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title: "List of agricultural journals"
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source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_agricultural_journals"
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This is a list of agricultural journals which includes notable peer-reviewed scientific journals that publish research in agriculture, agronomy, crop science, soil science, horticulture, plant pathology, animal science, and related fields.
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== Journals ==
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Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica B
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African Crop Science Journal
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African Journal of Range & Forage Science
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Agricultural and Forest Meteorology
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Agricultural Economics
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Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment
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Agronomy Journal
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American Journal of Agricultural Economics
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American Journal of Enology and Viticulture
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Animal (journal)
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Annual Review of Phytopathology
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Aquaculture (journal)
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Aquaculture International
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Aquaculture Research
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Australasian Agribusiness Review
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BioControl
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Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry
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Bulgarian Journal of Agricultural Science
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Cahiers Agricultures
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California Agriculture
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Crop & Pasture Science
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Crop Science
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Fisheries Research
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Folia Horticulturae
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Hilgardia
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HortScience
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Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences
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Journal of Agrarian Change
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Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics
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Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry
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Journal of Agricultural Economics
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Journal of Agricultural, Biological and Environmental Statistics
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The Journal of Agricultural Science
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Journal of Animal Science
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Journal of Central European Agriculture
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Journal of Dairy Science
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Journal of Experimental Botany
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Journal of Horticultural Sciences
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The Journal of Peasant Studies
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Journal of Plantation Crops
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Journal of Soil and Water Conservation
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Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture
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Open Agriculture
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Pertanika Journal of Tropical Agricultural Science
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Pest Management Science
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Phytopathology (journal)
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Plant and Soil
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Plant Disease (journal)
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Plant Physiology
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Potato Research
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Queensland Agricultural Journal
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Rangifer (journal)
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Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems
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Review of Agrarian Studies
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Soil Biology and Biochemistry
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Soil Research
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Theoretical and Applied Genetics
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Transactions of the ASABE
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Tropical Grasslands (journal)
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Tropicultura
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Zemědělská ekonomika
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== See also ==
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Agrivoltaics
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Indian Council of Agricultural Research
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List of biology journals
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List of environmental journals
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List of scientific journals
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Precision agriculture
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=== Agriculture conferences ===
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Paris International Agricultural Show
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Annual Biocontrol Industry Meeting
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InfoAg Conference
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International Horticultural Congress
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New Harvest
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data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_life_sciences-0.md
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title: "List of life sciences"
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This list of life sciences comprises the branches of science that involve the scientific study of life — such as animals (including human beings), microorganisms, and plants. This is one of the two major branches of natural science, the other being physical science, which is concerned with non-living matter. Biology is the overall natural science that studies life, with the other life sciences as its sub-disciplines.
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Some life sciences focus on a specific type of organism. For example, zoology is the study of animals, while botany is the study of plants. Other life sciences focus on aspects common to all or many life forms, such as anatomy and genetics. Some focus on the micro scale (e.g., molecular biology, biochemistry), while others focus on larger scales (e.g., cytology, immunology, ethology, pharmacy, ecology). Another major branch of life sciences involves understanding the mind—neuroscience. Life-science discoveries are helpful in improving the quality and standard of life and have applications in health, agriculture, medicine, and the pharmaceutical and food science industries. For example, they have provided information on certain diseases, which has helped in the understanding of human health.
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== Basic life science branches ==
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Biology – scientific study of life
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Anatomy – study of form and function, in plants, animals, and other organisms
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Histology – the study of tissues
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Neuroscience – the study of the nervous system
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Astrobiology – the study of the formation and presence of life in the universe
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Biotechnology – study of combination of both the living organism and technology
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Biochemistry – the study of the chemical reactions required for life to exist and function, usually focused on the cellular level
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Quantum biology – the study of quantum phenomena in organisms
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Bioinformatics – developing of methods or software tools for storing, retrieving, organizing and analyzing biological data to generate useful biological knowledge
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Biophysics – study of biological processes by applying the theories and methods that have been traditionally used in the physical sciences
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Biomechanics – the study of the mechanics of living beings
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Botany – study of plants
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Agrostology – the study of grasses and grass-like species
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Dendrology - the study of woody plants and trees
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Phycology – the study of algae
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Cell biology (cytology) – study of the cell as a complete unit, and the molecular and chemical interactions that occur within a living cell
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Developmental biology – the study of the processes through which an organism forms, from zygote to full structure
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Ecology – study of the interactions of living organisms with one another and with the non-living elements of their environment
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Enzymology – study of enzymes
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Evolutionary biology – study of the origin and descent of species over time
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Evolutionary developmental biology – the study of the evolution of development including its molecular control
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Genetics – the study of genes and heredity
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Immunology – the study of the immune system
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Marine biology – the study of ocean organisms
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Biological oceanography – the study of life in the oceans and their interaction with the environment
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Microbiology – the study of microscopic organisms (microorganisms) and their interactions with other living organisms
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Aerobiology – study of the movement and transportation of microorganisms in the air
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Bacteriology – study of bacteria
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Virology – study of viruses and virus-like agents
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Molecular biology – the study of biology and biological functions at the molecular level, some cross over with biochemistry, genetics, and microbiology
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Structural biology – a branch of molecular biology, biochemistry, and biophysics concerned with the molecular structure of biological macro-molecules
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Mycology – the study of fungi
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Paleobiology – the study of prehistoric organisms
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Parasitology – the study of parasites, their hosts, and the relationship between them
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Pathology – study of the causes and effects of disease or injury
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Human biology – the biological study of human beings
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Pharmacology – study of drug action
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Biological (or physical) anthropology – the study of humans, non-human primates, and hominids
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Biolinguistics – the study of the biology and evolution of language
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Physiology – the study of the functioning of living organisms and the organs and parts of living organisms
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Population biology – the study of groups of conspecific organisms
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Population dynamics – the study of short-term and long-term changes in the size and age composition of populations, and the biological and environmental processes influencing those changes. Population dynamics deals with the way populations are affected by birth and death rates, and by immigration and emigration, and studies topics such as ageing populations or population decline.
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Synthetic biology – the design and construction of new biological entities such as enzymes, genetic circuits and cells, or the redesign of existing biological systems
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Systems biology – the study of the integration and dependencies of various components within a biological system, with particular focus upon the role of metabolic pathways and cell-signaling strategies in physiology
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Theoretical biology – use of abstractions and mathematical models to study biological phenomena
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Toxicology – the study of poisons
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Zoology – the study of (generally non-human) animals
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Ethology – the study of animal behavior
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== Applied life science branches and derived concepts ==
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Agriculture – science and practice of cultivating plants and livestock
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Agronomy – science of cultivating plants for resources
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Biocomputers – systems of biologically derived molecules, such as DNA and proteins, are used to perform computational calculations involving storing, retrieving, and processing data. The development of biological computing has been made possible by the expanding new science of nanobiotechnology. Biocontrol – bioeffector-method of controlling pests (including insects, mites, weeds and plant diseases) using other living organisms. Bioengineering – study of biology through the means of engineering with an emphasis on applied knowledge and especially related to biotechnology
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Bioelectronics – field at the convergence of electronics and biological sciences. The electrical state of biological matter significantly affects its structure and function, compare for instance the membrane potential, the signal transduction by neurons, the isoelectric point (IEP) and so on. Micro- and nano-electronic components and devices have increasingly been combined with biological systems like medical implants, biosensors, lab-on-a-chip devices etc. causing the emergence of this new scientific field. Biomaterials – any matter, surface, or construct that interacts with biological systems. As a science, biomaterials is about fifty years old. The study of biomaterials is called biomaterials science. It has experienced steady and strong growth over its history, with many companies investing large amounts of money into the development of new products. Biomaterials science encompasses elements of medicine, biology, chemistry, tissue engineering and materials science. Biomedical science – healthcare science, also known as biomedical science, is a set of applied sciences applying portions of natural science or formal science, or both, to develop knowledge, interventions, or technology of use in healthcare or public health. Such disciplines as medical microbiology, clinical virology, clinical epidemiology, genetic epidemiology and pathophysiology are medical sciences. Biomonitoring – measurement of the body burden of toxic chemical compounds, elements, or their metabolites, in biological substances. Often, these measurements are done in blood and urine. Biopolymer – polymers produced by living organisms; in other words, they are polymeric biomolecules. Since they are polymers, biopolymers contain monomeric units that are covalently bonded to form larger structures. There are three main classes of biopolymers, classified according to the monomeric units used and the structure of the biopolymer formed: polynucleotides (RNA and DNA), which are long polymers composed of 13 or more nucleotide monomers; polypeptides, which are short polymers of amino acids; and polysaccharides, which are often linear bonded polymeric carbohydrate structures. Biotechnology – manipulation of living matter, including genetic modification and synthetic biology
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Conservation biology – the management of nature and of Earth's biodiversity with the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the erosion of biotic interactions. It is an interdisciplinary subject drawing on natural and social sciences, and the practice of natural resource management. Environmental health – multidisciplinary field concerned with environmental epidemiology, toxicology, and exposure science. Fermentation technology – study of use of microorganisms for industrial manufacturing of various products like vitamins, amino acids, antibiotics, beer, wine, etc. Food science – applied science devoted to the study of food. Activities of food scientists include the development of new food products, design of processes to produce and conserve these foods, choice of packaging materials, shelf-life studies, study of the effects of food on the human body, sensory evaluation of products using panels or potential consumers, as well as microbiological, physical (texture and rheology) and chemical testing. Genomics – application of recombinant DNA, DNA sequencing methods, and bioinformatics to sequence, assemble, and analyze the function and structure of genomes (the complete set of DNA within a single cell of an organism). The field includes efforts to determine the entire DNA sequence of organisms and fine-scale genetic mapping. The field also includes studies of intragenomic phenomena such as heterosis, epistasis, pleiotropy and other interactions between loci and alleles within the genome. In contrast, the investigation of the roles and functions of single genes is a primary focus of molecular biology or genetics and is a common topic of modern medical and biological research. Research of single genes does not fall into the definition of genomics unless the aim of this genetic, pathway, and functional information analysis is to elucidate its effect on, place in, and response to the entire genome's networks. Health sciences – sciences which focus on health, or health care, as core parts of their subject matter. These two subject matters relate to multiple academic disciplines, both STEM disciplines, as well as emerging patient safety disciplines (such as social care research), and are both relevant to current health science knowledge. Medical devices – A medical device is an instrument, apparatus, implant, in vitro reagent, or similar or related article that is used to diagnose, prevent, or treat disease or other conditions, and does not achieve its purposes through chemical action within or on the body (which would make it a drug). Whereas medicinal products (also called pharmaceuticals) achieve their principal action by pharmacological, metabolic or immunological means, medical devices act by other means like physical, mechanical, or thermal means. Medical imaging – the technique and process used to create images of the human body (or parts and function thereof) for clinical or physiological research purposes
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Immunotherapy – the "treatment of disease by inducing, enhancing, or suppressing an immune response". Immunotherapies designed to elicit or amplify an immune response are classified as activation immunotherapies, while immunotherapies that reduce or suppress are classified as suppression immunotherapies. Kinesiology – scientific study of human movement. Kinesiology, also known as human kinetics, addresses physiological, mechanical, and psychological mechanisms. Applications of kinesiology to human health include: biomechanics and orthopedics; strength and conditioning; sport psychology; methods of rehabilitation, such as physical and occupational therapy; and sport and exercise. Individuals who have earned degrees in kinesiology can work in research, the fitness industry, clinical settings, and in industrial environments. Studies of human and animal motion include measures from motion tracking systems, electrophysiology of muscle and brain activity, various methods for monitoring physiological function, and other behavioral and cognitive research techniques. Optogenetics – a neuromodulation technique employed in neuroscience that uses a combination of techniques from optics and genetics to control and monitor the activities of individual neurons in living tissue—even within freely-moving animals—and to precisely measure the effects of those manipulations in real-time. The key reagents used in optogenetics are light-sensitive proteins. Spatially-precise neuronal control is achieved using optogenetic actuators like channelrhodopsin, halorhodopsin, and archaerhodopsin, while temporally-precise recordings can be made with the help of optogenetic sensors like Clomeleon, Mermaid, and SuperClomeleon. Pharmacogenomics – field of science and technology that analyses how genetic makeup affects an individual's response to drugs. Pharmacogenomics (a portmanteau of pharmacology and genomics) deals with the influence of genetic variation on drug response in patients by correlating gene expression or single-nucleotide polymorphisms with a drug's efficacy or toxicity. Pharmacology – branch of medicine and biology concerned with the study of drug action, where a drug can be broadly defined as any human-made, natural, or endogenous (within the body) molecule which exerts a biochemical and/or physiological effect on the cell, tissue, organ, or organism. More specifically, it is the study of the interactions that occur between a living organism and chemicals that affect normal or abnormal biochemical function.
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title: "List of life sciences"
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If substances have medicinal properties, they are considered pharmaceuticals. Proteomics – the large-scale study of proteins, particularly their structures and functions. Proteins are vital parts of living organisms, as they are the main components of the physiological metabolic pathways of cells. The proteome is the entire set of proteins, produced or modified by an organism or system. This varies with time and distinct requirements, or stresses, that a cell or organism undergoes.
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== See also ==
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Outline of biology
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Divisions of pharmacology
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Control theory
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== References ==
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== Further reading ==
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Magner, Lois N. (2002). A history of the life sciences (Rev. and expanded 3rd ed.). New York: M. Dekker. ISBN 0824708245.
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title: "List of mechanical engineering journals"
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source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mechanical_engineering_journals"
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date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:01:37.931521+00:00"
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This is a list of mechanical engineering journals which includes peer-reviewed scientific journals that cover research in mechanical systems, acoustics, thermodynamics, electromechanics, fluid mechanics, manufacturing, robotics, and other related fields.
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== Journals ==
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Applied Mechanics Reviews
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ASCE-ASME Journal of Risk and Uncertainty in Engineering Systems
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Experimental Mechanics
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Heat and Mass Transfer
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International Journal of Extreme Manufacturing
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International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer
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International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture
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International Journal of Plasticity
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Jordan Journal of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
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Journal of Computational and Nonlinear Dynamics
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Journal of Fluid Mechanics
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Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer Research
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Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems
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Journal of Micro/Nanopatterning, Materials, and Metrology
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Journal of Sound and Vibration
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Mechanism and Machine Theory
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Meccanica
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Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part C: Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science
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Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part L
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== See also ==
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American Society for Precision Engineering
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International Conference on Robotics and Automation
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Lists of academic journals
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List of American Society of Mechanical Engineers academic journals
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List of engineering awards
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List of aerospace engineering journals
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List of engineering journals and magazines
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List of materials science journals
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List of mechanical engineering software
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List of physics journals
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List of scientific journals
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Mechanical engineering
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title: "List of nuclear science journals"
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source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nuclear_science_journals"
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This is a list of nuclear science journals which includes peer-reviewed scientific journals covering nuclear physics, nuclear engineering, reactor design, radiation detection, and related areas of nuclear technology.
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== Journals ==
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Acta Physica Polonica B
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Annals of Nuclear Energy
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Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science
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Applied Radiation and Isotopes
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Atomic Data and Nuclear Data Tables
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Chinese Physics C
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European Physical Journal A
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Fusion Engineering and Design
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Health Physics
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IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science
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International Journal of Energy Research
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International Journal of Radiation Biology
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Journal of Instrumentation
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Journal of Physics G
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Journal of Nuclear Materials
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Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry
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Journal of Radiological Protection
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Magnetohydrodynamics (journal)
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Nuclear Fusion
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Nuclear Physics (journal)
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Nuclear Physics A
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Nuclear Physics B
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Nuclear Physics and Atomic Energy
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Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research
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Nuclear Science and Engineering
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Nuclear Science and Techniques
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Nuclear Technology
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Nukleonik
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Physical Review and their sub-journals
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Physical Review Accelerators and Beams
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Physical Review C
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Physics Letters B
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Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion
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Progress in Nuclear Energy
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Radiation Measurements
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Radiation Protection Dosimetry
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Review of Scientific Instruments
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== See also ==
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American Nuclear Society
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International Atomic Energy Agency
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List of energy journals
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List of engineering journals and magazines
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List of physics journals
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List of plasma physics software
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List of computational physics software
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List of computational chemistry software
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List of scientific journals
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List of unsolved problems in nuclear physics
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Lists of academic journals
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Radiation chemistry
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=== Conferences ===
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Gordon Research Conferences
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International Conference on High Energy Physics
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International Conference on Neutrino Physics and Astrophysics
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title: "List of people who achieved posthumous recognition"
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This article is a chronological list of people who achieved posthumous recognition, which is the fame, honour, or critical breakthrough bestowed upon them only after their death. The phenomenon appears in many fields, including arts, literature and science, and has been described in cultural and historical studies.
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The list is organized chronologically by year of birth. Please add to this list people who meet all of the following criteria:
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People who had limited or small recognition in their lifetime, After their death, their work or actions received a clear growth in recognition through various honours such as prizes, memorials or institutions named after them and so on.
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Reliable secondary sources, stating that the person became famous only after their death or that their work, even if initially famous, was forgotten but later rediscovered.
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== Science ==
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== Literature & Poetry ==
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== Art ==
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== Music ==
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== See also ==
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Posthumous fame of Vincent van Gogh
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Posthumous fame of El Greco
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Reception of Johann Sebastian Bach's music – History of musical appreciation
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Posthumous award – Award granted after death
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Posthumous publication – Publishing a work after the creator's death
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== References ==
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---
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title: "List of quantum-mechanical potentials"
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source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_quantum-mechanical_potentials"
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category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:01:41.373777+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of potential energy functions that are frequently used in quantum mechanics and have any meaning.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== One-dimensional potentials ==
|
||||
Rectangular potential barrier
|
||||
Delta potential (aka "contact potential")
|
||||
Double delta potential
|
||||
Step potential
|
||||
Periodic potential
|
||||
Barrier potential
|
||||
Gaussian potential
|
||||
Eckart potential
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Wells ==
|
||||
Quantum well
|
||||
Potential well
|
||||
Finite potential well
|
||||
Infinite potential well
|
||||
Double-well potential
|
||||
Semicircular potential well
|
||||
Circular potential well
|
||||
Spherical potential well
|
||||
Triangular potential well
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Interatomic potentials ==
|
||||
Interatomic potential
|
||||
Bond order potential
|
||||
EAM potential
|
||||
Coulomb potential
|
||||
Buckingham potential
|
||||
Lennard-Jones potential
|
||||
Morse potential
|
||||
Morse/Long-range potential
|
||||
Rosen–Morse potential
|
||||
Trigonometric Rosen–Morse potential
|
||||
Stockmayer potential
|
||||
Pöschl–Teller potential
|
||||
Axilrod–Teller potential
|
||||
Mie potential
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Oscillators ==
|
||||
Harmonic potential (harmonic oscillator)
|
||||
Morse potential (morse oscillator)
|
||||
Morse/Long-range potential (Morse/Long-range oscillator)
|
||||
Kratzer potential (Kratzer oscillator)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Quantum Field theory ==
|
||||
Yukawa potential
|
||||
Coleman–Weinberg potential
|
||||
Uehling potential
|
||||
Woods–Saxon potential
|
||||
Cornell potential
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Miscellaneous ==
|
||||
Quantum potential
|
||||
Pseudopotential
|
||||
Superpotential
|
||||
Komar superpotential
|
||||
Kolos–Wolniewicz potential
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of quantum-mechanical systems with analytical solutions
|
||||
List of integrable models
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,90 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "List of renewable energy journals"
|
||||
chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_renewable_energy_journals"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:01:42.575966+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
This is a list of renewable energy journals that focus on topics related to solar energy, wind power, bioenergy, geothermal energy, energy storage, and other renewable energy topics.
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== Journals ==
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== General renewable and sustainable energy ===
|
||||
Applied Energy
|
||||
Energies
|
||||
Energy and Buildings
|
||||
Energy Conversion and Management
|
||||
Energy for Sustainable Development
|
||||
Journal of Cleaner Production
|
||||
Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy
|
||||
Nature Energy
|
||||
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
|
||||
Renewable Energy
|
||||
Smart Energy
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Solar energy ===
|
||||
Progress in Photovoltaics
|
||||
Solar Energy
|
||||
Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Wind energy ===
|
||||
IET Renewable Power Generation
|
||||
Wind Energy
|
||||
Wind Engineering
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Bioenergy and biofuels ===
|
||||
Bioresource Technology
|
||||
GCB Bioenergy
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Geothermal energy ===
|
||||
Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Energy systems, storage, and integration ===
|
||||
ACS Energy Letters
|
||||
ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering
|
||||
Advanced Energy Materials
|
||||
Batteries
|
||||
Energy
|
||||
Energy & Environmental Science
|
||||
Energy Reports
|
||||
Energy Storage Materials
|
||||
Energy Technology
|
||||
International Journal of Energy Research
|
||||
International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
|
||||
Journal of the Electrochemical Society
|
||||
Journal of Power Sources
|
||||
Joule
|
||||
Nano Energy
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=== Policy and economics ===
|
||||
Energy Economics
|
||||
Energy Policy
|
||||
Energy Research & Social Science
|
||||
Resource and Energy Economics
|
||||
The Energy Journal
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
List of books about renewable energy
|
||||
List of energy and fuel journals
|
||||
List of environmental journals
|
||||
List of engineering journals and magazines
|
||||
List of long-duration energy storage technologies
|
||||
List of scientific journals
|
||||
Lists of academic journals
|
||||
Photovoltaic Specialists Conference
|
||||
Windpower Monthly
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ chunk: 1/1
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_magazines"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:00:03.262096+00:00"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:01:43.796329+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,369 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Outline of library and information science"
|
||||
chunk: 1/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_library_and_information_science"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:01:33.085113+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to library and information science:
|
||||
Library and information science (LIS) is the scientific study of issues related to libraries and the information fields. This includes academic studies regarding how library resources are used and how people interact with library systems. The organization of knowledge for efficient retrieval of relevant information is also a major research goal of library science. Given its interdisciplinary nature, it overlaps with the fields of computer science, various social sciences, statistics, and systems analysis.
|
||||
|
||||
== Nature of library and information science ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Definition ===
|
||||
Library and information science can be described as all of the following:
|
||||
|
||||
The study of libraries and information both in terms of theory and practice.
|
||||
Field of science – widely recognized category of specialized expertise within science, and typically embodies its own terminology and nomenclature. Such a field will usually be represented by one or more scientific journals, where peer reviewed research is published. There are many library and information-related scientific journals.
|
||||
Social science – field of academic scholarship that explores aspects of human society.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Essence ===
|
||||
Library and information science
|
||||
Library science
|
||||
Information science
|
||||
Glossary of library and information science
|
||||
Cataloging
|
||||
Classification
|
||||
Information architecture
|
||||
Librarian
|
||||
Library
|
||||
|
||||
== Branches of library and information science ==
|
||||
Archival science
|
||||
Bibliographic databases
|
||||
Cataloging
|
||||
Library instruction
|
||||
Preservation
|
||||
Readers' advisory
|
||||
Reference
|
||||
|
||||
== Types of library and information professionals ==
|
||||
|
||||
Librarian
|
||||
Application specialist – see integrated library system
|
||||
Cataloguing librarian – see library catalog
|
||||
Collections librarian – see library collection development
|
||||
Electronic resources librarian – see electronic resource management
|
||||
Law librarian – expert in legal research
|
||||
Metadata librarian – see metadata
|
||||
Reference librarian – helps patrons with research
|
||||
Research instruction librarian – see library instruction
|
||||
Teacher-librarian
|
||||
Archivist
|
||||
Curator
|
||||
Indexer
|
||||
Information architect
|
||||
Information consultant (may be a qualified librarian)
|
||||
Prospect researcher
|
||||
Records manager (see Records management)
|
||||
|
||||
== History of library and information science ==
|
||||
History of library science
|
||||
|
||||
History of Information Science
|
||||
List of larger libraries in the ancient world
|
||||
|
||||
== Types of libraries ==
|
||||
Academic library
|
||||
Archive
|
||||
Digital library
|
||||
National library
|
||||
List of national libraries
|
||||
Public library
|
||||
Carnegie library
|
||||
Research library
|
||||
School library
|
||||
Special library
|
||||
|
||||
== Specific libraries ==
|
||||
List of libraries
|
||||
|
||||
== Library and information resources ==
|
||||
Document
|
||||
|
||||
=== Information media ===
|
||||
Audiobook
|
||||
Bibliographic database
|
||||
Book
|
||||
List of books
|
||||
Bookmark
|
||||
Braille book
|
||||
CD-ROM
|
||||
Clay Tablet
|
||||
Codex
|
||||
Compact audio cassette
|
||||
Compact disc
|
||||
DVD
|
||||
Ebook
|
||||
Film Stock
|
||||
Gramophone record
|
||||
Information architecture
|
||||
Laserdisc
|
||||
Magnetic tape
|
||||
Manuscript
|
||||
Map
|
||||
Microfiche
|
||||
Microfilm
|
||||
Microprint
|
||||
Newsgroup
|
||||
Newspaper
|
||||
Pamphlet
|
||||
Phonograph cylinder
|
||||
Photograph
|
||||
Scroll (parchment)
|
||||
Sheet music
|
||||
Slide library
|
||||
Videotape
|
||||
Web site
|
||||
Wire recording
|
||||
|
||||
=== Types of publications ===
|
||||
Academic journal
|
||||
Almanac
|
||||
List of almanacs
|
||||
Atlas
|
||||
Comic book
|
||||
Dictionary
|
||||
Encyclopedia
|
||||
Lists of encyclopedias
|
||||
Gazetteer
|
||||
Graphic novel
|
||||
Lexicon
|
||||
Magazine
|
||||
Newspaper
|
||||
Specific newspapers
|
||||
Reference work
|
||||
Serial
|
||||
Series of books
|
||||
Telephone directory
|
||||
Thesaurus
|
||||
|
||||
=== Catalogs and indexes ===
|
||||
AACR2
|
||||
Accession number
|
||||
Authority control
|
||||
Bliss bibliographic classification
|
||||
Classification
|
||||
Collation
|
||||
Colon classification
|
||||
Colophon
|
||||
Dewey Decimal Classification
|
||||
Controlled vocabulary
|
||||
Index
|
||||
International Standard Bibliographic Description
|
||||
Library catalog
|
||||
Library of Congress Classification
|
||||
Machine Readable Cataloging
|
||||
NUCMC
|
||||
OCLC
|
||||
OPAC
|
||||
Resource Description and Access
|
||||
Subject
|
||||
Universal Decimal Classification
|
||||
WorldCat
|
||||
|
||||
== Information science ==
|
||||
Glossary of information science terms
|
||||
Human-computer interaction
|
||||
Integrated library system
|
||||
Evidence-based library and information practice
|
||||
|
||||
=== Organization of information ===
|
||||
Cataloging and classification
|
||||
List of Catalogs and indexes
|
||||
Subject indexing
|
||||
Taxonomic classification
|
||||
Scientific classification
|
||||
Statistical classification
|
||||
Security classification
|
||||
Film classification
|
||||
Categorization
|
||||
Data modeling
|
||||
Knowledge management/ Knowledge engineering
|
||||
Information architecture
|
||||
Information system
|
||||
|
||||
=== Electronic information storage and retrieval ===
|
||||
Data storage
|
||||
Boolean expression
|
||||
Computer storage
|
||||
Data management
|
||||
Data storage device
|
||||
Database
|
||||
Digital library
|
||||
Document management
|
||||
Expert system
|
||||
Fuzzy logic
|
||||
Geographic Information System
|
||||
Invisible web
|
||||
Keyword
|
||||
Knowledge management
|
||||
Memory
|
||||
Metadata
|
||||
OpenURL
|
||||
Precision
|
||||
Recall
|
||||
Semantic web
|
||||
XML
|
||||
Information retrieval
|
||||
Controlled vocabulary
|
||||
Cross-language information retrieval
|
||||
Digital libraries
|
||||
Document classification
|
||||
Educational psychology
|
||||
Federated search
|
||||
Full text search
|
||||
Geographic information system
|
||||
Information extraction
|
||||
Information seeking
|
||||
Knowledge visualization
|
||||
Question answering
|
||||
Search engines
|
||||
Search index
|
||||
tf-idf
|
||||
|
||||
=== Infometrics ===
|
||||
Bibliometrics – studies quantitative aspects of recorded information
|
||||
Webometrics – studies quantitative aspects of the World Wide Web
|
||||
Cybermetrics – similar to webometrics, but broadens its definition to include electronic resources
|
||||
|
||||
==== Scientometrics ====
|
||||
Scientometrics – studies quantitative aspects of science
|
||||
|
||||
Bradford's law
|
||||
Citation
|
||||
Data mining
|
||||
Impact factor
|
||||
Information retrieval
|
||||
Peer review
|
||||
Web mining
|
||||
|
||||
=== Informatics ===
|
||||
Informatics
|
||||
|
||||
Bioinformatics
|
||||
Biodiversity Informatics
|
||||
Biomedical informatics
|
||||
Business Informatics
|
||||
Ecoinformatics
|
||||
Cheminformatics
|
||||
Community informatics
|
||||
Geoinformatics
|
||||
Health informatics
|
||||
Laboratory informatics
|
||||
Neuroinformatics
|
||||
Social informatics
|
||||
|
||||
=== Information and society ===
|
||||
Information society
|
||||
Censorship
|
||||
Copyright
|
||||
Freedom of Information Act
|
||||
Information access
|
||||
Intellectual freedom
|
||||
Intellectual property
|
||||
Literacy
|
||||
USA PATRIOT Act
|
||||
Open source
|
||||
Privacy
|
||||
Cultural studies
|
||||
Technological determinism
|
||||
Groupware
|
||||
Human-computer interaction
|
||||
Information ethics
|
||||
Usability engineering/ User-centered design
|
||||
|
||||
== Library operations and management ==
|
||||
Library management –
|
||||
|
||||
Five laws of library science
|
||||
Information
|
||||
Information literacy
|
||||
Knowledge management
|
||||
|
||||
=== Research methods ===
|
||||
Bibliography
|
||||
Digital reference services
|
||||
Genealogy
|
||||
Reference works
|
||||
Library reference desk
|
||||
Reference interview
|
||||
Research
|
||||
Museme
|
||||
|
||||
==== Organizing and searching Wikipedia ====
|
||||
Wikipedia resources for researchers
|
||||
Wikipedia:Categorization
|
||||
Wikipedia:Citing Wikipedia
|
||||
Wikipedia:Common words, searching for which is not possible
|
||||
Wikipedia:How to explore Wikipedia
|
||||
Wikipedia:Naming conventions (and its subpages)
|
||||
Wikipedia:Searching
|
||||
Wikipedia:WikiProject Fact and Reference Check
|
||||
|
||||
=== Selection and acquisition of library materials ===
|
||||
Children's literature
|
||||
Information explosion
|
||||
ISBN
|
||||
ISSN
|
||||
Library acquisitions
|
||||
Library collection development
|
||||
Literature
|
||||
Public Lending Right
|
||||
Young adult literature
|
||||
|
||||
=== Preservation ===
|
||||
Preservation
|
||||
|
||||
Archival science
|
||||
Archive
|
||||
Archivist
|
||||
Art conservation and restoration
|
||||
Conservation
|
||||
Curator
|
||||
Digital preservation
|
||||
Film preservation
|
||||
Historic preservation
|
||||
Library binding
|
||||
Mass deacidification
|
||||
Preservationist
|
||||
Slow fire
|
||||
|
||||
=== Other library services and processes ===
|
||||
Bookmobile
|
||||
Interlibrary loan
|
||||
Library circulation
|
||||
Library portal
|
||||
Library technical services
|
||||
RFID
|
||||
Reference management software
|
||||
|
||||
== Politics of library science ==
|
||||
Government information
|
||||
REFORMA
|
||||
|
||||
=== Legal issues ===
|
||||
Censorship
|
||||
Copyright
|
||||
Intellectual freedom
|
||||
Intellectual property
|
||||
Intellectual property rights
|
||||
Intellectual freedom
|
||||
Legal deposit
|
||||
Library Bill of Rights
|
||||
Open access (publishing)
|
||||
Public lending right
|
||||
Serials crisis
|
||||
|
||||
==== Laws ====
|
||||
Children's Internet Protection Act
|
||||
Digital Millennium Copyright Act
|
||||
Freedom of Information Act
|
||||
Patriot Act
|
||||
USA PATRIOT Act
|
||||
|
||||
==== Legal precedents ====
|
||||
New York Times Company v. Tasini
|
||||
@ -0,0 +1,169 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Outline of library and information science"
|
||||
chunk: 2/2
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_library_and_information_science"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:01:33.085113+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
=== Social issues ===
|
||||
Decreased funding for established libraries
|
||||
Digital divide
|
||||
Digitization
|
||||
Education for librarianship
|
||||
Information access
|
||||
Information and communication technologies (ICT's)
|
||||
Sustainability and ICT's
|
||||
Information explosion
|
||||
Information policy
|
||||
Information literacy
|
||||
Information Society
|
||||
Literacy
|
||||
Remote access
|
||||
|
||||
== Education and training ==
|
||||
Education for librarianship –
|
||||
|
||||
List of I-Schools
|
||||
Academic courses in library science
|
||||
|
||||
Collection management
|
||||
Cataloging and classification
|
||||
Database management
|
||||
Information architecture
|
||||
Information systems and technology
|
||||
Knowledge management
|
||||
List of Library Science schools
|
||||
Management
|
||||
Preservation
|
||||
Reference
|
||||
Research methods
|
||||
Statistics
|
||||
|
||||
== Professional organizations ==
|
||||
|
||||
American Association of School Librarians
|
||||
American Library Association
|
||||
Australian Library and Information Association
|
||||
Canadian Library Association
|
||||
Association for Library Service to Children
|
||||
Association of Research Libraries
|
||||
International Federation of Library Associations (IFLA)
|
||||
Public Library Association
|
||||
Special Libraries Association
|
||||
|
||||
== Non-profit organizations ==
|
||||
Librarians Without Borders
|
||||
Bibliothèques Sans Frontières
|
||||
African Library Project
|
||||
Friends of Libraries
|
||||
|
||||
== Notable people in library science ==
|
||||
List of librarians
|
||||
Librarians in popular culture
|
||||
Sanford Berman
|
||||
Daniel J. Boorstin
|
||||
William Warner Bishop
|
||||
Lee Pierce Butler
|
||||
John Cotton Dana
|
||||
Melvil Dewey
|
||||
John Fiske (philosopher)
|
||||
Michael Gorman
|
||||
Seymour Lubetzky
|
||||
Eric Moon
|
||||
Paul Evan Peters
|
||||
S. R. Ranganathan
|
||||
Jesse Shera
|
||||
Howard D. White
|
||||
|
||||
== List of Topic in Library School ==
|
||||
Collection Development
|
||||
Information Literacy
|
||||
Digital Libraries
|
||||
Library Management
|
||||
Cataloging and Classification
|
||||
Information Retrieval
|
||||
Library Automation
|
||||
Reference Services
|
||||
Database Management
|
||||
Knowledge Management
|
||||
Digital Scholarship
|
||||
Library Marketing
|
||||
Community Outreach
|
||||
Information Architecture
|
||||
Taxonomy and Ontology
|
||||
User Experience (UX)
|
||||
Library Assessment
|
||||
Information Policy
|
||||
Copyright and Licensing
|
||||
Open Access
|
||||
Digital Preservation
|
||||
Data Curation
|
||||
Library Instruction
|
||||
Information Systems
|
||||
Collection Maintenance
|
||||
Interlibrary Loan
|
||||
Library Consortia
|
||||
Information Literacy Instruction
|
||||
Digital Asset Management
|
||||
Library Space Planning
|
||||
Information Ethics
|
||||
Library Outreach
|
||||
Community Engagement
|
||||
Information Literacy Standards
|
||||
Digital Library Software
|
||||
Library Website Design
|
||||
Online Public Access Catalogs (OPACs)
|
||||
Library Discovery Layers
|
||||
Information Literacy Assessment
|
||||
Library Impact Studies
|
||||
Information Literacy Curriculum
|
||||
Digital Scholarship Centers
|
||||
Library Makerspaces
|
||||
Information Literacy Frameworks
|
||||
Library Support for Research
|
||||
Digital Humanities
|
||||
Library Data Analytics
|
||||
Information Literacy and Critical Thinking
|
||||
Library Support for Student Success
|
||||
Library Instruction for Diverse Populations
|
||||
Information Literacy and Digital Citizenship
|
||||
Library Services for People with Disabilities
|
||||
Information Literacy and Media Literacy
|
||||
Library Support for Entrepreneurship
|
||||
Information Literacy and Critical Library Instruction
|
||||
Library Services for Underserved Communities
|
||||
Information Literacy and Transliteracy
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
Wikipedia:WikiProject Libraries
|
||||
Category:Library science journals
|
||||
Category:Library science magazines
|
||||
Wikiproject BID (library, information, documentation) at the German Wikipedia
|
||||
Portail SID (information literacy and libraries) at the French Wikipedia.
|
||||
How to find a book on Wikibooks
|
||||
Document management system
|
||||
Grey literature
|
||||
History of public library advocacy
|
||||
Informatics
|
||||
Library of Congress
|
||||
Library anxiety
|
||||
OCLC
|
||||
Preservation (library and archive)
|
||||
Public library advocacy
|
||||
Serials, periodicals and journals
|
||||
The works of Michael Gorman
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
|
||||
Visualizing Library and Information Science from the practitioner's perspective
|
||||
LISNews.org Librarian and Information Science News
|
||||
LISWire.com Librarian and Information Science Wire
|
||||
|
||||
=== History ===
|
||||
Jefferson's Library - Exhibition including a sample page from "Catalog of Library of Thomas Jefferson"
|
||||
Chronology of information science and technology Archived 2011-05-14 at the Wayback Machine - From the 17th to the 20th century
|
||||
Chronology of chemical information science
|
||||
Information science pioneers Archived 2011-05-14 at the Wayback Machine - Biographies of pioneers and famous information scientists
|
||||
22
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law-0.md
Normal file
22
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law-0.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,22 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Scientific law"
|
||||
chunk: 1/6
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:01:31.866245+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
Scientific laws or laws of science are statements, based on repeated experiments or observations, that describe or predict a range of natural phenomena. The term law has diverse usage in many cases (approximate, accurate, broad, or narrow) across all fields of natural science (physics, chemistry, astronomy, geoscience, biology). Laws are developed from data and can be further developed through mathematics; in all cases they are directly or indirectly based on empirical evidence. It is generally understood that they implicitly reflect, though they do not explicitly assert, causal relationships fundamental to reality, and are discovered rather than invented.
|
||||
Scientific laws summarize the results of experiments or observations, usually within a certain range of application. In general, the accuracy of a law does not change when a new theory of the relevant phenomenon is worked out, but rather the scope of the law's application, since the mathematics or statement representing the law does not change. As with other kinds of scientific knowledge, scientific laws do not express absolute certainty, as mathematical laws do. A scientific law may be contradicted, restricted, or extended by future observations.
|
||||
A law can often be formulated as one or several statements or equations, so that it can predict the outcome of an experiment. Laws differ from hypotheses and postulates, which are proposed during the scientific process before and during validation by experiment and observation. Hypotheses and postulates are not laws, since they have not been verified to the same degree, although they may lead to the formulation of laws. Laws are narrower in scope than scientific theories, which may entail one or several laws. Science distinguishes a law or theory from facts. Calling a law a fact is ambiguous, an overstatement, or an equivocation. The nature of scientific laws has been much discussed in philosophy, but scientific laws are empirical conclusions reached by the scientific method; they are intended to be neither laden with ontological commitments nor statements of logical absolutes.
|
||||
Social sciences such as economics have also attempted to formulate scientific laws, though these generally have much less predictive power.
|
||||
|
||||
== Overview ==
|
||||
A scientific law always applies to a physical system under repeated conditions, and it implies that there is a causal relationship involving the elements of the system. Factual and well-confirmed statements like "Mercury is liquid at standard temperature and pressure" are considered too specific to qualify as scientific laws. A central problem in the philosophy of science, going back to David Hume, is that of distinguishing causal relationships (such as those implied by laws) from principles that arise due to constant conjunction.
|
||||
Laws differ from scientific theories in that they do not posit a mechanism or explanation of phenomena: they are merely distillations of the results of repeated observation. As such, the applicability of a law is limited to circumstances resembling those already observed, and the law may be found to be false when extrapolated. Ohm's law only applies to linear networks; Newton's law of universal gravitation only applies in weak gravitational fields; the early laws of aerodynamics, such as Bernoulli's principle, do not apply in the case of compressible flow such as occurs in transonic and supersonic flight; Hooke's law only applies to strain below the elastic limit; Boyle's law applies with perfect accuracy only to the ideal gas, etc. These laws remain useful, but only under the specified conditions where they apply.
|
||||
Many laws take mathematical forms, and thus can be stated as an equation; for example, the law of conservation of energy can be written as ΔE = 0, where E is the total amount of energy in the universe. Similarly, the first law of thermodynamics can be written as dU = δQ − δW, and Newton's second law can be written as F = dp/dt. While these scientific laws explain what our senses perceive, they are still empirical (acquired by observation or scientific experiment) and so are not like mathematical theorems which can be proved purely by mathematics.
|
||||
Like theories and hypotheses, laws make predictions; specifically, they predict that new observations will conform to the given law. Laws can be falsified if they are found in contradiction with new data.
|
||||
Some laws are only approximations of other more general laws, and are good approximations with a restricted domain of applicability. For example, Newtonian dynamics (which is based on Galilean transformations) is the low-speed limit of special relativity (since the Galilean transformation is the low-speed approximation to the Lorentz transformation). Similarly, the Newtonian gravitation law is a low-mass approximation of general relativity, and Coulomb's law is an approximation to quantum electrodynamics at large distances (compared to the range of weak interactions). In such cases it is common to use the simpler, approximate versions of the laws, instead of the more accurate general laws.
|
||||
Laws are constantly being tested experimentally to increasing degrees of precision, which is one of the main goals of science. The fact that laws have never been observed to be violated does not preclude testing them at increased accuracy or in new kinds of conditions to confirm whether they continue to hold, or whether they break, and what can be discovered in the process. It is always possible for laws to be invalidated or proven to have limitations, by repeatable experimental evidence, should any be observed. Well-established laws have indeed been invalidated in some special cases, but the new formulations created to explain the discrepancies generalize upon, rather than overthrow, the originals. That is, the invalidated laws have been found to be only close approximations, to which other terms or factors must be added to cover previously unaccounted-for conditions, e.g. very large or very small scales of time or space, enormous speeds or masses, etc. This, rather than unchanging knowledge, physical laws are better viewed as a series of improving and more precise generalizations.
|
||||
76
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law-1.md
Normal file
76
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law-1.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,76 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Scientific law"
|
||||
chunk: 2/6
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:01:31.866245+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
== Properties ==
|
||||
Scientific laws are typically conclusions based on repeated scientific experiments and observations over many years and which have become accepted universally within the scientific community. A scientific law is "inferred from particular facts, applicable to a defined group or class of phenomena, and expressible by the statement that a particular phenomenon always occurs if certain conditions be present". The production of a summary description of our environment in the form of such laws is a fundamental aim of science.
|
||||
Several general properties of scientific laws, particularly when referring to laws in physics, have been identified. Scientific laws are:
|
||||
|
||||
True, at least within their regime of validity. By definition, there have never been repeatable contradicting observations.
|
||||
Universal. They appear to apply everywhere in the universe.
|
||||
Simple. They are typically expressed in terms of a single mathematical equation.
|
||||
Absolute. Nothing in the universe appears to affect them.
|
||||
Stable. Unchanged since first discovered (although they may have been shown to be approximations of more accurate laws),
|
||||
All-encompassing. Everything in the universe apparently must comply with them (according to observations).
|
||||
Generally conservative of quantity.
|
||||
Often expressions of existing homogeneities (symmetries) of space and time.
|
||||
Typically theoretically reversible in time (if non-quantum), although time itself is irreversible.
|
||||
Broad. In physics, laws exclusively refer to the broad domain of matter, motion, energy, and force itself, rather than more specific systems in the universe, such as living systems, e.g. the mechanics of the human body.
|
||||
The term "scientific law" is traditionally associated with the natural sciences, though the social sciences also contain laws. For example, Zipf's law is a law in the social sciences which is based on mathematical statistics. In these cases, laws may describe general trends or expected behaviors rather than being absolutes.
|
||||
In natural science, impossibility assertions come to be widely accepted as overwhelmingly probable rather than considered proved to the point of being unchallengeable. The basis for this strong acceptance is a combination of extensive evidence of something not occurring, combined with an underlying theory, very successful in making predictions, whose assumptions lead logically to the conclusion that something is impossible. While an impossibility assertion in natural science can never be absolutely proved, it could be refuted by the observation of a single counterexample. Such a counterexample would require that the assumptions underlying the theory that implied the impossibility be re-examined.
|
||||
Some examples of widely accepted impossibilities in physics are perpetual motion machines, which violate the law of conservation of energy, exceeding the speed of light, which violates the implications of special relativity, the uncertainty principle of quantum mechanics, which asserts the impossibility of simultaneously knowing both the position and the momentum of a particle, and Bell's theorem: no physical theory of local hidden variables can ever reproduce all of the predictions of quantum mechanics.
|
||||
|
||||
== Laws as consequences of mathematical symmetries ==
|
||||
|
||||
Some laws reflect mathematical symmetries found in nature (e.g. the Pauli exclusion principle reflects identity of electrons, conservation laws reflect homogeneity of space, time, and Lorentz transformations reflect rotational symmetry of spacetime). Many fundamental physical laws are mathematical consequences of various symmetries of space, time, or other aspects of nature. Specifically, Noether's theorem connects some conservation laws to certain symmetries. For example, conservation of energy is a consequence of the shift symmetry of time (no moment of time is different from any other), while conservation of momentum is a consequence of the symmetry (homogeneity) of space (no place in space is special, or different from any other). The indistinguishability of all particles of each fundamental type (say, electrons, or photons) results in the Dirac and Bose quantum statistics which in turn result in the Pauli exclusion principle for fermions and in Bose–Einstein condensation for bosons. Special relativity uses rapidity to express motion according to the symmetries of hyperbolic rotation, a transformation mixing space and time. Symmetry between inertial and gravitational mass results in general relativity.
|
||||
The inverse square law of interactions mediated by massless bosons is the mathematical consequence of the 3-dimensionality of space.
|
||||
One strategy in the search for the most fundamental laws of nature is to search for the most general mathematical symmetry group that can be applied to the fundamental interactions.
|
||||
|
||||
== Laws of physics ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Conservation laws ===
|
||||
|
||||
==== Conservation and symmetry ====
|
||||
|
||||
Conservation laws are fundamental laws that follow from the homogeneity of space, time and phase, in other words symmetry.
|
||||
|
||||
Noether's theorem: Any quantity with a continuously differentiable symmetry in the action has an associated conservation law.
|
||||
Conservation of mass was the first law to be understood since most macroscopic physical processes involving masses, for example, collisions of massive particles or fluid flow, provide the apparent belief that mass is conserved. Mass conservation was observed to be true for all chemical reactions. In general, this is only approximative because with the advent of relativity and experiments in nuclear and particle physics: mass can be transformed into energy and vice versa, so mass is not always conserved but part of the more general conservation of mass–energy.
|
||||
Conservation of energy, momentum and angular momentum for isolated systems can be found to be symmetries in time, translation, and rotation.
|
||||
Conservation of charge was also realized since charge has never been observed to be created or destroyed and only found to move from place to place.
|
||||
|
||||
==== Continuity and transfer ====
|
||||
Conservation laws can be expressed using the general continuity equation (for a conserved quantity) can be written in differential form as:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
∂
|
||||
ρ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
∂
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
−
|
||||
∇
|
||||
⋅
|
||||
|
||||
J
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial \rho }{\partial t}}=-\nabla \cdot \mathbf {J} }
|
||||
|
||||
290
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law-2.md
Normal file
290
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law-2.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,290 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Scientific law"
|
||||
chunk: 3/6
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:01:31.866245+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
where ρ is some quantity per unit volume, J is the flux of that quantity (change in quantity per unit time per unit area). Intuitively, the divergence (denoted ∇⋅) of a vector field is a measure of flux diverging radially outwards from a point, so the negative is the amount piling up at a point; hence the rate of change of density in a region of space must be the amount of flux leaving or collecting in some region (see the main article for details). In the table below, the fluxes flows for various physical quantities in transport, and their associated continuity equations, are collected for comparison.
|
||||
|
||||
More general equations are the convection–diffusion equation and Boltzmann transport equation, which have their roots in the continuity equation.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Laws of classical mechanics ===
|
||||
|
||||
==== Principle of least action ====
|
||||
|
||||
Classical mechanics, including Newton's laws, Lagrange's equations, Hamilton's equations, etc., can be derived from the following principle:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
δ
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
S
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
δ
|
||||
|
||||
∫
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
1
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
t
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
L
|
||||
(
|
||||
|
||||
q
|
||||
|
||||
,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
q
|
||||
˙
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
,
|
||||
t
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
d
|
||||
t
|
||||
=
|
||||
0
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle \delta {\mathcal {S}}=\delta \int _{t_{1}}^{t_{2}}L(\mathbf {q} ,\mathbf {\dot {q}} ,t)\,dt=0}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
where
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
S
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle {\mathcal {S}}}
|
||||
|
||||
is the action; the integral of the Lagrangian
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
L
|
||||
(
|
||||
|
||||
q
|
||||
|
||||
,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
q
|
||||
˙
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
,
|
||||
t
|
||||
)
|
||||
=
|
||||
T
|
||||
(
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
q
|
||||
˙
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
,
|
||||
t
|
||||
)
|
||||
−
|
||||
V
|
||||
(
|
||||
|
||||
q
|
||||
|
||||
,
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
q
|
||||
˙
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
,
|
||||
t
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle L(\mathbf {q} ,\mathbf {\dot {q}} ,t)=T(\mathbf {\dot {q}} ,t)-V(\mathbf {q} ,\mathbf {\dot {q}} ,t)}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
of the physical system between two times t1 and t2. The kinetic energy of the system is T (a function of the rate of change of the configuration of the system), and potential energy is V (a function of the configuration and its rate of change). The configuration of a system which has N degrees of freedom is defined by generalized coordinates q = (q1, q2, ... qN).
|
||||
There are generalized momenta conjugate to these coordinates, p = (p1, p2, ..., pN), where:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
p
|
||||
|
||||
i
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
∂
|
||||
L
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
∂
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
q
|
||||
˙
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
i
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle p_{i}={\frac {\partial L}{\partial {\dot {q}}_{i}}}}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
The action and Lagrangian both contain the dynamics of the system for all times. The term "path" simply refers to a curve traced out by the system in terms of the generalized coordinates in the configuration space, i.e. the curve q(t), parameterized by time (see also Parametric equation).
|
||||
The action is a functional rather than a function, since it depends on the Lagrangian, and the Lagrangian depends on the path q(t), so the action depends on the entire "shape" of the path for all times (in the time interval from t1 to t2). Between two instants of time, there are infinitely many paths, but one for which the action is stationary (to the first order) is the true path. The stationary value for the entire continuum of Lagrangian values corresponding to some path, not just one value of the Lagrangian, is required (in other words it is not as simple as "differentiating a function and setting it to zero, then solving the equations to find the points of maxima and minima etc.", rather this idea is applied to the entire "shape" of the function, see calculus of variations for more details on this procedure).
|
||||
Notice L is not the total energy E of the system due to the difference, rather than the sum:
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
E
|
||||
=
|
||||
T
|
||||
+
|
||||
V
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle E=T+V}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
The following general approaches to classical mechanics are summarized below in the order of establishment. They are equivalent formulations. Newton's is commonly used due to simplicity, but Hamilton's and Lagrange's equations are more general, and their range can extend into other branches of physics with suitable modifications.
|
||||
|
||||
From the above, any equation of motion in classical mechanics can be derived.
|
||||
Corollaries in mechanics:
|
||||
|
||||
Euler's laws of motion
|
||||
Euler's equations (rigid body dynamics)
|
||||
Corollaries in fluid mechanics:
|
||||
Equations describing fluid flow in various situations can be derived, using the above classical equations of motion and often conservation of mass, energy and momentum. Some elementary examples follow.
|
||||
|
||||
Archimedes' principle
|
||||
Bernoulli's principle
|
||||
Poiseuille's law
|
||||
Stokes' law
|
||||
Navier–Stokes equations
|
||||
Faxén's law
|
||||
|
||||
=== Laws of gravitation and relativity ===
|
||||
Some of the more famous laws of nature are found in Isaac Newton's theories of (now) classical mechanics, presented in his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, and in Albert Einstein's theory of relativity.
|
||||
|
||||
==== Modern laws ====
|
||||
Special relativity:
|
||||
The two postulates of special relativity are not "laws" in themselves, but assumptions of their nature in terms of relative motion.
|
||||
They can be stated as "the laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames" and "the speed of light is constant and has the same value in all inertial frames".
|
||||
The said postulates lead to the Lorentz transformations – the transformation law between two frame of references moving relative to each other. For any 4-vector
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
A
|
||||
′
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
Λ
|
||||
A
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle A'=\Lambda A}
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
this replaces the Galilean transformation law from classical mechanics. The Lorentz transformations reduce to the Galilean transformations for low velocities much less than the speed of light c.
|
||||
The magnitudes of 4-vectors are invariants – not "conserved", but the same for all inertial frames (i.e. every observer in an inertial frame will agree on the same value), in particular if A is the four-momentum, the magnitude can derive the famous invariant equation for mass–energy and momentum conservation (see invariant mass):
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
E
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
=
|
||||
(
|
||||
p
|
||||
c
|
||||
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
+
|
||||
(
|
||||
m
|
||||
|
||||
c
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
)
|
||||
|
||||
2
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
|
||||
{\displaystyle E^{2}=(pc)^{2}+(mc^{2})^{2}}
|
||||
|
||||
93
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law-3.md
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93
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|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Scientific law"
|
||||
chunk: 4/6
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:01:31.866245+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
in which the (more famous) mass–energy equivalence E = mc2 is a special case.
|
||||
General relativity:
|
||||
General relativity is governed by the Einstein field equations, which describe the curvature of space-time due to mass-energy equivalent to the gravitational field. Solving the equation for the geometry of space warped due to the mass distribution gives the metric tensor. Using the geodesic equation, the motion of masses falling along the geodesics can be calculated.
|
||||
Gravitoelectromagnetism:
|
||||
In a relatively flat spacetime due to weak gravitational fields, gravitational analogues of Maxwell's equations can be found; the GEM equations, to describe an analogous gravitomagnetic field. They are well established by the theory, and experimental tests form ongoing research.
|
||||
|
||||
==== Classical laws ====
|
||||
|
||||
Kepler's laws, though originally discovered from planetary observations (also due to Tycho Brahe), are true for any central forces.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Thermodynamics ===
|
||||
|
||||
Newton's law of cooling
|
||||
Fourier's law
|
||||
Ideal gas law, combines a number of separately developed gas laws;
|
||||
Boyle's law
|
||||
Charles's law
|
||||
Gay-Lussac's law
|
||||
Avogadro's law, into one
|
||||
now improved by other equations of state
|
||||
Dalton's law (of partial pressures)
|
||||
Boltzmann equation
|
||||
Carnot's theorem
|
||||
Kopp's law
|
||||
|
||||
=== Electromagnetism ===
|
||||
Maxwell's equations give the time-evolution of the electric and magnetic fields due to electric charge and current distributions. Given the fields, the Lorentz force law is the equation of motion for charges in the fields.
|
||||
|
||||
These equations can be modified to include magnetic monopoles, and are consistent with our observations of monopoles either existing or not existing; if they do not exist, the generalized equations reduce to the ones above, if they do, the equations become fully symmetric in electric and magnetic charges and currents. Indeed, there is a duality transformation where electric and magnetic charges can be "rotated into one another", and still satisfy Maxwell's equations.
|
||||
Pre-Maxwell laws:
|
||||
These laws were found before the formulation of Maxwell's equations. They are not fundamental, since they can be derived from Maxwell's equations. Coulomb's law can be found from Gauss's law (electrostatic form) and the Biot–Savart law can be deduced from Ampere's law (magnetostatic form). Lenz's law and Faraday's law can be incorporated into the Maxwell–Faraday equation. Nonetheless, they are still very effective for simple calculations.
|
||||
|
||||
Lenz's law
|
||||
Coulomb's law
|
||||
Biot–Savart law
|
||||
Other laws:
|
||||
|
||||
Ohm's law
|
||||
Kirchhoff's laws
|
||||
Joule's law
|
||||
|
||||
=== Photonics ===
|
||||
Classically, optics is based on a variational principle: light travels from one point in space to another in the shortest time.
|
||||
|
||||
Fermat's principle
|
||||
In geometric optics laws are based on approximations in Euclidean geometry (such as the paraxial approximation).
|
||||
|
||||
Law of reflection
|
||||
Law of refraction, Snell's law
|
||||
In physical optics, laws are based on physical properties of materials.
|
||||
|
||||
Brewster's angle
|
||||
Malus's law
|
||||
Beer–Lambert law
|
||||
In actuality, optical properties of matter are significantly more complex and require quantum mechanics.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Laws of quantum mechanics ===
|
||||
Quantum mechanics has its roots in postulates. This leads to results which are not usually called "laws", but hold the same status, in that all of quantum mechanics follows from them. These postulates can be summarized as follows:
|
||||
|
||||
The state of a physical system, be it a particle or a system of many particles, is described by a wavefunction.
|
||||
Every physical quantity is described by an operator acting on the system; the measured quantity has a probabilistic nature.
|
||||
The wavefunction obeys the Schrödinger equation. Solving this wave equation predicts the time-evolution of the system's behavior, analogous to solving Newton's laws in classical mechanics.
|
||||
Two identical particles, such as two electrons, cannot be distinguished from one another by any means. Physical systems are classified by their symmetry properties.
|
||||
These postulates in turn imply many other phenomena, e.g., uncertainty principles and the Pauli exclusion principle.
|
||||
|
||||
=== Radiation laws ===
|
||||
Applying electromagnetism, thermodynamics, and quantum mechanics, to atoms and molecules, some laws of electromagnetic radiation and light are as follows.
|
||||
|
||||
Stefan–Boltzmann law
|
||||
Planck's law of black-body radiation
|
||||
Wien's displacement law
|
||||
Radioactive decay law
|
||||
|
||||
== Laws of chemistry ==
|
||||
|
||||
Chemical laws are those laws of nature relevant to chemistry. Historically, observations led to many empirical laws, though now it is known that chemistry has its foundations in quantum mechanics.
|
||||
Quantitative analysis:
|
||||
The most fundamental concept in chemistry is the law of conservation of mass, which states that there is no detectable change in the quantity of matter during an ordinary chemical reaction. Modern physics shows that it is actually energy that is conserved, and that energy and mass are related; a concept which becomes important in nuclear chemistry. Conservation of energy leads to the important concepts of equilibrium, thermodynamics, and kinetics.
|
||||
Additional laws of chemistry elaborate on the law of conservation of mass. Joseph Proust's law of definite composition says that pure chemicals are composed of elements in a definite formulation; we now know that the structural arrangement of these elements is also important.
|
||||
Dalton's law of multiple proportions says that these chemicals will present themselves in proportions that are small whole numbers; although in many systems (notably biomacromolecules and minerals) the ratios tend to require large numbers, and are frequently represented as a fraction.
|
||||
The law of definite composition and the law of multiple proportions are the first two of the three laws of stoichiometry, the proportions by which the chemical elements combine to form chemical compounds. The third law of stoichiometry is the law of reciprocal proportions, which provides the basis for establishing equivalent weights for each chemical element. Elemental equivalent weights can then be used to derive atomic weights for each element.
|
||||
More modern laws of chemistry define the relationship between energy and its transformations.
|
||||
Reaction kinetics and equilibria:
|
||||
68
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law-4.md
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68
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law-4.md
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@ -0,0 +1,68 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Scientific law"
|
||||
chunk: 5/6
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:01:31.866245+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
In equilibrium, molecules exist in mixture defined by the transformations possible on the timescale of the equilibrium, and are in a ratio defined by the intrinsic energy of the molecules—the lower the intrinsic energy, the more abundant the molecule. Le Chatelier's principle states that the system opposes changes in conditions from equilibrium states, i.e. there is an opposition to change the state of an equilibrium reaction.
|
||||
Transforming one structure to another requires the input of energy to cross an energy barrier; this can come from the intrinsic energy of the molecules themselves, or from an external source which will generally accelerate transformations. The higher the energy barrier, the slower the transformation occurs.
|
||||
There is a hypothetical intermediate, or transition structure, that corresponds to the structure at the top of the energy barrier. The Hammond–Leffler postulate states that this structure looks most similar to the product or starting material which has intrinsic energy closest to that of the energy barrier. Stabilizing this hypothetical intermediate through chemical interaction is one way to achieve catalysis.
|
||||
All chemical processes are reversible (law of microscopic reversibility) although some processes have such an energy bias, they are essentially irreversible.
|
||||
The reaction rate has the mathematical parameter known as the rate constant. The Arrhenius equation gives the temperature and activation energy dependence of the rate constant, an empirical law.
|
||||
Thermochemistry:
|
||||
|
||||
Dulong–Petit law
|
||||
Gibbs–Helmholtz equation
|
||||
Hess's law
|
||||
Gas laws:
|
||||
|
||||
Raoult's law
|
||||
Henry's law
|
||||
Chemical transport:
|
||||
|
||||
Fick's laws of diffusion
|
||||
Graham's law
|
||||
Lamm equation
|
||||
|
||||
== Laws of biology ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Ecology ===
|
||||
Competitive exclusion principle or Gause's law
|
||||
|
||||
=== Genetics ===
|
||||
Mendelian laws (Dominance and Uniformity, segregation of genes, and Independent Assortment)
|
||||
Hardy–Weinberg principle
|
||||
|
||||
=== Natural selection ===
|
||||
Whether or not Natural Selection is a "law of nature" is controversial among biologists. Henry Byerly, an American philosopher known for his work on evolutionary theory, discussed the problem of interpreting a principle of natural selection as a law. He suggested a formulation of natural selection as a framework principle that can contribute to a better understanding of evolutionary theory. His approach was to express relative fitness, the propensity of a genotype to increase in proportionate representation in a competitive environment, as a function of adaptedness (adaptive design) of the organism.
|
||||
|
||||
== Laws of Earth sciences ==
|
||||
|
||||
=== Geography ===
|
||||
Arbia's law of geography
|
||||
Tobler's first law of geography
|
||||
Tobler's second law of geography
|
||||
|
||||
=== Geology ===
|
||||
Archie's law
|
||||
Buys Ballot's law
|
||||
Birch's law
|
||||
Byerlee's law
|
||||
Principle of original horizontality
|
||||
Law of superposition
|
||||
Principle of lateral continuity
|
||||
Principle of cross-cutting relationships
|
||||
Principle of faunal succession
|
||||
Principle of inclusions and components
|
||||
Walther's law
|
||||
|
||||
== Other fields ==
|
||||
Some mathematical theorems and axioms are referred to as laws because they provide logical foundation to empirical laws.
|
||||
Examples of other observed phenomena sometimes described as laws include the Titius–Bode law of planetary positions, Zipf's law of linguistics, and Moore's law of technological growth. Many of these laws fall within the scope of uncomfortable science. Other laws are pragmatic and observational, such as the law of unintended consequences. By analogy, principles in other fields of study are sometimes loosely referred to as "laws". These include Occam's razor as a principle of philosophy and the Pareto principle of economics.
|
||||
|
||||
== History ==
|
||||
The observation and detection of underlying regularities in nature date from prehistoric times – the recognition of cause-and-effect relationships implicitly recognises the existence of laws of nature. The recognition of such regularities as independent scientific laws per se, though, was limited by their entanglement in animism, and by the attribution of many effects that do not have readily obvious causes—such as physical phenomena—to the actions of gods, spirits, supernatural beings, etc. Observation and speculation about nature were intimately bound up with metaphysics and morality.
|
||||
31
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law-5.md
Normal file
31
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law-5.md
Normal file
@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
|
||||
---
|
||||
title: "Scientific law"
|
||||
chunk: 6/6
|
||||
source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_law"
|
||||
category: "reference"
|
||||
tags: "science, encyclopedia"
|
||||
date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:01:31.866245+00:00"
|
||||
instance: "kb-cron"
|
||||
---
|
||||
|
||||
In Europe, systematic theorizing about nature (physis) began with the early Greek philosophers and scientists and continued into the Hellenistic and Roman imperial periods, during which times the intellectual influence of Roman law increasingly became paramount.The formula "law of nature" first appears as "a live metaphor" favored by Latin poets Lucretius, Virgil, Ovid, Manilius, in time gaining a firm theoretical presence in the prose treatises of Seneca and Pliny. Why this Roman origin? According to [historian and classicist Daryn] Lehoux's persuasive narrative, the idea was made possible by the pivotal role of codified law and forensic argument in Roman life and culture.
|
||||
For the Romans ... the place par excellence where ethics, law, nature, religion and politics overlap is the law court. When we read Seneca's Natural Questions, and watch again and again just how he applies standards of evidence, witness evaluation, argument and proof, we can recognize that we are reading one of the great Roman rhetoricians of the age, thoroughly immersed in forensic method. And not Seneca alone. Legal models of scientific judgment turn up all over the place, and for example prove equally integral to Ptolemy's approach to verification, where the mind is assigned the role of magistrate, the senses that of disclosure of evidence, and dialectical reason that of the law itself.
|
||||
The precise formulation of what are now recognized as modern and valid statements of the laws of nature dates from the 17th century in Europe, with the beginning of accurate experimentation and the development of advanced forms of mathematics. During this period, natural philosophers such as Isaac Newton (1642–1727) were influenced by a religious view – stemming from medieval concepts of divine law – which held that God had instituted absolute, universal and immutable physical laws. In chapter 7 of The World, René Descartes (1596–1650) described "nature" as matter itself, unchanging as created by God, thus changes in parts "are to be attributed to nature. The rules according to which these changes take place I call the 'laws of nature'." The modern scientific method which took shape at this time (with Francis Bacon (1561–1626) and Galileo (1564–1642)) contributed to a trend of separating science from theology, with minimal speculation about metaphysics and ethics. (Natural law in the political sense, conceived as universal (i.e., divorced from sectarian religion and accidents of place), was also elaborated in this period by scholars such as Grotius (1583–1645), Spinoza (1632–1677), and Hobbes (1588–1679).)
|
||||
The distinction between natural law in the political-legal sense and law of nature or physical law in the scientific sense is a modern one, both concepts being equally derived from physis, the Greek word (translated into Latin as natura) for nature.
|
||||
|
||||
== See also ==
|
||||
|
||||
== References ==
|
||||
|
||||
== Further reading ==
|
||||
|
||||
== External links ==
|
||||
|
||||
Physics Formulary, a useful book in different formats containing many or the physical laws and formulae.
|
||||
Eformulae.com Archived 2011-02-23 at the Wayback Machine, website containing most of the formulae in different disciplines.
|
||||
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "Laws of Nature" by John W. Carroll.
|
||||
Baaquie, Belal E. "Laws of Physics : A Primer" Archived 2006-04-08 at the Wayback Machine. Core Curriculum, National University of Singapore.
|
||||
Francis, Erik Max. "The laws list".. Physics. Alcyone Systems
|
||||
Pazameta, Zoran. "The laws of nature". Archived 2014-02-26 at the Wayback Machine Committee for the scientific investigation of Claims of the Paranormal.
|
||||
The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. "Laws of Nature" – By Norman Swartz
|
||||
Mark Buchanan; Frank Close; Nancy Cartwright; Melvyn Bragg (host) (Oct 19, 2000). "Laws of Nature". In Our Time. BBC Radio 4.
|
||||
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