# kb

id: list-of-life-sciences-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_life_sciences-2.md
category: reference
title: List of life sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_life_sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:18.415712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-life-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
If substances have medicinal properties, they are considered pharmaceuticals. Proteomics – the large-scale study of proteins, particularly their structures and functions. Proteins are vital parts of living organisms, as they are the main components of the physiological metabolic pathways of cells. The proteome is the entire set of proteins, produced or modified by an organism or system. This varies with time and distinct requirements, or stresses, that a cell or organism undergoes. == See also == Outline of biology Divisions of pharmacology Control theory == References == == Further reading == Magner, Lois N. (2002). A history of the life sciences (Rev. and expanded 3rd ed.). New York: M. Dekker. ISBN 0824708245.


id: list-of-agricultural-journals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_agricultural_journals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of agricultural journals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_agricultural_journals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:19.547252+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-agricultural-journals-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of agricultural journals which includes notable peer-reviewed scientific journals that publish research in agriculture, agronomy, crop science, soil science, horticulture, plant pathology, animal science, and related fields. == Journals == Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica B African Crop Science Journal African Journal of Range & Forage Science Agricultural and Forest Meteorology Agricultural Economics Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment Agronomy Journal American Journal of Agricultural Economics American Journal of Enology and Viticulture Animal (journal) Annual Review of Phytopathology Aquaculture (journal) Aquaculture International Aquaculture Research Australasian Agribusiness Review BioControl Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry Bulgarian Journal of Agricultural Science Cahiers Agricultures California Agriculture Crop & Pasture Science Crop Science Fisheries Research Folia Horticulturae Hilgardia HortScience Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences Journal of Agrarian Change Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry Journal of Agricultural Economics Journal of Agricultural, Biological and Environmental Statistics The Journal of Agricultural Science Journal of Animal Science Journal of Central European Agriculture Journal of Dairy Science Journal of Experimental Botany Journal of Horticultural Sciences The Journal of Peasant Studies Journal of Plantation Crops Journal of Soil and Water Conservation Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture Open Agriculture Pertanika Journal of Tropical


id: list-of-mechanical-engineering-journals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mechanical_engineering_journals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of mechanical engineering journals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mechanical_engineering_journals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:21.991232+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mechanical-engineering-journals-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of mechanical engineering journals which includes peer-reviewed scientific journals that cover research in mechanical systems, acoustics, thermodynamics, electromechanics, fluid mechanics, manufacturing, robotics, and other related fields. == Journals == Applied Mechanics Reviews ASCE-ASME Journal of Risk and Uncertainty in Engineering Systems Experimental Mechanics Heat and Mass Transfer International Journal of Extreme Manufacturing International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture International Journal of Plasticity Jordan Journal of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Journal of Computational and Nonlinear Dynamics Journal of Fluid Mechanics Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer Research Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems Journal of Micro/Nanopatterning, Materials, and Metrology Journal of Sound and Vibration Mechanism and Machine Theory Meccanica Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part C: Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part L == See also == American Society for Precision Engineering International Conference on Robotics and Automation Lists of academic journals List of American Society of Mechanical Engineers academic journals List of engineering awards List of aerospace engineering journals List of engineering journals and magazines List of materials science journals List of mechanical engineering software List of physics journals List of


id: list-of-nuclear-science-journals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nuclear_science_journals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of nuclear science journals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nuclear_science_journals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:23.146348+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-nuclear-science-journals-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of nuclear science journals which includes peer-reviewed scientific journals covering nuclear physics, nuclear engineering, reactor design, radiation detection, and related areas of nuclear technology. == Journals == Acta Physica Polonica B Annals of Nuclear Energy Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science Applied Radiation and Isotopes Atomic Data and Nuclear Data Tables Chinese Physics C European Physical Journal A Fusion Engineering and Design Health Physics IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science International Journal of Energy Research International Journal of Radiation Biology Journal of Instrumentation Journal of Physics G Journal of Nuclear Materials Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry Journal of Radiological Protection Magnetohydrodynamics (journal) Nuclear Fusion Nuclear Physics (journal) Nuclear Physics A Nuclear Physics B Nuclear Physics and Atomic Energy Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Nuclear Science and Engineering Nuclear Science and Techniques Nuclear Technology Nukleonik Physical Review and their sub-journals Physical Review Accelerators and Beams Physical Review C Physics Letters B Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion Progress in Nuclear Energy Radiation Measurements Radiation Protection Dosimetry Review of Scientific Instruments == See also == American Nuclear Society International Atomic Energy Agency List of energy journals List of engineering journals and magazines List of physics journals


id: list-of-people-who-achieved-posthumous-recognition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_people_who_achieved_posthumous_recognition-0.md
category: reference
title: List of people who achieved posthumous recognition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_people_who_achieved_posthumous_recognition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:24.344117+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-people-who-achieved-posthumous-recognition-20260505-0
summary:
This article is a chronological list of people who achieved posthumous recognition, which is the fame, honour, or critical breakthrough bestowed upon them only after their death. The phenomenon appears in many fields, including arts, literature and science, and has been described in cultural and historical studies. The list is organized chronologically by year of birth. Please add to this list people who meet all of the following criteria: People who had limited or small recognition in their lifetime, After their death, their work or actions received a clear growth in recognition through various honours such as prizes, memorials or institutions named after them and so on. Reliable secondary sources, stating that the person became famous only after their death or that their work, even if initially famous, was forgotten but later rediscovered. == Science == == Literature & Poetry == == Art == == Music == == See also == Posthumous fame of Vincent van Gogh Posthumous fame of El Greco Reception of Johann Sebastian Bach's music – History of musical appreciation Posthumous award – Award granted after death Posthumous publication – Publishing a work after the creator's death == References ==


id: list-of-quantum-mechanical-potentials-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_quantum-mechanical_potentials-0.md
category: reference
title: List of quantum-mechanical potentials
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_quantum-mechanical_potentials
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:25.555215+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-quantum-mechanical-potentials-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of potential energy functions that are frequently used in quantum mechanics and have any meaning. == One-dimensional potentials == Rectangular potential barrier Delta potential (aka "contact potential") Double delta potential Step potential Periodic potential Barrier potential Gaussian potential Eckart potential == Wells == Quantum well Potential well Finite potential well Infinite potential well Double-well potential Semicircular potential well Circular potential well Spherical potential well Triangular potential well == Interatomic potentials == Interatomic potential Bond order potential EAM potential Coulomb potential Buckingham potential Lennard-Jones potential Morse potential Morse/Long-range potential Rosen–Morse potential Trigonometric Rosen–Morse potential Stockmayer potential Pöschl–Teller potential Axilrod–Teller potential Mie potential == Oscillators == Harmonic potential (harmonic oscillator) Morse potential (morse oscillator) Morse/Long-range potential (Morse/Long-range oscillator) Kratzer potential (Kratzer oscillator) == Quantum Field theory == Yukawa potential Coleman–Weinberg potential Uehling potential Woods–Saxon potential Cornell potential == Miscellaneous == Quantum potential Pseudopotential Superpotential Komar superpotential Kolos–Wolniewicz potential == See also == List of quantum-mechanical systems with analytical solutions List of integrable models


id: list-of-renewable-energy-journals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_renewable_energy_journals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of renewable energy journals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_renewable_energy_journals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:26.697432+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-renewable-energy-journals-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of renewable energy journals that focus on topics related to solar energy, wind power, bioenergy, geothermal energy, energy storage, and other renewable energy topics. == Journals == === General renewable and sustainable energy === Applied Energy Energies Energy and Buildings Energy Conversion and Management Energy for Sustainable Development Journal of Cleaner Production Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy Nature Energy Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews Renewable Energy Smart Energy === Solar energy === Progress in Photovoltaics Solar Energy Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells === Wind energy === IET Renewable Power Generation Wind Energy Wind Engineering === Bioenergy and biofuels === Bioresource Technology GCB Bioenergy === Geothermal energy === Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research === Energy systems, storage, and integration === ACS Energy Letters ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering Advanced Energy Materials Batteries Energy Energy & Environmental Science Energy Reports Energy Storage Materials Energy Technology International Journal of Energy Research International Journal of Hydrogen Energy Journal of the Electrochemical Society Journal of Power Sources Joule Nano Energy === Policy and economics === Energy Economics Energy Policy Energy Research & Social Science Resource and Energy Economics The Energy Journal == See also == List of books


id: list-of-science-magazines-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_magazines-0.md
category: reference
title: List of science magazines
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_magazines
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:27.757726+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-science-magazines-20260505-0
summary:
A science magazine is a periodical publication with news, opinions, and reports about science, generally written for a non-expert audience. In contrast, a periodical publication, usually including primary research and/or reviews, that is written by scientific experts is called a "scientific journal". Science magazines are read by non-scientists and scientists who want accessible information on fields outside their specialization. Articles in science magazines are sometimes republished or summarized by the general press. == Examples of general science magazines == === Africa === === Asia === ==== Bangladesh ==== Byapon – Youth Science Magazine in Bengali Bigganchinta[1] BigganBarta (বিজ্ঞানবার্তা) – Free PDF Science Magazine in Bengali Bangachi (ব্যাঙাচি) – Free Science Magazine in Bengali published by Banger Chhater Biggan Biggan Ananda (বিজ্ঞান আনন্দ) - Published by Bangladesh Science Fiction Society (BSFS) Zero to Infinity (জিরো টু ইনফিনিটি) ==== India ==== Resonance, published by Indian Academy of Sciences Current Science Dream 2047, published by Vigyan Prasar Jnan o Bijnan, published by Bangiya Bijnan Parishad Sandarbh Science Reporter Safari ==== Japan ==== Newton press Nikkei Science ==== Kazakhstan ==== OYLA ==== Pakistan ==== Global Science ==== South Korea ==== Donga Science ==== Turkey ==== Bilim ve Teknik === Europe === EuroScientist ==== Austria


id: list-of-materials-analysis-methods-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_materials_analysis_methods-0.md
category: reference
title: List of materials analysis methods
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_materials_analysis_methods
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:31.983481+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-materials-analysis-methods-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of analysis methods used in materials science. Analysis methods are listed by their acronym, if one exists. == Symbols == μSR – see muon spin spectroscopy χ – see magnetic susceptibility == A == AAS – Atomic absorption spectroscopy AED – Auger electron diffraction AES – Auger electron spectroscopy AFM – Atomic force microscopy AFS – Atomic fluorescence spectroscopy Analytical ultracentrifugation APFIM – Atom probe field ion microscopy APS – Appearance potential spectroscopy ARPES – Angle resolved photoemission spectroscopy ARUPS – Angle resolved ultraviolet photoemission spectroscopy ATR – Attenuated total reflectance == B == BET – BET surface area measurement (BET from Brunauer, Emmett, Teller) BiFC – Bimolecular fluorescence complementation BKD – Backscatter Kikuchi diffraction, see EBSD BRET – Bioluminescence resonance energy transfer BSED – Back scattered electron diffraction, see EBSD == C == CAICISS – Coaxial impact collision ion scattering spectroscopy CARS – Coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy CBED – Convergent beam electron diffraction CCM – Charge collection microscopy CDI – Coherent diffraction imaging CE – Capillary electrophoresis CET – Cryo-electron tomography CL – Cathodoluminescence CLSM – Confocal laser scanning microscopy COSY – Correlation spectroscopy Cryo-EM – Cryo-electron microscopy Cryo-SEM – Cryo-scanning electron microscopy CV –


id: list-of-materials-analysis-methods-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_materials_analysis_methods-1.md
category: reference
title: List of materials analysis methods
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_materials_analysis_methods
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:31.983481+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-materials-analysis-methods-20260505-0
summary:
== P == PAS – Positron annihilation spectroscopy Photoacoustic spectroscopy PAT or PACT – Photoacoustic tomography or photoacoustic computed tomography PAX – Photoemission of adsorbed xenon PC or PCS – Photocurrent spectroscopy Phase contrast microscopy PhD – Photoelectron diffraction PD – Photodesorption PDEIS – Potentiodynamic electrochemical impedance spectroscopy PDS – Photothermal deflection spectroscopy PED – Photoelectron diffraction PEELS – parallel electron energy loss spectroscopy PEEM – Photoemission electron microscopy (or photoelectron emission microscopy) PES – Photoelectron spectroscopy PINEM – photon-induced near-field electron microscopy PIGE – Particle (or proton) induced gamma-ray spectroscopy, see nuclear reaction analysis PIXE – Particle (or proton) induced X-ray spectroscopy PL – Photoluminescence Porosimetry Powder diffraction PTMS – Photothermal microspectroscopy PTS – Photothermal spectroscopy == Q == QENS – Quasielastic neutron scattering QCM-D – Quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring == R == Raman spectroscopy RAXRS – Resonant anomalous X-ray scattering RBS – Rutherford backscattering spectrometry REM – Reflection electron microscopy RDS – Reflectance difference spectroscopy RHEED – Reflection high energy electron diffraction RIMS – Resonance ionization mass spectrometry RIXS – Resonant inelastic X-ray scattering RR spectroscopy – Resonance Raman spectroscopy == S == SAD – Selected area diffraction SAED – Selected area electron diffraction SAM –


id: list-of-measuring-instruments-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_measuring_instruments-0.md
category: reference
title: List of measuring instruments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_measuring_instruments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:33.241775+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-measuring-instruments-20260505-0
summary:
A measuring instrument is a device to measure a physical quantity. In the physical sciences, quality assurance, and engineering, measurement is the activity of obtaining and comparing physical quantities of real-world objects and events. Established standard objects and events are used as units, and the process of measurement gives a number relating the item under study and the referenced unit of measurement. Measuring instruments, and formal test methods which define the instrument's use, are the means by which these relations of numbers are obtained. All measuring instruments are subject to varying degrees of instrument error and measurement uncertainty. These instruments may range from simple objects such as rulers and stopwatches to electron microscopes and particle accelerators. Virtual instrumentation is widely used in the development of modern measuring instruments. == Time == In the past, common time measuring instrument were sundials, water clocks and hourglasses, measuring periods of time within a day. Today, the usual measuring instruments for time are clocks and watches. For highly accurate measurement of time an atomic clock is used. Stopwatches are also used to measure time in some sports. == Energy == Energy is measured by an energy meter. Examples of energy meters include: === Electricity


id: list-of-measuring-instruments-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_measuring_instruments-1.md
category: reference
title: List of measuring instruments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_measuring_instruments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:33.241775+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-measuring-instruments-20260505-0
summary:
=== Electric field (negative gradient of electric potential, voltage per length) === Field mill === Magnetic field === See also the relevant section in the article about the magnetic field. Compass Hall effect sensor Magnetometer Proton magnetometer SQUID For the ranges of magnetic field see: Orders of magnitude (magnetic field) === Combination instruments === Multimeter, combines the functions of ammeter, voltmeter, and ohmmeter as a minimum. LCR meter, combines the functions of ohmmeter, capacitance meter, and inductance meter. Also called component bridge due to the bridge circuit method of measurement. == Thermodynamics == Temperature-related considerations dominate thermodynamics. There are two distinct thermal properties: A thermal potential — the temperature. For example: A glowing coal has a different thermal quality than a non-glowing one. And a substance-like property, — the entropy; for example: One glowing coal won't heat a pot of water, but a hundred will. Energy in thermodynamics is calculated by multiplying the thermal potential by the amount of entropy found at that potential: temperature times entropy. Entropy can be created by friction but not annihilated. === Amount of substance === A physical quantity introduced in chemistry; usually determined indirectly. If mass and substance type of the sample are known,


id: list-of-measuring-instruments-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_measuring_instruments-2.md
category: reference
title: List of measuring instruments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_measuring_instruments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:33.241775+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-measuring-instruments-20260505-0
summary:
=== Specific temperature coefficient of energy or "specific heat capacity" === The temperature coefficient of energy divided by a substance-like quantity (amount of substance, mass, volume) describing the sample. Usually calculated from measurements by a division or could be measured directly using a unit amount of that sample. For the ranges of specific heat capacities see: Orders of magnitude (specific heat capacity) === Coefficient of thermal expansion === Dilatometer Strain gauge === Melting temperature === Differential Scanning Calorimeter gives melting point and enthalpy of fusion. Kofler bench Thiele tube === Boiling temperature === Ebullioscope a device for measuring the boiling point of a liquid. This device is also part of a method that uses the effect of boiling point elevation for calculating the molecular mass of a solvent. See also Thermal analysis, Heat. == More on continuum mechanics == This includes mostly instruments which measure macroscopic properties of matter: In the fields of solid-state physics; in condensed matter physics which considers solids, liquids, and in-betweens exhibiting for example viscoelastic behavior; and furthermore, in fluid mechanics, where liquids, gases, plasmas, and in-betweens like supercritical fluids are studied. === Density === This refers to particle density of fluids and compact(ed) solids like


id: list-of-measuring-instruments-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_measuring_instruments-3.md
category: reference
title: List of measuring instruments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_measuring_instruments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:33.241775+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-measuring-instruments-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ionizing radiation === Ionizing radiation includes rays of "particles" as well as rays of "waves". Especially X-rays and gamma rays transfer enough energy in non-thermal, (single-) collision processes to separate electron(s) from an atom. ==== Particle and ray flux ==== Bubble chamber Cloud chamber Dosimeter, a technical device realizes different working principles. Geiger counter Ionisation chamber Microchannel plate detector Photographic plate Photostimulable phosphor plate Proportional counter Scintillation counter, Lucas cell Semiconductor detector == Identification and content == This could include chemical substances, rays of any kind, elementary particles, and quasiparticles. Many measurement devices outside this section may be used or at least become part of an identification process. For identification and content concerning chemical substances, see also Analytical chemistry, List of chemical analysis methods, and List of materials analysis methods. === Content in mixtures, substance identification === Carbon dioxide sensor chromatographic device, gas chromatograph separates mixtures of substances. Different velocities of the substance types accomplish the separation. Colorimeter absorbance, and thus concentration Gas detector Gas detector in combination with mass spectrometer, mass spectrometer identifies the chemical composition of a sample on the basis of the mass-to-charge ratio of charged particles. Nephelometer or turbidimeter Oxygen sensor (= lambda sond) Refractometer,


id: list-of-measuring-instruments-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_measuring_instruments-4.md
category: reference
title: List of measuring instruments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_measuring_instruments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:33.241775+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-measuring-instruments-20260505-0
summary:
== Uncategorized, specialized, or generalized application == Actograph measures and records animal activity within an experimental chamber. Densitometer measures light transmission through processed photographic film or transparent material or light reflection from a reflective material. Force platform measures ground reaction force. Gauge (engineering) A highly precise measurement instrument, also usable to calibrate other instruments of the same kind. Often found in conjunction with defining or applying technical standards. Gradiometer any device that measures spatial variations of a physical quantity. For example, as done in gravity gradiometry. Parking meter measures time a vehicle is parked at a particular spot, usually with a fee. Postage meter measures postage used from a prepaid account. S meter measures the signal strength processed by a communications receiver. Sensor, hypernym for devices that measure with little interaction, typically used in technical applications. Spectroscope is an important tool used by physicists. SWR meter check the quality of the match between the antenna and the transmission line. Universal measuring machine measures geometric locations for inspecting tolerances. === Alphabetical listing === == See also == Category:Instrument-making corporations Data logger measuring devices History of measurement History of weights and measures Instrumentation List of measuring devices List of physical quantities List


id: list-of-microorganisms-tested-in-outer-space-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_microorganisms_tested_in_outer_space-0.md
category: reference
title: List of microorganisms tested in outer space
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_microorganisms_tested_in_outer_space
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:34.509670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-microorganisms-tested-in-outer-space-20260505-0
summary:
The survival of some microorganisms exposed to outer space has been studied using both simulated facilities and low Earth orbit exposures. Bacteria were some of the first organisms investigated, when in 1960 a Russian satellite carried Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus, and Enterobacter aerogenes into orbit. Many kinds of microorganisms have been selected for exposure experiments since, as listed in the table below. Experiments of the adaption of microbes in space have yielded unpredictable results. While sometimes the microorganism may weaken, they can also increase in their disease-causing potency. It is possible to classify these microorganisms into two groups, the human-borne and the extremophiles. Studying the human-borne microorganisms is significant for human welfare and future crewed missions in space, whilst the extremophiles are vital for studying the physiological requirements of survival in space. NASA has pointed out that normal adults have ten times as many microbial cells as human cells in their bodies. They are also nearly everywhere in the environment and, although normally invisible, can form slimy biofilms. Extremophiles have adapted to live in some of the most extreme environments on Earth. This includes hypersaline lakes, arid regions, deep sea, acidic sites, cold and dry polar regions and permafrost. The existence


id: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents-0.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific misconduct incidents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:35.678731+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific misconduct is a serious form of violation of the standard codes of scholarly conduct and ethical behavior in the publication of professional scientific research. A Lancet review on Handling of Scientific Misconduct in Scandinavian countries gave examples of policy definitions. In Denmark, scientific misconduct is defined as "intention[al] negligence leading to fabrication of the scientific message or a false credit or emphasis given to a scientist", and in Sweden as "intention[al] distortion of the research process by fabrication of data, text, hypothesis, or methods from another researcher's manuscript form or publication; or distortion of the research process in other ways." A 2009 systematic review and meta-analysis of survey data found that about 2% of scientists admitted to falsifying, fabricating, or modifying data at least once. Incidents should only be included in this list if the individuals or entities involved have their own Wikipedia articles, or in the absence of an article, where the misconduct incident is covered in multiple reliable sources.


id: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents-1.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific misconduct incidents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:35.678731+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-0
summary:
== Biology and biomedical sciences == Bharat Aggarwal (US), a former Ransom Horne, Jr. Distinguished Professor of Cancer Research at the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, resigned from his position after fraud was discovered in 65 papers published by him in the area of curcumin as a treatment for cancer. As of 2024 Aggarwal has had 30 of his research papers retracted, with 10 others having received an expression of concern and 17 others having been corrected. Anna Ahimastos (Australia) resigned from her position at Melbourne's Baker IDI Heart & Diabetes Institute in 2015 after admitting to fabricating data in a trial of the blood pressure drug ramipril that analyzed if ramipril could reduce pain in people with peripheral artery disease. As of 2025, Ahimastos has had nine of their research publications retracted. Elias Alsabti (Iraq, US), was a medical practitioner who posed as a biomedical researcher. He plagiarized as many as 60 papers in the field of cancer research, many with non-existent co-authors. Werner Bezwoda (South Africa), formerly of the University of Witwatersrand, admitted to scientific misconduct in trials on high-dose chemotherapy on breast cancer, stating that he had "committed a serious breach of scientific honesty and


id: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents-2.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific misconduct incidents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:35.678731+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-0
summary:
Many major trials of the drug ivermectin that claimed it could prevent COVID-19 were found to show signs of fraud and had "either obvious signs of fabrication or errors so critical they invalidate the study," according to one of the groups investigating the studies. For example, some studies were found to list patients who had never actually participated in the research, and others placed patients who were already statistically more likely to die in the placebo group while putting the healthier patients in the experimental group that received ivermectin. Studies that were found to contain legitimate research were generally inconclusive about the effects of ivermectin on COVID-19. He Jiankui (China), former associate professor with the Southern University of Science and Technology, was in 2019 sentenced to three years in prison and fined three million yuan (about US$430,000) for illegally carrying out human embryo gene-editing intended for reproduction. The case is called the He Jiankui affair. Woo-suk Hwang (Hwang Woo-suk) (South Korea), former Professor of Biotechnology at Seoul National University, was found by a University committee to have committed "deliberate fabrication" in his research on stem cells, and to have coerced female members of his research team to donate their eggs.


id: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents-3.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific misconduct incidents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:35.678731+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-0
summary:
Krishna Murthy (US), a protein crystallographer and former research associate professor at the University of Alabama at Birmingham, was found in 2009 by a University committee to be "solely responsible for ... fraudulent data" on protein structures published in nine papers. In 2018 the United States Office of Research Integrity placed a 10-year ban on Federal funding for Murthy. As of 2020 ten of Krishna Murthy's publications have been retracted, and two others have received an expression of concern. Haruko Obokata (Japan) formerly of RIKEN and Harvard University, falsified data in the widely publicized STAP cell fraud. As of 2021, Obokata has had four of her research publications retracted. Luk Van Parijs (US), Associate Professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) fabricated and falsified data in research papers, unpublished manuscripts, and grant applications. He was convicted in 2011 of making a false statement on a federal grant application. Parijs has had five research publications retracted. Milena Penkowa (Denmark), a neuroscientist and former professor at the Panum Institute of the University of Copenhagen, was in 2010 convicted of fraud and embezzlement of research funds, and in 2012 was found to have committed "deliberate scientific malpractice". In 2017 the University of


id: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents-4.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific misconduct incidents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:35.678731+00:00
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parent: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-0
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Wakefield's claims of a link between the MMR vaccine, autism and inflammatory bowel disease have been reported in the British Medical Journal as "based not on bad science but on a deliberate fraud", and the 1998 paper originally presenting his theory was retracted in 2010 by The Lancet. Wakefield was unsuccessful in an attempt to sue detractors/critics for libel and defamation. Wakefield has had two papers retracted and one corrected. Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories fabricated research data to the extent that upon FDA analysis of 867 studies, 618 (71%) were deemed invalid, including many of which were used to gain regulatory approval for widely used household and industrial products. The company Surgisphere claimed to have hospital data which was used to support studies of the effectiveness of hydroxychloroquine in treating COVID-19. Papers in the Lancet and New England Journal of Medicine were retracted in June 2020 when the data was found to be implausible. The National Centre for Biological Sciences, one of India's top research institutes and part of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, retracted one of its breakthrough scientific papers in 2021 describing the discovery of iron-sensing RNA after its findings and images were found to be manipulated. Eliezer


id: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents-5.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific misconduct incidents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:35.678731+00:00
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parent: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-0
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== Chemistry == Leo Paquette (US), an Ohio State University professor, plagiarized sections from an unfunded NIH grant application for use in his own NIH grant application. He also plagiarized a NSF proposal for use in one of his scientific publications. Kenichiro Itami (Japan), Nagoya University professor, and other members of his laboratory committed scientific misconduct in the graphene nanoribbon fraud. As a result of that misconduct, in 2022 Itami and the other implicated lab members were banned from receiving research support from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science for at least three years. As of 2023, Itami has had three of his research publications retracted, one other paper has received an expression of concern, and one other paper has been corrected. Itami was held responsible, and the Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST) and the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS), which determine the allocation of government research funds, have stopped granting research funds as a penalty until the end of March 2025 from the university. Despite this, RIKEN, which is funded mainly by research fees from the government, hired Itami and obtained about 50 million yen in research funding. He pioneered a loophole that


id: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents-6.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific misconduct incidents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:35.678731+00:00
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parent: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-0
summary:
== Philosophy == Magali Elise Roques (France), a philosopher and a chargé de recherche at the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) in Paris, in 2020 became the subject of academic plagiarism inquiries. Several of her journal publications were subsequently retracted, with the journal Vivarium publishing a detailed retraction notice. A CNRS investigating committee reported that although the allegations of plagiarism against Roques were unjustified, "the whole body of [Roques'] work in English [...] is seriously flawed by the regular presence of bad scholarly practices, by what might be called a sort of active negligence". As of 2023, Roques has had 13 of her published articles retracted. Martin William Francis Stone, an Irish philosopher formerly at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, plagiarized in more than 40 publications. Peter Johannes Schulz, a philosopher working at the Institute of Communication and Health at the University of Lugano, had articles both in philosophy and communications retracted for plagiarism and failure to credit sources properly. After a minor sanction, he was reinstated by the university in 2017. Mahmoud Khatami, an Iranian philosopher at the University of Tehran, was subject to plagiarism accusations in 2014. A retraction for one article by Khatami due to plagiarism


id: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents-7.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific misconduct incidents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:35.678731+00:00
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parent: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-0
summary:
== Social sciences == Mart Bax (Netherlands), former professor of political anthropology at the Vrije Universiteit, committed multiple acts of scientific misconduct including data fabrication, with a 2020 article in Ethnologia Europaea characterizing Bax's misconduct as "incredible and appalling." Bax, who as of 2020 has had nine of his research publications retracted, was found in 2013 to have never published 61 of the papers he listed on his CV. Bruno Frey (Switzerland), an economist formerly at the University of Zurich, in 2010–11 committed multiple acts of self-plagiarism in articles about the Titanic disaster. Frey admitted to the self-plagiarism, terming the acts "grave mistake[s]" and "deplorable." Karl-Theodor zu Guttenberg (Germany), former Minister of Defence of Germany, resigned from his office because of plagiarism in his doctoral dissertation from the University of Bayreuth. The university, which had awarded Guttenberg's dissertation with summa cum laude distinction, revoked his Ph.D. title on 23 February 2011, and Guttenberg resigned in March. Michael LaCour (US), former graduate student in political science at UCLA, was the lead author of the 2014 article "When contact changes minds". Published in Science and making international headlines, the paper was later retracted because of numerous irregularities in the methodology and falsified


id: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents-8.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific misconduct incidents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:35.678731+00:00
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parent: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-0
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== Other == Cistercian historian Louis Lekai called attention to "a major case of modern plagiarism" when in 1959 he proved that almost all of Louis Dubois' influential biography of Abbot Armand Jean de Rancé, published in 1867, was copied from an unpublished manuscript by Francois Armand Gervaise. In 2016 the scientific publisher Springer Nature retracted 58 papers from seven journals, authored mostly by Iran-based researchers, because the papers showed evidence of authorship manipulation, peer-review manipulation, and/or plagiarism. Ohio University in 2006 alleged more than three dozen cases of plagiarism in master's degree theses dating back 20 years in its mechanical engineering department. A former faculty member involved in the plagiarism cases, Jay S. Gunasekera, was removed from his position as department chair, had his title of "distinguished professor" rescinded, and in 2011 settled a lawsuit he had brought against the university. Another former faculty member implicated in the plagiarism cases, Bhavin Mehta, in 2012 lost a defamation suit he had brought against the university. 486 Chinese cancer researchers were found guilty of engaging in a fraudulent peer-review scheme by China's Ministry of Science and Technology. The investigation was initiated after the retraction of 107 papers published in Tumor Biology


id: list-of-multiple-discoveries-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries-0.md
category: reference
title: List of multiple discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:36.830416+00:00
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parent: list-of-multiple-discoveries-20260505-0
summary:
Historians and sociologists have remarked the occurrence, in science, of "multiple independent discovery". Robert K. Merton defined such "multiples" as instances in which similar discoveries are made by scientists working independently of each other. "Sometimes", writes Merton, "the discoveries are simultaneous or almost so; sometimes a scientist will make a new discovery which, unknown to him, somebody else has made years before." Commonly cited examples of multiple independent discovery are the 17th-century independent formulation of calculus by Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz; the 18th-century discovery of oxygen by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Joseph Priestley, Antoine Lavoisier and others; and the theory of the evolution of species, independently advanced in the 19th century by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace. Multiple independent discovery, however, is not limited to such famous historic instances. Merton believed that it is multiple discoveries, rather than unique ones, that represent the common pattern in science. Merton contrasted a "multiple" with a "singleton"—a discovery that has been made uniquely by a single scientist or group of scientists working together. The distinction may blur as science becomes increasingly collaborative. A distinction is drawn between a discovery and an invention, as discussed for example by Bolesław Prus. However, discoveries


id: list-of-multiple-discoveries-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries-1.md
category: reference
title: List of multiple discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:36.830416+00:00
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parent: list-of-multiple-discoveries-20260505-0
summary:
1730: Stirling numbers – James Stirling (1730) and Masanobu Saka (1782). 1740s: Platinum – Antonio de Ulloa and Charles Wood (both in the 1740s). 1745: Leyden Jar – Ewald Georg von Kleist (1745) and Pieter van Musschenbroek (1745–46). 1749: Lightning rod – Benjamin Franklin (1749) and Prokop Diviš (1754) (debated: Diviš's apparatus is assumed to have been more effective than Franklin's lightning rods in 1754, but was intended for a different purpose than lightning protection). 1756: Law of conservation of matter – discovered by Mikhail Lomonosov, 1756; and independently by Antoine Lavoisier, 1778. 1773: Oxygen – Carl Wilhelm Scheele (Uppsala, 1773), Joseph Priestley (Wiltshire, 1774). The term was coined by Antoine Lavoisier (1777). Michael Sendivogius (Polish: Michał Sędziwój; 1566–1636) is claimed as an earlier discoverer of oxygen. 1783: Black-hole theory – John Michell, in a 1783 paper in The Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, wrote: "If the semi-diameter of a sphere of the same density as the Sun in the proportion of five hundred to one, and by supposing light to be attracted by the same force in proportion to its [mass] with other bodies, all light emitted from such a body would be made to return towards it,


id: list-of-multiple-discoveries-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries-2.md
category: reference
title: List of multiple discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:36.830416+00:00
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parent: list-of-multiple-discoveries-20260505-0
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1805: In a treatise written in 1805 and published in 1866, Carl Friedrich Gauss describes an efficient algorithm to compute the discrete Fourier transform. James W. Cooley and John W. Tukey reinvented a similar algorithm in 1965. 1817: Cadmium – Friedrich Strohmeyer, K.S.L Hermann (both in 1817). 1817: Grotthuss–Draper law (aka the Principle of Photochemical Activation) – first proposed in 1817 by Theodor Grotthuss, then independently, in 1842, by John William Draper. The law states that only that light which is absorbed by a system can bring about a photochemical change. 1825: Bromine discovered by Carl Jacob Löwig; and independently, in 1826, by Antoine Jérôme Balard. 1828: Beryllium – Friedrich Wöhler, A.A.B. Bussy (1828). 1830: Non-Euclidean geometry (hyperbolic geometry) – Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky (1830), János Bolyai (1832); preceded by Gauss (unpublished result) c. 1805. 1831: Electromagnetic induction was discovered by Michael Faraday in England in 1831, and independently about the same time by Joseph Henry in the U.S. 1831: Chloroform – Samuel Guthrie in the United States (July 1831), and a few months later Eugène Soubeiran (France) and Justus von Liebig (Germany), all of them using variations of the haloform reaction. Dandelin–Gräffe method, aka Lobachevsky method – an algorithm for


id: list-of-multiple-discoveries-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries-3.md
category: reference
title: List of multiple discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:36.830416+00:00
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parent: list-of-multiple-discoveries-20260505-0
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E = mc2, though only Einstein provided the accepted interpretation – Henri Poincaré, 1900; Olinto De Pretto, 1903; Albert Einstein, 1905; Paul Langevin, 1906. 1902: Walter Sutton and Theodor Boveri independently proposed that the hereditary information is carried in the chromosomes. 1902: Richard Assmann and Léon Teisserenc de Bort independently discovered the stratosphere. 1904: Epinephrine synthesized independently by Friedrich Stolz and by Henry Drysdale Dakin. 1905: Brownian motion was independently explained by Albert Einstein (in one of his 1905 papers) and by Marian Smoluchowski in 1906. 1905: The Einstein Relation was revealed independently by William Sutherland in 1905, by Albert Einstein in 1905, and by Marian Smoluchowski in 1906. 1905: The chromosomal XY sex-determination system—that males have XY, and females XX, sex chromosomes—was discovered independently by Nettie Stevens, at Bryn Mawr College, and by Edmund Beecher Wilson at Columbia University. 1907: Lutetium discovered independently by French scientist Georges Urbain and by Austrian mineralogist Baron Carl Auer von Welsbach. 1907: Hilbert space representation theorem, also known as Riesz representation theorem, the mathematical justification of the Bra-ket notation in the theory of quantum mechanics – independently proved by Frigyes Riesz and Maurice René Fréchet. 1908: The Hardy–Weinberg principle is a principle of


id: list-of-multiple-discoveries-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries-4.md
category: reference
title: List of multiple discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:36.830416+00:00
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parent: list-of-multiple-discoveries-20260505-0
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It was originally proved in 1934 by Aleksandr Gelfond, and again independently in 1935 by Theodor Schneider. 1934: The Penrose triangle, also known as the "tribar", is an impossible object. It was first created by the Swedish artist Oscar Reutersvärd in 1934. The mathematician Roger Penrose independently devised and popularized it in the 1950s. 1936: In computer science, the concept of the "universal computing machine" (now generally called the "Turing Machine") was proposed by Alan Turing, but also independently by Emil Post, both in 1936. Similar approaches, also aiming to cover the concept of universal computing, were introduced by S.C. Kleene, Rózsa Péter, and Alonzo Church that same year. Also in 1936, Konrad Zuse tried to build a binary electrically driven mechanical calculator with limited programability; however, Zuse's machine was never fully functional. The later Atanasoff–Berry Computer ("ABC"), designed by John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford Berry, was the first fully electronic digital computing device; while not programmable, it pioneered important elements of modern computing, including binary arithmetic and electronic switching elements, though its special-purpose nature and lack of a changeable, stored program distinguish it from modern computers. 1938: Benford's law, also known as the Newcomb–Benford law, the law of anomalous


id: list-of-multiple-discoveries-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries-5.md
category: reference
title: List of multiple discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:36.830416+00:00
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parent: list-of-multiple-discoveries-20260505-0
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1967: The affine scaling method for solving linear programming was discovered by Soviet mathematician I.I. Dikin in 1967. It went unnoticed in the West for two decades, until two groups of researchers in the U.S. reinvented it in 1985. 1968: Neutral theory of molecular evolution was introduced by a Japanese biologist, Motoo Kimura, in 1968, and independently by two American biologists, Jack Lester King and Thomas Hughes Jukes, in 1969. 1969: Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) structure was determined, and the hormone synthesized, independently by Andrew V. Schally and Roger Guillemin, who shared the 1977 Nobel Prize in Medicine. 1970: Howard Temin and David Baltimore independently discovered reverse transcriptase enzymes. The Knuth–Morris–Pratt string searching algorithm was developed by Donald Knuth and Vaughan Pratt and independently by J. H. Morris. 1971: The Cook–Levin theorem (also known as "Cook's theorem"), a result in computational complexity theory, was proven independently by Stephen Cook (1971 in the U.S.) and by Leonid Levin (1973 in the USSR). Levin was not aware of Cook's achievement because of communication difficulties between East and West during the Cold War. The other way round, Levin's work was not widely known in the West until around 1978. 1972: The Bohlen–Pierce scale, a


id: list-of-multiple-discoveries-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries-6.md
category: reference
title: List of multiple discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:36.830416+00:00
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parent: list-of-multiple-discoveries-20260505-0
summary:
== 21st century == 2001: four different authors published different implementations of a distributed hash table. The Super Kamiokande and SNOLAB collaborations, whose findings were published in 1998 and 2001 respectively, both proved that neutrinos have mass. As a result, the 2015 Nobel Prize in Physics was shared by Takaaki Kajita of Japan and Arthur B. McDonald of Canada. 1996: James Allison of MD Anderson Cancer Center at the University of Texas at Houston discovered a mechanism enabling cancer immunotherapy. In 2002 Tasuku Honjo of Kyoto University discovered another such mechanism. This outcome, which led to them sharing the 2018 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, has been described as follows: "Each independently discovered that our immune system is restrained from attacking tumors by molecules that function as 'brakes.' Releasing these brakes (or 'brake receptors') allows our body to powerfully combat cancer." 2014: Paul Erdős' conjecture about prime gaps was proved by Kevin Ford, Ben Green, Sergei Konyagin, and Terence Tao, working together, and independently by James Maynard. 2020: Half of the 2020 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Reinhard Genzel and Andrea Ghez, who each have led a group of astronomers focused since the early 1990s on a


id: list-of-neurological-research-methods-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_neurological_research_methods-0.md
category: reference
title: List of neurological research methods
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_neurological_research_methods
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:38.076510+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-neurological-research-methods-20260505-0
summary:
There are numerous types of research methods used when conducting neurological research, all with the purpose of trying to view the activity that occurs within the brain during a certain activity or behavior. The disciplines within which these methods are used is quite broad, ranging from psychology to neuroscience to biomedical engineering to sociology. The following is a list of neuroimaging methods: Electroencephalography (EEG) Quantitative electroencephalography (QEEG) Stereoelectroencephalography (SEEG) Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) Magnetoencephalography (MEG) Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) Positron emission tomography (PET) Single-unit recording Transcranial direct-current stimulation (TDCS) Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) == See also == neuroimaging functional neuroimaging


id: list-of-noise-topics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_noise_topics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of noise topics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_noise_topics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:39.350048+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-noise-topics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of noise topics. == Engineering and physics == == Environmental == == Noise reduction == == Music == == See also == DB drag racing List of environment topics == External links == Noboomers


id: list-of-otomies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_-otomies-0.md
category: reference
title: List of -otomies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_-otomies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:40.442170+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-otomies-20260505-0
summary:
The suffix '-otomy' is derived from Greek τόμος (-tómos) 'cutting, sharp, separate'. == Medical procedures == Amniotomy – An incision created to accelerate labor. Androtomy – Dissection of the human body. Bilateral cingulotomy – Psychosurgery, treatment for depression and addiction . Bronchotomy – A procedure that ensures there is an open airway between a patient's lung/s and the outside world. Clitoridotomy – Plastic surgery of the clitorial hood. Coeliotomy – A large incision through the abdominal wall to gain access into the abdominal cavity Colpotomy – Extraction of fluid from the rectouterine pouch through a needle. Cordotomy – Procedure that disables selected pain-conducting tracts in the spinal cord, in order to achieve loss of pain and temperature perception. Craniotomy – A bone flap is temporarily removed from the skull to access the brain. Cricothyrotomy – An incision made through the skin and cricothyroid membrane to establish a patent airway during certain life-threatening situations. Escharotomy – Procedure used to treat full-thickness (third-degree) circumferential burns. Episiotomy – Surgical incision of the perineum and the posterior vaginal wall. Fasciotomy – Surgical procedure where the fascia is cut to relieve tension or pressure commonly to treat the resulting loss of circulation to an area


id: outline-of-academic-disciplines-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_academic_disciplines-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of academic disciplines
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_academic_disciplines
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:41.611121+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-academic-disciplines-20260505-0
summary:
An academic discipline or academic field is a subdivision of knowledge that is taught and researched at the college or university level. Disciplines are defined (in part) and recognized by the academic journals in which research is published, and the learned societies and academic departments or faculties within colleges and universities to which their practitioners belong. Academic disciplines are conventionally divided into the humanities (including philosophy, languages, art and cultural studies), the scientific disciplines (such as physics, chemistry, and biology); and the formal sciences like mathematics and computer science. The social sciences are sometimes considered a fourth category. It is also known as a field of study, field of inquiry, research field and branch of knowledge. The different terms are used in different countries and fields. Individuals associated with academic disciplines are commonly referred to as experts or specialists. Others, who may have studied liberal arts or systems theory rather than concentrating in a specific academic discipline, are classified as generalists. The following outline provides an overview of and topical guide to academic disciplines. In each case, an entry at the highest level of the hierarchy (e.g., Humanities) is a group of broadly similar disciplines; an entry at the next


id: list-of-petawatt-lasers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_petawatt_lasers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of petawatt lasers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_petawatt_lasers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:42.777629+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-petawatt-lasers-20260505-0
summary:
This page contains a list of petawatt-level lasers in operation, under construction, or proposed. The list is compiled from existing academic reviews. A petawatt laser is typically defined as a laser system whose pulse energy divided by its pulse duration reaches an order of magnitude of 1015 W, or 1 petawatt. These high-power laser pulses are capable of driving a strong electromagnetic field, giving rise to a number of novel applications. For instance, focusing large numbers of petawatt level lasers on a target containing deuterium and tritium creates enough energy density to drive inertial confinement fusion. Another potential application is using strong electric fields from petawatt laser pulses to drive steep density gradient structures in a plasma, which then creates field gradients capable of accelerating particles in a much shorter distance than linac; such concept is known as laser wakefield acceleration. In addition, as the laser pulse itself reaches extremely high field intensity, interaction of the high-energy particle beam with a petawatt laser pulse can achieve interactions with intensity beyond the Schwinger limit, enabling possible observation of effects such as vacuum polarization and Breit-Wheeler process. Generation of a petawatt laser pulse requires the pulse duration to be extremely short: to


id: list-of-polyurethane-applications-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyurethane_applications-0.md
category: reference
title: List of polyurethane applications
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyurethane_applications
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:47.586575+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-polyurethane-applications-20260505-0
summary:
Polyurethane products have many uses. Over three quarters of the global consumption of polyurethane products is in the form of foams, with flexible and rigid types being roughly equal in market size. In both cases, the foam is usually behind other materials: flexible foams are behind upholstery fabrics in commercial and domestic furniture; rigid foams are between metal, or plastic walls/sheets of most refrigerators and freezers, or other surface materials in the case of thermal insulation panels in the construction sector. Its use in garments is growing: for example, in lining the cups of brassieres. Polyurethane is also used for moldings which include door frames, columns, balusters, window headers, pediments, medallions and rosettes. Polyurethane formulations cover an extremely wide range of stiffness, hardness, and densities. These materials include: Low-density flexible foam used in upholstery, bedding, automotive and truck seating, and novel inorganic plant substrates for roof or wall gardens Low density elastomers used in footwear Hard solid plastics used as electronic instrument bezels and structural parts Flexible plastics used as straps and bands Cast and injection molded components for various markets – i.e., agriculture, military, automotive, industrial, etc. Polyurethane foam is widely used in high resiliency flexible foam seating, rigid


id: list-of-polyurethane-applications-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyurethane_applications-1.md
category: reference
title: List of polyurethane applications
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyurethane_applications
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:47.586575+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-polyurethane-applications-20260505-0
summary:
== Filling of spaces and cavities == Two binary liquids, one of which is a polyurethane (either T6 or 16), when mixed and aerated, expand into a hard, space-filling aerosolid. === Construction sealants and firestopping === Approved polyurethane sealants (which is different from foam) are available in one, two and three part systems, and in cartridges, buckets or drums. Polyurethane sealants are used to fill gaps thereby preventing air and water leakage. They are also used in conjunction with inorganic insulation, such as rockwool or ceramic fibres, for firestopping. Firestops can thwart smoke and hose-stream passage. The Browns Ferry Nuclear Power Plant used flammable polyurethane foam as a firestop, which was accidentally ignited and caused a major fire. == Water vessels == Polyurethane foam is widely used in the marine world in many applications: === Inflatable boats === Some raft manufacturers use urethane for the construction of inflatable boats. AIRE uses urethane membrane material as an air-retentive bladder inside a PVC shell, whereas SOTAR uses urethane membrane materials as a coating on some boats. Maravia uses a liquid urethane material which is spray-coated over PVC to enhance air retention and increase abrasion resistance. === Surfboards === Some surfboards are made


id: list-of-polyurethane-applications-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyurethane_applications-2.md
category: reference
title: List of polyurethane applications
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyurethane_applications
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:47.586575+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-polyurethane-applications-20260505-0
summary:
Polyurethane is also used in making solid tires and wheels. Industrial applications include forklift drive and load wheels, grocery and industrial carts, and roller coaster wheels. Modern roller blading and skateboarding became economical only with the introduction of tough, abrasion-resistant polyurethane parts, helping to usher in the popularity of what had once been an obscure 1960s craze. The durability of polyurethane wheels allowed the range of tricks and stunts performed on skateboards to expand considerably. Polyurethane is also used to make small equipment tires in the lawn and garden industry for wheelbarrows, hand trucks, lawn mowers, carts, etc. They provide the bounce and feel of an air-filled tire with the benefit of no punctures. They weigh about the same as air-filled tires as well, even though they are solid polyurethane all the way through. Other constructions have been developed for pneumatic tires, and microcellular foam variants are widely used in tires on wheelchairs, bicycles and other uses. These latter foam types are also widely encountered in car steering wheels and other interior and exterior automotive parts, including bumpers and fenders. == Automotive parts == Polyurethane usage has increased over the past twenty years in the automotive industry. It is being


id: list-of-polyurethane-applications-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyurethane_applications-3.md
category: reference
title: List of polyurethane applications
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyurethane_applications
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:47.586575+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-polyurethane-applications-20260505-0
summary:
Mining and mineral processing Aggregate Transportation Concrete Paper processing Power Inflatable boat manufacture Polyurethane is also used in the concrete construction industry to create formliners. Polyurethane formliners serves as a mold for concrete, creating a variety of textures and art. == Solid-fuel rockets == Polyurethane is used together with Ammonium perchlorate as solid fuel in the submarine launched Polaris missiles. == Body armor == Polyurethane urea elastomers have been investigated by researchers from the U.S. Army Research Laboratory and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for potential material for helmets, face shields, and ballistic vests for soldiers. == Inorganic plant substrates == Sheet and flaked semi-open cell hydrophilic polyurethane foams have found application in roof gardens and vertical green walls with commercial products now emerging on the market. Semi-open cell polyurethane foams substrates have much lower density and far greater water holding capacities than soil substrates. The semi-open cell structure facilitate the required plant root attachment for vertical wall gardens. Reductions in weight reduce building/wall supporting structure requirements, whilst increased water holding capacity reduces plant watering requirements. == Concrete raising == Closed cell polymers have been used to raise and support concrete roadways and bridge approaches since 1989. Originally developed in


id: list-of-popular-science-mass-media-outlets-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_popular_science_mass_media_outlets-0.md
category: reference
title: List of popular science mass media outlets
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_popular_science_mass_media_outlets
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:48.740367+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-popular-science-mass-media-outlets-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of popular science mass media outlets. == See also == List of science magazines List of science books == References ==


id: list-of-science-and-technology-awards-for-women-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_and_technology_awards_for_women-0.md
category: reference
title: List of science and technology awards for women
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_and_technology_awards_for_women
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:49.819321+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-science-and-technology-awards-for-women-20260505-0
summary:
This list of science and technology awards for women is an index to articles about notable awards made to women for work in science and the STEM (Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) fields generally. It includes awards for astronomy, space and atmospheric science; biology and medicine; chemistry; engineering; mathematics; neuroscience; physics; technology; and general or multiple fields. == Astronomy, space, atmospheric science == Annie Jump Cannon Award in Astronomy – annual award for outstanding contributions to astronomy by a woman within five years of earning a doctorate degree Peter B. Wagner Memorial Award for Women in Atmospheric Sciences – awarded annually since 1998, based on paper completion, to a woman studying for a Masters or PhD in atmospheric science at a university in the United States == Biology and medicine == Elizabeth Blackwell Medal, given by the American Medical Women's Association to a woman physician "who has made the most outstanding contributions to the cause of women in the field of medicine" Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology (FASEB) Excellence in Science Award Group on Women in Medicine and Science Leadership Awards, Association of American Medical Colleges Margaret Oakley Dayhoff Award from the Biophysical Society, Rockville, Maryland – given


id: lists-of-problems-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_problems-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of problems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_problems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:50.990677+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-problems-20260505-0
summary:
The following articles contain lists of problems. This includes unsolved problems, which may refer to several notable conjectures or open problems in various academic fields: == Natural sciences, engineering and medicine == List of unsolved problems in astronomy List of unsolved problems in biology List of unsolved problems in chemistry List of unsolved problems in geoscience Unsolved problems in medicine List of unsolved problems in neuroscience List of unsolved problems in physics == Mathematics == List of unsolved problems in mathematics List of undecidable problems List of NP-complete problems List of PSPACE-complete problems List of problems in loop theory and quasigroup theory == Social sciences, statistics, and information sciences == List of unsolved problems in economics List of unsolved problems in fair division List of unsolved problems in statistics List of unsolved problems in computer science List of unsolved problems in information theory == Other == List of philosophical problems List of unsolved deaths == See also == Cold case List of ciphertexts List of hypothetical technologies List of paradoxes Unknowability


id: list-of-prolific-inventors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prolific_inventors-0.md
category: reference
title: List of prolific inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prolific_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:52.205674+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-prolific-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
The 100 known most prolific inventors based on worldwide utility patents are shown in the following table. While in many cases this is the number of utility patents granted by the United States Patent and Trademark Office, it may include utility patents granted by other countries, as noted by the source references for an inventor. == Prolific Inventors == This table is usually updated every Tuesday, and is current as of April 28, 2026. The columns are defined as follows: Inventor: The name of the inventor. Pats: The number of utility patents that have been issued. Only utility patents (or the international equivalent) are listed, as a utility patent is a patent for an invention. Not all patents are for inventions. Other patent types include: design patents for the ornamental design of an object; plant patents for plant varieties; and reissue patents, where a correction is made to an already granted patent. This list does not include patent applications (patents pending) as there is no guarantee that a patent application actually describes a novel invention until the patent is granted. Fams: The number of patent families, which in USPTO data includes an original or continuation-in-part patent by itself or with


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-0.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:53.539791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of topics that have, either currently or in the past, been characterized as pseudoscience by academics or researchers. Detailed discussion of these topics may be found on their main pages. Criticism of pseudoscience, generally by the scientific community or skeptical organizations, involves critiques of the logical, methodological, or rhetorical bases of the topic in question. Though some of the listed topics continue to be investigated scientifically like psychoanalysis, others were only subject to scientific research in the past and today are considered refuted, but resurrected in a pseudoscientific fashion. Other ideas presented here are entirely non-scientific, but have in one way or another impinged on scientific domains or practices. Many adherents or practitioners of the topics listed here dispute their characterization as pseudoscience. Each section here summarizes the alleged pseudoscientific aspects of that topic. == Physical sciences == === Astronomy and space sciences === 2012 phenomenon – a range of eschatological beliefs that cataclysmic or otherwise transformative events would occur on or around 21 December 2012. This date was regarded as the end-date of a 5,126-year-long cycle in the Mesoamerican Long Count calendar and as such, festivities to commemorate the date took place on 21 December


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-1.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:53.539791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Earth sciences === Megalithic geometry or 366 geometry – posits the existence of an Earth-based geometry dating back to at least 3500 BCE and the possibility that such a system is still in use in modern Freemasonry. According to proponents, megalithic civilizations in Britain and Brittany had advanced knowledge of geometry and the size of Earth. The megalithic yard is correlated to the polar circumference of Earth using a circle divided into 366 degrees. The Bermuda Triangle – a region of the Atlantic Ocean that lies between Bermuda, Puerto Rico and (in its most popular version) Florida. Ship and aircraft disasters and disappearances perceived as frequent in this area have led to the circulation of stories of unusual natural phenomena, paranormal encounters and interactions with extraterrestrials. Climate change denial – involves denial, dismissal, unwarranted doubt or contrarian views which depart from the scientific consensus on climate change, including the extent to which it is caused by humans, its impacts on nature and human society, or the potential of adaptation to global warming by human actions. Flood geology – creationist form of geology that advocates most of the geologic features on Earth are explainable by a global flood. The Hollow


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-2.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:53.539791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Agriculture === Lysenkoism, or Lysenko-Michurinism – was a political campaign against genetics and science-based agriculture conducted by Trofim Lysenko, his followers and Soviet authorities. Lysenko served as the director of the Soviet Union's Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences. Lysenkoism began in the late 1920s and formally ended in 1964. The pseudoscientific ideas of Lysenkoism built on Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's concepts of the heritability of acquired characteristics. Lysenko's theory rejected Gregor Mendel's theory of inheritance and the concept of the "gene"; it departed from Darwinian evolutionary theory by rejecting natural selection, viewing that concept as being incompatible with Marxist ideology. Biodynamic agriculture – method of organic farming that treats farms as unified and individual organisms. Biodynamics uses a calendar which has been characterized as astrological. The substances and composts used by biodynamicists have been described as unconventional and homeopathic. For example, field mice are countered by deploying ashes prepared from field mice skin when Venus is in the Scorpius constellation. No difference in beneficial outcomes has been scientifically established between certified biodynamic agricultural techniques and similar organic and integrated farming practices. Biodynamic agriculture lacks strong scientific evidence for its efficacy and has been labeled a pseudoscience because of its overreliance


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-3.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:53.539791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
The abortion–breast cancer hypothesis posits that having an induced abortion can increase the risk of breast cancer. This hypothesis is at odds with mainstream scientific opinion and is rejected by major medical professional organizations. Access Consciousness is an alternative medicine technique similar to a combination of phrenology, reiki, energy therapies and therapeutic touch, where health and wellness can be improved by touching the 32 "Energy Bars" on a person's head. Acupuncture – use of fine needles to stimulate acupuncture points and balance the flow of qi. There is no known anatomical or histological basis for the existence of acupuncture points or meridians and acupuncture is regarded as an alternative medical procedure. Some acupuncturists regard them as functional rather than structural entities, useful in guiding evaluation and care of patients. Acupuncture has been the subject of active scientific research since the late 20th century and its effects and application remain controversial among medical researchers and clinicians. Some scholarly reviews conclude that acupuncture's effects are mainly attributable to the placebo effect and others find likelihood of efficacy for particular conditions. Dry needling is the therapeutic insertion of fine needles without regard to traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and is similarly controversial. Acupressure is


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-4.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:53.539791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
There is disputed evidence that it may be effective in combating postoperative nausea and vomiting. Auriculotherapy (also auricular therapy, ear acupuncture, and auriculoacupuncture) is a form of alternative medicine based on the idea that the ear is a micro-system which reflects the entire body, represented on the auricle, the outer portion of the ear. Conditions affecting the physical, mental or emotional health of the patient are assumed to be treatable by stimulation of the surface of the ear exclusively. Similar mappings are used in many areas of the body, including the practices of reflexology and iridology. These mappings are not based on or supported by any medical or scientific evidence and are therefore considered to be pseudoscience. Autistic enterocolitis is a nonexistent medical condition proposed by discredited British gastroenterologist Andrew Wakefield when he suggested a link between a number of common clinical symptoms and signs which he contended were distinctive to autism. The existence of such an enterocolitis has been dismissed by experts as having "not been established". Wakefield's now-retracted and fraudulent report used inadequate controls and suppressed negative findings and multiple attempts to replicate his results have been unsuccessful. Reviews in the medical literature have found no link between


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-5.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:53.539791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Chromotherapy, sometimes called color therapy, colorology or cromatherapy, is an alternative medicine method which is considered pseudoscience. Chromotherapists claim to be able to use light in the form of color to balance "energy" lacking from a person's body, whether it be on physical, emotional, spiritual, or mental levels. Color therapy is distinct from other types of light therapy, such as neonatal jaundice treatment and blood irradiation therapy, which is a scientifically accepted medical treatment for a number of conditions, and from photobiology, the scientific study of the effects of light on living organisms. French skeptic and lighting physicist Sébastien Point considers LED lamps at domestic radiance to be safe in normal use for the general population; he also pointed out the risk of overexposure to light from LEDs for practices like chromotherapy, when duration and time exposure are not under control. Chronic Lyme disease (not to be confused with Lyme disease) is a generally rejected diagnosis that encompasses "a broad array of illnesses or symptom complexes for which there is no reproducible or convincing scientific evidence of any relationship to Borrelia burgdorferi infection." Despite numerous studies, there is no clinical evidence that "chronic" Lyme disease is caused by a persistent


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-6.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:53.539791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
The field has been compared to pseudoscience due to irreproducible or contradictory findings, exaggerated claims of usefulness and lack of high quality research protocols. Ear candling, also called ear coning or thermal-auricular therapy, is a pseudoscientific alternative medicine practice claimed to improve general health and well-being by lighting one end of a hollow candle and placing the other end in the ear canal. Medical research has shown that the practice is both dangerous and ineffective and does not functionally remove earwax or toxicants, despite product design contributing to that impression.


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-7.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:53.539791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Earthing therapy or grounding is a therapy that is claimed to ease pain, provide a better night's sleep, and assist with symptoms of inflammation by being in direct physical contact with the ground or a device connected to electrical ground. Practitioners claim that Earth has an excess of electrons which people are missing due to insulating shoes and ground cover. Being in electrical contact with Earth is claimed to provide the body with those excess electrons, which then act as antioxidants. A 2012 systematic review study showed inconclusive results related to methodological issues across the literature. Subsequently, a 2017 systematic review of the benefits of spending time in forests demonstrated positive health effects, but not enough to generate clinical practice guidelines or demonstrate causality. Electrohomeopathy (or Mattei cancer cure) is a derivative of homeopathy invented in the 19th century by Count Cesare Mattei. The name is derived from a combination of electro (referring to an electric bio-energy content supposedly extracted from plants and of therapeutic value, rather than electricity in its conventional sense) and homeopathy (referring to an alternative medicinal philosophy developed by Samuel Hahnemann in the 18th century). Electrohomeopathy has been defined as the combination of electrical devices and


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-8.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:53.539791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Systematic reviews of clinical trials of Bach flower solutions have found no efficacy beyond a placebo effect. Iridology – means of medical diagnosis which proponents believe can identify and diagnose health problems through close examination of the markings and patterns of the iris. Practitioners divide the iris into 80–90 zones, each of which is connected to a particular body region or organ. This connection has not been scientifically validated and disorder detection is neither selective nor specific. Because iris texture is a phenotypical feature which develops during gestation and remains unchanged after birth (which makes the iris useful for Biometrics), iridology is all but impossible. Jilly Juice – a potentially dangerous fermented drink that has been claimed to treat a variety of medical conditions. Leaky gut syndrome – in alternative medicine, a proposed condition caused by the passage of harmful substances outward through the gut wall. It has been proposed as the cause of many conditions, including multiple sclerosis and autism, a claim which has been called pseudoscientific. According to the UK National Health Service, the theory is vague and unproven. Some skeptics and scientists say that the marketing of treatments for leaky gut syndrome is either misguided or an


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-9.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:53.539791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Radionics – means of medical diagnosis and therapy which proponents believe can diagnose and remedy health problems using various frequencies in a putative energy field coupled to the practitioner's electronic device. The first such "black box" devices were designed and promoted by Albert Abrams and were definitively proven useless by an independent investigation commissioned by Scientific American in 1924. The internal circuitry of radionics devices is often obfuscated and irrelevant, leading proponents to conjecture dowsing and ESP as operating principles. Similar devices continue to be marketed under various names, though none is approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration; there is no scientific evidence for the efficacy or underlying premise of radionics devices. The radionics of Albert Abrams and his intellectual descendants should not be confused with similarly named reputable and legitimate companies, products, or medical treatments such as radiotherapy or radiofrequency ablation. Reiki is a form of alternative medicine called energy healing. Reiki practitioners use a technique called palm healing or hands-on healing through which a "universal energy" is said to be transferred through the palms of the practitioner to the patient in order to encourage emotional or physical healing. Reiki is a pseudoscience, and is used as


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-10.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:53.539791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Research concerning qigong has been conducted for a wide range of medical conditions, including hypertension, pain and cancer, and with respect to quality of life. Most research concerning health benefits of qigong has been of poor quality, such that it would be unwise to draw firm conclusions at this stage. Zang-fu – concept of organs as functional yin and yang entities for the storage and manipulation of qi. These organs are not based in anatomy. Tomatis Method A type of auditory integration training devised by Alfred A. Tomatis and promoted, without supporting evidence, as being of benefit to people with autism. Urine therapy – drinking either one's own undiluted urine or homeopathic potions of urine for treatment of a wide variety of diseases is based on pseudoscience. Promotion of a link between autism and vaccines, in which the vaccines are accused of causing autism-spectrum conditions, triggering them, or aggravating them, has been characterized as pseudoscience. Many epidemiological studies have reported no association between either the MMR vaccine and autism, or thimerosal-containing vaccines and autism. Consequently, the Institute of Medicine has concluded that there is no causal link between either of these varieties of vaccines and autism. Similarly, "vaccine overload", a


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-11.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:53.539791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Technology === 5G conspiracies and 5G causes coronavirus theories – theory proposing that 5G causes health issues, including COVID-19. == Social sciences == === History === Christ myth theory – A fringe theory that proposes that the historical Jesus did not exist in any capacity whatsoever. While the divinity of Jesus is a matter of religious and philosophical rather than historical debate, Christian and non-Christian scholars of antiquity universally agree that Jesus of Nazareth was a Galilean Jew who lived in the first century, was baptized, and later crucified by Roman authorities. This is based on sources written by historians, scholars, and politicians who lived during the time of Christ. Holocaust denial – Historical revisionist movements associated with Holocaust denial have employed pseudoscientific evidence and conspiracy theories published in intradiegetic pseudo-academic journals and presented at fringe conferences (e.g. misconstruing cyanide residue studies, claiming despite all evidence to the contrary that gas chambers were built after the war). Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry – A fringe theory that postulates that Ashkenazi Jews were primarily, or to a large extent, descended from Khazars, a multi-ethnic conglomerate of mostly Turkic peoples who formed a semi-nomadic khanate in and around the northern and


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-12.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:53.539791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Psychology === Attachment therapy – common name for a set of potentially fatal clinical interventions and parenting techniques aimed at controlling aggressive, disobedient, or unaffectionate children using "restraint and physical and psychological abuse to seek their desired results." (The term "attachment therapy" may sometimes be used loosely to refer to mainstream approaches based on attachment theory, usually outside the US where the pseudoscientific form of attachment therapy is less known.) Probably the most common form is holding therapy, in which the child is restrained by adults for the purpose of supposed cathartic release of suppressed rage and regression. Perhaps the most extreme, but much less common, is "rebirthing", in which the child is wrapped tightly in a blanket and then made to simulate emergence from a birth canal. This is done by encouraging the child to struggle and pushing and squeezing them to mimic contractions. Despite the practice's name, it is not based on traditional attachment theory and shares no principles of mainstream developmental psychology research. In 2006, it was the subject of an almost entirely critical Taskforce Report commissioned by the American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children (APSAC). Conversion therapy – sometimes called reparative therapy, seeks


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-13.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:53.539791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
The Center for Applications of Psychological Type claims that the MBTI is scientifically supported, but most of the research on it is done through its own journal, Journal of Psychological Type, raising questions of bias. Results are said to follow the Barnum effect. Neuro-linguistic programming – an approach to communication, personal development, and psychotherapy created in the 1970s. The title refers to a stated connection between the neurological processes ("neuro"), language ("linguistic") and behavioral patterns that have been learned through experience ("programming") and can be organized to achieve specific goals in life. According to certain neuroscientists psychologists and linguists, NLP is unsupported by current scientific evidence, and uses incorrect and misleading terms and concepts. Reviews of empirical research on NLP indicate that NLP contains numerous factual errors, and has failed to produce reliable results for the claims for effectiveness made by NLP's originators and proponents. According to Devilly, NLP is no longer as prevalent as it was in the 1970s and 1980s. Criticisms go beyond the lack of empirical evidence for effectiveness; critics say that NLP exhibits pseudoscientific characteristics, title, concepts and terminology. NLP is used as an example of pseudoscience for facilitating the teaching of scientific literacy at the


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-14.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:53.539791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Racial theories === Scientific racism – claim that scientific evidence shows the inferiority or superiority of certain races. Aryanism – the claim that there is a distinct "Aryan race" that is superior to other putative races was an important tenet of Nazism and "the basis of the German government policy of exterminating Jews, Gypsies, and other 'non-Aryans.'" Drapetomania was a conjectural mental illness that, in 1851, American physician Samuel A. Cartwright hypothesized as the cause of enslaved Africans fleeing captivity. It has since been debunked as pseudoscience and part of the edifice of scientific racism. Melanin theory – belief founded in the distortion of known physical properties of melanin, a natural polymer, that posits the inherent superiority of dark-skinned people and the essential inhumanity and inferiority of light-skinned people. Turkish History Thesis – the belief that Turks from Central Asia migrated and brought civilization to China, India, the Middle East, and Europe. Eugenics – As a movement, eugenics was associated with pseudoscience including pseudoscientific journals and professional societies. This is to be contrasted with the common and scientifically accepted practice of selective breeding. === Sociology === Alpha and beta male – pseudoscientific terms for men derived from alpha and


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-15.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:53.539791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Animal mutilations – cases of animals, primarily domestic livestock, with seemingly inexplicable wounds. These wounds have been said to be caused by extraterrestrials, cults, covert government organizations, or cryptids such as el chupacabra, when in fact most such cases were found to be caused by natural predation. An aura or human energy field is, according to New Age beliefs, a colored emanation said to enclose a human body or any animal or object. In some esoteric positions, the aura is described as a subtle body. Psychics and holistic medicine practitioners often claim to have the ability to see the size, color and type of vibration of an aura. In New Age alternative medicine, the human aura is seen as a hidden anatomy that affects the health of a client, and is often understood to be composed of centers of vital force called chakra. Such claims are not supported by scientific evidence and are pseudoscience. When tested under controlled experiments, the ability to see auras has not been shown to exist. Channeling – communication of information to or through a person allegedly from a spirit or other paranormal entity. Crop circles – geometric designs of crushed or knocked-over crops created in


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-16.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:53.539791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Affirmative prayer is a form of prayer or a metaphysical technique that is focused on a positive outcome, rather than a negative situation. For instance, a person who is experiencing some form of illness would focus the prayer on the desired state of perfect health and affirm this desired intention "as if already happened" rather than identifying the illness and then asking God for help to eliminate it. William James described affirmative prayer as an element of the American metaphysical healing movement that he called the "mind-cure"; he described it as the United States' "only decidedly original contribution to the systemic philosophy of life." What sets affirmative prayer apart from secular affirmations of the autosuggestion type taught by the 19th century self-help author Émile Coué (whose most famous affirmation was "Every day in every way, I am getting better and better") is that affirmative prayer addresses the practitioner to God, the Divine, the Creative Mind, emphasizing the seemingly practical aspects of religious belief. Christian Science is generally considered a Christian new religious movement; however, some have called it "pseudoscience" because its founder, Mary Baker Eddy, used "science" in its name, and because of its former stance against medical science. Also,


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-17
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-17.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:53.539791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Scientology === Dianetics, a therapeutic technique promoted by Scientology, purports to treat a hypothetical reactive mind. There is no scientific evidence for the existence of an actual reactive mind, apart from the stimulus response mechanisms documented in behaviorist psychology. Narconon and Purification Rundown are Scientology programs that purport to clean the human body of toxins and drugs respectively. Their method consists of very long saunas over many days, extremely large (possibly toxic) doses of vitamins including niacin, and Scientology 'training routines', sometimes including attempts at telekinesis. The programs have been described as "medically unsafe", "quackery" and "medical fraud", while academic and medical experts have dismissed Narconon's educational programme as containing "factual errors in basic concepts such as physical and mental effects, addiction and even spelling". In turn, Narconon has claimed that mainstream medicine is "biased" against it, and that "people who endorse so-called controlled drug use cannot be trusted to review a program advocating totally drug-free living." Narconon has said that criticism of its programmes is "bigoted", and that its critics are "in favor of drug abuse [...] they are either using drugs or selling drugs". === Other === Quantum mysticism – builds on a superficial similarity between certain


id: index-of-quality-engineering-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_quality_engineering_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of quality engineering articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_quality_engineering_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:54.808992+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-quality-engineering-articles-20260505-0
summary:
This is an alphabetical list of articles pertaining specifically to quality engineering. For a broad overview of engineering, please see List of engineering topics. For biographies please see List of engineers. == A == American Customer Satisfaction Index (ACSI) active listening affinity diagram Automotive Industry Action Group (AIAG) American Society for Quality (ASQ) Audit Appraisal == B == Bar chart Benchmarking == C == change management Code of Ethics Continuous quality improvement Cost of Poor Execution (COPE) Cost of quality (CoQ) Cost of poor quality (COPQ) Customer satisfaction research == D == Define, measure, analyze, improve and control (DMAIC) == E == European Foundation for Quality Management (EFQM) == F == Five whys == G == Groupthink Gantt chart == H == House of Quality Human reliability assessment (HRA) == I == Incrementalism == J == Joseph M. Juran == K == Kaizen == L == Lean manufacturing == M == Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award Monitoring and evaluation Muda (Japanese term) == N == National Council on Physical Distribution Management (NCPDM) Next operation as customer(NOAC) Nine windows Nominal group technique == O == Organizational culture Overall equipment effectiveness (OEE) == P == Plan, Do, Check, Act (PDCA) Poka-yoke Process


id: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-delft-university-of-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_Delft_University_of_Technology-0.md
category: reference
title: List of rectores magnifici of Delft University of Technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_Delft_University_of_Technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:56.071113+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-delft-university-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
A rector of a Dutch university is called a rector magnificus. The following people have been rector magnificus of Delft University of Technology or its predecessor, Technische Hogeschool Delft: == References == Bruggemans, J.S. (1983). "Inventaris van de archieven van de Technische Hogeschool te Delft - Overzicht van de rectores magnifici tussen 1959 en 1972" (PDF). Nationaal Archief Den Haag: 8. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Bruggemans, J.S. (1983). "Inventaris van de archieven van de Technische Hogeschool te Delft - Overzicht van de rectores magnifici tussen 1905 en 1959" (PDF). Nationaal Archief Den Haag: 162–163. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)


id: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-the-eindhoven-university-of-technology-20260505-0
category: reference
title: List of rectores magnifici of the Eindhoven University of Technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_the_Eindhoven_University_of_Technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:57.288281+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-the-eindhoven-university-of-technology-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_the_Eindhoven_University_of_Technology-0.md

summary:
A rector of a Dutch university is called a rector magnificus. The following people have been rector magnificus of the Eindhoven University of Technology or its predecessor, the Technische Hogeschool Eindhoven (THE):


id: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-the-erasmus-university-rotterdam-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_the_Erasmus_University_Rotterdam-0.md
category: reference
title: List of rectores magnifici of the Erasmus University Rotterdam
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_the_Erasmus_University_Rotterdam
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:29:58.553889+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-the-erasmus-university-rotterdam-20260505-0
summary:
A rector of a Dutch university is called a rector magnificus. The following people have been rector magnificus of the Erasmus University Rotterdam: == External links == Website Erasmus University Rotterdam


id: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-leiden-university-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_Leiden_University-0.md
category: reference
title: List of rectores magnifici of Leiden University
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_Leiden_University
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:03.133116+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-leiden-university-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of chancellors (rectores magnifici) of Leiden University, as from 1575. Three Nobel laureates are among these chancellors: Hendrik Lorentz, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes and Willem Einthoven. == 16th century == === 1575–1600 === == 17th century == === 1601–1620 === === 1621–1640 === === 1641–1660 === === 1661–1680 === === 1681–1700 === == 18th century == === 1701–1720 === === 1721–1740 === === 1741–1760 === === 1761–1780 === === 1781–1800 === == 19th century == === 1801–1820 === === 1821–1840 === === 1841–1860 === === 1861–1880 === === 1881–1900 === == 20th century == === 1901–1920 === === 1921–1940 === === 1941–1960 === === 1961–2000 === == 21st century == == See also == List of Leiden University people == Literature == Harm Beukers [et al.].: Album Scholasticum academiae Lugduno-Batavae MCMLXXV-MCMLXXXIX. (1575–1989), Leids Universiteits-Fonds, Leiden, 1991 R.E.O. Ekkart: Athenae Batavae. De Leidse Universiteit / The University of Leiden 1575-1975. Universitaire Pers Leiden, 1975. ISBN 90-6021-222-3 Icones Leidenses. Leiden, Universitaire Pers, 1973. ISBN 9060211839 == References == == External links == Website Leiden University


id: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-maastricht-university-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_Maastricht_University-0.md
category: reference
title: List of rectores magnifici of Maastricht University
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_Maastricht_University
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:04.487525+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-maastricht-university-20260505-0
summary:
A rector of a Dutch university is called a rector magnificus. The following people have been rector magnificus of the Maastricht University: == External links == Maastricht University


id: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-the-vrije-universiteit-amsterdam-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_the_Vrije_Universiteit_Amsterdam-0.md
category: reference
title: List of rectores magnifici of the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_the_Vrije_Universiteit_Amsterdam
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:05.731748+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-the-vrije-universiteit-amsterdam-20260505-0
summary:
The rector of a Dutch university is called a rector magnificus. The following people have been rector magnificus of the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam: == Publication == A.Th. van Deursen: The distinctive character of the Free University in Amsterdam, 1880-2005. A commemorative history. Grand Rapids, Michigan, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2008. ISBN 9780802862518 == References == Jaarboek Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1880-1990 (digital)


id: list-of-robotics-journals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_robotics_journals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of robotics journals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_robotics_journals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:06.893485+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-robotics-journals-20260505-0
summary:
List of robotics journals includes notable academic and scientific journals that focus on research in the field of robotics and automation. == Journals == Acta Mechanica et Automatica Advanced Robotics Annual Review of Control, Robotics, and Autonomous Systems IEEE Robotics and Automation Letters IEEE Transactions on Robotics IEEE Transactions on Field Robotics The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology International Journal of Humanoid Robotics International Journal of Robotics Research Journal of Cognitive Engineering and Decision Making Journal of Field Robotics Journal of Intelligent & Robotic Systems Paladyn Robotics and Autonomous Systems Robotics Science Robotics SLAS Technology == See also == List of computer science journals List of artificial intelligence journals List of engineering journals and magazines List of open-source artificial intelligence software for robotics Robotics Automation === Robotics conferences === International Conference on Robotics and Automation International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems International Conference on Human–Robot Interaction Humanoids Summit Roboexotica Defcon Robot Contest == External links == IEEE Xplore Digital Library The International Journal of Robotics Research – Springer Science Robotics – AAAS


id: list-of-scientists-whose-names-are-used-as-units-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientists_whose_names_are_used_as_units-0.md
category: reference
title: List of scientists whose names are used as units
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientists_whose_names_are_used_as_units
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:07.971790+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientists-whose-names-are-used-as-units-20260505-0
summary:
Many scientists have been recognized with the assignment of their names as international units by the International Committee for Weights and Measures or as non-SI units. The International System of Units (abbreviated SI from French: Système international d'unités) is the most widely used system of units of measurement. There are 7 base units and 22 derived units (excluding compound units). These units are used both in science and in commerce. Two of the base SI units and 17 of the derived units are named after scientists. 28 non-SI units are named after scientists. By this convention, their names are immortalised. As a rule, the SI units are written in lowercase letters, but symbols of units derived from the name of a person begin with a capital letter. == Scientists and SI units == (colour legend) == Scientists and non-SI units == == See also == List of chemical elements named after people List of scientists whose names are used in physical constants == References == == Bibliography == == External links == Physical dimensions of the units


id: list-of-science-podcasts-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_podcasts-0.md
category: reference
title: List of science podcasts
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_podcasts
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:09.178506+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-science-podcasts-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of science podcasts. == List == == See also == Science communication Science journalism Popular science Nature documentary == References ==


id: list-of-scientific-demonstrations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_demonstrations-0.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific demonstrations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_demonstrations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:10.420225+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-demonstrations-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of scientific demonstrations used in educational demonstrations and popular science lectures. == Physics == Balsa wood bridge — demonstrates compressive strength and tensile strength, teaches engineering thinking Egg drop competition — demonstrates compressive strength, teaches engineering thinking Hand boiler — demonstrates vapour-liquid equilibrium and simple heat engine principles Newton's cradle — demonstrates elastic collision, conservation of momentum, and conservation of energy Gauss gun Plate trick or Dirac belt trick — demonstrates spinors and the double cover of SO(3) by SU(2) Prince Rupert's Drop — demonstrates supercooling and tensile stress Self-siphoning beads — demonstrates momentum, energy and inertia Water rocket — demonstrates conservation of momentum, conservation of energy, the gas laws and basic rocketry Franklin bells — demonstrate electric charges Oxford Electric Bell — an experimental electric bell that was set up in 1840 and which has run nearly continuously ever since Wimshurst machine — an electrostatic generator Shooting a candle through a plank Foucault pendulum — demonstrates the rotation of Earth == Chemistry == Ammonia fountain — introduces concepts like solubility and the gas laws at entry level. Barking dog reaction — demonstrates rapid exothermic chemical reaction Blue bottle (chemical reaction) — demonstrates reduction and oxidation


id: scientific-instrument-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_instrument-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific instrument
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_instrument
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:11.513532+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-instrument-20260505-0
summary:
A scientific instrument is a device or tool used for scientific purposes, including the study of both natural phenomena and theoretical research. == History == Historically, the definition of a scientific instrument has varied, based on usage, laws, and historical time period. Before the mid-nineteenth century such tools were referred to as "natural philosophical" or "philosophical" apparatus and instruments, and older tools from antiquity to the Middle Ages (such as the astrolabe and pendulum clock) defy a more modern definition of "a tool developed to investigate nature qualitatively or quantitatively." Scientific instruments were made by instrument makers living near a center of learning or research, such as a university or research laboratory. Instrument makers designed, constructed, and refined instruments for purposes, but if demand was sufficient, an instrument would go into production as a commercial product. In a description of the use of the eudiometer by Jan Ingenhousz to show photosynthesis, a biographer observed, "The history of the use and evolution of this instrument helps to show that science is not just a theoretical endeavor but equally an activity grounded on an instrumental basis, which is a cocktail of instruments and techniques wrapped in a social setting within a community


id: list-of-scientific-laws-named-after-people-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_laws_named_after_people-0.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific laws named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_laws_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:12.801423+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-laws-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of scientific laws named after people (eponymous laws). For other lists of eponyms, see eponym. == See also == Eponym Fields of science List of eponymous laws (overlaps with this list but includes non-scientific laws such as Murphy's law) List of legislation named for a person List of laws in science Lists of etymologies Scientific constants named after people Scientific phenomena named after people Stigler's law of eponymy == Further reading == Ballentyne, D. W. G.; Lovett, D. R. (1980). A dictionary of named effects and laws in chemistry, physics, and mathematics (4th ed.). Chapman and Hall. ISBN 978-0-412-22380-8.


id: outline-of-scientific-method-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_scientific_method-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of scientific method
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_scientific_method
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:14.026815+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-scientific-method-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to the scientific method: Scientific method – body of techniques for investigating phenomena and acquiring new knowledge, as well as for correcting and integrating previous knowledge. It is based on observable, empirical, reproducible, measurable evidence, and subject to the laws of reasoning. == Nature of scientific method == Scientific method Science Philosophy of science Sociology of knowledge Process of science Knowledge == Elements of scientific method == Research Basic research === Observation === Observation Scientific method Causation Investigation Measurement (Outline of metrology and measurement) === Hypothesis === Hypothesis pro:Karl Popper Falsifiability con:Paul Feyerabend Statistical hypothesis testing === Experiment === Experiment Laboratory Laboratory techniques Design of experiments Scientific control Natural experiment Observational study Field experiment Self-experimentation Self-experimentation in medicine Placebo effect === Theory === Scientific theory ==== Prediction ==== Prediction Bayesian inference – subjective use of statistical reasoning Deductive reasoning Retrodiction === Evaluation by scientific community === Peer review Medical peer review == Scientific method concepts == === Empirical methods === Empirical methods Empiricism Robert Grosseteste Peter Parker Empirical validation Operationalization === Use of statistics === Uncomfortable science — Inference from a limited sample of data Exploratory data analysis


id: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific phenomena named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:18.817718+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of scientific phenomena and concepts named after people (eponymous phenomena). For other lists of eponyms, see eponym. == A == Abderhalden–Fauser reaction – Emil Abderhalden and August Fauser (1856–1938) Abney effect – William de Wiveleslie Abney Abrikosov lattice – Alexei Alexeyevich Abrikosov Aharonov–Bohm effect – Yakir Aharonov and David Bohm Alfvén wave – Hannes Olof Gösta Alfvén Alhazen's problem – Alhazen Allais effect – Maurice Allais Allee effect – Warder Clyde Allee Amdahl's law, a.k.a. Amdahl's argument – Gene Amdahl Ampère's law – André-Marie Ampère Anderson–Higgs mechanism (a.k.a. Higgs mechanism) – Peter Higgs and Philip Warren Anderson Anderson–Darling test – Theodore Wilbur Anderson and Donald A. Darling Andreev reflection – Alexander F. Andreev Apgar score – Virginia Apgar Arago spot – Dominique François Jean Arago Michaelis–Arbuzov reaction – Aleksandr Erminingeldovich Arbuzov and August Karl Arnold Michaelis Archimedean spiral, Archimedes number – Archimedes Argand diagram – Jean Robert Argand Aristotle's lantern – Aristotle Armstrong limit or Armstrong's line – Harry George Armstrong Armstrong oscillator – Edwin Armstrong Arndt–Eistert synthesis – Fritz Arndt and Bernd Eistert Arndt–Schulz law/principle/rule – Rudolf Arndt and Hugo Paul Friedrich Schulz Arrhenius equation – Svante August Arrhenius Ashkin–Teller model (a.k.a. Potts model) –


id: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientific phenomena named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:18.817718+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
== B == Baeyer–Drewson indigo synthesis – Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Adolf von Baeyer and Viggo Drewsen Baeyer–Villiger oxidation and Baeyer–Villiger rearrangement – Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Adolf von Baeyer and Victor Villiger Babinet's principle – Jacques Babinet Babler–Dauben oxidation – James Babler and William Garfield Dauben Bagnold number – Ralph Alger Bagnold Baily's beads – Francis Baily Baker–Nathan effect – John William Baker and Wilfred S. Nathan Bakerian mimicry – Herbert G. Baker Baldwin effect (astronomy) – Jack Allen Baldwin Baldwin effect (Baldwinian evolution, Ontogenic evolution) – James Mark Baldwin Baldwin's rules – Jack Edward Baldwin Balmer line, series – Johann Jakob Balmer Bamberger rearrangement – Eugen Bamberger Bamford–Stevens reaction – William Randall Bamford and Thomas Stevens Stevens Barkhausen effect – Heinrich Barkhausen Barnett effect – Samuel Jackson Barnett Barnum effect (a.k.a. Forer effect) – Phineas Taylor Barnum (and Bertram R. Forer) Barton reaction – Derek Harold Richard Barton Barton–McCombie deoxygenation – Derek Harold Richard Barton and Stuart W. McCombie Baskerville effect – the fictional Charles Baskerville of the novel The Hound of the Baskervilles Batesian mimicry – Henry Walter Bates Bauschinger effect – Johann Bauschinger Bayes's theorem – Thomas Bayes Baylis–Hillman reaction – Anthony B. Baylis and Melville E. D.


id: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people-2.md
category: reference
title: Scientific phenomena named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:18.817718+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
== C == Cabannes–Daure effect – Jean Cabannes and Pierre Daure Cadiot–Chodkiewicz coupling, reaction – Paul Cadiot and Wladyslav Chodkiewicz Callendar effect – Guy Stewart Callendar Callippic cycle – Callippus of Cyzicus Calvin cycle (a.k.a. Calvin–Benson cycle) – Melvin Calvin (and Andy Benson) Cannizzaro reaction – Stanislao Cannizzaro Cardan angles (a.k.a. Tait–Bryan angles) – Gerolamo Cardano Carnot cycle, number – Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot Carpenter effect (a.k.a. Ideomotor effect) – William Benjamin Carpenter Cartan–Kähler theorem – Élie Cartan, Erich Kähler Casimir effect – Hendrik Casimir Catalan's conjecture (a.k.a. Mihăilescu's theorem), Catalan numbers – Eugène Charles Catalan Cauchy number (a.k.a. Hooke number) – Augustin-Louis Cauchy Cauchy–Kovalevskaya theorem – Augustin-Louis Cauchy, Sofia Kovalevskaya Cauer filter – Wilhelm Cauer Chandler wobble – Seth Carlo Chandler Chandrasekhar limit, number – Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar Chang–Refsdal lens – Kyongae Chang and Sjur Refsdal Chaplygin gas – Sergey Alexeyevich Chaplygin Charles's law – Jacques Charles Chebyshev distance, equation, filter, linkage, polynomials – Pafnuty Chebyshev Chebyshev's inequality (a.k.a. Bienaymé–Chebyshev inequality) – Pafnuty Chebyshev (and Irénée-Jules Bienaymé) Cherenkov radiation (a.k.a. Cherenkov–Vavilov radiation) – Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov (and Sergey Ivanovich Vavilov) Chichibabin reaction – Alexei Yevgenievich Chichibabin Christiansen effect – Christian Christiansen Christoffel symbol – Elwin Bruno Christoffel Christofilos effect –


id: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people-3.md
category: reference
title: Scientific phenomena named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:18.817718+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
== E == Early effect – James M. Early Eddington limit – Arthur Eddington Edgeworth–Bowley box – Francis Ysidro Edgeworth and Arthur Lyon Bowley Edison effect – Thomas Edison Edman degradation – Pehr Victor Edman Edward–Lemieux effect (a.k.a. Anomeric effect) – John Thomas Edward and Raymond U. Lemieux Eglinton reaction – Geoffrey Eglinton Ehrenfest paradox – Paul Ehrenfest Eimer's organ – Gustav Heinrich Theodor Eimer Einstein Cross, effect, radius, ring, shift – Albert Einstein Einstein–Chwolson ring or Chwolson ring – Albert Einstein and Orest Khvolson Einstein–de Haas effect – Albert Einstein and Wander Johannes de Haas Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox (a.k.a. EPR paradox, Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen–Bohm paradox) – Albert Einstein, Boris Podolsky, Nathan Rosen (and David Bohm) Ekman layer – Walfrid Ekman Elbs reaction – Karl Elbs Elliott–Halberstam conjecture – Peter D. T. A. Elliott and Heini Halberstam Elman network – Jeff Elman Elsasser number – Walter M. Elsasser Engel curve – Ernst Engel Engelbart's law – Douglas Engelbart Epimenides paradox – Epimenides of Knossos Erlenmeyer flask, rule, synthesis – Richard August Carl Emil Erlenmeyer Eschenmoser fragmentation – Albert Eschenmoser Eschweiler–Clarke reaction – Wilhelm Eschweiler and Hans Thacher Clarke Eshelby's inclusion – John D. Eshelby Étard reaction – Alexandre Léon Étard Ettingshausen effect –


id: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people-4.md
category: reference
title: Scientific phenomena named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:18.817718+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
== G == Gabriel synthesis – Siegmund Gabriel Gardner transition – Elizabeth Gardner Garman limit – Elspeth Garman Gattermann reaction – Ludwig Gattermann Gattermann–Koch reaction – Ludwig Gattermann and Julius Arnold Koch Gaunt factor (or Kramers–Gaunt factor) – John Arthur Gaunt (and Hendrik Anthony Kramers) Gause's principle – Georgii Gause Gauss's law – Carl Friedrich Gauss Gauss–Bonnet gravity, theorem – Carl Friedrich Gauss and Pierre Ossian Bonnet Geib–Spevack process (a.k.a. Girdler sulfide (GS) process) – Karl-Hermann Geib and Jerome S. Spevack (and the Girdler company, which built the first American plant using the process) Geiger counter (a.k.a. Geiger–Müller counter) – Johannes Wilhelm (Hans) Geiger (and Walther Müller) Geiger–Marsden experiment (a.k.a. Rutherford experiment) – Johannes Wilhelm (Hans) Geiger and Ernest Marsden Geiger–Müller tube – Johannes Wilhelm (Hans) Geiger and Walther Müller Geiger–Nuttall law/rule – Johannes Wilhelm (Hans) Geiger and John Mitchell Nuttall Geissler tube – Heinrich Geissler Gibbs entropy, free energy, paradox, Gibbs's phase rule, Gibbs phenomenon – Josiah Willard Gibbs Gibbs–Donnan effect (a.k.a. Donnan effect) – Josiah Willard Gibbs and Frederick G. Donnan Gibbs–Marangoni effect (a.k.a. Marangoni effect) – Josiah Willard Gibbs and Carlo Marangoni Gibbs–Helmholtz equation – Josiah Willard Gibbs and Hermann von Helmholtz Gibbs–Thomson effect – Josiah Willard


id: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people-5.md
category: reference
title: Scientific phenomena named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:18.817718+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
== J == Jaccard index, similarity coefficient, distance – Paul Jaccard Jaffe profile (or model) – Walter Jaffe Jahn–Teller effect – Hermann Arthur Jahn and Edward Teller Jaro–Winkler distance – Matthew A. Jaro and William E. Winkler Jarque–Bera test – Carlos M. Jarque and Anil K. Bera Jeans's theorem – James Hopwood Jeans Johnson–Nyquist noise – John B. Johnson and Harry Nyquist Jordan's rule/law – David Starr Jordan Josephson constant, effect, junction – Brian David Josephson Joule's law (a.k.a. Joule–Lenz law) – James Prescott Joule and Heinrich Friedrich Emil Lenz Joule–Thomson effect (a.k.a. Joule–Kelvin effect) – James Prescott Joule and William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin == K == K3 surface – Ernst Kummer, Erich Kähler, Kunihiko Kodaira Kähler differential, manifold, metric – Erich Kähler Kakutani's problem – see Collatz conjecture, above Kármán vortex street – Theodore von Kármán Karnaugh map (a.k.a. Karnaugh–Veitch map, Veitch diagram) – Maurice Karnaugh (and Edward W. Veitch) Karush–Kuhn–Tucker conditions (a.k.a. Kuhn–Tucker conditions) – William Karush, Harold W. Kuhn and Albert W. Tucker Kasha's rule – Michael Kasha Kater's pendulum – Captain Henry Kater Kaye effect – Alan Kaye Keeling Curve – Charles David Keeling Kelvin wave – William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism, instability


id: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people-6.md
category: reference
title: Scientific phenomena named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:18.817718+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
== M == Mach band/effect, number, principle – Ernst Mach Mach–Zehnder interferometer – Ludwig Mach and Ludwig Zehnder Madelung constant, rule, energy – Erwin Madelung Maggi–Righi–Leduc effect (Thermal Hall effect) – Gian Antonio Maggi, Augusto Righi and Sylvestre Anatole Leduc Magnus effect – Heinrich Gustav Magnus Magorrian relation – John Magorrian Mahalanobis distance – Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis (প্রশান্ত চন্দ্র মহলানবিস) Mahler measure, Mahler's theorem – Kurt Mahler Maillard reaction Malmquist bias, effect – Karl Gunnar Malmquist Malus's law – Étienne-Louis Malus Malthusian parameter – named by Ronald Fisher as a criticism of Thomas Robert Malthus Malthusian catastrophe, growth model – Thomas Robert Malthus Marangoni cell/convection (a.k.a. Bénard–Marangoni convection) – see Bénard–Marangoni cell/convection, above Marangoni effect (a.k.a. Gibbs–Marangoni effect) – see Gibbs–Marangoni effect, above Markov's inequality, chain, partition, Markovian process – Andrey Markov Mathieu functions – Émile Léonard Mathieu Matilda effect – Matilda Joslyn Gage Matthew effect – Matthew the Evangelist Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution – James Clerk Maxwell and Ludwig Boltzmann McCollough effect – Celeste McCollough McCulloch–Pitts neuron – Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts McGurk effect (a.k.a. McGurk–MacDonald effect) – Harry McGurk (and John MacDonald) Mealy machine – George H. Mealy Meissner effect (a.k.a. Meissner–Ochsenfeld effect) – Walther Meissner (and Robert Ochsenfeld)


id: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people-7.md
category: reference
title: Scientific phenomena named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:18.817718+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
== R == Rabi oscillations – Isidor Isaac Rabi Rademacher distribution, function, series, sum – Hans Adolph Rademacher Rademacher–Menchov theorem – Hans Adolph Rademacher and Dmitrii Menshov Radon transform – Johann Karl August Radon Raman scattering – Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman Ramsauer–Townsend effect (a.k.a. Ramsauer effect, Townsend effect) – Carl Ramsauer and John Sealy Townsend Ramsden circle/disc/eyepoint, eyepiece – Jesse Ramsden Ramsey theory – Frank Plumpton Ramsey Rapoport's rule – Eduardo H. Rapoport Raychaudhuri's equation – Amal Kumar Raychaudhuri (অমল কুমার রায়চৌধুরী) Raygor Estimate Graph – Alton L. Raygor Rayleigh criterion, distribution, fading, number, quotient, scattering, waves – Lord Rayleigh Rayleigh–Bénard cell/convection – Lord Rayleigh and Henri Bénard Rayleigh–Jeans law – Lord Rayleigh and James Jeans Rayleigh–Taylor instability – Lord Rayleigh and G. I. Taylor Rees–Sciama effect – Martin Rees and Dennis Sciama Reidemeister moves – Kurt Reidemeister Résal effect – Louis-Jean Résal Rescorla–Wagner rule – Robert A. Rescorla and Allan R. Wagner Reynolds number, Reynolds analogy – Osborne Reynolds Ribot's law (of Retrograde Amnesia) – Théodule-Armand Ribot Ricardian equivalence (a.k.a. Barro–Ricardo equivalence, or Ricardo–de Viti–Barro equivalence) – Robert Barro, David Ricardo, and Antonio de Viti de Marco Richards controller – Charles L. Richards Richardson's constant, equation, law – Owen Willans


id: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people-8.md
category: reference
title: Scientific phenomena named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:18.817718+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
== S == Sabatier or Sabattier effect – Sabat[t]ier, first name unknown Sachs–Wolfe effect – Rainer K. Sachs and Arthur M. Wolfe Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale – Herbert S. Saffir and Robert ("Bob") Simpson Sagnac effect – Georges Sagnac Saha ionization equation (a.k.a. Saha–Langmuir equation) – Megh Nad Saha (মেঘনাদ সাহা) (and Irving Langmuir) Salem number – Raphaël Salem Sapir–Whorf hypothesis – Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf Sasakian manifold, metric – Shigeo Sasaki Say's law – Jean-Baptiste Say Scheerer's phenomenon (Blue field entoptic phenomenon) – Richard Scheerer Schering Bridge – Harald Schering Schild plot, regression analysis – Heinz Otto Schild Schmidt law, Schmidt–Kennicutt law – see Kennicutt–Schmidt law, above Schottky effect – Walter H. Schottky Schröter effect – Johann Hieronymus Schröter Schülen–Wilson effect – see Wilson effect, below Schuler period, tuning – Maximilian Schuler Schultz's rule – Adolph Hans Schultz Schumann–Runge bands – Victor Schumann and Carle David Tolmé Runge Schwabe solar cycle – Samuel Heinrich Schwabe Schwarzschild effect, metric, radius – Karl Schwarzschild Scott effect – Elizabeth L. Scott Secchi (stellar) class, depth, disk – Pietro Angelo Secchi Seebeck effect – Thomas Johann Seebeck Seiberg–Witten gauge theory – Nathan Seiberg and Edward Witten Seiberg–Witten invariant – Nathan Seiberg and


id: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people-9.md
category: reference
title: Scientific phenomena named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:18.817718+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
== V == Vackář oscillator – Jirí Vackář Van Allen radiation belt – James Van Allen Van de Graaff generator – Dr. Robert Jemison Van de Graaff Van der Pol equation, oscillator – Balthasar van der Pol Van der Waals force – Johannes Diderik van der Waals Van Hove singularity – Léon Van Hove Vavilovian mimicry – Nikolai Ivanovich Vavilov Veblen effect – Thorstein Veblen Veitch diagram – see Karnaugh map, above Venturi effect – Giovanni Battista Venturi Venn diagram – John Venn Vieille's law (a.k.a. St. Robert's law, often misspelled as Vielle's law) – Paul Marie Eugène Vieille Vierordt's law – Karl von Vierordt Vogel-Fulcher-Tammann equation – Hans Vogel, Gordon Scott Fulcher, and Gustav Tammann Vogt–Russell theorem – Heinrich Vogt and Henry Norris Russell Voigt effect, notation, profile – Woldemar Voigt Voigt material – see Kelvin–Voigt material, above Von Klitzing constant – Klaus von Klitzing Von Neumann ordinal, von Neumann architecture – John von Neumann Von Restorff effect – Hedwig von Restorff Von Zeipel theorem – Edvard Hugo von Zeipel == W == Wadati–Benioff zone (a.k.a. Benioff zone) – Kiyoo Wadati and Hugo Benioff Wahlund effect – Sten Gösta William Wahlund Wallace's line – Alfred Russel Wallace Walras's law


id: list-of-scientific-priority-disputes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_priority_disputes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific priority disputes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_priority_disputes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:20.078053+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-priority-disputes-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of priority disputes in history of science and science-related fields (such as mathematics). == Astronomy == 1558 invention of the geoheliocentric system: Tycho Brahe, Nicolaus Raimarus Ursus 1609–1610 Galilean moons: Galileo, Simon Marius 1612 discovery of sunspots: Galileo Galilei, Christoph Scheiner 1846 prediction of Neptune: Urbain Le Verrier, John Couch Adams 2004–2005 controversy over the discovery of Haumea: José Luis Ortiz Moreno, Michael E. Brown. == Biology and medicine == 1652 discovery of the lymphatic system: Olof Rudbeck, Thomas Bartholin c. 1660 teaching a deaf-mute person to speak: John Wallis, William Holder c. 1667 first human blood transfusion: Richard Lower, Henry Oldenburg, Jean-Baptiste Denys c. 1859 development of the theory of evolution: Charles Darwin, Alfred Russel Wallace, Patrick Matthew 1877–1892 Bone Wars: Edward Drinker Cope, Othniel Charles Marsh. 1882–1889: Koch–Pasteur rivalry: Louis Pasteur, Robert Koch. 1899–1902 discovery of the life cycle of malarial parasite: Giovanni Battista Grassi, Ronald Ross 1953–1962 discovery of the DNA structure: Francis Crick, James D. Watson, Rosalind Franklin, Erwin Chargaff, Oswald Avery 1971–1973 discovery of opiate receptors: Candace Pert, Solomon H. Snyder1971–1975 invention of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): Paul Lauterbur, Peter Mansfield, Raymond Vahan Damadian, and others (see 2003 Nobel Prize in


id: scientific-research-on-the-international-space-station-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_research_on_the_International_Space_Station-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific research on the International Space Station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_research_on_the_International_Space_Station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:21.358987+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-research-on-the-international-space-station-20260505-0
summary:
The International Space Station is a platform for scientific research that requires one or more of the unusual conditions present in low Earth orbit (for example microgravity, (cosmic) -radiation and extreme temperatures). The primary fields of research include human research, space medicine, life sciences, physical sciences, astronomy and meteorology. The 2005 NASA Authorization Act designated the American segment of the International Space Station as a national laboratory with the goal of increasing the use of the ISS by other federal agencies and the private sector. Research on the ISS improves knowledge about the effects of long-term space exposure on the human body. Subjects currently under study include muscle atrophy, bone loss, and fluid shift. The data will be used to determine whether space colonization and lengthy human spaceflight are feasible. As of 2006, data on bone loss and muscular atrophy suggest that there would be a significant risk of fractures and movement problems if astronauts landed on a planet after a lengthy interplanetary cruise (such as the six-month journey time required to fly to Mars). Large scale medical studies are conducted aboard the ISS via the National Space Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI). Prominent among these is the Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound


id: scientific-research-on-the-international-space-station-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_research_on_the_International_Space_Station-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientific research on the International Space Station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_research_on_the_International_Space_Station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:21.358987+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-research-on-the-international-space-station-20260505-0
summary:
Ryutai Experiment Rack (Ryutai) Fluid Physics Experiment Facility (FPEF) Solution Crystallization Observation Facility (SCOF) Protein Crystallization Research Facility (PCRF) Image Processing Unit (IPU) Kobairo Rack : Gradient Heating Furnace (GHF) Saibo Experiment Rack (Saibo) Cell Biology Experiment Facility (CBEF) Clean Bench (CB) Lab Support Equipments and other smaller instruments The Minus Eighty Degree Celsius Laboratory Freezer for the International Space Station (MELFI) Biological Experiment Unit (BEU) High Definition TeleVision transmitting system (HDTV) Passive Dosimeter for Life Science Experiments in Space (PADLES) Human Research Facility Holter Monitor Payload Laptop Terminal (PLT) Microgravity Measurement Apparatus (MMA), Utility DC/DC Converter Unit (UDC) External scientific hardware: Japanese Experiment Module - Exposed Facility === Poisk === Multipurpose workstation (MWS) === ISS small hardware === Actiwatch (Actiwatch) BioServe Culture Apparatus (BCA) Biological Research in Canisters for OptiCells (BRIC-Opti) Human Research Facility Continuous Blood Pressure Device (CBPD) Hand Grip Dynamometer Pinch Force Dynamometer (HGD-PFD) Human Research Facility Holter Monitor (Holter) Kennedy Space Center Fixation Tube (KFT) Portable Clinical Blood Analyzer - i-STAT (PCBA) Radiation Area Monitor (RAM) Tissue Equivalent Proportional Counter (TEPC) Urine Monitoring System (UMS) Vegetable Production System (Veggie) === ISS sub-rack === Advanced Biological Research System (ABRS) Advanced Protein Crystallization Facility (APCF) ARCTIC Refrigerator-Freezer (ARCTIC)


id: scientific-research-on-the-international-space-station-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_research_on_the_International_Space_Station-2.md
category: reference
title: Scientific research on the International Space Station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_research_on_the_International_Space_Station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:21.358987+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-research-on-the-international-space-station-20260505-0
summary:
==== Cardiovascular and pulmonary systems ==== Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Control on Return from ISS (CCISS) Cardiac Atrophy and Diastolic Dysfunction During and After Long Duration Spaceflight: Functional Consequences for Orthostatic Intolerance, Exercise Capability and Risk for Cardiac Arrhythmias (Integrated_Cardiovascular) Test of Midodrine as a Countermeasure Against Post-flight Orthostatic Hypotension - Long (Midodrine-Long) Test of Midodrine as a Countermeasure Against Post-flight Orthostatic Hypotension - Short Duration Biological Investigation (Midodrine-SDBI) The Effects of EVA and Long-Term Exposure to Microgravity on Pulmonary Function (PuFF) Evaluation of Maximal Oxygen Uptake and Submaximal Estimates of VO2max Before, During, and After Long Duration International Space Station Missions (VO2max) Effect of Microgravity on the Peripheral Subcutaneous Veno-Arteriolar Reflex in Humans (Xenon1) ==== Crew healthcare systems ==== IntraVenous Fluid GENeration for Exploration Missions (IVGEN) Stability of Pharmacotherapeutic and Nutritional Compounds (Stability) ==== Human behaviour and performance ==== Bodies In the Space Environment was an experiment run from 2009 to 2010 studying how people perceive relative direction in space. Crewmember and Crew-Ground Interaction During International Space Station Missions (Interactions) Behavioral Issues Associated with Isolation and Confinement: Review and Analysis of ISS Crew Journals (Journals) Sleep-Wake Actigraphy and Light Exposure During Spaceflight-Long (Sleep-Long) Sleep-Wake Actigraphy and Light Exposure During Spaceflight-Short


id: scientific-research-on-the-international-space-station-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_research_on_the_International_Space_Station-3.md
category: reference
title: Scientific research on the International Space Station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_research_on_the_International_Space_Station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:21.358987+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-research-on-the-international-space-station-20260505-0
summary:
==== Plant biology ==== Advanced AstrocultureTM (ADVASC) Biomass Production System (BPS) Cambium (Cambium) Cell Wall/Reverse Genetic Approach to Exploring Genes Responsible for Cell Wall Dynamics in Supporting Tissues of Arabidopsis Under Microgravity Conditions and Resist Wall/Role of Microtubule-Membrane-Cell Wall Continuum in Gravity Resistance in Plants (CWRW) Gravity Related Genes in Arabidopsis - A (Genara-A) Threshold Acceleration for Gravisensing (Gravi) Threshold Acceleration for Gravisensing - 2 (Gravi-2) Validating Vegetable Production Unit (VPU) Plants, Protocols, Procedures and Requirements (P3R) Using Currently Existing Flight Resources (Lada-VPU-P3R) Molecular and Plant Physiological Analyses of the Microgravity Effects on Multigeneration Studies of Arabidopsis thaliana (Multigen) National Laboratory Pathfinder - Cells - 3: Jatropha Biofuels (NLP-Cells-3) The Optimization of Root Zone Substrates (ORZS) for Reduced Gravity Experiments Program (ORZS) Photosynthesis Experiment and System Testing and Operation (PESTO) Plant Generic Bioprocessing Apparatus (PGBA) Transgenic Arabidopsis Gene Expression System (TAGES) Analysis of a Novel Sensory Mechanism in Root Phototropism (Tropi) ==== Protein crystallization ==== Advanced Protein Crystallization Facility - Extraordinary Structural Features of Antibodies from Camelids (APCF-Camelids) Advanced Protein Crystallization Facility - Solution Flows and Molecular Disorder of Protein Crystals: Growth of High Quality Crystals, Motions of Lumazin Crystals and Growth of Ferritin Crystals (APCF-Crystal_Growth) Advanced Protein Crystallization Facility


id: scientific-research-on-the-international-space-station-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_research_on_the_International_Space_Station-4.md
category: reference
title: Scientific research on the International Space Station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_research_on_the_International_Space_Station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:21.358987+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-research-on-the-international-space-station-20260505-0
summary:
==== Spacecraft systems ==== Boiling eXperiment Facility - Microheater Array Boiling Experiment (BXF-MABE) Boiling eXperiment Facility - Nucleate Pool Boiling eXperiment (BXF-NPBX) Dust and Aerosol Measurement Feasibility Test (DAFT) Delay Tolerant Networking (DTN) Maui Analysis of Upper Atmospheric Injections (MAUI) Multi-User Droplet Combustion Apparatus - Flame Extinguishment Experiment (MDCA-FLEX) Smoke and Aerosol Measurement Experiment (SAME) Space Communications and Navigation Testbed (SCAN_Testbed) Shuttle Exhaust Ion Turbulence Experiments (SEITE) Shuttle Ionospheric Modification with Pulsed Localized Exhaust Experiments (SIMPLEX) Serial Network Flow Monitor (SNFM) ==== Spacecraft and orbital environments ==== Atmospheric Neutral Density Experiment - 2 (ANDE-2) Ram Burn Observations (RAMBO) Space Test Program-H2-Atmospheric Neutral Density Experiment (STP-H2-ANDE) ==== Other experiments ==== DEBris In Orbit Evaluator - 2 (DEBIE-2) EuTEF Thermometer (EuTemp) Earth Viewing Camera (EVC) Activation and Test Downlink of HDTV System (JAXA-HDTV) Particle Flux Demonstrator (Particle_Flux) Tribology Laboratory (TriboLab) === Earth and space science === ==== Earth science ==== Agricultural Camera (AgCam) Crew Earth Observations (CEO) Crew Earth Observations - International Polar Year (CEO-IPY) ISS-RapidScat ==== Space science ==== Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer - 02 (AMS-02) Neutron Star Interior Composition Explorer (NICER) ==== Other monitors and observatories from the field ==== DOSimetry TELescopes (DOSTEL) Flux (Phi) Probe EXperiment - Time resolved Measurement


id: solubility-table-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solubility_table-0.md
category: reference
title: Solubility table
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solubility_table
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:22.593439+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: solubility-table-20260505-0
summary:
The tables below provides information on the variation of solubility of different substances (mostly inorganic compounds) in water with temperature, at one atmosphere pressure. Units of solubility are given in grams of substance per 100 millilitres of water (g/100 ml), unless shown otherwise. The substances are listed in Latin alphabetical order. == Tables == === A === === B === === C === === D and E === === F and G === === H === === I === === L === === M === === N and O === === P === === R === === S === === T === === U, V, and X === === Y === === Z === == References == Chemicalc v4.0 - software that includes data on solubility Learning, Food resources Kaye and Laby Online ChemBioFinder.com(registration required) == External links == Solubility Database - International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry / National Institute of Standards and Technology CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics - Online resource that includes solubility data (requires subscription)


id: outline-of-space-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_space_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of space science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_space_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:23.697522+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-space-science-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview and topical guide to space science: Space science – field that encompasses all of the scientific disciplines that involve space exploration and study natural phenomena and physical bodies occurring in outer space, such as space medicine and astrobiology. == Branches of space sciences == === Astronomy === See astronomical object for a list of specific types of entities which scientists study. See Earth's location in the universe for an orientation. Subfields of astronomy: Astrophysics – branch of astronomy that deals with the physics of the universe, including the physical properties of celestial objects, as well as their interactions and behavior. Among the objects studied are galaxies, stars, planets, exoplanets, the interstellar medium and the cosmic microwave background; and the properties examined include luminosity, density, temperature, and chemical composition. The subdisciplines of theoretical astrophysics are: Computational astrophysics – The study of astrophysics using computational methods and tools to develop computational models. Plasma astrophysics – studies properties of plasma in outer space. Space physics – study of plasmas as they occur naturally in the Earth's upper atmosphere (aeronomy) and within the Solar System. Solar physics – Sun and its interaction with the remainder of


id: list-of-topics-in-space-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_in_space-0.md
category: reference
title: List of topics in space
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_in_space
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:24.931720+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-in-space-20260505-0
summary:
List of topics in space; topics as related to outer space. Accidents in space Animals in space Architecture in space Batteries in space Christmas in space Corrosion in space Death in space Dogs in space Dust in space Economy in space (Mining in space) Garbage in space Humans in space Hygiene in space Industry in space Interstellar and circumstellar molecules Locomotion in space Medicine in space Mice in space Microorganisms tested in outer space Monkeys and apes in space Music in space Nuclear power in space Neuroscience in space Plants in space Politics of outer space Religion in space Sex in space Solar power in space Solar power in space for Earth Telescopes in space Tourism in space War in space Weapons in space Weather in space Women in space Writing in space == See also == Outer space Spaceflight Space-based radar Space-based solar power Space and survival Space science Space station Space technology


id: index-of-structural-engineering-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_structural_engineering_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of structural engineering articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_structural_engineering_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:26.101834+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-structural-engineering-articles-20260505-0
summary:
This is an alphabetical list of articles pertaining specifically to structural engineering. For a broad overview of engineering, please see List of engineering topics. For biographies please see List of engineers. == A == A-frame – Aerodynamics – Aeroelasticity – Air-supported structure – Airframe – Aluminium – Analytical method – Angular frequency – Angular speed – Architecture – Architectural engineering – Arch – Arch bridge == B == Base isolation – Beam – Beam axle – Bending – Bifurcation theory – Biomechanics – Boat Building – Body-on-frame – Box girder bridge – Box truss – Bridge engineering – Buckling – Building – Building construction – Building engineering == C == Cable – Cable-stayed bridge – Cantilever – Cantilever bridge – Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer – Casing – Casting – Catastrophic failure – Center of mass – Chaos theory – Chassis – Chimneys – Coachwork – Coefficient of thermal expansion – Coil spring – Columns – Composite material – Composite structure – Compression – Compressive stress – Concrete – Concrete cover – Construction – Construction engineering – Construction management – Continuum mechanics – Corrosion – Crane – Creep – Crumple zone – Curvature == D == Dam – Damper – Damping ratio –


id: table-of-historic-and-prehistoric-climate-indicators-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_historic_and_prehistoric_climate_indicators-0.md
category: reference
title: Table of historic and prehistoric climate indicators
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_historic_and_prehistoric_climate_indicators
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:28.463102+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: table-of-historic-and-prehistoric-climate-indicators-20260505-0
summary:
This table is a reference tool for rapidly locating Wikipedia articles on Historic and Prehistoric climate indicators of all types. To Add: Alkenone analysis TEX-86 analysis Nile river flood levels Trace mineral ratios in deltaic sediment Wildlife distribution Pollen analysis Historic storm-related sinkings Sea temperature and atmospheric pressure (ENSO) Scientific meteorological measurements (since 1800s) air temperature air pressure wind speed and direction Ocean currents and marine productivity Flooding and drought observations on land Volcanic activity Elevated charcoal in lake sediments Sand dune activation records Eolian (wind-borne) sediment deposition == See also == == References ==


id: list-of-taxa-named-after-human-genitals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_taxa_named_after_human_genitals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of taxa named after human genitals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_taxa_named_after_human_genitals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:29.595130+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-taxa-named-after-human-genitals-20260505-0
summary:
This a list of species, genera, and other biological taxa named after human genitals. == Epithets == pubescens. The word originates from the Latin pubes, 'adult, full-grown'; "genital area, groin" (e.g., Pubis); 'the down or soft hair which begins to grow on young persons when they come to the age of puberty'. The use of the term in biology to refer to hairiness or soft down is recorded since 1760 for plants and since 1826 for insects. vaginalis. The common specific name is derived from the Latin vagina, originally meaning 'sheath, scabbard, covering; sheath of an ear of grain, hull, husk'. The specific epithet may refer to a sheathed trait or habit of an organism (e.g. Alysicarpus vaginalis), or may refer to resemblance/relation to the vagina (e.g. Gardnerella vaginalis) == Plants == === Families === Orchidaceae. The type genus is Orchis, whose name comes from the Ancient Greek ὄρχις (órkhis), literally meaning 'testicle', because of the shape of the twin tubers in some species of Orchis. === Subtribes === Clitoriinae === Genera === Amorphophallus Clitoria Clitoriopsis Orchis === Species === Alysicarpus vaginalis Baumea vaginalis Chenopodium vulvaria Festuca vaginalis Pontederia vaginalis === Varieties === Capsicum annum var. annum 'penis pepper' ==


id: list-of-tests-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tests-0.md
category: reference
title: List of tests
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tests
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:30:30.891991+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-tests-20260505-0
summary:
The following is an alphabetized and categorized list of notable tests. == Clinical psychology tests == == Cognitive development tests == == Intelligence tests == Cattell Culture Fair Kohs block Woodcock–Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities Multidimensional Aptitude Battery II Leiter International Performance Scale Miller Analogies Test Otis–Lennon School Ability Test Raven's Progressive Matrices Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales Sternberg Triarchic Abilities Test Turing test Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence Wonderlic Test Iq test Trust metric == Medical tests == == Self tests == == Statistical tests == Ames test Chi-squared test Draize test Dixon's Q test F-test Fisher's exact test GRIM test Kolmogorov–Smirnov test Kuiper's test Likelihood-ratio test Median test Mann–Whitney U test Pearson's chi-squared test Rank product test Shapiro–Wilk test Statistical hypothesis testing Student's t-test Tukey's range test Tukey's test of additivity Welch's t test == Personality tests == == Pure-mathematical tests == == Skills assessment tests == Student assessment test Scantron test Bourdon–Wiersma test Graduate Management Admission Test Graduate Record Examination (GRE) GRE Physics Test HESI exam Japanese-Language Proficiency Test Medical College Admission Test SAT college entrance test Screen test == Language tests == IELTS (International English Language Testing


