Scrape wikipedia-science: 207 new, 3 updated, 225 total (kb-cron)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_-otomies-0.md

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+---
+title: "List of -otomies"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_-otomies"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:01:56.737987+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The suffix '-otomy' is derived from Greek  τόμος (-tómos) 'cutting, sharp, separate'.
+
+
+== Medical procedures ==
+Amniotomy – An incision created to accelerate labor.
+Androtomy – Dissection of the human body.
+Bilateral cingulotomy – Psychosurgery, treatment for depression and addiction .
+Bronchotomy – A procedure that ensures there is an open airway between a patient's lung/s and the outside world.
+Clitoridotomy – Plastic surgery of the clitorial hood.
+Coeliotomy – A large incision through the abdominal wall to gain access into the abdominal cavity
+Colpotomy –  Extraction of fluid from the rectouterine pouch through a needle.
+Cordotomy – Procedure that disables selected pain-conducting tracts in the spinal cord, in order to achieve loss of pain and temperature perception.
+Craniotomy – A bone flap is temporarily removed from the skull to access the brain.
+Cricothyrotomy – An incision made through the skin and cricothyroid membrane to establish a patent airway during certain life-threatening situations.
+Escharotomy – Procedure used to treat full-thickness (third-degree) circumferential burns.
+Episiotomy – Surgical incision of the perineum and the posterior vaginal wall.
+Fasciotomy – Surgical procedure where the fascia is cut to relieve tension or pressure commonly to treat the resulting loss of circulation to an area of tissue or muscle.
+Heller myotomy – Muscles of the cardia (lower oesophageal sphincter or LOS) are cut, allowing food and liquids to pass to the stomach.
+Hymenotomy – Surgical removal or opening of the hymen.
+Hysterotomy – Incision in the uterus, and is performed during a Caesarean section.
+Laminotomy – The partial removal (or by making a larger opening) of the lamina.
+Laparotomy – Large incision through the abdominal wall to gain access into the abdominal cavity.
+Lithotomy position – Medical term referring to a common position for surgical procedures and medical examinations involving the pelvis and lower abdomen.
+Lobotomy – Cutting or scraping away most of the connections to and from the prefrontal cortex, the anterior part of the frontal lobes of the brain.
+Meatotomy – Form of penile modification in which the underside of the glans is split.
+Myotomy – Procedure in which muscle is cut.
+Osteotomy – A bone is cut to shorten or lengthen it or to change its alignment.
+Phlebotomy – An incision in a vein with a needle.
+Pulpotomy – Removal of a portion of the pulp, including the diseased aspect.
+Radial keratotomy – A refractive surgical procedure to correct myopia.
+Sphincterotomy – Treating mucosal fissures from the anal canal/sphincter.
+Thoracotomy – Incision into the pleural space of the chest.
+Thyrotomy – Incision of the larynx through the thyroid cartilage.
+Tracheotomy – An incision on the anterior aspect of the neck and opening a direct airway through an incision in the trachea (windpipe).
+Trans-orbital lobotomy – Cutting or scraping away most of the connections to and from the prefrontal cortex, the anterior part of the frontal lobes of the brain.
+
+
+== Other -otomies ==
+Dichotomy
+False dichotomy
+Ousterhout's dichotomy
+Trichotomy
+Trichotomy property
+
+
+== See also ==
+List of surgical procedures
+List of -ectomies
+List of -ostomies
+
+
+== References ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_materials_analysis_methods-0.md

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+---
+title: "List of materials analysis methods"
+chunk: 1/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_materials_analysis_methods"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:01:47.729859+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+This is a list of analysis methods used in materials science. Analysis methods are listed by their acronym, if one exists.
+
+== Symbols ==
+μSR – see muon spin spectroscopy
+χ – see magnetic susceptibility
+
+== A ==
+AAS – Atomic absorption spectroscopy
+AED – Auger electron diffraction
+AES – Auger electron spectroscopy
+AFM – Atomic force microscopy
+AFS – Atomic fluorescence spectroscopy
+Analytical ultracentrifugation
+APFIM – Atom probe field ion microscopy
+APS – Appearance potential spectroscopy
+ARPES – Angle resolved photoemission spectroscopy
+ARUPS – Angle resolved ultraviolet photoemission spectroscopy
+ATR – Attenuated total reflectance
+
+== B ==
+BET – BET surface area measurement (BET from Brunauer, Emmett, Teller)
+BiFC – Bimolecular fluorescence complementation
+BKD – Backscatter Kikuchi diffraction, see EBSD
+BRET – Bioluminescence resonance energy transfer
+BSED – Back scattered electron diffraction, see EBSD
+
+== C ==
+CAICISS – Coaxial impact collision ion scattering spectroscopy
+CARS – Coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy
+CBED – Convergent beam electron diffraction
+CCM – Charge collection microscopy
+CDI – Coherent diffraction imaging
+CE – Capillary electrophoresis
+CET – Cryo-electron tomography
+CL – Cathodoluminescence
+CLSM – Confocal laser scanning microscopy
+COSY – Correlation spectroscopy
+Cryo-EM – Cryo-electron microscopy
+Cryo-SEM – Cryo-scanning electron microscopy
+CV – Cyclic voltammetry
+
+== D ==
+DE(T)A – Dielectric thermal analysis
+dHvA – De Haas–van Alphen effect
+DIC – Differential interference contrast microscopy
+Dielectric spectroscopy
+DLS – Dynamic light scattering
+DLTS – Deep-level transient spectroscopy
+DMA – Dynamic mechanical analysis
+DPI – Dual polarisation interferometry
+DRS – Diffuse reflection spectroscopy
+DSC – Differential scanning calorimetry
+DTA – Differential thermal analysis
+DVS – Dynamic vapour sorption
+
+== E ==
+EBIC – Electron beam induced current (see IBIC:  ion beam induced charge)
+EBS – Elastic (non-Rutherford) backscattering spectrometry (see RBS)
+EBSD – Electron backscatter diffraction
+ECOSY – Exclusive correlation spectroscopy
+ECT – Electrical capacitance tomography
+EDAX – Energy-dispersive analysis of x-rays
+EDMR – Electrically detected magnetic resonance, see ESR or EPR
+EDS or EDX – Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy
+EELS – Electron energy loss spectroscopy
+EFTEM – Energy filtered transmission electron microscopy
+EID – Electron induced desorption
+EIT and ERT – Electrical impedance tomography and electrical resistivity tomography
+EL – Electroluminescence
+Electron crystallography
+ELS – Electrophoretic light scattering
+ENDOR – Electron nuclear double resonance, see ESR or EPR
+EPMA – Electron probe microanalysis
+EPR – Electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy
+ERD or ERDA – Elastic recoil detection or elastic recoil detection analysis
+ESCA – Electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis see XPS
+ESD – Electron stimulated desorption
+ESEM – Environmental scanning electron microscopy
+ESI-MS or ES-MS – Electrospray ionization mass spectrometry or electrospray mass spectrometry
+ESR – Electron spin resonance spectroscopy
+ESTM – Electrochemical scanning tunneling microscopy
+EXAFS – Extended X-ray absorption fine structure
+EXSY – Exchange spectroscopy
+
+== F ==
+FCS – Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy
+FCCS – Fluorescence cross-correlation spectroscopy
+FEM – Field emission microscopy
+FIB – Focused ion beam microscopy
+FIM-AP – Field ion microscopy–atom probe
+Flow birefringence
+Fluorescence anisotropy
+FLIM – Fluorescence lifetime imaging
+Fluorescence microscopy
+FOSPM – Feature-oriented scanning probe microscopy
+FRET – Fluorescence resonance energy transfer
+FRS – Forward Recoil Spectrometry,  a synonym of ERD
+FTICR or FT-MS – Fourier-transform ion cyclotron resonance or Fourier-transform mass spectrometry
+FTIR – Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy
+
+== G ==
+GC-MS – Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry
+GDMS – Glow discharge mass spectrometry
+GDOS – Glow discharge optical spectroscopy
+GISAXS – Grazing incidence small angle X-ray scattering
+GIXD – Grazing incidence X-ray diffraction
+GIXR – Grazing incidence X-ray reflectivity
+GLC – Gas-liquid chromatography
+GPC – Gel permeation chromatography
+
+== H ==
+HAADF – High angle annular dark-field imaging
+HAS – Helium atom scattering
+HPLC – High performance liquid chromatography
+HREELS – High resolution electron energy loss spectroscopy
+HREM – High-resolution electron microscopy
+HRTEM – High-resolution transmission electron microscopy
+HI-ERDA – Heavy-ion elastic recoil detection analysis
+HE-PIXE – High-energy proton induced X-ray emission
+
+== I ==
+IAES – Ion induced Auger electron spectroscopy
+IBA – Ion beam analysis
+IBIC – Ion beam induced charge microscopy
+ICP-AES – Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy
+ICP-MS – Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry
+Immunofluorescence
+ICR – Ion cyclotron resonance
+IETS – Inelastic electron tunneling spectroscopy
+IGA – Intelligent gravimetric analysis
+IGF – Inert gas fusion
+IIX – Ion induced X-ray analysis, see particle induced X-ray emission
+INS – Ion neutralization spectroscopy
+Inelastic neutron scattering
+IRNDT – Infrared non-destructive testing of materials
+IRS – Infrared spectroscopy
+ISS – Ion scattering spectroscopy
+ITC – Isothermal titration calorimetry
+IVEM – Intermediate voltage electron microscopy
+
+== L ==
+LALLS – Low-angle laser light scattering
+LC-MS – Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry
+LEED – Low-energy electron diffraction
+LEEM – Low-energy electron microscopy
+LEIS – Low-energy ion scattering
+LIBS – Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy
+LOES – Laser optical emission spectroscopy
+LS – Light (Raman) scattering
+
+== M ==
+MALDI – Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization
+MBE – Molecular beam epitaxy
+MEIS – Medium energy ion scattering
+MFM – Magnetic force microscopy
+MIT – Magnetic induction tomography
+MPM – Multiphoton fluorescence microscopy
+MRFM – Magnetic resonance force microscopy
+MRI – Magnetic resonance imaging
+MS – Mass spectrometry
+MS/MS – Tandem mass spectrometry
+MSGE – Mechanically stimulated gas emission
+Mössbauer spectroscopy
+MTA – Microthermal analysis
+
+== N ==
+NAA – Neutron activation analysis
+ND – Neutron diffraction
+NDP – Neutron depth profiling
+NEXAFS – Near edge X-ray absorption fine structure
+NIS – Nuclear inelastic scattering/absorption
+NMR – Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy
+NOESY – Nuclear Overhauser effect spectroscopy
+NRA – Nuclear reaction analysis
+NSOM – Near-field optical microscopy
+
+== O ==
+OBIC – Optical beam induced current
+ODNMR – Optically detected magnetic resonance, see ESR or EPR
+OES – Optical emission spectroscopy
+Osmometry

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_materials_analysis_methods-1.md

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+---
+title: "List of materials analysis methods"
+chunk: 2/2
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_materials_analysis_methods"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:01:47.729859+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== P ==
+PAS – Positron annihilation spectroscopy
+Photoacoustic spectroscopy
+PAT or PACT – Photoacoustic tomography or photoacoustic computed tomography
+PAX – Photoemission of adsorbed xenon
+PC or PCS – Photocurrent spectroscopy
+Phase contrast microscopy
+PhD – Photoelectron diffraction
+PD – Photodesorption
+PDEIS – Potentiodynamic electrochemical impedance spectroscopy
+PDS – Photothermal deflection spectroscopy
+PED – Photoelectron diffraction
+PEELS – parallel electron energy loss spectroscopy
+PEEM – Photoemission electron microscopy (or photoelectron emission microscopy)
+PES – Photoelectron spectroscopy
+PINEM – photon-induced near-field electron microscopy
+PIGE – Particle (or proton) induced gamma-ray spectroscopy,  see nuclear reaction analysis
+PIXE – Particle (or proton) induced X-ray spectroscopy
+PL – Photoluminescence
+Porosimetry
+Powder diffraction
+PTMS – Photothermal microspectroscopy
+PTS – Photothermal spectroscopy
+
+== Q ==
+QENS – Quasielastic neutron scattering
+QCM-D – Quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring
+
+== R ==
+Raman spectroscopy
+RAXRS – Resonant anomalous X-ray scattering
+RBS – Rutherford backscattering spectrometry
+REM – Reflection electron microscopy
+RDS – Reflectance difference spectroscopy
+RHEED – Reflection high energy electron diffraction
+RIMS – Resonance ionization mass spectrometry
+RIXS – Resonant inelastic X-ray scattering
+RR spectroscopy – Resonance Raman spectroscopy
+
+== S ==
+SAD – Selected area diffraction
+SAED – Selected area electron diffraction
+SAM – Scanning Auger microscopy
+SANS – Small angle neutron scattering
+SAXS – Small angle X-ray scattering
+SCANIIR – Surface composition by analysis of neutral species and ion-impact radiation
+SCEM – Scanning confocal electron microscopy
+SE – Spectroscopic ellipsometry
+SEC – Size exclusion chromatography
+SEIRA – Surface enhanced infrared absorption spectroscopy
+SEM – Scanning electron microscopy
+SERS – Surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy
+SERRS – Surface enhanced resonance Raman spectroscopy
+SESANS – Spin Echo Small Angle Neutron Scattering
+SEXAFS – Surface extended X-ray absorption fine structure
+SICM – Scanning ion-conductance microscopy
+SIL – Solid immersion lens
+SIM – Solid immersion mirror
+SIMS – Secondary ion mass spectrometry
+SNMS – Sputtered neutral species mass spectrometry
+SNOM – Scanning near-field optical microscopy
+SPECT – Single-photon emission computed tomography
+SPM – Scanning probe microscopy
+SRM-CE/MS – Selected-reaction-monitoring capillary-electrophoresis mass-spectrometry
+SSNMR – Solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance
+Stark spectroscopy
+STED – Stimulated emission depletion microscopy
+STEM – Scanning transmission electron microscopy
+STM – Scanning tunneling microscopy
+STS – Scanning tunneling spectroscopy
+SXRD – Surface X-ray diffraction
+
+== T ==
+TAT or TACT – Thermoacoustic tomography or thermoacoustic computed tomography (see also photoacoustic tomography – PAT)
+TEM – Transmission electron microscopy
+TGA – Thermogravimetric analysis
+TIKA – Transmitting ion kinetic analysis
+TIMS – Thermal ionization mass spectrometry
+TIRFM – Total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy
+TLS – Photothermal lens spectroscopy, a type of photothermal spectroscopy
+TMA – Thermomechanical analysis
+TOF-MS – Time-of-flight mass spectrometry
+Two-photon excitation microscopy
+TXRF – Total reflection X-ray fluorescence analysis
+
+== U ==
+Ultrasound attenuation spectroscopy
+UPS – UV-photoelectron spectroscopy
+USANS – Ultra small-angle neutron scattering
+USAXS – Ultra small-angle X-ray scattering
+UT – Ultrasonic testing
+UV-Vis – Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy
+
+== V ==
+VEDIC – Video-enhanced differential interference contrast microscopy
+Voltammetry
+
+== W ==
+WAXS – Wide angle X-ray scattering
+WDX or WDS – Wavelength dispersive X-ray spectroscopy
+
+== X ==
+XAES – X-ray induced Auger electron spectroscopy
+XANES – XANES, synonymous with NEXAFS (near edge X-ray absorption fine structure)
+XAS – X-ray absorption spectroscopy
+X-CTR – X-ray crystal truncation rod scattering
+X-ray crystallography
+XDS – X-ray diffuse scattering
+XES – X-ray emission spectroscopy
+XPEEM – X-ray photoelectron emission microscopy
+XPS – X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
+XRD – X-ray diffraction
+XRES – X-ray resonant exchange scattering
+XRF – X-ray fluorescence analysis
+XRR – X-ray reflectivity
+XRS – X-ray Raman scattering
+XRT – X-ray transmission
+XSW – X-ray standing wave technique
+
+== See also ==
+Characterization (materials science)
+
+== References ==
+Callister, WD (2000). Materials Science and Engineering – An Introduction. London: John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0-471-32013-7.
+Yao, N, ed. (2007). Focused Ion Beam Systems: Basics and Applications. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-83199-4.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_measuring_instruments-0.md

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+---
+title: "List of measuring instruments"
+chunk: 1/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_measuring_instruments"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:01:48.891386+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+A measuring instrument is a device to measure a physical quantity. In the physical sciences, quality assurance, and engineering, measurement is the activity of obtaining and comparing physical quantities of real-world objects and events. Established standard objects and events are used as units, and the process of measurement gives a number relating the item under study and the referenced unit of measurement. Measuring instruments, and formal test methods which define the instrument's use, are the means by which these relations of numbers are obtained. All measuring instruments are subject to varying degrees of instrument error and measurement uncertainty.
+These instruments may range from simple objects such as rulers and stopwatches to electron microscopes and particle accelerators. Virtual instrumentation is widely used in the development of modern measuring instruments.
+
+== Time ==
+
+In the past, common time measuring instrument were sundials, water clocks and hourglasses, measuring periods of time within a day. Today, the usual measuring instruments for time are clocks and watches. For highly accurate measurement of time an atomic clock is used.
+Stopwatches are also used to measure time in some sports.
+
+== Energy ==
+
+Energy is measured by an energy meter. Examples of energy meters include:
+
+=== Electricity meter ===
+An electricity meter measures energy directly in kilowatt-hours.
+
+=== Gas meter ===
+A gas meter measures energy indirectly by recording the volume of gas used. This figure can then be converted to a measure of energy by multiplying it by the calorific value of the gas.
+
+== Power (flux of energy) ==
+
+A physical system that exchanges energy may be described by the amount of energy exchanged per time-interval, also called power or flux of energy.
+
+(see any measurement device for power below)
+For the ranges of power-values see: Orders of magnitude (power).
+
+== Action ==
+
+Action describes energy summed up over the time a process lasts (time integral over energy). Its dimension is the same as that of an angular momentum.
+
+A phototube provides a voltage measurement which permits the calculation of the quantized action (Planck constant) of light.  (See also Photoelectric effect.)
+
+== Geometry ==
+
+=== Dimensions (size) ===
+
+==== Length (distance) ====
+Length, distance, or range meter
+For the ranges of length-values see: Orders of magnitude (length)
+
+==== Area ====
+Planimeter
+For the ranges of area-values see: Orders of magnitude (area)
+
+==== Volume ====
+
+Buoyant weight (solids)
+Eudiometer, pneumatic trough (gases)
+Flow measurement devices (liquids)
+Graduated cylinder (liquids)
+Measuring cup (grained solids, liquids)
+Overflow trough (solids)
+Pipette (liquids)
+If the mass density of a solid is known, weighing allows to calculate the volume.
+For the ranges of volume-values see: Orders of magnitude (volume)
+
+=== Angle ===
+
+Circumferentor
+Cross staff
+Goniometer
+Graphometer
+Inclinometer
+Mural instrument
+Plurimeter
+Protractor
+Quadrant
+Reflecting instruments
+Octant
+Reflecting circles
+Sextant
+Theodolite and total station
+
+=== Orientation in three-dimensional space ===
+See also the section about navigation below.
+
+==== Level ====
+
+Level (instrument)
+Laser line level
+Spirit level
+
+==== Direction ====
+Gyroscope
+
+=== Coordinates ===
+Coordinate-measuring machine
+
+== Mechanics ==
+This includes basic quantities found in classical- and continuum mechanics; but strives to exclude temperature-related questions or quantities.
+
+=== Mass or volume flow measurement ===
+Gas meter
+Mass flow meter
+Metering pump
+Water meter
+
+=== Speed or velocity (flux of length) ===
+Airspeed indicator
+LIDAR speed gun
+Radar speed gun, a Doppler radar device, using the Doppler effect for indirect measurement of velocity.
+Speedometer
+Tachometer (speed of rotation)
+Tachymeter
+Variometer (rate of climb or descent)
+Velocimetry (measurement of fluid velocity)
+For the ranges of speed-values see: Orders of magnitude (speed)
+
+=== Acceleration ===
+Accelerometer
+
+=== Mass ===
+
+Balance
+Check weigher measures precise weight of items in a conveyor line, rejecting underweight or overweight objects.
+Inertial balance
+Katharometer
+Mass spectrometers measure the mass-to-charge ratio, not the mass, of ionised particles.
+Weighing scale
+For the ranges of mass-values see: Orders of magnitude (mass)
+
+=== Linear momentum ===
+Ballistic pendulum
+
+=== Force (flux of linear momentum) ===
+Force gauge
+Spring scale
+Strain gauge
+Torsion balance
+Tribometer
+
+=== Pressure (flux density of linear momentum) ===
+Anemometer (measures wind speed)
+Barometer used to measure the atmospheric pressure.
+Manometer (see Pressure measurement and Pressure sensor)
+Pitot tube (measures airspeed)
+Tire-pressure gauge in industry and mobility
+For the ranges of pressure-values see: Orders of magnitude (pressure)
+
+=== Angular velocity or rotations per time unit ===
+Stroboscope
+Tachometer
+For the value-ranges of angular velocity see: Orders of magnitude (angular velocity)
+For the ranges of frequency see: Orders of magnitude (frequency)
+
+=== Torque ===
+Dynamometer
+Prony brake
+Torque wrench
+
+=== Energy carried by mechanical quantities, mechanical work ===
+Ballistic pendulum, indirectly by calculation and or gauging
+
+== Electricity, electronics, and electrical engineering ==
+
+Considerations related to electric charge dominate electricity and electronics.
+Electrical charges interact via a field. That field is called electric field.If the charge doesn't move. If the charge moves, thus realizing an electric current, especially in an electrically neutral conductor, that field is called magnetic.
+Electricity can be given a quality — a potential. And electricity has a substance-like property, the electric charge.
+Energy (or power) in elementary electrodynamics is calculated by multiplying the potential by the amount of charge (or current) found at that potential: potential times charge (or current). (See Classical electromagnetism and Covariant formulation of classical electromagnetism)
+
+=== Electric charge ===
+Electrometer is often used to reconfirm the phenomenon of contact electricity leading to triboelectric sequences.
+Torsion balance used by Coulomb to establish a relation between charges and force, see above.
+For the ranges of charge values see: Orders of magnitude (charge)
+
+=== Electric current (current of charge) ===
+Ammeter
+Clamp meter
+d'Arsonval galvanometer
+Galvanometer
+
+=== Voltage (electric potential difference) ===
+Oscilloscope allows quantifying time-dependent voltages
+Voltmeter
+
+=== Electric resistance, conductance, and conductivity ===
+Ohmmeter
+Time-domain reflectometer characterizes and locates faults in metallic cables by runtime measurements of electric signals.
+Wheatstone bridge
+
+=== Electric capacitance ===
+Capacitance meter
+
+=== Electric inductance ===
+Inductance meter
+
+=== Energy carried by electricity or electric energy ===
+Electricity meter
+
+=== Power carried by electricity (current of energy) ===
+Wattmeter

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_measuring_instruments-1.md

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+---
+title: "List of measuring instruments"
+chunk: 2/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_measuring_instruments"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:01:48.891386+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Electric field (negative gradient of electric potential, voltage per length) ===
+Field mill
+
+=== Magnetic field ===
+See also the relevant section in the article about the magnetic field.
+
+Compass
+Hall effect sensor
+Magnetometer
+Proton magnetometer
+SQUID
+For the ranges of magnetic field see: Orders of magnitude (magnetic field)
+
+=== Combination instruments ===
+Multimeter, combines the functions of ammeter, voltmeter, and ohmmeter as a minimum.
+LCR meter, combines the functions of ohmmeter, capacitance meter, and inductance meter.  Also called component bridge due to the bridge circuit method of measurement.
+
+== Thermodynamics ==
+Temperature-related considerations dominate thermodynamics. There are two distinct thermal properties: A thermal potential — the temperature. For example: A glowing coal has a different thermal quality than a non-glowing one.
+And a substance-like property, — the entropy; for example: One glowing coal won't heat a pot of water, but a hundred will.
+Energy in thermodynamics is calculated by multiplying the thermal potential by the amount of entropy found at that potential:  temperature times entropy.
+Entropy can be created by friction but not annihilated.
+
+=== Amount of substance ===
+A physical quantity introduced in chemistry; usually determined indirectly. If mass and substance type of the sample are known, then atomic- or molecular masses (taken from a periodic table, masses measured by mass spectrometry) give direct access to the value of the amount of substance. (See also Molar mass.)  If specific molar values are given, then the amount of substance of a given sample may be determined by measuring volume, mass, or concentration. See also the subsection below about the measurement of the boiling point.
+Gas collecting tube gases
+
+=== Temperature ===
+Electromagnetic spectroscopy
+Galileo thermometer
+Gas thermometer principle: relation between temperature and volume or pressure of a gas (gas laws).
+Constant pressure gas thermometer
+Constant volume gas thermometer
+Liquid crystal thermometer
+Liquid thermometer principle: relation between temperature and volume of a liquid (coefficient of thermal expansion).
+Alcohol thermometer
+Mercury-in-glass thermometer
+Pyranometer principle: solar radiation flux density relates to surface temperature (Stefan–Boltzmann law)
+Pyrometers principle: temperature dependence of spectral intensity of light (Planck's law), i.e. the color of the light relates to the temperature of its source, range: from about −50 °C to +4000 °C, note: measurement of thermal radiation (instead of thermal conduction, or thermal convection) means: no physical contact becomes necessary in temperature measurement (pyrometry). Also note: thermal space resolution (images) found in thermography.
+Resistance thermometer principle: relation between temperature and electrical resistance of metals (platinum) (electrical resistance), range: 10 to 1,000 kelvins, application in physics and industry
+Solid thermometer principle: relation between temperature and length of a solid (coefficient of thermal expansion).
+Bimetallic strip
+Thermistors principle: relation between temperature and electrical resistance of ceramics or polymers, range: from about 0.01 to 2,000 kelvins (−273.14 to 1,700 °C)
+Thermocouples principle: relation between temperature and voltage of metal junctions (Seebeck effect), range: from about −200 °C to +1350 °C
+Thermometer
+Thermopile is a set of connected thermocouples
+Triple point cell used for calibrating thermometers.
+
+==== Imaging technology ====
+Thermographic camera uses a microbolometer for detection of heat radiation.
+See also Temperature measurement and Category:Thermometers. More technically related may be seen thermal analysis methods in materials science.
+For the ranges of temperature-values see: Orders of magnitude (temperature)
+
+=== Energy carried by entropy or thermal energy ===
+
+This includes thermal mass or temperature coefficient of energy, reaction energy, heat flow, ...
+Calorimeters are called passive if gauged to measure emerging energy carried by entropy, for example from chemical reactions. Calorimeters are called active or heated if they heat the sample, or reformulated: if they are gauged to fill the sample with a defined amount of entropy.
+
+Actinometer heating power of radiation.
+Constant-temperature calorimeter, phase change calorimeter for example an ice calorimeter or any other calorimeter observing a phase change or using a gauged phase change for heat measurement.
+Constant-volume calorimeter, also called bomb calorimeter
+Constant-pressure calorimeter, enthalpy-meter, or coffee cup calorimeter
+Differential Scanning Calorimeter
+Reaction calorimeter
+See also Calorimeter or Calorimetry
+
+=== Entropy ===
+Entropy is accessible indirectly by measurement of energy and temperature.
+
+==== Entropy transfer ====
+Phase change calorimeter's energy value divided by absolute temperature give the entropy exchanged. Phase changes produce no entropy and therefore offer themselves as an entropy measurement concept. Thus entropy values occur indirectly by processing energy measurements at defined temperatures, without producing entropy.
+
+Constant-temperature calorimeter, phase change calorimeter
+Heat flux sensor uses thermopiles (which are connected thermocouples) to determine current density or flux of entropy.
+
+==== Entropy content ====
+The given sample is cooled down to (almost) absolute zero (for example by submerging the sample in liquid helium). At absolute zero temperature any sample is assumed to contain no entropy (see Third law of thermodynamics for further information). Then the following two active calorimeter types can be used to fill the sample with entropy until the desired temperature has been reached: (see also Thermodynamic databases for pure substances)
+
+Constant-pressure calorimeter, enthalpy-meter, active
+Constant-temperature calorimeter, phase change calorimeter, active
+
+==== Entropy production ====
+Processes transferring energy from a non-thermal carrier to heat as a carrier do produce entropy (Example: mechanical/electrical friction, established by Count Rumford).
+Either the produced entropy or heat are measured (calorimetry) or the transferred energy of the non-thermal carrier may be measured.
+
+calorimeter
+(any device for measuring the work which will or would eventually be converted to heat and the ambient temperature)
+Entropy lowering its temperature—without losing energy—produces entropy (Example: Heat conduction in an isolated rod; "thermal friction").
+
+calorimeter
+
+=== Temperature coefficient of energy or "heat capacity" ===
+Concerning a given sample, a proportionality factor relating temperature change and energy carried by heat. If the sample is a gas, then this coefficient depends significantly on being measured at constant volume or at constant pressure. (The terminology preference in the heading indicates that the classical use of heat bars it from having substance-like properties.)
+
+Constant-volume calorimeter, bomb calorimeter
+Constant-pressure calorimeter, enthalpy-meter

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+---
+title: "List of measuring instruments"
+chunk: 3/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_measuring_instruments"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:01:48.891386+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Specific temperature coefficient of energy or "specific heat capacity" ===
+The temperature coefficient of energy divided by a substance-like quantity (amount of substance, mass, volume) describing the sample. Usually calculated from measurements by a division or could be measured directly using a unit amount of that sample.
+For the ranges of specific heat capacities see: Orders of magnitude (specific heat capacity)
+
+=== Coefficient of thermal expansion ===
+Dilatometer
+Strain gauge
+
+=== Melting temperature ===
+Differential Scanning Calorimeter gives melting point and enthalpy of fusion.
+Kofler bench
+Thiele tube
+
+=== Boiling temperature ===
+Ebullioscope a device for measuring the boiling point of a liquid. This device is also part of a method that uses the effect of boiling point elevation for calculating the molecular mass of a solvent.
+See also Thermal analysis, Heat.
+
+== More on continuum mechanics ==
+This includes mostly instruments which measure macroscopic properties of matter: In the fields of solid-state physics; in condensed matter physics which considers solids, liquids, and in-betweens exhibiting for example viscoelastic behavior; and furthermore, in fluid mechanics, where liquids, gases, plasmas, and in-betweens like supercritical fluids are studied.
+
+=== Density ===
+This refers to particle density of fluids and compact(ed) solids like crystals, in contrast to bulk density of grainy or porous solids.
+
+Aerometer liquids
+Dasymeter gases
+Gas collecting tube gases
+Hydrometer liquids
+Pycnometer liquids
+Resonant frequency and damping analyser (RFDA) solids
+For the ranges of density-values see: Orders of magnitude (density)
+
+=== Hardness ===
+Durometer
+
+=== Shape and surface of a solid ===
+Holographic interferometer
+Laser produced speckle pattern analysed.
+Resonant frequency and damping analyser (RFDA)
+Tribometer
+
+=== Deformation ===
+Strain gauge all below
+
+==== Elasticity ====
+Resonant frequency and damping analyser (RFDA), using the impulse excitation technique: A small mechanical impulse causes the sample to vibrate. The vibration depends on elastic properties, density, geometry, and inner structures (lattice or fissures).
+
+==== Plasticity ====
+Cam plastometer
+Plastometer
+
+==== Tensile strength, ductility, or malleability ====
+Universal testing machine
+
+=== Granularity ===
+Grindometer
+
+=== Viscosity ===
+Rheometer
+Viscometer
+
+=== Optical activity ===
+Polarimeter
+
+=== Surface tension ===
+Tensiometer
+
+=== Imaging technology ===
+Tomograph, device and method for non-destructive analysis of multiple measurements done on a geometric object, for producing 2- or 3-dimensional images, representing the inner structure of that geometric object.
+Wind tunnel
+This section and the following sections include instruments from the wide field of Category:Materials science, materials science.
+
+== More on electric properties of condensed matter or gas ==
+
+=== Permittivity, relative static permittivity, (dielectric constant), or electric susceptibility ===
+Capacitor
+Such measurements also allow to access values of molecular dipoles.
+
+=== Magnetic susceptibility or magnetization ===
+Gouy balance
+For other methods see the section in the article about magnetic susceptibility.
+See also Category:Electric and magnetic fields in matter
+
+=== Substance potential, chemical potential, or molar Gibbs energy ===
+Phase conversions like changes of aggregate state, chemical reactions or nuclear reactions transmuting substances, from reactants into products, or diffusion through membranes have an overall energy balance. Especially at constant pressure and constant temperature, molar energy balances define the notion of a substance potential or chemical potential or molar Gibbs energy, which gives the energetic information about whether the process is possible or not - in a closed system.
+Energy balances that include entropy consist of two parts: A balance that accounts for the changed entropy content of the substances, and another one that accounts for the energy freed or taken by that reaction itself, the Gibbs energy change.  The sum of reaction energy and energy associated to the change of entropy content is also called enthalpy. Often the whole enthalpy is carried by entropy and thus measurable calorimetrically.
+For standard conditions in chemical reactions either molar entropy content and molar Gibbs energy with respect to some chosen zero point are tabulated. Or molar entropy content and molar enthalpy with respect to some chosen zero are tabulated. (See Standard enthalpy change of formation and Standard molar entropy)
+The substance potential of a redox reaction is usually determined electrochemically current-free using reversible cells.
+
+Redox electrode
+Other values may be determined indirectly by calorimetry. Also by analyzing phase-diagrams.
+
+== Sub-microstructural properties of condensed matter or gas ==
+Infrared spectroscopy
+Neutron detector
+Radio frequency spectrometers for nuclear magnetic resonance and electron paramagnetic resonance
+Raman spectroscopy
+
+=== Crystal structure ===
+An X-ray tube, a sample scattering the X-rays and a photographic plate to detect them.  This constellation forms the scattering instrument used by X-ray crystallography for investigating crystal structures of samples. Amorphous solids lack a distinct pattern and are identifiable thereby.
+
+=== Imaging ===
+Electron microscope
+Scanning electron microscope
+Transmission electron microscope
+Optical microscope uses reflectiveness or refractiveness of light to produce an image.
+Scanning acoustic microscope
+Scanning probe microscope
+Atomic force microscope (AFM)
+Scanning tunneling microscope (STM)
+Focus variation
+X-ray microscope
+(See also Spectroscopy and List of materials analysis methods.)
+
+=== Sound, compression waves in matter ===
+Microphones in general, sometimes their sensitivity is increased by the reflection- and concentration principle realized in acoustic mirrors.
+
+Laser microphone
+Seismometer
+
+==== Sound pressure ====
+Microphone or hydrophone properly gauged
+Shock tube
+Sound level meter
+
+=== Light and radiation without a rest mass, non-ionizing ===
+Antenna (radio)
+Bolometer measuring the energy of incident electromagnetic radiation.
+Camera
+EMF meter
+Interferometer used in the wide field of interferometry
+Microwave power meter
+Optical power meter
+Photographic plate
+Photomultiplier
+Phototube
+Radio telescope
+Spectrometer
+T-ray detectors
+(for lux meter, see the section about human senses and human body)
+See also Category:Optical devices
+
+==== Photon polarization ====
+Polarizer
+
+==== Pressure (current density of linear momentum) ====
+Nichols radiometer
+
+==== Radiant flux ====
+The measure of the total power of light emitted.
+
+Integrating sphere for measuring the total radiant flux of a light source
+
+=== Radiation ===
+
+==== Cathode rays ====
+Crookes tube
+Cathode-ray tube, a phosphor-coated anode
+
+==== Atom polarization and electron polarization ====
+Stern–Gerlach experiment

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+---
+title: "List of measuring instruments"
+chunk: 4/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_measuring_instruments"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:01:48.891386+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+=== Ionizing radiation ===
+Ionizing radiation includes rays of "particles" as well as rays of "waves". Especially X-rays and gamma rays transfer enough energy in non-thermal, (single-) collision processes to separate electron(s) from an atom.
+
+==== Particle and ray flux ====
+Bubble chamber
+Cloud chamber
+Dosimeter, a technical device realizes different working principles.
+Geiger counter
+Ionisation chamber
+Microchannel plate detector
+Photographic plate
+Photostimulable phosphor plate
+Proportional counter
+Scintillation counter, Lucas cell
+Semiconductor detector
+
+== Identification and content ==
+This could include chemical substances, rays of any kind, elementary particles, and quasiparticles. Many measurement devices outside this section may be used or at least become part of an identification process.
+For identification and content concerning chemical substances, see also Analytical chemistry, List of chemical analysis methods, and List of materials analysis methods.
+
+=== Content in mixtures, substance identification ===
+Carbon dioxide sensor
+chromatographic device, gas chromatograph separates mixtures of substances. Different velocities of the substance types accomplish the separation.
+Colorimeter absorbance, and thus concentration
+Gas detector
+Gas detector in combination with mass spectrometer,
+mass spectrometer identifies the chemical composition of a sample on the basis of the mass-to-charge ratio of charged particles.
+Nephelometer or turbidimeter
+Oxygen sensor (= lambda sond)
+Refractometer, indirectly by determining the refractive index of a substance.
+Smoke detector
+Ultracentrifuge, separates mixtures of substances. In a force field of a centrifuge, substances of different densities separate.
+
+==== pH: Concentration of protons in a solution ====
+pH meter
+Saturated calomel electrode
+
+==== Humidity ====
+Hygrometer the density of water in air
+Lysimeter the balance of water in soil
+
+== Human senses and human body ==
+
+=== Sight ===
+
+==== Brightness: photometry ====
+Photometry is the measurement of light in terms of its perceived brightness to the human eye. Photometric quantities derive from analogous radiometric quantities by weighting the contribution of each wavelength by a luminosity function that models the eye's spectral sensitivity. For the ranges of possible values, see the orders of magnitude in:
+illuminance,
+luminance, and
+luminous flux.
+
+Photometers of various kinds:
+Lux meter for measuring illuminance, i.e. incident luminous flux per unit area
+Luminance meter for measuring luminance, i.e. luminous flux per unit area and unit solid angle
+Light meter, an instrument used to set photographic exposures. It can be either a lux meter (incident-light meter) or a luminance meter (reflected-light meter), and is calibrated in photographic units.
+Integrating sphere for collecting the total luminous flux of a light source, which can then be measured by a photometer
+Densitometer for measuring the degree to which a photographic material reflects or transmits light
+
+==== Color: colorimetry ====
+Tristimulus colorimeter for quantifying colors and calibrating an imaging workflow
+
+==== Radar brightness: radiometry ====
+Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) instruments measure radar brightness, Radar Cross Section (RCS), which is a function of the reflectivity and moisture of imaged objects at wavelengths which are too long to be perceived by the human eye. Black pixels mean no reflectivity (e.g. water surfaces), white pixels mean high reflectivity (e.g. urban areas). Colored pixels can be obtained by combining three gray-scaled images which usually interpret the polarization of electromagnetic waves. The combination R-G-B = HH-HV-VV combines radar images of waves sent and received horizontally (HH), sent horizontally and received vertically (HV) and sent and received vertically (VV). The calibration of such instruments is done by imaging objects (calibration targets) whose radar brightness is known.
+
+=== Hearing ===
+
+==== Loudness in phon ====
+Headphone, loudspeaker, sound pressure gauge, for measuring an equal-loudness contour of a human ear.
+Sound level meter calibrated to an equal-loudness contour of the human auditory system behind the human ear.
+
+=== Smell ===
+Olfactometer, see also Olfaction.
+
+=== Temperature (sense and body) ===
+
+==== Body temperature or core temperature ====
+Medical thermometer, see also infrared thermometer
+
+=== Circulatory system ===
+Blood-related parameters are listed in a blood test.
+
+Electrocardiograph records the electrical activity of the heart
+Glucose meter for obtaining the status of blood sugar.
+Sphygmomanometer, a blood pressure meter used to determine blood pressure in medicine. See also Category:Blood tests
+
+=== Respiratory system ===
+
+Spirometer
+
+==== Concentration or partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the respiratory gases ====
+Capnograph
+
+=== Nervous system ===
+Electroencephalograph records the electrical activity of the brain
+
+=== Musculoskeletal system ===
+
+==== Power, work of muscles ====
+Ergometer
+
+=== Metabolic system ===
+Body fat meter
+
+=== Medical imaging ===
+
+Computed tomography
+Magnetic resonance imaging
+Medical ultrasonography
+Radiology
+Tomograph, device and method for non-destructive analysis of multiple measurements done on a geometric object, for producing 2- or 3-dimensional images, representing the inner structure of that geometric object.
+See also: Category:Physiological instruments and Category:Medical testing equipment.
+
+== Meteorology ==
+See also Category:Meteorological instrumentation and equipment.
+
+== Navigation ==
+See also Category:Navigational equipment and Category:Navigation.
+See also Surveying instruments.
+
+== Astronomy ==
+Radio antenna
+Telescope
+See also Astronomical instruments and Category:Astronomical observatories.
+
+== Military ==
+Some instruments, such as telescopes and sea navigation instruments, have had military applications for many centuries. However, the role of instruments in military affairs rose exponentially with the development of technology via applied science, which began in the mid-19th century and has continued through the present day. Military instruments as a class draw on most of the categories of instrument described throughout this article, such as navigation, astronomy, optics, and imaging, and the kinetics of moving objects. Common abstract themes that unite military instruments are seeing into the distance, seeing in the dark, knowing an object's geographic location, and knowing and controlling a moving object's path and destination. Special features of these instruments may include ease of use, speed, reliability, and accuracy.

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+---
+title: "List of measuring instruments"
+chunk: 5/5
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_measuring_instruments"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:01:48.891386+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Uncategorized, specialized, or generalized application ==
+Actograph measures and records animal activity within an experimental chamber.
+Densitometer measures light transmission through processed photographic film or transparent material or light reflection from a reflective material.
+Force platform measures ground reaction force.
+Gauge (engineering) A highly precise measurement instrument, also usable to calibrate other instruments of the same kind. Often found in conjunction with defining or applying technical standards.
+Gradiometer any device that measures spatial variations of a physical quantity. For example, as done in gravity gradiometry.
+Parking meter measures time a vehicle is parked at a particular spot, usually with a fee.
+Postage meter measures postage used from a prepaid account.
+S meter measures the signal strength processed by a communications receiver.
+Sensor, hypernym for devices that measure with little interaction, typically used in technical applications.
+Spectroscope is an important tool used by physicists.
+SWR meter check the quality of the match between the antenna and the transmission line.
+Universal measuring machine measures geometric locations for inspecting tolerances.
+
+=== Alphabetical listing ===
+
+== See also ==
+
+Category:Instrument-making corporations
+Data logger measuring devices
+History of measurement
+History of weights and measures
+Instrumentation
+List of measuring devices
+List of physical quantities
+List of sensors
+List of tools and equipment
+Metrology
+Pocket comparator
+Sensor or detector
+Timeline of temperature and pressure measurement technology
+
+== Notes ==
+The alternate spelling "-metre" is never used when referring to a measuring device.
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+ Media related to Measuring instruments at Wikimedia Commons

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+---
+title: "List of microorganisms tested in outer space"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_microorganisms_tested_in_outer_space"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:01:50.268957+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+The survival of some microorganisms exposed to outer space has been studied using both simulated facilities and low Earth orbit exposures. Bacteria were some of the first organisms investigated, when in 1960 a Russian satellite carried Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus, and Enterobacter aerogenes into orbit. Many kinds of microorganisms have been selected for exposure experiments since, as listed in the table below.
+Experiments of the adaption of microbes in space have yielded unpredictable results. While sometimes the microorganism may weaken, they can also increase in their disease-causing potency.
+It is possible to classify these microorganisms into two groups, the human-borne and the extremophiles. Studying the human-borne microorganisms is significant for human welfare and future crewed missions in space, whilst the extremophiles are vital for studying the physiological requirements of survival in space. NASA has pointed out that normal adults have ten times as many microbial cells as human cells in their bodies. They are also nearly everywhere in the environment and, although normally invisible, can form slimy biofilms.
+Extremophiles have adapted to live in some of the most extreme environments on Earth. This includes hypersaline lakes, arid regions, deep sea, acidic sites, cold and dry polar regions and permafrost. The existence of extremophiles has led to the speculation that microorganisms could survive the harsh conditions of extraterrestrial environments and be used as model organisms to understand the fate of biological systems in these environments. The focus of many experiments has been to investigate the possible survival of organisms inside rocks (lithopanspermia), or their survival on Mars for understanding the likelihood of past or present life on that planet. Because of their ubiquity and resistance to spacecraft decontamination, bacterial spores are considered likely potential forward contaminants on robotic missions to Mars. Measuring the resistance of such organisms to space conditions can be applied to develop adequate decontamination procedures.
+Research and testing of microorganisms in outer space could eventually be applied for directed panspermia or terraforming.
+
+
+== Table ==
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+
+== References ==

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+---
+title: "List of multiple discoveries"
+chunk: 1/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:01:52.913010+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Historians and sociologists have remarked the occurrence, in science, of "multiple independent discovery". Robert K. Merton defined such "multiples" as instances in which similar discoveries are made by scientists working independently of each other. "Sometimes", writes Merton, "the discoveries are simultaneous or almost so; sometimes a scientist will make a new discovery which, unknown to him, somebody else has made years before."
+Commonly cited examples of multiple independent discovery are the 17th-century independent formulation of calculus by Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz; the 18th-century discovery of oxygen by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Joseph Priestley, Antoine Lavoisier and others; and the theory of the evolution of species, independently advanced in the 19th century by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace.
+Multiple independent discovery, however, is not limited to such famous historic instances. Merton believed that it is multiple discoveries, rather than unique ones, that represent the common pattern in science.
+Merton contrasted a "multiple" with a "singleton"—a discovery that has been made uniquely by a single scientist or group of scientists working together.
+The distinction may blur as science becomes increasingly collaborative.
+A distinction is drawn between a discovery and an invention, as discussed for example by Bolesław Prus. However, discoveries and inventions are inextricably related, in that discoveries lead to inventions, and inventions facilitate discoveries; and since the same phenomenon of multiplicity occurs in relation to both discoveries and inventions, this article lists both multiple discoveries and multiple inventions.
+
+== 3rd century BCE ==
+
+Aristarchus of Samos (c. 310 – c. 230 BCE) was the first known originator of a heliocentric (solar) system. Such a system was formulated again some 18 centuries later by Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543).
+
+== 13th century CE ==
+1242 – first description of the function of pulmonary circulation, in Egypt, by Ibn al-Nafis. Later independently rediscovered by the Europeans Michael Servetus (1553) and William Harvey (1616).
+
+== 14th century ==
+
+1370: Gresham's (Copernicus') law: Nicole Oresme (c. 1370); Nicolaus Copernicus (1519); Thomas Gresham (16th century); Henry Dunning Macleod (1857). Ancient references to the same concept include one in Aristophanes' comedy The Frogs (405 BCE), which compares bad politicians to bad coin (bad politicians and bad coin, respectively, drive good politicians and good coin out of circulation).
+
+== 16th century ==
+
+Galileo Galilei and Simon Stevin: heavy and light balls fall together (contra Aristotle).
+Galileo Galilei and Simon Stevin: Hydrostatic paradox (Stevin c. 1585, Galileo c. 1610).
+1520: Scipione dal Ferro (1520) and Niccolò Tartaglia (1535) independently developed a method for solving cubic equations.
+Olbers' paradox (the "dark-night-sky paradox") was described by Thomas Digges in the 16th century, by Johannes Kepler in the 17th century (1610), by Edmond Halley and by Jean-Philippe de Chéseaux in the 18th century, by Heinrich Wilhelm Matthias Olbers in the 19th century (1823), and definitively by Lord Kelvin in the 20th century (1901); some aspects of Kelvin's argument had been anticipated in the poet and short-story writer Edgar Allan Poe's essay, Eureka: A Prose Poem (1848), which also presaged by three-quarters of a century the Big Bang theory of the universe.
+1596: Continental drift, in varying independent iterations, was proposed by Abraham Ortelius (Ortelius 1596), Theodor Christoph Lilienthal (1756), Alexander von Humboldt (1801 and 1845), Antonio Snider-Pellegrini (Snider-Pellegrini 1858), Alfred Russel Wallace, Charles Lyell, Franklin Coxworthy (between 1848 and 1890), Roberto Mantovani (between 1889 and 1909), William Henry Pickering (1907), Frank Bursley Taylor (1908), and Alfred Wegener (1912). In addition, in 1885 Eduard Suess had proposed a supercontinent Gondwana and in 1893 the Tethys Ocean, assuming a land-bridge between the present continents submerged in the form of a geosyncline; and in 1895 John Perry had written a paper proposing that the Earth's interior was fluid, and disagreeing with Lord Kelvin on the age of the Earth.
+
+== 17th century ==
+
+1604: Oxygen was described by Michael Sendivogius; in 1771–72, by Carl Wilhelm Scheele; in 1774, by Joseph Priestley; and in 1777, as a chemical element, by Antoine Lavoisier.
+1610: Sunspots – Thomas Harriot (England, 1610), Johannes and David Fabricius (Frisia, 1611), Galileo Galilei (Italy, 1612), Christoph Scheiner (Germany, 1612).
+1614: Logarithms – John Napier (Scotland, 1614) and Joost Bürgi (Switzerland, 1618).
+Analytic geometry – René Descartes, Pierre de Fermat.
+1654: Problem of points solved by both Pierre de Fermat (France, 1654), Blaise Pascal (France, 1654), and Christiaan Huygens (Holland, 1657).
+Calculus – Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz.
+1662: Boyle's law (sometimes referred to as the "Boyle-Mariotte law") is one of the gas laws and basis of derivation for the ideal gas law, which describes the relationship between the product pressure and volume within a closed system as constant when temperature remains at a fixed measure. The law was named for chemist and physicist Robert Boyle, who published the original law in 1662. The French physicist Edme Mariotte discovered the same law independently of Boyle in 1676.
+1671: Newton–Raphson method – Isaac Newton (Newton's work was written in 1669 and 1671, but not published until 1736) and Joseph Raphson (1690).
+1683: Determinants – Seki Takakazu (Japan, 1683 or earlier) and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (Germany, 1693).
+1696: Brachistochrone problem solved by Johann Bernoulli, Jakob Bernoulli, Isaac Newton, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Guillaume de l'Hôpital, and Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus. The problem was posed in 1696 by Johann Bernoulli, and its solutions were published next year.
+1698: Steam engine: Patent granted to Thomas Savery in 1698. The invention has often been credited to Thomas Newcomen (1712). Other early inventors have included Taqī al-Dīn (1551), Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont (1606), Giambattista della Porta, Giovanni Branca (1629), Cosimo de' Medici (1641), Evangelista Torricelli (1643), Otto Von Guericke (1672), Denis Papin (1679), and many others.
+
+== 18th century ==

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+---
+title: "List of multiple discoveries"
+chunk: 2/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:01:52.913010+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+1730: Stirling numbers – James Stirling (1730) and Masanobu Saka (1782).
+1740s: Platinum – Antonio de Ulloa and Charles Wood (both in the 1740s).
+1745: Leyden Jar – Ewald Georg von Kleist (1745) and Pieter van Musschenbroek (1745–46).
+1749: Lightning rod – Benjamin Franklin (1749) and Prokop Diviš (1754) (debated: Diviš's apparatus is assumed to have been more effective than Franklin's lightning rods in 1754, but was intended for a different purpose than lightning protection).
+1756: Law of conservation of matter – discovered by Mikhail Lomonosov, 1756; and independently by Antoine Lavoisier, 1778.
+1773: Oxygen – Carl Wilhelm Scheele (Uppsala, 1773), Joseph Priestley (Wiltshire, 1774). The term was coined by Antoine Lavoisier (1777). Michael Sendivogius (Polish: Michał Sędziwój; 1566–1636) is claimed as an earlier discoverer of oxygen.
+1783: Black-hole theory – John Michell, in a 1783 paper in The Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, wrote: "If the semi-diameter of a sphere of the same density as the Sun in the proportion of five hundred to one, and by supposing light to be attracted by the same force in proportion to its [mass] with other bodies, all light emitted from such a body would be made to return towards it, by its own proper gravity." A few years later, a similar idea was suggested independently by Pierre-Simon Laplace.
+1798: Malthusian catastrophe – Thomas Robert Malthus (1798), Hong Liangji (1793).
+A method for measuring the specific heat of a solid – devised independently by Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford; and by Johan Wilcke, who published his discovery first (apparently not later than 1796, when he died).
+1799: Complex plane – Geometrical representation of complex numbers was discovered independently by Caspar Wessel (1799), Jean-Robert Argand (1806), John Warren (1828), and Carl Friedrich Gauss (1831).
+
+== 19th century ==

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+---
+title: "List of multiple discoveries"
+chunk: 3/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:01:52.913010+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+1805: In a treatise written in 1805 and published in 1866, Carl Friedrich Gauss describes an efficient algorithm to compute the discrete Fourier transform. James W. Cooley and John W. Tukey reinvented a similar algorithm in 1965.
+1817: Cadmium – Friedrich Strohmeyer, K.S.L Hermann (both in 1817).
+1817: Grotthuss–Draper law (aka the Principle of Photochemical Activation) – first proposed in 1817 by Theodor Grotthuss, then independently, in 1842, by John William Draper. The law states that only that light which is absorbed by a system can bring about a photochemical change.
+1825: Bromine discovered by Carl Jacob Löwig; and independently, in 1826, by Antoine Jérôme Balard.
+1828: Beryllium – Friedrich Wöhler, A.A.B. Bussy (1828).
+1830: Non-Euclidean geometry (hyperbolic geometry) – Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky (1830), János Bolyai (1832); preceded by Gauss (unpublished result) c. 1805.
+1831: Electromagnetic induction was discovered by Michael Faraday in England in 1831, and independently about the same time by Joseph Henry in the U.S.
+1831: Chloroform – Samuel Guthrie in the United States (July 1831), and a few months later Eugène Soubeiran (France) and Justus von Liebig (Germany), all of them using variations of the haloform reaction.
+Dandelin–Gräffe method, aka Lobachevsky method – an algorithm for finding multiple roots of a polynomial, developed independently by Germinal Pierre Dandelin, Karl Heinrich Gräffe, and Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky.
+1837: Electrical telegraph – Charles Wheatstone (England, 1837), Samuel F.B. Morse (United States, 1837).
+First law of thermodynamics – In the late 19th century, various scientists independently stated that energy and matter are persistent, although this was later to be disregarded under subatomic conditions. Hess's law (Germain Hess), Julius Robert von Mayer, and James Joule were some of the first.
+1846: Urbain Le Verrier and John Couch Adams, studying Uranus's orbit, independently proved that another, farther planet must exist. Neptune was found at the predicted moment and position.
+1851: Bessemer Process – The process of removing impurities from steel on an industrial level using oxidation, developed in 1851 by American William Kelly and independently developed and patented in 1855 by eponymous Englishman Sir Henry Bessemer.
+1858: The Möbius strip was discovered independently by the German astronomer–mathematician August Ferdinand Möbius and the German mathematician Johann Benedict Listing in 1858.
+1858: Theory of evolution by natural selection – Charles Darwin (discovery about 1840), Alfred Russel Wallace (discovery about 1857–58) – papers published concurrently, 1858.
+1862: 109P/Swift–Tuttle, the comet generating the Perseid meteor shower, was independently discovered by Lewis Swift on 16 July 1862, and by Horace Parnell Tuttle on 19 July 1862. The comet made a return appearance in 1992, when it was rediscovered by Japanese astronomer Tsuruhiko Kiuchi.
+1868: French astronomer Pierre Janssen and English astronomer Norman Lockyer independently discovered evidence in the solar spectrum for a new element that Lockyer named "helium". (The formal discovery of the element was made in 1895 by two Swedish chemists, Per Teodor Cleve and Nils Abraham Langlet, who found helium emanating from the uranium ore cleveite.)
+1869: Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleyev published his periodic table of chemical elements, and the following year (1870) Julius Lothar Meyer published his independently constructed version.
+1873: Bolesław Prus propounded a "law of combination" describing the making of discoveries and inventions: "Any new discovery or invention is a combination of earlier discoveries and inventions, or rests on them."
+1876: Oskar Hertwig and Hermann Fol independently described the entry of sperm into the egg and the subsequent fusion of the egg and sperm nuclei to form a single new nucleus.
+1876: Elisha Gray and Alexander Graham Bell independently, on the same day, filed patents for invention of the telephone.
+1877: Charles Cros described the principles of the phonograph that was, independently, constructed the following year (1878) by Thomas Edison.
+1877: In England, Edward Sharpey-Schafer reported to the Royal Society his discovery of what eventually came to be called the nerve synapse; the Royal Society was skeptical of the unconventional notion of such spaces separating individual neurons, and asked him to withdraw his report. In 1888, in Spain, Santiago Ramón y Cajal, having used the Italian scientist Camillo Golgi's technique for staining nerve cells, published his discovery of the nerve synapse, which in 1889 finally gained acceptance and won Ramón y Cajal recognition as an, alongside Golgi – many say, the – "founder of modern neuroscience".
+1879: British physicist-chemist Joseph Swan independently developed an incandescent light bulb at the same time as American inventor Thomas Edison was independently working on his incandescent light bulb. Swan's first successful electric light bulb and Edison's electric light bulb were both patented in 1879.
+Circa 1880: the integraph was invented independently by the British physicist Sir Charles Vernon Boys and by the Polish mathematician, inventor, and electrical engineer Bruno Abakanowicz. Abakanowicz's design was produced by the Swiss firm Coradi of Zurich.
+1886: The Hall–Héroult process for inexpensively producing aluminum was independently discovered by the American engineer-inventor Charles Martin Hall and the French scientist Paul Héroult.
+In 1895 the Russian linguist Filipp Fortunatov, and in 1896 the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, independently formulated the sound law now known as the Fortunatov–de Saussure law.
+1895: Adrenaline was discovered by the Polish physiologist Napoleon Cybulski. It was independently discovered in 1900 by the Japanese chemist Jōkichi Takamine and his assistant Keizo Uenaka.
+1896: Two proofs of the prime number theorem (the asymptotic law of the distribution of prime numbers) were obtained independently by Jacques Hadamard and Charles de la Vallée-Poussin and appeared the same year.
+1896: Radioactivity was discovered independently by Henri Becquerel and Silvanus Thompson.
+1898: Thorium radioactivity was discovered independently by Gerhard Carl Schmidt and Marie Curie.
+Vector calculus was invented independently by the American, Josiah Willard Gibbs (1839–1903), and by the Englishman, Oliver Heaviside (1850–1925).
+
+== 20th century ==

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries-6.md

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+---
+title: "List of multiple discoveries"
+chunk: 7/7
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:01:52.913010+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== 21st century ==
+
+2001: four different authors published different implementations of a distributed hash table.
+The Super Kamiokande and SNOLAB collaborations, whose findings were published in 1998 and 2001 respectively, both proved that neutrinos have mass. As a result, the 2015 Nobel Prize in Physics was shared by Takaaki Kajita of Japan and Arthur B. McDonald of Canada.
+1996: James Allison of MD Anderson Cancer Center at the University of Texas at Houston discovered a mechanism enabling cancer immunotherapy. In 2002 Tasuku Honjo of Kyoto University discovered another such mechanism. This outcome, which led to them sharing the 2018 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, has been described as follows: "Each independently discovered that our immune system is restrained from attacking tumors by molecules that function as 'brakes.' Releasing these brakes (or 'brake receptors') allows our body to powerfully combat cancer."
+2014: Paul Erdős' conjecture about prime gaps was proved by Kevin Ford, Ben Green, Sergei Konyagin, and Terence Tao, working together, and independently by James Maynard.
+2020: Half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Reinhard Genzel and Andrea Ghez, who each have led a group of astronomers focused since the early 1990s on a region at the center of the Milky Way galaxy called Sagittarius A*, finding an extremely heavy, invisible object (black hole) that pulls on a jumble of stars, causing them to rush around at dizzying speeds. Some 4 million solar masses are packed together in a region no larger than the Solar System.
+2020 Nobel Prize in Chemistry was shared by Jennifer Doudna of the University of California, Berkeley, and Emmanuelle Charpentier of the Max Planck Institute, in Berlin. Passed over in the prize was Virginijus Šikšnys of Vilnius University, in Lithuania, though all three had shared the 2018 Kavli Prize for the same discovery of CRISPR gene editing.
+2021 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was shared by David Julius, of the University of California, San Francisco, and Ardem Patapoutian, of Scripps Research, in La Jolla, California, a UCSF postdoctoral alumnus, for their independent discoveries of receptors for temperature and touch.
+15 May 2025: The independent discovery of orange cats' genetic mutation appeared in Current Biology reports by a Stanford University team led by Christopher Kaelin, and by a Kyushu University team led by Hiroyuki Sasaki.
+
+== Quotations ==
+"When the time is ripe for certain things, these things appear in different places in the manner of violets coming to light in early spring."
+"[Y]ou do not [make a discovery] until a background knowledge is built up to a place where it's almost impossible not to see the new thing, and it often happens that the new step is done contemporaneously in two different places in the world, independently."
+"[A] man can no more be completely original ... than a tree can grow out of air."
+I never had an idea in my life. My so-called inventions already existed in the environment – I took them out. I've created nothing. Nobody does. There's no such thing as an idea being brain-born; everything comes from the outside.
+
+== See also ==
+
+== Notes ==
+
+== References ==
+
+== Sources ==
+
+== External links ==
+Annals of Innovation: In the Air: Who says big ideas are rare?, Malcolm Gladwell, The New Yorker, 12 May 2008
+The Technium: Simultaneous Invention, Kevin Kelly, 9 May 2008
+Apperceptual: The Heroic Theory of Scientific Development at the Wayback Machine (archived 12 May 2008), Peter Turney, 15 January 2007
+A Survey of Russian Approaches to Perebor (Brute-Force Searches) Algorithms, by B.A. Trakhtenbrot, in the Annals of the History of Computing, 6(4):384–400, 1984.
+   Return to top of page.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_neurological_research_methods-0.md

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+---
+title: "List of neurological research methods"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_neurological_research_methods"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:01:54.237005+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+There are numerous types of research methods used when conducting neurological research, all with the purpose of trying to view the activity that occurs within the brain during a certain activity or behavior. The disciplines within which these methods are used is quite broad, ranging from psychology to neuroscience to biomedical engineering to sociology. The following is a list of neuroimaging methods:
+
+Electroencephalography (EEG)
+Quantitative electroencephalography (QEEG)
+Stereoelectroencephalography (SEEG)
+Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
+Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
+Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS)
+Positron emission tomography (PET)
+Single-unit recording
+Transcranial direct-current stimulation (TDCS)
+Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
+
+
+== See also ==
+neuroimaging
+functional neuroimaging

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_noise_topics-0.md

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+---
+title: "List of noise topics"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_noise_topics"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:01:55.431030+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+This is a list of noise topics.
+
+
+== Engineering and physics ==
+
+
+== Environmental ==
+
+
+== Noise reduction ==
+
+
+== Music ==
+
+
+== See also ==
+DB drag racing
+List of environment topics
+
+
+== External links ==
+Noboomers

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_petawatt_lasers-0.md

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+---
+title: "List of petawatt lasers"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_petawatt_lasers"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:01:59.083539+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+This page contains a list of petawatt-level lasers in operation, under construction, or proposed. The list is compiled from existing academic reviews.
+A petawatt laser is typically defined as a laser system whose pulse energy divided by its pulse duration reaches an order of magnitude of 1015 W, or 1 petawatt. These high-power laser pulses are capable of driving a strong electromagnetic field, giving rise to a number of novel applications. For instance, focusing large numbers of petawatt level lasers on a target containing deuterium and tritium creates enough energy density to drive inertial confinement fusion. Another potential application is using strong electric fields from petawatt laser pulses to drive steep density gradient structures in a plasma, which then creates field gradients capable of accelerating particles in a much shorter distance than linac; such concept is known as laser wakefield acceleration. In addition, as the laser pulse itself reaches extremely high field intensity, interaction of the high-energy particle beam with a petawatt laser pulse can achieve interactions with intensity beyond the Schwinger limit, enabling possible observation of effects such as vacuum polarization and Breit-Wheeler process.
+Generation of a petawatt laser pulse requires the pulse duration to be extremely short: to reach 1 petawatt of power, a 1 joule laser pulse will require a duration of <1 fs (< 10−15 seconds). All petawatt systems (with the exception of the National Ignition Facility) use the technique of chirped pulse amplification, which amplifies chirped, temporally stretched laser pulses before compressing them into femtosecond, ultra-high intensity pulses. For laser systems with large pulse energies, Nd:glass is typically used as a gain medium, as they can be grown into very large crystals. For laser pulses with duration near the femtosecond range, Ti:Sapphire is widely used to take advantage of its wide lasing spectrum; only such lasers can be compressed into ultrashort pulses, due to Fourier relations between the temporal and spectral widths of the pulse signal.
+
+
+== Petawatt lasers ==
+The following list contains laser systems with petawatt-class peak power. Although there is not a precise definition for "petawatt-class" lasers, the list include all systems with peak power >=0.5 PW.
+
+
+== High average power lasers ==
+A number of petawatt or sub-petawatt laser systems are notable for being capable of operating at high repetition rates (HRR). These laser systems are high average power (HAP) lasers, delivering high power when averaged over macroscopic time scale yet still maintaining terawatt or petawatt peak power within a single pulse. HAP petawatt lasers are crucial for any future applications of petawatt laser systems such as compact light sources, next-generation accelerators, or proton source for radiotherapy; in scientific research facilities, they also greatly improve experiment efficiency by enabling a much large set of experimental data to be collected within the same amount of beam time. On the other hand, designing and operating petawatt laser systems at high repetition rate presents an immense engineering challenge, as the laser system must handle large amounts of excessive heat when pumped at a much higher frequency as well as thermal effects that degrades beam quality. In recent years, advances in high-power laser technology, such as pumping schemes, pump light sources, and cyrogenic cooling, led to the emergence of a new class of HAP laser systems.
+Addressing the important of high average power lasers as the future development of petawatt lasers, the following list contains a list of laser systems with peak power >=100 TW and average power >=100 W. Note that some lasers in the list are already petawatt-class lasers.
+
+
+== Gallery ==
+
+
+== See also ==
+Thales Group
+Amplitude Lasers
+
+
+== References ==
+
+
+== External links ==
+ICUIL World Map

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents-0.md

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+---
+title: "List of scientific misconduct incidents"
+chunk: 1/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:01:51.543843+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Scientific misconduct is a serious form of violation of the standard codes of scholarly conduct and ethical behavior in the publication of professional scientific research.  A Lancet review on Handling of Scientific Misconduct in Scandinavian countries gave examples of policy definitions. In Denmark, scientific misconduct is defined as "intention[al] negligence leading to fabrication of the scientific message or a false credit or emphasis given to a scientist", and in Sweden as "intention[al] distortion of the research process by fabrication of data, text, hypothesis, or methods from another researcher's manuscript form or publication; or distortion of the research process in other ways."
+A 2009 systematic review and meta-analysis of survey data found that about 2% of scientists admitted to falsifying, fabricating, or modifying data at least once.
+Incidents should only be included in this list if the individuals or entities involved have their own Wikipedia articles, or in the absence of an article, where the misconduct incident is covered in multiple reliable sources.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents-2.md

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+---
+title: "List of scientific misconduct incidents"
+chunk: 3/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:01:51.543843+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Many major trials of the drug ivermectin that claimed it could prevent COVID-19 were found to show signs of fraud and had "either obvious signs of fabrication or errors so critical they invalidate the study," according to one of the groups investigating the studies. For example, some studies were found to list patients who had never actually participated in the research, and others placed patients who were already statistically more likely to die in the placebo group while putting the healthier patients in the experimental group that received ivermectin. Studies that were found to contain legitimate research were generally inconclusive about the effects of ivermectin on COVID-19. He Jiankui (China), former associate professor with the Southern University of Science and Technology, was in 2019 sentenced to three years in prison and fined three million yuan (about US$430,000) for illegally carrying out human embryo gene-editing intended for reproduction. The case is called the He Jiankui affair. Woo-suk Hwang (Hwang Woo-suk) (South Korea), former Professor of Biotechnology at Seoul National University, was found by a University committee to have committed "deliberate fabrication" in his research on stem cells, and to have coerced female members of his research team to donate their eggs. The incidence is known as the Hwang affair. In 2009 Hwang was found guilty by the Seoul Central District Court of embezzlement and bioethical violations in connection to his research program. Sophie Jamal (Canada), former Professor of Medicine at University of Toronto and former staff endocrinologist at Women's College Hospital, Toronto, falsified data from studies of nitroglycerin compounds in osteoporosis. Results published in the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) in 2011 were retracted by the Journal in 2016. In 2016 Jamal received a lifetime funding ban from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research and in 2018 her license to practice medicine was revoked by the College of Physicians and Surgeons of Ontario. Jamal has had four of her research publications retracted. Abderrahmane Kaidi, Senior Lecturer in Cellular and Molecular Medicine at the University of Bristol, was accused of misconduct towards his research team. In 2018, the university investigated the case and with it found out that he had also made fake research data, which he admitted were to impress other scientists for collaboration and were not for publication. He resigned from the university. The University of Cambridge also investigated his research as a postdoctoral scholar at the Gurdon Institute from where he published several research papers on DNA damage. Two journals, Science and Nature retracted one article each, written with his mentor Stephen Jackson, published in 2010 and 2013 respectively, simultaneously on 11 April 2019 following evidence of data fabrications. Shigeaki Kato (Japan), a former professor at the University of Tokyo, has been confirmed responsible for misconduct in 33 papers on nuclear receptors. Most of the fabrications were discovered on an anonymous bulletin board 2channel, and the information was spread by anonymous individual(s). As of 2024, Kato has had 40 research publications retracted, and three others have received an expression of concern. (See Japanese scientific misconduct allegations.)
+Kim Tae-kook (South Korea), formerly of the Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, falsified research on modulating cellular proteins with the synthetic compound CGK733. Gideon Koren (Canada), former Director of the Motherisk Program at The Hospital for Sick Children in Toronto, published an article without the informed consent of co-author Nancy Olivieri, and sent her anonymous harassing letters. A December 2018 article in The Toronto Star reported apparent problems in more than 400 papers coauthored by Koren, including "inadequately peer-reviewed, failed to declare, and perhaps even obscure, conflicts of interest, and, in a handful of cases, contain lies about the methodology". Koren has threatened a defamation lawsuit against the editor of Therapeutic Drug Monitoring for retracting one of Koren's papers. As of 2022 Koren has had six of his research publications retracted, three others have received an expression of concern, and four others have been corrected. Steven A. Leadon (US), former professor of radiation oncology and head of the molecular radiobiology program at the University of North Carolina, falsified and fabricated data in his research on DNA repair. Leadon has had seven of his research papers retracted. Annarosa Leri (US, Italy) and Piero Anversa (US, Italy), collaborators and former researchers at Harvard University, were found in a 2014 investigation to have "manipulated and falsified" data in their research on endogenous cardiac stem cells, and to have included "false scientific information" in grant applications; these events resulted in Partners HealthCare and Brigham and Women's Hospital paying a $10 million settlement to the US government, and pausing a clinical trial based on Anversa and Leri's work. In October 2018, following many failed replications of their work, Harvard University and Brigham and Women's Hospital called for the retraction of 31 publications from the Anversa/Leri research group. Anversa and Leri lost a lawsuit they brought against Harvard that claimed the 2014 investigation had damaged their reputations. As of 2024, Anversa and Leri have had 19 research publications retracted, 17 others have received an expression of concern, and 12 others have been corrected. Sylvain Lesné (France, US), a neuroscientist, co-authored a study in Nature proposing that a specific amyloid-beta protein assembly, Aβ*56, impairs memory and contributes to Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis. In 2024, Nature retracted this paper after investigations revealed manipulated images, with co-authors Michela Gallagher and Karen H. Ashe agreeing to the retraction, while Lesné disagreed. The story was revealed in 2022 by Charles Piller in Science, based upon investigations by Matthew Schrag, a neuroscientist and physician at Vanderbilt University. This narrative is a key component of Piller's 2025 book Doctored: Fraud, Arrogance, and Tragedy in the Quest to Cure Alzheimer's. Paolo Macchiarini (Sweden, Italy), a thoracic surgeon and researcher formerly at the Karolinska Institutet, was in 2017 found by an ethics review board to have committed research misconduct, including false claims of clinical success and falsely claiming ethical approval for his surgical interventions, in his work on the surgical implantation of artificial trachea seeded with patients' own stem cells. The review board recommended that six of Macchiarini's publications be retracted. As of 2024, Macchiarini has had 12 of his research papers retracted, four others have received an expression of concern, and three others have been corrected. Johnny Matson (US), former professor of psychology at Louisiana State University, who was criticized starting in 2015 for his peer review practices as a journal editor, in 2023 had 24 of his research papers retracted because of undisclosed conflicts of interest, duplicated methodology, and a compromised peer-review process. William McBride (Australia), a physician who discovered the teratogenicity of thalidomide, was found by an Australian medical tribunal to have "deliberately published false and misleading scientific reports and altered the results of experiments" on the effects of Debendox/Bendectin on pregnancy. Moon Hyung-in (South Korea), former Professor in the Department of Medicinal Biotechnology at Dong-A University (South Korea), used false names and email addresses to "peer review" his own research publications. Moon has had 35 of his research publications retracted. H.M.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents-4.md

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+---
+title: "List of scientific misconduct incidents"
+chunk: 5/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:01:51.543843+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+Wakefield's claims of a link between the MMR vaccine, autism and inflammatory bowel disease have been reported in the British Medical Journal as "based not on bad science but on a deliberate fraud", and the 1998 paper originally presenting his theory was retracted in 2010 by The Lancet. Wakefield was unsuccessful in an attempt to sue detractors/critics for libel and defamation. Wakefield has had two papers retracted and one corrected. Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories fabricated research data to the extent that upon FDA analysis of 867 studies, 618 (71%) were deemed invalid, including many of which were used to gain regulatory approval for widely used household and industrial products. The company Surgisphere claimed to have hospital data which was used to support studies of the effectiveness of hydroxychloroquine in treating COVID-19. Papers in the Lancet and New England Journal of Medicine were retracted in June 2020 when the data was found to be implausible. The National Centre for Biological Sciences, one of India's top research institutes and part of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, retracted one of its breakthrough scientific papers in 2021 describing the discovery of iron-sensing RNA after its findings and images were found to be manipulated. Eliezer Masliah (US), head of the Division of Neuroscience at the National Institute on Aging, was suspected in 2024 of having manipulated and inappropriately reused images in over 100 scientific papers spanning several decades, including those that were used by the FDA to greenlight testing for the experimental drug prasinezumab as a treatment for Parkinson's. Berislav Zlokovic (Serbia, US), a prominent neuroscientist at the University of Southern California, was placed on leave in 2023 amid concerns of scientific misconduct. Investigations revealed that several of his studies, which had generated promising data on Alzheimer's and stroke treatments, were under scrutiny for potential data manipulation. These studies formed the basis for drugs developed by ZZ Biotech, a company co-founded by Zlokovic. The allegations raised significant concerns about the validity of the research and the efficacy of the associated treatments. This narrative is a key component of Charles Piller's book, Doctored, which was published in 2025. Deborah F. Kelly
+Michael Briggs

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents-5.md

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+---
+title: "List of scientific misconduct incidents"
+chunk: 6/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:01:51.543843+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Chemistry ==
+Leo Paquette (US), an Ohio State University professor, plagiarized sections from an unfunded NIH grant application for use in his own NIH grant application. He also plagiarized a NSF proposal for use in one of his scientific publications.
+Kenichiro Itami (Japan), Nagoya University professor, and other members of his laboratory committed scientific misconduct in the graphene nanoribbon fraud. As a result of that misconduct, in 2022 Itami and the other implicated lab members were banned from receiving research support from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science for at least three years. As of 2023, Itami has had three of his research publications retracted, one other paper has received an expression of concern, and one other paper has been corrected. Itami was held responsible, and the Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST) and the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS), which determine the allocation of government research funds, have stopped granting research funds as a penalty until the end of March 2025 from the university. Despite this, RIKEN, which is funded mainly by research fees from the government, hired Itami and obtained about 50 million yen in research funding. He pioneered a loophole that allowed him to obtain research funding by belonging to a national research corporation even if his research funding from the government was suspended due to research misconduct.
+The independent misconduct of two chemists at the William A. Hinton State Laboratory Institute in Massachusetts caused the drug lab to be shut down and tens of thousands of criminal convictions for drug possession to be overturned. Annie Dookhan admitted to faking test results and adulterating samples to make them consistent with her desired results. Sonja Farak admitted to stealing samples and using them to get high herself. The affairs were documented in the 2020 film How to Fix a Drug Scandal.
+Masaya Sawamura (Japan), science misconduct made a significant impact in the field of chemistry. Several of his academic papers were retracted due to concerns about manipulated or fabricated data. In 2022, the Chemistry group at Hokkaido University, where Sawamura is affiliated, retracted multiple papers, including one published in the journal Science in 2020. The retraction was attributed to the non-reproducibility of reported results and manipulation of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra. Additionally, two papers by Sawamura's team, originally published in 2019 in the Journal of the American Chemical Society, were retracted due to the manipulation or fabrication of NMR spectra and HPLC charts.
+Bengü Sezen (US), a graduate student at Columbia University, was found to have falsified data in her research for over a decade by editing NMR data to fit her desired results. At least six of her research papers have been withdrawn and Columbia University has moved to revoke her Ph.D.
+Guido Zadel (Germany), a doctoral student at the University of Bonn, claimed to have observed enantioselectivity by conducting reactions immersed in a static magnetic field.  After other researchers were unable to replicate his results, he confessed (and later retracted) to have spiked the reaction mixtures with pure enantiomers. His degree was stripped.
+
+== Computer science and mathematics ==
+Ioan Mang (Romania), a computer scientist at the University of Oradea, plagiarized a paper by cryptographer Eli Biham, Dean of the Computer Science Department of Technion, Haifa, Israel. He was accused of extensive plagiarism in at least eight of his academic papers.
+Dănuț Marcu (Romania), a mathematician and computer scientist, was banned from publishing in several journals due to plagiarism. He had submitted a manuscript for publication that was a word-for-word copy of a published paper written by another author.
+In 2012, IEEE posted "Notice of Violation of IEEE Publication Principles" regarding a paper by Maruf Monwar, Waqar Haque and Padma Polash Paul presented at the 2007 Canadian Conference on Electrical and Computer Engineering. The paper "contains significant portions of original text" from three papers by others and was "copied with insufficient attribution (including appropriate references to the original author(s) and/or paper title) and without permission. Due to the nature of this violation, reasonable effort should be made to remove all past references to this paper, and future references should be made to the following article[sic]...."
+Tao Li, a computer science professor at the University of Florida, was accused of fabricating results and pushing his PhD student Huixiang Chen to keep pursuing a paper with false results at ISCA 2019. Mr. Chen committed suicide, and ACM and IEEE found Prof. Li guilty of pressuring him after a two-year investigation. University of Florida forced Prof. Li to retire from the university after the investigation by IEEE and ACM.
+
+== Geology ==
+Vishwa Jit Gupta (India), a palaeontologist at the Panjab University, manipulated, faked and plagiarised data on the fossil records of the Himalayan region in publications between 1960s and 1980s. In a case known as the Himalayan fossil hoax, he was exposed by Australian geologist John Talent. Gupta had used fossil images from earlier records and fossil specimens from other parts of the world claiming that he found them at the Himalayas. Examination of his publications between 1969 and 1988 confirmed the misconduct. It was recorded as the "greatest scientific fraud of the century".

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+---
+title: "List of scientific misconduct incidents"
+chunk: 7/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:01:51.543843+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Philosophy ==
+Magali Elise Roques (France), a philosopher and a chargé de recherche at the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) in Paris, in 2020 became the subject of academic plagiarism inquiries. Several of her journal publications were subsequently retracted, with the journal Vivarium publishing a detailed retraction notice. A CNRS investigating committee reported that although the allegations of plagiarism against Roques were unjustified, "the whole body of [Roques'] work in English [...] is seriously flawed by the regular presence of bad scholarly practices, by what might be called a sort of active negligence". As of 2023, Roques has had 13 of her published articles retracted.
+Martin William Francis Stone, an Irish philosopher formerly at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, plagiarized in more than 40 publications.
+Peter Johannes Schulz, a philosopher working at the Institute of Communication and Health at the University of Lugano, had articles both in philosophy and communications retracted for plagiarism and failure to credit sources properly. After a minor sanction, he was reinstated by the university in 2017.
+Mahmoud Khatami, an Iranian philosopher at the University of Tehran, was subject to plagiarism accusations in 2014. A retraction for one article by Khatami due to plagiarism appeared in the philosophy journal Topoi, accompanied by an editorial by the journal editor that confirmed the existence of plagiarism.
+Julian Young's Friedrich Nietzsche: A Philosophical Biography (Cambridge University Press, 2010) contains passages plagiarized from an earlier biography by Curtis Cate. Young later had corrections and proper attribution to Cate's biography inserted into unsold copies of the book.
+
+== Physics and engineering ==
+Ranga P. Dias (US), a physicist formerly at the University of Rochester, was in 2024 found by an investigatory committee to have committed research misconduct, including data fabrication and falsification, related to his work on alleged superconducting materials. A 2023 report in Science noted that at least 21% of Dias's 2013 doctoral thesis had been plagiarised. As of 2024, Dias has had five of his research papers retracted, and five other papers have received an expression of concern.
+Victor Ninov (US), a nuclear chemist formerly at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, was dismissed from his position after falsifying his work on the discovery of elements 116 and 118.
+Jan Hendrik Schön (Germany, US), a researcher in the physics of semiconductors formerly employed by Bell Labs, forged results by using the same data sets for different and unrelated experiments. Schön has had 32 of his publications retracted.
+Rusi Taleyarkhan (US), a nuclear engineer at Purdue University, was found by a university committee in 2008 to have falsified his research.
+
+== Plant biology ==
+Olivier Voinnet (France) was suspended in 2015 for two years from the CNRS (the French National Centre for Scientific Research) due to multiple cases of data manipulation. In 2016 EMBO recalled the Gold Medal awarded to Voinnet in 2009. As of 2023, Voinnet has had nine research publications retracted, five other papers have received an expression of concern, and 25 other papers have been corrected.
+
+== Psychiatry ==
+William Meissner (1931–2010), a Jesuit priest and professor at Harvard Medical School, was accused of copying many passages and also structural elements from Ernest Wallwork in Meissner's book, The Ethical Dimension of Psychoanalysis: A Dialogue. The Boston Psychoanalytic Society's Committee on Ethics and Professional Standards concluded that Meissner's actions "represented a serious breach of professional and scholarly standards."

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+---
+title: "List of scientific misconduct incidents"
+chunk: 8/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:01:51.543843+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Social sciences ==
+Mart Bax (Netherlands), former professor of political anthropology at the Vrije Universiteit, committed multiple acts of scientific misconduct including data fabrication, with a 2020 article in Ethnologia Europaea characterizing Bax's misconduct as "incredible and appalling." Bax, who as of 2020 has had nine of his research publications retracted, was found in 2013 to have never published 61 of the papers he listed on his CV.
+Bruno Frey (Switzerland), an economist formerly at the University of Zurich, in 2010–11 committed multiple acts of self-plagiarism in articles about the Titanic disaster. Frey admitted to the self-plagiarism, terming the acts "grave mistake[s]" and "deplorable."
+Karl-Theodor zu Guttenberg (Germany), former Minister of Defence of Germany, resigned from his office because of plagiarism in his doctoral dissertation from the University of Bayreuth. The university, which had awarded Guttenberg's dissertation with summa cum laude distinction, revoked his Ph.D. title on 23 February 2011, and Guttenberg resigned in March.
+Michael LaCour (US), former graduate student in political science at UCLA, was the lead author of the 2014 article "When contact changes minds". Published in Science and making international headlines, the paper was later retracted because of numerous irregularities in the methodology and falsified data. Following the retraction Princeton University rescinded an assistant professorship that had been offered to LaCour.
+Philippe Rushton (Canada), formerly of the Department of Psychology at the University of Western Ontario and former head of the white supremacist hate group Pioneer Fund, engaged in "research [that] was unethical, scientifically flawed, and based on racist ideas and agenda." As of 2023, six of Rushton's research publications had been retracted.
+Diederik Stapel (Netherlands), former professor of social psychology at Tilburg University, fabricated data in dozens of studies on human behaviour, a deception described by The New York Times as "an audacious academic fraud." Stapel has had 58 of his publications retracted.
+Brian Wansink (US), former John S. Dyson Endowed Chair in the Applied Economics and Management Department at Cornell University, was found in 2018 by a University investigatory committee to have "committed academic misconduct in his research and scholarship, including misreporting of research data, problematic statistical techniques, failure to properly document and preserve research results, and inappropriate authorship." As of 2020, Wansink has had 18 of his research papers retracted (one twice); seven other papers have received an expression of concern, and 15 others have been corrected.
+Francisco Gómez Camacho (Spain), a Jesuit priest and emeritus professor at Madrid's Comillas Pontifical University, has had three publications about the history of economic theories retracted due to plagiarism.
+Francesca Gino (US), a professor at Harvard Business School, was put on administrative leave after accusations surfaced that she had falsified data in multiple studies over a period of 10 years. As of 2024, five of Gino's research publications have been retracted.
+Dan Ariely (US), a professor at Duke University, had a paper retracted over concerns about data fabrication, in addition to several other controversies about his data.
+Marc Hauser (US), an evolutionary biologist and former Professor of psychology at Harvard University, was found by a University committee and the US Office of Research Integrity to have fabricated and falsified data in his research.

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents-8.md

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+---
+title: "List of scientific misconduct incidents"
+chunk: 9/9
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:01:51.543843+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+== Other ==
+Cistercian historian Louis Lekai called attention to "a major case of modern plagiarism" when in 1959 he proved that almost all of Louis Dubois' influential biography of Abbot Armand Jean de Rancé, published in 1867, was copied from an unpublished manuscript by Francois Armand Gervaise.
+In 2016 the scientific publisher Springer Nature retracted 58 papers from seven journals, authored mostly by Iran-based researchers, because the papers showed evidence of authorship manipulation, peer-review manipulation, and/or plagiarism.
+Ohio University in 2006 alleged more than three dozen cases of plagiarism in master's degree theses dating back 20 years in its mechanical engineering department. A former faculty member involved in the plagiarism cases, Jay S. Gunasekera, was removed from his position as department chair, had his title of "distinguished professor" rescinded, and in 2011 settled a lawsuit he had brought against the university. Another former faculty member implicated in the plagiarism cases, Bhavin Mehta, in 2012 lost a defamation suit he had brought against the university.
+486 Chinese cancer researchers were found guilty of engaging in a fraudulent peer-review scheme by China's Ministry of Science and Technology. The investigation was initiated after the retraction of 107 papers published in Tumor Biology between 2012 and 2016. This is reported to be the most papers retracted from one journal.
+An investigation by the UK scientific journal Nature published on 8 January 2020, found that eight James Cook University (JCU) studies on the effect of climate change on coral reef fish, one of which was authored by the JCU educated discredited scientist Oona Lönnstedt, had a 100 percent replication failure and thus none of the findings of the original eight studies were found to be correct. The Swedish scientists Josefin Sundin and Fredrik Jutfelt were the first to report their suspicions to Uppsala University. Their informal investigation, and the proofs they collected, lead to the formal investigation. Concerns raised about a study Lönnstedt published while at JCU between 2010 and 2014 included an improbable number of lionfish claimed to have been used in this study, and images of 50 fish provided which appeared to include multiple images of some biological specimens, and two images that had been flipped making two fish appear to be four. Lönnstedt had also been found guilty of fabricating data underpinning a study at Uppsala University in Sweden following her departure from JCU in Queensland, Australia. The study was subsequently retracted.
+Ashok Pandey was the editor and then editor-in-chief of Elsevier's journal Bioresource Technology for over a decade. During his time as editor in chief he used his position to add his name to papers he edited. By 2025, 43 of the research papers he co-authored in the journal were retracted, as Elsevier discovered that he added his name in those papers and violated the journal's policies in the peer review process. In most of his papers, he added his named after he received the manuscripts, and then handled the entire peer reviewing. Elsevier also retracted several papers by different researchers which Pandey edited and handled the reviewing, but Pandey's name was there in the initial manuscripts and the authors were his collaborators in many of his publications.
+
+== See also ==
+Retraction Watch (2010–)
+Research Integrity Risk Index
+List of scholarly publishing stings
+
+== References ==
+
+== External links ==
+scifraud@albany : Science Fraud Database (1988–1998)

data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_academic_disciplines-0.md

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+---
+title: "Outline of academic disciplines"
+chunk: 1/1
+source: "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_academic_disciplines"
+category: "reference"
+tags: "science, encyclopedia"
+date_saved: "2026-05-05T03:01:57.957353+00:00"
+instance: "kb-cron"
+---
+
+An academic discipline or academic field is a subdivision of knowledge that is taught and researched at the college or university level. Disciplines are defined (in part) and recognized by the academic journals in which research is published, and the learned societies and academic departments or faculties within colleges and universities to which their practitioners belong. Academic disciplines are conventionally divided into the humanities (including philosophy, languages, art and cultural studies), the scientific disciplines (such as physics, chemistry, and biology); and the formal sciences like mathematics and computer science. The social sciences are sometimes considered a fourth category. It is also known as a field of study, field of inquiry, research field and branch of knowledge. The different terms are used in different countries and fields.
+Individuals associated with academic disciplines are commonly referred to as experts or specialists. Others, who may have studied liberal arts or systems theory rather than concentrating in a specific academic discipline, are classified as generalists.
+The following outline provides an overview of and topical guide to academic disciplines. In each case, an entry at the highest level of the hierarchy (e.g., Humanities) is a group of broadly similar disciplines; an entry at the next highest level (e.g., Music) is a discipline having some degree of autonomy and being the fundamental identity felt by its scholars. Lower levels of the hierarchy are sub-disciplines that do generally not have any role in the title of the university's governance. The proper criteria for organizing knowledge into disciplines is open to debate.
+
+
+== Humanities ==
+
+
+=== Performing arts ===
+
+
+=== Visual arts ===
+
+
+=== History ===
+
+Also regarded as a Social science
+
+
+=== Languages and literature ===
+
+Linguistics listed in Social science
+
+
+=== Law ===
+
+Also regarded as a Social science
+
+
+=== Philosophy ===
+
+Also regarded as the separate, an entry at the highest level of the hierarchy
+
+
+=== Religious studies ===
+
+Also regarded as a social science
+
+
+=== Divinity ===
+
+
+=== Theology ===
+
+
+=== Religion ===
+
+
+== Social science ==
+
+
+=== Anthropology ===
+
+
+==== Archaeology ====
+
+
+=== Business ===
+
+
+=== Economics ===
+
+
+=== Futurology ===
+(also known as future studies or prospective studies)
+Main articles: Outline of futures studies and Futures studies
+
+
+=== Geography ===
+
+
+=== Linguistics ===
+
+Also regarded as a formal science
+
+
+=== Political science ===
+
+
+=== Psychology ===
+
+
+=== Sociology ===
+
+
+=== Interdisciplinary studies ===
+
+
+==== Area studies ====
+
+
+==== Ethnic and cultural studies ====
+
+
+==== Organizational studies ====
+
+
+== Natural science ==
+
+
+=== Physical Science ===
+
+
+==== Space sciences ====
+
+
+===== Astronomy =====
+
+
+==== Physics ====
+
+
+==== Chemistry ====
+
+
+==== Earth science ====
+
+
+=== Life science ===
+
+
+==== Biology ====
+
+
+== Formal science ==
+
+
+=== Computer science ===
+
+Also a branch of electrical engineering
+
+
+=== Logic ===
+
+Mathematical logic
+Set theory
+Proof theory
+Model theory
+Recursion theory
+Modal logic
+Intuitionistic logic
+Philosophical logic
+Logical reasoning
+Modal logic
+Deontic logic
+Doxastic logic
+Logic in computer science
+Programming language semantics
+Formal methods (Formal verification)
+Type theory
+Logic programming
+Multi-valued logic
+Fuzzy logic
+
+
+=== Mathematics ===
+
+
+==== Pure mathematics ====
+
+
+==== Applied mathematics ====
+
+
+===== Statistics =====
+
+
+== Applied science ==
+
+
+=== Agriculture ===
+
+
+=== Architecture and design ===
+
+
+=== Education ===
+
+
+=== Engineering and technology ===
+
+
+==== Chemical engineering ====
+
+
+==== Civil engineering ====
+
+
+==== Educational technology ====
+
+
+==== Electrical engineering ====
+
+
+==== Materials science ====
+
+
+==== Mechanical engineering ====
+
+
+==== Systems science ====
+
+
+=== Environmental studies and forestry ===
+
+
+=== Family and consumer science ===
+
+
+=== Human physical performance and recreation ===
+
+
+=== Journalism, media studies and communication ===
+
+
+=== Library and museum studies ===
+
+
+=== Medicine and health ===
+
+
+=== Military sciences ===
+
+
+=== Public administration ===
+
+
+=== Public policy ===
+
+
+=== Social work ===
+
+
+=== Transportation ===
+
+
+== See also ==
+
+
+== Notes ==
+
+
+== Further reading ==
+Abbott, Andrew (2001). Chaos of Disciplines. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-00101-2.
+Oleson, Alexandra; Voss, John (1979). The Organization of knowledge in modern America, 1860–1920. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-2108-8.
+US Department of Education Institute of Education Sciences. Classification of Instructional Programs (CIP). National Center for Education Statistics.
+
+
+== External links ==
+Classification of Instructional Programs (CIP 2000): Developed by the U.S. Department of Education's National Center for Education Statistics to provide a taxonomic scheme that will support the accurate tracking, assessment, and reporting of fields of study and program completions activity.
+Complete JACS (Joint Academic Classification of Subjects) from Higher Education Statistics Agency (HESA) in the United Kingdom
+Australian and New Zealand Standard Research Classification (ANZSRC 2008) (web-page Archived 2010-12-12 at the Wayback Machine) Chapter 3 and Appendix 1: Fields of research classification.
+Fields of Knowledge, a zoomable map allowing the academic disciplines and sub-disciplines in this article be visualised.
+Sandoz, R. (ed.), Interactive Historical Atlas of the Disciplines, University of Geneva