer and normalizer subgroups
|
||||
Derived group
|
||||
Frattini subgroup
|
||||
Fitting subgroup
|
||||
Classification of finite simple groups
|
||||
Sylow theorems
|
||||
Local analysis
|
||||
|
||||
=== Constructions ===
|
||||
Free group
|
||||
Presentation of a group
|
||||
Word problem for groups
|
||||
Quotient group
|
||||
Extension problem
|
||||
Direct sum, direct product
|
||||
Semidirect product
|
||||
Wreath product
|
||||
|
||||
=== Types ===
|
||||
Simple group
|
||||
Finite group
|
||||
Abelian group
|
||||
Torsion subgroup
|
||||
Free abelian group
|
||||
Finitely generated abelian group
|
||||
Rank of an abelian group
|
||||
Cyclic group
|
||||
Locally cyclic group
|
||||
Solvable group
|
||||
Composition series
|
||||
Nilpotent group
|
||||
Divisible group
|
||||
Dedekind group, Hamiltonian group
|
||||
|
||||
=== Examples ===
|
||||
Examples of groups
|
||||
Trivial group
|
||||
Additive group
|
||||
Permutation group
|
||||
Symmetric group
|
||||
Alternating group
|
||||
p-group
|
||||
List of small groups
|
||||
Klein four-group
|
||||
Quaternion group
|
||||
Dihedral group
|
||||
Dicyclic group
|
||||
Automorphism group
|
||||
Point group
|
||||
Circle group
|
||||
Linear group
|
||||
Orthogonal group
|
||||
|
||||
=== Applications ===
|
||||
Group action
|
||||
Conjugacy class
|
||||
Inner automorphism
|
||||
Conjugate closure
|
||||
Stabilizer subgroup
|
||||
Orbit (group theory)
|
||||
Orbit-stabilizer theorem
|
||||
Cayley's theorem
|
||||
Burnside's lemma
|
||||
Burnside's problem
|
||||
Loop group
|
||||
Fundamental group
|
||||
|
||||
== Ring theory ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== General ===
|
||||
Ring (mathematics)
|
||||
Commutative algebra, Commutative ring
|
||||
Ring theory, Noncommutative ring
|
||||
Algebra over a field
|
||||
Non-associative algebra
|
||||
Relatives to rings: Semiring, Nearring, Rig (algebra)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Structure ===
|
||||
Subring, Subalgebra
|
||||
Center (algebra)
|
||||
Ring ideal
|
||||
Principal ideal
|
||||
Ideal quotient
|
||||
Maximal ideal, minimal ideal
|
||||
Primitive ideal, prime ideal, semiprime ideal
|
||||
Radical of an ideal
|
||||
Jacobson radical
|
||||
Socle of a ring
|
||||
unit (ring theory), Idempotent, Nilpotent, Zero divisor
|
||||
Characteristic (algebra)
|
||||
Ring homomorphism, Algebra homomorphism
|
||||
Ring epimorphism
|
||||
Ring monomorphism
|
||||
Ring isomorphism
|
||||
Skolem–Noether theorem
|
||||
Graded algebra
|
||||
Morita equivalence
|
||||
Brauer group
|
||||
Stable range condition
|
||||
|
||||
=== Constructions ===
|
||||
Direct sum of rings, Product of rings
|
||||
Quotient ring
|
||||
Matrix ring
|
||||
Endomorphism ring
|
||||
Polynomial ring
|
||||
Formal power series
|
||||
Monoid ring, Group ring
|
||||
Localization of a ring
|
||||
Tensor algebra
|
||||
Symmetric algebra, Exterior algebra, Clifford algebra
|
||||
Free algebra
|
||||
Completion (ring theory)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Types ===
|
||||
Field (mathematics), Division ring, division algebra
|
||||
Simple ring, Central simple algebra, Semisimple ring, Semisimple algebra
|
||||
Primitive ring, Semiprimitive ring
|
||||
Prime ring, Semiprime ring, Reduced ring
|
||||
Integral domain, Domain (ring theory)
|
||||
Field of fractions, Integral closure
|
||||
Euclidean domain, Principal ideal domain, Unique factorization domain, Dedekind domain, Prüfer domain
|
||||
Von Neumann regular ring
|
||||
Quasi-Frobenius ring
|
||||
Hereditary ring, Semihereditary ring
|
||||
Local ring, Semi-local ring
|
||||
Discrete valuation ring
|
||||
Regular local ring
|
||||
Cohen–Macaulay ring
|
||||
Gorenstein ring
|
||||
Artinian ring, Noetherian ring
|
||||
Perfect ring, semiperfect ring
|
||||
Baer ring, Rickart ring
|
||||
Lie ring, Lie algebra
|
||||
Ideal (Lie algebra)
|
||||
Jordan algebra
|
||||
Differential algebra
|
||||
Banach algebra
|
||||
|
||||
=== Examples ===
|
||||
Rational number, Real number, Complex number, Quaternions, Octonions
|
||||
Hurwitz quaternion
|
||||
Gaussian integer
|
||||
|
||||
=== Theorems and applications ===
|
||||
Algebraic geometry
|
||||
Hilbert's Nullstellensatz
|
||||
Hilbert's basis theorem
|
||||
Hopkins–Levitzki theorem
|
||||
Krull's principal ideal theorem
|
||||
Levitzky's theorem
|
||||
Galois theory
|
||||
Abel–Ruffini theorem
|
||||
Wedderburn–Artin theorem
|
||||
Jacobson density theorem
|
||||
Wedderburn's little theorem
|
||||
Lasker–Noether theorem
|
||||
|
||||
== Field theory ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Basic concepts ===
|
||||
Field (mathematics)
|
||||
Subfield (mathematics)
|
||||
Multiplicative group
|
||||
Primitive element (field theory)
|
||||
Field extension
|
||||
Algebraic extension
|
||||
Splitting field
|
||||
Algebraically closed field
|
||||
Algebraic element
|
||||
Algebraic closure
|
||||
Separable extension
|
||||
Separable polynomial
|
||||
Normal extension
|
||||
Galois extension
|
||||
Abelian extension
|
||||
Transcendence degree
|
||||
Field norm
|
||||
Field trace
|
||||
Conjugate element (field theory)
|
||||
Tensor product of fields
|
||||
|
||||
=== Types ===
|
||||
Algebraic number field
|
||||
Global field
|
||||
Local field
|
||||
Finite field
|
||||
Symmetric function
|
||||
Formally real field
|
||||
Real closed field
|
||||
|
||||
=== Applications ===
|
||||
Galois theory
|
||||
Galois group
|
||||
Inverse Galois problem
|
||||
Kummer theory
|
||||
|
||||
== Module theory ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== General ===
|
||||
Module (mathematics)
|
||||
Bimodule
|
||||
Annihilator (ring theory)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Structure ===
|
||||
Submodule
|
||||
Pure submodule
|
||||
Module homomorphism
|
||||
Essential submodule
|
||||
Superfluous submodule
|
||||
Singular submodule
|
||||
Socle of a module
|
||||
Radical of a module
|
||||
|
||||
=== Constructions ===
|
||||
Free module
|
||||
Quotient module
|
||||
Direct sum, Direct product of modules
|
||||
Direct limit, Inverse limit
|
||||
Localization of a module
|
||||
Completion (ring theory)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Types ===
|
||||
Simple module, Semisimple module
|
||||
Indecomposable module
|
||||
Artinian module, Noetherian module
|
||||
Homological types:
|
||||
Projective module
|
||||
Projective cover
|
||||
Swan's theorem
|
||||
Quillen–Suslin theorem
|
||||
Injective module
|
||||
Injective hull
|
||||
Flat module
|
||||
Flat cover
|
||||
Coherent module
|
||||
Finitely-generated module
|
||||
Finitely-presented module
|
||||
Finitely related module
|
||||
Algebraically compact module
|
||||
Reflexive module
|
||||
116
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_abstract_algebra_topics-1.md
Normal file
116
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_abstract_algebra_topics-1.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,116 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of abstract algebra topics"
|
||||
chunk: 2/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_abstract_algebra_topics"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:35.563780+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== Concepts and theorems ===
|
||||
Composition series
|
||||
Length of a module
|
||||
Structure theorem for finitely generated modules over a principal ideal domain
|
||||
Homological dimension
|
||||
Projective dimension
|
||||
Injective dimension
|
||||
Flat dimension
|
||||
Global dimension
|
||||
Weak global dimension
|
||||
Cohomological dimension
|
||||
Krull dimension
|
||||
Regular sequence (algebra), depth (algebra)
|
||||
Fitting lemma
|
||||
Schur's lemma
|
||||
Nakayama's lemma
|
||||
Krull–Schmidt theorem
|
||||
Steinitz exchange lemma
|
||||
Jordan–Hölder theorem
|
||||
Artin–Rees lemma
|
||||
Schanuel's lemma
|
||||
Morita equivalence
|
||||
Progenerator
|
||||
|
||||
== Representation theory ==
|
||||
Representation theory (& outline)
|
||||
|
||||
Algebra representation
|
||||
Group representation
|
||||
Lie algebra representation
|
||||
Maschke's theorem
|
||||
Schur's lemma
|
||||
Equivariant map
|
||||
Frobenius reciprocity
|
||||
Induced representation
|
||||
Restricted representation
|
||||
Affine representation
|
||||
Projective representation
|
||||
Modular representation theory
|
||||
Quiver (mathematics)
|
||||
Representation theory of Hopf algebras
|
||||
|
||||
== Non-associative systems ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== General ===
|
||||
Associative property, Associator
|
||||
Heap (mathematics)
|
||||
Magma (algebra)
|
||||
Loop (algebra), Quasigroup
|
||||
Nonassociative ring, Non-associative algebra
|
||||
Universal enveloping algebra
|
||||
Lie algebra (see also list of Lie group topics and list of representation theory topics)
|
||||
Jordan algebra
|
||||
Alternative algebra
|
||||
Power associativity
|
||||
Flexible algebra
|
||||
|
||||
=== Examples ===
|
||||
Cayley–Dickson construction
|
||||
Octonions
|
||||
Sedenions
|
||||
Trigintaduonions
|
||||
Hyperbolic quaternions
|
||||
Virasoro algebra
|
||||
|
||||
== Generalities ==
|
||||
Algebraic structure
|
||||
Universal algebra
|
||||
Variety (universal algebra)
|
||||
Congruence relation
|
||||
Free object
|
||||
Generating set (universal algebra)
|
||||
Clone (algebra)
|
||||
Kernel of a function
|
||||
Kernel (algebra)
|
||||
Isomorphism class
|
||||
Isomorphism theorem
|
||||
Fundamental theorem on homomorphisms
|
||||
Universal property
|
||||
Filtration (mathematics)
|
||||
Category theory
|
||||
Monoidal category
|
||||
Groupoid
|
||||
Group object
|
||||
Coalgebra
|
||||
Bialgebra
|
||||
Hopf algebra
|
||||
Magma object
|
||||
Torsion (algebra)
|
||||
|
||||
== Computer algebra ==
|
||||
|
||||
Symbolic mathematics
|
||||
Finite field arithmetic
|
||||
Gröbner basis
|
||||
Buchberger's algorithm
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of commutative algebra topics
|
||||
List of homological algebra topics
|
||||
List of linear algebra topics
|
||||
List of algebraic structures
|
||||
Glossary of field theory
|
||||
Glossary of group theory
|
||||
Glossary of ring theory
|
||||
Glossary of tensor theory
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of algebraic coding theory topics"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algebraic_coding_theory_topics"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:39.260445+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of algebraic coding theory topics.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of algebraic constructions"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algebraic_constructions"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:40.458341+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
An algebraic construction is a method by which an algebraic entity is defined or derived from another.
|
||||
Instances include:
|
||||
|
||||
Cayley–Dickson construction
|
||||
Proj construction
|
||||
Grothendieck group
|
||||
Gelfand–Naimark–Segal construction
|
||||
Ultraproduct
|
||||
ADHM construction
|
||||
Burnside ring
|
||||
Simplicial set
|
||||
Fox derivative
|
||||
Mapping cone (homological algebra)
|
||||
Prym variety
|
||||
Todd class
|
||||
Adjunction (field theory)
|
||||
Vaughan Jones construction
|
||||
Strähle construction
|
||||
Coset construction
|
||||
Plus construction
|
||||
Algebraic K-theory
|
||||
Gelfand–Naimark–Segal construction
|
||||
Stanley–Reisner ring construction
|
||||
Quotient ring construction
|
||||
Ward's twistor construction
|
||||
Hilbert symbol
|
||||
Hilbert's arithmetic of ends
|
||||
Colombeau's construction
|
||||
Vector bundle
|
||||
Integral monoid ring construction
|
||||
Integral group ring construction
|
||||
Category of Eilenberg–Moore algebras
|
||||
Kleisli category
|
||||
Adjunction (field theory)
|
||||
Lindenbaum–Tarski algebra construction
|
||||
Freudenthal magic square
|
||||
Stone–Čech compactification
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,273 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of algebraic geometry topics"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algebraic_geometry_topics"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:41.639499+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of algebraic geometry topics, by Wikipedia page.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Classical topics in projective geometry ==
|
||||
Affine space
|
||||
Projective space
|
||||
Projective line, cross-ratio
|
||||
Projective plane
|
||||
Line at infinity
|
||||
Complex projective plane
|
||||
Complex projective space
|
||||
Plane at infinity, hyperplane at infinity
|
||||
Projective frame
|
||||
Projective transformation
|
||||
Fundamental theorem of projective geometry
|
||||
Duality (projective geometry)
|
||||
Real projective plane
|
||||
Real projective space
|
||||
Segre embedding of a product of projective spaces
|
||||
Rational normal curve
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Algebraic curves ==
|
||||
Conics, Pascal's theorem, Brianchon's theorem
|
||||
Twisted cubic
|
||||
Elliptic curve, cubic curve
|
||||
Elliptic function, Jacobi's elliptic functions, Weierstrass's elliptic functions
|
||||
Elliptic integral
|
||||
Complex multiplication
|
||||
Weil pairing
|
||||
Hyperelliptic curve
|
||||
Klein quartic
|
||||
Modular curve
|
||||
Modular equation
|
||||
Modular function
|
||||
Modular group
|
||||
Supersingular primes
|
||||
Fermat curve
|
||||
Bézout's theorem
|
||||
Brill–Noether theory
|
||||
Genus (mathematics)
|
||||
Riemann surface
|
||||
Riemann–Hurwitz formula
|
||||
Riemann–Roch theorem
|
||||
Abelian integral
|
||||
Differential of the first kind
|
||||
Jacobian variety
|
||||
Generalized Jacobian
|
||||
Moduli of algebraic curves
|
||||
Hurwitz's theorem on automorphisms of a curve
|
||||
Clifford's theorem on special divisors
|
||||
Gonality of an algebraic curve
|
||||
Weil reciprocity law
|
||||
Algebraic geometry codes
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Algebraic surfaces ==
|
||||
Enriques–Kodaira classification
|
||||
List of algebraic surfaces
|
||||
Ruled surface
|
||||
Cubic surface
|
||||
Veronese surface
|
||||
Del Pezzo surface
|
||||
Rational surface
|
||||
Enriques surface
|
||||
K3 surface
|
||||
Hodge index theorem
|
||||
Elliptic surface
|
||||
Surface of general type
|
||||
Zariski surface
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Algebraic geometry: classical approach ==
|
||||
Algebraic variety
|
||||
Hypersurface
|
||||
Quadric (algebraic geometry)
|
||||
Dimension of an algebraic variety
|
||||
Hilbert's Nullstellensatz
|
||||
Complete variety
|
||||
Elimination theory
|
||||
Gröbner basis
|
||||
Projective variety
|
||||
Quasiprojective variety
|
||||
Canonical bundle
|
||||
Complete intersection
|
||||
Serre duality
|
||||
Spaltenstein variety
|
||||
Arithmetic genus, geometric genus, irregularity
|
||||
Tangent space, Zariski tangent space
|
||||
Function field of an algebraic variety
|
||||
Ample line bundle
|
||||
Ample vector bundle
|
||||
Linear system of divisors
|
||||
Birational geometry
|
||||
Blowing up
|
||||
Resolution of singularities
|
||||
Rational variety
|
||||
Unirational variety
|
||||
Ruled variety
|
||||
Kodaira dimension
|
||||
Canonical ring
|
||||
Minimal model program
|
||||
Intersection theory
|
||||
Intersection number
|
||||
Chow ring
|
||||
Chern class
|
||||
Serre's multiplicity conjectures
|
||||
Albanese variety
|
||||
Picard group
|
||||
Modular form
|
||||
Moduli space
|
||||
Modular equation
|
||||
J-invariant
|
||||
Algebraic function
|
||||
Algebraic form
|
||||
Addition theorem
|
||||
Invariant theory
|
||||
Symbolic method of invariant theory
|
||||
Geometric invariant theory
|
||||
Toric variety
|
||||
Deformation theory
|
||||
Singular point, non-singular
|
||||
Singularity theory
|
||||
Newton polygon
|
||||
Weil conjectures
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Complex manifolds ==
|
||||
Kähler manifold
|
||||
Calabi–Yau manifold
|
||||
Stein manifold
|
||||
Hodge theory
|
||||
Hodge cycle
|
||||
Hodge conjecture
|
||||
Algebraic geometry and analytic geometry
|
||||
Mirror symmetry
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Algebraic groups ==
|
||||
Linear algebraic group
|
||||
Additive group
|
||||
Multiplicative group
|
||||
Algebraic torus
|
||||
Reductive group
|
||||
Borel subgroup
|
||||
Radical of an algebraic group
|
||||
Unipotent radical
|
||||
Lie–Kolchin theorem
|
||||
Haboush's theorem (also known as the Mumford conjecture)
|
||||
Group scheme
|
||||
Abelian variety
|
||||
Theta function
|
||||
Grassmannian
|
||||
Flag manifold
|
||||
Weil restriction
|
||||
Differential Galois theory
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Contemporary foundations ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Commutative algebra ===
|
||||
Prime ideal
|
||||
Valuation (algebra)
|
||||
Krull dimension
|
||||
Regular local ring
|
||||
Regular sequence
|
||||
Cohen–Macaulay ring
|
||||
Gorenstein ring
|
||||
Koszul complex
|
||||
Spectrum of a ring
|
||||
Zariski topology
|
||||
Kähler differential
|
||||
Generic flatness
|
||||
Irrelevant ideal
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Sheaf theory ===
|
||||
Locally ringed space
|
||||
Coherent sheaf
|
||||
Invertible sheaf
|
||||
Sheaf cohomology
|
||||
Coherent sheaf cohomology
|
||||
Hirzebruch–Riemann–Roch theorem
|
||||
Grothendieck–Riemann–Roch theorem
|
||||
Coherent duality
|
||||
Dévissage
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Schemes ===
|
||||
Affine scheme
|
||||
Scheme
|
||||
Éléments de géométrie algébrique
|
||||
Grothendieck's Séminaire de géométrie algébrique
|
||||
Fiber product of schemes
|
||||
Flat morphism
|
||||
Smooth scheme
|
||||
Finite morphism
|
||||
Quasi-finite morphism
|
||||
Proper morphism
|
||||
Semistable elliptic curve
|
||||
Grothendieck's relative point of view
|
||||
Hilbert scheme
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Category theory ===
|
||||
Grothendieck topology
|
||||
Topos
|
||||
Derived category
|
||||
Descent (category theory)
|
||||
Grothendieck's Galois theory
|
||||
Algebraic stack
|
||||
Gerbe
|
||||
Étale cohomology
|
||||
Motive (algebraic geometry)
|
||||
Motivic cohomology
|
||||
A¹ homotopy theory
|
||||
Homotopical algebra
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Algebraic geometers ==
|
||||
Niels Henrik Abel
|
||||
Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi
|
||||
Jakob Steiner
|
||||
Julius Plücker
|
||||
Arthur Cayley
|
||||
Bernhard Riemann
|
||||
Max Noether
|
||||
William Kingdon Clifford
|
||||
David Hilbert
|
||||
Italian school of algebraic geometry
|
||||
Guido Castelnuovo
|
||||
Federigo Enriques
|
||||
Francesco Severi
|
||||
Solomon Lefschetz
|
||||
Oscar Zariski
|
||||
W. V. D. Hodge
|
||||
Sir Michael Atiyah
|
||||
Kunihiko Kodaira
|
||||
André Weil
|
||||
Jean-Pierre Serre
|
||||
Alexander Grothendieck
|
||||
Friedrich Hirzebruch
|
||||
Igor Shafarevich
|
||||
Heisuke Hironaka
|
||||
Shreeram S. Abhyankar
|
||||
Pierre Samuel
|
||||
C.P. Ramanujam
|
||||
David Mumford
|
||||
Michael Artin
|
||||
Phillip Griffiths
|
||||
Pierre Deligne
|
||||
Yuri Manin
|
||||
Shigefumi Mori
|
||||
Vladimir Drinfeld
|
||||
Vladimir Voevodsky
|
||||
Claire Voisin
|
||||
János Kollár
|
||||
Caucher Birkar
|
||||
Burt Totaro
|
||||
Patrick Brosnan
|
||||
Robin Hartshorne
|
||||
Joe Harris
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,89 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of algebraic number theory topics"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algebraic_number_theory_topics"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:42.947013+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of algebraic number theory topics.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Basic topics ==
|
||||
These topics are basic to the field, either as prototypical examples, or as basic objects of study.
|
||||
|
||||
Algebraic number field
|
||||
Gaussian integer, Gaussian rational
|
||||
Quadratic field
|
||||
Cyclotomic field
|
||||
Cubic field
|
||||
Biquadratic field
|
||||
Quadratic reciprocity
|
||||
Ideal class group
|
||||
Dirichlet's unit theorem
|
||||
Discriminant of an algebraic number field
|
||||
Ramification (mathematics)
|
||||
Root of unity
|
||||
Gaussian period
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Important problems ==
|
||||
Fermat's Last Theorem
|
||||
Class number problem for imaginary quadratic fields
|
||||
Stark–Heegner theorem
|
||||
Heegner number
|
||||
Langlands program
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== General aspects ==
|
||||
Different ideal
|
||||
Dedekind domain
|
||||
Splitting of prime ideals in Galois extensions
|
||||
Decomposition group
|
||||
Inertia group
|
||||
Frobenius automorphism
|
||||
Chebotarev's density theorem
|
||||
Totally real field
|
||||
Local field
|
||||
p-adic number
|
||||
p-adic analysis
|
||||
Adele ring
|
||||
Idele group
|
||||
Idele class group
|
||||
Adelic algebraic group
|
||||
Global field
|
||||
Hasse principle
|
||||
Hasse–Minkowski theorem
|
||||
Galois module
|
||||
Galois cohomology
|
||||
Brauer group
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Class field theory ==
|
||||
Class field theory
|
||||
Abelian extension
|
||||
Kronecker–Weber theorem
|
||||
Hilbert class field
|
||||
Takagi existence theorem
|
||||
Hasse norm theorem
|
||||
Artin reciprocity
|
||||
Local class field theory
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Iwasawa theory ==
|
||||
Iwasawa theory
|
||||
Herbrand–Ribet theorem
|
||||
Vandiver's conjecture
|
||||
Stickelberger's theorem
|
||||
Euler system
|
||||
p-adic L-function
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Arithmetic geometry ==
|
||||
Arithmetic geometry
|
||||
Complex multiplication
|
||||
Abelian variety of CM-type
|
||||
Chowla–Selberg formula
|
||||
Hasse–Weil zeta function
|
||||
94
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algebras-0.md
Normal file
94
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algebras-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,94 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of algebras"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algebras"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:46.737962+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of possibly nonassociative algebras. An algebra is a module, wherein you can also multiply two module elements. (The multiplication in the module is compatible with multiplication-by-scalars from the base ring).
|
||||
|
||||
*-algebra
|
||||
Affine Lie algebra
|
||||
Akivis algebra
|
||||
Algebra for a monad
|
||||
Albert algebra
|
||||
Alternative algebra
|
||||
AW*-algebra
|
||||
Azumaya algebra
|
||||
Banach algebra
|
||||
Birman–Wenzl algebra
|
||||
Boolean algebra
|
||||
Borcherds algebra
|
||||
Brauer algebra
|
||||
C*-algebra
|
||||
Central simple algebra
|
||||
Clifford algebra
|
||||
Cluster algebra
|
||||
Dendriform algebra
|
||||
Differential graded algebra
|
||||
Differential graded Lie algebra
|
||||
Exterior algebra
|
||||
F-algebra
|
||||
Filtered algebra
|
||||
Flexible algebra
|
||||
Freudenthal algebra
|
||||
Functional-theoretic algebra
|
||||
Factorization algebra
|
||||
Genetic algebra
|
||||
Geometric algebra
|
||||
Gerstenhaber algebra
|
||||
Graded algebra
|
||||
Griess algebra
|
||||
Group algebra
|
||||
Group algebra of a locally compact group
|
||||
Hall algebra
|
||||
Hecke algebra of a locally compact group
|
||||
Heyting algebra
|
||||
Hopf algebra
|
||||
Hurwitz algebra
|
||||
Hypercomplex algebra
|
||||
Incidence algebra
|
||||
Iwahori–Hecke algebra
|
||||
Jordan algebra
|
||||
Kac–Moody algebra
|
||||
Kleene algebra
|
||||
Leibniz algebra
|
||||
Lie algebra
|
||||
Lie superalgebra
|
||||
Malcev algebra
|
||||
Matrix algebra
|
||||
Non-associative algebra
|
||||
Octonion algebra
|
||||
Pre-Lie algebra
|
||||
Poisson algebra
|
||||
Process algebra
|
||||
Quadratic algebra
|
||||
Quadric geometric algebra
|
||||
Quaternion algebra
|
||||
Rees algebra
|
||||
Relation algebra
|
||||
Relational algebra
|
||||
Rota–Baxter algebra
|
||||
Schur algebra
|
||||
Semisimple algebra
|
||||
Separable algebra
|
||||
Shuffle algebra
|
||||
Sigma-algebra
|
||||
Simple algebra
|
||||
Structurable algebra
|
||||
Supercommutative algebra
|
||||
Symmetric algebra
|
||||
Tensor algebra
|
||||
Universal enveloping algebra
|
||||
Vertex operator algebra
|
||||
von Neumann algebra
|
||||
Weyl algebra
|
||||
Zinbiel algebra
|
||||
This is a list of fields of algebra.
|
||||
|
||||
Linear algebra
|
||||
Homological algebra
|
||||
Universal algebra
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,54 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of algorithm general topics"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithm_general_topics"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:47.939703+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of algorithm general topics.
|
||||
|
||||
Analysis of algorithms
|
||||
Ant colony algorithm
|
||||
Approximation algorithm
|
||||
Best and worst cases
|
||||
Big O notation
|
||||
Combinatorial search
|
||||
Competitive analysis
|
||||
Computability theory
|
||||
Computational complexity theory
|
||||
Embarrassingly parallel problem
|
||||
Emergent algorithm
|
||||
Evolutionary algorithm
|
||||
Fast Fourier transform
|
||||
Genetic algorithm
|
||||
Graph exploration algorithm
|
||||
Heuristic
|
||||
Hill climbing
|
||||
Implementation
|
||||
Las Vegas algorithm
|
||||
Lock-free and wait-free algorithms
|
||||
Monte Carlo algorithm
|
||||
Numerical analysis
|
||||
Online algorithm
|
||||
Polynomial time approximation scheme
|
||||
Problem size
|
||||
Pseudorandom number generator
|
||||
Quantum algorithm
|
||||
Random-restart hill climbing
|
||||
Randomized algorithm
|
||||
Running time
|
||||
Sorting algorithm
|
||||
Search algorithm
|
||||
Stable algorithm (disambiguation)
|
||||
Super-recursive algorithm
|
||||
Tree search algorithm
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of algorithms for specific algorithms
|
||||
List of computability and complexity topics for more abstract theory
|
||||
List of complexity classes, complexity class
|
||||
List of data structures.
|
||||
116
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms-0.md
Normal file
116
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,116 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of algorithms"
|
||||
chunk: 1/9
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:49.096714+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
An algorithm is a fundamental set of rules or defined procedures that are typically designed and used to be a simpler way to solve a specific problem or a broad set of problems.
|
||||
Simply speaking, algorithms define different processes, sets of rules and regulations, or methodologies that are to be followed through in calculations, data processing, data mining, pattern recognition, automated reasoning or other problem-solving operations. With the increasing automation of services, more and more decisions are being made by algorithms. Some general examples are risk assessments, anticipatory policing, and pattern recognition technology.
|
||||
The following is a list of well-known algorithms.
|
||||
|
||||
== Automated planning ==
|
||||
|
||||
== Combinatorial algorithms ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== General combinatorial algorithms ===
|
||||
Brent's algorithm: finds a cycle in function value iterations using only two iterators
|
||||
Floyd's cycle-finding algorithm: finds a cycle in function value iterations
|
||||
Gale–Shapley algorithm: solves the stable matching problem
|
||||
Pseudorandom number generators (uniformly distributed—see also List of pseudorandom number generators for other PRNGs with varying degrees of convergence and varying statistical quality):
|
||||
ACORN generator
|
||||
Blum Blum Shub
|
||||
Lagged Fibonacci generator
|
||||
Linear congruential generator
|
||||
Mersenne Twister
|
||||
|
||||
=== Graph algorithms ===
|
||||
|
||||
Blossom algorithm: algorithm for constructing maximum-cardinality matching on graphs.
|
||||
Coloring algorithm: algorithms for graph (vertex or edge) coloring (subject to constraints, e.g. proper coloring or list coloring)
|
||||
Hopcroft–Karp algorithm: convert a bipartite graph to a maximum-cardinality matching
|
||||
Hungarian algorithm: algorithm for finding a perfect matching
|
||||
Prüfer coding: conversion between a labeled tree and its Prüfer sequence
|
||||
Tarjan's off-line lowest common ancestors algorithm: computes lowest common ancestors for pairs of nodes in a tree
|
||||
Topological sort: finds linear order of nodes (e.g. jobs) based on their dependencies.
|
||||
|
||||
==== Graph drawing ====
|
||||
|
||||
Coin graph drawing algorithms for finite connected planar graphs (approximately computing the theoretical circle-packing given by the Koebe-Andreev-Thurston theorem). See also Fáry's theorem on straight-line drawings of planar graphs.
|
||||
Force-based algorithms (also known as force-directed algorithms or spring-based algorithms)
|
||||
Spectral layout
|
||||
|
||||
==== Network theory ====
|
||||
|
||||
Network analysis
|
||||
Link analysis
|
||||
Girvan–Newman algorithm: detect communities in complex systems
|
||||
Web link analysis
|
||||
Hyperlink-Induced Topic Search (HITS) (also known as Hubs and authorities)
|
||||
PageRank
|
||||
TrustRank
|
||||
Flow networks
|
||||
Dinic's algorithm: is a strongly polynomial algorithm for computing the maximum flow in a flow network.
|
||||
Edmonds–Karp algorithm: implementation of Ford–Fulkerson
|
||||
Ford–Fulkerson algorithm: computes the maximum flow in a graph
|
||||
Karger's algorithm: a Monte Carlo method to compute the minimum cut of a connected graph
|
||||
Push–relabel algorithm: computes a maximum flow in a graph
|
||||
|
||||
==== Routing for graphs ====
|
||||
Edmonds' algorithm (also known as Chu–Liu/Edmonds' algorithm): find maximum or minimum branchings
|
||||
Euclidean minimum spanning tree: algorithms for computing the minimum spanning tree of a set of points in the plane
|
||||
Longest path problem: find a simple path of maximum length in a given graph
|
||||
Minimum spanning tree
|
||||
Borůvka's algorithm
|
||||
Kruskal's algorithm
|
||||
Prim's algorithm
|
||||
Reverse-delete algorithm
|
||||
Nonblocking minimal spanning switch say, for a telephone exchange
|
||||
Shortest path problem
|
||||
Bellman–Ford algorithm: computes shortest paths in a weighted graph (where some of the edge weights may be negative)
|
||||
Dijkstra's algorithm: computes shortest paths in a graph with non-negative edge weights
|
||||
Floyd–Warshall algorithm: solves the all pairs shortest path problem in a weighted, directed graph
|
||||
Johnson's algorithm: all pairs shortest path algorithm in sparse weighted directed graph
|
||||
Transitive closure problem: find the transitive closure of a given binary relation
|
||||
Traveling salesman problem
|
||||
Christofides algorithm
|
||||
Nearest neighbour algorithm
|
||||
Vehicle routing problem
|
||||
Clarke and Wright Saving algorithm
|
||||
Warnsdorff's rule: a heuristic method for solving the Knight's tour problem
|
||||
|
||||
==== Graph search ====
|
||||
|
||||
A*: special case of best-first search that uses heuristics to improve speed
|
||||
B*: a best-first graph search algorithm that finds the least-cost path from a given initial node to any goal node (out of one or more possible goals)
|
||||
Backtracking: abandons partial solutions when they are found not to satisfy a complete solution
|
||||
Beam search: is a heuristic search algorithm that is an optimization of best-first search that reduces its memory requirement
|
||||
Beam stack search: integrates backtracking with beam search
|
||||
Best-first search: traverses a graph in the order of likely importance using a priority queue
|
||||
Bidirectional search: find the shortest path from an initial vertex to a goal vertex in a directed graph
|
||||
Breadth-first search: traverses a graph level by level
|
||||
Brute-force search: an exhaustive and reliable search method, but computationally inefficient in many applications
|
||||
D*: an incremental heuristic search algorithm
|
||||
Depth-first search: traverses a graph branch by branch
|
||||
Dijkstra's algorithm: a special case of A* for which no heuristic function is used
|
||||
General Problem Solver: a seminal theorem-proving algorithm intended to work as a universal problem solver machine.
|
||||
Iterative deepening depth-first search (IDDFS): a state space search strategy
|
||||
Jump point search: an optimization to A* which may reduce computation time by an order of magnitude using further heuristics
|
||||
Lexicographic breadth-first search (also known as Lex-BFS): a linear time algorithm for ordering the vertices of a graph
|
||||
SSS*: state space search traversing a game tree in a best-first fashion similar to that of the A* search algorithm
|
||||
Uniform-cost search: a tree search that finds the lowest-cost route where costs vary
|
||||
|
||||
==== Subgraphs ====
|
||||
Cliques
|
||||
Bron–Kerbosch algorithm: a technique for finding maximal cliques in an undirected graph
|
||||
MaxCliqueDyn maximum clique algorithm: find a maximum clique in an undirected graph
|
||||
Strongly connected components
|
||||
Kosaraju's algorithm
|
||||
Path-based strong component algorithm
|
||||
Tarjan's strongly connected components algorithm
|
||||
Subgraph isomorphism problem
|
||||
|
||||
=== Sequence algorithms ===
|
||||
139
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms-1.md
Normal file
139
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms-1.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,139 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of algorithms"
|
||||
chunk: 2/9
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:49.096714+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
==== Approximate sequence matching ====
|
||||
Bitap algorithm: fuzzy algorithm that determines if strings are approximately equal.
|
||||
Phonetic algorithms
|
||||
Daitch–Mokotoff Soundex: a Soundex refinement which allows matching of Slavic and Germanic surnames
|
||||
Double Metaphone: an improvement on Metaphone
|
||||
Match rating approach: a phonetic algorithm developed by Western Airlines
|
||||
Metaphone: an algorithm for indexing words by their sound, when pronounced in English
|
||||
NYSIIS: phonetic algorithm, improves on Soundex
|
||||
Soundex: a phonetic algorithm for indexing names by sound, as pronounced in English
|
||||
String metrics: computes a similarity or dissimilarity (distance) score between two pairs of text strings
|
||||
Damerau–Levenshtein distance: computes a distance measure between two strings, improves on Levenshtein distance
|
||||
Dice's coefficient (also known as the Dice coefficient): a similarity measure related to the Jaccard index
|
||||
Hamming distance: sum number of positions which are different
|
||||
Jaro–Winkler distance: is a measure of similarity between two strings
|
||||
Levenshtein edit distance: computes a metric for the amount of difference between two sequences
|
||||
Trigram search: search for text when the exact syntax or spelling of the target object is not precisely known
|
||||
|
||||
==== Selection algorithms ====
|
||||
|
||||
Introselect
|
||||
Quickselect
|
||||
|
||||
==== Sequence search ====
|
||||
Linear search: locates an item in an unsorted sequence
|
||||
Selection algorithm: finds the kth largest item in a sequence
|
||||
Sorted lists
|
||||
Binary search algorithm: locates an item in a sorted sequence
|
||||
Eytzinger binary search: cache friendly binary search algorithm
|
||||
Fibonacci search technique: search a sorted sequence using a divide and conquer algorithm that narrows down possible locations with the aid of Fibonacci numbers
|
||||
Jump search (or block search): linear search on a smaller subset of the sequence
|
||||
Predictive search: binary-like search which factors in magnitude of search term versus the high and low values in the search. Sometimes called dictionary search or interpolated search.
|
||||
Uniform binary search: an optimization of the classic binary search algorithm
|
||||
Ternary search: a technique for finding the minimum or maximum of a function that is either strictly increasing and then strictly decreasing or vice versa
|
||||
|
||||
==== Sequence merging ====
|
||||
|
||||
k-way merge algorithm
|
||||
Simple merge algorithm
|
||||
Union (merge, with elements on the output not repeated)
|
||||
|
||||
==== Sequence permutations ====
|
||||
|
||||
Fisher–Yates shuffle (also known as the Knuth shuffle): randomly shuffle a finite set
|
||||
Heap's permutation generation algorithm: interchange elements to generate next permutation
|
||||
Schensted algorithm: constructs a pair of Young tableaux from a permutation
|
||||
Steinhaus–Johnson–Trotter algorithm (also known as the Johnson–Trotter algorithm): generates permutations by transposing elements
|
||||
|
||||
==== Sequence combinations ====
|
||||
|
||||
==== Sequence alignment ====
|
||||
Dynamic time warping: measure similarity between two sequences which may vary in time or speed
|
||||
Hirschberg's algorithm: finds the least cost sequence alignment between two sequences, as measured by their Levenshtein distance
|
||||
Needleman–Wunsch algorithm: find global alignment between two sequences
|
||||
Smith–Waterman algorithm: find local sequence alignment
|
||||
|
||||
==== Sequence sorting ====
|
||||
|
||||
Exchange sorts
|
||||
Bubble sort: for each pair of indices, swap the items if out of order
|
||||
Cocktail shaker sort or bidirectional bubble sort, a bubble sort traversing the list alternately from front to back and back to front
|
||||
Comb sort
|
||||
Gnome sort
|
||||
Odd–even sort
|
||||
Quicksort: divide list into two, with all items on the first list coming before all items on the second list.; then sort the two lists. Often the method of choice
|
||||
Humorous or ineffective
|
||||
Bogosort: the list is randomly shuffled until it happens to be sorted
|
||||
Slowsort
|
||||
Stooge sort
|
||||
Hybrid
|
||||
Flashsort
|
||||
Introsort: begin with quicksort and switch to heapsort when the recursion depth exceeds a certain level
|
||||
Timsort: adaptative algorithm derived from merge sort and insertion sort. Used in Python 2.3 and up, and Java SE 7.
|
||||
Insertion sorts
|
||||
Cycle sort: in-place with theoretically optimal number of writes
|
||||
Insertion sort: determine where the current item belongs in the list of sorted ones, and insert it there
|
||||
Library sort
|
||||
Patience sorting
|
||||
Shell sort: an attempt to improve insertion sort
|
||||
Tree sort (binary tree sort): build binary tree, then traverse it to create sorted list
|
||||
Merge sorts
|
||||
Merge sort: sort the first and second half of the list separately, then merge the sorted lists
|
||||
Slowsort
|
||||
Strand sort
|
||||
Non-comparison sorts
|
||||
Bead sort
|
||||
Bucket sort
|
||||
Burstsort: build a compact, cache efficient burst trie and then traverse it to create sorted output
|
||||
Counting sort
|
||||
Pigeonhole sort
|
||||
Postman sort: variant of Bucket sort which takes advantage of hierarchical structure
|
||||
Radix sort: sorts strings letter by letter
|
||||
Selection sorts
|
||||
Heapsort: convert the list into a heap, keep removing the largest element from the heap and adding it to the end of the list
|
||||
Selection sort: pick the smallest of the remaining elements, add it to the end of the sorted list
|
||||
Smoothsort
|
||||
Other
|
||||
Bitonic sorter
|
||||
Pancake sorting
|
||||
Spaghetti sort
|
||||
Topological sort
|
||||
Unknown class
|
||||
Samplesort
|
||||
|
||||
==== Subsequences ====
|
||||
|
||||
Longest common subsequence problem: Find the longest subsequence common to all sequences in a set of sequences
|
||||
Longest increasing subsequence problem: Find the longest increasing subsequence of a given sequence
|
||||
Ruzzo–Tompa algorithm: Find all non-overlapping, contiguous, maximal scoring subsequences in a sequence of real numbers
|
||||
Shortest common supersequence problem: Find the shortest supersequence that contains two or more sequences as subsequences
|
||||
|
||||
==== Substrings ====
|
||||
|
||||
Kadane's algorithm: finds the contiguous subarray with largest sum in an array of numbers
|
||||
Longest common substring problem: find the longest string (or strings) that is a substring (or are substrings) of two or more strings
|
||||
Matching wildcards
|
||||
Krauss matching wildcards algorithm: an open-source non-recursive algorithm
|
||||
Rich Salz' wildmat: a widely used open-source recursive algorithm
|
||||
Substring search
|
||||
Aho–Corasick string matching algorithm: trie based algorithm for finding all substring matches to any of a finite set of strings
|
||||
Boyer–Moore–Horspool algorithm: Simplification of Boyer–Moore
|
||||
Boyer–Moore string-search algorithm: amortized linear (sublinear in most times) algorithm for substring search
|
||||
Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm: substring search which bypasses reexamination of matched characters
|
||||
Rabin–Karp string search algorithm: searches multiple patterns efficiently
|
||||
Zhu–Takaoka string matching algorithm: a variant of Boyer–Moore
|
||||
Ukkonen's algorithm: a linear-time, online algorithm for constructing suffix trees
|
||||
|
||||
== Computational mathematics ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Abstract algebra ===
|
||||
126
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms-2.md
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126
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Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,126 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of algorithms"
|
||||
chunk: 3/9
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:49.096714+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Chien search: a recursive algorithm for determining roots of polynomials defined over a finite field
|
||||
Schreier–Sims algorithm: computing a base and strong generating set (BSGS) of a permutation group
|
||||
Todd–Coxeter algorithm: Procedure for generating cosets.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Computer algebra ===
|
||||
|
||||
Buchberger's algorithm: finds a Gröbner basis
|
||||
Cantor–Zassenhaus algorithm: factor polynomials over finite fields
|
||||
Faugère F4 algorithm: finds a Gröbner basis (also mentions the F5 algorithm)
|
||||
Gosper's algorithm: find sums of hypergeometric terms that are themselves hypergeometric terms
|
||||
Knuth–Bendix completion algorithm: for rewriting rule systems
|
||||
Multivariate division algorithm: for polynomials in several indeterminates
|
||||
Pollard's kangaroo algorithm (also known as Pollard's lambda algorithm): an algorithm for solving the discrete logarithm problem
|
||||
Polynomial long division: an algorithm for dividing a polynomial by another polynomial of the same or lower degree
|
||||
Risch algorithm: an algorithm for the calculus operation of indefinite integration (i.e. finding antiderivatives)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Geometry ===
|
||||
|
||||
Closest pair problem: find the pair of points (from a set of points) with the smallest distance between them
|
||||
Collision detection algorithms: check for the collision or intersection of two given solids
|
||||
Cone algorithm: identify surface points
|
||||
Convex hull algorithms: determining the convex hull of a set of points
|
||||
Chan's algorithm
|
||||
Gift wrapping algorithm or Jarvis march
|
||||
Graham scan
|
||||
Kirkpatrick–Seidel algorithm
|
||||
Quickhull
|
||||
Euclidean distance transform: computes the distance between every point in a grid and a discrete collection of points.
|
||||
Geometric hashing: a method for efficiently finding two-dimensional objects represented by discrete points that have undergone an affine transformation
|
||||
Gilbert–Johnson–Keerthi distance algorithm: determining the smallest distance between two convex shapes.
|
||||
Jump-and-Walk algorithm: an algorithm for point location in triangulations
|
||||
Laplacian smoothing: an algorithm to smooth a polygonal mesh
|
||||
Line segment intersection: finding whether lines intersect, usually with a sweep line algorithm
|
||||
Bentley–Ottmann algorithm
|
||||
Shamos–Hoey algorithm
|
||||
Minimum bounding box algorithms: find the oriented minimum bounding box enclosing a set of points
|
||||
Nearest neighbor search: find the nearest point or points to a query point
|
||||
Nesting algorithm: make the most efficient use of material or space
|
||||
Point in polygon algorithms: tests whether a given point lies within a given polygon
|
||||
Point set registration algorithms: finds the transformation between two point sets to optimally align them.
|
||||
Rotating calipers: determine all antipodal pairs of points and vertices on a convex polygon or convex hull.
|
||||
Shoelace algorithm: determine the area of a polygon whose vertices are described by ordered pairs in the plane
|
||||
Triangulation
|
||||
Delaunay triangulation
|
||||
Chew's second algorithm: create quality constrained Delaunay triangulations
|
||||
Ruppert's algorithm (also known as Delaunay refinement): create quality Delaunay triangulations
|
||||
Marching triangles: reconstruct two-dimensional surface geometry from an unstructured point cloud
|
||||
Polygon triangulation algorithms: decompose a polygon into a set of triangles
|
||||
Quasitriangulation
|
||||
Voronoi diagrams, geometric dual of Delaunay triangulation
|
||||
Bowyer–Watson algorithm: create voronoi diagram in any number of dimensions
|
||||
Fortune's Algorithm: create voronoi diagram
|
||||
|
||||
=== Number theoretic algorithms ===
|
||||
|
||||
Binary GCD algorithm: Efficient way of calculating GCD.
|
||||
Booth's multiplication algorithm
|
||||
Chakravala method: a cyclic algorithm to solve indeterminate quadratic equations, including Pell's equation
|
||||
Discrete logarithm:
|
||||
Baby-step giant-step
|
||||
Index calculus algorithm
|
||||
Pohlig–Hellman algorithm
|
||||
Pollard's rho algorithm for logarithms
|
||||
Euclidean algorithm: computes the greatest common divisor
|
||||
Extended Euclidean algorithm: also solves the equation ax + by = c
|
||||
Integer factorization: breaking an integer into its prime factors
|
||||
Congruence of squares
|
||||
Dixon's algorithm
|
||||
Fermat's factorization method
|
||||
General number field sieve
|
||||
Lenstra elliptic curve factorization
|
||||
Pollard's p − 1 algorithm
|
||||
Pollard's rho algorithm
|
||||
prime factorization algorithm
|
||||
Quadratic sieve
|
||||
Shor's algorithm
|
||||
Special number field sieve
|
||||
Trial division
|
||||
Lenstra–Lenstra–Lovász algorithm (also known as LLL algorithm): find a short, nearly orthogonal lattice basis in polynomial time
|
||||
Modular square root: computing square roots modulo a prime number
|
||||
Berlekamp's root finding algorithm
|
||||
Cipolla's algorithm
|
||||
Tonelli–Shanks algorithm
|
||||
Multiplication algorithms: fast multiplication of two numbers
|
||||
Karatsuba algorithm
|
||||
Schönhage–Strassen algorithm
|
||||
Toom–Cook multiplication
|
||||
Odlyzko–Schönhage algorithm: calculates nontrivial zeroes of the Riemann zeta function
|
||||
Primality tests: determining whether a given number is prime
|
||||
AKS primality test
|
||||
Baillie–PSW primality test
|
||||
Fermat primality test
|
||||
Lucas primality test
|
||||
Miller–Rabin primality test
|
||||
Sieve of Atkin
|
||||
Sieve of Eratosthenes
|
||||
Sieve of Sundaram
|
||||
|
||||
=== Numerical algorithms ===
|
||||
|
||||
==== Differential equation solving ====
|
||||
|
||||
Backward Euler method
|
||||
Euler method
|
||||
Linear multistep methods
|
||||
Multigrid methods (MG methods), a group of algorithms for solving differential equations using a hierarchy of discretizations
|
||||
Partial differential equation:
|
||||
Crank–Nicolson method for diffusion equations
|
||||
Finite difference method
|
||||
Lax–Wendroff for wave equations
|
||||
Runge–Kutta methods
|
||||
Euler integration
|
||||
Trapezoidal rule (differential equations)
|
||||
Verlet integration (French pronunciation: [vɛʁˈlɛ]): integrate Newton's equations of motion
|
||||
|
||||
==== Elementary and special functions ====
|
||||
129
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms-3.md
Normal file
129
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms-3.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,129 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of algorithms"
|
||||
chunk: 4/9
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:49.096714+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Computation of π:
|
||||
Bailey–Borwein–Plouffe formula: (BBP formula) a spigot algorithm for the computation of the nth binary digit of π
|
||||
Borwein's algorithm: an algorithm to calculate the value of 1/π
|
||||
Chudnovsky algorithm: a fast method for calculating the digits of π
|
||||
Gauss–Legendre algorithm: computes the digits of pi
|
||||
Division algorithms: for computing quotient and/or remainder of two numbers
|
||||
Goldschmidt division
|
||||
Long division
|
||||
Newton–Raphson division: uses Newton's method to find the reciprocal of D, and multiply that reciprocal by N to find the final quotient Q.
|
||||
Non-restoring division
|
||||
Restoring division
|
||||
SRT division
|
||||
Exponentiation:
|
||||
Addition-chain exponentiation: exponentiation by positive integer powers that requires a minimal number of multiplications
|
||||
Exponentiating by squaring: an algorithm used for the fast computation of large integer powers of a number
|
||||
Hyperbolic and Trigonometric Functions:
|
||||
BKM algorithm: computes elementary functions using a table of logarithms
|
||||
CORDIC: computes hyperbolic and trigonometric functions using a table of arctangents
|
||||
Montgomery reduction: an algorithm that allows modular arithmetic to be performed efficiently when the modulus is large
|
||||
Multiplication algorithms: fast multiplication of two numbers
|
||||
Booth's multiplication algorithm: a multiplication algorithm that multiplies two signed binary numbers in two's complement notation
|
||||
Fürer's algorithm: an integer multiplication algorithm for very large numbers possessing a very low asymptotic complexity
|
||||
Karatsuba algorithm: an efficient procedure for multiplying large numbers
|
||||
Schönhage–Strassen algorithm: an asymptotically fast multiplication algorithm for large integers
|
||||
Toom–Cook multiplication: (Toom3) a multiplication algorithm for large integers
|
||||
Multiplicative inverse Algorithms: for computing a number's multiplicative inverse (reciprocal).
|
||||
Newton's method
|
||||
Rounding functions: the classic ways to round numbers
|
||||
Spigot algorithm: a way to compute the value of a mathematical constant without knowing preceding digits
|
||||
Square and Nth root of a number:
|
||||
Alpha max plus beta min algorithm: an approximation of the square-root of the sum of two squares
|
||||
Methods of computing square roots
|
||||
nth root algorithm
|
||||
Summation:
|
||||
Binary splitting: a divide and conquer technique which speeds up the numerical evaluation of many types of series with rational terms
|
||||
Kahan summation algorithm: a more accurate method of summing floating-point numbers
|
||||
Unrestricted algorithm
|
||||
|
||||
==== Geometric ====
|
||||
Filtered back-projection: efficiently computes the inverse 2-dimensional Radon transform.
|
||||
Level set method (LSM): a numerical technique for tracking interfaces and shapes
|
||||
|
||||
==== Interpolation and extrapolation ====
|
||||
|
||||
Birkhoff interpolation: an extension of polynomial interpolation
|
||||
Cubic interpolation
|
||||
Hermite interpolation
|
||||
Lagrange interpolation: interpolation using Lagrange polynomials
|
||||
Linear interpolation: a method of curve fitting using linear polynomials
|
||||
Monotone cubic interpolation: a variant of cubic interpolation that preserves monotonicity of the data set being interpolated.
|
||||
Multivariate interpolation
|
||||
Bicubic interpolation: a generalization of cubic interpolation to two dimensions
|
||||
Bilinear interpolation: an extension of linear interpolation for interpolating functions of two variables on a regular grid
|
||||
Lanczos resampling ("Lanzosh"): a multivariate interpolation method used to compute new values for any digitally sampled data
|
||||
Nearest-neighbor interpolation
|
||||
Tricubic interpolation: a generalization of cubic interpolation to three dimensions
|
||||
Pareto interpolation: a method of estimating the median and other properties of a population that follows a Pareto distribution.
|
||||
Polynomial interpolation
|
||||
Neville's algorithm
|
||||
Spline interpolation: Reduces error with Runge's phenomenon.
|
||||
De Boor algorithm: B-splines
|
||||
De Casteljau's algorithm: Bézier curves
|
||||
Trigonometric interpolation
|
||||
|
||||
==== Linear algebra ====
|
||||
|
||||
Eigenvalue algorithms
|
||||
Arnoldi iteration
|
||||
Inverse iteration
|
||||
Jacobi method
|
||||
Lanczos iteration
|
||||
Power iteration
|
||||
QR algorithm
|
||||
Rayleigh quotient iteration
|
||||
Gram–Schmidt process: orthogonalizes a set of vectors
|
||||
Krylov methods (for large sparse matrix problems; third most-important numerical method class of the 20th century as ranked by SISC; after fast-fourier and fast-multipole)
|
||||
Matrix multiplication algorithms
|
||||
Cannon's algorithm: a distributed algorithm for matrix multiplication especially suitable for computers laid out in an N × N mesh
|
||||
Coppersmith–Winograd algorithm: square matrix multiplication
|
||||
Freivalds' algorithm: a randomized algorithm used to verify matrix multiplication
|
||||
Strassen algorithm: faster matrix multiplication
|
||||
|
||||
Solving systems of linear equations
|
||||
Biconjugate gradient method: solves systems of linear equations
|
||||
Conjugate gradient: an algorithm for the numerical solution of particular systems of linear equations
|
||||
Gauss–Jordan elimination: solves systems of linear equations
|
||||
Gauss–Seidel method: solves systems of linear equations iteratively
|
||||
Gaussian elimination
|
||||
Levinson recursion: solves equation involving a Toeplitz matrix
|
||||
Stone's method: also known as the strongly implicit procedure or SIP, is an algorithm for solving a sparse linear system of equations
|
||||
Successive over-relaxation (SOR): method used to speed up convergence of the Gauss–Seidel method
|
||||
Tridiagonal matrix algorithm (Thomas algorithm): solves systems of tridiagonal equations
|
||||
SMAWK Algorithm
|
||||
Sparse matrix algorithms
|
||||
Cuthill–McKee algorithm: reduce the bandwidth of a symmetric sparse matrix
|
||||
Minimum degree algorithm: permute the rows and columns of a symmetric sparse matrix before applying the Cholesky decomposition
|
||||
Symbolic Cholesky decomposition: Efficient way of storing sparse matrix
|
||||
|
||||
==== Monte Carlo ====
|
||||
|
||||
Gibbs sampling: generates a sequence of samples from the joint probability distribution of two or more random variables
|
||||
Hybrid Monte Carlo: generates a sequence of samples using Hamiltonian weighted Markov chain Monte Carlo, from a probability distribution which is difficult to sample directly.
|
||||
Metropolis–Hastings algorithm: used to generate a sequence of samples from the probability distribution of one or more variables
|
||||
Wang and Landau algorithm: an extension of Metropolis–Hastings algorithm sampling
|
||||
|
||||
==== Numerical integration ====
|
||||
|
||||
MISER algorithm: Monte Carlo simulation, numerical integration
|
||||
|
||||
==== Root finding ====
|
||||
|
||||
Bisection method
|
||||
False position method: and Illinois method: 2-point, bracketing
|
||||
Halley's method: uses first and second derivatives
|
||||
ITP method: minmax optimal and superlinear convergence simultaneously
|
||||
Muller's method: 3-point, quadratic interpolation
|
||||
Newton's method: finds zeros of functions with calculus
|
||||
Ridder's method: 3-point, exponential scaling
|
||||
Secant method: 2-point, 1-sided
|
||||
135
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms-4.md
Normal file
135
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms-4.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,135 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of algorithms"
|
||||
chunk: 5/9
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:49.096714+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== Optimization algorithms ===
|
||||
Hybrid Algorithms
|
||||
Alpha–beta pruning: search to reduce number of nodes in minimax algorithm
|
||||
A hybrid BFGS-Like method (see more https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cam.2024.115857)
|
||||
Branch and bound
|
||||
Bruss algorithm: see odds algorithm
|
||||
Chain matrix multiplication
|
||||
Combinatorial optimization: optimization problems where the set of feasible solutions is discrete
|
||||
Greedy randomized adaptive search procedure (GRASP): successive constructions of a greedy randomized solution and subsequent iterative improvements of it through a local search
|
||||
Hungarian method: a combinatorial optimization algorithm which solves the assignment problem in polynomial time
|
||||
Conjugate gradient methods (see more https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2022.101923)
|
||||
Constraint satisfaction
|
||||
AC-3 algorithm general algorithms for the constraint satisfaction
|
||||
Chaff algorithm: an algorithm for solving instances of the Boolean satisfiability problem
|
||||
Davis–Putnam algorithm: check the validity of a first-order logic formula
|
||||
Difference map algorithm general algorithms for the constraint satisfaction
|
||||
Davis–Putnam–Logemann–Loveland algorithm (DPLL): an algorithm for deciding the satisfiability of propositional logic formula in conjunctive normal form, i.e. for solving the CNF-SAT problem
|
||||
Exact cover problem
|
||||
Min conflicts algorithm general algorithms for the constraint satisfaction
|
||||
Algorithm X: a nondeterministic algorithm
|
||||
Dancing Links: an efficient implementation of Algorithm X
|
||||
Cross-entropy method: a general Monte Carlo approach to combinatorial and continuous multi-extremal optimization and importance sampling
|
||||
Differential evolution
|
||||
Dynamic Programming: problems exhibiting the properties of overlapping subproblems and optimal substructure
|
||||
Ellipsoid method: is an algorithm for solving convex optimization problems
|
||||
Evolutionary computation: optimization inspired by biological mechanisms of evolution
|
||||
Evolution strategy
|
||||
Gene expression programming
|
||||
Genetic algorithms
|
||||
Fitness proportionate selection – also known as roulette-wheel selection
|
||||
Stochastic universal sampling
|
||||
Tournament selection
|
||||
Truncation selection
|
||||
Memetic algorithm
|
||||
Swarm intelligence
|
||||
Ant colony optimization
|
||||
Bees algorithm: a search algorithm which mimics the food foraging behavior of swarms of honey bees
|
||||
Particle swarm
|
||||
Frank-Wolfe algorithm: an iterative first-order optimization algorithm for constrained convex optimization
|
||||
Golden-section search: an algorithm for finding the maximum of a real function
|
||||
Gradient descent
|
||||
Grid Search
|
||||
Harmony search (HS): a metaheuristic algorithm mimicking the improvisation process of musicians
|
||||
A hybrid HS-LS conjugate gradient algorithm (see https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cam.2023.115304)
|
||||
Interior point method
|
||||
Line search
|
||||
Linear programming
|
||||
Benson's algorithm: an algorithm for solving linear vector optimization problems
|
||||
Dantzig–Wolfe decomposition: an algorithm for solving linear programming problems with special structure
|
||||
Delayed column generation
|
||||
Integer linear programming: solve linear programming problems where some or all the unknowns are restricted to integer values
|
||||
Branch and cut
|
||||
Cutting-plane method
|
||||
Karmarkar's algorithm: The first reasonably efficient algorithm that solves the linear programming problem in polynomial time.
|
||||
Simplex algorithm: an algorithm for solving linear programming problems
|
||||
Local search: a metaheuristic for solving computationally hard optimization problems
|
||||
Random-restart hill climbing
|
||||
Tabu search
|
||||
Minimax used in game programming
|
||||
Nearest neighbor search (NNS): find closest points in a metric space
|
||||
Best Bin First: find an approximate solution to the nearest neighbor search problem in very-high-dimensional spaces
|
||||
Newton's method in optimization
|
||||
Nonlinear optimization
|
||||
BFGS method: a nonlinear optimization algorithm
|
||||
Gauss–Newton algorithm: an algorithm for solving nonlinear least squares problems
|
||||
Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm: an algorithm for solving nonlinear least squares problems
|
||||
Nelder–Mead method (downhill simplex method): a nonlinear optimization algorithm
|
||||
Odds algorithm (Bruss algorithm): Finds the optimal strategy to predict a last specific event in a random sequence event
|
||||
Random Search
|
||||
Simulated annealing
|
||||
Stochastic tunneling
|
||||
Subset sum algorithm
|
||||
|
||||
== Computational science ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Astronomy ===
|
||||
Doomsday algorithm: day of the week
|
||||
various Easter algorithms are used to calculate the day of Easter
|
||||
Zeller's congruence is an algorithm to calculate the day of the week for any Julian or Gregorian calendar date
|
||||
|
||||
=== Bioinformatics ===
|
||||
|
||||
Basic Local Alignment Search Tool also known as BLAST: an algorithm for comparing primary biological sequence information
|
||||
Bloom Filter: probabilistic data structure used to test for the existence of an element within a set. Primarily used in bioinformatics to test for the existence of a k-mer in a sequence or sequences.
|
||||
Kabsch algorithm: calculate the optimal alignment of two sets of points in order to compute the root mean squared deviation between two protein structures.
|
||||
Maximum parsimony (phylogenetics): an algorithm for finding the simplest phylogenetic tree to explain a given character matrix.
|
||||
Sorting by signed reversals: an algorithm for understanding genomic evolution.
|
||||
UPGMA: a distance-based phylogenetic tree construction algorithm.
|
||||
Velvet: a set of algorithms manipulating de Bruijn graphs for genomic sequence assembly
|
||||
|
||||
=== Geoscience ===
|
||||
|
||||
Geohash: a public domain algorithm that encodes a decimal latitude/longitude pair as a hash string
|
||||
Vincenty's formulae: a fast algorithm to calculate the distance between two latitude/longitude points on an ellipsoid
|
||||
|
||||
=== Linguistics ===
|
||||
|
||||
Lesk algorithm: word sense disambiguation
|
||||
Stemming algorithm: a method of reducing words to their stem, base, or root form
|
||||
Sukhotin's algorithm: a statistical classification algorithm for classifying characters in a text as vowels or consonants
|
||||
|
||||
=== Medicine ===
|
||||
|
||||
ESC algorithm for the diagnosis of heart failure
|
||||
Manning Criteria for irritable bowel syndrome
|
||||
Pulmonary embolism diagnostic algorithms
|
||||
Texas Medication Algorithm Project
|
||||
|
||||
=== Physics ===
|
||||
|
||||
Constraint algorithm: a class of algorithms for satisfying constraints for bodies that obey Newton's equations of motion
|
||||
Demon algorithm: a Monte Carlo method for efficiently sampling members of a microcanonical ensemble with a given energy
|
||||
Featherstone's algorithm: computes the effects of forces applied to a structure of joints and links
|
||||
Glauber dynamics: a method for simulating the Ising Model on a computer
|
||||
Ground state approximation
|
||||
Variational method
|
||||
Ritz method
|
||||
n-body problems
|
||||
Barnes–Hut simulation: Solves the n-body problem in an approximate way that has the order O(n log n) instead of O(n2) as in a direct-sum simulation.
|
||||
Fast multipole method (FMM): speeds up the calculation of long-ranged forces
|
||||
Rainflow-counting algorithm: Reduces a complex stress history to a count of elementary stress-reversals for use in fatigue analysis
|
||||
Sweep and prune: a broad phase algorithm used during collision detection to limit the number of pairs of solids that need to be checked for collision
|
||||
VEGAS algorithm: a method for reducing error in Monte Carlo simulations
|
||||
|
||||
=== Statistics ===
|
||||
107
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms-5.md
Normal file
107
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms-5.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,107 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of algorithms"
|
||||
chunk: 6/9
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:49.096714+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Algorithms for calculating variance: avoiding instability and numerical overflow
|
||||
Approximate counting algorithm: allows counting large number of events in a small register
|
||||
Bayesian statistics
|
||||
Nested sampling algorithm: a computational approach to the problem of comparing models in Bayesian statistics
|
||||
Clustering algorithms
|
||||
Average-linkage clustering: a simple agglomerative clustering algorithm
|
||||
Canopy clustering algorithm: an unsupervised pre-clustering algorithm related to the K-means algorithm
|
||||
Chinese whispers
|
||||
Complete-linkage clustering: a simple agglomerative clustering algorithm
|
||||
DBSCAN: a density based clustering algorithm
|
||||
Expectation-maximization algorithm
|
||||
Fuzzy clustering: a class of clustering algorithms where each point has a degree of belonging to clusters
|
||||
FLAME clustering (Fuzzy clustering by Local Approximation of MEmberships): define clusters in the dense parts of a dataset and perform cluster assignment solely based on the neighborhood relationships among objects
|
||||
Fuzzy c-means
|
||||
k-means clustering: cluster objects based on attributes into partitions
|
||||
k-means++: a variation of this, using modified random seeds
|
||||
k-medoids: similar to k-means, but chooses datapoints or medoids as centers
|
||||
KHOPCA clustering algorithm: a local clustering algorithm, which produces hierarchical multi-hop clusters in static and mobile environments.
|
||||
Linde–Buzo–Gray algorithm: a vector quantization algorithm to derive a good codebook
|
||||
Lloyd's algorithm (Voronoi iteration or relaxation): group data points into a given number of categories, a popular algorithm for k-means clustering
|
||||
OPTICS: a density based clustering algorithm with a visual evaluation method
|
||||
Single-linkage clustering: a simple agglomerative clustering algorithm
|
||||
SUBCLU: a subspace clustering algorithm
|
||||
WACA clustering algorithm: a local clustering algorithm with potentially multi-hop structures; for dynamic networks
|
||||
Ward's method: an agglomerative clustering algorithm, extended to more general Lance–Williams algorithms
|
||||
Estimation Theory
|
||||
Expectation-maximization algorithm A class of related algorithms for finding maximum likelihood estimates of parameters in probabilistic models
|
||||
Ordered subset expectation maximization (OSEM): used in medical imaging for positron emission tomography, single-photon emission computed tomography and X-ray computed tomography.
|
||||
Kalman filter: estimate the state of a linear dynamic system from a series of noisy measurements
|
||||
Odds algorithm (Bruss algorithm) Optimal online search for distinguished value in sequential random input
|
||||
False nearest neighbor algorithm (FNN) estimates fractal dimension
|
||||
Hidden Markov model
|
||||
Baum–Welch algorithm: computes maximum likelihood estimates and posterior mode estimates for the parameters of a hidden Markov model
|
||||
Forward–backward algorithm: a dynamic programming algorithm for computing the probability of a particular observation sequence
|
||||
Viterbi algorithm: find the most likely sequence of hidden states in a hidden Markov model
|
||||
Partial least squares regression: finds a linear model describing some predicted variables in terms of other observable variables
|
||||
Queuing theory
|
||||
Buzen's algorithm: an algorithm for calculating the normalization constant G(K) in the Gordon–Newell theorem
|
||||
RANSAC (an abbreviation for "RANdom SAmple Consensus"): an iterative method to estimate parameters of a mathematical model from a set of observed data which contains outliers
|
||||
Scoring algorithm: is a form of Newton's method used to solve maximum likelihood equations numerically
|
||||
Yamartino method: calculate an approximation to the standard deviation σθ of wind direction θ during a single pass through the incoming data
|
||||
Ziggurat algorithm: generates random numbers from a non-uniform distribution
|
||||
|
||||
== Computer science ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Computer architecture ===
|
||||
|
||||
Tomasulo algorithm: allows sequential instructions that would normally be stalled due to certain dependencies to execute non-sequentially
|
||||
|
||||
=== Computer graphics ===
|
||||
|
||||
Binary space partitioning
|
||||
Clipping
|
||||
Line clipping
|
||||
Cohen–Sutherland
|
||||
Cyrus–Beck
|
||||
Fast-clipping
|
||||
Liang–Barsky
|
||||
Nicholl–Lee–Nicholl
|
||||
Polygon clipping
|
||||
Sutherland–Hodgman
|
||||
Vatti
|
||||
Weiler–Atherton
|
||||
Contour lines and Isosurfaces
|
||||
Marching cubes: extract a polygonal mesh of an isosurface from a three-dimensional scalar field (sometimes called voxels)
|
||||
Marching squares: generates contour lines for a two-dimensional scalar field
|
||||
Marching tetrahedrons: an alternative to Marching cubes
|
||||
Discrete Green's theorem: an algorithm for computing double integral over a generalized rectangular domain in constant time. It is a natural extension to the summed area table algorithm
|
||||
Flood fill: fills a connected region of a multi-dimensional array with a specified symbol
|
||||
Global illumination algorithms: Considers direct illumination and reflection from other objects.
|
||||
Ambient occlusion
|
||||
Beam tracing
|
||||
Cone tracing
|
||||
Image-based lighting
|
||||
Metropolis light transport
|
||||
Path tracing
|
||||
Photon mapping
|
||||
Radiosity
|
||||
Ray tracing
|
||||
Hidden-surface removal or visual surface determination
|
||||
Newell's algorithm: eliminate polygon cycles in the depth sorting required in hidden-surface removal
|
||||
Painter's algorithm: detects visible parts of a 3-dimensional scenery
|
||||
Scanline rendering: constructs an image by moving an imaginary line over the image
|
||||
Warnock algorithm
|
||||
Line drawing: graphical algorithm for approximating a line segment on discrete graphical media.
|
||||
Bresenham's line algorithm: plots points of a 2-dimensional array to form a straight line between 2 specified points (uses decision variables)
|
||||
DDA line algorithm: plots points of a 2-dimensional array to form a straight line between specified points
|
||||
Xiaolin Wu's line algorithm: algorithm for line antialiasing.
|
||||
Midpoint circle algorithm: an algorithm used to determine the points needed for drawing a circle
|
||||
Ramer–Douglas–Peucker algorithm: Given a 'curve' composed of line segments to find a curve not too dissimilar but that has fewer points
|
||||
Shading
|
||||
Gouraud shading: an algorithm to simulate the differing effects of light and colour across the surface of an object in 3D computer graphics
|
||||
Phong shading: an algorithm to interpolate surface normal-vectors for surface shading in 3D computer graphics
|
||||
Slerp (spherical linear interpolation): quaternion interpolation for the purpose of animating 3D rotation
|
||||
Summed area table (also known as an integral image): an algorithm for computing the sum of values in a rectangular subset of a grid in constant time
|
||||
|
||||
=== Cryptography ===
|
||||
149
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms-6.md
Normal file
149
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms-6.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,149 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of algorithms"
|
||||
chunk: 7/9
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:49.096714+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Asymmetric (public key) encryption:
|
||||
ElGamal
|
||||
Elliptic curve cryptography
|
||||
MAE1
|
||||
NTRUEncrypt
|
||||
RSA
|
||||
Digital signatures (asymmetric authentication):
|
||||
DSA, and its variants:
|
||||
ECDSA and Deterministic ECDSA
|
||||
EdDSA (Ed25519)
|
||||
RSA
|
||||
Cryptographic hash functions (see also the section on message authentication codes):
|
||||
BLAKE
|
||||
MD5 – Note that there is now a method of generating collisions for MD5
|
||||
RIPEMD-160
|
||||
SHA-1 – Note that there is now a method of generating collisions for SHA-1
|
||||
SHA-2 (SHA-224, SHA-256, SHA-384, SHA-512)
|
||||
SHA-3 (SHA3-224, SHA3-256, SHA3-384, SHA3-512, SHAKE128, SHAKE256)
|
||||
Tiger (TTH), usually used in Tiger tree hashes
|
||||
WHIRLPOOL
|
||||
Cryptographically secure pseudo-random number generators
|
||||
Blum Blum Shub – based on the hardness of factorization
|
||||
Fortuna, intended as an improvement on Yarrow algorithm
|
||||
Linear-feedback shift register (note: many LFSR-based algorithms are weak or have been broken)
|
||||
Yarrow algorithm
|
||||
Key exchange
|
||||
Diffie–Hellman key exchange
|
||||
Elliptic-curve Diffie–Hellman (ECDH)
|
||||
Key derivation functions, often used for password hashing and key stretching
|
||||
Argon2
|
||||
bcrypt
|
||||
PBKDF2
|
||||
scrypt
|
||||
Message authentication codes (symmetric authentication algorithms, which take a key as a parameter):
|
||||
HMAC: keyed-hash message authentication
|
||||
Poly1305
|
||||
SipHash
|
||||
Secret sharing, secret splitting, key splitting, M of N algorithms
|
||||
Blakey's scheme
|
||||
Shamir's secret sharing
|
||||
Symmetric (secret key) encryption:
|
||||
Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), winner of NIST competition, also known as Rijndael
|
||||
Blowfish
|
||||
ChaCha20 updated variant of Salsa20
|
||||
Data Encryption Standard (DES), sometimes DE Algorithm, winner of NBS selection competition, replaced by AES for most purposes
|
||||
IDEA
|
||||
RC4 (cipher)
|
||||
Salsa20
|
||||
Threefish
|
||||
Tiny Encryption Algorithm (TEA)
|
||||
Twofish
|
||||
Post-quantum cryptography
|
||||
Proof-of-work algorithms
|
||||
|
||||
=== Digital logic ===
|
||||
Boolean minimization
|
||||
Espresso heuristic logic minimizer: a fast algorithm for Boolean function minimization
|
||||
Petrick's method: another algorithm for Boolean simplification
|
||||
Quine–McCluskey algorithm: also called as Q-M algorithm, programmable method for simplifying the Boolean equations
|
||||
|
||||
=== Machine learning and statistical classification ===
|
||||
|
||||
Almeida–Pineda recurrent backpropagation: Adjust a matrix of synaptic weights to generate desired outputs given its inputs
|
||||
ALOPEX: a correlation-based machine-learning algorithm
|
||||
Association rule learning: discover interesting relations between variables, used in data mining
|
||||
Apriori algorithm
|
||||
Eclat algorithm
|
||||
FP-growth algorithm
|
||||
One-attribute rule
|
||||
Zero-attribute rule
|
||||
Boosting (meta-algorithm): Use many weak learners to boost effectiveness
|
||||
AdaBoost: adaptive boosting
|
||||
BrownBoost: a boosting algorithm that may be robust to noisy datasets
|
||||
LogitBoost: logistic regression boosting
|
||||
LPBoost: linear programming boosting
|
||||
Bootstrap aggregating (bagging): technique to improve stability and classification accuracy
|
||||
Clustering: a class of unsupervised learning algorithms for grouping and bucketing related input vector
|
||||
Computer Vision
|
||||
Grabcut based on Graph cuts
|
||||
Decision Trees
|
||||
C4.5 algorithm: an extension to ID3
|
||||
ID3 algorithm (Iterative Dichotomiser 3): use heuristic to generate small decision trees
|
||||
k-nearest neighbors (k-NN): a non-parametric method for classifying objects based on closest training examples in the feature space
|
||||
Linde–Buzo–Gray algorithm: a vector quantization algorithm used to derive a good codebook
|
||||
Locality-sensitive hashing (LSH): a method of performing probabilistic dimension reduction of high-dimensional data
|
||||
Naive Bayes classifier: a family of probabilistic classifiers based on Bayes' theorem
|
||||
Neural Network
|
||||
Backpropagation: a supervised learning method which requires a teacher that knows, or can calculate, the desired output for any given input
|
||||
Hopfield net: a Recurrent neural network in which all connections are symmetric
|
||||
Perceptron: the simplest kind of feedforward neural network: a linear classifier.
|
||||
Pulse-coupled neural networks (PCNN): Neural models proposed by modeling a cat's visual cortex and developed for high-performance biomimetic image processing.
|
||||
Radial basis function network: an artificial neural network that uses radial basis functions as activation functions
|
||||
Self-organizing map: an unsupervised network that produces a low-dimensional representation of the input space of the training samples
|
||||
Random forest: classify using many decision trees
|
||||
Reinforcement learning:
|
||||
Q-learning: learns an action-value function that gives the expected utility of taking a given action in a given state and following a fixed policy thereafter
|
||||
State–Action–Reward–State–Action (SARSA): learn a Markov decision process policy
|
||||
Temporal difference learning
|
||||
Relevance-Vector Machine (RVM): similar to SVM, but provides probabilistic classification
|
||||
Supervised learning: Learning by examples (labelled data-set split into training-set and test-set)
|
||||
Support Vector Machine (SVM): a set of methods which divide multidimensional data by finding a dividing hyperplane with the maximum margin between the two sets
|
||||
Structured SVM: allows training of a classifier for general structured output labels.
|
||||
Winnow algorithm: related to the perceptron, but uses a multiplicative weight-update scheme
|
||||
|
||||
=== Programming language theory ===
|
||||
|
||||
C3 linearization: an algorithm used primarily to obtain a consistent linearization of a multiple inheritance hierarchy in object-oriented programming
|
||||
Chaitin's algorithm: a bottom-up, graph coloring register allocation algorithm that uses cost/degree as its spill metric
|
||||
Hindley–Milner type inference algorithm
|
||||
Rete algorithm: an efficient pattern matching algorithm for implementing production rule systems
|
||||
Sethi-Ullman algorithm: generates optimal code for arithmetic expressions
|
||||
|
||||
==== Parsing ====
|
||||
|
||||
CYK algorithm: an O(n3) algorithm for parsing context-free grammars in Chomsky normal form
|
||||
Earley parser: another O(n3) algorithm for parsing any context-free grammar
|
||||
GLR parser: an algorithm for parsing any context-free grammar by Masaru Tomita. It is tuned for deterministic grammars, on which it performs almost linear time and O(n3) in worst case.
|
||||
Inside-outside algorithm: an O(n3) algorithm for re-estimating production probabilities in probabilistic context-free grammars
|
||||
Lexical analysis
|
||||
LL parser: a relatively simple linear time parsing algorithm for a limited class of context-free grammars
|
||||
LR parser: A more complex linear time parsing algorithm for a larger class of context-free grammars. Variants:
|
||||
Canonical LR parser
|
||||
LALR (look-ahead LR) parser
|
||||
Operator-precedence parser
|
||||
Simple LR parser
|
||||
Simple precedence parser
|
||||
Packrat parser: a linear time parsing algorithm supporting some context-free grammars and parsing expression grammars
|
||||
Pratt parser
|
||||
Recursive descent parser: a top-down parser suitable for LL(k) grammars
|
||||
Shunting-yard algorithm: converts an infix-notation math expression to postfix
|
||||
|
||||
=== Quantum algorithms ===
|
||||
|
||||
Deutsch–Jozsa algorithm: criterion of balance for Boolean function
|
||||
Grover's algorithm: provides quadratic speedup for many search problems
|
||||
Shor's algorithm: provides exponential speedup (relative to currently known non-quantum algorithms) for factoring a number
|
||||
Simon's algorithm: provides a provably exponential speedup (relative to any non-quantum algorithm) for a black-box problem
|
||||
|
||||
=== Theory of computation and automata ===
|
||||
151
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms-7.md
Normal file
151
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms-7.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,151 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of algorithms"
|
||||
chunk: 8/9
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:49.096714+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Hopcroft's algorithm, Moore's algorithm, and Brzozowski's algorithm: algorithms for minimizing the number of states in a deterministic finite automaton
|
||||
Powerset construction: algorithm to convert nondeterministic automaton to deterministic automaton.
|
||||
Tarski–Kuratowski algorithm: a non-deterministic algorithm which provides an upper bound for the complexity of formulas in the arithmetical hierarchy and analytical hierarchy
|
||||
|
||||
== Information theory and signal processing ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Coding theory ===
|
||||
|
||||
==== Error detection and correction ====
|
||||
|
||||
BCH Codes
|
||||
Berlekamp–Massey algorithm
|
||||
Peterson–Gorenstein–Zierler algorithm
|
||||
Reed–Solomon error correction
|
||||
BCJR algorithm: decoding of error correcting codes defined on trellises (principally convolutional codes)
|
||||
Forward error correction
|
||||
Gray code
|
||||
Hamming codes
|
||||
Hamming(7,4): a Hamming code that encodes 4 bits of data into 7 bits by adding 3 parity bits
|
||||
Hamming distance: sum number of positions which are different
|
||||
Hamming weight (population count): find the number of 1 bits in a binary word
|
||||
Redundancy checks
|
||||
Adler-32
|
||||
Cyclic redundancy check
|
||||
Damm algorithm
|
||||
Fletcher's checksum
|
||||
Longitudinal redundancy check (LRC)
|
||||
Luhn algorithm: a method of validating identification numbers
|
||||
Luhn mod N algorithm: extension of Luhn to non-numeric characters
|
||||
Parity: simple/fast error detection technique
|
||||
Verhoeff algorithm
|
||||
|
||||
==== Lossless compression algorithms ====
|
||||
|
||||
Burrows–Wheeler transform: preprocessing useful for improving lossless compression
|
||||
Context tree weighting
|
||||
Delta encoding: aid to compression of data in which sequential data occurs frequently
|
||||
Dynamic Markov compression: Compression using predictive arithmetic coding
|
||||
Dictionary coders
|
||||
Byte pair encoding (BPE)
|
||||
Deflate
|
||||
Lempel–Ziv
|
||||
LZ77 and LZ78
|
||||
Lempel–Ziv Jeff Bonwick (LZJB)
|
||||
Lempel–Ziv–Markov chain algorithm (LZMA)
|
||||
Lempel–Ziv–Oberhumer (LZO): speed oriented
|
||||
Lempel–Ziv Ross Williams (LZRW)
|
||||
Lempel–Ziv–Stac (LZS)
|
||||
Lempel–Ziv–Storer–Szymanski (LZSS)
|
||||
Lempel–Ziv–Welch (LZW)
|
||||
LZWL: syllable-based variant
|
||||
LZX
|
||||
Entropy encoding: coding scheme that assigns codes to symbols so as to match code lengths with the probabilities of the symbols
|
||||
Arithmetic coding: advanced entropy coding
|
||||
Range encoding: same as arithmetic coding, but looked at in a slightly different way
|
||||
Huffman coding: simple lossless compression taking advantage of relative character frequencies
|
||||
Adaptive Huffman coding: adaptive coding technique based on Huffman coding
|
||||
Package-merge algorithm: Optimizes Huffman coding subject to a length restriction on code strings
|
||||
Shannon–Fano coding
|
||||
Shannon–Fano–Elias coding: precursor to arithmetic encoding
|
||||
Entropy coding with known entropy characteristics
|
||||
Golomb coding: form of entropy coding that is optimal for alphabets following geometric distributions
|
||||
Rice coding: form of entropy coding that is optimal for alphabets following geometric distributions
|
||||
Truncated binary encoding
|
||||
Unary coding: code that represents a number n with n ones followed by a zero
|
||||
Universal codes: encodes positive integers into binary code words
|
||||
Elias delta, gamma, and omega coding
|
||||
Exponential-Golomb coding
|
||||
Fibonacci coding
|
||||
Levenshtein coding
|
||||
Fast Efficient & Lossless Image Compression System (FELICS): a lossless image compression algorithm
|
||||
Incremental encoding: delta encoding applied to sequences of strings
|
||||
Prediction by partial matching (PPM): an adaptive statistical data compression technique based on context modeling and prediction
|
||||
Run-length encoding: lossless data compression taking advantage of strings of repeated characters
|
||||
SEQUITUR algorithm: lossless compression by incremental grammar inference on a string
|
||||
|
||||
==== Lossy compression algorithms ====
|
||||
|
||||
3Dc: a lossy data compression algorithm for normal maps
|
||||
Audio and Speech compression
|
||||
A-law algorithm: standard companding algorithm
|
||||
Code-excited linear prediction (CELP): low bit-rate speech compression
|
||||
Linear predictive coding (LPC): lossy compression by representing the spectral envelope of a digital signal of speech in compressed form
|
||||
Mu-law algorithm: standard analog signal compression or companding algorithm
|
||||
Warped Linear Predictive Coding (WLPC)
|
||||
Image compression
|
||||
Block Truncation Coding (BTC): a type of lossy image compression technique for greyscale images
|
||||
Embedded Zerotree Wavelet (EZW)
|
||||
Fast Cosine Transform algorithms (FCT algorithms): computes Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT) efficiently
|
||||
Fractal compression: method used to compress images using fractals
|
||||
Set Partitioning in Hierarchical Trees (SPIHT)
|
||||
Wavelet compression: form of data compression well suited for image compression (sometimes also video compression and audio compression)
|
||||
Transform coding: type of data compression for "natural" data like audio signals or photographic images
|
||||
Vector quantization: technique often used in lossy data compression
|
||||
TurboQuant: online vector quantization algorithm for lossy compression of high-dimensional vectors for LLMs
|
||||
Video compression
|
||||
|
||||
=== Digital signal processing ===
|
||||
|
||||
Adaptive-additive algorithm (AA algorithm): find the spatial frequency phase of an observed wave source
|
||||
Discrete Fourier transform: determines the frequencies contained in a (segment of a) signal
|
||||
Bluestein's FFT algorithm
|
||||
Bruun's FFT algorithm
|
||||
Cooley–Tukey FFT algorithm
|
||||
Fast Fourier transform
|
||||
Prime-factor FFT algorithm
|
||||
Rader's FFT algorithm
|
||||
Fast folding algorithm: an efficient algorithm for the detection of approximately periodic events within time series data
|
||||
Gerchberg–Saxton algorithm: Phase retrieval algorithm for optical planes
|
||||
Goertzel algorithm: identify a particular frequency component in a signal. Can be used for DTMF digit decoding.
|
||||
Karplus-Strong string synthesis: physical modelling synthesis to simulate the sound of a hammered or plucked string or some types of percussion
|
||||
|
||||
==== Image processing ====
|
||||
|
||||
Adaptive histogram equalization: histogram equalization which adapts to local changes in contrast - Contrast Enhancement
|
||||
Blind deconvolution: image de-blurring algorithm when point spread function is unknown.
|
||||
Connected-component labeling: find and label disjoint regions
|
||||
Dithering and half-toning
|
||||
Error diffusion
|
||||
Floyd–Steinberg dithering
|
||||
Ordered dithering
|
||||
Riemersma dithering
|
||||
Elser difference-map algorithm: a search algorithm for general constraint satisfaction problems. Originally used for X-Ray diffraction microscopy
|
||||
Feature detection
|
||||
Canny edge detector: detect a wide range of edges in images
|
||||
Generalised Hough transform
|
||||
Hough transform
|
||||
Marr–Hildreth algorithm: an early edge detection algorithm
|
||||
SIFT (Scale-invariant feature transform): is an algorithm to detect and describe local features in images.
|
||||
SURF (Speeded Up Robust Features): is a robust local feature detector, first presented by Herbert Bay et al. in 2006, that can be used in computer vision tasks like object recognition or 3D reconstruction. It is partly inspired by the SIFT descriptor. The standard version of SURF is several times faster than SIFT and claimed by its authors to be more robust against different image transformations than SIFT.
|
||||
Histogram equalization: use histogram to improve image contrast - Contrast Enhancement
|
||||
Richardson–Lucy deconvolution: image de-blurring algorithm
|
||||
Median filtering
|
||||
Seam carving: content-aware image resizing algorithm
|
||||
Segmentation: partition a digital image into two or more regions
|
||||
GrowCut algorithm: an interactive segmentation algorithm
|
||||
Random walker algorithm
|
||||
Region growing
|
||||
Watershed transformation: a class of algorithms based on the watershed analogy
|
||||
|
||||
== Software engineering ==
|
||||
118
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms-8.md
Normal file
118
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms-8.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,118 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of algorithms"
|
||||
chunk: 9/9
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_algorithms"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:49.096714+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Cache algorithms
|
||||
CHS conversion: converting between disk addressing systems
|
||||
Double dabble: convert binary numbers to BCD
|
||||
Hash function: convert a large, possibly variable-sized amount of data into a small datum, usually a single integer that may serve as an index into an array
|
||||
Fowler–Noll–Vo hash function: fast with low collision rate
|
||||
Pearson hashing: computes 8-bit value only, optimized for 8-bit computers
|
||||
Zobrist hashing: used in the implementation of transposition tables
|
||||
Unicode collation algorithm
|
||||
Xor swap algorithm: swaps the values of two variables without using a buffer
|
||||
|
||||
== Database algorithms ==
|
||||
|
||||
Algorithms for Recovery and Isolation Exploiting Semantics (ARIES): transaction recovery
|
||||
Join algorithms
|
||||
Block nested loop
|
||||
Hash join
|
||||
Nested loop join
|
||||
Sort-Merge Join
|
||||
The Chase
|
||||
|
||||
== Distributed systems algorithms ==
|
||||
|
||||
Clock synchronization
|
||||
Berkeley algorithm
|
||||
Cristian's algorithm
|
||||
Intersection algorithm
|
||||
Marzullo's algorithm
|
||||
Consensus (computer science): agreeing on a single value or history among unreliable processors
|
||||
Chandra–Toueg consensus algorithm
|
||||
Paxos algorithm
|
||||
Raft (computer science)
|
||||
Detection of Process Termination
|
||||
Dijkstra-Scholten algorithm
|
||||
Huang's algorithm
|
||||
Lamport ordering: a partial ordering of events based on the happened-before relation
|
||||
Leader election: a method for dynamically selecting a coordinator
|
||||
Bully algorithm
|
||||
Mutual exclusion
|
||||
Lamport's Distributed Mutual Exclusion Algorithm
|
||||
Naimi-Trehel's log(n) Algorithm
|
||||
Maekawa's Algorithm
|
||||
Raymond's Algorithm
|
||||
Ricart–Agrawala Algorithm
|
||||
Snapshot algorithm: record a consistent global state for an asynchronous system
|
||||
Chandy–Lamport algorithm
|
||||
Vector clocks: generate a partial ordering of events in a distributed system and detect causality violations
|
||||
|
||||
=== Memory allocation and deallocation algorithms ===
|
||||
Buddy memory allocation: an algorithm to allocate memory such with less fragmentation
|
||||
Garbage collectors
|
||||
Cheney's algorithm: an improvement on the Semi-space collector
|
||||
Generational garbage collector: Fast garbage collectors that segregate memory by age
|
||||
Mark-compact algorithm: a combination of the mark-sweep algorithm and Cheney's copying algorithm
|
||||
Mark and sweep
|
||||
Semi-space collector: an early copying collector
|
||||
Reference counting
|
||||
|
||||
== Networking ==
|
||||
|
||||
Karn's algorithm: addresses the problem of getting accurate estimates of the round-trip time for messages when using TCP
|
||||
Luleå algorithm: a technique for storing and searching internet routing tables efficiently
|
||||
Network congestion
|
||||
Exponential backoff
|
||||
Nagle's algorithm: improve the efficiency of TCP/IP networks by coalescing packets
|
||||
Truncated binary exponential backoff
|
||||
|
||||
== Operating systems algorithms ==
|
||||
|
||||
Banker's algorithm: algorithm used for deadlock avoidance
|
||||
Page replacement algorithms: for selecting the victim page under low memory conditions
|
||||
Adaptive replacement cache: better performance than LRU
|
||||
Clock with Adaptive Replacement (CAR): a page replacement algorithm with performance comparable to adaptive replacement cache
|
||||
|
||||
=== Process synchronization ===
|
||||
|
||||
Dekker's algorithm
|
||||
Lamport's Bakery algorithm
|
||||
Peterson's algorithm
|
||||
|
||||
=== Scheduling ===
|
||||
|
||||
Earliest deadline first scheduling
|
||||
Fair-share scheduling
|
||||
Least slack time scheduling
|
||||
List scheduling
|
||||
Multi level feedback queue
|
||||
Rate-monotonic scheduling
|
||||
Round-robin scheduling
|
||||
Shortest job next
|
||||
Shortest remaining time
|
||||
Top-nodes algorithm: resource calendar management
|
||||
|
||||
=== I/O scheduling ===
|
||||
|
||||
==== Disk scheduling ====
|
||||
Elevator algorithm: Disk scheduling algorithm that works like an elevator.
|
||||
Shortest seek first: Disk scheduling algorithm to reduce seek time.
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of artificial intelligence algorithms
|
||||
List of data structures
|
||||
List of machine learning algorithms
|
||||
List of pathfinding algorithms
|
||||
List of algorithm general topics
|
||||
List of terms relating to algorithms and data structures
|
||||
Heuristic
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of aperiodic sets of tiles"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_aperiodic_sets_of_tiles"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:50.348730+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
In geometry, a tiling is a partition of the plane (or any other geometric setting) into closed sets (called tiles), without gaps or overlaps (other than the boundaries of the tiles). A tiling is considered periodic if there exist translations in two independent directions which map the tiling onto itself. Such a tiling is composed of a single fundamental unit or primitive cell which repeats endlessly and regularly in two independent directions. An example of such a tiling is shown in the adjacent diagram (see the image description for more information). A tiling that cannot be constructed from a single primitive cell is called nonperiodic. If a given set of tiles allows only nonperiodic tilings, then this set of tiles is called aperiodic. The tilings obtained from an aperiodic set of tiles are often called aperiodic tilings, though strictly speaking it is the tiles themselves that are aperiodic. (The tiling itself is said to be "nonperiodic".)
|
||||
The first table explains the abbreviations used in the second table. The second table contains all known aperiodic sets of tiles and gives some additional basic information about each set. This list of tiles is still incomplete.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Explanations ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== List ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Stephens P. W., Goldman A. I. The Structure of Quasicrystals
|
||||
Levine D., Steinhardt P. J. Quasicrystals I Definition and structure
|
||||
Tilings Encyclopedia
|
||||
92
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_axioms-0.md
Normal file
92
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_axioms-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,92 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of axioms"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_axioms"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:54.221468+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of axioms as that term is understood in mathematics. In epistemology, the word axiom is understood differently; see axiom and self-evidence. Individual axioms are almost always part of a larger axiomatic system.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== ZF (the Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms without the axiom of choice) ==
|
||||
Together with the axiom of choice (see below), these are the de facto standard axioms for contemporary mathematics or set theory. They can be easily adapted to analogous theories, such as mereology.
|
||||
|
||||
Axiom of extensionality
|
||||
Axiom of empty set
|
||||
Axiom of pairing
|
||||
Axiom of union
|
||||
Axiom of infinity
|
||||
Axiom schema of replacement
|
||||
Axiom of power set
|
||||
Axiom of regularity
|
||||
Axiom schema of specification
|
||||
See also Zermelo set theory.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Axiom of choice ==
|
||||
With the Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms above, this makes up the system ZFC in which most mathematics is potentially formalisable.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Equivalents of AC ===
|
||||
Hausdorff maximality theorem
|
||||
Well-ordering theorem
|
||||
Zorn's lemma
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Stronger than AC ===
|
||||
Axiom of global choice
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Weaker than AC ===
|
||||
Axiom of countable choice
|
||||
Axiom of dependent choice
|
||||
Boolean prime ideal theorem
|
||||
Axiom of uniformization
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Alternates incompatible with AC ===
|
||||
Axiom of real determinacy
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Other axioms of mathematical logic ==
|
||||
Von Neumann–Bernays–Gödel axioms
|
||||
Continuum hypothesis and its generalization
|
||||
Freiling's axiom of symmetry
|
||||
Axiom of determinacy
|
||||
Axiom of projective determinacy
|
||||
Martin's axiom
|
||||
Axiom of constructibility
|
||||
Rank-into-rank
|
||||
Kripke–Platek axioms
|
||||
Diamond principle
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Geometry ==
|
||||
Parallel postulate
|
||||
Birkhoff's axioms (4 axioms)
|
||||
Hilbert's axioms (20 axioms)
|
||||
Tarski's axioms (10 axioms and 1 schema)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Other axioms ==
|
||||
Axiom of Archimedes (real number)
|
||||
Axiom of countability (topology)
|
||||
Dirac–von Neumann axioms
|
||||
Fundamental axiom of analysis (real analysis)
|
||||
Gluing axiom (sheaf theory)
|
||||
Haag–Kastler axioms (quantum field theory)
|
||||
Huzita's axioms (origami)
|
||||
Kuratowski closure axioms (topology)
|
||||
Peano's axioms (natural numbers)
|
||||
Probability axioms
|
||||
Separation axiom (topology)
|
||||
Wightman axioms (quantum field theory)
|
||||
Action axiom (praxeology)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Axiomatic quantum field theory
|
||||
Minimal axioms for Boolean algebra
|
||||
166
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_calculus_topics-0.md
Normal file
166
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_calculus_topics-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,166 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of calculus topics"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_calculus_topics"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:59.314130+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of calculus topics.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Limits ==
|
||||
Limit (mathematics)
|
||||
Limit of a function
|
||||
One-sided limit
|
||||
Limit of a sequence
|
||||
Indeterminate form
|
||||
Orders of approximation
|
||||
(ε, δ)-definition of limit
|
||||
Continuous function
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Differential calculus ==
|
||||
Derivative
|
||||
Notation
|
||||
Newton's notation for differentiation
|
||||
Leibniz's notation for differentiation
|
||||
Simplest rules
|
||||
Derivative of a constant
|
||||
Sum rule in differentiation
|
||||
Constant factor rule in differentiation
|
||||
Linearity of differentiation
|
||||
Power rule
|
||||
Chain rule
|
||||
Local linearization
|
||||
Product rule
|
||||
Quotient rule
|
||||
Inverse functions and differentiation
|
||||
Implicit differentiation
|
||||
Stationary point
|
||||
Maxima and minima
|
||||
First derivative test
|
||||
Second derivative test
|
||||
Extreme value theorem
|
||||
Differential equation
|
||||
Differential operator
|
||||
Newton's method
|
||||
Taylor's theorem
|
||||
L'Hôpital's rule
|
||||
General Leibniz rule
|
||||
Mean value theorem
|
||||
Logarithmic derivative
|
||||
Differential (calculus)
|
||||
Related rates
|
||||
Regiomontanus' angle maximization problem
|
||||
Rolle's theorem
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Integral calculus ==
|
||||
Antiderivative/Indefinite integral
|
||||
Simplest rules
|
||||
Sum rule in integration
|
||||
Constant factor rule in integration
|
||||
Linearity of integration
|
||||
Arbitrary constant of integration
|
||||
Cavalieri's quadrature formula
|
||||
Fundamental theorem of calculus
|
||||
Integration by parts
|
||||
Inverse chain rule method
|
||||
Integration by substitution
|
||||
Tangent half-angle substitution
|
||||
Differentiation under the integral sign
|
||||
Trigonometric substitution
|
||||
Partial fractions in integration
|
||||
Quadratic integral
|
||||
Proof that 22/7 exceeds π
|
||||
Trapezium rule
|
||||
Integral of the secant function
|
||||
Integral of secant cubed
|
||||
Arclength
|
||||
Solid of revolution
|
||||
Shell integration
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Special functions and numbers ==
|
||||
Natural logarithm
|
||||
e (mathematical constant)
|
||||
Exponential function
|
||||
Hyperbolic angle
|
||||
Hyperbolic function
|
||||
Stirling's approximation
|
||||
Bernoulli numbers
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Numerical formulas ==
|
||||
See also List of numerical analysis topics
|
||||
|
||||
Rectangle method
|
||||
Trapezoidal rule
|
||||
Simpson's rule
|
||||
Newton–Cotes formulas
|
||||
Gaussian quadrature
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Lists and tables ==
|
||||
Table of common limits
|
||||
Table of derivatives
|
||||
Table of integrals
|
||||
Table of mathematical symbols
|
||||
List of integrals
|
||||
List of integrals of rational functions
|
||||
List of integrals of irrational functions
|
||||
List of integrals of trigonometric functions
|
||||
List of integrals of inverse trigonometric functions
|
||||
List of integrals of hyperbolic functions
|
||||
List of integrals of exponential functions
|
||||
List of integrals of logarithmic functions
|
||||
List of integrals of area functions
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Multivariable ==
|
||||
Partial derivative
|
||||
Disk integration
|
||||
Gabriel's horn
|
||||
Jacobian matrix
|
||||
Hessian matrix
|
||||
Curvature
|
||||
Green's theorem
|
||||
Divergence theorem
|
||||
Stokes' theorem
|
||||
Vector Calculus
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Series ==
|
||||
Infinite series
|
||||
Maclaurin series, Taylor series
|
||||
Fourier series
|
||||
Euler–Maclaurin formula
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== History ==
|
||||
Adequality
|
||||
Infinitesimal
|
||||
Archimedes' use of infinitesimals
|
||||
Gottfried Leibniz
|
||||
Isaac Newton
|
||||
Method of Fluxions
|
||||
Infinitesimal calculus
|
||||
Brook Taylor
|
||||
Colin Maclaurin
|
||||
Leonhard Euler
|
||||
Gauss
|
||||
Joseph Fourier
|
||||
Law of continuity
|
||||
History of calculus
|
||||
Generality of algebra
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Nonstandard calculus ==
|
||||
Elementary Calculus: An Infinitesimal Approach
|
||||
Nonstandard calculus
|
||||
Infinitesimal
|
||||
Archimedes' use of infinitesimals
|
||||
For further developments: see list of real analysis topics, list of complex analysis topics, list of multivariable calculus topics.
|
||||
35
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chaotic_maps-0.md
Normal file
35
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chaotic_maps-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of chaotic maps"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chaotic_maps"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:13:03.039151+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
In mathematics, a chaotic map is a map (an evolution function) that exhibits some sort of chaotic behavior. Maps may be parameterized by a discrete-time or a continuous-time parameter. Discrete maps usually take the form of iterated functions. Chaotic maps often occur in the study of dynamical systems.
|
||||
Chaotic maps and iterated functions often generate fractals. Some fractals are studied as objects themselves, as sets rather than in terms of the maps that generate them. This is often because there are several different iterative procedures that generate the same fractal. See also Universality (dynamical systems).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== List of chaotic maps ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== List of fractals ==
|
||||
|
||||
Cantor set
|
||||
de Rham curve
|
||||
Gravity set, or Mitchell-Green gravity set
|
||||
Julia set - derived from complex quadratic map
|
||||
Koch snowflake - special case of de Rham curve
|
||||
Lyapunov fractal
|
||||
Mandelbrot set - derived from complex quadratic map
|
||||
Menger sponge
|
||||
Newton fractal
|
||||
Nova fractal - derived from Newton fractal
|
||||
Quaternionic fractal - three dimensional complex quadratic map
|
||||
Sierpinski carpet
|
||||
Sierpinski triangle
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,213 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of complex and algebraic surfaces"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_complex_and_algebraic_surfaces"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:45.547440+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of named algebraic surfaces, compact complex surfaces, and families thereof, sorted according to their Kodaira dimension following Enriques–Kodaira classification.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Kodaira dimension −∞ ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Rational surfaces ===
|
||||
Projective plane
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Quadric surfaces ====
|
||||
Cone (geometry)
|
||||
Cylinder
|
||||
Ellipsoid
|
||||
Hyperboloid
|
||||
Paraboloid
|
||||
Sphere
|
||||
Spheroid
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Rational cubic surfaces ====
|
||||
Cayley nodal cubic surface, a certain cubic surface with 4 nodes
|
||||
Cayley's ruled cubic surface
|
||||
Clebsch surface or Klein icosahedral surface
|
||||
Fermat cubic
|
||||
Monkey saddle
|
||||
Parabolic conoid
|
||||
Plücker's conoid
|
||||
Whitney umbrella
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Rational quartic surfaces ====
|
||||
Châtelet surfaces
|
||||
Dupin cyclides, inversions of a cylinder, torus, or double cone in a sphere
|
||||
Gabriel's horn
|
||||
Right circular conoid
|
||||
Roman surface or Steiner surface, a realization of the real projective plane in real affine space
|
||||
Tori, surfaces of revolution generated by a circle about a coplanar axis
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Other rational surfaces in space ====
|
||||
Boy's surface, a sextic realization of the real projective plane in real affine space
|
||||
Enneper surface, a nonic minimal surface
|
||||
Henneberg surface, a minimal surface of degree 15
|
||||
Bour's minimal surface, a surface of degree 16
|
||||
Richmond surfaces, a family of minimal surfaces of variable degree
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
==== Other families of rational surfaces ====
|
||||
Coble surfaces
|
||||
Del Pezzo surfaces, surfaces with an ample anticanonical divisor
|
||||
Hirzebruch surfaces, rational ruled surfaces
|
||||
Segre surfaces, intersections of two quadrics in projective 4-space
|
||||
Unirational surfaces of characteristic 0
|
||||
Veronese surface, the Veronese embedding of the projective plane into projective 5-space
|
||||
White surfaces, the blow-up of the projective plane at
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
n
|
||||
+
|
||||
1
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
C
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle _{n+1}C_{2}}
|
||||
|
||||
points by the linear system of degree-
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
n
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle n}
|
||||
|
||||
curves through those points
|
||||
Bordiga surfaces, the White surfaces determined by families of quartic curves
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Non-rational ruled surfaces ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Class VII surfaces ===
|
||||
Vanishing second Betti number:
|
||||
Hopf surfaces
|
||||
Inoue surfaces; several other families discovered by Inoue have also been called "Inoue surfaces"
|
||||
Positive second Betti number:
|
||||
Enoki surfaces
|
||||
Inoue–Hirzebruch surfaces
|
||||
Kato surfaces
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Kodaira dimension 0 ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== K3 surfaces ===
|
||||
Kummer surfaces
|
||||
Tetrahedroids, special Kummer surfaces
|
||||
Wave surface, a special tetrahedroid
|
||||
Plücker surfaces, birational to Kummer surfaces
|
||||
Weddle surfaces, birational to Kummer surfaces
|
||||
Smooth quartic surfaces
|
||||
Supersingular K3 surfaces
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Enriques surfaces ===
|
||||
Reye congruences, the locus of lines that lie on at least two quadrics in a general three dimensional linear system of quadric surfaces in projective 3-space
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
P
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
3
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle \mathbb {P} ^{3}}
|
||||
|
||||
.
|
||||
The quotient of a K3 surface under a fixpointfree involution.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Abelian surfaces ===
|
||||
Horrocks–Mumford surfaces, surfaces of degree 10 in projective 4-space that are the zero locus of sections of the rank-two Horrocks–Mumford bundle
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Other classes of dimension-0 surfaces ===
|
||||
Non-classical Enriques surfaces, a variation on the notion of Enriques surfaces that only exist in characteristic two
|
||||
Hyperelliptic surfaces or bielliptic surfaces; quasi-hyperelliptic surfaces are a variation of this notion that exist only in characteristics two and three
|
||||
Kodaira surfaces
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Kodaira dimension 1 ==
|
||||
Dolgachev surfaces
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Kodaira dimension 2 (surfaces of general type) ==
|
||||
Barlow surfaces
|
||||
Beauville surfaces
|
||||
Burniat surfaces
|
||||
Campedelli surfaces; surfaces of general type with the same Hodge numbers as Campedelli surfaces are called numerical Campidelli surfaces
|
||||
Castelnuovo surfaces
|
||||
Catanese surfaces
|
||||
Fake projective planes or Mumford surfaces, surfaces with the same Betti numbers as projective plane but not isomorphic to it
|
||||
Fano surface of lines on a non-singular 3-fold; sometimes, this term is taken to mean del Pezzo surface
|
||||
Godeaux surfaces; surfaces of general type with the same Hodge numbers as Godeaux surfaces are called numerical Godeaux surfaces
|
||||
Horikawa surfaces
|
||||
Todorov surfaces
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Families of surfaces with members in multiple classes ==
|
||||
Surfaces that are also Shimura varieties:
|
||||
Hilbert modular surfaces
|
||||
Humbert surfaces
|
||||
Picard modular surfaces
|
||||
Shioda modular surfaces
|
||||
Elliptic surfaces, surfaces with an elliptic fibration; quasielliptic surfaces constitute a modification this idea that occurs in finite characteristic
|
||||
Raynaud surfaces and generalized Raynaud surfaces, certain quasielliptic counterexamples to the conclusions of the Kodaira vanishing theorem
|
||||
Exceptional surfaces, surfaces whose Picard number achieve the bound set by the central Hodge number h1,1
|
||||
Kähler surfaces, complex surfaces with a Kähler metric; equivalently, surfaces for which the first Betti number b1 is even
|
||||
Minimal surfaces, surfaces that can't be obtained from another by blowing up at a point; they have no connection with the minimal surfaces of differential geometry
|
||||
Nodal surfaces, surfaces whose only singularities are nodes
|
||||
Cayley's nodal cubic, which has 4 nodes
|
||||
Kummer surfaces, quartic surfaces with 16 nodes
|
||||
Togliatti surface, a certain quintic with 31 nodes
|
||||
Barth surfaces, referring to a certain sextic with 65 nodes and decic with 345 nodes
|
||||
Labs surface, a certain septic with 99 nodes
|
||||
Endrass surface, a certain surface of degree 8 with 168 nodes
|
||||
Sarti surface, a certain surface of degree 12 with 600 nodes
|
||||
Quotient surfaces, surfaces that are constructed as the orbit space of some other surface by the action of a finite group; examples include Kummer, Godeaux, Hopf, and Inoue surfaces
|
||||
Zariski surfaces, surfaces in finite characteristic that admit a purely inseparable dominant rational map from the projective plane
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Enriques–Kodaira classification
|
||||
List of surfaces
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
Compact Complex Surfaces by Wolf P. Barth, Klaus Hulek, Chris A.M. Peters, Antonius Van de Ven ISBN 3-540-00832-2
|
||||
Complex algebraic surfaces by Arnaud Beauville, ISBN 0-521-28815-0
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Mathworld has a long list of algebraic surfaces with pictures.
|
||||
Some more pictures of algebraic surfaces, especially ones with many nodes.
|
||||
Pictures of algebraic surfaces by Herwig Hauser.
|
||||
Free program SURFER to visualize algebraic surfaces in real-time, including a user gallery.
|
||||
@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_language_creators"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:10:57.451912+00:00"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:11:59.391484+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,53 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of language reforms of English"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_language_reforms_of_English"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:03.341301+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
For centuries, many people have called for language reforms of English, which vary in approach from the radical (completely overhauling existing conventions) to the conservative (preserving most while removing irregularities).
|
||||
Phonetic alphabets limited to English do not belong here. See Category:Phonetic alphabets.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Spelling reforms ==
|
||||
|
||||
Spelling reforms are attempts to regularize English spelling either by reducing the number of irregularities or by making it completely phonemic. This may be done using the existing basic English alphabet more uniformly (basic), by adding diacritics (diacriticized), by adding new letters (extended), by removing letters in the script or writing (squeezed), by removing letters and replacing it by new ones (altered) or by replacing it entirely (replaced). Such proposals include:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Subsets ==
|
||||
Subsets are reforms that use a restricted wordlist and grammar. English subsets include:
|
||||
|
||||
Attempto Controlled English
|
||||
Aviation English
|
||||
Basic English
|
||||
ClearTalk
|
||||
Common Logic Controlled English
|
||||
E-Prime
|
||||
Gellish Formal English
|
||||
Globish
|
||||
Learning English
|
||||
Logical English
|
||||
ModeLang
|
||||
Newspeak (fictional)
|
||||
Plain English
|
||||
Processable English (PENG)
|
||||
Seaspeak
|
||||
SBVR Structured English
|
||||
Simplified Technical English
|
||||
Specialized English
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Vocabulary reforms ==
|
||||
Vocabulary reforms seek to reform English by changing or restricting its words without changing its grammar.
|
||||
|
||||
Anglish: the use of native (Germanic) words only, and spellings of such without foreign influence—a form of linguistic purism
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Language Romanisation and Re-Romanisation
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of language self-study programs"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_language_self-study_programs"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:19.872679+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Self-study language acquisition programs allow learning without having a teacher present, and the courses can supplement or replace classroom instruction. Universities use self-study programs for less-commonly taught languages, where having professors is not feasible. Self-study programs are available on paper, audio files, video files, smartphone apps, computers, or any combination.
|
||||
This list is limited to programs that teach four or more languages. There are many others that teach one language.
|
||||
Alphabetical lists of languages show the courses available to learn each language, at All Language Resources, Lang1234, Martindale's Language Center, Omniglot, and Rüdiger Köppe. (UCLA Language Materials Project has ended.) For the thousands of languages not listed on those sites, for which no course exists, Global Recordings Network has recorded a standard set of Bible stories in 6,000 languages. With effort, learners can study any language by comparing their recordings to the same story in a language they know.
|
||||
The list of self-study programs, below, shows the number of languages taught by each program, the name of the program, and the number of different languages used for instruction. Multiple languages of instruction may be available for some but not all courses. For example, Reise Know-How uses six languages to teach German, but only German to teach the other languages. On the other hand Eurotalk, Pronunciator and 50Languages use all languages to teach all the other languages.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== List ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Computer-assisted language learning
|
||||
Language learning video games
|
||||
Language MOOC
|
||||
List of flashcard software
|
||||
Virtual world language learning
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
126
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists-0.md
Normal file
126
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,126 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of linguists"
|
||||
chunk: 1/9
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:04.693680+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
A linguist in the academic sense is a person who studies natural language (an academic discipline known as linguistics). Ambiguously, the word is sometimes also used to refer to a polyglot (one who knows several languages), a translator/interpreter (especially in the military), or a grammarian (a scholar of grammar), but these uses of the word are distinct (and one does not have to be multilingual in order to be an academic linguist). The following is a list of notable academic linguists.
|
||||
In the list, the description is presented as:
|
||||
surname, given name (country, year of birth–year of death), main achievement
|
||||
|
||||
== A ==
|
||||
|
||||
Abbott, Barbara (United States, 1943–), pragmatics, semantics
|
||||
Abel, Carl (Germany, 1837–1906), comparative lexicography
|
||||
Abdul Haq, Maulvi (India, 1870–1961), Urdu language
|
||||
Abrams, Lise (United States), psycholinguistics
|
||||
Abramson, Arthur S. (United States, 1925–2017), phonetics
|
||||
Adamou, Evangelia (France), language contact
|
||||
Adams, Douglas Q. (United States), English language, comparative linguistics, Tocharian language
|
||||
Adler, George J. (Germany/United States, 1821–1868), lexicography, German language, English language
|
||||
Aijmer, Karin (Sweden, 1939–), pragmatics, semantics
|
||||
Aikhenvald, Alexandra Yurievna (Russia, 1957–), syntax, typology, Amazonian languages, Papuan languages, Hebrew language, Russian language
|
||||
Aitken, Adam Jack (UK, 1921–1998), lexicography
|
||||
Ajduković, Jovan (Serbia, 1968–), Slavic languages, sociolinguistics, contact linguistics, Russian language, Serbian language
|
||||
Albright, William Foxwell (United States, 1891–1971), Semitic languages
|
||||
Alexiadou, Artemis (1969–), Greek language, syntax
|
||||
Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi (Oman, 718–786 CE), Arabic prosody
|
||||
Al-Kisa'i (Iraq, d. 804), Arabic grammar
|
||||
Allan, Keith (Australia, 1943–), semantics
|
||||
Allen, Shanley (1964–), psycholinguistics, Inuktitut
|
||||
Alleyne, Mervyn Coleridge (Trinidad and Tobago/Jamaica, 1933–2016), creole language
|
||||
Ameka, Felix (Ghana, Australia, Netherlands, 1957–), pragmatics, semantics
|
||||
Amerias (Greece, 3rd century BC), Ancient Macedonian language, lexicography
|
||||
Anagnostopoulou, Elena (1967–), Greek language, theoretical linguistics
|
||||
Anderson, Gregory D.S. (United States), Munda languages
|
||||
Anderson, Stephen (United States, 1943–), morphology and history of linguistics
|
||||
Aoun, Joseph (Lebanon/United States, 1953–), Arabic language, syntax
|
||||
Aquilina, Joseph (Malta, 1911–1997), Maltese language
|
||||
Ariel, Mira (Israel), Accessibility Theory, pragmatics
|
||||
Arisaka Hideyo (Japan, 1908–1952), Japanese language
|
||||
Aristar, Anthony (South Africa/United States, 1948–), linguistic infrastructure
|
||||
Armstrong, Lilias (UK, 1882–1937), phonetics
|
||||
Aronoff, Mark (Canada, 1949–), morphology
|
||||
Ascoli, Graziadio Isaia (Italy, 1829–1907), substrata, Ladin language
|
||||
Austin, John Langshaw (UK, 1911–1960), philosophy of language, speech act
|
||||
Awobuluyi, Oladele (Nigeria, 1937–), African languages
|
||||
Ayres-Bennett, Wendy (UK), history of French and history of linguistic thought
|
||||
Azad, Humayun (Bangladesh, 1947–2004), Bengali language
|
||||
Al-Harbi, Abdul Aziz (Saudi Arabia, 1965–)
|
||||
Al-Mubarrad (Basra, c. 826–c. 898)
|
||||
|
||||
== B ==
|
||||
Babiniotis, Georgios (Greece, 1939–), Greek language
|
||||
Babych, Nadiya (Ukraine, 1943–2021), phraseology
|
||||
Bach, Emmon (United States, 1929–2014), syntax, phonology, Haisla language
|
||||
Baker, Mark (United States, 1959–), Mohawk language, generative grammar
|
||||
Bally, Charles (Switzerland, 1865–1947), French language, phraseology
|
||||
Barbara, Leila (Brazil, 1938–2024), systemic functional linguistics
|
||||
Bardovi-Harlig, Kathleen (United States, 1954–), second-language acquisition, tense and aspect, pragmatics
|
||||
Bar-Hillel, Yehoshua (Israel, 1915–1975), machine translation, categorial grammar
|
||||
Barker, (Philip) Muhammad Abd-al-Rahman (United States, 1930–2012), Urdu language, Indian languages
|
||||
Barlow, Robert Hayward (United States, 1918–1951), Nahuatl language
|
||||
Barnhart, David K. (United States, 1941–), lexicography, English language
|
||||
Barnhart, Robert (United States, 1933–2007), lexicography, English language
|
||||
Barsky, Robert (Canada), discourse analysis
|
||||
Barthes, Roland (France, 1915–1980)
|
||||
Bartlett, John Russell (United States, 1805–1886)
|
||||
Basbøll, Hans (Denmark, 1943–), phonology, Danish
|
||||
Baudouin de Courtenay, Jan Niecisław (Poland, 1845–1929), phonology, Polish language
|
||||
Bauer, Robert Stuart (United States, 1946–), syntax, phonology, Sino-Tibetan languages (especially Cantonese)
|
||||
Baugh, John (United States, 1949–), sociolinguistics, linguistic profiling, forensic linguistics
|
||||
Beckman, Mary E. (United States, 1953–), phonetics, phonology
|
||||
Beckwith, Christopher (United States, 1945–), Asian languages, Tibetan language
|
||||
Beddor, Patrice (United States), Phonetics, speech perception
|
||||
Bedirxan, Celadet Alî (Syria, 1893–1951) Kurdish language
|
||||
Beeken, Jeannine (Belgium, 1961–), lexicography, syntax, Dutch language
|
||||
Beekes, Robert S. P. (Netherlands, 1937–2017), historical linguistics, Indo-European linguistics, Greek linguistics
|
||||
Bello, Andrés (Venezuela, 1781–1865), Spanish language, philology
|
||||
Bellugi, Ursula (United States, 1931–2022), sign language, neurolinguistics
|
||||
Ben-Yehuda, Eliezer (Israel, 1858–1922), lexicography, Revival of the Hebrew language
|
||||
Bender, M. Lionel (United States, 1934–2008), African languages
|
||||
Benedict, Paul K. (United States, 1912–1977), Sino-Tibetan languages, Tai–Kadai languages, historical linguistics
|
||||
Benveniste, Émile (France, 1902–1976)
|
||||
Berez-Kroeker, Andrea L. (United States, 1972–), language documentation
|
||||
Berlitz, Charles Frambach (United States, 1914–2003), language acquisition
|
||||
Berlitz, Maximilian Delphinius (United States, 1852–1921), language acquisition
|
||||
Bhartrihari (India, 450–510), Sanskrit
|
||||
Bickel, Balthasar (Switzerland, 1965–), language typology, Kiranti languages
|
||||
Bickerton, Derek (United States, 1926–2018), creole languages, origin of language
|
||||
Bleek, Wilhelm Heinrich Immanuel (Germany, 1827–1875), languages of Africa
|
||||
Bloch, Bernard (United States, 1907–1965), Japanese language
|
||||
Bloch, Jules (France, 1880–1953), languages of India
|
||||
Bloomfield, Leonard (United States, 1887–1949), structural linguistics
|
||||
Blust, Robert (United States, 1940–2022), Austronesian languages
|
||||
Boas, Franz (United States, 1858–1942), indigenous languages of the Americas
|
||||
Bœck, Égide de (Belgium, Belgish Congo, 1875–1944), Bangala language, Lingala
|
||||
Boersma, Paul (Netherlands, 1959–), phonetics
|
||||
Boiagi, Mihail G. (Habsburg monarchy, 1780–uncertain), Aromanian grammar
|
||||
Bohn, Ocke-Schwen (Germany, 1953–), phonetics, second-language acquisition
|
||||
Bolinger, Dwight Le Merton (United States, 1907–1992), semantics, Spanish language
|
||||
Bomhard, Allan R. (United States, 1943–), Nostratic languages, historical linguistics
|
||||
Ester Bonet (Spain, born 1950), sports terminology
|
||||
Bopp, Franz (Germany, 1791–1867), Indo-European languages, comparative linguistics
|
||||
Boullón Agrelo, Ana Isabel (Spain, born 1962), Galician language toponymy, Galician–Portuguese philology
|
||||
Bowerman, Melissa (1942–2011), psycholinguistics, language acquisition
|
||||
Bowern, Claire, historical linguistics
|
||||
Boyd, Julian Charles (United States, 1931–2005), English language
|
||||
Bresnan, Joan (United States, 1945–), syntax
|
||||
Bright, William (United States, 1928–2006), Native American languages, South Asian languages
|
||||
Brinton, Laurel J. (Canada, 1953–), grammaticalization, discourse markers
|
||||
Brody, Michael (Hungary, 1954–), syntax
|
||||
Broselow, Ellen (United States, 1949–), second language acquisition, phonology
|
||||
Browman, Catherine (United States, 1945–2008), phonetics, phonology
|
||||
Brugmann, Karl (Germany, 1849–1919), Indo-European languages, Sanskrit, comparative linguistics
|
||||
Bucholtz, Mary (United States, 1966–), sociolinguistics
|
||||
Burgess, Anthony (UK, 1917–1993), English language, phonetics
|
||||
Burling, Robbins (United States, 1926–2021), languages of India
|
||||
Burridge, Kate (Australia), Germanic languages
|
||||
Butt, Miriam (Germany, 1966–), syntax, South Asian languages
|
||||
Butzkamm, Wolfgang (Germany, 1938–), applied linguistics, English language
|
||||
Byington, Cyrus (United States, 1793–1868), translated English religious text into Choctaw language
|
||||
Badawi, El-Said (Egypt, 1929–2014), Arabic
|
||||
120
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists-1.md
Normal file
120
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists-1.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,120 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of linguists"
|
||||
chunk: 2/9
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:04.693680+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== C ==
|
||||
Caland, Willem (Netherlands, 1859–1932), historical linguistics, Sanskrit
|
||||
Campbell, Lyle (United States, 1942–), Native American languages, historical linguistics
|
||||
Canger, Una (Denmark, 1938–), Mesoamerican languages
|
||||
Canonge, Elliott D. (United States, 1921–1971), Comanche, Inuit
|
||||
Capell, Arthur (Australia, 1902–1986), Australian languages, Austronesian languages, Papuan languages
|
||||
Cardona, George (United States, 1936–), Indo-European studies
|
||||
Carnap, Rudolf (Germany, 1891–1970), syntax, constructed languages
|
||||
Carnie, Andrew (Canada, 1969–), syntax
|
||||
Caro Baroja, Julio (1914–1995), Basque language
|
||||
Caro, Miguel A. (Colombia, 1843–1909), Spanish language, Colombian Spanish
|
||||
Carpenter, William Henry (United States, 1853–1936), Icelandic language
|
||||
Cart, Théophile (France, 1855–1931), Esperanto
|
||||
Carter, Hazel (UK, 1928–2016), Bantu languages
|
||||
Catford, J. C. (UK, 1917–2009), phonetics
|
||||
Chadwick, John (UK, 1920–1998), Linear B
|
||||
Chafik, Mohamed (Morocco, 1926–), writer and specialist in the Berber or Amazigh languages, dialects, and literature
|
||||
Chafe, Wallace (United States, 1927–2019), cognitive linguistics, semantics
|
||||
Chao Yuen Ren (China, 1892–1982), Chinese language
|
||||
Chakrabarti, Byomkes (India, 1923–1981), Santali language, Bengali language, comparative linguistics
|
||||
Champollion, Jean-François (France, 1790–1832), Egyptian hieroglyphs
|
||||
Chambers, Jack (Canada, 1938–), sociolinguistics
|
||||
Chatterji, Suniti Kumar (India, 1890–1977), Bengali language
|
||||
Chelliah, Shobhana, Tibeto-Burman languages
|
||||
Chierchia, Gennaro (Italy, 1953–), semantics, pragmatics
|
||||
Choijinzhab (PR China, 1931–2022), Mongolian language
|
||||
Chomsky, Noam (United States, 1928–), syntax, universal grammar
|
||||
Choueiri, Lina (Lebanon), syntax, Lebanese Arabic
|
||||
Chyet, Michael L. (United States, 1957–), Kurdish language
|
||||
Clark, Eve V. (UK/United States, 1942–), psycholinguistics, language acquisition
|
||||
Clyne, Michael George (Australia, 1939–2010), Germanic languages
|
||||
Cohen, Paul S. (United States), 1942–), phonology, etymology
|
||||
Cohen, Maurice Abraham (Australia), 1851–1923), Urdu
|
||||
Collitz, Hermann (Germany/United States, 1855–1935), historical linguistics
|
||||
Comrie, Bernard (UK, 1947–), typology
|
||||
Cook, Guy (UK, 1951–), applied linguistics
|
||||
Cook, Vivian (UK, 1940–2021), applied linguistics
|
||||
Corder, Stephen Pit (UK, 1918–1990), applied linguistics
|
||||
Coşeriu, Eugen (Romania/Germany, 1921–2002), Romance languages
|
||||
Couper-Kuhlen, Elizabeth (1943–), interactional linguistics
|
||||
Cowgill, Warren (United States, 1929–1985), Indo-European studies
|
||||
Cowper, Elizabeth (Canada, 1952–), syntax
|
||||
Creissels, Denis (France, 1943–), syntax, phonology, Niger–Congo languages, Nakh-Daghestanian languages
|
||||
Croft, William (United States, 1956–), syntax, cognitive linguistics
|
||||
Crystal, David (UK, 1941–), English language, language death, applied linguistics
|
||||
Cuervo, Rufino José (Colombia, 1844–1911), Spanish language, Colombian Spanish
|
||||
Culicover, Peter W. (United States), syntax, language change
|
||||
Culioli, Antoine (France, 1924–2018), general linguistics
|
||||
Cumakunova, Gülzura (Kyrgyzstan, 1954–), Turkic languages
|
||||
Curme, George Oliver, Sr. (United States, 1860–1948), German language, English language
|
||||
Curzan, Anne (United States), English language, Descriptivism, Prescriptivism, lexicography
|
||||
Calvet, Louis-Jean (France, 1942-), Sociolinguistique
|
||||
|
||||
== D ==
|
||||
Dal, Vladimir (Russia, 1801–1872), lexicography, Russian language
|
||||
Dahl, Östen (Sweden, 1945–), tense and aspect in linguistic typology
|
||||
Darzi, Ali (Iran, 1959–), generative syntax, minimalist program
|
||||
Das, Khudiram (India, 1916–2002), Bengali and Santali language
|
||||
Dani, Ahmad Hasan (Pakistan, 1920–2009), South Asian languages
|
||||
Daniels, Peter T. (United States, 1951–), writing systems
|
||||
Davies, Shaun (Australia), Yugambeh language
|
||||
Dayal, Veneeta (United States, 1956–), semantics, syntax
|
||||
Deacon, Terrence (United States, 1950–), language change, origin of language, cognitive linguistics
|
||||
Dehkhoda, Ali-Akbar (Iran, 1879–1959), lexicography, Persian language
|
||||
De Houwer, Annick (Belgium, 1958–), early child bilingualism
|
||||
Delbrück, Berthold (Germany, 1842–1922), Indo-European languages, syntax, comparative linguistics
|
||||
DeLancey, Scott (United States, 1949–), Tibeto-Burman languages, linguistic typology, historical linguistics
|
||||
Dempwolff, Otto (Germany, 1871–1938), Austronesian languages
|
||||
Diderichsen, Paul (Denmark, 1905–1964), Danish
|
||||
Diffloth, Gérard (United States, 1939–2023), Mon–Khmer languages
|
||||
van Dijk, Teun Adrianus (Netherlands, 1943–), pragmatics, discourse analysis, text linguistics
|
||||
Dik, Simon (the Netherlands, 1940–1995) Functional Grammar, theoretical linguistics
|
||||
Dixon, Robert Malcolm Ward (Australia, 1939–), syntax, typology, Australian languages, Amazonian languages
|
||||
Dobrovský, Josef (Czech Republic, 1753–1829), Slavic languages, Czech language, lexicography
|
||||
Dobson, Veronica Perrule (Australia, 1944–), Arrernte language
|
||||
Doke, Clement Martyn (South Africa, 1893–1980), Bantu languages, Lamba language
|
||||
Dolgopolsky, Aharon (Russia/Israel, 1930–2012), Nostratic languages
|
||||
Dorian, Nancy (United States, 1936–2024), language death, Scottish Gaelic
|
||||
Dougherty, Ray C. (United States, 1940–), transformational grammar, computational linguistics
|
||||
Dowty, David (United States, 1945–), semantics, syntax
|
||||
Dozier, Edward P. (United States, 1916–1971), Native American languages, languages of the Philippines
|
||||
Dressler, Wolfgang U. (Austria, 1939–), phonology, morphology, text linguistics
|
||||
van Driem, George (Netherlands, 1957–), Tibeto-Burman languages, symbiosism, Dzongkha language
|
||||
Dryer, Matthew (United States), typology, syntax, language documentation
|
||||
Duden, Konrad (Germany, 1829–1911), lexicography, German language
|
||||
Dunn, John Asher (United States,1939–2017), Tsimshian language
|
||||
Dušková, Libuše (Czech Republic, 1930–), English language, functional linguistics
|
||||
|
||||
== E ==
|
||||
Eckert, Penelope (United States, 1942–), sociolinguistics, language and gender
|
||||
Edmondson, Jerold A. (United States, 1941–2023), Tai–Kadai languages, languages of Southeast Asia
|
||||
Edwards, Jonathan, Jr. (United States, 1745–1801), North American languages, historical linguistics, Mohegan language
|
||||
Ehret, Christopher (United States, 1941–2025), languages of Africa, historical linguistics
|
||||
Elbert, Samuel Hoyt (United States, 1907–1997), Polynesian languages of Hawaiʻi and Rennell and Bellona, Puluwatese language
|
||||
Elgin, Suzette Haden (United States, 1936–2015), constructed languages, transformational grammar
|
||||
Ellis, Rod (UK), second-language acquisition
|
||||
Elman, Jeffrey L. (United States, 1948–2018), language processing, neurolinguistics
|
||||
Emeneau, Murray Barnson (United States, 1904–2005), Dravidian languages, linguist areas
|
||||
Emre, Ahmet Cevat (Turkey, 1876–1961), Member of the Turkish Language Association, Turkish alphabet
|
||||
Engberg-Pedersen, Elisabeth (Denmark, 1952–), semantics, Danish Sign Language
|
||||
Epps, Patience L., Amazonian languages, language documentation
|
||||
Erdal, Marcel (Turkey, 1945–), Turkic languages
|
||||
Esenç, Tevfik (Turkey, 1904–1992), Ubykh language
|
||||
Esling, John (Canada, 1939–), phonetics
|
||||
Estrella Santos, Ana (Ecuador, born 20th-c.), dialectology
|
||||
Evans, Nicholas (Australia, 1956–), Indigenous Australian languages, Papuan languages, typology
|
||||
Evans, Vyvyan (UK, 1968–), cognitive linguistics, digital communication, and emoji
|
||||
Even-Shoshan, Avraham (Belarus/Israel, 1906–1984), Hebrew language, lexicography
|
||||
Everett, Daniel Leonard (United States, 1951–), languages of Brazil, Pirahã language
|
||||
Everson, Michael (United States/Ireland, 1963–), writing systems, historical linguistics
|
||||
75
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists-2.md
Normal file
75
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists-2.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,75 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of linguists"
|
||||
chunk: 3/9
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:04.693680+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== F ==
|
||||
Fairuzabadi (Iran, 1329–1414), lexicography, Arabic grammar
|
||||
Farhady, Hossein (Iran, born 1947), Iranian applied linguist
|
||||
Fassi Fehri, Abdelkader (Morocco, 1947–), Arabic syntax
|
||||
Fierz-David, Linda (Germany, 1891–1955), philology
|
||||
Fillmore, Charles J. (United States, 1929–2014), syntax, lexical semantics, cognitive linguistics, lexicography
|
||||
Firbas, Jan (Czech Republic, 1921–2000), English language, functional linguistics
|
||||
Firth, John Rupert (UK, 1890–1960), phonetics, phonology, prosody
|
||||
Fischer-Jørgensen, Eli (Denmark 1911–2010), phonetics, phonology, Danish language
|
||||
Fishman, Joshua (United States, 1926–2015), sociology of language
|
||||
Fiske, Willard (United States, 1831–1904), Northern European languages, Icelandic language
|
||||
Fodor, Janet Dean (United States, 1942–2023), psycholinguistics, semantics, syntax
|
||||
Fodor, Jerry Alan (United States, 1935–2017), psycholinguistics, language of thought
|
||||
Foley, William A. (Australia, 1949–), Papuan languages, Austronesian languages
|
||||
Ford, Jeremiah Denis Mathias (United States, 1873–1958), Spanish language
|
||||
Fowler, Carol A. (United States), phonetics, phonology
|
||||
François, Alexandre (France), Austronesian languages, historical linguistics, language contact
|
||||
Freiman, Aleksandr Arnoldovich (Poland/Russia, 1879–1968), Iranian languages
|
||||
French, David Heath (United States, 1918–1994), Native American languages
|
||||
Friedrich, Johannes (Germany, 1893–1972), Hittite language
|
||||
Fromkin, Victoria (United States, 1923–2000), theoretical linguistics, constructed languages
|
||||
Fujitani Nariakira (Japan, 1738–1779), Japanese language
|
||||
|
||||
== G ==
|
||||
Galloway, Brent D. (United States, 1944–2014), Amerindian languages, Halkomelem language
|
||||
Gamkrelidze, Thomas V. (Georgia, 1929–2021), Indo-European studies, Georgian language
|
||||
Gans, Eric (United States, 1941–), origin of language
|
||||
Garnier, Romain (France, 1976–), Indo-European linguistics
|
||||
Gazdar, Gerald (UK, 1950–), computational linguistics, syntax, semantics
|
||||
Gebauer, Jan (Czech Republic, 1838–1907), Czech language
|
||||
Geeraerts, Dirk (Belgium, 1955–), semantics, lexicography
|
||||
van Geert, Paul (Netherlands, 1950–), second language development
|
||||
Giles, Howard (Wales/United States, 1946–), sociolinguistics
|
||||
Givón, Talmy (Israel/United States, 1936–), syntax, semantics, pragmatics, typology, functionalism
|
||||
Giegerich, Heinz (Germany/UK, 1952–), English language, phonology
|
||||
Gleason, Jean Berko (United States, 1931–), psycholinguistics, language acquisition
|
||||
Goatly, Andrew (UK), English language, Chinese language
|
||||
Goddard, Cliff (Australia, 1953–), semantics, pragmatics
|
||||
Goddard, R.H. Ives, III (United States, 1941–2025), Algonquian languages, historical linguistics
|
||||
Gode, Alexander (Germany/United States, 1906–1970), constructed languages, Germanic languages
|
||||
Goldberg, Adele (United States, 1963–), syntax, psycholinguistics
|
||||
Goldsmith, John Anton (United States, 1951–), phonology, computational linguistics
|
||||
Goldstein, Louis M. (United States), phonetics, phonology
|
||||
Gong Hwang-cherng (Republic of China, 1934–2010), Sino-Tibetan languages, Old Chinese, Tangut language
|
||||
Gordon, Cyrus Herzl (United States, 1908–2001), ancient languages, cuneiform script
|
||||
Gramsci, Antonio (Italy, 1891–1937), Italian language
|
||||
Gray, Louis Herbert (United States, 1875–1955), Indo-Iranian languages, phonology
|
||||
Green, Lisa (United States), syntax of African American English
|
||||
Greenberg, Joseph Harold (United States, 1915–2001), typology, language universals, languages of Africa
|
||||
Grenoble, Lenore (United States, 1958–), language contact, language endangerment, deixis, Slavic and Arctic Indigenous languages
|
||||
Grice, (Herbert) Paul (UK/United States, 1913–1988), pragmatics
|
||||
Grierson, George Abraham (Ireland, 1851–1941), languages of India
|
||||
Gries, Stefan Th. (Germany/United States, 1970–), corpus linguistics, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, construction grammar
|
||||
Grimm, Jakob Ludwig Carl (Germany, 1785–1863), historical linguistics, comparative linguistics, German language
|
||||
Grinder, John Thomas (United States, 1940–), neurolinguistics
|
||||
Gross, Maurice (France, 1934–2001), lexicon-grammar
|
||||
Grosz, Barbara J. (United States, 1948– ), natural language processing, computational modeling of discourse
|
||||
Groupe μ (Belgium, 1967–), rhetorics, semiotics
|
||||
Grube, Wilhelm (Germany, 1855–1908), Tungusic languages, Nivkh language, Jurchen language
|
||||
Grønnum, Nina (Denmark, 1945–), intonation of Danish
|
||||
Gumperz, John Joseph (United States, 1922–2013), sociolinguistics, discourse analysis, linguistic anthropology
|
||||
Gutiérrez Eskildsen, Rosario María (Mexico, 1899–1979), Spanish language, dialectology
|
||||
Guy, Gregory (United States, 1950–), sociolinguistics, historical linguistics, phonetics, phonology
|
||||
Guthrie, Malcolm (Britain, 1903–1972), Bantu languages
|
||||
Gygax, Pascal (Swiss, 1974–), inclusive language in French
|
||||
105
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists-3.md
Normal file
105
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists-3.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,105 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of linguists"
|
||||
chunk: 4/9
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:04.693680+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== H ==
|
||||
Haarmann, Harald (Germany, 1946–), evolutionary linguistics, language contact
|
||||
Haas, Mary Rosamund (United States, 1910–1996), Native American languages, Thai language, historical linguistics
|
||||
Haase, Martin (Germany, 1962–), Romance languages
|
||||
Hagberg, Carl August (Sweden, 1810–1864), Scandinavian languages
|
||||
Hajič, Jan (Czech Republic), computational linguistics
|
||||
Hajičová, Eva (Czech Republic, 1935–), corpus linguistics
|
||||
Hale, Kenneth Locke (United States, 1934–2001), syntax, phonology
|
||||
Hall, Kira (United States, 1962–), sociocultural linguistics
|
||||
Hall, Robert A., Jr. (United States, 1911–1997), Romance languages, Pidgins and Creoles
|
||||
Halle, Morris (Latvia/United States, 1923–2018), phonology, morphology
|
||||
Halliday, Michael Alexander Kirkwood (UK/Australia, 1925–2018), systemic functional grammar, ecolinguistics, applied linguistics
|
||||
Hammarström, Harald (Sweden, 1977–), computational linguistics, historical linguistics, linguistic typology
|
||||
Hammond, Michael (United States, 1957–), phonology, computational linguistics, syntax
|
||||
Hamp, Eric P. (United States, 1920–2019), Indo-European languages, Native American languages
|
||||
Hanzeli, Victor (United States, 1925–1991), Romance languages
|
||||
Haq, Mehr Abdul (Pakistan, 1915–1995), Saraiki language
|
||||
Harder, Peter (Denmark, 1950–), English language, functional linguistics
|
||||
Harkavy, Alexander (Belarus/United States, 1863–1939), Yiddish language, lexicography
|
||||
Harley, Heidi B. (United States, 1969–), distributed morphology, syntax
|
||||
Harrington, John Peabody (United States, 1884–1961), Native American languages, phonetics
|
||||
Alice C. Harris (United States, 1947-), Kartvelian languages, historical linguistics
|
||||
Harris, Roy (UK, 1931–2015), semiology, integrationism
|
||||
Harris, Zellig Sabbetai (Ukraine/United States, 1909–1992), structural linguistics, discourse analysis, Semitic languages
|
||||
Harrison, K. David (United States, 1966–), phonology, endangered languages, language extinction
|
||||
Hartmann, Reinhard Rudolf Karl (Austria/UK, 1938–2024), lexicography, contrastive linguistics
|
||||
Hasan, Ruqaiya (India/Australia, 1931–2015), systemic functional grammar, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics
|
||||
Hashimoto Mantarō (Japan, 1932–1987), Japanese language
|
||||
Hashimoto Shinkichi (Japan, 1882–1945), Old Japanese language, Japanese language
|
||||
Haspelmath, Martin (Germany, 1963–), typology, language change, language contact, Lezgian language
|
||||
Haugen, Einar Ingvald (United States, 1906– 1994), sociolinguistics, Old Norse
|
||||
Hawkins, John A. (UK), psycholinguistics, historical linguistics
|
||||
Hayakawa, Samuel Ichiye (Canada/United States, 1906–1992), semantics
|
||||
Hayes, Bruce (United States, 1955–), phonology
|
||||
Hays, David Glenn (United States, 1928–1995), computational linguistics, machine translation, dependency grammar, corpus linguistics, natural language processing, cognitive science
|
||||
Heath, Jeffrey (United States, 1949–), historical linguistics, morphology, linguistic anthropology
|
||||
Heim, Irene Roswitha (Germany/United States, 1954–), semantics
|
||||
Heine, Bernd (Germany, 1939–), languages of Africa, sociolinguistics, language contact
|
||||
Hepburn, James Curtis (United States, 1815–1911), Japanese language, lexicography
|
||||
Herbert, Robert Knox (United States, 1952–2007), phonology, languages of Africa, sociolinguistics
|
||||
Hetzron, Robert (Hungary/United States, 1937–1997), Afro-Asiatic languages
|
||||
Hewitt, John Napoleon Brinton (United States, 1859–1937), Iroquoian languages
|
||||
Hjelmslev, Louis (Denmark, 1899–1965), comparative linguistics, semantics
|
||||
Hobbs, Jerry R. (United States, 1942–), computational linguistics, discourse analysis, syntax, semantics
|
||||
Hock, Hans Henrich (Germany/United States, 1938–), historical linguistics, comparative linguistics, Sanskrit
|
||||
Hockett, Charles Francis (United States, 1916–2000), phonology, morphology
|
||||
Hoey, Michael (UK, 1948–2021), lexical priming, textual interaction, corpus linguistics
|
||||
Hoff, Erika (United States, 1951—), Psycholinguistics
|
||||
Hoffmann, John-Baptist (Germany, 1857–1928), Mundari language
|
||||
Hogg, Richard M. (UK, 1944–2007), phonology, historical linguistics
|
||||
Hoijer, Harry (United States, 1904–1976), Athabaskan languages, Tonkawa language
|
||||
Hopper, Paul (UK/United States), historical linguistics, emergent grammar
|
||||
Hornstein, Norbert (United States), syntax
|
||||
Hryhorchuk, Lidiia (Ukraine, 1926–2018), Ukrainian language
|
||||
Hrozný, Bedřich (Czech Republic, 1879–1952), Hittite language, ancient languages
|
||||
Huddleston, Rodney D. (UK/Australia, 1937—), English language
|
||||
Hudson, Richard (UK, 1939–), syntax, word grammar, linguistics in education
|
||||
von Humboldt, Wilhelm (Germany, 1787–1835), Basque language
|
||||
Hunston, Susan (UK, 1953–), corpus linguistics, lexical semantics
|
||||
Hupel, August Wilhelm (Germany/Estonia, 1737–1819), Estonian language, lexicography
|
||||
Hurford, James R. (UK, United States, 1941–), phonetics, semantics, grammar, computational linguistics, evolutionary linguistics
|
||||
Husain Khan, Masud (India, 1919–2010), Urdu language, phonetics, stylistics, linguistic description
|
||||
Hyman, Larry M. (United States, 1947–), phonology, languages of Africa
|
||||
Hymes, Dell Hathaway (United States, 1927–2009), sociolinguistics, Kathlamet language
|
||||
|
||||
== I ==
|
||||
Ibn Sidah (Andalusia, c. 1007–1066)
|
||||
Ibn Manzur (c. 1233–1311/1312)
|
||||
Ibn Jinni (c. 932–1002)
|
||||
Illich-Svitych, Vladislav Markovich (Ukraine/Russia, 1934–1966), comparative linguistics, Nostratic languages
|
||||
Ivanov, Aleksei Ivanovich (Russia, 1878–1937), Chinese language, Tangut language
|
||||
Ivanov, Vyacheslav Vsevolodovich (Russia, 1929–2017), Indo-European studies
|
||||
Ivić, Pavle (Serbia, 1924–1999), South Slavic languages, phonology, Serbo-Croatian language
|
||||
|
||||
== J ==
|
||||
Jackendoff, Ray (United States, 1945–), syntax, lexical semantics
|
||||
Jackson, Abraham Valentine Williams (United States, 1862—1937), Indo-Iranian languages, Avestan language
|
||||
Jackson, Kenneth Hurlstone (UK, 1909—1991), Brythonic languages, Gaelic languages
|
||||
Jacobsen, Lis (1882–1961), Danish and Nordic languages
|
||||
Jacques, Guillaume (France, 1979—), Old Chinese, Rgyalrongic languages, Tangut language
|
||||
Jagić, Vatroslav (Croatia, 1838—1923), Croatian language, Slavic languages
|
||||
Jakobson, Roman Osipovich (Russia/Czech Republic/United States, 1896—1982), structuralism, phonology
|
||||
Jarring, Gunnar (Sweden, 1907—2002), Turkic languages
|
||||
Jasanoff, Jay (United States, 1942–), Indo-European linguistics
|
||||
Jaszczolt, Katarzyna (UK, 1963—), semantics, pragmatics, philosophy of language
|
||||
Jaunius, Kazimieras (Lithuania, 1848—1908), Lithuanian language, comparative linguistics
|
||||
Jendraschek, Gerd (Germany), Basque language, Turkish language, Iatmul language
|
||||
Jensen, Eva Skafte (Denmark, 1966—), Danish language
|
||||
Jespersen, Otto (Denmark, 1860—1943), English language, phonetics, constructed languages
|
||||
Johnson, David E. (United States, 1946–), syntax
|
||||
Jones, Daniel (UK, 1881—1967), phonetics
|
||||
Jones, Sir William (UK, 1746—1794), Indo-European studies, Sanskrit, comparative linguistics
|
||||
Joshi, Aravind Krishana (India/United States, 1929–2017), computational linguistics
|
||||
Junast (PR China, 1934–2010), Mongolian language, Monguor language, Eastern Yugur language, Phags-pa script
|
||||
Jurafsky, Daniel (United States, 1962—), computational linguistics
|
||||
105
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists-4.md
Normal file
105
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists-4.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,105 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of linguists"
|
||||
chunk: 5/9
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:04.693680+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== K ==
|
||||
Kaplan, Ronald M. (United States, 1946—), computational linguistics
|
||||
Karadžić, Vuk Stefanović (Serbia, 1787—1864), Serbian language, lexicography
|
||||
Kari, James (United States), Native American languages
|
||||
Kasravi, Ahmad (Iran, 1890—1946), ancient languages, Iranian languages
|
||||
Katz, Jerrold J. (United States, 1932—2002), semantics, generative grammar
|
||||
Kaufman, Terrence (United States, 1937—2022), historical linguistics, contact linguistics, Mesoamerican languages
|
||||
Kay, Martin (UK, United States, 1935–2021), computational linguistics
|
||||
Kay, Paul (United States, 1934—), construction grammar
|
||||
Kayne, Richard S. (United States, 1944—), syntax, transformational grammar
|
||||
Kazama Kiyozō (Japan, 1928–), Japanese language
|
||||
Keating, Patricia (United States, 1952—), phonetics
|
||||
Kellogg, Samuel H. (United States, 1839–1899), Hindi language
|
||||
Kenyon, John Samuel (United States, 1874—1959), English language, lexicography, phonology
|
||||
Keyser, Samuel Jay (United States, 1935–), phonology, English language
|
||||
Kiesling, Scott Fabius (United States), sociolinguistics
|
||||
Kindaichi Haruhiko (Japan, 1913–2004), Japanese language
|
||||
Kindaichi Kyōsuke (Japan, 1882–1971), Ainu language
|
||||
Kinkade, M. Dale (United States, 1933—2004), Salishan languages
|
||||
Kiparsky, Paul (Finland/United States, 1941–), phonology, morphology
|
||||
Kirby, Simon (UK), computational linguistics, evolutionary linguistics
|
||||
Klima, Edward (United States, 1931—2008), sign language
|
||||
Klinkenberg, Jean-Marie (Belgium, 1944–), rhetorics, semiotics, stylistics
|
||||
Kloekhorst, Alwin (Netherlands, 1978–), Anatolian languages
|
||||
Knechtges, David R. (United States, 1942–), East Asian languages, Chinese language
|
||||
Knorozov, Yuri Valentinovich (Russia, 1922—1999), Maya hieroglyphics, writing systems
|
||||
Kober, Alice (UK/United States, 1906—1950), Linear B
|
||||
Komárek, Miroslav (Czechia, 1924–2013), Czech language, morphology, phonology
|
||||
Kordić, Snježana (Croatia, 1964–), Serbo-Croatian language, syntax, sociolinguistics
|
||||
Kornai András (Hungary/United States, 1957–), mathematical linguistics, phonology, morphology, Hungarian language, syntax
|
||||
Kornfilt, Jaklin, theoretical linguistics, syntax, morphology, Turkic languages, Germanic languages
|
||||
Korsakov, Andrey Konstantinovich (Russia/Ukraine, 1916—2007), Germanic languages, English language, morphology, syntax
|
||||
Kortlandt, Frederik (Netherlands, 1946–), historical linguistics, Indo-European linguistics, Balto-Slavic languages
|
||||
Korzybski, Alfred Habdank Skarbek (Poland/United States, 1879—1950), general semantics
|
||||
Koster, Jan (Netherlands, 1945–), generative grammar
|
||||
Krahe, Hans (Germany, 1898—1965), Indo-European languages, Illyrian language
|
||||
Krashen, Stephen (United States, 1941–), second-language acquisition
|
||||
Kratzer, Angelika (United States/Germany), semantics
|
||||
Krauss, Michael E. (United States, 1941–2019), Native American languages
|
||||
Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju (India, 1929–2012), Dravidian languages
|
||||
Kroeber, Alfred Louis (United States, 1876—1960), Native American languages
|
||||
Kučera, Henry (Czech Republic/United States, 1925–2010), computational linguistics
|
||||
Kuiper, F. B. J. (Netherlands, 1907–2003), historical linguistics, Indo-European linguistics, and Sanskrit
|
||||
Kuno Susumu (Japan/United States, 1933–), Dravidian languages, Japanese language, syntax
|
||||
Kurath, Hans (Austria/United States, 1891—1992), English language, lexicography, dialectology
|
||||
Kuroda Shigeyuki (Japan, 1934–2009), Japanese language
|
||||
Kuryłowicz, Jerzy (Poland, 1895—1978), Indo-European languages, syntax, morphology
|
||||
Kvergić, Hermann Feodor (Slovakia, 1895–sometime after 1948), Turkish language
|
||||
Kychanov, Evgenij Ivanovich (Russia, 1932–2013), Tangut language
|
||||
|
||||
== L ==
|
||||
Labov, William (United States, 1927–2024), sociolinguistics, English dialectology, phonology
|
||||
Lado, Robert (United States, 1915–1995), applied linguistics, contrastive analysis
|
||||
Ladefoged, Peter Nielsen (UK/United States, 1925–2006), phonetics, endangered languages
|
||||
Laird, Charlton (United States, 1901–1984), lexicography, English language
|
||||
Lakoff, George P. (United States, 1941–), cognitive linguistics, transformational grammar, generative semantics, syntax
|
||||
Lakoff, Robin Tolmach (United States, 1942–2025), sociolinguistics
|
||||
Lamb, Sydney MacDonald (United States, 1929–), stratificational grammar, Native American languages, historical linguistics, computational linguistics
|
||||
Lambdin, Thomas Oden (United States, 1927–2020), Semitic languages, Egyptian language
|
||||
Lane, Harlan (United States, 1936–2019), speech, Deaf culture, sign language
|
||||
Langacker, Ronald W. (United States, 1942–), cognitive linguistics
|
||||
Langdon, Margaret (United States, 1926–2005), Native American languages
|
||||
LaPolla, Randy J. (United States), morpho-syntax, Chinese, Qiang, Rawang
|
||||
Lasersohn, Peter (United States), semantics
|
||||
Lasnik, Howard (United States, 1945–), syntax
|
||||
Laycock, Donald (Australia, 1936–1988), languages of Papua New Guinea
|
||||
Leech, Geoffrey (UK, 1936–2014), applied linguistics, English language
|
||||
Lees, Robert (United States, 1922–1996), machine translation
|
||||
Lehiste, Ilse (United States, 1922–2010), phonetics, Estonian language, Serbo-Croatian, phonology
|
||||
Lehmann, Winfred P. (United States, 1916– 2007), historical linguistics, Proto-Indo-European language
|
||||
Leonard, Robert A. (United States), Forensic linguistics
|
||||
Lepsius, Karl Richard (Germany, 1810– 1884), Egyptian language, Nubian languages, phonology
|
||||
Leslau, Wolf (Polish-born American, 1906–2006), Semitic languages, Languages of Ethiopia
|
||||
Leskien, August (Germany, 1840–1916), comparative linguistics, Baltic languages, Slavic languages
|
||||
Levin, Beth (United States, 1955–), semantics
|
||||
Levinson, Stephen C. (UK/Netherlands, 1947–), pragmatics
|
||||
Levstik, Fran (Slovenia, 1831–1881), Slovene language
|
||||
Li Fanwen (PR China, 1932–), Tangut language
|
||||
Li, Fang-Kuei (China/United States, 1902–1987), Mattole language, Tai languages, Old Chinese, Tibetan language
|
||||
Li, Paul Jen-kuei (Taiwan, 1936–), Formosan languages, Austronesian languages, historical linguistics, lexicography
|
||||
Liberman, Alvin Meyer (United States, 1917–2000), speech perception, phonology
|
||||
Liberman, Anatoly (Russia/United States, 1937–), etymology, Germanic languages
|
||||
Liberman, Mark (United States), phonetics, prosody
|
||||
Lieber, Rochelle (United States, 1954–), morphology, syntax, lexical semantics
|
||||
Lieberman, Philip (United States, 1934–2022), phonetics, language evolution
|
||||
Lillo-Martin, Diane (United States), signed languages
|
||||
Lisker, Leigh (United States, 1918–2006), phonetics, Dravidian languages
|
||||
Local, John (UK, 1947–), phonetics, phonology, conversation analysis
|
||||
López Sández, María (Spain, born 1973), Galician philologist and essayist
|
||||
Lounsbury, Floyd Glenn (United States, 1914–1998), Native American languages, Mayan languages
|
||||
Lowman, Guy Sumner, Jr. (United States, 1909–1941), phonetics
|
||||
Ludlow, Peter (United States, 1957–), syntax, semantics
|
||||
Lukoff, Fred (United States, 1920–2000), Korean language, phonology
|
||||
Lunde, Ken (United States, 1965–), East Asian languages
|
||||
Lynch, John (Australia, 1946–2021), Austronesian languages, historical linguistics
|
||||
100
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists-5.md
Normal file
100
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists-5.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,100 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of linguists"
|
||||
chunk: 6/9
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:04.693680+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== M ==
|
||||
MacWhinney, Brian (United States, 1945–), language acquisition, second-language acquisition, corpus linguistics
|
||||
Maddieson, Ian (United States, 1942–), phonetics
|
||||
Fray Francisco Maldonado (1571– c. 1640), Guatemalan Franciscan linguist and historian
|
||||
Manzini, Rita (Italy), generative syntax, Romance languages
|
||||
Malkiel, Yakov (United States, 1914–1998), etymology, philology
|
||||
Manaster Ramer, Alexis (United States/Poland, 1956–), phonology, syntax, poetics, etymology
|
||||
Marantz, Alec (United States, 1959–), distributed morphology
|
||||
March, Francis Andrew (United States, 1825–1911), comparative linguistics, lexicography, Old English language, English language
|
||||
Margolis, Max Leopold (Lithuania/United States, 1866–1932), Semitic languages
|
||||
Marr, Nikolay Yakovlevich (Georgia/Russia, 1865–1934), historical linguistics, comparative linguistics, origin of language
|
||||
Martin, James (Sydney, Australia, 1950–), genre
|
||||
Martin, Samuel Elmo (United States, 1924–2009), Korean language, Japanese language
|
||||
Martinet, André (France, 1908–1999), structuralism, historical linguistics, constructed languages
|
||||
Martinet, Jeanne (France, 1920–2018), semiotics, constructed languages
|
||||
Massam, Diane (Canada), syntax, Austronesian languages
|
||||
Matasović, Ranko (Croatia, 1968–), historical linguistics, Celtic languages
|
||||
Mathesius, Vilém (Czech Republic, 1882– 1945), phonology, syntax, English language, Czech language
|
||||
Matisoff, James A. (United States, 1937–), Tibeto-Burman languages, phonology
|
||||
Matthews, Peter Hugoe (UK, 1934–2023), morphology, syntax
|
||||
Matthews, Stephen (UK/PR China), typology, syntax, semantics, Cantonese language
|
||||
Mattingly, Ignatius G. (United States, 1927–2004), phonetics, speech synthesis, speech perception
|
||||
Matveyev, Aleksandr (Russia, 1926–2010), onomastics, etymology
|
||||
McArthur, Tom (UK, 1938–2020), English language, lexicography
|
||||
McCarthy, John J. (United States, 1953–), phonology, morphology, optimality theory
|
||||
McCawley, James D. (UK/United States, 1938–1999), syntax, semantics, phonology
|
||||
McConnell-Ginet, Sally (United States, 1938–), language of gender and sexuality
|
||||
McCulloch, Gretchen (Canada), internet linguistics
|
||||
McCune, George McAfee (North Korea/United States, 1908–1988), Korean language
|
||||
McNamara, Barbara (United States, 1942–), Chinese language
|
||||
McGregor, William B. (Australia, 1952–), Australian Aboriginal languages, theoretical linguistics, Shua language
|
||||
McWhorter, John Hamilton (United States, 1965–), creole languages, Saramaccan language
|
||||
Meillet, Antoine (France, 1866–1936), Comparative Linguistics, Armenian language, Philology
|
||||
Meinhof, Carl Friedrich Michael (Germany, 1857–1944), languages of Africa
|
||||
Melchert, H. Craig (United States, 1945–), Anatolian languages
|
||||
Merchant, Jason (United States, 1966–), syntax, semantics, ellipsis
|
||||
Michaelis, Laura A. (United States), syntax, English language
|
||||
Michaud, Alexis (France, 1975–), Phonetics, Tonology, Naish languages, Vietnamese
|
||||
Miklosich, Franz (Slovenia/Austria, 1813–1891), Slavic languages
|
||||
Miller, Wick R. (United States, 1932–1994), Keresan languages, Uto-Aztecan languages
|
||||
Miller, Roy Andrew (United States, 1924–2014), Tibetan language, Japanese language
|
||||
Mithun, Marianne (United States, 1946–), Native American languages
|
||||
Mitxelena Elissalt, Koldo (Spain, 1915–1987), Basque language
|
||||
Miura Tsutomu (Japan, 1911–1989), Japanese language
|
||||
Miyake, Marc (United States, 1971–), historical linguistics, Old Japanese, Tangut language
|
||||
Mönkh-Amgalan, Yümjiriin (Mongolia, 1956–), pragmatics, semantics, syntax, Mongolian language, dialectology
|
||||
Mori Hiromichi (Japan, 1949–), Japanese language
|
||||
Moskvin, Anatoly (Russia, 1966–), academic and linguist, arrested in 2011 after the bodies of 26 mummified young women were discovered in his home
|
||||
Motoori Norinaga (Japan, 1730–1801), Japanese language
|
||||
Motoori Haruniwa (Japan, 1763–1828), Japanese language
|
||||
Montague, Richard Merett (United States, 1930–1971), semantics, philosophy of language
|
||||
Moro, Andrea (Italy, 1962–), syntax, copula, expletive, antisymmetry, neurolinguistics
|
||||
Moser, Edward W. (United States, 1924–1976), Seri language
|
||||
Mufwene, Salikoko (United States), creole languages, African-American English, language evolution
|
||||
Mulder, Jean (United States, 1954–), Australian English, Tsimshianic languages
|
||||
Munro, Pamela (United States, 1947–), Native American languages, lexicography
|
||||
Murayama Shichirō (Japan, 1908–1995), Japanese language
|
||||
Murray, James (UK, 1837–1915), lexicography, English language, etymology
|
||||
Muti’I, Ibrahim (China, 1920–2010), Uyghur language
|
||||
Myers-Scotton, Carol (United States, 1934–), language contact
|
||||
|
||||
== N ==
|
||||
Nábělková, Mira (Slovakia, 1956–), lexical semantics, sociolinguistics
|
||||
Nádasdy, Ádám (Hungary, 1947–2026), phonology, morphophonology
|
||||
Napoli, Donna Jo (United States, 1948–), syntax, phonetics, phonology, Japanese language
|
||||
Neeleman, Ad (Netherlands/UK, 1964–), syntax, semantics, phonology, generative grammar
|
||||
Nelson, Andrew Nathaniel (United States, 1893–1975), Japanese language, lexicography
|
||||
Nevsky, Nikolai Aleksandrovich (Russia, 1892– 1937), Tangut language
|
||||
Newman, Paul (United States, 1937-), African languages
|
||||
Newmeyer, Frederick J. (United States, 1944–), syntax, origin of language
|
||||
Nichols, Johanna (United States, 1945–), languages of the Caucasus, Chechen language, Ingush language, typology
|
||||
Niftawayh (Iraq, c. 8585–935), Arabic grammar, lexicography
|
||||
Nishida Tatsuo (Japan, 1928–2012), Tangut language
|
||||
Nolan, Francis (UK), phonetics
|
||||
Noreen, Adolf Gotthard (Sweden, 1854–1925), dialectology, historical linguistics, Germanic languages
|
||||
Nunberg, Geoffrey (United States, 1945–2020), lexical semantics, English language
|
||||
|
||||
== O ==
|
||||
Odden, David A. (United States, 1954–), phonology, African linguistics, Bantu languages
|
||||
Odin, Louise (Switzerland, 1836–1909), Blonay dialect linguist, dialect researcher and author
|
||||
Ogilvie, Sarah (Australia)
|
||||
Ohala, John (United States, 1941–2020), phonetics, phonology
|
||||
Okrand, Marc (United States, 1948–), Klingon language, Mutsun language
|
||||
Ōno Susumu (Japan, 1919–2008), Japanese language, Tamil language
|
||||
Orešnik, Janez (Slovenia, 1935–), comparative linguistics
|
||||
Orikuchi Shinobu (Japan, 1887–1953), Japanese language
|
||||
Orton, Harold (UK, 1898–1975), phonology, dialectology, English dialects
|
||||
Osthoff, Hermann (Germany, 1847–1909), Indo-European studies, historical linguistics
|
||||
Ōtsuki Fumihiko (Japan, 1847–1928), Japanese language
|
||||
Özyürek, Aslı, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics
|
||||
69
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists-6.md
Normal file
69
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists-6.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of linguists"
|
||||
chunk: 7/9
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:04.693680+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== P ==
|
||||
Pāṇini (India, ca. 520–460 BC), Sanskrit, morphology, descriptive linguistics, generative linguistics
|
||||
Frank R. Palmer (England, 1922–2019), semantics, English language, Ethiopian languages
|
||||
Partee, Barbara Hall (United States, 1940–), semantics
|
||||
Paul, Hermann Otto Theodor (Germany, 1846–1921), lexicography, German language
|
||||
Pawley, Andrew Kenneth (Australia/New Zealand, 1941–2026), Austronesian languages, Papuan languages, lexicography, phraseology
|
||||
Peacock, Dmitri Rudolf (Britain, 1842–1892), Kartvelian languages
|
||||
Pedersen, Holger (Denmark, 1867–1953), Celtic languages, historical linguistics, Nostratic languages
|
||||
Pedersen, Johannes (Denmark, 1883–1977), Hebrew language
|
||||
Pei, Mario Andrew (Italy/United States, 1901–1978), Italian language, Indo-European languages
|
||||
Pesetsky, David Michael (United States, 1957–), transformational grammar
|
||||
Keith Malcolm Petyt (UK, 1941–), sociolinguistics
|
||||
Phillipson, Robert (UK/Denmark, 1942–), language policy
|
||||
Pierrehumbert, Janet (United States, 1954–), phonetics, phonology
|
||||
Piller, Ingrid (Australia, 1967–), applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, intercultural communication
|
||||
Pinault, Georges-Jean (France, 1955–), Tokharian, Indo-European linguistics
|
||||
Pike, Kenneth Lee (United States, 1912–2000), English language, constructed languages, tagmemics
|
||||
Pilch, Herbert (Germany, 1927–2018), Old English, Celtic languages, phonetics
|
||||
Pimsleur, Paul (United States, 1927–1976), language acquisition, French language, phonetics
|
||||
Pinker, Steven (Canada/United States, 1954–), language acquisition, syntax, semantics
|
||||
Piron, Claude (Switzerland, 1931–2008), Esperanto, psycholinguistics
|
||||
Polinsky, Maria (United States), syntax, Austronesian languages
|
||||
Pollard, Carl Jesse (United States, 1947–), syntax, semantics
|
||||
Pollock, Jean-Yves (France, 1946–), syntax
|
||||
Poplack, Shana (United States), sociolinguistics
|
||||
Poppe, Nicholas (Russia, 1897–1991), Mongolic languages
|
||||
Postal, Paul M. (United States, 1936–), syntax, semantics
|
||||
Pou, Saveros (Cambodia/France, 1929-2020), Khmer
|
||||
Primer, Sylvester (United States, 1842–1912), English language, dialectology, phonetics, Germanic languages
|
||||
Prince, Alan Sanford (United States, 1946–), optimality theory, phonology
|
||||
Prince, Ellen (United States, 1944–2010), pragmatics
|
||||
Pulgram, Ernst (Austria/United States, 1915– 2005), Romance languages, Italic languages
|
||||
Pullum, Geoffrey K. (UK/United States, 1945–), syntax, English language
|
||||
Pustejovsky, James D. (United States, 1956–), natural language processing, computational linguistics, semantics
|
||||
|
||||
== Q ==
|
||||
Quirk, Charles Randolph (UK/Germany, 1920–2017), English language
|
||||
|
||||
== R ==
|
||||
Radford, Andrew (UK, 1945–), syntax, generative grammar, child language acquisition
|
||||
Rael, Juan Bautista (United States, 1900–1993), phonology, morphology, New Mexican Spanish
|
||||
Rankin, Robert L. (United States, 1939–2014), historical linguistics and Siouan linguistics
|
||||
Rask, Rasmus Christian (Denmark, 1787–1832), lexicography, comparative linguistics, Indo-European language
|
||||
Ratliff, Martha (United States, 1946–), Hmong–Mien languages, historical linguistics
|
||||
Rauch, Irmengard (United States, 1933–), Germanic languages, semiotics
|
||||
Read, Allen Walker (United States, 1906–2002), etymology, lexicography, English language
|
||||
Reinhart, Tanya (Israel, 1943–2007), syntax
|
||||
Rice, Keren (Canada), phonology, morphology, Athapaskan languages
|
||||
Rickford, John Russell (United States, 1949–), sociolinguistics, African-American English
|
||||
van Riemsdijk, Henk (Netherlands, 1948–), prepositional phrases, free relatives, syntax, Germanic language
|
||||
Rizzi, Luigi (Italy, 1952–), syntax, language acquisition
|
||||
Roberts, Ian G. (UK, 1957–), syntax
|
||||
Rock, Joseph Francis Charles (Austria/United States/PR China, 1884–1962), Naxi language, lexicography
|
||||
Rosenblat, Ángel (Poland/Venezuela, 1902–1984), lexicography, Venezuelan Spanish, Philology
|
||||
Ross, John Robert (United States, 1938–2025), semantics, syntax
|
||||
Ross, Malcolm David (Australia, 1942–), Austronesian languages, Papuan languages, historical linguistics, language contact
|
||||
Rubach, Jerzy (Poland/United States, 1948–), phonology, Polish language
|
||||
Rubin, Philip E. (United States, 1949–), articulatory synthesis, phonology
|
||||
Ruhlen, Merritt (United States, 1944–2021), typology, historical linguistics
|
||||
127
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists-7.md
Normal file
127
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists-7.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,127 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of linguists"
|
||||
chunk: 8/9
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:04.693680+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== S ==
|
||||
Sacks, Harvey (United States, 1935–1975), conversation analysis
|
||||
Sadock, Jerrold (United States), syntax, morphology, pragmatics, Greenlandic language, Yiddish language
|
||||
Sag, Ivan (United States, 1949–2013), syntax, construction grammar
|
||||
Sagart, Laurent (France, 1951–), Chinese linguistics and Austronesian languages
|
||||
Sakaguchi, Alicja (Poland/Germany, 1954–), interlinguistics, Esperanto
|
||||
Shakirova, Liya (Soviet Union/Russia, 1921–2015), Russian language
|
||||
Salo, David (United States, 1969–), constructed languages, Tocharian languages, Elvish languages
|
||||
Sampson, Geoffrey (UK, 1944–), philosophy of language
|
||||
Sánchez Carrión, José María (Spain, 1952–), Basque language, sociolinguistics, historical linguistics
|
||||
Sanders, Ted (Netherlands, 1963–), Coherence in text, discourse
|
||||
Sankoff, Gillian (Canada, 1943–), sociolinguistics
|
||||
Sankrityayan, Rahul (India, 1893–1963), Tibetan language, Hindi language
|
||||
Sapir, Edward (Germany/United States, 1884–1939), Native American languages, constructed languages, semantics
|
||||
Sarkar, Prabhat Ranjan (India, 1921–1990), Transliteration, Science of Letters
|
||||
Saunders, Irene (United States/PR China), lexicography, Chinese language
|
||||
de Saussure, Ferdinand (Switzerland/France, 1857–1913), semantics, Indo-European studies, structural linguistics
|
||||
Saxon, Leslie (Canada), First Nations languages
|
||||
Sayce, Archibald Henry (UK, 1846–1933), Akkadian language
|
||||
Schegloff, Emanuel (United States, 1937–), conversation analysis
|
||||
Schleicher, August (Germany, 1821–1868), Indo-European studies, language development, historical linguistics
|
||||
Schmidt, Johannes (Germany, 1843–1901), historical linguistics, Indo-European studies
|
||||
Schmidt, Richard (United States, 1941–2017), second-language acquisition
|
||||
Schmidt, Wilhelm (Germany/Austria/Switzerland, 1868–1954), Mon–Khmer languages
|
||||
Searle, John Rogers (United States, 1932–), philosophy of language, pragmatics
|
||||
Selinker, Larry (United States), second-language acquisition
|
||||
Sen, Sukumar (India, 1900–1992), Bengali language
|
||||
Sequoyah (United States, 1767–1843), Cherokee language
|
||||
Setälä, Eemil Nestor (Finland, 1864–1935), Finnish language, Uralic languages
|
||||
Sgall, Petr (Czech Republic, 1926–2019), syntax
|
||||
Shackle, Christopher (UK, 1942–), Urdu language, Saraiki language
|
||||
Shepard-Kegl, Judy (United States, 1953– ), Nicaraguan Sign Language
|
||||
Shevoroshkin, Vitaly Victorovich (Russia/United States, 1932–), Slavic languages, Nostratics
|
||||
Shinmura Izuru (Japan, 1876–1967), Japanese language
|
||||
Shipley, William F. (United States, 1921-2011), Maidu language
|
||||
Sibawayh (Iran, ca. 760– 796), Arabic language
|
||||
Sidi Boushaki (Algeria, ca. 796–857), Arabic language
|
||||
Sievers, Eduard (Germany, 1850–1932), Germanic languages, historical linguistics
|
||||
Siewierska, Anna (Poland/Netherlands/UK, 1955–2011), language typology
|
||||
Sihler, Andrew Littleton (United States, 1941–), comparative linguistics, Indo-European languages
|
||||
Silvet, Johannes (Estonia, 1895–1979), lexicography
|
||||
Sinclair, John McHardy (UK, 1933–2007), applied linguistics, corpus linguistics, discourse analysis
|
||||
Skeat, Walter W. (UK, 1835–1912), Old English, Middle English, etymology, philology
|
||||
Skinner, B.F. (United States, 1905–1992), verbal behavior
|
||||
Skousen, Royal (United States, 1945–), language modeling
|
||||
Smith, Neilson Voyne (UK, 1939–), syntax, language acquisition
|
||||
Smith-Stark, Thomas (United States, 1948–2009), Mesoamerican languages
|
||||
Smolensky, Paul (United States, 1955–), phonology, optimality theory, syntax
|
||||
Stachowski, Marek (Poland, 1957–), historical linguistics, Turkic languages
|
||||
Starostin, Georgiy Sergeevich (Russia, 1976–), comparative linguistics, historical linguistics, Nostratics, Proto-World
|
||||
Starostin, Sergei Anatolyevich (Russia, 1953–2005), comparative linguistics, historical linguistics, Nostratics, Proto-World
|
||||
Stati, Sorin (Romania-French, 1931–2008), pragmatics, syntax
|
||||
Steedman, Mark (UK, United States, 1946–), theoretical linguistics, categorial grammar, syntax, computational linguistics
|
||||
Steels, Luc (Belgium, 1952–), computational linguistics, evolutionary linguistics
|
||||
Steinmetz, Sol (United States, 1930–2011), Yiddish language
|
||||
Stetson, Raymond Herbert (United States, d. 1950), phonetics
|
||||
Stieber, Zdzisław (Poland, 1903–1980), Slavic languages, phonology
|
||||
Stokoe, William (United States, 1919–2000), American Sign Language, cherology
|
||||
Stollznow, Karen (United States, 1976–), lexical semantics, sociolinguistics, cognitive linguistics
|
||||
Stuart-Smith, Jane (United Kingdom, 1965–), phonetics, sociolinguistics
|
||||
Suzuki Takao (Japan, 1926–2021), Japanese language, sociolinguistics
|
||||
Svoboda, Aleš (Czech Republic, 1941–2010), English language, Czech language, functional linguistics
|
||||
Swadesh, Morris (United States, 1909–1967), typology, historical linguistics, Native American languages, lexicostatistics
|
||||
de Swart, Henriette (Netherlands, 1961–), semantics
|
||||
Sweet, Henry (UK, 1845–1912), Germanic languages, phonetics
|
||||
Sweetser, Eve (United States), cognitive linguistics, semantics, historical linguistics, Celtic languages
|
||||
|
||||
== T ==
|
||||
Talmy, Leonard (United States, 1942–), cognitive linguistics, semantics, Yiddish language, Native American languages
|
||||
Tannen, Deborah Frances (United States, 1945–), discourse analysis
|
||||
Tarone, Elaine (United States, 1962–), second-language acquisition
|
||||
Tarpent, Marie-Lucie (Canada, 1941–), Tsimshianic languages
|
||||
Tha Myat (Burma, 1899–1977), Mon language, Burmese language, Pyu language, Nagari
|
||||
Teeter, Karl van Duyn (United States, 1929– 2007), Algic languages, endangered languages
|
||||
Thieberger, Nicholas (Australia), Indigenous Australian languages
|
||||
Thomas, Calvin (United States, 1854–1919), Germanic languages, German language
|
||||
Thomason, Sarah Grey (United States, 1939–), language contact, historical linguistics, typology, Montana Salish
|
||||
Thompson, John Eric Sidney (UK, 1898– 1975), Maya languages, Maya hieroglyphics
|
||||
Thompson, Sandra A. (United States, 1941–), syntax, discourse analysis, Mandarin language
|
||||
Tokieda Motoki (Japan, 1900–1967), Japanese language
|
||||
Tolkien, John Ronal Reuel (UK, 1892–1973), Old English language, constructed languages, Sindarin, Quenya
|
||||
Toporišič, Jože (Slovenia, 1926–2014), Slovene language
|
||||
Trager, George Leonard (United States, 1906–1992), phonemics, paralanguage, semantics
|
||||
Trask, Robert Lawrence (United States, 1944–2004), Basque language, historical linguistics, origin of language
|
||||
Traugott, Elizabeth C. (United States, 1939–), grammaticalization
|
||||
Troy, Jakelin (Australia, 1960–), Aboriginal Australian languages, language revival, indigenous languages of Pakistan
|
||||
Trubetzkoy, Nikolai Sergeyevich (Russia/Austria, 1890–1938), structural linguistics, morphology, phonology
|
||||
Trudgill, Peter (UK, 1943–), sociolinguistics, English language, dialectology
|
||||
Tuite, Kevin (United States, 1954–), Caucasian languages, Georgian language
|
||||
Turin, Mark (UK, 1973–), Himalayan languages, endangered languages
|
||||
Turner, Mark (United States, 1954–), cognitive linguistics
|
||||
Tucker, Archibald (South Africa, 1904–1980), African languages
|
||||
|
||||
== U ==
|
||||
Uldall, Elizabeth T. (United States, 1913–2004), phonetics
|
||||
Uldall, Hans Jørgen (Denmark, 1907–1957), glossematics, Maidu language
|
||||
Ullendorff, Edward (UK, 1920–2011), Semitic languages
|
||||
Unger, James Marshall (United States, 1947–), Japanese language, historical linguistics, writing systems
|
||||
Upton, Clive (UK, 1946–), English language, sociolinguistics, dialectology
|
||||
|
||||
== V ==
|
||||
Vajda, Edward (United States, 1958–), Ket language, historical linguistics, Na-Dené languages, comparative linguistics
|
||||
van Valin, Robert D. (United States, 1952–), syntax, semantics, cognitive linguistics
|
||||
van Wijk, Nicolaas (Netherlands, 1880–1941), historical linguistics, Balto-Slavic languages
|
||||
Valli, Clayton (United States, 1951–2003), American Sign Language,
|
||||
Vasmer, Max (Russia/Germany, 1886–1962), etymology, historical linguistics, Russian language
|
||||
Vassalli, Mikiel Anton (Malta, 1764–1829), Maltese language
|
||||
Vaux, Bert (United States, 1968–), phonology, morphology, Armenian language
|
||||
Veltman, Calvin (United States/Canada/France, 1941–), sociolinguistics
|
||||
Vendler, Zeno (United States, 1921–2004), philosophy of language, event structure
|
||||
Ventris, Michael George Francis (UK, 1922–1956), Linear B, Archaic Greek
|
||||
Verner, Karl (Denmark, 1846–1896), phonology, comparative linguistics, historical linguistics
|
||||
Vincent, Nigel (UK, 1947–), morphology, syntax, historical linguistics
|
||||
Voegelin, Charles F. (United States, 1906–1986), indigenous languages of North America
|
||||
Voegelin, Florence M. (United States, 1927–1989), Hidatsa language
|
||||
Voloshinov, Valentin Nikolaevich (Russia, 1895–1936), semantics
|
||||
Vovin, Alexander (Russia/United States, 1961–2022), Japanese language, Siberian languages, Korean language, Ainu language, Central Asian languages
|
||||
66
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists-8.md
Normal file
66
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists-8.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,66 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of linguists"
|
||||
chunk: 9/9
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:04.693680+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== W ==
|
||||
Wackernagel, Jacob (Switzerland, 1853–1938), Indo-European studies, Sanskrit
|
||||
Wang Li (PR China, 1900–1986), Chinese language
|
||||
Watanabe Shōichi (Japan, 1930–2017), Japanese language
|
||||
Watkins, Calvert (United States, 1933–2013), comparative linguistics, Indo-European languages
|
||||
Weeks, Raymond (United States, 1863–1954), phonetics, French language
|
||||
Weinreich, Max (Latvia/United States, 1893– 1969), Yiddish language
|
||||
Weinreich, Uriel (Poland/United States, 1926–1967), sociolinguistics, dialectology, semantics, Yiddish language
|
||||
Wells, John Christopher (UK, 1939–), phonetics, Esperanto
|
||||
Westermann, Diedrich Hermann (Germany, 1875–1956), languages of Africa, typology
|
||||
Westphal, Ernst Oswald Johannes (South Africa/UK, 1919–1990), Bantu languages, Khoisan languages
|
||||
Whalen, Douglas H. (United States), phonology, endangered languages
|
||||
Wheeler, Benjamin Ide (United States, 1854–1927), historical linguistics, comparative linguistics, Greek language
|
||||
White, Lydia (UK/Canada, 1946–), second-language acquisition
|
||||
Whitney, William Dwight (United States, 1827–1894), lexicography, Sanskrit, English language
|
||||
Wilks, Yorick (UK, 1939–2023), artificial intelligence, computational linguistics, natural language processing, semantics
|
||||
Whorf, Benjamin Lee (United States, 1897–1941), Native American languages, Maya script, linguistic relativity
|
||||
Wichmann, Søren (Denmark, 1964–), Mesoamerican languages, Mixe–Zoque languages, Mayan languages, Maya script
|
||||
Widdowson, Henry G. (UK, 1935–), English language, discourse analysis
|
||||
Wierzbicka, Anna (Poland/Australia, 1938–), semantics, pragmatics
|
||||
Wiese, Richard (Germany, 1953–), phonology, morphology, neurolinguistics
|
||||
Williams, Nicholas Jonathan Anselm (UK/Ireland, 1942–), Cornish language, Irish language, Manx language, phonology
|
||||
Williams, Samuel Wells (United States/China, 1812–1884), Chinese language, lexicography
|
||||
Wilson, Robert Dick (United States, 1856–1930), comparative linguistics, Hebrew language, Syriac language
|
||||
Wittmann, Henri (France/Canada, 1937–), French language, creole languages, morphology, comparative linguistics
|
||||
Wodak, Ruth (Austria/UK, 1950–), discourse analysis
|
||||
Wolvengrey, Arok (Canada, 1965–), Cree language, syntax, Native American languages, lexicography
|
||||
Worcester, Samuel (1798–1859), Presbyterian missionary, linguist, co-founder of Cherokee Phoenix with Elias Boudinot (first Cherokee newspaper in Indian Territory)
|
||||
Wright, Alfred (United States, 1788–1853), Presbyterian minister, physician, linguist, Choctaw language
|
||||
Wurm, Stephen Adolphe (Hungary/Australia, 1922–2001), Australian Aboriginal languages, Papuan languages
|
||||
|
||||
== Y ==
|
||||
Yeda Pessoa de Castro (Brazil), African languages
|
||||
Yamada Yoshio (Japan, 1873–1958), Japanese language
|
||||
Yiakoumetti, Androula (Cyprus), Greek language, dialectology
|
||||
Yip, Virginia (Hong Kong, 1962–), bilingual language acquisition, Sinitic grammar
|
||||
Yngve, Victor (United States, 1920–2012), computational linguistics, natural language processing
|
||||
Young, Robert W. (United States, 1912–2007), Navajo language, lexicography
|
||||
|
||||
== Z ==
|
||||
Zamenhof, Ludwik Łazarz (Poland, 1859–1917), Esperanto
|
||||
Zepeda, Ofelia (United States, 1952–), O'odham language
|
||||
Zhang, Niina Ning (PR China), formal syntax, morphology
|
||||
Zhou Youguang (PR China, 1906–2017), orthography, Romanization of Chinese
|
||||
Zuazo, Koldo (Spain, 1956–), Basque dialectology, sociolinguistics
|
||||
Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (Israel, Italy, UK, Australia, 1971–), contact linguistics, lexicology, revival linguistics
|
||||
Zwicky, Arnold (United States, 1940–), syntax, morphology
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
|
||||
List of women linguists
|
||||
List of Russian linguists and philologists
|
||||
List of Jewish American linguists
|
||||
List of lexicographers
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,162 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of mathematical abbreviations"
|
||||
chunk: 1/3
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mathematical_abbreviations"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:34.336401+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This following list features abbreviated names of mathematical functions, function-like operators and other mathematical terminology.
|
||||
|
||||
This list is limited to abbreviations of two or more letters (excluding number sets). The capitalization of some of these abbreviations is not standardized – different authors might use different capitalizations.
|
||||
|
||||
== A ==
|
||||
A – adele ring or algebraic numbers.
|
||||
a.a.s. – asymptotically almost surely.
|
||||
AC – Axiom of Choice, or set of absolutely continuous functions.
|
||||
a.c. – absolutely continuous.
|
||||
acrd – inverse chord function.
|
||||
ad – adjoint representation (or adjoint action) of a Lie group.
|
||||
adj – adjugate of a matrix.
|
||||
a.e. – almost everywhere.
|
||||
AFSOC - Assume for the sake of contradiction
|
||||
Ai – Airy function.
|
||||
AL – Action limit.
|
||||
Alt – alternating group (Alt(n) is also written as An.)
|
||||
A.M. – arithmetic mean.
|
||||
AP – arithmetic progression.
|
||||
arccos – inverse cosine function.
|
||||
arccosec – inverse cosecant function. (Also written as arccsc.)
|
||||
arccot – inverse cotangent function.
|
||||
arccsc – inverse cosecant function. (Also written as arccosec.)
|
||||
arcexsec – inverse exsecant function.
|
||||
arcosech – inverse hyperbolic cosecant function. (Also written as arcsch.)
|
||||
arcosh – inverse hyperbolic cosine function.
|
||||
arcoth – inverse hyperbolic cotangent function.
|
||||
arcsch – inverse hyperbolic cosecant function. (Also written as arcosech.)
|
||||
arcsec – inverse secant function.
|
||||
arcsin – inverse sine function.
|
||||
arctan – inverse tangent function.
|
||||
arctan2 – inverse tangent function with two arguments. (Also written as atan2.)
|
||||
arg – argument of.
|
||||
arg max – argument of the maximum.
|
||||
arg min – argument of the minimum.
|
||||
arsech – inverse hyperbolic secant function.
|
||||
arsinh – inverse hyperbolic sine function.
|
||||
artanh – inverse hyperbolic tangent function.
|
||||
a.s. – almost surely.
|
||||
atan2 – inverse tangent function with two arguments. (Also written as arctan2.)
|
||||
A.P. – arithmetic progression.
|
||||
Aut – automorphism group.
|
||||
|
||||
== B ==
|
||||
bd – boundary. (Also written as fr or ∂.)
|
||||
Bi – Airy function of the second kind.
|
||||
BIDMAS – Brackets, Indices, Divide, Multiply, Add, Subtract.
|
||||
Bias – bias of an estimator .
|
||||
BWOC – by way of contradiction.
|
||||
|
||||
== C ==
|
||||
C – complex numbers.
|
||||
Card – cardinality of a set. (Card(X) is also written #X, ♯X or |X|.)
|
||||
cas – cos + sin function.
|
||||
cdf – cumulative distribution function.
|
||||
c.f. – cumulative frequency.
|
||||
c.c. – complex conjugate.
|
||||
char – characteristic of a ring.
|
||||
Chi – hyperbolic cosine integral function.
|
||||
Ci – cosine integral function.
|
||||
cis – cos + i sin function. (Also written as expi.)
|
||||
Cl – conjugacy class.
|
||||
cl – topological closure.
|
||||
CLT – central limit theorem.
|
||||
cod, codom – codomain.
|
||||
cok, coker – cokernel.
|
||||
colsp – column space of a matrix.
|
||||
conv – convex hull of a set.
|
||||
Cor – corollary.
|
||||
corr – correlation.
|
||||
cos – cosine function.
|
||||
cosec – cosecant function. (Also written as csc.)
|
||||
cosech – hyperbolic cosecant function. (Also written as csch.)
|
||||
cosh – hyperbolic cosine function.
|
||||
cosiv – coversine function. (Also written as cover, covers, cvs.)
|
||||
cot – cotangent function. (Also written as ctg.)
|
||||
coth – hyperbolic cotangent function.
|
||||
cov – covariance of a pair of random variables.
|
||||
cover – coversine function. (Also written as covers, cvs, cosiv.)
|
||||
covercos – covercosine function. (Also written as cvc.)
|
||||
covers – coversine function. (Also written as cover, cvs, cosiv.)
|
||||
crd – chord function.
|
||||
CRT – Chinese remainder theorem.
|
||||
csc – cosecant function. (Also written as cosec.)
|
||||
csch – hyperbolic cosecant function. (Also written as cosech.)
|
||||
ctg – cotangent function. (Also written as cot.)
|
||||
curl – curl of a vector field. (Also written as rot.)
|
||||
cvc – covercosine function. (Also written as covercos.)
|
||||
cvs – coversine function. (Also written as cover, covers, cosiv.)
|
||||
|
||||
== D ==
|
||||
def – define or definition.
|
||||
deg – degree of a polynomial, or other recursively defined objects such as well-formed formulas. (Also written as ∂.)
|
||||
del – del, a differential operator. (Also written as
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
∇
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle \nabla }
|
||||
|
||||
.)
|
||||
det – determinant of a matrix or linear transformation.
|
||||
DFT – discrete Fourier transform.
|
||||
dim – dimension of a vector space.
|
||||
div – divergence of a vector field.
|
||||
DNE – a solution for an expression does not exist, or is undefined. Generally used with limits and integrals.
|
||||
dom, domain – domain of a function. (Or, more generally, a relation.)
|
||||
|
||||
== E ==
|
||||
End – categories of endomorphisms.
|
||||
Ei – exponential integral function.
|
||||
epi – epigraph of a function.
|
||||
Eqn – equation.
|
||||
erf – error function.
|
||||
erfc – complementary error function.
|
||||
erfcx – scaled complementary error function.
|
||||
erfi – imaginary error function.
|
||||
etr – exponent of the trace.
|
||||
excsc – excosecant function. (Also written as coexsec.)
|
||||
exsec – exsecant function.
|
||||
exp – exponential function. (exp x is also written as ex.)
|
||||
expi – cos + i sin function. (Also written as cis.)
|
||||
expm1 – exponential minus 1 function. (Also written as exp1m.)
|
||||
exp1m – exponential minus 1 function. (Also written as expm1.)
|
||||
Ext – Ext functor.
|
||||
ext – exterior.
|
||||
extr – a set of extreme points of a set.
|
||||
|
||||
== F ==
|
||||
FFT – fast Fourier transform.
|
||||
FIP – finite intersection property.
|
||||
FOC – first order condition.
|
||||
FOL – first-order logic.
|
||||
fr – boundary. (Also written as bd or ∂.)
|
||||
Frob – Frobenius endomorphism.
|
||||
FT – Fourier transform.
|
||||
FTA – fundamental theorem of arithmetic or fundamental theorem of algebra.
|
||||
|
||||
== G ==
|
||||
Gal – Galois group. (Also written as Γ.)
|
||||
gcd – greatest common divisor of two numbers. (Also written as hcf.)
|
||||
gd – Gudermannian function.
|
||||
GF – Galois field.
|
||||
GF – generating function.
|
||||
GL – general linear group.
|
||||
G.M. – geometric mean.
|
||||
glb – greatest lower bound. (Also written as inf.)
|
||||
G.P. – geometric progression.
|
||||
grad – gradient of a function.
|
||||
graph – graph of a function.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,207 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of mathematical abbreviations"
|
||||
chunk: 2/3
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mathematical_abbreviations"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:34.336401+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== H ==
|
||||
H – quaternion numbers.
|
||||
hacover – hacoversine function. (Also written as hacovers, hcv.)
|
||||
hacovercos – hacovercosine function. (Also written as hcc.)
|
||||
hacovers – hacoversine function. (Also written as hacover, hcv.)
|
||||
hav – haversine function. (Also written as sem.)
|
||||
havercos – havercosine function. (Also written as hvc.)
|
||||
h.c. – Hermitian conjugate, often used as part of + h.c. (Also written as H.c.)
|
||||
hcc – hacovercosine function. (Also written as hacovercos.)
|
||||
hcv – hacoversine function. (Also written as hacover, hacovers.)
|
||||
hcf – highest common factor of two numbers. (Also written as gcd.)
|
||||
H.M. – harmonic mean.
|
||||
HOL – higher-order logic.
|
||||
Hom – Hom functor.
|
||||
hom – hom-class.
|
||||
hot – higher order term.
|
||||
HOTPO – half or triple plus one.
|
||||
hvc – havercosine function. (Also written as havercos.)
|
||||
hyp – hypograph of a function.
|
||||
|
||||
== I ==
|
||||
iff – if and only if.
|
||||
IH – induction hypothesis.
|
||||
iid – independent and identically distributed random variables.
|
||||
Im – imaginary part of a complex number. (Also written as
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
ℑ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle \Im }
|
||||
|
||||
.)
|
||||
im – image.
|
||||
inf – infimum of a set. (Also written as glb.)
|
||||
int – interior.
|
||||
I.o. – Infinitely often.
|
||||
|
||||
== K ==
|
||||
ker – kernel.
|
||||
|
||||
== L ==
|
||||
lb – binary logarithm (log2). (Also written as ld.)
|
||||
lcm – lowest common multiple (a.k.a. least common multiple) of two numbers.
|
||||
LCHS – locally compact Hausdorff second countable.
|
||||
ld – binary logarithm (log2). (Also written as lb.)
|
||||
lsc – lower semi-continuity.
|
||||
lerp – linear interpolation.
|
||||
lg – common logarithm (log10) or binary logarithm (log2).
|
||||
LHS – left-hand side of an equation.
|
||||
Li – offset logarithmic integral function.
|
||||
li – logarithmic integral function or linearly independent.
|
||||
lim – limit of a sequence, or of a function.
|
||||
lim inf – limit inferior.
|
||||
lim sup – limit superior.
|
||||
LLN – law of large numbers.
|
||||
ln – natural logarithm, loge.
|
||||
lnp1 – natural logarithm plus 1 function.
|
||||
ln1p – natural logarithm plus 1 function.
|
||||
log – logarithm. (If without a subscript, this may mean either log10 or loge.)
|
||||
logh – natural logarithm, loge.
|
||||
LST – language of set theory.
|
||||
lub – least upper bound. (Also written sup.)
|
||||
|
||||
== M ==
|
||||
max – maximum of a set.
|
||||
MGF – moment-generating function.
|
||||
M.I. – mathematical induction.
|
||||
min – minimum of a set.
|
||||
mod – modulo.
|
||||
Mp – metaplectic group.
|
||||
mtanh – modified hyperbolic tangent function. (Also written as mth.)
|
||||
mth – modified hyperbolic tangent function. (Also written as mtanh.)
|
||||
mx – matrix.
|
||||
|
||||
== N ==
|
||||
N – natural numbers.
|
||||
NAND – not-and in logic.
|
||||
No. – number.
|
||||
NOR – not-or in logic.
|
||||
NTS – need to show.
|
||||
Null, null – (See Kernel.)
|
||||
Nullity, nullity – nullity.
|
||||
|
||||
== O ==
|
||||
O – octonion numbers.
|
||||
OBGF – ordinary bivariate generating function.
|
||||
ob – object class.
|
||||
ODE - ordinary differential equation
|
||||
ord – ordinal number of a well-ordered set.
|
||||
O/W - otherwise.
|
||||
|
||||
== P ==
|
||||
pdf – probability density function.
|
||||
pf – proof.
|
||||
PGL – projective general linear group.
|
||||
Pin – pin group.
|
||||
pmf – probability mass function.
|
||||
Pn – previous number.
|
||||
Pr – probability of an event. (See Probability theory. Also written as P or
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
P
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle \mathbb {P} }
|
||||
|
||||
.)
|
||||
probit – probit function.
|
||||
PRNG – pseudorandom number generator.
|
||||
PSL – projective special linear group.
|
||||
PNT – prime number theorem.
|
||||
PRP – probable prime.
|
||||
PSO – projective orthogonal group.
|
||||
PSU – projective special unitary group.
|
||||
PU – projective unitary group.
|
||||
|
||||
== Q ==
|
||||
Q – rational numbers.
|
||||
QED – "Quod erat demonstrandum", a Latin phrase used at the end of a definitive proof.
|
||||
QEF – "Quod erat faciendum", a Latin phrase sometimes used at the end of a geometrical construction.
|
||||
|
||||
== R ==
|
||||
R – real numbers.
|
||||
ran – range of a function.
|
||||
rank – rank of a matrix. (Also written as rk.)
|
||||
Re – real part of a complex number. (Also written
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
ℜ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle \Re }
|
||||
|
||||
.)
|
||||
resp – respectively.
|
||||
RHS – right-hand side of an equation.
|
||||
rk – rank. (Also written as rank.)
|
||||
RMS, rms – root mean square.
|
||||
rng – non-unital ring.
|
||||
rot – rotor of a vector field. (Also written as curl.)
|
||||
rowsp – row space of a matrix.
|
||||
RTP – required to prove.
|
||||
RV – random variable. (Also written as R.V.)
|
||||
|
||||
== S ==
|
||||
S – sedenion numbers.
|
||||
SD – standard deviation.
|
||||
SE – standard error.
|
||||
sec – secant function.
|
||||
sech – hyperbolic secant function.
|
||||
seg – initial segment of.
|
||||
sem – haversine function. (Also written as hav.)
|
||||
SFIP – strong finite intersection property.
|
||||
sgn – sign function.
|
||||
Shi – hyperbolic sine integral function.
|
||||
Si – sine integral function.
|
||||
sigmoid – sigmoid function.
|
||||
sin – sine function.
|
||||
sinc – sinc function.
|
||||
sinh – hyperbolic sine function.
|
||||
siv – versine function. (Also written as ver, vers.)
|
||||
SL – special linear group.
|
||||
SO – special orthogonal group.
|
||||
SOC – second order condition.
|
||||
Soln – solution.
|
||||
Sp – symplectic group.
|
||||
Sp – trace of a matrix, from the German "spur" used for the trace.
|
||||
sp, span – linear span of a set of vectors. (Also written with angle brackets.)
|
||||
Spec – spectrum of a ring.
|
||||
Spin – spin group.
|
||||
sqrt – square root.
|
||||
s.t. – such that or so that or subject to.
|
||||
st – standard part function.
|
||||
STP – [it is] sufficient to prove.
|
||||
SU – special unitary group.
|
||||
sup – supremum of a set. (Also written as lub, which stands for least upper bound.)
|
||||
supp – support of a function.
|
||||
swish – swish function, an activation function in data analysis.
|
||||
Sym – symmetric group (Sym(n) is also written as Sn) or symmetric algebra.
|
||||
|
||||
== T ==
|
||||
T – trigintaduonion numbers.
|
||||
tan – tangent function. (Also written as tgn, tg.)
|
||||
tanh – hyperbolic tangent function.
|
||||
TFAE – the following are equivalent.
|
||||
tg – tangent function. (Also written as tan, tgn.)
|
||||
tgn – tangent function. (Also written as tan, tg.)
|
||||
Thm – theorem.
|
||||
Tor – Tor functor.
|
||||
Tr – field trace.
|
||||
tr – trace of a matrix or linear transformation. (Also written as Sp.)
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,59 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of mathematical abbreviations"
|
||||
chunk: 3/3
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mathematical_abbreviations"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:34.336401+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== U ==
|
||||
undef – a function or expression is undefined.
|
||||
usc – upper semi-continuity.
|
||||
|
||||
== V ==
|
||||
V – volume.
|
||||
var – variance of a random variable.
|
||||
vcs – vercosine function. (Also written as vercos.)
|
||||
ver – versine function. (Also written as vers, siv.)
|
||||
vercos – vercosine function. (Also written as vcs.)
|
||||
vers – versine function. (Also written as ver, siv.)
|
||||
|
||||
== W ==
|
||||
W^5 – which was what we wanted. Synonym of Q.E.D.
|
||||
walog – without any loss of generality.
|
||||
wff – well-formed formula.
|
||||
whp – with high probability.
|
||||
wlog – without loss of generality.
|
||||
WMA – we may assume.
|
||||
WO – well-ordered set.
|
||||
WOP – well-ordered principle.
|
||||
w.p. – with probability.
|
||||
wp1 – with probability 1.
|
||||
wrt – with respect to or with regard to.
|
||||
WTP – want to prove.
|
||||
WTS – want to show.
|
||||
|
||||
== X ==
|
||||
XOR – exclusive or in logic.
|
||||
|
||||
== Z ==
|
||||
Z – integer numbers.
|
||||
ZF – Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms of set theory.
|
||||
ZFC – Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms (with the Axiom of Choice) of set theory.
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of letters used in mathematics, science, and engineering
|
||||
ISO 31-11
|
||||
Language of mathematics
|
||||
List of mathematical jargon
|
||||
Mathematical notation
|
||||
Notation in probability and statistics
|
||||
Physical constants
|
||||
List of logic symbols
|
||||
Glossary of mathematical symbols
|
||||
Mathematical operators and symbols in Unicode
|
||||
List of mathematical functions
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
24
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mathematical_artists-0.md
Normal file
24
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mathematical_artists-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of mathematical artists"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mathematical_artists"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:52.917714+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of artists who actively explored mathematics in their artworks. Art forms practised by these artists include painting, sculpture, architecture, textiles and origami.
|
||||
Some artists such as Piero della Francesca and Luca Pacioli went so far as to write books on mathematics in art. Della Francesca wrote books on solid geometry and the emerging field of perspective, including De Prospectiva Pingendi (On Perspective for Painting), Trattato d’Abaco (Abacus Treatise), and De corporibus regularibus (Regular Solids), while Pacioli wrote De divina proportione (On Divine Proportion), with illustrations by Leonardo da Vinci, at the end of the fifteenth century.
|
||||
Merely making accepted use of some aspect of mathematics such as perspective does not qualify an artist for admission to this list.
|
||||
The term "fine art" is used conventionally to cover the output of artists who produce a combination of paintings, drawings and sculptures.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== List ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Saint Louis University: List of mathematical artists, by field
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,90 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of mathematical topics in classical mechanics"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mathematical_topics_in_classical_mechanics"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:13:04.549140+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of mathematical topics in classical mechanics, by Wikipedia page. See also list of variational topics, correspondence principle.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Newtonian physics ==
|
||||
Newton's laws of motion
|
||||
Inertia,
|
||||
Kinematics, rigid body
|
||||
Momentum, kinetic energy
|
||||
Parallelogram of force
|
||||
Circular motion
|
||||
Rotational speed
|
||||
Angular speed
|
||||
Angular momentum
|
||||
torque
|
||||
angular acceleration
|
||||
moment of inertia
|
||||
parallel axes rule
|
||||
perpendicular axes rule
|
||||
stretch rule
|
||||
centripetal force, centrifugal force, Reactive centrifugal force
|
||||
Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector
|
||||
Euler's disk
|
||||
elastic potential energy
|
||||
Mechanical equilibrium
|
||||
D'Alembert's principle
|
||||
Degrees of freedom (physics and chemistry)
|
||||
Frame of reference
|
||||
Inertial frame of reference
|
||||
Galilean transformation
|
||||
Principle of relativity
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Conservation laws ==
|
||||
Conservation of momentum
|
||||
Conservation of linear momentum
|
||||
Conservation of angular momentum
|
||||
Conservation of energy
|
||||
Potential energy
|
||||
Conservative force
|
||||
Conservation of mass
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Law of universal gravitation ==
|
||||
Projectile motion
|
||||
Kepler's laws of planetary motion
|
||||
Escape velocity
|
||||
Potential well
|
||||
Weightlessness
|
||||
Lagrangian point
|
||||
N-body problem
|
||||
Kolmogorov–Arnold–Moser theorem
|
||||
Virial theorem
|
||||
Gravitational binding energy
|
||||
Speed of gravity
|
||||
Newtonian limit
|
||||
Hill sphere
|
||||
Roche lobe
|
||||
Roche limit
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Hamiltonian mechanics ==
|
||||
Phase space
|
||||
Symplectic manifold
|
||||
Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)
|
||||
Poisson bracket
|
||||
Poisson algebra
|
||||
Poisson manifold
|
||||
Antibracket algebra
|
||||
Hamiltonian constraint
|
||||
Moment map
|
||||
Contact geometry
|
||||
Analysis of flows
|
||||
Nambu mechanics
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Lagrangian mechanics ==
|
||||
Action (physics)
|
||||
Lagrangian
|
||||
Euler–Lagrange equations
|
||||
Noether's theorem
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,63 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of multilingual countries and regions"
|
||||
chunk: 1/14
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:07.199573+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is an incomplete list of areas with either multilingualism at the community level or at the personal level.
|
||||
There is a distinction between social and personal bilingualism. Many countries, such as Belarus, Belgium, Canada, Finland, India, Ireland, South Africa and Switzerland, which are officially multilingual, may have many monolinguals in their population (Canada exemplifies this situation, as it is a country in which western provinces are predominantly anglophone while the province of Quebec, along with the bilingual New Brunswick, emphasize French prominence in the eastern side). Officially monolingual countries, on the other hand, such as France, can have sizable multilingual populations. Some countries have official languages but also have regional and local official languages, notably Brazil, China, Indonesia, Mexico, Philippines, Russia, Spain and Taiwan.
|
||||
|
||||
== Africa ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Central Africa ===
|
||||
Cameroon: French and English (both official), as well as Cameroonian Pidgin. Many ethnic and tribal languages including Basaa, Duala, Manenguba, Bikya, Bung, Fula, Kanuri, Ngumba, Yeni, Bamum, Bafia, Bakweri language and many others. Some also have fluency in the German, Portuguese and Spanish languages.
|
||||
Central African Republic: French & Sango (both official) and 50 other African languages.
|
||||
Chad: French and Arabic (both official) + more than 100 African languages.
|
||||
Democratic Republic of the Congo: French (official) + Lingala, Kongo, Swahili & Tshiluba (national languages) + 238 other languages.
|
||||
Equatorial Guinea: Spanish, French and Portuguese are the official languages of the country. Fang, Bube, Igbo, Pidgin English, Annobonese are also spoken.
|
||||
Republic of the Congo: French (official), Lingala and Kituba national languages plus other dialects, including Kikongo and Kituba.
|
||||
|
||||
=== East Africa ===
|
||||
Burundi: Kirundi (national and official), French and English (both official).
|
||||
Kenya: English (official), Swahili (national and official) and 100+ other languages (Bantu, Nilotes, Cushites, Indians).
|
||||
Rwanda: Kinyarwanda, English, French and Swahili are all official languages. Kinyarwanda is the national language. English is the medium of instruction and the primary language of government and business.
|
||||
Seychelles: French, English & Seychellois Creole are official.
|
||||
Tanzania: Swahili is the national language and English and many other indigenous languages. Swahili and English are de facto official languages and Arabic is spoken in Zanzibar.
|
||||
Uganda: English (official), Swahili (second official), Arabic, Luganda, other Bantu and. Nilo-Saharan languages.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Horn of Africa ===
|
||||
Djibouti: French and Arabic (official) plus Somali (official) & Afar.
|
||||
Eritrea: Tigrinya, Arabic and English are predominantly used in commerce and government affairs. The use and development of nine Eritrean languages (Tigrinya, Bilen, Afar, Saho, Rashaida, Tigre, Kunama, Nara and Hidarib) is encouraged at the local level and children attend primary school through the fifth grade in their mother tongue. Italian is an additional language spoken in commerce.
|
||||
Ethiopia: The federal working language is Amharic. At a regional level, working languages are Tigrigna in Tigray, Afarigna in Afar, Afaan Oromoo in Oromia, Somali in Somali region, and Harari in Harari region.
|
||||
Somalia: Somali (official) and Arabic ("second language" official). plus English and Italian (foreign languages).
|
||||
|
||||
=== North Africa ===
|
||||
Algeria: Classic Arabic and Amazigh (both official and national language in the constitution) plus Algerian Arabic and French (in media, education and business).
|
||||
Egypt: Arabic (official), Coptic, Egyptian Arabic, English and French.
|
||||
Libya: Arabic (official), Amazigh, Tamahaq, Italian and English.
|
||||
Mauritania: Arabic (official and national), French, Poular, Soninke, and Wolof (national).
|
||||
Morocco: Arabic and Amazigh (co-official). Moroccan Arabic, Hassaniya (present in the media), French (its wide use in education is legally established), Spanish.
|
||||
Western Sahara (under Moroccan control): Hassaniya, Berber, Moroccan Arabic, Spanish and French.
|
||||
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (in exile): Arabic (official) and Spanish (official) and French.
|
||||
Sudan: Arabic and English (official working languages) plus indigenous African languages.
|
||||
South Sudan: Arabic, English and other indigenous languages.
|
||||
Tunisia: Modern Standard Arabic (official), Tunisian Arabic, French, Berber language, and English language.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Southern Africa ===
|
||||
Angola: Portuguese (official language), Cokwe, Kikongo, Oshiwambo, Umbundu, Kimbundu and 32 additional indigenous African languages
|
||||
Botswana: English, Tswana, Kalanga, Khoi, Herero, Afrikaans, Nama, San, Ndebele, Sign language, and 21 others.
|
||||
Comoros: Comorian, French (official) and Arabic.
|
||||
Eswatini (Swaziland): English and Swati.
|
||||
Lesotho: English and Sotho.
|
||||
Madagascar: French and Malagasy.
|
||||
Malawi: Chewa (de facto language of national identity) and English (statutory national working language). Both are official.
|
||||
Mauritius: English (official, national), French (administrative, national), Mauritian Creole (lingua franca), Hindi, Mandarin, Tamil, Telugu, Hakka, Urdu, Marathi, Bhojpuri and Arabic.
|
||||
Mozambique: Portuguese (official language) and 43 additional indigenous African languages
|
||||
Namibia: English (official), German, Afrikaans, and Ovambo (recognised regional languages)
|
||||
South Africa: Afrikaans, English, Ndebele, Northern Sotho, Sotho, Swazi, Tswana, Tsonga, Venda, Xhosa, Zulu (co-official), sign language, Khoi, Nama and San (the languages, which the government is obliged to promote and to create conditions for their development).
|
||||
Zambia: English (official), Bemba, Nyanja, Tonga, Lozi, Lunda, Kaonde, Luvale, Ila, Mambwe, Namwanga, Tumbuka, Aushi, Lenje, Lala and Lamba, and 57 others (72 in total).
|
||||
Zimbabwe: Chewa, Chibarwe, English, Kalanga, Koisan, Nambya, Ndau, Ndebele, Shangani, Shona, sign language, Sotho, Tonga, Tswana, Venda and Xhosa (officially recognised).
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of multilingual countries and regions"
|
||||
chunk: 2/14
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:07.199573+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== West Africa ===
|
||||
Benin: French (official) and many indigenous languages including Fon, Yoruba & Songhay (specifically Dendi).
|
||||
Burkina Faso: French (official), Moore and Jula (regional languages) and indigenous Sudanic languages.
|
||||
Cape Verde: Portuguese and Cape Verdean Creole.
|
||||
Côte d'Ivoire: French (official), Baule, Jula, and 60 other indigenous languages.
|
||||
Gambia: English (official), Mandinka, Wolof, Fula and others.
|
||||
Ghana: English (official), Akan, Dagaare/Wale, Dagbane, Dangme, Ewe, Ga, Gonja, Kasem, Nzema and 70 others.
|
||||
Guinea: French (official), Maninka, Fula and Susu.
|
||||
Guinea-Bissau: Portuguese (official), Kriol and indigenous languages.
|
||||
Liberia: English (official) and 20 African languages.
|
||||
Mali: French (official), Bambara (most widely spoken), Fula and Songhay (specifically Dendi). 11 languages are used as mediums of instruction in primary schools
|
||||
Niger: French (official) plus ten other languages recognised as national ones, including Hausa (spoken by half the population) and Songhay (specifically Zarma)
|
||||
Nigeria: English (official), Yoruba, Hausa and Igbo are the four languages of the parliament (each of which has over 20 million speakers) plus 529 other African languages (some of which have over a million speakers) and Pidgin.
|
||||
Senegal: French (official), Wolof (widely spoken), Fula (specifically Pulaar), Diola, Malinké, Sérère, Soninké (national languages) plus other African languages
|
||||
Sierra Leone: English (official), Krio (most widely spoken), Mende, Temne and other African languages
|
||||
Togo: French (official), Ewe, Mina and Kabiyé.
|
||||
|
||||
== Americas ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Caribbean ===
|
||||
Antigua and Barbuda: No official language at national or local level. Antiguan and Barbudan Creole and English both spoken by majority of the population. Guyanese Creole and Jamaican Patois spoken by over 5% of the population each. Bilingual government services are often provided in Spanish.
|
||||
Aruba: Papiamento and Dutch are the official languages, with Spanish and English also widely spoken. All four languages are taught in schools.
|
||||
Caribbean Netherlands – Dutch (overall), English (Sint Eustatius and Saba) and Papiamentu (Bonaire).
|
||||
Curaçao – Papiamento, Dutch and English are official languages. Spanish is also widely spoken.
|
||||
Haiti: Creole and French
|
||||
Jamaica: English and Jamaican Patois
|
||||
Puerto Rico's official languages and languages of legislature are Spanish and English, yet 85 percent of its inhabitants reported that they did not speak English "very well."
|
||||
Saint Lucia: English and Saint Lucian French Creole
|
||||
Trinidad and Tobago – in the predominantly Trinidadian English Creole-speaking country where Trinidadian English is official, Spanish was introduced as the second language of bilingual traffic signs and is spoken among 5% of the population fluently. and is generally the "first foreign language". Trinidadian Hindustani is rarely used, only spoken among Indo Trinidadian families, mostly the elders who preserve their ancestral language. Sanskrit/Hindi is also used when singing songs of East Indian origins and in the Hindu Temples. Trinidadian French Creole (Patois) is widely spoken in the communities of the northern suburbs of Port of Spain such as Maraval and Paramin, where there are descendants of the early French Immigrants to Trinidad.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Central America ===
|
||||
Belize: English, Spanish and Mayan languages have some official usage, although the legacy of British rule emphasised English to be most commonly used for official purposes though the majority are Hispanophone.
|
||||
Guatemala has one official language which is Spanish; however, there are 22 distinct Mayan languages. Maya, Garifuna and Xincan languages are recognized to be essential elements of the national identity.
|
||||
Honduras: Spanish is the official language, despite Afro-Caribbean English, Garifuna and indigenous languages can be found in the rural outskirts of the country.
|
||||
In Nicaragua, even while Spanish is the official language (spoken by almost 95%, according to some sources), there are other de facto languages such as Creole, English, Miskitu, Rama and Mayangna (Sumu) in their own linguistic communities. According to the Constitution, the languages of the Atlantic Coasts should be used officially in cases established by law.
|
||||
In Panama, Spanish is the official language, and seven indigenous languages have been given official recognition
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of multilingual countries and regions"
|
||||
chunk: 11/14
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:07.199573+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== Northern Europe ===
|
||||
Denmark has one official language, Danish, but in South Jutland, use of German for certain functions is provided for. In Greenland, Greenlandic is the principal language, while Danish must be thoroughly taught, and all Greenlanders are Danish-Greenlandic bilinguals.
|
||||
Faroe Islands has two official languages: Faroese and Danish. The other Scandinavian languages, Norwegian and Swedish, are understood by most without much difficulty. English is taught in schools, often as a third language.
|
||||
Finland is constitutionally bilingual and has therefore two equally national languages, Finnish and Swedish, and the minority languages Sami (Northern Sami, Inari Sami and Skolt Sami), Romani and Finnish Sign Language are recognized by the constitution. The Swedish-speaking population of Finland comprises about 5.5% of the population, mostly in Svenskfinland. Municipalities are bilingual if the Swedish or Finnish minority is at least 6–8%. Åland is monolingually Swedish by law. Sami is an official language (besides Finnish) in the municipalities of northern Finland.
|
||||
In Norway six municipalities of Troms and Finnmark county, Sami is used officially along Norwegian. In addition, kvensk, romani and romanes have status as minority languages.
|
||||
Sweden has Swedish as its official language. Finnish, Meänkieli, Romani, Sami and Yiddish are recognized as minority languages. Meänkieli, a variant of Finnish, is spoken in Tornedalen and Haparanda in North Bothnia. Meänkieli, Finnish and Sami have a special status in the areas where speakers are significant minorities.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Southern Europe ===
|
||||
Italy. The official language overall is Italian. However, the Italian law n. 482/1999 recognizes and protects twelve minority languages, like Sardinian, Friulian, Occitan, Greek, Albanian and other linguistic minorities. Bilingualism is also applied in some territories:
|
||||
In the province of South Tyrol German is co-official.
|
||||
In the Aosta Valley region French is co-official,
|
||||
as is Slovene in some municipalities of the provinces of Trieste and Gorizia.
|
||||
Ladin municipalities of South Tyrol are trilingual (Italian, Ladin, and German).
|
||||
In Veneto, there is a regional law on Venetian linguistic and cultural heritage. In 2016, an additional law has been adopted, providing for the use of Venetian in schools, public institutions and toponymical signs.
|
||||
In Calabria, there is a regional law on minority languages, with Greek, Albanian and Franco-Provençal specifically named.
|
||||
In Piedmont, there is a regional law on promoting linguistic heritage, with Occitan, German, French and Franco-Provençal minorities specifically named.
|
||||
In Sardinia, a 1997 law and a 2018 law establish detailed status for Sardinian, and give official recognition to Catalan in Alghero and to Gallurese, Tabarchino and Sassarese.
|
||||
Malta has two official languages, Maltese and English. Italian is also spoken by a large percentage of the population.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,36 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of multilingual countries and regions"
|
||||
chunk: 12/14
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:07.199573+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== Southeastern Europe ===
|
||||
Albania has one official language, Albanian. In some regions of southern Albania, Greek serves as co-official. Other languages such as Italian and Greek are widely spoken throughout the country, and are considered minority languages. Recognised minority languages include: Aromanian, Romanian, Serbo-Croatian, Macedonian, Bulgarian, French, Italian and Greek. The majority of Albanians are multilingual, speaking more than 3 languages, which is due to the large number of Albanian immigrants in Europe and elsewhere, as well as political and socio-cultural relations with their neighbours. As a consequence, Albanians are considered one of the most linguistically diverse peoples in Europe. During Albania's Italian occupation and the subsequent communist period, Italian television and radio were a source of education and entertainment for many Albanians; as a result, 60–70% of Albania's population has a command of Italian. Albania's Greek communities, as well as returning migrants from Greece and Greek national arrivals, continue to raise the status of Greek in the country. Albania is also part of the Francophonie, with 320,000 French speakers.
|
||||
In Bulgaria, the official language is Bulgarian, but significant minority languages are recognized at a local level, with commitments made in respect of use of Romanian, Czech, Croatian, German, Hungarian, Russian, Serbian, Slovak, Turkish and Ukrainian in areas where their share of speakers is at least 20%. The biggest ethnic minority is the Turkish community of 508,378 (8.5%). Bulgaria is also part of the Francophonie, with 320,000 French speakers.
|
||||
Moldova – the Law concerning the rights of persons belonging to the national minorities and the legal status of the organizations thereof provides for the use of Romanian and Russian in tertiary education, communication with authorities and publishing regulatory acts. It also provides for the use of Ukrainian, Gagauz, Bulgarian, Hebrew, Yiddish and other (unnamed) languages in education.
|
||||
Gagauzia – Romanian, Gagauz, Russian
|
||||
Transnistria – Moldovan, Russian, Ukrainian
|
||||
In Romania, the official language is Romanian, but significant minority languages are recognized at a local level, with commitments made in respect of use of Bulgarian, Czech, Croatian, German, Hungarian, Russian, Serbian, Slovak, Turkish and Ukrainian in areas where their share of speakers is at least 20%. The biggest ethnic minority is the Hungarian community of 1.4 million (6.6%).
|
||||
In successor countries of the former SFR Yugoslavia, official languages of Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin are mutually intelligible by all four groups (see Serbo-Croatian). Other smaller languages in the new republics of Slovenia (Slovene) and North Macedonia (Macedonian) are not. There are other languages that have co-official status in some parts of these countries (e.g. Italian in Istria, Hungarian in Vojvodina).
|
||||
Croatia – the Constitution of Croatia defines Croatian as the official language of the country while permitting regional or local co-official usage of minority languages of Croatia and Cyrillic or other alphabets. The Istria County is the only bilingual region with Italian language as its second official language. At the level of local self-government units municipalities and towns with second official languages are primarily influenced in their policy by the Constitutional Act on the Rights of National Minorities in the Republic of Croatia and other national and international legal norms.
|
||||
Kosovo has two official languages, Albanian and Serbian. Turkish, Bosnian, and Roma hold official status at a regional level.
|
||||
Serbia: There are seven officially used languages in the northern autonomous province of Vojvodina (Serbian, Croatian, Romanian, Ruthenian, Hungarian, Slovak and Czech), and four in central Serbia (Serbian, Bosnian, Albanian and Bulgarian). Vojvodina has a multi-ethnic, multi-cultural and multi-lingual identity, with a number of mechanisms for the promotion of minority rights; there are more than 26 ethnic groups in the province. The province has six official languages. Some Serbs are recognised as fluent multilinguals; many of them can speak German, French and English, due to the huge number of Serbian immigrants in Europe, especially in Austria, Germany and France, whilst English is quite popular due to the large Serbian immigrant communities in Australia and Canada.
|
||||
North Macedonia – in 2019, Albanian was made co-official, while Macedonian remains the primary official language.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Southwestern Europe ===
|
||||
Andorra has one official language, Catalan. Other languages (mainly Spanish, French and Portuguese) are also spoken without official recognition.
|
||||
Gibraltar is a British overseas territory whose sole official language is English. Given Gibraltar's size, most of the population is also fluent in Spanish due to its vicinity with Spain. Gibraltarians also use Llanito as a local vernacular.
|
||||
Portugal – although Portuguese is practically universal, Mirandese, a related Leonese language, is spoken in Miranda do Douro, northeastern Portugal and is officially recognized (see: Languages of Portugal), and there is some familiarity with the Spanish language in towns bordering Spain.
|
||||
Spain, where several autonomous communities have their own official language, additional to Spanish (also known as Castilian), official all over Spain (see: languages of Spain):
|
||||
Basque Country and Northern Navarre: Basque, a language isolate.
|
||||
Balearic Islands and Valencian Community: Catalan (officially called Valencian in Valencia).
|
||||
Catalonia: Catalan and Aranese (Occitan).
|
||||
Galicia: Galician, has a common origin with the Portuguese.
|
||||
There are a number of languages which have official recognition of some kind but which are not fully official:
|
||||
Aragonese and Catalan in certain areas of Aragon.
|
||||
Asturian and, in some areas, Galician in Asturias.
|
||||
Leonese and, to a smaller degree, Galician in Castile and León.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of multilingual countries and regions"
|
||||
chunk: 13/14
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:07.199573+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== Western Europe ===
|
||||
Belgium has three official languages: Dutch (59%) in the north, French (40%) in the south and a small minority speaks German (1%). Its bilingual capital, Brussels is mainly French-speaking, with Dutch speakers as a minority. These languages have the status of 'official language' only in specified language areas as defined by the constitution. In Flanders, 59% and 53% of the Flemings know French and English respectively; in Wallonia, only 19% and 17% know Dutch or English. In each region, Belgium's third official language, German, is notably less known than Dutch, French or English. Wallonia recognises all of its vernacular dialect groups as regional languages, Flanders does not.
|
||||
France has a monolingual policy for the republic to conduct government business only in French. There are, however, levels of fluency in regional languages: Alsatian, Basque (the department of Pyrénées-Atlantiques), Breton (the regional government of Brittany has adopted some policies to promote the teaching of Breton), Catalan (the department of Pyrénées-Orientales has a particular charter for supporting Catalan), Corsican (Corsican teaching in the island's schools is provided for by law), Flemish, Franco-Provençal, Lorraine Franconian and Occitan (sometimes called Provençal). The country as whole is linguistically dominated by French.
|
||||
Ireland, the first official language of Ireland is Irish, with the second being English. English is the first language of the vast majority of the population.
|
||||
Luxembourg is a rare example of a truly trilingual society, in that it not only has three official languages – Luxembourgish, French and German – but has a trilingual education system. For the first four years of school, Luxembourgish is the medium of instruction, before giving way to German, which in turn gives way to French. (In addition, children learn English and sometimes another European language, usually Spanish or Italian.) Similarly in the country's parliament, debates are conducted in Luxembourgish, draft legislation is drafted in German, while the statute laws are in French. Due to the large population of Portuguese descent, the Portuguese language is fairly prevalent in Luxembourg, though it remains limited to the relationships inside this community. Portuguese has no official status, but the administration sometimes makes certain informative documents available in Portuguese.
|
||||
The Netherlands has four official languages. Dutch is the primary language, and West Frisian is recognized as a minority language and spoken by between 300,000 and 700,000 people. West Frisian is mostly spoken in the province of Friesland, where it is the official first language. Low Saxon is recognized as a regional language in the northeast of the country, and Limburgish is an official regional language in Netherlands Limburg. In Amsterdam, certain services are provided in English; English is official in the Dutch municipalities of Saba and Sint Eustatius. The fourth official language is Papiamento, spoken on Bonaire.
|
||||
The only national language of the United Kingdom is English, however, there are several regional languages recognised to varying degrees in the UK or the Crown dependencies:
|
||||
England: Cornish is currently recognised under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. 557 people, mainly living in Cornwall, reported as speaking Cornish in 2011.
|
||||
Wales: 611,000 Welsh speakers (but no monoglots), including the majority of the population in parts of north and west Wales. English is widely used. English and Welsh have equal official status in law. On road signs and branding of devolved organisations, Welsh is usually placed first above English. Prior to 2016, local authorities could decide whether Welsh or English should be first on road signage, leading to different orders of the languages between English-speaking and Welsh-speaking authorities, since 2016, new signage must be Welsh-first, remaining English-first signage and road paintings would become Welsh-first when they would've otherwise been replaced.
|
||||
Northern Ireland: Ulster Scots, a variety of Scots, is spoken by some in Northern Ireland, but again English is far more commonly used and Ulster Scots is less actively used in media. Irish and Ulster Scots now both have official status in Northern Ireland as part of the 1998 Belfast Agreement; certain functions are granted to those two languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.
|
||||
Scotland: 58,652 Gaelic speakers, mostly concentrated in the Highlands and the Hebrides, the traditional heartland of Gaelic culture. The Gaelic Language (Scotland) Act 2005 provides for the status of the Gaelic language as an official language of Scotland commanding equal respect to the English language. Also Scots with approximately 2 to 3 million speakers – a Germanic language closely related to English.
|
||||
Jersey: along with English, the use of French for petitioning the parliament is provided for by its Standing Orders. Jèrriais is official as well.
|
||||
Isle of Man: the main language is English, but a small percentage of the population have some knowledge of Manx Gaelic, which is used officially to a limited extent, e.g. in bilingual street signs, some official documents and for ceremonial purposes.
|
||||
Guernsey: the main language is English. French is spoken as well.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,30 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of multilingual countries and regions"
|
||||
chunk: 14/14
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:07.199573+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== Oceania ==
|
||||
Australia – English is the de facto official language of Australia. Auslan is recognised by the Australian Government and is spoken by many Australian deaf people. Australian Aboriginal languages, of which there are approximately 290–363, have recognition – though only a few are popularly spoken by Australian Indigenous people, including: Wiradjuri, Pitjantjatjara, Kalaw Lagaw Ya, Ngaanyatjarra, Warlpiri and Australian Kriol. Some government departments and agencies provide translations of documents in multiple languages for non-English speakers.
|
||||
Fiji – Fijian, English and Fiji Hindi (All official) Tongan and Tuvaluan are also spoken.
|
||||
Kiribati – Gilbertese and English (official); Gilbertese is the majority language, English language is the prevailing language for constitutional text
|
||||
Marshall Islands – Marshallese and English (both official)
|
||||
Micronesia – English (official) but each state has its own regional language: Chuukese (Chuuk), Kosraean (Kosrae), Pohnpeian (Pohnpei), and Yapese (Yap). In addition other language such as Pingelapese, Ngatikese, Satawalese, Puluwatese, Mortlockese, Mokilese, Ulithian, Woleaian, Nukuoro, and Kapingamarangi are recognized.
|
||||
Nauru – Nauruan is the official language. English is also spoken along with it.
|
||||
New Caledonia, a special collectivity of France – French and Kanak languages (primarily Drehu, Nengone, Paicî, Ajië and Xârâcùù)
|
||||
New Zealand – a small percentage of the population has some reasonable degree of bilingualism in English and Māori, mostly among the Māori themselves; few are fully fluent in Māori. New Zealand Sign Language has also an official status. English is the main language, with over 96% of the population speaking it fluently. Maori has been recognized as official since 1987.
|
||||
Cook Islands – Cook Islands Maori and English.
|
||||
Niue – Niuean and English.
|
||||
Palau – Palauan traditional languages are the national languages. Palauan and English are the official languages.
|
||||
Papua New Guinea – Tok Pisin (official), English (official), Hiri Motu (official), Papua New Guinea Sign Language (official) and some 836 indigenous languages spoken are spoken
|
||||
Rapa Nui (Easter Island) – Rapa Nui along with Chilean Spanish are the 2 co-official languages of the island.
|
||||
Samoa – Samoan and English
|
||||
Tonga – Tongan and English (both official)
|
||||
Tuvalu – Tuvaluan and English (both official)
|
||||
Vanuatu – the national language is Bislama, a creole language or pidgin English and French, which is also an official language alongside English and French. There are also over 110 local vernacular languages distinct to this island archipelago.
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of multilingual countries and regions"
|
||||
chunk: 3/14
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:07.199573+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== North America ===
|
||||
Canada is officially bilingual under the Official Languages Act and the Constitution of Canada that require the federal government to deliver services in both official languages: English and French. As well, minority language rights are guaranteed where numbers warrant. 56.9% of the population speak English as their first language while 22.9% are native speakers of French. The remaining population belong to some of Canada's many immigrant populations or to the indigenous population. See Bilingualism in Canada
|
||||
Alberta has a specific French policy since 2017. The Canadian province of British Columbia has a sizable population that speaks Mandarin or Cantonese, particularly in the city of Vancouver and its satellite town of Richmond. There is a provincial law on First Nations languages. The Canadian province of New Brunswick, with a large Acadian population (33% French-speaking) is officially bilingual. The Canadian province of Quebec, (7.9% English-speaking) Note: Quebec's largest city, Montreal, is a multilingual city with half the population having French as their mother tongue, and the other half having other languages (including English) as their mother tongue (see Language demographics of Quebec). A majority of Montrealers, whether they call themselves francophone, anglophone or allophone, know both French and English. The city's McGill University, an English-language institution, allows students to submit essays or tests in either English or French. Although there is a sizable English-speaking population in Quebec, French is the only official language of the provincial government. At the same time, many services are provided in English, such as health services, education, legislative activities and judiciary services. Many government services are available in English and French. In the Kahnawake reserve, Mohawk is the official language. Manitoba has a particular French Language Services Policy and bilingual in capital city Winnipeg, as well as a special law on recognition of seven indigenous languages. Nova Scotia has a governmental agency for Scots Gaelic language and culture affairs. French is regionally spoken, with a special law on French-language services. In Newfoundland and Labrador, in the autonomous area of Nunatsiavut, English and Inuttut are co-official There is also a particular provincial French Language Services Policy In Port au Port Peninsula French language is used as well. Nunavut is a Canadian territory with a population that is 85% Inuit. According to Official Languages Act, its official languages are Inuit, English and French. Northwest Territories have Chipewyan, Cree, English, French, Gwich’in, Inuinnaqtun, Inuktitut, Inuvialuktun, North Slavey, South Slavey and Tłı̨chǫ Yatıì as the official languages. Ontario delivers services under the French Language Services Act. In Prince Edward Island, there is a Francophone region. Saskatchewan has a particular French-language Services Policy. Yukon allows the use of Yukon languages in its legislative assembly, along with French and English. In the 2006 Canadian census, information and questions are available in sixty-two languages, including eighteen First Nations languages. The city of Toronto is one of the most multilingual cities in the world. It is the home to over a dozen daily media outlets of different languages, including the Italian daily Corriere Canadese and the Chinese daily Sing Tao. Greenland: Greenlandic is the official language. Danish and English are spoken and taught; and all Greenlanders are Danish-Greenlandic bilinguals. Mexico: The government recognizes 62 indigenous languages, including Nahuatl, spoken by more than 1.5 million people and Aguacatec spoken by 27 people, along with Spanish. Indigenous languages are recognised as national languages in areas where they are spoken. There is no official language at the federal level, although Spanish is the de facto state language. In Guerrero, state constitution provides for use of indigenous languages in education and translating of main provincial laws to these languages. In Yucatán, Yucatec Maya language is recognised in the state constitution. In Oaxaca state constitution, 15 indigenous communities are listed. Certain use of their languages in education and court proceedings is provided for. In Puebla state constitution, use of indigenous languages in courts and education is provided for
|
||||
In Campeche state constitution, use of indigenous languages in courts and teaching them in schools are provided for. In Quintana Roo state constitution, use of indigenous languages in courts and education is provided for; also, the laws are to be published in Maya language. In Chihuahua state constitution, use of indigenous languages in courts, education, health care and government-disseminated information is provided for. In Chiapas state constitution, use of indigenous languages in courts and education is provided for. In the United States, at the federal level, there is no official language, although there have been efforts to make English the official language. Use of several languages in electoral process under certain circumstances is provided for by federal law, including Spanish in the whole states of Florida, California and Texas. There are federal statutes promoting Native American languages: Native American Languages Act of 1990 and Esther Martinez Native American Languages Preservation Act. The US state of California has the Dymally-Alatorre Bilingual Services Act. requiring state and local agencies serving a "substantial number of non-English speaking people" to employ a "qualified bilingual staff" and to translate certain documents into clients' languages. The US state of New Mexico provides certain guarantees for the use of Spanish, alongside English, in its constitution and electoral laws. Its state laws also provide for using Spanish and Native American languages in education
|
||||
The US state of New York provides translation of vital documents and interpretation into six languages alongside English. The US state of South Dakota recognises the Sioux language as the official indigenous language of the state. The US state of Texas provides in its law for translating to Spanish certain information on agency websites. The US state of Louisiana has mandated the Louisiana French Language Services Program and the Department of Culture, Recreation and Tourism to work on providing state government services in French, to the extent practicable It also expressly allows the use of French in legal process and publishing official documents. Spanish is also spoken. The Saint John River valley in the US state of Maine and some areas in Vermont are unofficially bilingual (de facto) in English and French. The US state of Hawaii is officially bilingual in English and Hawaiian. The US state of Alaska officially recognizes English and the following twenty Alaska Native languages: Inupiaq, Siberian Yupik, Central Alaskan Yup'ik, Alutiiq, Unanga, Dena'ina, Deg Xinag, Holikachuk, Koyukon, Upper Kuskokwim, Gwich'in, Tanana, Upper Tanana, Tanacross, Hän, Ahtna, Eyak, Tlingit, Haida, Tsimshian languages. Russian is spoken. Three US territories are also bilingual: American Samoa (Samoan and English), and Puerto Rico (Spanish and English). Guam Code provides for bilingual education (English and Chamorro). One US territory is trilingual: Northern Marianas Islands (English, Chamorro, and Carolinian). In US, states with a large historic (New Spain and First Mexican Empire) and recently arrived Spanish-speaking population such as California, Nevada, Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Texas and Florida will often provide government services at the municipal level in Spanish as well as English. For example, in Florida, Hialeah recognizes both English and Spanish while Miami recognizes English and Spanish as official government languages. Hopi Tribe constitution (Arizona) provides for specific requirements for Hopi language skills for officials
|
||||
German is spoken due to Amish, German, Austrian and Swiss people.
|
||||
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|
||||
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|
||||
title: "List of multilingual countries and regions"
|
||||
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|
||||
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|
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|
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|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:07.199573+00:00"
|
||||
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|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
In Pennsylvania, the Pennsylvania Dutch dialect is spoken.
|
||||
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|
||||
---
|
||||
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|
||||
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|
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|
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|
||||
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|
||||
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|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== South America ===
|
||||
Argentina has several ethnic communities of European, Asian and indigenous origins (the Andean and northeast regions), who speak their own languages, but uses de facto Spanish as the official language of the country. In most of the country, there is a sizable but bilingual Italian-speaking population.
|
||||
Chaco Province recognises Qom, Moqoit y Wichi as official languages of the province along with Spanish
|
||||
Corrientes Province Guarani is recognised as the second official language
|
||||
Santiago del Estero Province gives official recognition to Quechua in its constitution
|
||||
Bolivia is officially multilingual, supporting Spanish and 36 native languages.
|
||||
Brazil, Portuguese (official) and upwards to 100 languages spoken mainly in the urban areas (European and Asian) and indigenous languages in the Amazon. The use of indigenous languages in primary education is enshrined in the constitution.
|
||||
Espírito Santo – German and East Pomeranian are recognized by constitution as part of the state's cultural heritage
|
||||
Rio de Janeiro – Yoruba, Bantu and Jeje (African Languages) are recognized by constitution as part of the state's cultural heritage
|
||||
Rio Grande do Sul – Talian (Italian dialect) and Riograndense Hünsrick (German dialect) are recognized by constitution as part of the state's cultural heritage
|
||||
Santa Catarina – Talian are recognized by constitution as part of the state's cultural heritage
|
||||
Chile uses de facto Spanish as official language, but there are not an act that declares officiality. The Indigenous Act ratified in 1992 permites the official usage of four indigenous languages: Aimara, Mapudungun, Quechua and Rapa Nui (Easter Island in Polynesia) inside the indigenous communities and areas with high native population density. In the southern portion, there is a sizable but bilingual German-speaking population.
|
||||
Colombia The official language is Spanish. Languages of ethnic groups are official in their territories. English is co-official in San Andres and Providencia.
|
||||
Ecuador defines Spanish as its official language, but Spanish, Quechua and Shuar – as official languages of intercultural relations in the Article 2 of the 2008 Constitution.
|
||||
Falkland Islands, English is the official & dominant language. Spanish is spoken by a minority of the population who comes from Chile and Argentina.
|
||||
Guyana, English (official), Guyanese Hindustani (now mostly used among elders only from Indo-Guyanese community), Chinese, indigenous languages, and a small Portuguese-speaking community. The Amerindian Act orders the National Toshaos Council to promote the recognition and use of Amerindian languages.
|
||||
Paraguay, More than 46% of its population is bilingual in Guaraní and Spanish (both official languages of the Republic), of whom 37% speak only Guaraní and 8% only Spanish but the latter increases with the use of Jopará. There is a large Mennonite German colony in the Gran Chaco region as well.
|
||||
Peru's official languages are Spanish and, in the zones where they are predominant, Quechua, Aymara, and other aboriginal languages. In addition to that, in Peru there is a large community of immigrants, of which few keep their languages. Within those, there are the Japanese and the Chinese (Cantonese dialect), for example and in smaller numbers, the Germans (central Andes), Italian, the Arabic speakers, and the Urdu speakers retain their native languages in Peru. The last two are products of the recent wave of immigrants from Palestine and Pakistan. Lately English has been used by American and British residents.
|
||||
In Suriname, Dutch, Sranan, and English are spoken by large segments of the population (as the national, de facto working language, and common educational language, respectively). In addition, Chinese, Javanese, and various Indian languages, such as Hindustani, are spoken as well.
|
||||
Uruguay has a large Italian-speaking minority also proficient in Spanish. Its border with Brazil has a mixed Portuguese-speaking presence.
|
||||
Venezuela has declared Spanish the official language, while there are some European and Arabic languages spoken in urban areas, Caribbean English dialects in the Caribbean and indigenous languages spoken in the Guayana department. The prominent additional European languages spoken are Italian and German. The use of native languages also has official status for native peoples.
|
||||
|
||||
== Asia ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Central Asia ===
|
||||
|
||||
Kazakhstan: Kazakh and Russian both have official status—Kazakh as the "state" language and Russian as "officially used on equal grounds along with the Kazakh language". Kazakhstan is taking its huge step into multilingualism by accepting the trilingualism policy and making changes in law. Former president Nursultan Nazarbaev noted that "The multinationality and multilingualism are one of the values and the main feature of our state. "Dariga Nazarbayeva, then deputy prime minister and daughter of the then president, said in February 2016 that Kazakh children should learn Chinese in addition to Kazakh, Russian and English. “China is our friend, our trading partner and the biggest investor in the economy of our country", she said. "In the near future, we all need to know Chinese.”
|
||||
Kyrgyzstan: Kyrgyz is the state language and Russian "used in the capacity of an official language".
|
||||
Tajikistan: Tajik as the state language and Russian, designated as language of interethnic communication in the constitution, are widely spoken.
|
||||
Uzbekistan: In Uzbekistan, Uzbek (official), Tajik, and Russian are all widely spoken. Use of Russian (alongside Uzbek) is foreseen for notarized documents and civic records
|
||||
Karakalpakstan: In Karakalpakstan, Karakalpak is an official one, alongside Uzbek.
|
||||
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|
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|
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|
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|
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|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== East Asia ===
|
||||
In Mainland China, Standard Mandarin (Putonghua) is the official language and is spoken in all regions. It is used for official and formal purposes, by the media, and in education as the language of instruction. However, on money notes, there are texts both in Mandarin (Han) and in Mongolian, Tibetan, Uyghur, and Zhuang. In every locality and region, local varieties of Chinese are spoken in daily life. These range from being quite similar to Putonghua, such as Tianjin dialect, to those that are mutually unintelligible with Putonghua such as Jiangsu, Zhejiang and Shanghai dialect (Wu) or Guangzhou dialect (Cantonese). In the autonomous regions, minority languages are used (such as Tibetan in Tibet or Mongolian in Inner Mongolia, Uyghur, Kazakh and others in Xinjiang).
|
||||
Japan: a special law provides for promotion of Ainu in Hokkaido
|
||||
Taiwan: A national language in Taiwan is legally defined as "a natural language used by an original people group of Taiwan and the Taiwan Sign Language". This includes Formosan languages, Hakka, Mandarin and Taiwanese.
|
||||
In Hong Kong, English and Chinese are official languages. All road signs are written in both languages. English is the dominant language in the judiciary and in higher education. Hong Kong Cantonese is the first language of the majority of the population, and is the dominant language in many aspects of everyday life. While Cantonese is the widely spoken form of Chinese in Hong Kong, Standard Mandarin is also taught in schools. The degrees of proficiency in English and Mandarin vary from person to person.
|
||||
In Macau, both Chinese and Portuguese are official languages. While Cantonese is the dominant form of Chinese, Standard Mandarin (Putonghua) is also spoken. Chinese is taught in all schools, while Portuguese is mainly taught in government schools. In addition, English is also taught in many schools. Macanese Patois, a local Portuguese-based creole generally known as Patuá, is now spoken only by a few older Eurasian population.
|
||||
|
||||
=== North Asia ===
|
||||
Russia holds a List of minor indigenous peoples of Russia. This list currently mentions 50 peoples (40 until an amendment in 2015), and the "Law on the guarantees of the rights of the minor indigenous peoples of Russia" guarantees among other Federal programmes for the protection and development of their languages and cultures (article 5). The article 10 of the same law guarantees to people belonging to these peoples the right to preserve and develop their native language, and the right to receive and broadcast information in their native languages and to create media.
|
||||
Several Republics of Russia make locally official the language of the main people(s) of those Republics:
|
||||
Buryatia – Russian and Buryat are co-official
|
||||
Altai Republic – Russian and Altai are co-official
|
||||
Tuva – Russian and Tuvan are co-official
|
||||
Khakassia – Russian and Khakas are co-official
|
||||
Sakha Republic – Russian and Sakha are co-official. The law "about the languages of the Sakha Republic" mentions in its article 6 that Evenki, Even, Yukagir, Dolgan, Chukchi languages are recognized as official in the places where those peoples live and are used as equal as the national languages. The Sakha Republic guarantees protection and care for the preservation and the free development of those languages. It is worth noting, however, that Chukchi has no official status in the neighbouring Chukotka. It is closely related to Koryak which is official in the North of Kamchatka (see below).
|
||||
Administrative-territorial units with special status (formerly Federal subjects of Russia, downgraded in 2007–2008):
|
||||
Ust-Orda Buryat Okrug (Irkutsk Oblast) and Agin-Buryat Okrug (Zabaykalsky Krai): Buryat is co-official with Russian.
|
||||
Koryak Okrug (Kamchatka Krai): Koryak is co-official with Russian.
|
||||
|
||||
=== South Asia ===
|
||||
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|
||||
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|
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|
||||
|
||||
Afghanistan: Pashto and Dari (Afghan Persian) are the official and most widely spoken languages in Afghanistan, with the former serving as a national language and the latter spoken as a lingua franca. Other minor languages include Uzbek and Turkmen, Balochi and Pashayi, Nuristani (Askunu, Kamkata-viri, Vasi-vari, Tregami and Kalasha-ala), Pamiri (Shughni, Munji, Ishkashimi and Wakhi), Brahui, Hindko, Kyrgyz.
|
||||
Bangladesh: Noidien Bengali is the official and most widely spoken language. However, there are many local languages (some of which are considered Bengali dialects, like Seletino, Nueklikos and Chetgonien) spoken in different regions of Bangladesh, as well as minority languages. Speakers of these languages are often bilingual in their local language and Standard Bangla. Additionally, the use of English is widespread in education and the judiciary in the country. In the CHT region, tribal languages like Genmanoos, Mouge/Reccen, Cucbarooco, Meru, Tensankês, Bomsche/Bomiano, Shö, Xumi, Sac, Penkaans, Lušei/Mizo, et cetera are spoken. Chetgonien and Nodien Bengali are the main dialects spoken in lower Chittagong. Chetgonien has a noticeable influence from Portuguese due to the historical presence of Portuguese traders and settlers in the area, which is much more pronounced in Chetgonien Bengali than Nodien Bengali. Chetgonien, as well as Seletino and other Bengali dialects have loanwords from a large number of foreign tongues, most notably Portuguese, Farsi/Persian, Arabic, Hindustani, Turkish and English, adding to the language's rich vocabulalry. In the Brampüter floodplain, languages like Cochense/Köch, Rajbągczyk, and Gerano are spoken. In the Eastern Baroque Valley, alongside Noidien Bengali and Seletino, Pnar, Micreesh, Kasee, Metois, Serimje, Reccüle, Reloch, Coıreğçâ and Secachfa are spoken. Gutte/Cutte Bengali, Urdu, and other forms of Hindustani are spoken in Dacca alongside Nodien/Standard Bengali. Sentale, Cursh, Oriense, Mentaoren, Ekristian alongside Renporee and Nodien Bengali are among the languages spoken in the north-western divisions. The nomadic River Gypsies speak Thet. Bagdi and Bindi languages are spoken in the south-western divisions as well as local Bengali dialects and other tribal languages. Numerous other languages like Rohingya Bengali, Ganju, Kanda, Bhumij, Baraik, Nepali, Bhojpuri et cetera are also spoken, as well as immigrant and liturgical languages like Chinese, French, Spanish, Arabic, Latin, Greek, Aramaic and Ebrogh. Languages like Armenian, Chinese, Greek and Persian were previously spoken at-home by certain communities, mostly traders, but have gone extinct.
|
||||
India: There are 22 official languages in the states and territories of India (Including Hindi and English, the languages with official use by the Union Government). The largest, Hindi, is spoken natively by 26% of the population. English is also used, although mainly in some urban parts of the country. A large number of students with a high-school education would generally be trilingual – speaking their own native language, in addition to Hindi and English, with varying fluency—because of the nation's long-standing three language formula that encourages students to learn English and another Indian language as second- and third-languages.
|
||||
Nepal: The 2011 Nepal census reports 123 Nepalese languages spoken as a mother tongue. Most belong to the Indo-Aryan and Sino-Tibetan language families. These are considered to be national languages, and according to the Constitution of Nepal 2015 they are official in their own regions. Despite this, Nepali was selected as the sole working language for the Nepali government.
|
||||
Pakistan. The national language is English and Urdu; English was to be replaced by Urdu however this has not occurred despite many attempts in the past to do so. Pakistan is unique in that both English and Urdu are non-native languages and nearly all Pakistani's need to learn them as a second and/or a third language. There are many regional languages and dialects (the latter are often unintelligible from other dialects of the "same language"). Many high-school and college educated Pakistanis are trilingual, being able to speak English and Urdu as well as their own regional language with varying fluency.
|
||||
Sri Lanka. Sinhala and Tamil are official languages. English is referred to as the link language in the constitution.
|
||||
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|
||||
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|
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|
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|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== Southeast Asia ===
|
||||
Brunei: Malay (official) and English
|
||||
Cambodia: Khmer is the official language, but French is spoken by a minority and sometimes used in government and education. Mandarin is spoken in business and commerce.
|
||||
East Timor – Tetum and Portuguese are the official languages; English and Indonesian "shall be working languages within the public administration side by side with official languages as long as it is deemed necessary"
|
||||
Indonesia is the largest bilingual country in the world, with approximately 200 million people speak more than one language. Indonesians speak about 746 different languages. Javanese has the most users in terms of native speakers (about 80 million). However, the sole official (or so-called "unity language") is Indonesian which has only 30 million L1 speakers (compared to Indonesia 260 million population). The role of Indonesian is important to glue together different ethnics and languages in Indonesia. Though Indonesian is considered the nation's only official language, regional governments have rights to conduct regional languages study at schools. Many people in Indonesia are bilingual at an early age. They speak a local native language with their families whereas the official Indonesian language is used to communicate with people from other regions and is taught in schools as a compulsory subject.
|
||||
In Laos, Lao is the official language; however, French is understood and used by government.
|
||||
In Malaysia, nearly all people have a working knowledge of Malay and English. Malay is the official language of the country, along with English in the state of Sarawak. Malay and English are compulsory subjects taught in all public schools. Chinese (Mandarin) and Tamil are spoken by the Chinese and Indian communities respectively, and are the languages of instruction in Chinese and Tamil primary schools respectively. Among the Chinese community, apart from Mandarin, several Chinese languages especially Hakka, Hokkien, Cantonese and Teochew and among Indians, Tamil is the most spoken and dominant language. The indigenous peoples of Sabah and Sarawak speak their ancestral languages (Dayak, Iban etc.). However, it is not uncommon for the locals to be fluent in several of the above languages. The Constitution provides for use of Sabah and Sarawak languages in native courts or for any code of native law and custom.
|
||||
Philippines: The Philippine constitution designates Filipino as the national language and, along with English, as official languages. Regional languages are designated as auxiliary official languages in the regions which shall serve as auxiliary media of instruction therein. Spanish and Arabic are designated to be promoted on a voluntary and optional basis. Some people in native Tagalog areas are bilingual, while in non-Tagalog areas it is common to be multilingual in Filipino, English, and in one or more of the regional languages, or as in other cases in languages such as Spanish, Fukien (Hokkien), and Arabic due to factors such as ancestry and religion. Eleven regional languages are recognised by the government as auxiliary official languages in their respective regions, while 90+ other languages and dialects are spoken by various groups.
|
||||
Singapore: English, Mandarin Chinese, Malay and Tamil are all official languages. Malay is the national language. English is the main language used in Singapore. As English links the different races and ethnic groups, a group with diverse races and ethnicities communicate using English. Most of the population can speak, read and write in English. In addition to English, many Singaporeans can speak their respective ethnic language like Mandarin Chinese fairly well, as it is a compulsory subject in school. In Chinese communities, the older generation usually speak their own language like Hakka and Hokkien besides Mandarin and/or English.
|
||||
Thailand: Thai is the main and sole official language in Thailand. There are different dialects such as Phitsanulok, Ayutthaya, Suphan Buri (traditional dialect), Thonburi, but Standard Thai is influenced by Thai Chinese in Bangkok, Isan which is influenced from Lao and widely used in the northeastern area, Southern Thai is spoken in the southern provinces, Northern Thai is spoken in the provinces that were formerly part of the independent kingdom of Lanna. Karen languages are spoken along the border with Burma, Khmer near Cambodia (and previously throughout central Thailand), and Malay in the south near Malaysia. The Thai hill tribes speak numerous small languages. Also, there is a big population of Chinese descent people in Thailand and the old generation often use Teochew as well as Hakka as their first language. The new generation tends to speak them as a second language or some may not know it at all.
|
||||
Vietnam: Vietnamese is the official language, and English is the most commonly used and studied second language, especially in education, international relations, and the media. In addition, French is spoken by a small minority of people and elders as it used to be the most common second language. The right to use own language, also in courts, is foreseen in the constitution.
|
||||
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|
||||
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|
||||
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|
||||
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source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions"
|
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category: "reference"
|
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tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:07.199573+00:00"
|
||||
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|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== Western Asia ===
|
||||
Bahrain: Arabic is the official language, and English is the most commonly used and studied second language, especially in education, international relations, and the media. In addition, Persian and Urdu are widely spoken.
|
||||
Cyprus has two official languages: Greek and Turkish. Both languages were spoken throughout the island before 1974. After 1974, and the partition of the island, Turkish became the sole official language in the Turkish-Cypriot-controlled north whereas the internationally recognized Republic of Cyprus retains both languages as official. English is also widely spoken and understood throughout the island. Armenian and Arabic are the two official minority language.
|
||||
In Iran, Persian is the only official language, but Azerbaijani (along with related varieties such as Qashqa'i and Kalaj) has upwards of 20 million speakers. Other minority languages include Kurdish, Turkmen, and Balochi. Assyrian is spoken by a Christian minority in the vicinity of Urmia. In the southwestern Iranian province of Khuzestan, most people speak Khuzestani Persian, Khuzestani Arabic, and Standard Persian, sometimes in addition to their own community languages such as Lur, Qashqa'i, Domari or Mandaic where applicable. None of the non-Persian languages are taught at schools.
|
||||
In Iraq, Arabic is the official language of the state, Kurdish is the official language of the north where 4 million native speakers live. The use of Turkmen, Assyrian, and Armenian in education is provided for in the Constitution. Other languages also exist among Christian communities north of and around Baghdad, such as Aramaic. English is used as well.
|
||||
In Israel, Hebrew has the official status of the state's language and Arabic – a special status with protection of its pre-2018 functions (see Languages of Israel). Jewish immigrants to Israel (especially from Europe) have a different mother tongue, such as Arabic, Amharic, Yiddish, Ladino, Russian, Romanian, Polish, Ukrainian, English, or French and many Jewish immigrants from Latin America speak Spanish and Portuguese. The Arab population of Israel speaks Arabic. Functionally, almost all Arabs in Israel also speak Hebrew. English is widely spoken and understood as a second language by both Arabs and Jews. Officially, road signs must be in Hebrew, Arabic, and a romanized Hebrew transliteration.
|
||||
In Lebanon, Arabic is the official and national language; the Constitution provides for the conditions of using French to be provided by law. Many Lebanese are fluent in French and in English. Armenian is also a language mainly used in the Armenian community.
|
||||
Arabic is the official language of Palestine, and Palestinian Arabic is the dominant dialect spoken by most of the population. The dialect is distinct but shares features with Levantine Arabic spoken in Jordan, Syria, and Lebanon. Classical Arabic is used in religious contexts, media, and formal communication. Hebrew is spoken in certain areas, particularly where illegal Israeli settlements exist, and some Palestinians are bilingual in Arabic and Hebrew due to proximity to Israeli businesses and workplaces. English is widely taught in schools and used in higher education, diplomacy, and international communication. Several minority languages exist: French is spoken by parts of the population due to historical ties and education systems influenced by French institutions. Armenian is present within the Armenian community, primarily in Jerusalem and Bethlehem, where Armenian churches and schools exist. Domari, the language of Romani groups, is spoken by the Dom community, an often overlooked ethnic group within Palestine. There is also a deep linguistic connection to historical Palestine, where Aramaic was once widely spoken before Arabic became dominant. Some Christian communities still preserve liturgical Aramaic, keeping its legacy alive in religious texts and rituals.
|
||||
In Qatar, Arabic is the official language, and English is common language.
|
||||
Syria:
|
||||
Arabic is the official language, English is taught as a second language in schools starting from first grade, and in middle school you get to choose between French and Russian as a third language.
|
||||
Rojava: the constitution of the de facto autonomous region designates Kurdish, Arabic and Syriac as official languages.
|
||||
In Turkey, the Constitution of Turkey defines Turkish as the only official language of the country (art. 3) and explicitly prohibits educational institutions to teach any language other than Turkish as a mother tongue to Turkish citizens (art. 42). Only exception is Greek and Armenian languages, which can be taught in schools as part of non-Muslim minorities rights of Treaty of Lausanne. In 2013, the Ministry of Education introduced Kurdish, Abkhaz, Adyghe and Laz languages into the academic programme of the basic schools as optional classes from the fifth year on. In 2010, Kurdish municipalities in the southeast decided to begin printing water bills, marriage certificates and construction and road signs, as well as emergency, social and cultural notices, in Kurdish alongside Turkish. Friday sermons by imams began to be delivered in the language, and Esnaf provided Kurdish price tags. Before August 2002, the Turkish government placed severe restrictions on the use of Kurdish, prohibiting the language in education and broadcast media. In March 2006, Turkey allowed private television channels to broadcast in Kurdish. However, the Turkish government said that they must avoid showing children's cartoons, or educational programs that teach Kurdish, and could broadcast only for 45 minutes a day or four hours a week. However, most of these restrictions on private Kurdish television channels were relaxed in September 2009.
|
||||
United Arab Emirates: Arabic is the official language of the country, although English is an unofficial language it is widely accepted as the lingua franca as over 89% of the population is migrant. Almost everyone has a working knowledge of English. All road signs are written in both Arabic and English. English is dominant in higher education and is a required ability for most local jobs. English is a compulsory subject in all public schools and is the language of instruction for mathematics and science.
|
||||
|
||||
== Europe ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of multilingual countries and regions"
|
||||
chunk: 10/14
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:07.199573+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== Central Europe ===
|
||||
Austria has one official language: German. However, it also has Croatian and Slovenian minorities, all of whose languages are protected under federal laws. Certain functions are also guaranteed for Romany, Hungarian, Czech and Slovak in Vienna and Burgenland, under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.
|
||||
In the Czech Republic, several municipalities of Trans-Olza area have official bilingualism (Czech and Polish). Bilingual signs are permitted if a minority constitutes at least a 10% of the population of the municipality. German is recognized as a minority language because of the previous visible German presence in Bohemia.
|
||||
Germany has German as its official national language. Low German is recognized as a regional language in at least five north German states. Lower Sorbian is an official minority language in Brandenburg, Upper Sorbian in Saxony, Sater Frisian in a part of Lower Saxony, and North Frisian varieties and Danish in Schleswig-Holstein. A language without its own territory, Romany (including the language of the Sinte people) is an official minority language as well. Germany is home to large numbers of people from other regions, and some of their languages, such as Turkish, Russian, and Polish, are widely used throughout the country. However, those languages are considered foreign and thus are given no official status.
|
||||
Hungary, the official language is Hungarian. The country recognizes Beás, Croatian, German, Romani, Romanian, Bosnian, Serbian, Slovak, Slovene languages. Use of those languages for certain functions is provided for by law, applying to localities where the share of a relevant minority exceeds 10% or, for wider functions, 20%.
|
||||
Poland – 20 bilingual communes in Poland (mostly Polish-German) speak forms of the German language. Belarusian, Czech, Hebrew, Yiddish, Lithuanian, German, Armenian, Russian, Slovak, and Ukrainian are recognised as national minorities languages while Karaim, Lemko, Romani, and Tatar as ethnic minorities languages.
|
||||
Slovakia has a Hungarian minority of 520,000 (9.7%). Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, German, Bosnian, Serbian, Hungarian, Polish, Roma, Russian, Ruthenian, and Ukrainian languages are recognized as regional or minority languages, with guarantees of their use in municipalities where Slovak citizens belonging to the national minorities form at least 20% of the population.
|
||||
Switzerland has four national languages; German, French, Italian, and Romansh. The cantons Valais, Fribourg and Bern are bilingual (French and German), while canton Graubünden is trilingual (German, Romansh, and Italian). Most Swiss nowadays learn English to communicate to Swiss speaking other native languages, as English is neutral among speakers of different national languages, making it a lingua franca, with no one national language dominating the other.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Eastern Europe ===
|
||||
Ex-Soviet republics and Warsaw Pact countries: Many people speak Russian fluently, especially in Slavic countries within the area of the former USSR (typically in Belarus and Ukraine), along with Moldova, which has a Slavic minority. However, few Polish, Slovak or Czech people speak Russian, despite huge expenditures in the past.
|
||||
Abkhazia. According to Georgian law, Georgian and Abkhazian are co-official; according to Abkhazian law – Abkhazian and Russian. The elder generation of Abkhazis spoke Georgian, Russian and Abkhazi.
|
||||
Belarus has two official languages: Belarusian and Russian.
|
||||
Estonia has one official language, Estonian, but there is also a sizeable Russian-speaking community (around 30% in 2000) who speak Russian. Russian and other minority languages can theoretically be used in communication with local government and state institutions within the borders of certain constituencies where most permanent residents belong to a respective national minority (Article 51 of the Constitution). Only citizens of Estonia are considered to belong to national minorities; thus, the provision is only applicable in three parishes and two towns. Many Estonians can speak Russian, but many Russians are not fluent in Estonian including those who are Estonian citizens, however fluency varies considerably between age groups.
|
||||
Latvia has one official language, Latvian. The Livonian language is recognized as autochthonous (in the Livonian coast, it is allowed to form toponyms in Livonian alongside Latvian); the others are defined as "foreign" in the Official Language Law, but there is also a sizeable minority with Russian as their native language – 37.3% of those answering the question on language used at home named Russian in the 2011 census.
|
||||
Lithuania has one official language, Lithuanian. The largest minorities in Lithuania are both Slavic-speaking: Russian and Polish. The latter are a majority in Šalčininkai district municipality.
|
||||
Republics of Russia (see also North Asia for other languages of Russia):
|
||||
Adygea – Russian and Adyghe are co-official
|
||||
Bashkortostan – Russian and Bashkir are co-official
|
||||
Dagestan – Russian and 13 languages are co-official. The Constitution does not state the list of the languages but instead mentions that the languages of the peoples of Dagestan are official. The commonly used list of 13 languages can be derived for example from the languages in which the regional public Radio and Television company broadcasts programmes: Since 2017, The Atlas of multilingualism of Dagestan has become available online.
|
||||
Ingushetia – Russian and Ingush are co-official
|
||||
Kabardino-Balkaria – Russian, Kabardian, Balkar are co-official
|
||||
Tatarstan – Russian and Tatar are co-official
|
||||
Kalmykia – Russian and Kalmyk are co-official
|
||||
Karachay-Cherkessia – Russian (also as a language of interethnic communication), Abaza, Cherkess, Karachay and Nogai are co-official
|
||||
Mari El – Russian and Mari are co-official
|
||||
Mordovia – Russian and Mordvin are co-official
|
||||
Komi Republic – Russian and Komi are co-official
|
||||
Karelia – Russian is official, but Karelian is spoken by the ethnic Karelian minority.
|
||||
North Ossetia–Alania – Russian and Ossetian are co-official
|
||||
Udmurtia – Russian and Udmurt are co-official
|
||||
Chechnya – Russian and Chechen are co-official
|
||||
Chuvashia – Russian and Chuvash are co-official
|
||||
Komi-Permyak Okrug: Komi-Permyak language is official (along with Russian) in this administrative-territorial unit with special status of Perm Krai.
|
||||
In Ukraine, Russian, Hungarian and Romanian were granted status of a regional language in certain areas in 2012–18 (Language policy in Ukraine). Carpathian Ruthenia, Ukraine, Slovaks living near Uzhhorod speak Ukrainian and Hungarian in addition to their mother tongue, Slovakian. In villages near Mukachevo Germans (Swabian dialect speakers) also speak Hungarian and Ukrainian.
|
||||
37
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyglots-0.md
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37
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@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of polyglots"
|
||||
chunk: 1/6
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyglots"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:10.749388+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of notable people with a knowledge of six or more languages.
|
||||
|
||||
== Deceased ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Antiquity and Middle Ages ===
|
||||
Mithridates VI (135–63 BC), King of Pontus. According to Pliny the Elder, Mithridates could speak the languages of all of the twenty-two nations that he ruled.
|
||||
Cleopatra (69–30 BC), Queen of Egypt. According to Plutarch, Cleopatra spoke many languages in addition to her native language, Greek, including Latin, Egyptian, Ethiopian, Trogodyte, and the languages of the Hebraioi, Arabes, Syrians, Medes, and Parthians.
|
||||
Al-Farabi (870–950), Islamic philosopher. He was reputed to know seventy languages.
|
||||
Frederick II (1194–1250), King of Sicily and Holy Roman Emperor. He knew Sicilian, French, Latin, Greek, German, and Arabic.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Modern age, pre-18th century ===
|
||||
Mehmed II (1432–1481), Sultan of the Ottoman Empire. In addition to his native language, Turkish, he learnt Arabic, Hebrew, Persian, Latin, and Greek.
|
||||
Elizabeth I (1533–1603), Queen of England and Ireland. She is thought to have known English, Welsh, French, Spanish, Italian, Latin, Greek, and some German.
|
||||
Athanasius Kircher (1602–1680), German Jesuit scholar. He was said to know twelve languages.
|
||||
John Milton (1608–1674), English poet. He knew English, Italian, Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, and to a lesser extent Dutch, French, Spanish, Aramaic, and Syriac.
|
||||
Wojciech Bobowski (1610–1675), Polish musician held captive by the Ottoman Empire. He is said to have known Polish, English, German, French, Italian, Latin, Ancient Greek, Persian, Arabic, Hebrew, and Turkish.
|
||||
Alexander Mavrokordatos (c. 1641–1709), Ottoman Greek physician and Grand Dragoman of the Porte. He knew Greek, Ottoman Turkish, Arabic, Persian, Latin, Italian, French, Old Church Slavonic, and possibly German.
|
||||
Dimitrie Cantemir (1673–1723), Prince of Moldavia. He spoke Romanian, Italian, Latin, Modern Greek, Russian, Persian, Arabic, and Ottoman Turkish, and had an understanding of French, Ancient Greek, and Old Church Slavonic.
|
||||
|
||||
=== 18th century ===
|
||||
Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826), third president of the United States. He spoke English, French, Italian, and Latin, and could read Spanish and Greek. He may also have had some knowledge of German.
|
||||
William Jones (1746–1794), British philologist and jurist. He knew twenty-eight languages to varying degrees: English, Dutch, German, Swedish, Welsh, Russian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, Pali, Hindi, Bengali, Persian, Middle Persian, Zoroastrian Dari, Arabic, Hebrew, Syriac, Geʽez, Coptic, Turkish, Chinese, Tibetan, and the various forms of early Germanic preserved in runic inscriptions.
|
||||
John Oswald (c. 1760–1793), Scottish revolutionary. He learnt Latin and Greek in his youth, and later studied French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and Arabic.
|
||||
Giuseppe Caspar Mezzofanti (1774–1849), Italian cardinal. One of his contemporaries recorded that he knew seventy-two languages to varying degrees; another calculated that he knew sixty or sixty-one. Both agreed that there were thirty languages that he had fully mastered: Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Latin, English, Dutch, Flemish, German, Danish, Swedish, Russian, Polish, Czech, Illyrian, Greek, Romaic, Albanian, Ancient Armenian, Modern Armenian, Persian, Hungarian, Turkish, Hebrew, Rabbinical Hebrew, Arabic, Maltese, Aramaic, Coptic, and Chinese.
|
||||
Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855), German mathematician. He wrote in Latin and could read Greek. In addition to his native language, German, he knew a number of modern European languages. At the age of sixty-two, he began studying Russian and mastered it within two years.
|
||||
Jean-François Champollion (1790–1832), French Egyptologist. He knew Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, Hebrew, Aramaic, Syriac, Amharic, and Coptic.
|
||||
Helmuth von Moltke the Elder (1800–1891), Prussian field marshal. He knew seven languages, but was habitually taciturn, so that he was said to be "silent in seven languages". Among the languages he knew were German, English, Danish, French, Italian, and Turkish.
|
||||
54
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@ -0,0 +1,54 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of polyglots"
|
||||
chunk: 2/6
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyglots"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:10.749388+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== 19th century ===
|
||||
William Rowan Hamilton (1805–1865), Irish mathematician. Encouraged by his uncle, he learnt many languages while still young, including Latin, Greek, Hindustani, Bengali, Marathi, Sanskrit, Persian, Arabic, Hebrew, Aramaic, Syriac, and Malay.
|
||||
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807–1882), American poet. He knew Latin, Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and German. He also had some knowledge of Dutch, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic, and Finnish.
|
||||
Jan Prosper Witkiewicz (1808–1839), Polish-Lithuanian explorer and diplomat. He spoke Polish, Russian, English, German, French, Persian, Pashto, Kazakh, and Chagatai Turkish.
|
||||
Solomon Caesar Malan (1812–1894), British clergyman. He was conversant with around eighty languages, including German, Spanish, Italian, Latin, Sanskrit, Hebrew, Arabic, Chinese, and Tibetan.
|
||||
Otto von Bismarck (1815–1898), Prussian statesman. In addition to his native language, German, he spoke English and French, and to a lesser extent Italian, Russian, Polish, and Plattdeutsch. He also had some knowledge of Latin.
|
||||
Herschell Filipowski (1816–1872), Lithuanian-born British actuary and editor. He was conversant with Polish, Russian, German, English, French, Spanish, Latin, Hebrew, Arabic, and Chinese.
|
||||
Karl Marx (1818–1883), German political theorist. He spoke German, English, and French, and could read Greek, Latin, Italian, Spanish, Romanian, and Russian.
|
||||
C. V. Runganada Sastri (1819–1881), Indian civil servant. The Dictionary of Indian Biography states that he knew English, German, French, Latin, Greek, Persian, Sanskrit, Hindustani, Marathi, Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada, Telugu, Arabic, and some Hebrew. Other sources suggest he also knew Italian.
|
||||
Friedrich Engels (1820–1895), German political theorist. He spoke German, English, Danish, French, Italian, and Spanish, and to a lesser extent Russian, Polish, and Romanian. He also studied a number of other languages, including Greek, Latin, Portuguese, Dutch, Frisian, Gothic, Irish, Czech, Slovenian, Serbian, Persian, Hebrew, Turkish, and Japanese.
|
||||
Richard Francis Burton (1821–1890), British explorer and writer. He knew twenty-nine languages and eleven dialects, including Greek, Latin, Italian, Spanish, French, Provençal, Béarnais, Persian, Sanskrit, Hindustani, Gujarati, Punjabi, Sindhi, Marathi, Telugu, Toda, Arabic, Somali, and Swahili.
|
||||
Heinrich Schliemann (1822–1890), German businessman and archaeologist. He knew eighteen languages, including German, Dutch, English, French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and Russian.
|
||||
Pedro II (1825–1891), last emperor of Brazil. He spoke Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian, Latin, German, Hebrew, and Tupi-Guarani, and could read Provençal, Greek, Sanskrit, and Arabic.
|
||||
Pashko Vasa (1825–1892), Albanian writer. He spoke Albanian, Italian, French, Greek, and Turkish. He also knew some English and Serbo-Croatian, and in his later years learnt Arabic.
|
||||
Georg Sauerwein (1831–1904), German translator and private tutor. He spoke and wrote twenty-six languages.
|
||||
Pétrus Ký (1837–1898), Vietnamese scholar. He spoke eight languages and had reasonable competence in several others.
|
||||
James Murray (1837–1915), Scottish lexicographer. He was familiar with a wide range of languages and dialects, including Latin, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Catalan, Provençal, Vaudois, Anglo-Saxon, Mœso-Gothic, German, Dutch, Flemish, Danish, Russian, Persian, Sanskrit, Hebrew, Syriac, Aramaic, Phoenician, and Coptic.
|
||||
Nikodim Milaš (1845–1915), Serbian Orthodox bishop and saint. He could read Serbian, Russian, German, English, French, Italian, Latin, and Greek.
|
||||
Naim Frashëri (1846–1900), Albanian writer. He wrote in Albanian, Greek, Persian, and Turkish. He also knew French, Italian, and Arabic.
|
||||
Sami Frashëri (1850–1904), Albanian writer. He knew Albanian, Greek, French, Italian, Persian, Arabic, and Turkish.
|
||||
Eduardo Toda y Güell (1852–1941), Spanish diplomat. He spoke seven languages.
|
||||
Emilio Kosterlitzky (1853–1928), Russian-born Mexican soldier. He spoke Russian, Polish, Spanish, French, Italian, English, German, Danish, and Swedish.
|
||||
Arthur Rimbaud (1854–1891), French poet. He spoke and wrote five European languages: French, Italian, Spanish, English, and German. He also knew Arabic, Amharic, Harari, Oromo, and Somali, and may have had some knowledge of Argobba, Tigrinya, and a now-extinct language named Kotou.
|
||||
Robert Dick Wilson (1856–1930), American Bible scholar. He learnt twenty-six languages and dialects, including Latin, Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, German, Hebrew, Aramaic, Syriac, and Arabic.
|
||||
Nikola Tesla (1856–1943), Serbian-American inventor. He spoke eight languages, including Serbo-Croatian, English, German, French, and Italian.
|
||||
Heinrich von Coudenhove-Kalergi (1859–1906), Austro-Hungarian diplomat. He spoke sixteen languages, including Japanese, Russian, Turkish, and Hebrew.
|
||||
L. L. Zamenhof (1859–1917), creator of Esperanto. He spoke Russian, Polish, Yiddish, German, and French natively or at a native level. He also spoke English, but not well. He knew four classical languages, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and Aramaic, and two constructed languages, Volapük and Esperanto, and may have had some knowledge of Italian and Lithuanian.
|
||||
José Rizal (1861–1896), Filipino writer and nationalist. He spoke or could read Tagalog, Visayan, Ilocano, Cebuano, Subanen, Malay, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, French, Catalan, Latin, English, Dutch, German, Swedish, Russian, Greek, Sanskrit, Hebrew, Arabic, Japanese, and Chinese.
|
||||
Emil Krebs (1867–1930), German diplomat. By the time he left school, he could speak twelve languages. In 1914, he calculated that he could translate to and from German in thirty-two languages. Later he was said to know sixty or sixty-five languages, including English, Dutch, Icelandic, Norwegian, Danish, Swedish, Latin, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Catalan, Romanian, Russian, Ukrainian, Polish, Czech, Slovak, Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian, Bulgarian, Lithuanian, Latvian, Irish, Greek, Albanian, Armenian, Persian, Sanskrit, Hindi, Urdu, Gujarati, Hungarian, Finnish, Estonian, Georgian, Basque, Arabic, Hebrew, Syriac, Assyrian, Babylonian, Sumerian, Coptic, Swahili, Turkish, Tatar, Mongolian, Manchu, Japanese, Korean, Chinese, Tibetan, Burmese, Thai, Malay, and Javanese.
|
||||
Minakata Kumagusu (1867–1941), Japanese scholar. He could read eighteen or nineteen languages, including Latin, Greek, Persian, and Arabic.
|
||||
Rıza Tevfik Bölükbaşı (1869–1949), Turkish politician. He knew Turkish, English, German, French, Spanish, Italian, Latin, Albanian, Armenian, Persian, Arabic, and Hebrew.
|
||||
Ahatanhel Krymsky (1871–1942), Ukrainian scholar. At the age of twenty-five, he was proficient in seventeen languages.
|
||||
Sri Aurobindo (1872–1950), Indian philosopher. He could speak, read, and write Bengali, English, and French; read and write Sanskrit, Latin, and Greek; speak and read Gujarati, Marathi, and Hindi; and read German, Italian, and Spanish.
|
||||
Harold Williams (1876–1928), New Zealand journalist. He knew more than forty languages, including Maori, Samoan, Tongan, Fijian, Ilocano, Russian, Ukrainian, Polish, Old Church Slavonic, Lithuanian, Latvian, Greek, Armenian, Persian, Sanskrit, Hungarian, Finnish, Estonian, Georgian, Turkish, Tatar, Buryat, Japanese, and Chinese.
|
||||
Hrachia Acharian (1876–1953), Armenian linguist. Among the languages he knew were Armenian, Greek, English, German, French, Italian, Latin, Persian, Sanskrit, Hebrew, and Laz.
|
||||
Harinath De (1877–1911), Indian scholar. He knew Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, Oriya, Marathi, Gujarati, Sanskrit, Pali, Persian, German, French, Spanish, Italian, Latin, Greek, and Arabic. He also had some knowledge of Danish, Dutch, Anglo-Saxon, Old and Middle High German, Portuguese, Romanian, Provençal, Hebrew, Turkish, and Chinese.
|
||||
Martin Buber (1878–1965), Austrian philosopher. He spoke German, Yiddish, English, French, Italian, Polish, and Hebrew, and could read Dutch, Spanish, Latin, and Greek.
|
||||
Muhammad Shahidullah (1885–1969), Bengali linguist. He knew twenty-four languages.
|
||||
Ho Chi Minh (1890–1969), Vietnamese statesman. In addition to his native language, Vietnamese, he knew French, English, Russian, Cantonese, and Mandarin.
|
||||
Ahmad Kasravi (1890–1946), Iranian scholar. He knew Persian, Middle Persian, Armenian, English, Arabic, and Esperanto.
|
||||
Edmund Wilson (1895–1972), American literary critic. He studied French and Italian at university, and later learnt to read German, Russian, Hebrew, and some Hungarian.
|
||||
Roman Jakobson (1896–1982), Russian linguist. He knew around twenty languages, including Russian, Czech, Bulgarian, French, and German.
|
||||
William James Sidis (1898–1944), American child prodigy. He knew English, German, Russian, French, Latin, Greek, Armenian, and Turkish.
|
||||
Paul Robeson (1898–1976), American singer and activist. He spoke ten languages, including Russian, German, French, Spanish, and Chinese, and had knowledge of a further ten. He sang in more than fifty languages.
|
||||
55
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyglots-2.md
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55
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|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of polyglots"
|
||||
chunk: 3/6
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyglots"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:10.749388+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== 20th century ===
|
||||
|
||||
==== 1900s ====
|
||||
Sukarno (1901–1970), Indonesian politician. He spoke Javanese, Sundanese, Balinese, Indonesian, Dutch, German, English, French, Arabic, and Japanese.
|
||||
Dora Bloch (1902–1976), Israeli hostage. She spoke Hebrew, Arabic, Russian, German, English, and Italian.
|
||||
Steven Runciman (1903–2000), British historian. He began learning French, Latin, Greek, and Russian at a young age, and later learnt Bulgarian, Old Church Slavonic, Armenian, and some Turkish. He may also have had some knowledge of Arabic and a number of other languages.
|
||||
John von Neumann (1903–1957), Hungarian mathematician. He spoke Hungarian, English, German, and French, and also knew Latin and Greek.
|
||||
Syed Mujtaba Ali (1904–1974), Bangladeshi writer. He knew Bengali, Urdu, Hindi, Gujarati, Marathi, Sanskrit, Persian, Pashto, English, German, French, Italian, and Arabic.
|
||||
Pent Nurmekund (1906–1996), Estonian linguist. He could read over eighty languages and could speak a great many of them.
|
||||
H. S. David (1907–1981) Sri Lankan priest. He reportedly knew thirty-three languages: Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Tulu, Kui, Brahui, Sinhalese, Hindi, Vedic, Sanskrit, Prakrit, Pali, Avestan, English, Dutch, German, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Latin, Greek, Lithuanian, Russian, Malay, Arabic, Hebrew, Assyrian, and Sumerian.
|
||||
Muhammad Hamidullah (1908–2002), stateless scholar. He knew ten languages and published works in seven of them (Urdu, Persian, English, German, French, Arabic, and Turkish).
|
||||
João Guimarães Rosa (1908–1967), Brazilian novelist. He spoke Portuguese, Spanish, Italian, French, English, German, Esperanto, and some Russian, and could read with the aid of a dictionary Swedish, Dutch, Latin, and Greek. He studied the grammar of a number of other languages, including Sanskrit, Lithuanian, Polish, Czech, Danish, Finnish, Hungarian, Arabic, Hebrew, Japanese, and Tupi.
|
||||
Kató Lomb (1909–2003), Hungarian interpreter. She spoke Hungarian, Russian, German, English, and French, and to a lesser extent Spanish, Italian, Polish, Japanese, and Chinese. She could also translate from Dutch, Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, Ukrainian, Czech, Bulgarian, Romanian, Portuguese, and Latin.
|
||||
Uku Masing (1909–1985), Estonian scholar. He reputedly knew around sixty-five languages.
|
||||
|
||||
==== 1910s ====
|
||||
Hugh Nibley (1910–2005), American scholar. He knew fourteen languages.
|
||||
Lyuba Kutincheva (1910–1998), Bulgarian traveller. She spoke Bulgarian, Russian, Romanian, French, Turkish, Arabic, and Esperanto.
|
||||
Enoch Powell (1912–1998), British politician and classical scholar. He spoke English, German, French, Italian, Modern Greek, and Urdu, and had a reading knowledge of Spanish, Portuguese, Russian, and Welsh. Among classical languages, he knew Ancient Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and Aramaic.
|
||||
George L. Campbell (1912–2004), British linguist. He spoke forty-four languages and had a working knowledge of perhaps twenty others.
|
||||
Meredith Gardner (1912–2002), American linguist and codebreaker. He spoke German, French, Italian, Spanish, Russian, Lithuanian, and Japanese, and could read Latin, Greek, Sanskrit, Old High German, Middle High German, and Old Church Slavonic.
|
||||
Willy Brandt (1913–1992), German politician. He spoke German, English, Norwegian, Swedish, French, and Italian.
|
||||
Toshihiko Izutsu (1914–1993), Japanese scholar. He knew more than thirty languages, including Arabic, Hebrew, Turkish, Persian, Sanskrit, Pali, Hindustani, Russian, Greek, and Chinese.
|
||||
Aziz Ahmad (1914–1978), Pakistani novelist. He spoke Urdu, Persian, English, German, French, Italian, Arabic, and Turkish.
|
||||
Charles Berlitz (1914–2003), American publisher and author. He learnt to speak English, German, French, and Spanish as a child, and ultimately came to speak thirty-two languages with varying degrees of fluency.
|
||||
Vernon A. Walters (1917–2002), American soldier and diplomat. He spoke English, Dutch, German, French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and Russian.
|
||||
Anthony Burgess (1917–1993), British novelist and composer. He spoke English, German, French, Italian, Spanish, Russian, Chinese, and Malay.
|
||||
Nabi Bakhsh Baloch (1917–2011), Pakistani scholar. He wrote in Sindhi, Seraiki, Urdu, Balochi, Persian, English, and Arabic.
|
||||
Henryk Szeryng (1918–1988), Polish violinist. He spoke Polish, English, German, French, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese.
|
||||
Omeljan Pritsak (1919–2006), Ukrainian scholar. He spoke twelve languages.
|
||||
Shūichi Katō (1919–2008), Japanese scholar. He spoke Japanese, Chinese, English, German, French, and Italian.
|
||||
Fazlur Rahman Malik (1919–1988), Pakistani scholar. In addition to his native language, Urdu, he knew Arabic, Persian, English, German, French, Latin, and Ancient Greek.
|
||||
|
||||
==== 1920s ====
|
||||
Pope John Paul II (1920–2005), former leader of the Catholic Church. In addition to his native language, Polish, he knew Latin, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, English, and German.
|
||||
Ahmad Hasan Dani (1920–2009), Pakistani archaeologist. He spoke fifteen languages, including French, Tamil, and Turkish.
|
||||
Alessandro Bausani (1921–1988), Italian scholar. He had a good knowledge of as many as thirty languages, including Persian, Urdu, Arabic, Turkish, Indonesian, and Basque.
|
||||
P. V. Narasimha Rao (1921–2004), Indian politician. He spoke seventeen languages, including English, German, Spanish, and French.
|
||||
Max Mangold (1922–2015), Swiss linguist. He spoke almost forty languages.
|
||||
Christopher Lee (1922–2015), British actor. He spoke English, German, French, Italian, and Spanish, and had some knowledge of Swedish, Russian, and Greek.
|
||||
Michael Ventris (1922–1956), British architect and decipherer of Linear B. By the age of ten, he spoke English, German, Swiss German, French, and Polish. As an adult, he learnt Swedish, Danish, Italian, Spanish, Russian, Modern Greek, and some Turkish.
|
||||
Stephen Wurm (1922–2001), Hungarian-born Australian linguist. "He was a genuine rapid language learner, and before he was 40, was fluent in five of the Germanic languages, five of the Romance languages, three Slavic languages, in Arabic, Swahili, Turkish, Uzbek, Mongol, Mandarin, Tok Pisin, and Police Motu, and could get by in perhaps 30 other languages—over 50 in all."
|
||||
Jambuvijaya (1923–2009), Jain monk. He could read twenty-two languages, including Sanskrit, French, German, and Japanese.
|
||||
Pope Benedict XVI (1927–2022), former leader of the Catholic Church. In addition to his native language, German, he spoke English, Italian, French, Spanish, and Latin, and could read Ancient Greek and Biblical Hebrew.
|
||||
Hans Eberstark (1929–2001), Austrian interpreter. He interpreted into English and German from Dutch, French, Italian, Spanish, and Catalan. He also had some knowledge of Portuguese, Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, Surinamese Creole, Haitian Creole, Papiamento, Yiddish, several varieties of Swiss German, Albanian, Hebrew, and Amharic.
|
||||
58
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyglots-3.md
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58
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyglots-3.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,58 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of polyglots"
|
||||
chunk: 4/6
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyglots"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:10.749388+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
==== 1930s ====
|
||||
Barry Farber (1930–2020), American radio host. When inducted into the army, he qualified for work in fourteen languages. He had some knowledge of twenty-five languages in total.
|
||||
George Fernandes (1930–2019), Indian politician. In addition to his mother tongue, Konkani, he spoke Marathi, Hindi, Urdu, English, Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada, and Tulu. He also knew Latin.
|
||||
P. B. Sreenivas (1930–2013), Indian singer. He spoke eight languages, including Kannada, Urdu, and English.
|
||||
Abdul Rahman Ghassemlou (1930–1989), Iranian politician. He spoke Kurdish, Persian, English, German, French, Russian, Czech, Slovak, Turkish, Azerbaijani, and Arabic.
|
||||
Jon Elia (1931–2002), Pakistani poet. He knew Urdu, Sanskrit, Persian, English, Arabic, and Hebrew.
|
||||
Corazon Aquino (1933–2009), former president of the Philippines. She spoke Kapampangan, Tagalog, English, Spanish, French, and Japanese.
|
||||
Kenneth L. Hale (1934–2001), American linguist. He spoke over fifty languages, including Spanish, Portuguese, French, Dutch, Irish, Polish, Basque, Turkish, Hebrew, Chinese, Japanese, Navajo, Jemez, Hopi, Oʼodham, Wômpanâak, Ulwa, Miskitu, Warlpiri, and Lardil.
|
||||
Jeong Su-il (1934–2025), Chinese-born North Korean spy. He spoke Korean, Chinese, Japanese, Tagalog, Malay, Arabic, Persian, Russian, French, Spanish, German, and English.
|
||||
William Fulco (1936–2021), American Jesuit priest and scholar. He knew nine languages, including Latin, Greek, German, Aramaic, and Hebrew.
|
||||
Pope Francis (1936–2025), former leader of the Catholic Church. Born in Argentina and of Italian descent, he spoke Spanish and Italian natively. In addition, he knew Latin, and could converse in German, French, Portuguese, and English.
|
||||
Madeleine Albright (1937–2022), former U.S. secretary of state. She spoke Czech, Polish, Serbo-Croatian, Russian, English, German, and French.
|
||||
Ivan Argüelles (1939–2024), American poet. He knew most of the Romance languages (including Spanish, French, Italian, Portuguese, Catalan, Provençal, and Romanian) and a number of Indic languages (Hindi, Bengali, Sinhala, and Nepali), as well as Persian, German, Russian, Arabic, and some Chinese. He also studied Latin, Ancient Greek, Sanskrit, Old Scandinavian, and Old Icelandic.
|
||||
|
||||
==== Post-1930s ====
|
||||
Michael Henry Heim (1943–2012), American literary translator. He knew twelve languages and translated from eight of them: Russian, Czech, Serbo-Croatian, German, Dutch, French, Romanian, and Hungarian.
|
||||
John Boswell (1947–1994), American historian. He spoke or read several Scandinavian languages, Old Icelandic, German, French, Spanish, Italian, Latin, Greek, early and modern Russian, Old Church Slavonic, Armenian, Persian, Arabic, Hebrew, Syriac, and Akkadian.
|
||||
Daniel Kane (1948–2021), Australian linguist. He knew English, Italian, French, Spanish, Latin, Russian, Chinese, Jurchen, Khitan, and Esperanto.
|
||||
J. Jayalalithaa (1948–2016), Indian politician and actress. She spoke Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada, Telugu, Hindi, and English.
|
||||
Robert Hübner (1948–2025), German chess grandmaster. He spoke a dozen languages.
|
||||
Sergei Starostin (1953–2005), Russian linguist. He spoke Russian, Polish, English, German, and French, and could read a further thirteen Slavic languages, as well as Chinese, Japanese, Dutch, Spanish, Italian, Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit. Through his research, he had some knowledge of a wide range of other languages.
|
||||
Dikembe Mutombo (1966–2024), Congolese basketball player. He spoke English, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Tshiluba, Swahili, Lingala, and two other Central African languages.
|
||||
Shahab Ahmed (1966–2015), Pakistani scholar. He mastered around fifteen languages.
|
||||
Moses McCormick (1981–2021), American YouTuber. He spoke around twenty languages at a basic conversational level.
|
||||
|
||||
== Living ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Africa ===
|
||||
Peter Turkson (1948–), Ghanaian Catholic cardinal. In addition to his native language, Fante, he speaks a number of other Ghanaian languages, as well as English, French, Italian, German, and Hebrew. He also knows Latin and Greek.
|
||||
Mohamoud Dirir Gheddi (1959–) Ethiopian politician. He speaks Somali, Oromo, Amharic, Harari, Arabic, English, French, and some Tigrigna.
|
||||
Trevor Noah (1984–), South African comedian. He speaks English, Afrikaans, Zulu, Xhosa, Tswana, Tsonga, and some German.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Asia ===
|
||||
Lokesh Chandra (1927–), Indian scholar. He knows Sanskrit, Pali, Hindi, Avestan, Old Persian, Greek, Latin, French, German, English, Russian, Chinese, Tibetan, Mongolian, Japanese, and Indonesian.
|
||||
Mickey Curtis (1938–), Japanese actor and singer. He speaks Japanese, English, German, French, Italian, and Thai.
|
||||
Bartholomew I (1940–), Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople. He knows Turkish, Greek, English, German, French, Italian, and Latin.
|
||||
Levon Ter-Petrosyan (1945–), former president of Armenia. He speaks Armenian, Russian, French, English, German, Arabic, and Assyrian. He also knows a number of ancient languages.
|
||||
Gloria Macapagal Arroyo (1947–), former president of the Philippines. She speaks Tagalog, Kapampangan, Ilocano, Cebuano, Spanish, and English.
|
||||
Malcolm Ranjith (1947–), current archbishop of Colombo. He speaks Sinhala, English, German, French, Spanish, Italian, Tamil, and Indonesian. He also knows Latin, Greek, and Hebrew.
|
||||
Péter Frankl (1953–), Hungarian mathematician, now living in Japan. He speaks eleven languages, including Hungarian, Japanese, Chinese, English, and French.
|
||||
Kamal Haasan (1954–), Indian actor. He speaks Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada, Telugu, Hindi, Marathi, and English.
|
||||
Shabnam Mausi (1955–), Indian politician. She speaks twelve languages.
|
||||
Naela Chohan (1958–), Pakistani diplomat. She speaks Urdu, Punjabi, Bengali, Persian, English, French, and Spanish.
|
||||
Prakash Raj (1965–), Indian actor. He speaks Kannada, Tulu, Tamil, Malayalam, Telugu, Hindi, and English.
|
||||
Hikmat Hasanov (1975–), Azerbaijani military officer. He speaks Azerbaijani, Turkish, Armenian, Russian, English, and Persian.
|
||||
Asin Thottumkal (1985–) Indian actress. She speaks Malayalam, Tamil, Telugu, Hindi, English, and French.
|
||||
Priya Anand (1986–), Indian actress. She speaks Tamil, Telugu, Hindi, Bengali, Marathi, Spanish, and English.
|
||||
Henrikh Mkhitaryan (1989–), Armenian footballer. He speaks Armenian, Russian, English, German, French, and Portuguese.
|
||||
42
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyglots-4.md
Normal file
42
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyglots-4.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,42 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of polyglots"
|
||||
chunk: 5/6
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyglots"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:10.749388+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== Europe ===
|
||||
John C. Wells (1939–), British phonetician. He studied Latin and Ancient Greek at university, and speaks English, German, Welsh, French, Spanish, Italian, Modern Greek, and Esperanto with varying degrees of fluency. He also has some knowledge of Polish, Russian, Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, and Japanese.
|
||||
Werner Herzog (1942–), German filmmaker. In addition to his native Bavarian, he knows German, English, Ancient Greek, Modern Greek, Latin, Spanish, French, and some Italian.
|
||||
Queen Silvia of Sweden (1943–), spouse of King Carl XVI Gustaf. The daughter of a German father and a Brazilian mother, she speaks German and Portuguese natively. She also knows Spanish, French, English, and Swedish, and has some knowledge of Swedish sign language.
|
||||
André Rieu (1949–), Dutch violinist and conductor. He speaks Dutch, English, German, French, Spanish, and Italian.
|
||||
Arsène Wenger (1949–), French football manager. He speaks French, German, English, Spanish, and Italian, and has some knowledge of Japanese.
|
||||
Noel Malcolm (1956–), British historian. He speaks most Western and Eastern European languages.
|
||||
Ranga Yogeshwar (1959–), Luxembourgish physicist and science journalist. He speaks Luxembourgish, German, English, French, Hindi, Tamil, Kannada, and Malayalam.
|
||||
Johan Vandewalle (1960–), Belgian linguist. In 1987, at the age of twenty-six, he won the Polyglot of Flanders/Babel Prize, after demonstrating communicative competence in nineteen languages (Arabic, Azerbaijani, Bashkir, Dutch, English, French, German, Italian, Kyrgyz, Persian, Russian, Swahili, Tajik, Tatar, Turkish, Turkmen, Tuvan, Uyghur, and Uzbek).
|
||||
Frans Timmermans (1961–), Dutch politician. He speaks Dutch, English, German, French, Italian, and Russian.
|
||||
Sigrid Kaag (1961–), Dutch politician. She speaks Dutch, English, German, French, Spanish, and Arabic.
|
||||
Elia Wallgrén (1961–), Finnish Orthodox archbishop. He speaks Finnish, Estonian, Swedish, English, German, Spanish, Czech, Polish, and Russian with varying degrees of fluency.
|
||||
José Mourinho (1963–), Portuguese football manager. He speaks Portuguese, Spanish, Italian, French, Catalan, and English.
|
||||
Ioannis Ikonomou (1964–), translator at the European Commission. He speaks thirty-two modern languages, including twenty-one of the twenty-four official languages of the European Union (the three exceptions being Estonian, Maltese, and Irish). Among the other languages that he speaks are Russian, Bengali, Persian, Turkish, Arabic, Hebrew, Amharic, and Mandarin. He has also studied a number of ancient languages, such as Old Church Slavonic, Classical Armenian, Sanskrit, Sogdian, and Assyro-Babylonian.
|
||||
Karin Kneissl (1965–), Austrian diplomat and politician. She speaks German, English, French, Italian, Spanish, and Arabic, and has some knowledge of Russian, Hungarian, and Hebrew.
|
||||
Connie Nielsen (1965–), Danish actress. She speaks Danish, Norwegian, Swedish, English, German, French, Italian, and some Spanish.
|
||||
Anatoly Moskvin (1966–), Russian linguist, arrested in 2011 after twenty-six mummified bodies were discovered in his home. He has studied thirteen languages.
|
||||
Mikheil Saakashvili (1967–), former president of Georgia. He speaks Georgian, Russian, Ukrainian, English, and French, and has some command of Spanish and Ossetian.
|
||||
Gianni Infantino (1970–), current president of FIFA. Born in Switzerland to Italian parents, he speaks Italian, French, and Swiss German natively. He also knows English, Spanish, Portuguese, and Arabic.
|
||||
Toto Wolff (1972–), Austrian motorsport executive. He speaks German, English, French, Italian, Spanish, and Polish.
|
||||
Željko Joksimović (1972–), Serbian singer-songwriter. He speaks Serbian, Russian, Polish, Greek, English, and French.
|
||||
Clarence Seedorf (1976–), Dutch former footballer. He speaks Dutch, English, Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, and Surinamese.
|
||||
Richard Simcott (1977–), British language consultant. He speaks sixteen languages (English, French, Spanish, Welsh, German, Macedonian, Swedish, Italian, Serbian, Portuguese, Czech, Catalan, Russian, Dutch, Romanian, and Albanian) and can use around fifty languages in total to some degree.
|
||||
Zdeno Chára (1977–), Slovak ice hockey player. He speaks Slovak, Czech, Polish, Russian, Swedish, German, and English.
|
||||
Daniel Tammet (1979–), British author. In his book Born on a Blue Day, he states that he knows ten languages: English, German, Icelandic, French, Spanish, Romanian, Welsh, Lithuanian, Finnish, and Esperanto.
|
||||
Victor Bayda (c. 1981–), Russian linguist. He speaks Russian, Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Welsh, Icelandic, Swedish, English, Dutch, German, and French.
|
||||
Philip Crowther (1981–), Luxembourgish journalist. He speaks Luxembourgish, German, English, French, Spanish, and Portuguese.
|
||||
Mikel Arteta (1982–), Spanish football manager. He speaks Basque, Spanish, Catalan, Portuguese, French, Italian, and English.
|
||||
Novak Djokovic (1987–), Serbian tennis player. He speaks Serbian, English, German, French, Italian, and Spanish.
|
||||
Ivan Rakitić (1988–), Croatian footballer. He speaks Croatian, English, German, French, Italian, and Spanish.
|
||||
Miralem Pjanić (1990–), Bosnian footballer. He speaks Bosnian, Luxembourgish, German, English, French, and Italian.
|
||||
Romelu Lukaku (1993–), Belgian footballer. He speaks Dutch, English, German, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, and Lingala.
|
||||
33
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyglots-5.md
Normal file
33
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyglots-5.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of polyglots"
|
||||
chunk: 6/6
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyglots"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:10.749388+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== North America ===
|
||||
Powell Janulus (1939–), Canadian court interpreter. According to the 1986 Guinness Book of World Records, he "has worked with 41 languages in the Provincial Court of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada."
|
||||
Stephen Krashen (1941–), American linguist. He knows English, German, Yiddish, Spanish, French, Hebrew, and Amharic.
|
||||
Steve Kaufmann (1945–), Canadian businessman. He has some understanding of twenty languages, although his ability to speak and write these languages varies to a considerable degree. Some of the languages he has studied are French, Spanish, Portuguese, German, Swedish, Russian, Japanese, Mandarin, and Cantonese.
|
||||
Pope Leo XIV (1955–), leader of the Catholic Church. He speaks English, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and French, and can read Latin and German.
|
||||
Viggo Mortensen (1958–), Danish-American actor. He grew up bilingual in English and Spanish, and later learnt Danish, Italian, and French. He also has some knowledge of Arabic.
|
||||
Julie Payette (1963–), former governor general of Canada. She speaks French and English natively, and can converse in Spanish, Italian, Russian, and German.
|
||||
Alexander Argüelles (1964–), American linguist. He speaks most of the Germanic and Romance languages (in particular, German, Dutch, Swedish, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian), as well as Russian, Korean, and Arabic, and he has a reading knowledge of many more languages, such as Persian and Old Norse.
|
||||
Alberto Lati (1978–), Mexican sports journalist. He speaks Spanish, English, Hebrew, Portuguese, German, Italian, Mandarin, Japanese, French, Greek, and Zulu with varying degrees of fluency.
|
||||
Pete Buttigieg (1982–), American politician. He speaks English, Norwegian, Spanish, French, Italian, Maltese, Arabic, and Dari with varying degrees of fluency.
|
||||
Timothy Doner (1995–), American foreign-policy analyst. He speaks English, German, French, Persian, Arabic, and Hebrew, and has some knowledge of a number of other languages, including Dutch, Yiddish, Italian, Latin, Russian, Croatian, Hindi, Pashto, Kurdish, Turkish, Indonesian, Mandarin, Hausa, Swahili, Xhosa, and Ojibwe.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Oceania ===
|
||||
Sam Lim (1961–), Malaysian-born Australian politician. He can speak ten languages, including Malay, Indonesian, Mandarin, and Burmese.
|
||||
Ghil'ad Zuckermann (1971–), Israeli linguist, now living in Australia. He can speak eleven languages, and has some knowledge of eleven more.
|
||||
|
||||
=== South America ===
|
||||
Martha Argerich (1941–), Argentine pianist. She speaks Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian, German, and English.
|
||||
Ziad Fazah (1954–), Liberian-born Lebanese language teacher, now living in Brazil. He is famous for claiming to speak more than fifty languages, and for a time was listed in The Guinness Book of Records. It is unclear how many languages he can in fact speak.
|
||||
Andrew Divoff (1955–), Venezuelan actor and producer. He speaks Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, French, Italian, English, German, and Russian. At one time he also knew Romanian, but forgot it through lack of use.
|
||||
Sérgio Meira (1968–), Brazilian linguist. He speaks Portuguese, French, Italian, Spanish, Romanian, English, German, and Esperanto, and to a lesser extent Catalan, Dutch, Russian, and Tiriyó. He can read with a dictionary Swedish, Latin, and Greek (both classical and modern), and has considerable knowledge of Volapük.
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
29
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_radicals_in_Unicode-0.md
Normal file
29
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_radicals_in_Unicode-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of radicals in Unicode"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_radicals_in_Unicode"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:28.926560+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The List of Unicode radicals comprises those Unicode characters that represent radical components of CJK characters, Tangut characters or Yi syllables. These are used primarily for indexing characters in dictionaries.
|
||||
There are two CJK radicals blocks: the "Kangxi Radicals" block that includes the 214 standard radicals used in the Kangxi Dictionary; and the "CJK Radicals Supplement" block that includes 115 radical components used in other modern dictionaries, including simplified Chinese and Japanese radicals forms.
|
||||
There is one "Tangut Components" block that includes 768 radicals and components that are used to index Tangut characters in dictionaries of the Tangut script or to describe the structure of Tangut characters.
|
||||
There is one "Yi Radicals" block that includes 55 radicals used to index Yi characters in dictionaries of the standardized Yi script used for writing the Nuosu language in Southern Sichuan and Northern Yunnan.
|
||||
Sets of radicals for other sinoform scripts, such as Jurchen, have also been proposed for encoding in Unicode.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Unicode tables ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Section headers of a Chinese dictionary
|
||||
List of Shuowen Jiezi radicals, a system of 540 components used by Xu Shen (d. ~147AD) in his Shuowen Jiezi
|
||||
List of Kangxi radicals, a system of 214 components used by the Kangxi dictionary (1716), made under the leadership of the Kangxi Emperor
|
||||
List of Xinhua Zidian radicals
|
||||
Chinese characters description languages, computer and SVG based descriptions of CJK characters
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of schools of linguistics"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_schools_of_linguistics"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:18.588746+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of schools in linguistics.
|
||||
|
||||
Columbia School of Linguistics
|
||||
Copenhagen School
|
||||
Formal linguistics
|
||||
Functional linguistics
|
||||
Systemic functional linguistics
|
||||
Sydney School
|
||||
Kharkiv Linguistic School
|
||||
Leiden school
|
||||
Leiden University Centre for Linguistics (LUCL)
|
||||
London School of Linguistics
|
||||
Moscow School of Comparative Linguistics
|
||||
Prague linguistic circle
|
||||
Structural linguistics
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,64 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of summer schools of linguistics"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_summer_schools_of_linguistics"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:23.827484+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of summer schools of linguistics.
|
||||
|
||||
Eastern Generative Grammar (The EGG):
|
||||
Romania: Brašov, Romania (2024)
|
||||
Serbia: Novi Sad, Serbia (2023)
|
||||
Czech Republic: Brno, Czech Republic (2022)
|
||||
Online: (2021)
|
||||
Poland: Wrocław, Poland (2019)
|
||||
Hungary: European Summer School in Generative Grammar (EGG) - Debrecen (2014)
|
||||
European Summer School in Logic, Language and Information (ESSLLI)
|
||||
Belgium: Leuven, Belgium (2024)
|
||||
Slovenia: Ljubljana, Slovenia (2023)
|
||||
Ireland: Galway, Ireland (2022)
|
||||
Netherlands: Utrecht, Netherlands (2021)
|
||||
Germany: Forensic Linguistics Short Course (FLsc) - Düsseldorf (2018–2019, 2021–2024)
|
||||
Germany: Summer School on Corpus Phonology - Augsburg (2008)
|
||||
Greece: The Crete Summer School of Linguistics (CreteLing) - Rethymno (2017, 2018, 2019, 2022, 2023, 2024)
|
||||
Poland: Summer Institute "Languages and Cultures in Contact / in Contrast" - Zakopane (2008)
|
||||
Portugal: NOVA - Lisbon Summer School and Graduate Conference in Linguistics - Lisbon
|
||||
Portugal: U. Minho - APL Summer School of Linguistics 2015: Experimental Methods in Syntax - Braga
|
||||
United Kingdom: International Summer School in Forensic Linguistic Analysis - Birmingham (2000–2010)
|
||||
United States: Summer Institute of Linguistics - University of North Dakota (every summer)
|
||||
United States: Linguistics Society of America Summer Institutes, held in odd-numbered years, including:
|
||||
Empirical Foundations for Theories of Language - Stanford (2007)
|
||||
Linguistic Structure and Language Ecologies - UC Berkeley (2009)
|
||||
Language in the World - University of Colorado at Boulder (2011)
|
||||
Universality and Variability - University of Michigan (2013)
|
||||
Linguistic Theory in a World of Big Data - University of Chicago (2015)
|
||||
Language Across Space and Time - University of Kentucky (2017)
|
||||
Linguistics in the Digital Era - University of California, Davis (2019)
|
||||
Linguistics as Cognitive Science: universality and variation - University of Massachusetts, Amherst (2023)
|
||||
InField (Institute on Field Linguistics and Language Documentation) and its successor CoLang (Institute on Collaborative Language Research), held in even-numbered years, including:
|
||||
United States: InField - University of California, Santa Barbara (2008)
|
||||
United States: InField - University of Oregon (2010)
|
||||
United States: CoLang - University of Kansas (2012)
|
||||
United States: CoLang - University of Texas at Arlington (2014)
|
||||
United States: CoLang - University of Alaska Fairbanks (2016)
|
||||
United States: CoLang - University of Florida (2018)
|
||||
Netherlands: Leiden Summer School in Languages and Linguistics - Leiden
|
||||
Netherlands: LOT Winter School - Leiden/Amsterdam/Nijmegen/Groningen/Utrecht (fixed rotation)
|
||||
Netherlands: LOT Summer School - Leiden/Amsterdam/Nijmegen/Groningen/Utrecht (fixed rotation)
|
||||
Netherlands: Utrecht Summer School - Utrecht (2010)
|
||||
Norway: International Summer School Oslo - Oslo (2011)
|
||||
Russia: NYI Institute of Linguistics, Cognition and Culture - St. Petersburg every summer since 2003
|
||||
France: International School in Linguistic Fieldwork (FieldLing) every summer since 2010
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
|
||||
Lists of schools
|
||||
List of schools of linguistics
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
59
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_syntactic_phenomena-0.md
Normal file
59
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_syntactic_phenomena-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,59 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of syntactic phenomena"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_syntactic_phenomena"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:26.508678+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
A list of phenomena in syntax.
|
||||
|
||||
Anaphora
|
||||
Agreement
|
||||
Answer ellipsis
|
||||
Antecedent-contained deletion
|
||||
Binding
|
||||
Case
|
||||
Clitics
|
||||
Control
|
||||
Coreference
|
||||
Differential Object Marking
|
||||
Discontinuity
|
||||
Do-support
|
||||
Dummy pronouns
|
||||
Ellipsis
|
||||
Ergative verb
|
||||
Exceptional case-marking
|
||||
Existential clauses
|
||||
Expletives
|
||||
Extraposition
|
||||
Gapping
|
||||
Heavy NP shift
|
||||
Inverse copula sentences
|
||||
Movement paradoxes
|
||||
Negative inversion
|
||||
Non-configurational language
|
||||
Parasitic gaps
|
||||
Pied-piping
|
||||
Pro-drop
|
||||
Pseudogapping
|
||||
Raising (linguistics)
|
||||
Reciprocal (grammar)
|
||||
Reflexive pronouns
|
||||
Reflexive verbs
|
||||
Right node raising
|
||||
Scrambling
|
||||
Shifting
|
||||
Sluicing
|
||||
Small clause
|
||||
Stripping
|
||||
Subject-auxiliary inversion
|
||||
Subject-verb inversion
|
||||
Topicalization
|
||||
Tough movement
|
||||
Unaccusative verbs
|
||||
V2 word order
|
||||
Verb phrase ellipsis
|
||||
Wh-movement
|
||||
125
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_text_corpora-0.md
Normal file
125
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_text_corpora-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,125 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of text corpora"
|
||||
chunk: 1/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_text_corpora"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:27.684351+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Text corpora (singular: text corpus) are large and structured sets of texts, which have been systematically collected. Text corpora are used by both AI developers to train large language models and corpus linguists and within other branches of linguistics for statistical analysis, hypothesis testing, finding patterns of language use, investigating language change and variation, and teaching language proficiency.
|
||||
|
||||
== English language ==
|
||||
American National Corpus
|
||||
Bank of English
|
||||
BookCorpus
|
||||
British National Corpus
|
||||
Bergen Corpus of London Teenage Language (COLT)
|
||||
Brown Corpus, forming part of the "Brown Family" of corpora, together with LOB, Frown and F-LOB
|
||||
COCA: see below at English-Corpora.org
|
||||
COHA: see below at English-Corpora.org
|
||||
Corpus Resource Database (CoRD), more than 80 English language corpora.
|
||||
Coruña Corpus, a corpus of late Modern English scientific writing covering the period 1700–1900, developed by the Muste research group at the University of A Coruña
|
||||
DBLP Discovery Dataset (D3), a corpus of computer science publications with sentient metadata.
|
||||
English-Corpora.org, which contains (among others):
|
||||
iWeb, the Intelligent Web-based Corpus: 14 billion words, 6 countries, 2017
|
||||
COCA, the Corpus of Contemporary American English: 1.0 billion words, American, 1990-2019
|
||||
COHA, the Corpus of Historical American English: 475 million words, American, 1820-2019
|
||||
NOW, News on the Web: 23.2 billion+ words, 20 countries, 2010-present
|
||||
English Trends, a large English monitor corpus of news articles gathered from RSS feeds, 86+ billion words, 2014–present
|
||||
GUM corpus, the open source Georgetown University Multilayer corpus, with very many annotation layers
|
||||
Google Books Ngram Corpus
|
||||
International Corpus of English
|
||||
Oxford English Corpus
|
||||
RE3D (Relationship and Entity Extraction Evaluation Dataset)
|
||||
Santa Barbara Corpus of Spoken American English
|
||||
Scottish Corpus of Texts & Speech
|
||||
Strathy Corpus of Canadian English
|
||||
|
||||
== European languages ==
|
||||
CETENFolha
|
||||
Basque:
|
||||
The Corpus of Electronic Texts
|
||||
Corpus Inscriptionum Insularum Celticarum (CIIC), covering Primitive Irish inscriptions in Ogham
|
||||
Google Books Ngram Corpus
|
||||
The Georgian Language Corpus
|
||||
Thesaurus Linguae Graecae (Ancient Greek)
|
||||
Eastern Armenian National Corpus (EANC) 110 million words. Freely searchable online.
|
||||
Spanish text corpus by Molino de Ideas, which contains 660 million words.
|
||||
CorALit: the Corpus of Academic Lithuanian Academic texts published in 1999–2009 (approx. 9 million words). Compiled at the University of Vilnius, Lithuania
|
||||
Reference Corpus of Contemporary Portuguese (CRPC)
|
||||
Turkish National Corpus
|
||||
CoRoLa - The Reference Corpus of the Contemporary Romanian Language (Corpus reprezentativ al limbii române contemporane )
|
||||
TS Corpus - A large set of Turkish corpora. TS Corpus is a Free&Independent Project that aims to build Turkish corpora, NLP tools and linguistic datasets...
|
||||
MacMorpho - an annotated corpus of Brazilian Portuguese text
|
||||
|
||||
=== Slavic ===
|
||||
|
||||
==== East Slavic ====
|
||||
Belarusian N-korpus
|
||||
Russian National Corpus
|
||||
General Internet Corpus of Russian
|
||||
General Regionally Annotated Corpus of Ukrainian
|
||||
Ukrainian Language Corpus on the Mova.info Linguistic Portal
|
||||
Ukrainian Language Corpus
|
||||
Araneum Russicum
|
||||
Russian Corpus of Biographical Texts
|
||||
RuTweetCorp
|
||||
RusAge: Corpus for Age-Based Text Classification
|
||||
|
||||
==== South Slavic ====
|
||||
Bulgarian National Corpus
|
||||
Macedonian Electronic Corpus
|
||||
Croatian Language Corpus
|
||||
Croatian National Corpus
|
||||
Slovenian National Corpus
|
||||
|
||||
==== West Slavic ====
|
||||
Czech National Corpus
|
||||
National Corpus of Polish
|
||||
Slovak National Corpora
|
||||
|
||||
=== German ===
|
||||
German Reference Corpus (DeReKo) More than 4 billion words of contemporary written German.
|
||||
Free corpus of German mistakes from people with dyslexia
|
||||
|
||||
== Middle Eastern Languages ==
|
||||
Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum
|
||||
Kanaanäische und Aramäische Inschriften
|
||||
Hamshahri Corpus (Persian)
|
||||
Persian in MULTEXT-EAST corpus (Persian)
|
||||
Amarna letters (for Akkadian, Egyptian, Sumerogram's, etc.)
|
||||
TEP: Tehran English-Persian Parallel Corpus
|
||||
PTC: Persian Today Corpus: The Most Frequent Words of Today Persian, based on a one-million-word corpus (in Persian: Vāže-hā-ye Porkārbord-e Fārsi-ye Emrūz), Hamid Hassani, Tehran, Iran Language Institute (ILI), 2005, 322 pp. ISBN 964-8699-32-1
|
||||
Kurdish-corpus.uok.ac.ir (Kurdish-corpus Sorani dialect) University of Kurdistan, Department of English Language and Linguistics
|
||||
Bijankhan Corpus A Contemporary Persian Corpus for NLP researches, University of Tehran, 2012
|
||||
Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project
|
||||
Quranic Arabic Corpus (Classical Arabic)
|
||||
Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature
|
||||
Open Richly Annotated Cuneiform Corpus
|
||||
Asosoft text corpus – Central Kurdish (Sorani)
|
||||
Thesaurus Linguae Aegyptiae (ancient Egyptian, Afro-Asiatic)
|
||||
|
||||
== Turkic languages ==
|
||||
Uzbek national corpus (20 million words)
|
||||
|
||||
== Devanagari ==
|
||||
Nepali Text Corpus (90+ million running words/6.5+ million sentences)
|
||||
|
||||
== East Asian Languages ==
|
||||
Kotonoha Japanese language corpus
|
||||
LIVAC Synchronous Corpus (Chinese)
|
||||
|
||||
== South Asian Languages ==
|
||||
Hindi:
|
||||
SinMin dataset (Sinhala)
|
||||
|
||||
== African languages ==
|
||||
Amharic:
|
||||
Creole (Gulf of Guinea):
|
||||
Hausa:
|
||||
Igbo:
|
||||
Oromo:
|
||||
Yoruba:
|
||||
Zulu:
|
||||
60
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_text_corpora-1.md
Normal file
60
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_text_corpora-1.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,60 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of text corpora"
|
||||
chunk: 2/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_text_corpora"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:27.684351+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== Parallel corpora of diverse languages ==
|
||||
Chinese/English Political Interpreting Corpus (CEPIC) consists of transcripts of speeches delivered by top political figures from Hong Kong, Beijing, Washington DC and London, as well as their translated/interpreted texts. Developed by Jun Pan and HKBU Library.
|
||||
Europarl Corpus - proceedings of the European Parliament from 1996 to 2012
|
||||
EUR-Lex corpus - collection of all official languages of the European Union, created from the EUR-Lex database
|
||||
OPUS: Open source Parallel Corpus in many many languages
|
||||
Tatoeba A parallel corpus which contains over 8.9 million sentences in multiple languages; 107 languages have more than 1,000 sentences each; a further 81 languages have from 100 to 1,000 sentences each.
|
||||
NTU-Multilingual Corpus in 7 languages (ara, eng, ind, jpn, kor, mcn, vie) (legacy repo)
|
||||
SeedLing corpus - A Seed Corpus for the Human Language Project with 1000+ languages from various sources.
|
||||
GRALIS parallel texts for various Slavic languages, compiled by the institute for Slavic languages at Graz University (Branko Tošović et al.)
|
||||
The ACTRES Parallel Corpus (P-ACTRES 2.0) is a bidirectional English-Spanish corpus consisting of original texts in one language and their translation into the other. P-ACTRES 2.0 contains over 6 million words considering both directions together.
|
||||
The JRC-Acquis Multilingual Parallel Corpus of the total body of European Union (EU) law: Acquis Communautaire with 231 language pairs.
|
||||
European Parliament Proceedings Parallel Corpus 1996–2011
|
||||
The Opus project aims at collecting freely available parallel corpora Archived 2013-12-14 at the Wayback Machine
|
||||
Japanese-English Bilingual Corpus of Wikipedia's Kyoto Articles Archived 2012-08-22 at the Wayback Machine
|
||||
COMPARA – Portuguese/English parallel corpora
|
||||
TERMSEARCH – English/Russian/French parallel corpora (Major international treaties, conventions, agreements, etc.
|
||||
TradooIT – English/French/Spanish – Free Online tools
|
||||
Nunavut Hansard – English/Inuktitut parallel corpus
|
||||
ParaSol – A parallel corpus of Slavic and other languages
|
||||
Glosbe: Multilanguage parallel corpora Archived 2013-05-27 at the Wayback Machine with online search interface
|
||||
InterCorp: A multilingual parallel corpus 40 languages aligned with Czech, online search interface
|
||||
myCAT – Olanto, concordancer (open source AGPL) with online search on JCR and UNO corpus
|
||||
TAUS, with online search interface.
|
||||
linguatools multilingual parallel corpora, online search interface.
|
||||
EUR-Lex Corpus – corpus built up of the EUR-Lex database consists of European Union law and other public documents of the European Union
|
||||
Language Grid – Multilingual service platform that includes parallel text services
|
||||
|
||||
== Comparable Corpora ==
|
||||
Corpus of Political Speeches contains four collections of political speeches in English and Chinese from The Corpus of U.S. Presidential Speeches (1789–2015), The Corpus of Policy Address by Hong Kong Governors (1984–1996) and Hong Kong Chief Executives (1997–2014), The Corpus of Speeches given on New Year's days and Double Tenth days by Taiwan Presidents (1978–2014), and The Corpus of Report on the Work of the Government by Premiers of the People's Republic of China (1984–2013). Developed by HKBU Library.
|
||||
WaCky - The Web-As-Corpus Kool Yinitiative Web as Corpus (eng, fre, deu, ita)
|
||||
Disambiguating Similar Language Corpora Collection (DSLCC) (Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian, Indonesian, Malay, Czech, Slovak, Brazilian Portuguese, European Portuguese, Peninsular Spanish, Argentine Spanish)
|
||||
Wikipedia Comparable Corpora(registration required) when (41 million aligned Wikipedia articles for 253 language pairs)
|
||||
The TenTen Corpus Family – comparable web corpora of target size 10 billion words. These corpora are available in the corpus management system Sketch Engine, currently, there exist TenTen corpora for more than 30 languages (such as English TenTen corpus, Arabic TenTen corpus, Spanish TenTen corpus, Russian Tenten corpus,). The overview of existing TenTen corpora can be found at https://www.sketchengine.co.uk/documentation/tenten-corpora/
|
||||
Timestamped JSI web corpora – web corpora of news articles crawled from a list of RSS feeds. Newsfeed corpora are being prepared in the framework of the project implemented by the Jožef Stefan Institute at Slovenian scientific research institute. and published in Sketch Engine. More information about the project is on the project websites.
|
||||
|
||||
== L2 (English) Corpora ==
|
||||
Cambridge Learner Corpus
|
||||
Corpus of Academic Written and Spoken English (CAWSE), a collection of Chinese students’ English language samples in academic settings. Freely downloadable online.
|
||||
English as a Lingua Franca in Academic Settings (ELFA), an academic ELF corpus.
|
||||
International Corpus of Learner English (ICLE), a corpus of learner written English.
|
||||
Louvain International Database of Spoken English Interlanguage (LINDSEI), a corpus of learner spoken English.
|
||||
Trinity Lancaster Corpus, one of the largest corpus of L2 spoken English.
|
||||
University of Pittsburgh English Language Institute Corpus (PELIC)
|
||||
Vienna-Oxford International Corpus of English (VOICE), an ELF corpus.
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Ancient text corpora
|
||||
Wiktionary:Corpora
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,98 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of textbooks on classical mechanics and quantum mechanics"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_textbooks_on_classical_mechanics_and_quantum_mechanics"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:13:06.136598+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of notable textbooks on classical mechanics and quantum mechanics arranged according to level and surnames of the authors in alphabetical order.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Undergraduate ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Classical mechanics ===
|
||||
Feynman, Richard P. (2005). The Feynman Lectures on Physics. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0-8053-9065-0.
|
||||
Halliday, David; Resnick, Robert (1970). Fundamentals of Physics. John Wiley & Sons. Chapters 1–21. Numerous subsequent editions.
|
||||
Hamill, Patrick (2014). A Student's Guide to Lagrangians and Hamiltonians. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1107617520.
|
||||
Hand, Louis; Finch, Janet (1998). Analytical Mechanics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521573270.
|
||||
Kibble, T. W.; Berkshire, F. H. (2004). Classical Mechanics. Imperial College Press. ISBN 1860944248.
|
||||
Kleppner, Daniel; Kolenkow, Robert (1973). An Introduction to Mechanics. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-035048-5.
|
||||
Marion, Jerry; Thornton, Stephen (2003). Classical Dynamics of Particles and Systems (5th ed.). Brooks Cole. ISBN 0534408966.
|
||||
Morin, David (2005). Introduction to Classical Mechanics: With Problems and Solutions. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521876223.
|
||||
Müller-Kirsten, Harald J.W. (2024). Classical Mechanics and Relativity (2nd ed.). World Scientific. ISBN 9789811287114.
|
||||
Taylor, John (2005). Classical Mechanics. University Science Books. ISBN 978-981-12-8711-4.
|
||||
Young, Hugh D.; Freedman, Roger A. (2019). University Physics with Modern Physics (15th ed.). Pearson. ISBN 978-0135159552.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Quantum mechanics ===
|
||||
Eisberg, Robert; Resnick, Robert (1985). Quantum Physics of Atoms, Molecules, Solids, Nuclei, and Particles (2nd ed.). Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0471873730.
|
||||
Feynman, Richard P. (2005). The Feynman Lectures on Physics. Vol. 3 (2nd ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0-8053-9065-0.
|
||||
French, A. P.; Taylor, Edwin (1978). An Introduction to Quantum Physics. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393091066.
|
||||
Gasiorowicz, Stephen (2003). Quantum Physics (3rd ed.). Wiley. ISBN 978-0471057000.
|
||||
Griffiths, David (2005). Introduction to Quantum Mechanics (2nd ed.). Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 0131118927.
|
||||
McIntyre, David H. (2012). Quantum Mechanics: A Paradigms Approach (1st ed.). Pearson Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0-321-76579-6.
|
||||
Townsend, John (2012). A Modern Approach to Quantum Mechanics (2nd ed.). University Science Books. ISBN 978-1-891389-78-8.
|
||||
Zettili, Nouredine (2009). Quantum Mechanics: Concepts and Applications. Chichester, UK: Wiley. ISBN 978-0470026793.
|
||||
Binney, James; Skinner, David (2014). The Physics of Quantum Mechanics (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-968856-2.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Advanced undergraduate and graduate ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Classical mechanics ===
|
||||
Abraham, R.; Marsden, J. E. (2008). Foundations of Mechanics: A Mathematical Exposition of Classical Mechanics with an Introduction to the Qualitative Theory of Dynamical Systems (2nd ed.). AMS Chelsea Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8218-4438-0.
|
||||
Arnold, V. I. (1997), Mathematical Methods of Classical Mechanics (2nd ed.), Springer-Verlag, ISBN 0-387-96890-3
|
||||
Fetter, A. L.; Walecka, J. D. (1980). Theoretical mechanics of particles and continua. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-020658-8. OCLC 6110997.
|
||||
Goldstein, H. (1980). Classical Mechanics (2 ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0201029189.
|
||||
Knauf, A. (2018). Mathematical Physics: Classical Mechanics. Springer. ISBN 9783662557723.
|
||||
Lanczos, C. (1986). The Variational Principles of Mechanics (4th ed.). Dover Publications. ISBN 0486650677.
|
||||
Landau, L. D.; Lifshitz, E. M. (1976). Course of Theoretical Physics Volume 1 - Mechanics. Translated by Sykes, J. B.; Bell, J. S. (3rd ed.). Elsevier. ISBN 0-7506-2896-0.
|
||||
Marsden, J. E.; Ratiu, T. S. (1999). Introduction to Mechanics and Symmetry: A Basic Exposition of Classical Mechanical Systems (2nd ed.). Springer. ISBN 978-1-4419-3143-6.
|
||||
Papastavridis, J. G. (2014). Analytical Mechanics: A Comprehensive Treatise on the Dynamics of Constrained Systems. World Scientific. ISBN 978-981-4338-71-4.
|
||||
Sommerfeld, A. (1952). Mechanics: lectures on theoretical physics. New York: Academic Press Inc. ISBN 978-0-12-654670-5. OCLC 803152309. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
|
||||
Whittaker, E. T. (1999). A treatise on the analytical dynamics of particles and rigid bodies : with an introduction to the problem of three bodies (4th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-35883-3.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Quantum mechanics ===
|
||||
Cohen-Tannoudji, Claude; Diu, Bernard; Laloë, Franck (1977). Quantum Mechanics. Wiley. ISBN 978-0471164333. Three volumes.
|
||||
Dirac, Paul (1958). The Principles of Quantum Mechanics (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-198-52011-5. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
|
||||
Feynman, Richard; Hibbs, Albert (2010). Styer, Daniel (ed.). Quantum Mechanics and Path Integrals. Dover Publications. ISBN 9780486477220.
|
||||
Landau, L. D, and Lifshitz, E. M. Course of Theoretical Physics Volume 3 - Quantum Mechanics: Non-Relativistic Theory. Edited by Pitaevskiĭ L. P. Translated by J. B Sykes and J. S Bell, Third edition, revised and enlarged ed., Pergamon Press, 1977. ISBN 0080291406.
|
||||
Peres, Asher (1993). Quantum Theory: Concepts and Methods. Kluwer. ISBN 0-7923-2549-4. OCLC 28854083.
|
||||
Müller-Kirsten, Harald J.W. (2012). Introduction to Quantum Mechanics: Schrödinger Equation and Path Integral (2nd ed.). World Scientific. ISBN 9789814397735.
|
||||
Sakurai, J. J.; Napolitano, Jim (2017). Modern Quantum Mechanics (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-42241-3.
|
||||
Leonard I. Schiff (1968) Quantum Mechanics McGraw-Hill Education
|
||||
Davydov A.S. (1965) Quantum Mechanics Pergamon ISBN 9781483172026
|
||||
Shankar, Ramamurti (2011). Principles of Quantum Mechanics (2nd ed.). Plenum Press. ISBN 978-0306447907.
|
||||
von Neumann, John (2018). Nicholas A. Wheeler (ed.). Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics. Translated by Robert T. Beyer. Princeton University Press. ISBN 9781400889921.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Relativistic quantum mechanics and quantum field theory ===
|
||||
Bjorken, S. Drell, James; Drell, Sidney (1964). Relativistic Quantum Mechanics. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-005493-2. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
|
||||
Griffiths, David (2020-12-10). Introduction to Elementary Particles. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-3-527-83464-8.
|
||||
Peskin, Michael Edward; Schroeder, Daniel V. (1995). An Introduction to Quantum Field Theory. Reading: Addison-Wesley.
|
||||
Schwartz, Matthew (2014). Quantum Field Theory and the Standard Model. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-03473-0.
|
||||
Zee, Anthony (2003). Quantum Field Theory in a Nutshell. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691010199. OCLC 50479292.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Both quantum and classical mechanics ===
|
||||
Byron, Frederick W.; Fuller, Robert W. (1992). Mathematics of Classical and Quantum Physics (Revised ed.). Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0486671642.
|
||||
Sears, Francis; Zemansky, Mark; Young, Hugh; Freedman, Roger (2019). University Physics with Modern Physics (15th ed.). Pearson. ISBN 978-0-135-15955-2.
|
||||
Thorne, Kip S.; Blandford, Roger D. (2017). Modern Classical Physics: Optics, Fluids, Plasmas, Elasticity, Relativity, and Statistical Physics. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691159027.
|
||||
Weinstock, Robert (1974). Calculus of Variations with Applications to Physics and Engineering. Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0486630694.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
|
||||
List of textbooks in thermodynamics and statistical mechanics
|
||||
List of textbooks in electromagnetism
|
||||
List of books on general relativity
|
||||
Teaching quantum mechanics
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
A Physics Book List. John Baez. Department of Mathematics, University of California, Riverside. 1993–1997.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,69 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of words having different meanings in American and British English (A–L)"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_words_having_different_meanings_in_American_and_British_English_(A–L)"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:31.390086+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is the List of words having different meanings in British and American English: A–L. For the second portion of the list, see List of words having different meanings in American and British English: M–Z.
|
||||
Asterisked (*) meanings, though found chiefly in the specified region, also have some currency in the other region; other definitions may be viewed by the other as Briticisms or Americanisms respectively. Additional usage notes are provided where useful.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== A ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== B ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== C ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== D ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== E ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== F ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== G ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== H ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== I ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== J ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== K ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== L ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of words having different meanings in British and American English: M–Z
|
||||
List of American words not widely used in the United Kingdom
|
||||
List of British words not widely used in the United States
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Further reading ==
|
||||
Note: the below are general references on this topic. Individual entries have not yet been audited against the references below and readers looking for verifiable information should consult the works below unless individual entries in the article's table are properly sourced.
|
||||
|
||||
Bickerton, Anthea (1985). American-English, English-American : a two-way glossary of words in daily use on both sides of the Atlantic. Abson. ISBN 978-0-902920-60-6.
|
||||
Davies, Christopher (2005). Divided by a Common Language: A Guide to British and American English. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-618-00275-7.
|
||||
Hargraves, Orin (2003). Mighty Fine Words and Smashing Expressions: Making Sense of Transatlantic English. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-515704-8.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
The Septic's Companion: A British Slang Dictionary – an online dictionary of British slang, viewable alphabetically or by category
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,75 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of works by Nikolay Bogolyubov"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_by_Nikolay_Bogolyubov"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:56.878536+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
List of some published works of Nikolay Bogolyubov in chronological order:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== 1924 ==
|
||||
N. N. Bogolyubov (1924). On the behavior of solutions of linear differential equations at infinity (Russian: О поведении решений линейных дифференциальных уравнений на бесконечности).
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== 1934 ==
|
||||
N. M. Krylov and N. N. Bogolyubov (1934). On various formal expansions of non-linear mechanics (in Ukrainian). Kiev: Izdat. Zagal'noukr. Akad. Nauk.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== 1937 ==
|
||||
N. N. Bogoliubov and N. M. Krylov (1937). "La theorie generalie de la mesure dans son application a l'etude de systemes dynamiques de la mecanique non-lineaire" (in French). Ann. Math. II 38: 65–113. Zbl. 16.86.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== 1945 ==
|
||||
Боголюбов Н. Н. (1945). О некоторых статистических методах в математической физике (in Russian). Киев: Изд-во АН УССР.
|
||||
N. N. Bogoliubov (1945). On Some Statistical Methods in Mathematical Physics (in Russian). Kyiv: Izdatelstvo AN USSR.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== 1946 ==
|
||||
N. N. Bogoliubov (1946). "Kinetic Equations" (in Russian). Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Physics 16 (8): 691–702.
|
||||
N. N. Bogoliubov (1946). "Kinetic Equations" (in English). Journal of Physics 10 (3): 265–274.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== 1947 ==
|
||||
N. N. Bogoliubov, K. P. Gurov (1947). "Kinetic Equations in Quantum Mechanics" (in Russian). Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Physics 17 (7): 614–628.
|
||||
N. N. Bogoliubov (1947). "К теории сверхтекучести" (in Russian). Известия АН СССР, физика, 1947, 11, № 1, 77.
|
||||
N. N. Bogoliubov (1947). "On the Theory of Superfluidity" (in English). Journal of Physics 11 (1): 23–32.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== 1948 ==
|
||||
N. N. Bogoliubov (1948). "Equations of Hydrodynamics in Statistical Mechanics" (in Ukrainian). Sbornik Trudov Instituta Matematiki AN USSR 10: 41—59.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== 1949 ==
|
||||
Боголюбов М. М. (1949). Лекціï з квантовоï статистики. Питання статистичноï механіки квантових систем. (in Ukrainian). Киïв.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
|
||||
N. N. Bogoliubov (1967—1970): Lectures on Quantum Statistics. Problems of Statistical Mechanics of Quantum Systems. New York, Gordon and Breach.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== 1955 ==
|
||||
Bogoliubov, N. N.; Ostap S. Parasyuk (1955). Теория умножения причинных исключительных функций [A theory of multiplication of causative singular functions]. Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR (in Russian). 100: 25–28.
|
||||
Bogoliubov, N. N.; Shirkov D. V. (1955). Группа мультипликативной ренормировки в квантовой теории поля [Multiplicative renormalization group in quantum field theory]. JETP (in Russian). 30: 77–86.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== 1957 ==
|
||||
Боголюбов Н. Н.; Ширков Д. В. (1957). Введение в теорию квантованных полей (in Russian). М.: Наука.
|
||||
N. N. Bogoliubov; D. V. Shirkov (1957). Introduction to the Theory of Quantized Field (in Russian). Moscow: Nauka.
|
||||
N. N. Bogoliubov; D. V. Shirkov (1959). Introduction to the Theory of Quantized Field. John Wiley & Sons Inc. ISBN 0-470-08613-0. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) (1st edition)
|
||||
N. N. Bogoliubov; D. V. Shirkov (1980). Introduction to the Theory of Quantized Field. John Wiley & Sons Inc. ISBN 0-471-04223-4. (3rd edition)
|
||||
N. N. Bogoliubov, O. S. Parasyuk (1957). "Uber die Multiplikation der Kausalfunktionen in der Quantentheorie der Felder" (in German). Acta Mathematica 97: 227–266. doi:10.1007/BF02392399.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== 1958 ==
|
||||
N. N. Bogoliubov (1958). On a New Method in the Theory of Superconductivity. Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Physics 34 (1): 58.
|
||||
Боголюбов Н. Н.; Медведев Б. В.; Поливанов М. К. (1958). Вопросы теории дисперсионных соотношений (in Russian). М.: Физматгиз.
|
||||
N. N. Bogoliubov; B. V. Medvedev; M. K. Polivanov (1958). Problems in the Theory of Dispersion Relations. Princeton: Institute for Advanced Study.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== 1965 ==
|
||||
N. N. Bogolubov, B. V. Struminsky, A. N. Tavkhelidze (1965). On composite models in the theory of elementary particles. JINR Preprint D-1968, Dubna.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Complete list
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,52 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Lists of countries and territories by official language"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_countries_and_territories_by_official_language"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:05.950216+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of lists of countries and territories by official language.
|
||||
|
||||
List of countries and territories where Afrikaans or Dutch are official languages
|
||||
List of countries and territories where Arabic is an official language
|
||||
List of countries and territories where Chinese is an official language
|
||||
List of countries and territories where English is an official language
|
||||
List of countries and territories where French is an official language
|
||||
List of countries and territories where German is an official language
|
||||
List of countries and territories where Persian is an official language
|
||||
List of countries and territories where Romanian is an official language
|
||||
List of countries and territories where Russian is an official language
|
||||
List of countries and territories where Spanish is an official language
|
||||
List of countries and territories where Tamil is an official language
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Other official languages ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Greek ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Hindustani ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Italian ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Malay ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Portuguese ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Turkish ===
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of official languages by country and territory
|
||||
De facto
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
138
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_mathematics_topics-0.md
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138
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Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,138 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Lists of mathematics topics"
|
||||
chunk: 1/3
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_mathematics_topics"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:33.059777+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Lists of mathematics topics cover a variety of topics related to mathematics. Some of these lists link to hundreds of articles; some link to only a few. The template below includes links to alphabetical lists of all mathematical articles. This article brings together the same content organized in a manner better suited for browsing.
|
||||
Lists cover aspects of basic and advanced mathematics, methodology, mathematical statements, integrals, general concepts, mathematical objects, and reference tables.
|
||||
They also cover equations named after people, societies, mathematicians, journals, and meta-lists.
|
||||
The purpose of this list is not similar to that of the Mathematics Subject Classification formulated by the American Mathematical Society. Many mathematics journals ask authors of research papers and expository articles to list subject codes from the Mathematics Subject Classification in their papers. The subject codes so listed are used by the two major reviewing databases, Mathematical Reviews and Zentralblatt MATH. This list has some items that would not fit in such a classification, such as list of exponential topics and list of factorial and binomial topics, which may surprise the reader with the diversity of their coverage.
|
||||
|
||||
== Basic mathematics ==
|
||||
This branch is typically taught in secondary education or in the first year of university.
|
||||
|
||||
Outline of arithmetic
|
||||
Outline of discrete mathematics
|
||||
List of calculus topics
|
||||
List of geometry topics
|
||||
Outline of geometry
|
||||
List of trigonometry topics
|
||||
Outline of trigonometry
|
||||
List of trigonometric identities
|
||||
List of logarithmic identities
|
||||
List of integrals of logarithmic functions
|
||||
List of set identities and relations
|
||||
List of topics in logic
|
||||
|
||||
== Areas of advanced mathematics ==
|
||||
|
||||
As a rough guide, this list is divided into pure and applied sections although in reality, these branches are overlapping and intertwined.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Pure mathematics ===
|
||||
|
||||
==== Algebra ====
|
||||
Algebra includes the study of algebraic structures, which are sets and operations defined on these sets satisfying certain axioms. The field of algebra is further divided according to which structure is studied; for instance, group theory concerns an algebraic structure called group.
|
||||
|
||||
Outline of algebra
|
||||
Glossary of field theory
|
||||
Glossary of ring theory
|
||||
List of abstract algebra topics
|
||||
List of algebraic structures
|
||||
List of Boolean algebra topics
|
||||
List of category theory topics
|
||||
List of cohomology theories
|
||||
List of commutative algebra topics
|
||||
List of homological algebra topics
|
||||
List of group theory topics
|
||||
Glossary of group theory
|
||||
List of representation theory topics
|
||||
List of linear algebra topics
|
||||
Glossary of linear algebra
|
||||
List of reciprocity laws
|
||||
|
||||
==== Calculus and analysis ====
|
||||
|
||||
Calculus studies the computation of limits, derivatives, and integrals of functions of real numbers, and in particular studies instantaneous rates of change. Analysis evolved from calculus.
|
||||
|
||||
Outline of calculus
|
||||
Glossary of tensor theory
|
||||
List of complex analysis topics
|
||||
List of functional analysis topics
|
||||
List of vector spaces in mathematics
|
||||
List of integration and measure theory topics
|
||||
List of harmonic analysis topics
|
||||
List of Fourier analysis topics
|
||||
List of mathematical series
|
||||
List of multivariable calculus topics
|
||||
List of q-analogs
|
||||
List of real analysis topics
|
||||
List of variational topics
|
||||
See also Dynamical systems and differential equations section below.
|
||||
|
||||
==== Geometry and topology ====
|
||||
|
||||
Geometry is initially the study of spatial figures like circles and cubes, though it has been generalized considerably. Topology developed from geometry; it looks at those properties that do not change even when the figures are deformed by stretching and bending, like dimension.
|
||||
|
||||
Outline of geometry
|
||||
Glossary of differential geometry and topology
|
||||
Glossary of Riemannian and metric geometry
|
||||
Glossary of scheme theory
|
||||
List of algebraic geometry topics
|
||||
List of complex and algebraic surfaces
|
||||
List of circle topics
|
||||
List of topics related to π
|
||||
List of curves topics
|
||||
List of differential geometry topics
|
||||
List of geometric shapes
|
||||
List of knot theory topics
|
||||
List of Lie groups topics
|
||||
List of mathematical properties of points
|
||||
List of triangle topics
|
||||
List of topology topics
|
||||
List of general topology topics
|
||||
Glossary of general topology
|
||||
List of topologies
|
||||
Topological property
|
||||
List of algebraic topology topics
|
||||
List of cohomology theories
|
||||
List of geometric topology topics
|
||||
|
||||
==== Combinatorics ====
|
||||
Combinatorics concerns the study of discrete (and usually finite) objects. Aspects include "counting" the objects satisfying certain criteria (enumerative combinatorics), deciding when the criteria can be met, and constructing and analyzing objects meeting the criteria (as in combinatorial designs and matroid theory), finding "largest", "smallest", or "optimal" objects (extremal combinatorics and combinatorial optimization), and finding algebraic structures these objects may have (algebraic combinatorics).
|
||||
|
||||
Outline of combinatorics
|
||||
Glossary of graph theory
|
||||
List of graph theory topics
|
||||
|
||||
==== Logic ====
|
||||
|
||||
Logic is the foundation that underlies mathematical logic and the rest of mathematics. It tries to formalize valid reasoning. In particular, it attempts to define what constitutes a proof.
|
||||
|
||||
Outline of logic
|
||||
List of Boolean algebra topics
|
||||
List of first-order theories
|
||||
List of large cardinal properties
|
||||
List of mathematical logic topics
|
||||
List of set theory topics
|
||||
Glossary of order theory
|
||||
|
||||
==== Number theory ====
|
||||
The branch of mathematics deals with the properties and relationships of numbers, especially positive integers.
|
||||
Number theory is a branch of pure mathematics devoted primarily to the study of the integers and integer-valued functions. German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss said, "Mathematics is the queen of the sciences—and number theory is the queen of mathematics."
|
||||
Number theory also studies the natural, or whole, numbers. One of the central concepts in number theory is that of the prime number, and there are many questions about primes that appear simple but whose resolution continues to elude mathematicians.
|
||||
|
||||
List of number theory topics
|
||||
List of algebraic number theory topics
|
||||
List of recreational number theory topics
|
||||
Glossary of arithmetic and Diophantine geometry
|
||||
List of prime numbers—not just a table, but a list of various kinds of prime numbers (each with an accompanying table)
|
||||
List of zeta functions
|
||||
|
||||
=== Applied mathematics ===
|
||||
|
||||
==== Dynamical systems and differential equations ====
|
||||
163
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_mathematics_topics-1.md
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@ -0,0 +1,163 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Lists of mathematics topics"
|
||||
chunk: 2/3
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_mathematics_topics"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:33.059777+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
A differential equation is an equation involving an unknown function and its derivatives.
|
||||
In a dynamical system, a fixed rule describes the time dependence of a point in a geometrical space. The mathematical models used to describe the swinging of a clock pendulum, the flow of water in a pipe, or the number of fish each spring in a lake are examples of dynamical systems.
|
||||
|
||||
List of dynamical systems and differential equations topics
|
||||
List of nonlinear partial differential equations
|
||||
List of partial differential equation topics
|
||||
|
||||
==== Mathematical physics ====
|
||||
Mathematical physics is concerned with "the application of mathematics to problems in physics and the development of mathematical methods suitable for such applications and for the formulation of physical theories".1
|
||||
|
||||
List of mathematical topics in classical mechanics
|
||||
List of mathematical topics in quantum theory
|
||||
List of mathematical topics in relativity
|
||||
List of string theory topics
|
||||
Index of wave articles
|
||||
|
||||
==== Theory of computation ====
|
||||
|
||||
The fields of mathematics and computing intersect both in computer science, the study of algorithms and data structures, and in scientific computing, the study of algorithmic methods for solving problems in mathematics, science, and engineering.
|
||||
|
||||
List of algorithm general topics
|
||||
List of computability and complexity topics
|
||||
Lists for computational topics in geometry and graphics
|
||||
List of combinatorial computational geometry topics
|
||||
List of computer graphics and descriptive geometry topics
|
||||
List of numerical computational geometry topics
|
||||
List of computer vision topics
|
||||
List of formal language and literal string topics
|
||||
List of numerical analysis topics
|
||||
List of terms relating to algorithms and data structures
|
||||
|
||||
==== Information theory and signal processing ====
|
||||
Information theory is a branch of applied mathematics and social science involving the quantification of information. Historically, information theory was developed to find fundamental limits on compressing and reliably communicating data.
|
||||
Signal processing is the analysis, interpretation, and manipulation of signals. Signals of interest include sound, images, biological signals such as ECG, radar signals, and many others. Processing of such signals includes filtering, storage and reconstruction, separation of information from noise, compression, and feature extraction.
|
||||
|
||||
List of algebraic coding theory topics
|
||||
List of information theory topics
|
||||
List of cryptography topics
|
||||
|
||||
==== Probability and statistics ====
|
||||
|
||||
Probability theory is the formalization and study of the mathematics of uncertain events or knowledge. The related field of mathematical statistics develops statistical theory with mathematics. Statistics, the science concerned with collecting and analyzing data, is an autonomous discipline (and not a subdiscipline of applied mathematics).
|
||||
|
||||
Lists of statistics topics
|
||||
Catalog of articles in probability theory
|
||||
List of probability topics
|
||||
List of stochastic processes topics
|
||||
List of probability distributions
|
||||
List of statistics articles
|
||||
Outline of regression analysis
|
||||
|
||||
==== Game theory ====
|
||||
Game theory is a branch of mathematics that uses models to study interactions with formalized incentive structures ("games"). It has applications in a variety of fields, including economics, anthropology, political science, social psychology and military strategy.
|
||||
|
||||
Glossary of game theory
|
||||
List of games in game theory
|
||||
|
||||
==== Operations research ====
|
||||
Operations research is the study and use of mathematical models, statistics, and algorithms to aid in decision-making, typically with the goal of improving or optimizing the performance of real-world systems.
|
||||
|
||||
List of knapsack problems
|
||||
List of network theory topics
|
||||
|
||||
== Methodology ==
|
||||
List of graphical methods
|
||||
List of mathematics-based methods
|
||||
List of rules of inference
|
||||
|
||||
== Mathematical statements ==
|
||||
A mathematical statement amounts to a proposition or assertion of some mathematical fact, formula, or construction. Such statements include axioms and the theorems that may be proved from them, conjectures that may be unproven or even unprovable, and also algorithms for computing the answers to questions that can be expressed mathematically.
|
||||
|
||||
List of algorithms
|
||||
List of axioms
|
||||
List of conjectures
|
||||
List of conjectures by Paul Erdős
|
||||
Combinatorial principles
|
||||
List of equations
|
||||
List of formulae involving pi
|
||||
List of representations of e
|
||||
List of inequalities
|
||||
List of lemmas
|
||||
List of mathematical identities
|
||||
List of mathematical proofs
|
||||
List of theorems
|
||||
|
||||
== General concepts ==
|
||||
List of convexity topics
|
||||
List of dualities
|
||||
List of exceptional set concepts
|
||||
List of exponential topics
|
||||
List of factorial and binomial topics
|
||||
List of fractal topics
|
||||
List of logarithm topics
|
||||
List of mathematical properties of points
|
||||
List of numeral system topics
|
||||
List of order topics
|
||||
List of partition topics
|
||||
List of permutation topics
|
||||
List of polynomial topics
|
||||
List of properties of sets of reals
|
||||
List of transforms
|
||||
|
||||
== Mathematical objects ==
|
||||
Among mathematical objects are numbers, functions, sets, a great variety of things called "spaces" of one kind or another, algebraic structures such as rings, groups, or fields, and many other things.
|
||||
|
||||
List of mathematical examples
|
||||
List of algebraic surfaces
|
||||
List of curves
|
||||
List of complex reflection groups
|
||||
List of complexity classes
|
||||
List of examples in general topology
|
||||
List of finite simple groups
|
||||
List of Fourier-related transforms
|
||||
List of manifolds
|
||||
List of mathematical constants
|
||||
List of mathematical functions
|
||||
List of mathematical knots and links
|
||||
List of mathematical shapes
|
||||
List of mathematical spaces
|
||||
List of matrices
|
||||
List of numbers
|
||||
List of polygons, polyhedra and polytopes
|
||||
List of regular polytopes
|
||||
List of simple Lie groups
|
||||
List of small groups
|
||||
List of special functions and eponyms
|
||||
List of surfaces
|
||||
Table of Lie groups
|
||||
|
||||
== Equations named after people ==
|
||||
Scientific equations named after people
|
||||
|
||||
== About mathematics ==
|
||||
List of letters used in mathematics and science
|
||||
List of mathematical societies
|
||||
List of mathematics competitions
|
||||
List of mathematics history topics
|
||||
List of publications in mathematics
|
||||
List of mathematics journals
|
||||
|
||||
=== Mathematicians ===
|
||||
|
||||
Mathematicians study and research in all the different areas of mathematics. The publication of new discoveries in mathematics continues at an immense rate in hundreds of scientific journals, many of them devoted to mathematics and many devoted to subjects to which mathematics is applied (such as theoretical computer science and theoretical physics).
|
||||
|
||||
List of films about mathematicians
|
||||
List of game theorists
|
||||
List of geometers
|
||||
List of logicians
|
||||
List of mathematicians
|
||||
List of mathematical probabilists
|
||||
List of statisticians
|
||||
|
||||
=== Work of particular mathematicians ===
|
||||
142
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|
||||
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|
||||
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|
||||
chunk: 3/3
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_mathematics_topics"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:33.059777+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
List of things named after Niels Henrik Abel
|
||||
List of things named after George Airy
|
||||
List of things named after Jean d'Alembert
|
||||
List of things named after Archimedes
|
||||
List of things named after Vladimir Arnold
|
||||
List of things named after Emil Artin
|
||||
List of things named after Stefan Banach
|
||||
List of things named after Thomas Bayes
|
||||
List of things named after members of the Bernoulli family
|
||||
List of things named after Jakob Bernoulli
|
||||
List of things named after Friedrich Bessel
|
||||
List of things named after Élie Cartan
|
||||
List of things named after Augustin-Louis Cauchy
|
||||
List of things named after Arthur Cayley
|
||||
List of things named after Pafnuty Chebyshev
|
||||
List of things named after John Horton Conway
|
||||
List of things named after Richard Dedekind
|
||||
List of things named after Pierre Deligne
|
||||
List of things named after Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet
|
||||
List of things named after Albert Einstein
|
||||
List of things named after Euclid
|
||||
List of things named after Leonhard Euler
|
||||
List of things named after Paul Erdős
|
||||
List of things named after Pierre de Fermat
|
||||
List of things named after Fibonacci
|
||||
List of things named after Joseph Fourier
|
||||
List of things named after Erik Fredholm
|
||||
List of things named after Ferdinand Georg Frobenius
|
||||
List of things named after Carl Friedrich Gauss
|
||||
List of things named after Évariste Galois
|
||||
List of things named after Hermann Grassmann
|
||||
List of things named after Alexander Grothendieck
|
||||
List of things named after Jacques Hadamard
|
||||
List of things named after William Rowan Hamilton
|
||||
List of things named after Erich Hecke
|
||||
List of things named after Eduard Heine
|
||||
List of things named after Charles Hermite
|
||||
List of things named after David Hilbert
|
||||
List of things named after W. V. D. Hodge
|
||||
List of things named after Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi
|
||||
List of things named after Johannes Kepler
|
||||
List of things named after Felix Klein
|
||||
List of things named after Joseph-Louis Lagrange
|
||||
List of things named after Johann Lambert
|
||||
List of things named after Pierre-Simon Laplace
|
||||
List of things named after Adrien-Marie Legendre
|
||||
List of things named after Gottfried Leibniz
|
||||
List of things named after Sophus Lie
|
||||
List of things named after Joseph Liouville
|
||||
List of things named after Andrey Markov
|
||||
List of things named after John Milnor
|
||||
List of things named after Hermann Minkowski
|
||||
List of things named after John von Neumann
|
||||
List of things named after Isaac Newton
|
||||
List of things named after Emmy Noether
|
||||
List of things named after Henri Poincaré
|
||||
List of things named after Siméon Denis Poisson
|
||||
List of things named after Pythagoras
|
||||
List of things named after Srinivasa Ramanujan
|
||||
List of things named after Bernhard Riemann
|
||||
List of things named after Issai Schur
|
||||
List of things named after Anatoliy Skorokhod
|
||||
List of things named after George Gabriel Stokes
|
||||
List of things named after Jean-Pierre Serre
|
||||
List of things named after James Joseph Sylvester
|
||||
List of things named after Alfred Tarski
|
||||
List of things named after Alan Turing
|
||||
List of things named after Stanislaw Ulam
|
||||
List of things named after Karl Weierstrass
|
||||
List of things named after André Weil
|
||||
List of things named after Hermann Weyl
|
||||
List of things named after Norbert Wiener
|
||||
List of things named after Ernst Witt
|
||||
|
||||
== Reference tables ==
|
||||
List of mathematical reference tables
|
||||
List of moments of inertia
|
||||
Table of derivatives
|
||||
|
||||
=== Integrals ===
|
||||
In calculus, the integral of a function is a generalization of area, mass, volume, sum, and total. The following pages list the integrals of many different functions.
|
||||
|
||||
Lists of integrals
|
||||
List of integrals of exponential functions
|
||||
List of integrals of hyperbolic functions
|
||||
List of integrals of inverse hyperbolic functions
|
||||
List of integrals of inverse trigonometric functions
|
||||
List of integrals of irrational functions
|
||||
List of integrals of logarithmic functions
|
||||
List of integrals of rational functions
|
||||
List of integrals of trigonometric functions
|
||||
|
||||
== Journals ==
|
||||
|
||||
List of mathematics journals
|
||||
List of mathematics education journals
|
||||
Category:History of science journals
|
||||
Category:Philosophy of science literature
|
||||
|
||||
== Meta-lists ==
|
||||
Glossary of mathematical symbols
|
||||
List of important publications in mathematics
|
||||
List of important publications in statistics
|
||||
List of mathematical theories
|
||||
List of mathematics categories
|
||||
List of mathematical symbols by subject
|
||||
Table of logic symbols
|
||||
Table of mathematical symbols
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Areas of mathematics
|
||||
Computational mathematics
|
||||
Glossary of areas of mathematics
|
||||
Outline of mathematics
|
||||
Timeline of women in mathematics
|
||||
|
||||
== Others ==
|
||||
Lists of unsolved problems in mathematics
|
||||
List of order theory topics
|
||||
List of topics related to π
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
^Note 1: Definition from the Journal of Mathematical Physics [1].
|
||||
|
||||
== External links and references ==
|
||||
2000 Mathematics Subject Classification from the American Mathematical Society, scheme authors find many mathematics research journals asking them to use to classify their submissions; those published then include these classifications.
|
||||
The Mathematical Atlas
|
||||
Maths Formula
|
||||
PlanetMath
|
||||
Paul's Online Notes
|
||||
ProofWiki
|
||||
The Encyclopedia of Mathematics
|
||||
71
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_algebra-0.md
Normal file
71
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Normal file
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|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Outline of algebra"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_algebra"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:38.054609+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to algebra:
|
||||
Algebra is a branch of mathematics that deals with abstract systems, known as algebraic structures, and the manipulation of expressions within those systems. It is a generalization of arithmetic that introduces variables and algebraic operations other than the standard arithmetic operations, such as addition and multiplication.
|
||||
Elementary algebra is the main form of algebra taught in schools. It examines mathematical statements using variables for unspecified values and seeks to determine for which values the statements are true. To do so, it uses different methods of transforming equations to isolate variables. Linear algebra is a closely related field that investigates linear equations and combinations of them called systems of linear equations. It provides methods to find the values that solve all equations in the system at the same time, and to study the set of these solutions.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Branches ==
|
||||
Pre-algebra
|
||||
Elementary algebra
|
||||
Boolean algebra
|
||||
Abstract algebra
|
||||
Linear algebra
|
||||
Universal algebra
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Algebraic equations ==
|
||||
|
||||
An algebraic equation is an equation involving only algebraic expressions in the unknowns. These are further classified by degree.
|
||||
|
||||
Linear equation – algebraic equation of degree one.
|
||||
Polynomial equation – equation in which a polynomial is set equal to another polynomial.
|
||||
Transcendental equation – equation involving a transcendental function of one of its variables.
|
||||
Functional equation – equation in which the unknowns are functions rather than simple quantities.
|
||||
Differential equation – equation involving derivatives.
|
||||
Integral equation – equation involving integrals.
|
||||
Diophantine equation – equation where the only solutions of interest of the unknowns are the integer ones.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== History ==
|
||||
History of algebra
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== General algebra concepts ==
|
||||
Fundamental theorem of algebra – states that every non-constant single-variable polynomial with complex coefficients has at least one complex root. This includes polynomials with real coefficients, since every real number is a complex number with an imaginary part equal to zero.
|
||||
Equations – equality of two mathematical expressions
|
||||
Linear equation – an algebraic equation with a degree of one
|
||||
Quadratic equation – an algebraic equation with a degree of two
|
||||
Cubic equation – an algebraic equation with a degree of three
|
||||
Quartic equation – an algebraic equation with a degree of four
|
||||
Quintic equation – an algebraic equation with a degree of five
|
||||
Polynomial – an algebraic expression consisting of variables and coefficients
|
||||
Inequalities – a comparison between values
|
||||
Functions – mapping that associates a single output value with each input value
|
||||
Sequences – ordered list of elements either finite or infinite
|
||||
Systems of equations – finite set of equations
|
||||
Vectors – element of a vector space
|
||||
Matrix – two dimensional array of numbers
|
||||
Vector space – basic algebraic structure of linear algebra
|
||||
Field – algebraic structure with addition, multiplication and division
|
||||
Groups – algebraic structure with a single binary operation
|
||||
Rings – algebraic structure with addition and multiplication
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
|
||||
Table of mathematical symbols
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
|
||||
'4000 Years of Algebra' Archived 4 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine, lecture by Robin Wilson, at Gresham College, 17 October 2007 (available for MP3 and MP4 download, as well as a text file).
|
||||
ExampleProblems.com Archived 8 September 2020 at the Wayback Machine Example problems and solutions from basic Archived 6 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine and abstract Archived 6 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine algebra.
|
||||
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|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Outline of algebraic structures"
|
||||
chunk: 1/3
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_algebraic_structures"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
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tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:44.195968+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
In mathematics, many types of algebraic structures are studied. Abstract algebra is primarily the study of specific algebraic structures and their properties. Algebraic structures may be viewed in different ways, however the common starting point of algebra texts is that an algebraic object incorporates one or more sets with one or more binary operations or unary operations satisfying a collection of axioms.
|
||||
Another branch of mathematics known as universal algebra studies algebraic structures in general. From the universal algebra viewpoint, most structures can be divided into varieties and quasivarieties depending on the axioms used. Some axiomatic formal systems that are neither varieties nor quasivarieties, called nonvarieties, are sometimes included among the algebraic structures by tradition.
|
||||
Concrete examples of each structure will be found in the articles listed.
|
||||
Algebraic structures are so numerous today that this article will inevitably be incomplete. In addition to this, there are sometimes multiple names for the same structure, and sometimes one name will be defined by disagreeing axioms by different authors. Most structures appearing on this page will be common ones which most authors agree on. Other web lists of algebraic structures, organized more or less alphabetically, include Jipsen and PlanetMath Archived 2007-11-13 at the Wayback Machine. These lists mention many structures not included below, and may present more information about some structures than is presented here.
|
||||
|
||||
== Study of algebraic structures ==
|
||||
Algebraic structures appear in most branches of mathematics, and one can encounter them in many different ways.
|
||||
|
||||
Beginning study: In American universities, groups, vector spaces and fields are generally the first structures encountered in subjects such as linear algebra. They are usually introduced as sets with certain axioms.
|
||||
Advanced study:
|
||||
Abstract algebra studies properties of specific algebraic structures.
|
||||
Universal algebra studies algebraic structures abstractly, rather than specific types of structures.
|
||||
Varieties
|
||||
Category theory studies interrelationships between different structures, algebraic and non-algebraic. To study a non-algebraic object, it is often useful to use category theory to relate the object to an algebraic structure.
|
||||
Example: The fundamental group of a topological space gives information about the topological space.
|
||||
|
||||
== Types of algebraic structures ==
|
||||
In full generality, an algebraic structure may use any number of sets and any number of axioms in its definition. The most commonly studied structures, however, usually involve only one or two sets and one or two binary operations. The structures below are organized by how many sets are involved, and how many binary operations are used. Increased indentation is meant to indicate a more exotic structure, and the least indented levels are the most basic.
|
||||
|
||||
=== One set with no binary operations ===
|
||||
Set: a degenerate algebraic structure S having no operations.
|
||||
Pointed set: S has one or more distinguished elements, often 0, 1, or both.
|
||||
Unary system: S and a single unary operation over S.
|
||||
Pointed unary system: a unary system with S a pointed set.
|
||||
|
||||
=== One binary operation on one set ===
|
||||
|
||||
The following group-like structures consist of a set with a binary operation. The binary operation can be indicated by any symbol, or with no symbol (juxtaposition). The most common structure is that of a group. Other structures involve weakening or strengthening the axioms for groups, and may additionally use unary operations.
|
||||
|
||||
Magma or groupoid: S and a single binary operation over S.
|
||||
Semigroup: an associative magma.
|
||||
Monoid: a semigroup with identity element.
|
||||
Group: a monoid with a unary operation (inverse), giving rise to inverse elements.
|
||||
Abelian group: a group whose binary operation is commutative.
|
||||
Quasigroup: a magma obeying the Latin square property. A quasigroup may also be represented using three binary operations.
|
||||
Loop: a quasigroup with identity.
|
||||
Semilattice: a semigroup whose operation is idempotent and commutative. The binary operation can be called either meet or join. This is basically "half" of a lattice structure (see below).
|
||||
|
||||
=== Two binary operations on one set ===
|
||||
The main types of structures with one set having two binary operations are ring-like or ringoids and lattice-like or simply lattices. Ringoids and lattices can be clearly distinguished despite both having two defining binary operations. In the case of ringoids, the two operations are linked by the distributive law; in the case of lattices, they are linked by the absorption law. Ringoids also tend to have numerical models, while lattices tend to have set-theoretic models.
|
||||
In ring-like structures or ringoids, the two binary operations are often called addition and multiplication, with multiplication linked to addition by the distributive law.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Outline of algebraic structures"
|
||||
chunk: 2/3
|
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|
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category: "reference"
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tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:44.195968+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Semiring: a ringoid such that S is a monoid under each operation. Addition is typically assumed to be commutative and associative, and the monoid product is assumed to distribute over the addition on both sides, and the additive identity 0 is an absorbing element in the sense that 0 x = 0 for all x.
|
||||
Near-ring: a semiring whose additive monoid is a (not necessarily abelian) group.
|
||||
Ring: a semiring whose additive monoid is an abelian group.
|
||||
Commutative ring: a ring in which the multiplication operation is commutative.
|
||||
Division ring: a nontrivial ring in which division by nonzero elements is defined.
|
||||
Integral domain: A nontrivial commutative ring in which the product of any two nonzero elements is nonzero.
|
||||
Field: a commutative division ring (i.e. a commutative ring which contains a multiplicative inverse for every nonzero element).
|
||||
Nonassociative rings: These are like rings, but the multiplication operation need not be associative.
|
||||
Lie ring: a ringoid whose additive monoid is an abelian group, but whose multiplicative operation satisfies the Jacobi identity rather than associativity.
|
||||
Jordan ring: a commutative nonassociative ring that respects the Jordan identity
|
||||
Boolean ring: a commutative ring with idempotent multiplication operation.
|
||||
Kleene algebras: a semiring with idempotent addition and a unary operation, the Kleene star, satisfying additional properties.
|
||||
*-algebra or *-ring: a ring with an additional unary operation (*) known as an involution, satisfying additional properties.
|
||||
Arithmetic: addition and multiplication on an infinite set, with an additional pointed unary structure. The unary operation is injective successor, and has distinguished element 0.
|
||||
Robinson arithmetic. Addition and multiplication are recursively defined by means of successor. 0 is the identity element for addition, and annihilates multiplication. Robinson arithmetic is listed here even though it is a variety, because of its closeness to Peano arithmetic.
|
||||
Peano arithmetic. Robinson arithmetic with an axiom schema of induction. Most ring and field axioms bearing on the properties of addition and multiplication are theorems of Peano arithmetic or of proper extensions thereof.
|
||||
Lattice-like structures have two binary operations called meet and join, connected by the absorption law.
|
||||
|
||||
Latticoid: meet and join commute but need not associate.
|
||||
Skew lattice: meet and join associate but need not commute.
|
||||
Lattice: meet and join associate and commute.
|
||||
Complete lattice: a lattice in which arbitrary meet and joins exist.
|
||||
Bounded lattice: a lattice with a greatest element and least element.
|
||||
Complemented lattice: a bounded lattice with a unary operation, complementation, denoted by postfix ⊥. The join of an element with its complement is the greatest element, and the meet of the two elements is the least element.
|
||||
Modular lattice: a lattice whose elements satisfy the additional modular identity.
|
||||
Distributive lattice: a lattice in which each of meet and join distributes over the other. Distributive lattices are modular, but the converse does not hold.
|
||||
Boolean algebra: a complemented distributive lattice. Either of meet or join can be defined in terms of the other and complementation. This can be shown to be equivalent with the ring-like structure of the same name above.
|
||||
Heyting algebra: a bounded distributive lattice with an added binary operation, relative pseudo-complement, denoted by the infix operator →, and governed by the axioms:
|
||||
x → x = 1
|
||||
x (x → y) = x y
|
||||
y (x → y) = y
|
||||
x → (y z) = (x → y) (x → z)
|
||||
|
||||
=== Module-like structures on two sets ===
|
||||
The following module-like structures have the common feature of having two sets, A and B, so that there is a binary operation from A×A into A and another operation from A×B into A. Modules, counting the ring operations, have at least three binary operations.
|
||||
|
||||
Group with operators: a group G with a set Ω and a binary operation Ω × G → G satisfying certain axioms.
|
||||
Module: an abelian group M and a ring R acting as operators on M. Usually M is defined as "over R". The members of R are sometimes called scalars, and the binary operation of scalar multiplication is a function R × M → M, which satisfies several axioms.
|
||||
Vector spaces: A module where the ring R is a division ring or a field.
|
||||
Graded vector spaces: Vector spaces which are equipped with a direct sum decomposition into subspaces or "grades".
|
||||
Quadratic space: a vector space V over a field F with a quadratic form on V taking values in F.
|
||||
Other special types of modules, including free modules, projective modules, injective modules and flat modules are studied in abstract algebra.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Algebra-like structures on two sets ===
|
||||
These structures are defined over two sets, a ring R and an R-module M equipped with an operation called multiplication. This can be viewed as a system with five binary operations: two operations on R, two on M and one involving both R and M. Many of these structures are hybrid structures of the previously mentioned ones.
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,84 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Outline of algebraic structures"
|
||||
chunk: 3/3
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_algebraic_structures"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:44.195968+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Algebra over a ring (also R-algebra): a module over a commutative ring R, which also carries a multiplication operation that is compatible with the module structure. This includes distributivity over addition and linearity with respect to multiplication by elements of R.
|
||||
Algebra over a field: This is a ring which is also a vector space over a field. Multiplication is usually assumed to be associative. The theory is especially well developed.
|
||||
Associative algebra: an algebra over a ring such that the multiplication is associative.
|
||||
Nonassociative algebra: a module over a commutative ring, equipped with a ring multiplication operation that is not necessarily associative. Often associativity is replaced with a different identity, such as alternation, the Jacobi identity, or the Jordan identity.
|
||||
Lie algebra: a special type of nonassociative algebra whose product satisfies the Jacobi identity.
|
||||
Jordan algebra: a special type of nonassociative algebra whose product satisfies the Jordan identity.
|
||||
Coalgebra: a vector space with a "comultiplication" defined dually to that of associative algebras.
|
||||
Lie coalgebra: a vector space with a "comultiplication" defined dually to that of Lie algebras.
|
||||
Graded algebra: a graded vector space with an algebra structure compatible with the grading. The idea is that if the grades of two elements a and b are known, then the grade of ab is known, and so the location of the product ab is determined in the decomposition.
|
||||
Inner product space: an F-vector space V with a definite bilinear form V × V → F.
|
||||
Bialgebra: an associative algebra with a compatible coalgebra structure.
|
||||
Lie bialgebra: a Lie algebra with a compatible bialgebra structure.
|
||||
Hopf algebra: a bialgebra with a connection axiom (antipode).
|
||||
Clifford algebra: an associative
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
Z
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle \mathbb {Z} _{2}}
|
||||
|
||||
-graded algebra additionally equipped with an exterior product from which several possible inner products may be derived. Exterior algebras and geometric algebras are special cases of this construction.
|
||||
|
||||
== Algebraic structures with additional non-algebraic structure ==
|
||||
There are many examples of mathematical structures where algebraic structure exists alongside non-algebraic structure.
|
||||
|
||||
Topological vector spaces are vector spaces with a compatible topology.
|
||||
Lie groups: These are topological manifolds that also carry a compatible group structure.
|
||||
Ordered groups, ordered rings and ordered fields have algebraic structure compatible with an order on the set.
|
||||
Von Neumann algebras: these are *-algebras on a Hilbert space which are equipped with the weak operator topology.
|
||||
|
||||
== Algebraic structures in different disciplines ==
|
||||
Some algebraic structures find uses in disciplines outside of abstract algebra. The following is meant to demonstrate some specific applications in other fields.
|
||||
In physics:
|
||||
|
||||
Lie groups are used extensively in physics. A few well-known ones include the orthogonal groups and the unitary groups.
|
||||
Lie algebras
|
||||
Inner product spaces
|
||||
Kac–Moody algebra
|
||||
The quaternions and more generally geometric algebras
|
||||
In mathematical logic:
|
||||
|
||||
Boolean algebras are both rings and lattices, under their two operations.
|
||||
Heyting algebras are a special example of boolean algebras.
|
||||
Peano arithmetic
|
||||
Boundary algebra
|
||||
MV-algebra
|
||||
In computer science:
|
||||
|
||||
Max-plus algebra
|
||||
Syntactic monoid
|
||||
Transition monoid
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
Jipsen:
|
||||
Alphabetical list of algebra structures; includes many not mentioned here.
|
||||
Online books and lecture notes.
|
||||
Map containing about 50 structures, some of which do not appear above. Likewise, most of the structures above are absent from this map.
|
||||
PlanetMath Archived 2007-11-13 at the Wayback Machine topic index.
|
||||
Hazewinkel, Michiel (2001) Encyclopaedia of Mathematics. Springer-Verlag.
|
||||
Mathworld page on abstract algebra.
|
||||
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Algebra by Vaughan Pratt.
|
||||
126
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_arithmetic-0.md
Normal file
126
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_arithmetic-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,126 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Outline of arithmetic"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_arithmetic"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:51.611767+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to arithmetic:
|
||||
Arithmetic is an elementary branch of mathematics that deals with numerical operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. In a wider sense, it also includes exponentiation, extraction of roots, and taking logarithms, and the use of such operations to perform more complicated calculations.
|
||||
Arithmetic is fundamental for both pure mathematics and its practical application to science and daily life. In pure mathematics, arithmetic is defined formally for various types of numbers, such as integers, fractions of integers (rational numbers), and real numbers. In practical application, arithmetic is usually approximate, operating on decimal or binary numbers, with rounding.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Essence of arithmetic ==
|
||||
Elementary arithmetic
|
||||
Decimal arithmetic
|
||||
Decimal point
|
||||
Numeral
|
||||
Place value
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== History of arithmetic ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Arithmetic operations and related concepts ==
|
||||
|
||||
Order of operations
|
||||
Addition
|
||||
Summation – Answer after adding a sequence of numbers
|
||||
Additive inverse
|
||||
Subtraction – Taking away numbers
|
||||
Multiplication – Repeated addition
|
||||
Multiple – Product of multiplication
|
||||
Least common multiple
|
||||
Multiplicative inverse
|
||||
Division – Repeated subtraction
|
||||
Modulo – The remainder of division
|
||||
Quotient – Result of division
|
||||
Quotition and partition – How many parts are there, and what is the size of each part
|
||||
Fraction – A number that is not whole, often shown as a division equation
|
||||
Decimal fraction – Representation of a fraction in the form of a number
|
||||
Proper fraction – Fraction with a numerator that is less than the denominator
|
||||
Improper fraction – Fractions with a numerator that is any number
|
||||
Ratio – Showing how much one number can go into another
|
||||
Least common denominator – Least common multiple of two or more fractions' denominators
|
||||
Factoring – Breaking a number down into its products
|
||||
Fundamental theorem of arithmetic
|
||||
Prime number – Number divisible by only 1 or itself
|
||||
Prime number theorem
|
||||
Distribution of primes
|
||||
Composite number – Number made of two smaller integers
|
||||
Factor – A number that can be divided from its original number to get a whole number
|
||||
Greatest common factor – Greatest factor that is common between two numbers
|
||||
Euclid's algorithm for finding greatest common divisors
|
||||
Exponentiation (power) – Repeated multiplication
|
||||
Square root – Reversal of a power of 2 (exponent of 1/2)
|
||||
Cube root – Reversal of a power of 3 (exponent of 1/3)
|
||||
Properties of Operations
|
||||
Associative property
|
||||
Distributive property
|
||||
Commutative property
|
||||
Factorial – Multiplication of numbers from the current number to 0
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Types of numbers ==
|
||||
|
||||
Real number
|
||||
Rational number
|
||||
Integer
|
||||
Natural number
|
||||
Composite number
|
||||
Irrational number
|
||||
Odd number
|
||||
Even number
|
||||
Positive number
|
||||
Negative number
|
||||
Prime number
|
||||
List of prime numbers
|
||||
Highly composite number
|
||||
Perfect number
|
||||
Algebraic number
|
||||
Transcendental number
|
||||
Hypercomplex number
|
||||
Transfinite number
|
||||
Indefinite and fictitious numbers
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Elementary statistics ==
|
||||
Mean
|
||||
Weighted mean
|
||||
Median
|
||||
Mode
|
||||
Range
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Other basic concepts ==
|
||||
Combinations
|
||||
Percentage
|
||||
Permutations
|
||||
Proportion
|
||||
Rounding
|
||||
Scientific notation
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Modern arithmetic ==
|
||||
Computer-Based Math
|
||||
Outline of number theory
|
||||
Riemann zeta function
|
||||
L-functions
|
||||
Multiplicative functions
|
||||
Modular forms
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Elementary mathematics
|
||||
Mathematical software and Computer-Based Math
|
||||
Table of mathematical symbols
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
|
||||
MathWorld article about arithmetic
|
||||
The New Student's Reference Work/Arithmetic (historical)
|
||||
Maximus Planudes' the Great Calculation Archived 2007-07-13 at the Wayback Machine an early western work on arithmetic at Convergence Archived 2007-07-13 at the Wayback Machine
|
||||
67
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_calculus-0.md
Normal file
67
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_calculus-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,67 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Outline of calculus"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_calculus"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:13:00.609028+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Calculus is a branch of mathematics focused on limits, functions, derivatives, integrals, and infinite series. This subject constitutes a major part of contemporary mathematics education. Calculus has widespread applications in science, economics, and engineering and can solve many problems for which algebra alone is insufficient.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Branches of calculus ==
|
||||
Differential calculus
|
||||
Integral calculus
|
||||
Multivariable calculus
|
||||
Fractional calculus
|
||||
Differential Geometry
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== History of calculus ==
|
||||
History of calculus
|
||||
Important publications in calculus
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== General calculus concepts ==
|
||||
Continuous function
|
||||
Derivative
|
||||
Fundamental theorem of calculus
|
||||
Integral
|
||||
Limit
|
||||
Non-standard analysis
|
||||
Partial derivative
|
||||
Infinite Series
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Calculus scholars ==
|
||||
Sir Isaac Newton
|
||||
Gottfried Leibniz
|
||||
Leonhard Euler
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Calculus lists ==
|
||||
List of calculus topics
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Glossary of calculus
|
||||
Table of mathematical symbols
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
|
||||
Weisstein, Eric W. "Calculus". MathWorld.
|
||||
Topics on Calculus at PlanetMath.
|
||||
Calculus Made Easy (1914) by Silvanus P. Thompson Full text in PDF
|
||||
Calculus.org: The Calculus page at University of California, Davis – contains resources and links to other sites
|
||||
COW: Calculus on the Web Archived 2007-10-14 at the Wayback Machine at Temple University - contains resources ranging from pre-calculus and associated algebra
|
||||
Online Integrator (WebMathematica) from Wolfram Research
|
||||
The Role of Calculus in College Mathematics Archived 2021-07-26 at the Wayback Machine from ERICDigests.org
|
||||
OpenCourseWare Calculus from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
|
||||
Infinitesimal Calculus – an article on its historical development, in Encyclopaedia of Mathematics, Michiel Hazewinkel ed.
|
||||
Calculus Concepts Master Calculus From Scratch
|
||||
193
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_category_theory-0.md
Normal file
193
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_category_theory-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,193 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Outline of category theory"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_category_theory"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:13:01.794317+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The following outline is provided as an overview of and guide to category theory:
|
||||
Category theory is a general theory of mathematical structures and their relations. It was introduced by Samuel Eilenberg and Saunders Mac Lane in the mid-20th century in their foundational work on algebraic topology. Category theory can be used in most areas of mathematics. In particular, many constructions of new mathematical objects from previous ones that appear similarly in several contexts are conveniently expressed and unified in terms of categories. Examples include quotient spaces, direct products, completion, and duality.
|
||||
Many areas of computer science also rely on category theory, such as functional programming and semantics.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Essence of category theory ==
|
||||
Category
|
||||
Functor
|
||||
Natural transformation
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Branches of category theory ==
|
||||
Homological algebra
|
||||
Diagram chasing
|
||||
Topos theory
|
||||
Enriched category theory
|
||||
Higher category theory
|
||||
Categorical logic
|
||||
Applied category theory
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Specific categories ==
|
||||
Category of sets
|
||||
Concrete category
|
||||
Category of small categories
|
||||
Category of vector spaces
|
||||
Category of graded vector spaces
|
||||
Category of chain complexes
|
||||
Category of finite dimensional Hilbert spaces
|
||||
Category of sets and relations
|
||||
Category of topological spaces
|
||||
Category of metric spaces
|
||||
Category of preordered sets
|
||||
Category of groups
|
||||
Category of abelian groups
|
||||
Category of rings
|
||||
Category of magmas
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Objects ==
|
||||
Initial object
|
||||
Terminal object
|
||||
Zero object
|
||||
Subobject
|
||||
Group object
|
||||
Magma object
|
||||
Natural number object
|
||||
Exponential object
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Morphisms ==
|
||||
|
||||
Epimorphism
|
||||
Monomorphism
|
||||
Zero morphism
|
||||
Normal morphism
|
||||
Dual (category theory)
|
||||
Groupoid
|
||||
Image (category theory)
|
||||
Coimage
|
||||
Commutative diagram
|
||||
Cartesian morphism
|
||||
Slice category
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Functors ==
|
||||
|
||||
Isomorphism of categories
|
||||
Natural transformation
|
||||
Equivalence of categories
|
||||
Subcategory
|
||||
Faithful functor
|
||||
Full functor
|
||||
Forgetful functor
|
||||
Representable functor
|
||||
Functor category
|
||||
Adjoint functors
|
||||
Galois connection
|
||||
Pontryagin duality
|
||||
Affine scheme
|
||||
Monad (category theory)
|
||||
Comonad
|
||||
Combinatorial species
|
||||
Exact functor
|
||||
Derived functor
|
||||
Dominant functor
|
||||
Enriched functor
|
||||
Kan extension of a functor
|
||||
Hom functor
|
||||
Yoneda lemma
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Limits ==
|
||||
|
||||
Product (category theory)
|
||||
Equaliser (mathematics)
|
||||
Kernel (category theory)
|
||||
Pullback (category theory)/fiber product
|
||||
Inverse limit
|
||||
Pro-finite group
|
||||
Colimit
|
||||
Coproduct
|
||||
Coequalizer
|
||||
Cokernel
|
||||
Pushout (category theory)
|
||||
Direct limit
|
||||
Biproduct
|
||||
Direct sum
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Additive structure ==
|
||||
Preadditive category
|
||||
Additive category
|
||||
Pre-Abelian category
|
||||
Abelian category
|
||||
Exact sequence
|
||||
Exact functor
|
||||
Snake lemma
|
||||
Nine lemma
|
||||
Five lemma
|
||||
Short five lemma
|
||||
Mitchell's embedding theorem
|
||||
Injective cogenerator
|
||||
Derived category
|
||||
Triangulated category
|
||||
Model category
|
||||
2-category
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Dagger categories ==
|
||||
|
||||
Dagger symmetric monoidal category
|
||||
Dagger compact category
|
||||
Strongly ribbon category
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Monoidal categories ==
|
||||
|
||||
Closed monoidal category
|
||||
Braided monoidal category
|
||||
Symmetric monoidal category
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Structure ==
|
||||
|
||||
Semigroupoid
|
||||
Comma category
|
||||
Localization of a category
|
||||
Enriched category
|
||||
Bicategory
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Topoi, toposes ==
|
||||
|
||||
Sheaf
|
||||
Gluing axiom
|
||||
Descent (category theory)
|
||||
Grothendieck topology
|
||||
Introduction to topos theory
|
||||
Subobject classifier
|
||||
Pointless topology
|
||||
Heyting algebra
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== History of category theory ==
|
||||
History of category theory
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Persons influential in the field of category theory ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Category theory scholars ===
|
||||
Saunders Mac Lane
|
||||
Samuel Eilenberg
|
||||
Max Kelly
|
||||
William Lawvere
|
||||
André Joyal
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
|
||||
Abstract nonsense
|
||||
Glossary of category theory
|
||||
38
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swadesh_list-0.md
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38
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|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Swadesh list"
|
||||
chunk: 1/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swadesh_list"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:25.180092+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
A Swadesh list () is a compilation of tentatively universal concepts for the purposes of lexicostatistics. That is, a Swadesh list is a list of forms and concepts which all languages, without exception, have terms for, such as star, hand, water, kill, sleep, and so forth. The number of such terms is small – a few hundred at most, or possibly less than a hundred. The inclusion or exclusion of many terms is subject to debate among linguists; thus, there are several different lists, and some authors may refer to "Swadesh lists." The Swadesh list is named after linguist Morris Swadesh.
|
||||
Translations of a Swadesh list into a set of languages allow for researchers to quantify the interrelatedness of those languages. Swadesh lists are used in lexicostatistics (the quantitative assessment of the genealogical relatedness of languages) and glottochronology (the dating of language divergence). For instance, the terms on a Swadesh list can be compared between two languages (since both languages will have them) to see if they are related and how closely, thus giving useful information that can be further applied to comparison of the languages. (Actual lexicostatistics is quite complicated, and usually sets of languages are compared.)
|
||||
|
||||
== Versions and authors ==
|
||||
Morris Swadesh created several versions of his list. He started with a list of 215 meanings (falsely introduced as a list of 225 meanings in the paper due to a spelling error), which he reduced to 165 words for the Salish-Spokane-Kalispel language. In 1952, he published a list of 215 meanings, of which he suggested the removal of 16 for being unclear or not universal, with one added to arrive at 200 words. In 1955, he wrote, "The only solution appears to be a drastic weeding out of the list, in the realization that quality is at least as important as quantity. Even the new list has defects, but they are relatively mild and few in number." After minor corrections, the final 100-word list was published posthumously in 1971 and 1972.
|
||||
Other versions of lexicostatistical test lists were published e.g. by Robert Lees (1953), John A. Rea (1958:145f), Dell Hymes (1960:6), E. Cross (1964 with 241 concepts), W. J. Samarin (1967:220f), D. Wilson (1969 with 57 meanings), Lionel Bender (1969), R. L. Oswald (1971), Winfred P. Lehmann (1984:35f), D. Ringe (1992, passim, different versions), Sergei Starostin (1984, passim, different versions), William S-Y. Wang (1994), M. Lohr (2000, 128 meanings in 18 languages). B. Kessler (2002), and many others. The Concepticon, a project hosted at the Cross-Linguistic Linked Data (CLLD) project, collects various concept lists (including classical Swadesh lists) across different linguistic areas and times, currently listing 240 different concept lists.
|
||||
Frequently used and widely available on the internet, is the version by Isidore Dyen (1992, 200 meanings of 95 language variants). Since 2010, a team around Michael Dunn has tried to update and enhance that list.
|
||||
|
||||
== Principle ==
|
||||
In origin, the words in the Swadesh lists were chosen for their universal, culturally independent availability in as many languages as possible, regardless of their stability (how prone the word is to changing, as all words do over time to a greater or lesser extent, which can include borrowing from another language).
|
||||
However, stability may be important. The stability of terms on a Swadesh list under language change and the potential use of this fact for purposes of glottochronology (study of how languages develop and branch apart over time) have been analyzed by numerous authors, including Marisa Lohr 1999, 2000.
|
||||
The Swadesh list was put together by Morris Swadesh on the basis of his intuition. Similar more recent lists, such as the Dolgopolsky list (1964) or the Leipzig–Jakarta list (2009), are based on systematic data from many different languages, but they are not yet as widely known nor as widely used as the Swadesh list.
|
||||
|
||||
== Usage in lexicostatistics and glottochronology ==
|
||||
Lexicostatistical test lists are used in lexicostatistics to define subgroupings of languages, and in glottochronology to "provide dates for branching points in the tree." The task of defining (and counting the number) of cognate words in the list is far from trivial, and often is subject to dispute, because cognates do not necessarily look similar, and recognition of cognates presupposes knowledge of the sound laws of the respective languages.
|
||||
|
||||
== Swadesh 100 original final list ==
|
||||
Swadesh's final list, published in 1971, contains 100 terms. Explanations of the terms can be found in Swadesh 1952 or, where noted by a dagger (†), in Swadesh 1955. Note that only this original sequence clarifies the correct meaning which is lost in an alphabetical order, e.g., in the case "27. bark" (originally without the specification here added).
|
||||
|
||||
^ "Claw" was only added in 1955, but again replaced by many well-known specialists with (finger)nail, because expressions for "claw" are not available in many old, extinct, or lesser known languages.
|
||||
The 110-item Global Lexicostatistical Database list uses the original 100-item Swadesh list, in addition to 10 other words from the Swadesh–Yakhontov list.
|
||||
|
||||
== Swadesh 207 list ==
|
||||
The most used list nowadays is the Swadesh 207-word list, adapted from Swadesh 1952.
|
||||
In Wiktionary ("Swadesh lists by language"), Panlex and in Palisto's "Swadesh Word List of Indo-European languages", hundreds of Swadesh lists in this form can be found.
|
||||
|
||||
== Shorter lists ==
|
||||
The Swadesh–Yakhontov list is a 35-word subset of the Swadesh list posited as especially stable by Russian linguist Sergei Yakhontov around the 1960s, although the list was only officially published in 1991. It has been used in lexicostatistics by linguists such as Sergei Starostin. With their Swadesh numbers, they are:
|
||||
52
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swadesh_list-1.md
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||||
---
|
||||
title: "Swadesh list"
|
||||
chunk: 2/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swadesh_list"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T08:12:25.180092+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Holman et al. (2008) found that in identifying the relationships between Chinese dialects the Swadesh–Yakhontov list was less accurate than the original Swadesh-100 list. Further they found that a different (40-word) list (also known as the ASJP list) was just as accurate as the Swadesh-100 list. However, they calculated the relative stability of the words by comparing retentions between languages in established language families. They found no statistically significant difference in the correlations in the families of the Old versus the New World.
|
||||
The ranked Swadesh-100 list, with Swadesh numbers and relative stability, is as follows (Holman et al., Appendix. Asterisked words appear on the 40-word list):
|
||||
|
||||
=== Sign languages ===
|
||||
In studying the sign languages of Vietnam and Thailand, linguist James Woodward noted that the traditional Swadesh list applied to spoken languages was unsuited for sign languages. The Swadesh list results in overestimation of the relationships between sign languages, due to indexical signs such as pronouns and parts of the body. The modified list is as follows, in mostly alphabetical order:
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
|
||||
Other lists
|
||||
A General Service List of English Words — roughly 2,000 of the most common English words
|
||||
Dolgopolsky list — the 15 words that change least as languages evolve
|
||||
Leipzig–Jakarta list — 100 words resistant to borrowing, used to estimate chronological separation of languages, intended to improve on the Swadesh list
|
||||
Holle lists — about 1500 words in more than 250 languages of Indonesia
|
||||
Wiktionary listings:
|
||||
wikt:Appendix:Swadesh lists
|
||||
wikt:Category:Swadesh lists by language
|
||||
Projects and databases
|
||||
Automated Similarity Judgment Program — a project applying computational approaches to comparative linguistics using a database of word lists
|
||||
Evolution of Human Languages — a project to provide a genealogical classification of the world's languages
|
||||
Intercontinental Dictionary Series — a database of vocabulary lists in over 200 languages, especially indigenous South American and Northeast Caucasian
|
||||
Linguistic concepts and fields
|
||||
Cognate — a word derived from the same word as another
|
||||
Historical linguistics — the study of language change over time
|
||||
Indo-European studies — the study of Indo-European languages and their hypothetical common ancestor, Proto-Indo-European
|
||||
Proto-language — a postulated ancestral language from which a family of languages is presumed to have evolved
|
||||
Methods of language reconstruction
|
||||
Comparative method — feature-by-feature comparison of related languages to reconstruct their development and common ancestor
|
||||
Mass lexical comparison — a controversial method, seen as a rival to the comparative method, to determine the relatedness of languages
|
||||
Internal reconstruction — reconstruction of an earlier state of a language without comparing it to other languages
|
||||
Other
|
||||
Basic English — a simplified form of English for communication and learning
|
||||
|
||||
== Notes ==
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
|
||||
Lexico-semantic universals: A critical overview
|
||||
Rosetta project
|
||||
Swadesh Lists of Brazilian Native Languages
|
||||
Illustrated linguistic and etymology blog by Stephan Steinbach
|
||||
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