# kb

id: lists-of-prehistoric-fish-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_prehistoric_fish-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of prehistoric fish
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_prehistoric_fish
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:20:26.884768+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-prehistoric-fish-20260505-0
summary:
Prehistoric fish are early fish that are known only from fossil records. They are the earliest known vertebrates, and include the first and extinct fish that lived through the Cambrian to the Quaternary. The study of prehistoric fish is called paleoichthyology. A few living forms, such as the coelacanth are also referred to as prehistoric fish, or even living fossils, due to their current rarity and similarity to extinct forms. Fish which have become recently extinct are not usually referred to as prehistoric fish. Lists of various prehistoric fishes include: List of prehistoric jawless fish List of placoderms List of acanthodians List of prehistoric cartilaginous fish List of prehistoric bony fish List of indeterminate prehistoric percomorph genera List of sarcopterygians == See also == Evolution of fish Prehistoric life Vertebrate paleontology == References == == Further reading == Janvier, Philippe (1998) Early Vertebrates, Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-854047-7 Long, John A. (1996) The Rise of Fishes: 500 Million Years of Evolution, Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-5438-5 == External links == Fossil Fish


id: list-of-fossil-parks-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_parks-0.md
category: reference
title: List of fossil parks
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_parks
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:20:31.281395+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fossil-parks-20260505-0
summary:
Following is a list of protected areas where fossils are preserved, known as fossil parks or fossil reserves, worldwide by country. == Africa == === Egypt === Wadi Al-Hitan - Valley of The Whales, Fayyoum, Western Desert === South Africa === West Coast Fossil Park, Langebaanweg, Western Cape === Tanzania === == Asia == === India === There are two geological parks maintained by the Geological Survey of India: Dinosaur Fossils National Park, Dhar, Madhya Pradesh Shivalik Fossil Park, Saketi, H.P. Salkhan Fossils Park, Sonbhadra, U.P. Mandla Plant Fossils National Park Indroda Dinosaur and Fossil Park, Gandhinagar, Gujarat National Fossil Wood Park, Tiruvakkarai National Fossil Wood Park, Sathanur Akal Wood Fossil Park, Jaisalmer, Rajasthan Amkhoi Fossil Park, West Bengal. === Japan === Sendai City Tomizawa Site Museum houses a fossilized forest and human artifacts === Thailand === == Australia == === Australia === ==== Victoria ==== Dinosaur Dreaming Dinosaur Cove ==== Queensland ==== Riversleigh ==== South Australia ==== Lake Callabonna Fossil Reserve Lake Ngapakaldi to Lake Palankarinna Fossil Area Maslin Bay - Aldinga Bay Geological Site Naracoorte Caves National Park Nilpena Ediacara National Park Willalinchina Sandstone Fossil Flora site, near Woomera == North America == === Canada === Ancient Echoes


id: list-of-fossil-sites-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_sites-0.md
category: reference
title: List of fossil sites
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_sites
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:20:32.506792+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fossil-sites-20260505-0
summary:
This list of fossil sites is a worldwide list of localities known well for the presence of fossils. Some entries in this list are notable for a single, unique find, while others are notable for the large number of fossils found there. Many of the entries in this list are considered Lagerstätten (sedimentary deposits that exhibits extraordinary fossils with exceptional preservation—sometimes including preserved soft tissues). Lagerstätten are indicated by a note () in the noteworthiness column. Fossils may be found either associated with a geological formation or at a single geographic site. Geological formations consist of rock that was deposited during a specific period of time. They usually extend for large areas, and sometimes there are different important sites in which the same formation is exposed. Such sites may have separate entries if they are considered to be more notable than the formation as a whole. In contrast, extensive formations associated with large areas may be equivalently represented at many locations. Such formations may be listed either without a site, with a site or sites that represent the type locality, or with multiple sites of note. When a type locality is listed as the site for a formation with many


id: lists-of-fossiliferous-stratigraphic-units-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_fossiliferous_stratigraphic_units-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of fossiliferous stratigraphic units
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_fossiliferous_stratigraphic_units
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:20:33.899571+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-fossiliferous-stratigraphic-units-20260505-0
summary:
== By location == Lists of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in Africa List of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in Antarctica Lists of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in Asia List of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in the Caribbean Lists of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in Europe Lists of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in North America Lists of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in Canada Lists of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in the United States Lists of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in Oceania Lists of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in South America == By preserved taxon == List of dinosaur-bearing stratigraphic units List of phytosaur-bearing stratigraphic units List of plesiosaur-bearing stratigraphic units List of pterosaur-bearing stratigraphic units List of thalattosuchian-bearing stratigraphic units == See also == List of fossil sites Paleontology lists Paleontological sites Stratigraphy


id: list-of-lagerst-tten-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_lagerstätten-0.md
category: reference
title: List of lagerstätten
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_lagerstätten
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:20:36.097809+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-lagerst-tten-20260505-0
summary:
The list of Lagerstätten is a documentation of Lagerstätte fossils sites around the world, arranged by geologic age. These are characterized by exceptional preservation of fossil organisms, regularly including many well-preserved animals and their soft tissue remains. The extent of Lagerstätten deposits can range from a select site or stratigraphic layer to a whole formation or group. Some sites that one author calls a single Lagerstätte may be called multiple by another (such as the Jehol Biota and the Yixian/Jiufotang Formations). This list attempts to note this in the text and provide the formation or stratigraphic unit from which a site came. == Criteria == Sites on the list must either: Be referred to as a Lagerstätte within the main text of at least one scientific publication. Similar terms, such as 'exceptional preservation', do not qualify. Have fossils that fulfill the criteria of Konservat-Lagerstätte as set within Kimmig & Julien (2024): Konservat-Lagerstätten are characterized by exceptional preservation, and at least 5% of the fossils recovered from a site must preserve either soft tissue remains or nearly complete individuals, preferably both. == List == === Precambrian === === Cambrian === === Ordovician === === Silurian === === Devonian === === Carboniferous


id: list-of-non-dinosauria-fossil-trackway-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_non-Dinosauria_fossil_trackway_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: List of non-Dinosauria fossil trackway articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_non-Dinosauria_fossil_trackway_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:20:37.267674+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-non-dinosauria-fossil-trackway-articles-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of articles relating to fossil trackways that are outside the category of the numerous fossil dinosaur articles – that refer to tracks or trackways. == List of non-Dinosauria fossil trackway articles == Archaeotherium Arthropleura Chirotherium; (only a related species known) Climactichnites Cruziana Dromornithidae Eurypterid Hibbertopterus Laetoli Laetoli footprints Pterosaur Tetrapod Trace fossil Trilobite === Location, site articles === Chuckanut Formation Coconino Sandstone Ipolytarnóc Minas Basin; "fish-fin" trackway Valentia Island == See also == Protichnites Trace fossil


id: list-of-paleotempestology-records-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_paleotempestology_records-0.md
category: reference
title: List of paleotempestology records
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_paleotempestology_records
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:20:38.755428+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-paleotempestology-records-20260505-0
summary:
Paleotempestology is the study of past tropical cyclone activity by means of geological proxies as well as historical documentary records. The term was coined by American meteorologist Kerry Emanuel. == Examples == === Non-tropical examples === == See also == Tropical cyclone Tropical cyclone observation Tropical cyclones and climate change == Notes == == References == === Citations === === General sources === == Further reading == Elsner, James B.; Kara, A. Birol (1999). Hurricanes of the North Atlantic: Climate and Society. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 49–51, 378. ISBN 978-0-19-512508-5. Huang, Yun (2009-01-01). "Sediment records of modern and prehistoric hurricane strikes in Weeks Bay, Alabama". LSU Master's Theses. doi:10.31390/gradschool_theses.1922. S2CID 135330841. Kar, Devyani (2010-01-01). "Integration of paleotempestology with coastal risk and vulnerability assessment: case studies from the Dominican Republic and Nicaragua". LSU Doctoral Dissertations. doi:10.31390/gradschool_dissertations.2009. S2CID 134409924. Knowles, Jason (2004-01-01). "Coastal lake-sediment records of prehistoric hurricane strikes in Honduras and Turks and Caicos Islands of the Caribbean basin". LSU Master's Theses. doi:10.31390/gradschool_theses.3433. S2CID 134921929. Liu, Kam-biu (2004). "Paleotempestology: Principles, Methods, and Examples from Gulf Coast Lake Sediments". In Murnane, R. J.; Liu, Kam-biu (eds.). Hurricanes and Typhoons: Past, Present, and Future. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 13–57.


id: list-of-lost-fossil-sites-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_lost_fossil_sites-0.md
category: reference
title: List of lost fossil sites
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_lost_fossil_sites
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:20:39.936510+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-lost-fossil-sites-20260505-0
summary:
This list of lost fossil sites is a list of localities in which abundant, well-preserved, or scientifically significant fossils were once found but are no longer available due to the destruction, inaccessibility or overcollection of the fossils preserved therein. == The list == == See also == List of lost, damaged, or destroyed dinosaur specimens


id: paleobiota-of-the-ca-ad-n-asfalto-formation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobiota_of_the_Cañadón_Asfalto_Formation-0.md
category: reference
title: Paleobiota of the Cañadón Asfalto Formation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobiota_of_the_Cañadón_Asfalto_Formation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:20:41.216146+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: paleobiota-of-the-ca-ad-n-asfalto-formation-20260505-0
summary:
The Cañadón Asfalto Formation is a geological formation which dates to the Toarcian age of the Early Jurassic period of Argentina. The rocks of the formation preserve a diverse biota, including plants, dinosaurs, invertebrates, mammals and pterosaurs, among others. The formation is divided into two members: the lower Las Chacritas Member, and the overlying Puesto Almada member, though the latter has also been assigned to the overlying Cañadón Calcáreo Formation by some authors. The members are typically composed of fluvial-lacustrine deposits consisting of sandstones and shales, with a limestone carbonate evaporitic sequence also being present in the lower of the two. == Invertebrates == === Demospongiae === === Crustacea === === Mollusca === === Insecta === Insect eggs of unknown affinity were reported from several layers of the Estancia Fossati locality. == Vertebrates == === Fish === === Amphibians === === Turtles === === Lepidosaurs === === Crocodylomorpha === === Pterosaurs === === Dinosaurs === ==== Theropods ==== During a campaign conducted in early 2021, remains of a large theropod dinosaur were found near the town of Las Chacritas. In 2020 a new fossil locality was found, named Cañadón de las Huellas, due to the large number of sauropods, and


id: paleobiota-of-the-djadochta-formation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobiota_of_the_Djadochta_Formation-0.md
category: reference
title: Paleobiota of the Djadochta Formation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobiota_of_the_Djadochta_Formation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:20:42.425794+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: paleobiota-of-the-djadochta-formation-20260505-0
summary:
The Djadochta Formation (sometimes spelled Djadokhta, Djadokata, or Dzhadokhtskaya) is a geological formation in the Gobi Desert of Mongolia. It dates to the Campanian stage of the Late Cretaceous and is famous for its dinosaur fossils including Oviraptor, Protoceratops, and Velociraptor. It is also known for a high diversity of mammal and lizard fossils, and a complete catalogue of its fossil contents is shown below. == Vertebrates == === Amphibians === === Crocodylomorphs === === Lizards === === Mammals === ==== Multituberculates ==== ==== Therians ==== === Pterosaurs === === Turtles === === Dinosaurs === ==== Ankylosaurids ==== ==== Marginocephalians ==== ==== Ornithopods ==== ==== Sauropods ==== ==== Theropods ==== ===== Alvarezsaurs ===== ===== Birds ===== ===== Dromaeosaurs ===== ===== Non-maniraptoran theropods ===== ===== Oviraptorosaurs ===== ===== Troodontids ===== == Flora == == See also == Fighting Dinosaurs Flaming Cliffs List of Asian dinosaurs List of pterosaur-bearing stratigraphic units List of stratigraphic units with dinosaur body fossils Paleobiota of the Yixian Formation Roy Chapman Andrews == References ==


id: paleobiota-of-the-hell-creek-formation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobiota_of_the_Hell_Creek_Formation-0.md
category: reference
title: Paleobiota of the Hell Creek Formation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobiota_of_the_Hell_Creek_Formation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:20:44.233790+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: paleobiota-of-the-hell-creek-formation-20260505-0
summary:
This is an overview of the fossil flora and fauna of the Maastrichtian-Danian Hell Creek Formation. == Invertebrates == === Insects === Insects from the groups Diptera, Zygoptera, and possibly Hemiphlebiidae have been unearthed in Hell Creek in amber. Fossils found in the Hell Creek Formation and the Fort Union Formation of these insects went extinct during the K-T Event. === Molluscs === == Amphibians == == Fish == === Bony fish === === Cartilaginous fish === == Dinosaurs == A paleo-population study is one of the most difficult of analyses to conduct in field paleontology. Here is the most recent estimate of the proportions of the eight most common dinosaurian families in the Hell Creek Formation, based on detailed field studies by White, Fastovsky and Sheehan. Ceratopsidae 61% Hadrosauridae 23% Ornithomimidae 5% Tyrannosauridae 4% Hypsilophodontidae 3% Dromaeosauridae 2% Pachycephalosauridae 1% Ankylosauridae 1% Troodontidae 1% (represented only by teeth) Outcrops sampled by the Hell Creek Project were divided into three sections: lower, middle and upper slices. The top and bottom sections were the focus of the PLoS One report, and within each portion many remains of Triceratops, Edmontosaurus, and Tyrannosaurus were found. Triceratops was the most common in each section,


id: paleobiota-of-the-hell-creek-formation-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobiota_of_the_Hell_Creek_Formation-1.md
category: reference
title: Paleobiota of the Hell Creek Formation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobiota_of_the_Hell_Creek_Formation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:20:44.233790+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: paleobiota-of-the-hell-creek-formation-20260505-0
summary:
==== Eumaniraptorans ==== Historically, numerous teeth have been attributed to various dromaeosaurid and troodontid taxa with known body fossils from only older formations, including Saurornithoides, Zapsalis, Dromaeosaurus, Saurornitholestes, and Troodon. However, in a 2013 study, Evans et al. concluded that there is little evidence for more than a single dromaeosaurid taxon, Acheroraptor, in the Hell Creek-Lance assemblages, which would render these taxa invalid for this formation. This was seemingly disproven in 2015, when DePalma et al., described the new genus Dakotaraptor, a large species of dromaeosaur. However, Dakotaraptor's validity has been called into question since, as the holotype may be a chimeric assemblage of various non-dromaeosaurid coelurosaurians. Fossilized teeth of various troodontids and coelurosaurs are common throughout the Hell Creek Formation; the best known examples include Paronychodon, Pectinodon and Richardoestesia, respectively. Teeth belonging to possible intermediate species of Dromaeosaurus and Saurornitholestes have been unearthed at the Hell Creek Formation and the nearby Lance Formation. == Pterosaurs == Undescribed pterosaur remains were reported from North Dakota. Undescribed pteranodontian specimen has also been mentioned in the supplementary material of Longrich et al. (2018). == Crocodylomorphs == == Turtles == == Squamata == == Choristoderans == == Mammals == === Multituberculates === ===


id: paleobiota-of-the-hell-creek-formation-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobiota_of_the_Hell_Creek_Formation-2.md
category: reference
title: Paleobiota of the Hell Creek Formation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobiota_of_the_Hell_Creek_Formation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:20:44.233790+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: paleobiota-of-the-hell-creek-formation-20260505-0
summary:
There is evidence of transitional floras in the middle of the Hell Creek Formation as shown by HCII and HCIII zones. The HCII flora represents a transitional period where taxa from the lower Hell Creek are replaced by the HCIII flora. The diversity of the HCIII zone is very high, and its composition is more uniform than that of HCII, many of which were rare or absent from the zones below, and some others that used to be common below became rarer in the HCIII zone. These forms include Elatides longifolia, "Dryophyllum" tennessensis, Liriodendrites bradacii, and many members of the Laurales including Bisonia niemii, "Ficus" planicostata, and Marmarthia trivialis, while "Celastrus" taurenensis, Leepierceia preartocarpoides, and many cupressaceous conifers became rarer. This phenomenon suggests that the global temperature was warming during the last 300,000-500,000 years of the Cretaceous period. There is no evidence of fern prairie in the Hell Creek Formation. However, there was high angiosperm diversity — common plane trees, "Dryophyllum" subfalcatum, Leepierceia preartocarpoides, and sabal palms — along with extinct cycadeoid Nilssoniocladus, Ginkgo, araucariaceous, Taxodiaceous, and cupressaceous conifers. This represents the mixed deciduous and evergreen broad-leaved forest of the Hell Creek landscape. The nature of these forests is uncertain


id: paleobiota-of-the-hell-creek-formation-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobiota_of_the_Hell_Creek_Formation-3.md
category: reference
title: Paleobiota of the Hell Creek Formation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobiota_of_the_Hell_Creek_Formation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:20:44.233790+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: paleobiota-of-the-hell-creek-formation-20260505-0
summary:
=== Bibliography === General Broad, William J.; Chang, Kenneth (29 March 2019), "Fossil Site Reveals Day That Meteor Hit Earth and, Maybe, Wiped Out Dinosaurs", The New York Times Preston, Douglas (2019), "The Day the Dinosaurs Died", The New Yorker, p. 1, retrieved 2019-04-01 U.S. National, Park Service (1966), National Natural Landmarks - National Natural Landmarks (U.S. National Park Service), www.nps.gov, p. 1, retrieved 2019-03-22 Geology DePalma, Robert A.; Smit, Jan; Burnham, David A.; Kuiper, Klaudia; Manning, Phillip L.; Oleinik, Anton; Larson, Peter; Maurrasse, Florentin J.; Vellekoop, Johan; Richards, Mark A.; Gurche, Loren; Alvarez, Walter (2019), "A seismically induced onshore surge deposit at the K-Pg boundary, North Dakota", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116 (17): 8190–8199, Bibcode:2019PNAS..116.8190D, doi:10.1073/pnas.1817407116, PMC 6486721, PMID 30936306 Bibcode:2019PNAS..116.8190D Evans, D.C.; Larson, D.W.; Currie, P.J. (2013), "A new dromaeosaurid (Dinosauria: Theropoda) with Asian affinities from the latest Cretaceous of North America", Naturwissenschaften, 100 (11): 1041–1049, Bibcode:2013NW....100.1041E, doi:10.1007/s00114-013-1107-5, PMID 24248432 Bibcode:2013NW....100.1041E Husson, D.; Galbrun, B.; Laskar, J.; Hinnov, L.A.; Thibault, N.; Gardin, S.; Locklair, R.E. (2011), "Astronomical calibration of the Maastrichtian (late Cretaceous)", Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 305 (3): 328–340, Bibcode:2011E&PSL.305..328H, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2011.03.008 Bibcode:2011E&PSL.305..328H LeCain, Rebecca (2010), "Magnetostratigraphy of the Hell Creek and lower Fort


id: paleobiota-of-the-yixian-formation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobiota_of_the_Yixian_Formation-0.md
category: reference
title: Paleobiota of the Yixian Formation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleobiota_of_the_Yixian_Formation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:20:45.785312+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: paleobiota-of-the-yixian-formation-20260505-0
summary:
The Yixian Formation (simplified Chinese: 义县组; traditional Chinese: 義縣組; pinyin: Yìxiàn zǔ) is a geological formation in Jinzhou, Liaoning, People's Republic of China, that spans about 1.6 million years during the early Cretaceous period (Barremian-Aptian stage). It is known for its fossils, listed below. The Yixian Formation is divided into the following subunits: (ages from Zhong et al., 2021 unless otherwise noted) Upper Yixian (124.1 Ma) ("Jingangshan Bed") ("Dawangzhangzi Bed") Upper Lava Unit Jianshangou Unit (125.46 Ma) Lower Lava Unit Lujiatun Unit (125.76–125.68 Ma) == Sauropods == == Ornithischians == The dinosaurs listed below were compiled in a survey by Xu and Norell in 2006, unless otherwise noted. === Ankylosaurs === === Ceratopsians === === Ornithopods === == Theropods == The dinosaurs listed below were compiled in a survey by Xu and Norell in 2006, unless otherwise noted. === Avialans === === Compsognathids === === Dromaeosaurs === === Ornithomimosaurs === === Oviraptorosaurs === === Therizinosaurs === === Troodontids === === Tyrannosaurs and other theropods === == Pterosaurs == The pterosaurs listed below were compiled in a survey by Wang and Zhou in 2006, unless otherwise noted. == Misc. reptiles == === Choristoderans === === Lizards === === Turtles === ==


id: list-of-paleontologists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_paleontologists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of paleontologists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_paleontologists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:20:46.992705+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-paleontologists-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of notable paleontologists who have made significant contributions to the field of paleontology. Only paleontologists with biographical articles in Wikipedia are listed here. == A == == B == == C == == D == == E == == F == == G == == H == == I == Nizar Ibrahim (Germany / Morocco, 1982- ) Thomas Image (England, 1772-1856) Wataru Ishijima (Japan, 1906-1980) Arturo Issel (Italy, 1842-1922) == J == David Jablonski (United States, 1953- ) Auguste Jaccard (Switzerland, 1833-1895) Louis L. Jacobs (United States, 1948- ) Sohan Lal Jain (India) Helen F. James (United States, 1956- ) Werner Janensch (Germany, 1878-1969) Philippe Janvier (France) Erik Jarvik (Sweden, 1829-1901) Dick Jefferies (England) Farish Jenkins (United States, 1940-2012) James A. Jensen (United States, 1918-1998) Kirk Johnson (United States, 1960- ) Frederik Johnstrup (Denmark, 1818-1894) Theobald Jones (Ireland, 1790-1868) Thomas Rupert Jones (England, 1819-1911) == K == == L == == M == == N == Darren Naish (England, 1975- ) Alfred Gabriel Nathorst (Sweden, 1850-1921) Theodor Anton Neagu (Romania, 1932-2017) Sterling Nesbitt (United States, 1982- ) Edwin Tulley Newton (England, 1840-1930) Elizabeth Nicholls (Canada, 1946-2004) Henry Alleyne Nicholson (Scotland, 1844-1899) Adolf Carl Noé (Austria /


id: list-of-small-shelly-fossil-taxa-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_small_shelly_fossil_taxa-0.md
category: reference
title: List of small shelly fossil taxa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_small_shelly_fossil_taxa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:20:48.210973+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-small-shelly-fossil-taxa-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of small shelly fossils of prehistoric marine animals, ordered by their type. == Whole-organism == Namacalathus == Monoplacophoran-like == Yochelsoniella == Scleritome elements == Elements of a scleritome, resembling Halkieria: Halkieria Probable palaeoscolecid worm sclerites: Palaeoscolex Maikhanella Tomotiid-like sclerites: Micrina Eccentrotheca == Conical == Problematic cones: Cyrtochites Paradoxiconus Probable Lobopodian sclerites: Rhombocorniculum Rushtonites Mongolitubulus == Net-like == Microdictyon Onychodictyon Quadrataporata == Sponge spicule-like == Chancelloria == Tubular == Sinotubulites Anabarites Hyolithellus Torellella == See also == Prehistoric marine animals Fossil record of animals Paleontology lists == References == === Inline citations === === Resources referenced === A further list available in Li, G.; Steiner, M.; Zhu, X.; Yang, A.; Wang, H.; Erdtmann, B. D. (2007). "Early Cambrian metazoan fossil record of South China: Generic diversity and radiation patterns". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 254 (1–2): 229–249. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.03.017. More in Steiner, M.; Li, G.; Qian, Y.; Zhu, M. (2004). "Lower Cambrian Small Shelly Fossils of northern Sichuan and southern Shaanxi (China), and their biostratigraphic importance". Geobios. 37 (2): 259. doi:10.1016/j.geobios.2003.08.001.


id: list-of-commonly-used-taxonomic-affixes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_commonly_used_taxonomic_affixes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of commonly used taxonomic affixes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_commonly_used_taxonomic_affixes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:20:49.524905+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-commonly-used-taxonomic-affixes-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of common affixes used when scientifically naming species, particularly extinct species for whom only their scientific names are used, along with their derivations.


id: list-of-commonly-used-taxonomic-affixes-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_commonly_used_taxonomic_affixes-1.md
category: reference
title: List of commonly used taxonomic affixes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_commonly_used_taxonomic_affixes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:20:49.524905+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-commonly-used-taxonomic-affixes-20260505-0
summary:
a-, an-: Pronunciation: /ə/, /a/, /ən/, /an /. Origin: Ancient Greek: ἀ-, ἀν- (a, an-). Meaning: a prefix used to make words with a sense opposite to that of the root word; in this case, meaning 'without' or '-less'. This is usually used to describe organisms without a certain typical characteristic, as well as organisms in which that characteristic may not be immediately obvious. Examples: Anurognathus ('tailless jaw'); Apus ('footless'); Apteryx ('wingless'); Pteranodon ('wings without teeth'); Anura ('tailless'); Anophthalmus ('eyeless'); Aceros ('hornless'); Agnatha ('jawless'); Aceratherium ('hornless beast'); Arrhinoceratops ('noseless horned face'); Apterodon ('teeth without wings') -acanth, acantho-: Pronunciation: /eɪkænθ/, /eɪkænθoʊ/. Origin: Ancient Greek: ἄκανθα (ákantha). Meaning: spine, thorn. Examples: Acanthodes ('spiny base'); Acanthostega ('spine roof'); coelacanth ('hollow spine'); Acrocanthosaurus ('high-spined lizard'); Acanthoderes ('spiny neck'); Acanthamoeba ('spiny amoeba'); Metriacanthosaurus ('moderately-spined lizard'); Holacanthus ('full spine'); Triacanthus ('three spine'); Acanthaster ('spine star'); Acanthocephala ('spine head'), Anisacanthus ('unequal spine'); Acanthoceras ('spine horn'): Acanthogeophilus ('spiny earth-lover'); Acanthosicyos ('spiny gourd'); Acanthophis ('spiny snake'); Acanthomyrmex ('spiny ant') aeto-: Pronunciation: /aɛto/. Origin: Ancient Greek: ἀετός (aetós). Meaning: eagle. Examples: Aetonyx ('eagle claw'); Aetobatus ('eagle ray'); Aetosauria ('eagle lizard'); Ichthyaetus ('fish eagle') afro-: Pronunciation: /ˈafro/. Origin: Latin: afro-. Meaning: African. Examples: Afrovenator (African hunter); Afropithecus (African ape); Afrotheria (African


id: list-of-commonly-used-taxonomic-affixes-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_commonly_used_taxonomic_affixes-2.md
category: reference
title: List of commonly used taxonomic affixes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_commonly_used_taxonomic_affixes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:20:49.524905+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-commonly-used-taxonomic-affixes-20260505-0
summary:
Examples: Artiodactyla ('even toe'); Pterodactylus ('wing finger'); Perissodactyla ('uneven toe'); Ctenodactylus ('comb finger'); Phyllodactylus ('leaf finger'); Hemiphyllodactylus ('half leaf finger'); Odontodactylus ('tooth finger'); Stenodactylus ('narrow finger') -deres, -dira: Origin: Ancient Greek: δέρη (dére). Meaning: neck, collar. Examples: Acanthoderes ('spiny neck'); Cryptodira ('hidden neck'); Pleurodira ('rib neck') -derm: Pronunciation: /dɜrm/. Origin: Ancient Greek: δέρμα (dérma). Meaning: animal hide. Used for skin. Examples: Placodermi ('plated skin'); Echinodermata ('hedgehog skin'); Ostracodermi ('shell skin'); Pachydermata ('thick skin') -delphys, -delphis, delpho-: Pronunciation: /dɜlfɪs/, /dɜlfʊ/. Origin: Ancient Greek: δελφύς ( delphis). Meaning: womb. Used for therian mammals. Examples: Sinodelphys ('Chinese womb'); Didelphis ('two womb'); Didelphodon ('two-womb [ie opossum] tooth'); Delphinus ('with a womb'); Monodelphis ('one womb') dendro-, -dendron, -dendrum: Pronunciation: /dɛn.dɹoʊ/, /ˈdɛndɹən/, /dɛndɹəm/. Origin: Ancient Greek: δένδρον (déndron). Meaning: tree. Examples: Rhododendron ('rose tree'); Liriodendron ('lily tree'); Dendrocnide ('tree nettle'); Epidendrum ('above tree'); Lepidodendron ('scaled tree'); Dendrobates ('tree climber'); Dendrocolaptes ('tree chiseller') di-: Pronunciation: /daɪ/. Origin: Ancient Greek: δίς (dís). Meaning: twice. Used to indicate two of something. Examples: Dilophosaurus ('two crested lizard'); Diceratops ('two-horned face'); diapsid ('two arches'); Didelphis ('two womb'); Dichrostigma ('two-colored brand'); Diprotodon ('two front teeth'); Diceros ('two horn'); Dipus ('two foot') dino-, deino-: Pronunciation: /daɪnoʊ/. Origin: Ancient Greek: δεινός (deinós). Meaning: 'terrible',


id: list-of-commonly-used-taxonomic-affixes-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_commonly_used_taxonomic_affixes-3.md
category: reference
title: List of commonly used taxonomic affixes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_commonly_used_taxonomic_affixes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:20:49.524905+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-commonly-used-taxonomic-affixes-20260505-0
summary:
Examples: Dilophosaurus ('two-crested lizard'); Brachylophosaurus ('short-crested lizard'); Saurolophus ('lizard crest'); Teinolophos ('extended crest'); Lophoceros ('crest horn') lyco-: Pronunciation: /lɪkoʊ/. Origin: Ancient Greek: λύκος (lýkos). Meaning: wolf. Examples: Lycopodium ('wolf foot'); Lycodon ('wolf tooth'); Lycoperdon ('wolf fart') macro-: Pronunciation: /mækroʊ/. Origin: Ancient Greek: μακρός (makrós). Meaning: (correctly) long; (usually) large. Examples: macropod ('big foot'); Macrodontophion ('big tooth snake'); Macrogryphosaurus ('big enigmatic lizard') -maia, maia-: Pronunciation: /meiə/ Origin: Ancient Greek: Μαῖα (Maîa). Meaning: Originally the mother of Hermes in Greek mythology and the goddess of growth in Roman mythology, alternatively spelled Maja. Frequently used to indicate maternal roles, this word should not be construed as translating directly to 'mother' (Latin māter; Ancient Greek μήτηρ mḗtēr); aside from being a proper name, in Ancient Greek 'maîa' can translate to 'midwife' or 'foster mother' and was used as an honorific address for older women, typically translated into English as 'Good Mother'. Examples: Maiasaura ('Good Mother/Maia's lizard'); Eomaia ('dawn Maia'); Juramaia ('Jurassic Maia'); Maiacetus ('mother whale') mega-, megalo-: Pronunciation: /mɛga/, /mɛgaloʊ̯/. Origin: Ancient Greek: μέγας, μεγάλη (mégas, megálē). Meaning: big/great. Examples: Megarachne ('great spider'); Megalosaurus ('great lizard'); megalodon ('great tooth'); Megaloceros ('great horn') micro-: Pronunciation: /maɪkroʊ̯/. Origin: Ancient Greek: μικρός (mikrós). Meaning: 'small'. Examples: Microraptor


id: list-of-commonly-used-taxonomic-affixes-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_commonly_used_taxonomic_affixes-4.md
category: reference
title: List of commonly used taxonomic affixes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_commonly_used_taxonomic_affixes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:20:49.524905+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-commonly-used-taxonomic-affixes-20260505-0
summary:
Used for early appearances in the fossil record. Examples: Protoceratops ('first horned face'); Protognathosaurus ('first jaw lizard'); Protohadros ('first hadrosaur') psittaco-, -psitta: Pronunciation: /sitɑːkoʊ/, /psitə/. Origin: Ancient Greek ψιττακός (psittakós). Meaning: parrot. 'Psittaco-' is used for parrot-like creatures, while the suffix 'psitta' is used for parrots. Examples: Psittacosaurus ('parrot lizard'); Cyclopsitta ('Cyclops parrot'); Xenopsitta ('strange parrot'); Psittaciformes ('parrot form') pter-, ptero-, -pterus, pteryg-, -ptera, -pteryx. Pronunciation: /ter/, /teroʊ/, /pterəs/, /terɪg/, /pterə/, /pterɪx/. Origin: Ancient Greek πτέρυξ, πτέρυγος (pterux, ptérugos). Meaning: wing, of a wing, respectively. Used for many winged creatures, but also expanded to mean 'fin', and used for many undersea arthropods. The suffix '-ptera' is also used in orders of winged insects. Examples: Brachypterygius ('short finned'); Brachyptera ('short wing'); Pteranodon ('toothless wing'); Pterodactylus ('winged finger'); Eurypterus ('wide wing' or fin); Pterygotus ('winged' or finned); Coleoptera ('sheathed wing'); Camaroptera ('arched wing'); Archaeopteryx ('ancient wing'); Stenopterygius ('narrow finned'); Lepidoptera ('scaled wing'); Chiroptera ('hand wing'); Dermoptera ('skin wing'); Raphidioptera ('needle wing'); Rhomboptera ('rhombus wing'); Orthoptera ('straight wing'); Mecoptera ('long wing'); Delphinapterus ('dolphin fin'); Megaloptera ('great wing'); Megaptera ('great fin'); Neopterygii ('new fin'); Titanoptera ('Titan wing'); Sarcopterygii ('flesh fin'); Actinopterygii ('ray fin'); Neuroptera ('net wing') -pus: see -pod, -podo-, -pus. -raptor, raptor-: Pronunciation:


id: list-of-commonly-used-taxonomic-affixes-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_commonly_used_taxonomic_affixes-5.md
category: reference
title: List of commonly used taxonomic affixes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_commonly_used_taxonomic_affixes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:20:49.524905+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-commonly-used-taxonomic-affixes-20260505-0
summary:
Examples: Xenosmilus ('strange knife'); Xenotarsosaurus ('strange ankled lizard'); Xenopsitta ('strange parrot'); Xenocyon ('strange dog'); Xenokeryx ('strange horn'); Xenostega ('strange roof'); Xenozancla ('strange animal'); Xenodermus ('strange skin'); Xenopus ('strange foot'); Xenops ('strange face') -zoon, -zoa: Pronunciation: /zoʊɑːn/, /zoʊə/. Origin: Ancient Greek ζῷον (zōion). Meaning: animal. Used for broad categories of animals, or in certain names of animals. Examples: Metazoa ('encompassing animals'); Parazoa ('near animals'); Ecdysozoa ('moulting animals'); Yunnanozoon ('animal from Yunnan'); Yuyuanozoon ('animal from Yu Yuan'); Hydrozoa ('water animals'); Spermatozoon ('seed animal'); Echinozoa ('hedgehog animals'); Asterozoa ('star animals'); Trilobozoa ('three-lobed animals'); Placozoa ('plate animals'); Amoebozoa ('amoeba animals') == References == == See also == List of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names List of Greek and Latin roots in English List of Latin words with English derivatives List of medical roots, suffixes and prefixes


id: list-of-u-s-state-fossils-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_fossils-0.md
category: reference
title: List of U.S. state fossils
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_fossils
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:20:50.696926+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-u-s-state-fossils-20260505-0
summary:
Most states in the US have designated a state fossil, many during the 1980s. It is common to designate a fossilized species, rather than a single specimen or a category of fossils. State fossils are distinct from other state emblems like state dinosaurs, state stones, state minerals, state gemstones or state rocks and a state may designate one, a few, or all of those. For example, in Arizona, the state stone is turquoise and the state dinosaur is Sonorasaurus thompsoni yet the state fossil is petrified wood. The two first states to designate a state fossil were Nebraska and North Dakota, both in 1967. Six states and the District of Columbia as of March 10th, 2026 still lack an explicit state fossil: Arkansas: There is no state fossil in Arkansas, though the state designated Arkansaurus as its state dinosaur. District of Columbia: Capitalsaurus is the state dinosaur of Washington D.C., but the District has not chosen a state fossil. Florida: There is no state fossil in Florida, though agatised coral, which is a fossil, is the state stone. Hawaii: In history, Hawaii is too young to have many fossils, and its igneous composition makes fossils harder to find. The government


id: white-river-fauna-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_River_Fauna-0.md
category: reference
title: White River Fauna
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_River_Fauna
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:20:52.012385+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: white-river-fauna-20260505-0
summary:
The White River Fauna are fossil animals found in the White River Group of South Dakota, North Dakota, Wyoming, Colorado and Nebraska in the United States. In southwest South Dakota and northwest Nebraska, these fossils are characteristic of the White River Badlands (including Badlands National Park), though they can be found far beyond the limits of the White River watershed. In Wyoming, the White River Group is undifferentiated, and is more commonly known as the White River Formation. Further east in Nebraska and South Dakota, the group is divided into the Chadron Formation (lower part) and Brule Formation (upper part). Exposures are less well-investigated in northeast Colorado and scattered sites across western North Dakota. The White River Group is overlain by the Sharps Formation in Badlands National Park and the Arikaree Group in northwest Nebraska. Animals from the White River Group date from the Eocene and Oligocene epochs. The fauna is representative of four North American Land Mammal Ages (NALMAs): Arikareean (late Oligocene - early Miocene, 29.5 - 18.5 million years ago) Whitneyan (mid-Oligocene, 31.8 - 29.5 million years ago) Orellan (early Oligocene, 33.9 - 31.8 million years ago) Chadronian (late Eocene, 37 - 33.9 million years ago) == Birds


id: list-of-philosophical-organizations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophical_organizations-0.md
category: reference
title: List of philosophical organizations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophical_organizations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:20:54.796861+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-philosophical-organizations-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of philosophical organizations and societies. Academia Analitica American Association of Philosophy Teachers American Catholic Philosophical Association American Ethical Union American Philosophical Association American Philosophical Society American Society for Aesthetics American Society for Political and Legal Philosophy Animal Rights Cambridge Arché (research center) Aristotelian Society Association for Logic, Language and Information Association for Symbolic Logic Association for the Scientific Study of Consciousness Australasian Association of Philosophy Batavian Society for Experimental Philosophy British Philosophical Association British Society for Ethical Theory British Society of Aesthetics Café Philosophique Cambridge Philosophical Society Canadian House of Commons Standing Committee on Access to Information, Privacy and Ethics Canadian Philosophical Association Canadian Society for History and Philosophy of Mathematics Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs Center for Ethics at Yeshiva University Center for Religion, Ethics and Social Policy Center for the Study of Ethics in the Professions Centre de Recherche en Epistémologie Appliquée Centre for Applied Ethics Centre for Applied Philosophy and Public Ethics (CAPPE) Centre for History and Philosophy of Science, University of Leeds Charity International Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington Commission on Federal Ethics Law Reform Committee on Publication Ethics Computer Ethics Institute Concerned Philosophers for Peace Conscious enterprise


id: list-of-philosophies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophies-0.md
category: reference
title: List of philosophies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:20:56.166227+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-philosophies-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of philosophies, schools of thought and philosophical movements. == A == Absurdism – Academic skepticism – Accelerationism - Achintya Bheda Abheda – Action, philosophy of – Actual idealism – Actualism – Advaita Vedanta – Aesthetic Realism – Aesthetics – African philosophy – Afrocentrism – Agential realism – Agnosticism – Agnostic theism – Ajātivāda – Ājīvika – Ajñana – Alexandrian school – Alexandrists – Ambedkarism – American philosophy – Analytical Thomism – Analytic philosophy – Anarchism – Ancient philosophy – Animism – Anomalous monism – Anthropocentrism – Antinatalism – Antinomianism – Antipositivism – Anti-psychiatry – Anti-realism – Antireductionism – Applied ethics – Archaeology, philosophy of – Aristotelianism – Arithmetic, philosophy of – Artificial intelligence, philosophy of – Art, philosophy of – Asceticism – Atheism – Atomism – Augustinianism – Australian realism – Authoritarianism – Averroism – Avicennism – Axiology – Aztec philosophy == B == Baptists – Bayesianism – Behaviorism – Bioconservatism – Biology, philosophy of – Biosophy – Bluestocking – Brahmoism – British idealism – Budapest School – Buddhist atomism – Buddhist philosophy – Business philosophy == C == Cambridge Platonists – Cambridge Ritualists – Capitalism – Carlyleanism – Carolingian Renaissance – Cartesianism – Categorical


id: list-of-philosophies-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophies-1.md
category: reference
title: List of philosophies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_philosophies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:20:56.166227+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-philosophies-20260505-0
summary:
== N == Naïve realism – Naturalism – Natural Science, philosophy of – Natural Supernaturalism – Nature, philosophy of – Nazism – Negative utilitarianism – Neo-Confucianism – Neoconservatism – Neo-Hegelianism – Neohumanism – Neoliberalism – Neo-Luddism – Neo-Kantianism – Neo-Marxism – Neo-medievalism – Neoplatonism – Neopositivism – Neopragmatism – Neopythagoreanism – Neoromanticism – Neo-Scholasticism – Neostoicism – Neotaoism – Neo Vedanta – Neuroethics – Neurophilosophy – Neuroscience, philosophy of – Neurotheology – Neutral monism – New Age – New Criticism – New Culture Movement – New Formalism – New humanism (literature) – New Life Movement – New realism – New Thought – Nichiren Buddhism – Nihilism – Nominalism – Non-cognitivism – Nondualism – Non-philosophy – Non-theism – Nyaya == O == Objective idealism – Objectivism – Occamism – Occasionalism – Olympism – Ontology – Ontotheology – Open individualism – Organicism – Oxford Calculators – Oxford Franciscan school == P == Paganism – Pakistani philosophy – Panbabylonism – Pancasila – Pancritical rationalism – Pandeism – Panentheism – Panpsychism – Pantheism – Pataphysics – Perception, philosophy of – Perennial philosophy – Perfectionism – Peripatetic school – Personalism – Perspectivism – Pessimism – Phenomenalism – Phenomenology – Philosophes – Philosophical anthropology – Philosophy,


id: the-void-in-art-and-media-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Void_in_art_and_media-0.md
category: reference
title: The Void in art and media
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Void_in_art_and_media
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:20:57.417985+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-void-in-art-and-media-20260505-0
summary:
Representation or portrayals of the notion of The Void can be found in popular culture: including visual art, performance art, music, literature and film and video games. In 2011, the Tate Museum in London presented an exhibition titled, Nothing Works: The Void, examining works that spanned over a century, including early 20th century works such as a 1918 work by the painter Kasimir Malevich, and a 1919 work by Marcel Duchamp, mid-century works by conceptual artist, Michael Asher, as well as late 20th century and early 21st-century contemporary artworks. In 2013, the Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago hosted the exhibition, Destroy the Picture: Painting The Void, 1949-1962, featuring paintings that represented or referred to "the void." The exhibition included the work of 100 artists; the curatorial premise defined the concept of the void as "one of the most significant developments in contemporary abstract painting." The curators posit that artists were attracted to the subject as a result of an existential crisis after the use of the first atomic weapons in Japan during WWII. In 2020, the Museum of Modern Art, New York further developed the theme in the exhibition, Touching the Void, curated with works from the museum's permanent collection


id: index-of-physics-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_physics_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of physics articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_physics_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:20:58.869214+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-physics-articles-20260505-0
summary:
Physics (Greek: physis–φύσις meaning "nature") is the natural science which examines basic concepts such as mass, charge, matter and its motion and all that derives from these, such as energy, force and spacetime. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the world and universe behave. The index of physics articles is split into multiple pages due to its size. To navigate by individual letter use the table of contents below. == See also == List of basic physics topics == References ==


id: outline-of-physics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_physics-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:00.100277+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-physics-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to physics: Physics – natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion through spacetime, along with related concepts such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the general analysis of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves. == What type of subject is physics? == Physics can be described as all of the following: An academic discipline – one with academic departments, curricula and degrees; national and international societies; and specialized journals. A scientific field (a branch of science) – widely recognized category of specialized expertise within science, and typically embodies its own terminology and nomenclature. Such a field will usually be represented by one or more scientific journals, where peer-reviewed research is published. A natural science – one that seeks to elucidate the rules that govern the natural world using empirical and scientific methods. A physical science – one that studies non-living systems. A biological science – one that studies the role of physical processes in living organisms. See Outline of biophysics. == Branches == Astronomy – studies the universe beyond Earth, including its formation and development, and the evolution,


id: outline-of-physics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_physics-1.md
category: reference
title: Outline of physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:00.100277+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-physics-20260505-0
summary:
== History == History of physics – history of the physical science that studies matter and its motion through space-time, and related concepts such as energy and force Physics in the medieval Islamic world European science in the Middle Ages History of science and technology in China History of Indian science and technology === History of fields of physics === History of acoustics – history of the study of mechanical waves in solids, liquids, and gases (such as vibration and sound) History of agrophysics – history of the study of physics applied to agroecosystems History of astrophysics – history of the study of the physical aspects of celestial objects History of astronomy – history of the studies the universe beyond Earth, including its formation and development, and the evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology, and motion of celestial objects (such as galaxies, planets, etc.) and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth (such as the cosmic background radiation). History of astrodynamics – history of the application of ballistics and celestial mechanics to the practical problems concerning the motion of rockets and other spacecraft. History of astrometry – history of the branch of astronomy that involves precise measurements of the positions and


id: outline-of-physics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_physics-2.md
category: reference
title: Outline of physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:00.100277+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-physics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ingredients === physical system - a collection of objects under study, physical observation - the study physical quantity - a quantified property of an object unit of measure - a standard quantity used to compare observations mathematical model - an abstract description of a system physical experiment - an intervention designed to test a model physical constant - a quantified property with no known model physical law - a broadly and thoroughly tested model === Basic principles === Physics – branch of science that studies matter and its motion through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. Physics is one of the "fundamental sciences" because the other natural sciences (like biology, geology etc.) deal with systems that seem to obey the laws of physics. According to physics, the physical laws of matter, energy and the fundamental forces of nature govern the interactions between particles and physical entities (such as planets, molecules, atoms or the subatomic particles). Some of the basic pursuits of physics, which include some of the most prominent developments in modern science in the last millennium, include: Describing the nature, measuring and quantifying of bodies and their motion, dynamics etc. Newton's laws


id: list-of-accelerators-in-particle-physics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_accelerators_in_particle_physics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of accelerators in particle physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_accelerators_in_particle_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:01.364848+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-accelerators-in-particle-physics-20260505-0
summary:
A list of particle accelerators used for particle physics experiments. Some early particle accelerators that more properly did nuclear physics, but existed prior to the separation of particle physics from that field, are also included. Although a modern accelerator complex usually has several stages of accelerators, only accelerators whose output has been used directly for experiments are listed. == Early accelerators == These all used single beams with fixed targets. They tended to have very briefly run, inexpensive, and unnamed experiments. === Cyclotrons === [1] The magnetic pole pieces and return yoke from the 60-inch cyclotron were later moved to UC Davis and incorporated into a 76-inch isochronous cyclotron which is still in use today === Other early accelerator types === === Synchrotrons === == Fixed-target accelerators == More modern accelerators that were also run in fixed target mode; often, they will also have been run as colliders, or accelerated particles for use in subsequently built colliders. === High intensity hadron accelerators (Meson and neutron sources) === === Electron and low intensity hadron accelerators === == Colliders == === Electron–positron colliders === === Hadron colliders === === Electron–proton colliders === == Light sources == == Hypothetical accelerators == Besides the


id: list-of-american-physical-society-prizes-and-awards-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_American_Physical_Society_prizes_and_awards-0.md
category: reference
title: List of American Physical Society prizes and awards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_American_Physical_Society_prizes_and_awards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:02.547027+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-american-physical-society-prizes-and-awards-20260505-0
summary:
The American Physical Society gives out a number of awards for research excellence and conduct; topics include outstanding leadership, computational physics, lasers, mathematics, and more. == Prizes == === David Adler Lectureship Award in the Field of Materials Physics === The David Adler Lectureship Award in the Field of Materials Physics is a prize that has been awarded annually by the American Physical Society since 1988. The recipient is chosen for being "an outstanding contributor to the field of materials physics, who is noted for the quality of his/her research, review articles and lecturing." The prize is named after physicist David Adler with contributions to the endowment by friends of David Adler and Energy Conversion Devices, Inc. The winner receives a $5,000 honorarium. === Will Allis Prize for the Study of Ionized Gases === Will Allis Prize for the Study of Ionized Gases is awarded biannually "for outstanding contributions to understanding the physics of partially ionized plasmas and gases" in honour of Will Allis. The $10000 prize was founded in 1989 by contributions from AT&T, General Electric, GTE, International Business Machines, and Xerox Corporations. === Early Career Award for Soft Matter Research === This award recognizes outstanding and sustained contributions


id: list-of-american-physical-society-prizes-and-awards-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_American_Physical_Society_prizes_and_awards-1.md
category: reference
title: List of American Physical Society prizes and awards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_American_Physical_Society_prizes_and_awards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:02.547027+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-american-physical-society-prizes-and-awards-20260505-0
summary:
=== Mildred Dresselhaus Prize in Nanoscience or Nanomaterials === Mildred Dresselhaus Prize in Nanoscience or Nanomaterials was first awarded in 2023. It honours the legacy of Mildred Dresselhaus, and is awarded for an "outstanding scientist in the areas of nanoscience or nanomaterials". The first recipient of the price was Eva Andrei. === George E. Duvall Shock Compression Science Award === George E. Duvall Shock Compression Science Award was established in 1987 "to recognize contributions to understanding condensed matter and non-linear physics through shock compression." It is awarded biannually. === Einstein Prize === The Einstein Prize was established in 1999 to recognize outstanding accomplishments in the field of gravitational physics. It is awarded in odd-numbered years. === Prize for a Faculty Member for Research in an Undergraduate Institution === Prize for a Faculty Member for Research in an Undergraduate Institution is awarded annually since 1986 to a "physicist whose research in an undergraduate setting has achieved wide recognition and contributed significantly to physics and who has contributed substantially to the professional development of undergraduate physics students". === Herman Feshbach Prize in Theoretical Nuclear Physics === The Herman Feshbach Prize in Theoretical Nuclear Physics was inaugurated in 2014 and is awarded annually


id: list-of-american-physical-society-prizes-and-awards-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_American_Physical_Society_prizes_and_awards-2.md
category: reference
title: List of American Physical Society prizes and awards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_American_Physical_Society_prizes_and_awards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:02.547027+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-american-physical-society-prizes-and-awards-20260505-0
summary:
=== Lars Onsager Prize in Statistical Physics === The Lars Onsager Prize recognizes outstanding research in theoretical statistical physics including the quantum fluids. The prize consists of $10,000 as well as a certificate citing the contribution made by the recipient. It is presented annually, beginning in 1997. The prize was endowed in 1993 by Drs. Russell and Marian Donnelly in memory of Lars Onsager and his passion for analytical results. === Abraham Pais Prize for History of Physics === The Abraham Pais Prize for History of Physics is given jointly by the American Physical Society and the American Institute of Physics for "outstanding scholarly achievements in the history of physics". The prize, named after physicist and historian Abraham Pais, has been awarded annually since 2005. === George E. Pake Prize === The George E. Pake Prize was established in 1983 to recognize outstanding work by physicists combining original research accomplishments with leadership in the management of research or development in industry. The prize is presented biennially in even-numbered years. === Panofsky Prize in Experimental Particle Physics === The Panofsky Prize is an annual prize, established in 1985, given to recognize and encourage outstanding achievements in experimental particle physics. === Francis


id: list-of-second-moments-of-area-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_second_moments_of_area-0.md
category: reference
title: List of second moments of area
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_second_moments_of_area
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:03.792918+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-second-moments-of-area-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of second moments of area of some shapes. The second moment of area, also known as area moment of inertia, is a geometrical property of an area which reflects how its points are distributed with respect to an arbitrary axis. The unit of dimension of the second moment of area is length to fourth power, L4, and should not be confused with the mass moment of inertia. If the piece is thin, however, the mass moment of inertia equals the area density times the area moment of inertia. == Second moments of area == Please note that for the second moment of area equations in the below table: I x = ∬ A y 2 d x d y {\displaystyle I_{x}=\iint _{A}y^{2}\,dx\,dy} and I y = ∬ A x 2 d x d y . {\displaystyle I_{y}=\iint _{A}x^{2}\,dx\,dy.} == Parallel axis theorem == The parallel axis theorem can be used to determine the second moment of area of a rigid body about any axis, given the body's second moment of area about a parallel axis through the body's centroid, the area of the cross section, and the perpendicular distance (d) between the axes. I x


id: list-of-atmospheric-optical-phenomena-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_atmospheric_optical_phenomena-0.md
category: reference
title: List of atmospheric optical phenomena
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_atmospheric_optical_phenomena
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:05.078924+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-atmospheric-optical-phenomena-20260505-0
summary:
Atmospheric optical phenomena include: Afterglow Airglow Alexander's band, the dark region between the two bows of a double rainbow. Alpenglow Anthelion Anticrepuscular rays Aurora (northern and southern lights, aurora borealis and aurora australis) Belt of Venus Brocken Spectre Circumhorizontal arc Circumzenithal arc Cloud iridescence Crepuscular rays Earth's shadow Earthquake lights Glories Green flash Halos, of Sun or Moon, including sun dogs Haze Heiligenschein or halo effect, partly caused by the opposition effect Ice blink Light pillar Lightning Mirages (including Fata Morgana) Monochrome Rainbow Moon dog Moonbow Nacreous cloud/Polar stratospheric cloud Rainbow Sprite (lightning) Subsun Sun dog Tangent arc Tyndall effect Upper-atmospheric lightning, including red sprites, Blue jets, and ELVES Water sky == See also == == References ==


id: list-of-baryons-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_baryons-0.md
category: reference
title: List of baryons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_baryons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:06.625794+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-baryons-20260505-0
summary:
Baryons are composite particles made of three quarks, as opposed to mesons, which are composite particles made of an equal number of quarks and antiquarks. Baryons and mesons are both hadrons, which are particles composed solely of quarks or both quarks and antiquarks. The term baryon is derived from the Greek "βαρύς" (barys), meaning "heavy", because, at the time of their naming, it was believed that baryons were characterized by having greater masses than other particles that were classed as matter. Pentaquarks are exotic baryons composed of four quarks and one antiquark. In 2015, the LHCb collaboration at CERN definitively reported the observation of pentaquark states in the decay of bottom lambda baryons (Λ0b). Since then, additional pentaquark states have been discovered, including new observations in 2019 and 2022. While primarily created in laboratory conditions, pentaquarks might also form naturally during neutron star formation. Since baryons are composed of quarks, they participate in the strong interaction. Leptons, on the other hand, are not composed of quarks and as such do not participate in the strong interaction. The best known baryons are protons and neutrons, which make up most of the mass of the visible matter in the universe, whereas electrons,


id: list-of-centroids-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_centroids-0.md
category: reference
title: List of centroids
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_centroids
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:09.084865+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-centroids-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of centroids of various two-dimensional and three-dimensional objects. The centroid of an object X {\displaystyle X} in n {\displaystyle n} -dimensional space is the intersection of all hyperplanes that divide X {\displaystyle X} into two parts of equal moment about the hyperplane. Informally, it is the "average" of all points of X {\displaystyle X} . For an object of uniform composition, or in other words, has the same density at all points, the centroid of a body is also its center of mass. In the case of two-dimensional objects shown below, the hyperplanes are simply lines. == 2-D Centroids == For each two-dimensional shape below, the area and the centroid coordinates ( x ¯ , y ¯ ) {\displaystyle ({\bar {x}},{\bar {y}})} are given: Where the centroid coordinates are marked as zero, the coordinates are at the origin, and the equations to get those points are the lengths of the included axes divided by two, in order to reach the center which in these cases are the origin and thus zero. == 3-D Centroids == For each three-dimensional body below, the volume and the centroid coordinates ( x ¯ , y ¯ , z ¯


id: list-of-cern-scientific-committees-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_CERN_Scientific_Committees-0.md
category: reference
title: List of CERN Scientific Committees
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_CERN_Scientific_Committees
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:10.368207+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cern-scientific-committees-20260505-0
summary:
Proposals for experiments are made at CERN and have to go through the correct channels in order to be approved. One of the last steps in the process is to submit the proposal to an appropriate CERN Scientific Committee. The committees will discuss the proposal and then pass on their recommendations to the Research Board (previously the Nuclear Physics Research Committee) for the final decision. Proposals approved become part of the CERN experimental programme. In 1960, John Adams, the Director General, created three committees to manage experiments for each bubble chamber experimental technique used at CERN. These replaced the previous Advisory and Bubble Chamber committees. At the end of the bubble chamber period, the system was again changed and based on machine, rather than experimental technique. The committees were changed and merged in order to accommodate to this. Since then, the committees have changed based on the creation and decommissioning of facilities and accelerators. == Current committees == == Past committees == == References ==


id: list-of-textbooks-on-classical-mechanics-and-quantum-mechanics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_textbooks_on_classical_mechanics_and_quantum_mechanics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of textbooks on classical mechanics and quantum mechanics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_textbooks_on_classical_mechanics_and_quantum_mechanics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:11.578852+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-textbooks-on-classical-mechanics-and-quantum-mechanics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of notable textbooks on classical mechanics and quantum mechanics arranged according to level and surnames of the authors in alphabetical order. == Undergraduate == === Classical mechanics === Feynman, Richard P. (2005). The Feynman Lectures on Physics. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN 978-0-8053-9065-0. Halliday, David; Resnick, Robert (1970). Fundamentals of Physics. John Wiley & Sons. Chapters 1–21. Numerous subsequent editions. Hamill, Patrick (2014). A Student's Guide to Lagrangians and Hamiltonians. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1107617520. Hand, Louis; Finch, Janet (1998). Analytical Mechanics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521573270. Kibble, T. W.; Berkshire, F. H. (2004). Classical Mechanics. Imperial College Press. ISBN 1860944248. Kleppner, Daniel; Kolenkow, Robert (1973). An Introduction to Mechanics. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-035048-5. Marion, Jerry; Thornton, Stephen (2003). Classical Dynamics of Particles and Systems (5th ed.). Brooks Cole. ISBN 0534408966. Morin, David (2005). Introduction to Classical Mechanics: With Problems and Solutions. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521876223. Müller-Kirsten, Harald J.W. (2024). Classical Mechanics and Relativity (2nd ed.). World Scientific. ISBN 9789811287114. Taylor, John (2005). Classical Mechanics. University Science Books. ISBN 978-981-12-8711-4. Young, Hugh D.; Freedman, Roger A. (2019). University Physics with Modern Physics (15th ed.). Pearson. ISBN 978-0135159552. === Quantum mechanics === Eisberg, Robert; Resnick, Robert


id: list-of-common-physics-notations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_physics_notations-0.md
category: reference
title: List of common physics notations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_physics_notations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:12.855715+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-physics-notations-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of common physical constants and variables, and their notations. Note that bold text indicates that the quantity is a vector. == Latin characters == == Greek characters == == Other characters == == See also == List of letters used in mathematics and science Glossary of mathematical symbols List of mathematical uses of Latin letters Greek letters used in mathematics, science, and engineering Physical constant Physical quantity International System of Units ISO 31 == References ==


id: constant-resistance-network-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constant-resistance_network-0.md
category: reference
title: Constant-resistance network
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constant-resistance_network
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:14.149375+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: constant-resistance-network-20260505-0
summary:
A constant-resistance network in electrical engineering is a network whose input resistance does not change with frequency when correctly terminated. Examples of constant resistance networks include: Zobel network Lattice phase equaliser Boucherot cell Bridged T delay equaliser == References ==


id: list-of-physical-constants-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physical_constants-0.md
category: reference
title: List of physical constants
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physical_constants
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:15.339487+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-physical-constants-20260505-0
summary:
The constants listed here are known values of physical constants expressed in SI units; that is, physical quantities that are generally believed to be universal in nature and thus are independent of the unit system in which they are measured. Many of these are redundant, in the sense that they obey a known relationship with other physical constants and can be determined from them. == Table of physical constants == == Uncertainties == While the values of the physical constants are independent of the system of units in use, each uncertainty as stated reflects our lack of knowledge of the corresponding value as expressed in SI units, and is strongly dependent on how those units are defined. For example, the atomic mass constant m u {\displaystyle m_{\text{u}}} is exactly known when expressed using the dalton (its value is exactly 1 Da), but the kilogram is not exactly known when using these units, the opposite of when expressing the same quantities using the kilogram. == Technical constants == Some of these constants are of a technical nature and do not give any true physical property, but they are included for convenience. Such a constant gives the correspondence ratio of a technical


id: list-of-contributors-to-general-relativity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_contributors_to_general_relativity-0.md
category: reference
title: List of contributors to general relativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_contributors_to_general_relativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:16.610349+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-contributors-to-general-relativity-20260505-0
summary:
This is a dynamic list of persons who have made major contributions to the (mainstream) development of general relativity, as acknowledged by standard texts on the subject. Some related lists are mentioned at the bottom of the page. == A == Peter C. Aichelburg (Aichelburg–Sexl ultraboost, generalized symmetries), Miguel Alcubierre (numerical relativity, Alcubierre drives), Richard L. Arnowitt (ADM formalism), Abhay Ashtekar (Ashtekar variables, dynamical horizons) == B == Robert M L Baker, Jr. (high-frequency gravitational waves), James M. Bardeen (Bardeen vacuum, black hole mechanics, gauge-invariant linear perturbations of Friedmann-Lemaître cosmologies), Barry Barish (LIGO builder, gravitational-waves observation), Robert Bartnik (existence of ADM mass for asymptotically flat vacuums, quasilocal mass), Jacob Bekenstein (black hole entropy), Vladimir A. Belinsky (BKL conjecture, inverse scattering transform solution generating methods), Peter G. Bergmann (constrained Hamiltonian dynamics), Bruno Bertotti (Bertotti–Robinson electrovacuum, post-Minskowskian expansions), Jiří Bičák (exact solutions of the Einstein field equations), Heinz Billing (prototype of laser interferometric gravitational-wave detector), George David Birkhoff (Birkhoff's theorem), Hermann Bondi (gravitational radiation, Bondi radiation chart, Bondi mass–energy–momentum, LTB dust, maverick models), William B. Bonnor (Bonnor beam solution), Robert H. Boyer (Boyer–Lindquist coordinates), Vladimir Braginsky (gravitational-wave detector, quantum nondemolition (QND) measurement) Carl H. Brans (Brans–Dicke theory), Hubert Bray (Riemannian Penrose inequality),


id: list-of-contributors-to-general-relativity-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_contributors_to_general_relativity-1.md
category: reference
title: List of contributors to general relativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_contributors_to_general_relativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:16.610349+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-contributors-to-general-relativity-20260505-0
summary:
== N == Gernot Neugebauer (Neugebauer–Meinel dust disk solution), Ezra Ted Newman (Newman–Penrose formalism, Kerr–Newman black hole solution, Janis–Newman–Winicour solution, NUT vacuum, RT spacetimes, relation of lensing to Weyl tensor), Gunnar Nordström (Reissner–Nordström metric), Kenneth Nordtvedt (Nordtvedt effect, PPN formalism), Igor D. Novikov (Novikov chart in Schwarzschild vacuum, no-hair theorem, accretion disks around black holes, monograph) Yavuz Nutku Nutku-Halil solution for colliding waves, On the Nutku—Halil solution for colliding impulsive gravitational waves == O == Robert Oppenheimer (gravitational collapse, Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit, Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff equation, Oppenheimer–Snyder model), Amos Ori (black hole interiors, mass inflation, shock singularity, time machines, radiation reaction, gravitational collapse) == P == Achilles Papapetrou (chart for Ernst vacuum family, Majumdar–Papapetrou electrovacuums, Dixon–Papapetrou equations), Paul Painlevé (Gullstrand–Painlevé coordinates), Roger Penrose (Hawking–Penrose singularity theorems, Penrose diagrams, techniques from algebraic geometry and differential topology, Penrose limits, cosmic censorship hypotheses, Penrose inequalities, geometry of gravitational plane waves, impulsive waves, Penrose–Khan colliding plane wave, Newman–Penrose formalism, Weyl curvature hypothesis, highly influential monograph), Alexei Zinovievich Petrov (Petrov classification of algebraic properties of Weyl curvature tensor), Tsvi Piran (gravitational collapse), Felix A. E. Pirani (gravitational radiation, Petrov–Pirani classification of algebraic properties of Weyl curvature tensor), Jerzy F. Plebański (Plebanski vacuum, Plebanski action), Eric Poisson (black hole


id: contributors-to-the-mathematical-background-for-general-relativity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contributors_to_the_mathematical_background_for_general_relativity-0.md
category: reference
title: Contributors to the mathematical background for general relativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contributors_to_the_mathematical_background_for_general_relativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:17.881640+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: contributors-to-the-mathematical-background-for-general-relativity-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of contributors to the mathematical background for general relativity. For ease of readability, the contributions (in brackets) are unlinked but can be found in the contributors' article. == B == Luigi Bianchi (Bianchi identities, Bianchi groups, differential geometry) == C == Élie Cartan (curvature computation, early extensions of GTR, Cartan geometries) Elwin Bruno Christoffel (connections, tensor calculus, Riemannian geometry) Clarissa-Marie Claudel (Geometry of photon surfaces) == D == Tevian Dray (The Geometry of General Relativity) == E == Luther P. Eisenhart (semi-Riemannian geometries) Frank B. Estabrook (Wahlquist-Estabrook approach to solving PDEs; see also parent list) Leonhard Euler (Euler-Lagrange equation, from which the geodesic equation is obtained) == G == Carl Friedrich Gauss (curvature, theory of surfaces, intrinsic vs. extrinsic) == K == Martin Kruskal (inverse scattering transform; see also parent list) == L == Joseph Louis Lagrange (Lagrangian mechanics, Euler-Lagrange equation) Tullio Levi-Civita (tensor calculus, Riemannian geometry; see also parent list) André Lichnerowicz (tensor calculus, transformation groups) == M == Alexander Macfarlane (space analysis and Algebra of Physics) Jerrold E. Marsden (linear stability) == N == Isaac Newton (Newton's identities for characteristic of Einstein tensor) == R == Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro (Ricci tensor, differential geometry) Georg Bernhard


id: list-of-conversion-factors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_conversion_factors-0.md
category: reference
title: List of conversion factors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_conversion_factors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:19.219007+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-conversion-factors-20260505-0
summary:
This article gives a list of conversion factors for several physical quantities. A number of different units (some only of historical interest) are shown and expressed in terms of the corresponding SI unit. Conversions between units in the metric system are defined by their prefixes (for example, 1 kilogram = 1000 grams, 1 milligram = 0.001 grams) and are thus not listed in this article. Exceptions are made if the unit is commonly known by another name (for example, 1 micron = 10−6 metre). Within each table, the units are listed alphabetically, and the SI units (base or derived) are highlighted. The following quantities are considered: length, area, volume, plane angle, solid angle, mass, density, time, frequency, velocity, volumetric flow rate, acceleration, force, pressure (or mechanical stress), torque (or moment of force), energy, power (or heat flow rate), action, dynamic viscosity, kinematic viscosity, electric current, electric charge, electric dipole, electromotive force (or electric potential difference), electrical resistance, capacitance, magnetic flux, magnetic flux density, inductance, temperature, information entropy, luminous intensity, luminance, luminous flux, illuminance, radiation. == Length == == Area == == Volume == == Plane angle == == Solid angle == == Mass == Notes: See Weight for detail of


id: list-of-dualities-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_dualities-0.md
category: reference
title: List of dualities
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_dualities
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:20.415568+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-dualities-20260505-0
summary:
== Mathematics == In mathematics, a duality, generally speaking, translates concepts, theorems or mathematical structures into other concepts, theorems or structures, in a one-to-one fashion, often (but not always) by means of an involution operation: if the dual of A is B, then the dual of B is A. Alexander duality Alvis–Curtis duality Artin–Verdier duality Beta-dual space Coherent duality Conjugate hyperbola De Groot dual Dual abelian variety Dual basis in a field extension Dual bundle Dual curve Dual (category theory) Dual graph Dual group Dual object Dual pair Dual polygon Dual polyhedron Dual problem Dual representation Dual q-Hahn polynomials Dual q-Krawtchouk polynomials Dual space Dual topology Dual wavelet Duality (optimization) Duality (order theory) Duality of stereotype spaces Duality (projective geometry) Duality theory for distributive lattices Dualizing complex Dualizing sheaf Eckmann–Hilton duality Esakia duality Fenchel's duality theorem Grothendieck local duality Hodge dual Isbell duality Jónsson–Tarski duality Lagrange duality Langlands dual Lefschetz duality Local Tate duality Opposite category Poincaré duality Twisted Poincaré duality Poitou–Tate duality Pontryagin duality S-duality (homotopy theory) Schur–Weyl duality Series-parallel duality Serre duality Spanier–Whitehead duality Stone's duality Tannaka–Krein duality Verdier duality == Philosophy and religion == Dualism (philosophy of mind) Dualistic cosmology Epistemological dualism Soul dualism Yin and yang


id: lists-of-physics-equations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_physics_equations-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of physics equations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_physics_equations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:21.604017+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-physics-equations-20260505-0
summary:
In physics, there are equations in every field to relate physical quantities to each other and perform calculations. Entire handbooks of equations can only summarize most of the full subject, else are highly specialized within a certain field. Physics is derived of formulae only. == General scope == Variables commonly used in physics Continuity equation Constitutive equation == Specific scope == Defining equation (physical chemistry) List of equations in classical mechanics Table of thermodynamic equations List of equations in wave theory List of relativistic equations List of equations in fluid mechanics List of electromagnetism equations List of equations in gravitation List of photonics equations List of equations in quantum mechanics List of equations in nuclear and particle physics == See also == List of equations Operator (physics) Laws of science == Units and nomenclature == Physical constant Physical quantity SI units SI derived unit SI electromagnetism units List of common physics notations


id: list-of-feynman-diagrams-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Feynman_diagrams-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Feynman diagrams
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Feynman_diagrams
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:23.975916+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-feynman-diagrams-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of common Feynman diagrams. His first published diagram appeared in Physical Review in 1949. Unless otherwise specified, the shown diagrams can assumed to be the leading order representation of the interaction. == Standard model diagrams == == Speculative or hypothetical diagrams == == References ==


id: list-of-foucault-pendulums-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Foucault_pendulums-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Foucault pendulums
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Foucault_pendulums
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:25.827958+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-foucault-pendulums-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of Foucault pendulums in the world. == Europe == == Africa == == North America == == South America == == Asia == == Oceania, Antarctic == == General Sources == === Books === Baker, Gregory L. (2005). The Pendulum: A Case Study in Physics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198567545. Crease, Robert P. (2004). The Prism and the Pendulum: The Ten Most Beautiful Experiments in Science. ISBN 978-0812970623. === Web === "Academy Pendulum Sales（Academy Pendulums）". Archived from the original on 2025-02-24. Retrieved 2025-07-09. "Foucault-féle ingakísérletek Szombathelyen 1880–2014" (PDF). Retrieved 2025-07-09. "Entierra Gobierno el proyecto educativo del Centro de Ciencias; será museo". Retrieved 2025-07-09. "Yale Peabody Museum:Facebook". Retrieved 2025-12-10. "Pendule Foucault în România și Republica Moldov" (pdf). Retrieved 2025-07-09. "展示装置納入実績（木下製作所）". Archived from the original on 2019-08-24. Retrieved 2019-07-09.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) == References ==


id: list-of-gravitational-wave-observations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gravitational_wave_observations-0.md
category: reference
title: List of gravitational wave observations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gravitational_wave_observations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:27.083461+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-gravitational-wave-observations-20260505-0
summary:
This page contains a list of observed and candidate gravitational wave events. == Origin and nomenclature == Direct observation of gravitational waves, which commenced with the detection of an event by LIGO in 2015, plays a key role in gravitational wave astronomy. LIGO has been involved in all subsequent detections to date, with Virgo joining in August 2017. Joint observation runs of LIGO and Virgo, designated "O1, O2, etc." span many months, with months of maintenance and upgrades in-between designed to increase the instruments sensitivity and range. Within these run periods, the instruments are capable of detecting gravitational waves. The first run, O1, ran from September 12, 2015, to January 19, 2016, and succeeded in its first gravitational wave detection. O2 ran for a greater duration, from November 30, 2016, to August 25, 2017. O3 began on April 1, 2019. The observing run was split in two, designated "O3a" and "O3b" with the first part suspended on September 30, 2019, for maintenance and upgrades. O3b began on November 1, 2019. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic O3 was forced to end prematurely. The early end meant that KAGRA did not have chance to participate in joint observations with LIGO and Virgo,


id: list-of-gravitational-wave-observations-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gravitational_wave_observations-1.md
category: reference
title: List of gravitational wave observations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gravitational_wave_observations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:27.083461+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-gravitational-wave-observations-20260505-0
summary:
=== Observation candidates from O4/2023 === On 15 June 2022, LIGO announced to start the O4 observing run in March 2023. As the date got closer, engineering challenges delayed the observing run to May 2023. An engineering run to assess the sensitivity of LIGO, Virgo, and KAGRA began in April, with the Hanford detector's first operations beginning on April 29, and the Livingston and Virgo detectors' first operations beginning on May 5. On March 7, 2023, a gamma-ray burst compatible with a neutron star merger was detected by the Fermi telescope and named GRB 230307A. The burst, identified as being from a host galaxy approximately 296 Mpc away, would likely have only been marginally detected at best by LIGO if it had been operating at the time, as the detectors would only later achieve a sensitivity of 160 Mpc for neutron star mergers by O4's beginning, 3 months later. Near the end of the engineering run on 15 May 2023, LIGO announced that O4 would be beginning on 24 May 2023, running for 20 months with up to 2 months of maintenance. The LIGO detectors initially failed to achieve the hoped for 160–190 Mpc sensitivity for neutron star mergers, but


id: list-of-heliophysics-missions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_heliophysics_missions-0.md
category: reference
title: List of heliophysics missions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_heliophysics_missions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:28.406475+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-heliophysics-missions-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of missions supporting heliophysics, including solar observatory missions, solar orbiters, and spacecraft studying the solar wind. == Past and current missions == == Planned missions == == Proposed missions == == Cancelled missions == == Graphic == == See also == List of solar telescopes == References == == External links == NASA - Heliophysics missions


id: list-of-types-of-interferometers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_interferometers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of types of interferometers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_interferometers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:29.608857+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-types-of-interferometers-20260505-0
summary:
An interferometer is a device for extracting information from the superposition of multiple waves. == Field and linear interferometers == Air-wedge shearing interferometer Astronomical interferometer / Michelson stellar interferometer Classical interference microscopy Bath interferometer (common path) Cyclic interferometer Diffraction-grating interferometer (white light) Double-slit interferometer Dual-polarization interferometry Fabry–Pérot interferometer Fizeau interferometer Fourier-transform interferometer Fresnel interferometer (e.g. Fresnel biprism, Fresnel mirror or Lloyd's mirror) Fringes of Equal Chromatic Order interferometer (FECO) Gabor hologram Gires–Tournois etalon Heterodyne interferometer (see heterodyne) Holographic interferometer Jamin interferometer Laser Doppler vibrometer Linnik interferometer (microscopy) LUPI variant of Michelson Lummer–Gehrcke interferometer Mach–Zehnder interferometer Martin–Puplett interferometer Michelson interferometer Mirau interferometer (also known as a Mirau objective) (microscopy) Moiré interferometer (see moiré pattern) Multi-beam interferometer (microscopy) Near-field interferometer Newton interferometer (see Newton's rings) Nomarski interferometer Nonlinear Michelson interferometer / Step-phase Michelson interferometer N-slit interferometer Phase-shifting interferometer Planar lightwave circuit interferometer (PLC) Photon Doppler velocimeter interferometer (PDV) Polarization interferometer (see also Babinet–Soleil compensator) Point diffraction interferometer Rayleigh interferometer Sagnac interferometer Schlieren interferometer (phase-shifting) Shearing interferometer (lateral and radial) Twyman–Green interferometer Talbot–Lau interferometer Watson interferometer (microscopy) White-light interferometer (see also Optical coherence tomography, White light interferometry, and Coherence Scanning Interferometry) White-light scatterplate interferometer (white-light) (microscopy) Young's double-slit interferometer Zernike phase-contrast microscopy ZWF


id: list-of-physics-journals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physics_journals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of physics journals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physics_journals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:30.911563+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-physics-journals-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of physics journals with existing articles on Wikipedia. The list is organized by subfields of physics. == By subject == === General === === Astrophysics === === Atomic, molecular, and optical physics === European Physical Journal D Journal of Physics B Laser Physics Molecular Physics Physical Review A International Journal of Modern Physics B Modern Physics Letters B Physics Letters A === Plasmas === === Measurement === Measurement Science and Technology Metrologia Review of Scientific Instruments === Nuclear and particle physics === === Optics === === Computational physics === Computational Materials Science Computer Physics Communications International Journal of Modern Physics C (computational physics, physical computations) Journal of Computational Physics Physical Review E, section E13 === Condensed matter and materials science === === Low temperature physics === Journal of Low Temperature Physics Low Temperature Physics === Chemical physics === Chemical Physics Letters Journal of Chemical Physics Journal of Physical Chemistry A Journal of Physical Chemistry B Journal of Physical Chemistry C Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics === Soft matter physics === European Physical Journal E Journal of Polymer Science Part B Soft Matter === Medical physics === Australasian Physical & Engineering Sciences in


id: list-of-laser-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: List of laser articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:32.200147+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-laser-articles-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of laser topics. == A == == B == == C == == D == == E == == F == == G == == H == == I == Ion laser == J == Janus laser == K == KALI (laser) Kerr-lens modelocking Kerr effect Keyence Krasnopol (Weapon) Krypton fluoride laser == L == == M == == N == == O == == P == == Q == == R == == S == == T == == U == == V == == W == == X == X-ray X-ray laser Xenon chloride laser Xerox == Y == Yb:LuVO4 == Z == ZETA (fusion reactor) ZEUS-HLONS (HMMWV Laser Ordnance Neutralization System) Zeeman slower Zerona == References ==


id: list-of-letters-used-in-mathematics-science-and-engineering-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_letters_used_in_mathematics,_science,_and_engineering-0.md
category: reference
title: List of letters used in mathematics, science, and engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_letters_used_in_mathematics,_science,_and_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:33.417347+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-letters-used-in-mathematics-science-and-engineering-20260505-0
summary:
Latin and Greek letters are used in mathematics, science, engineering, and other areas where mathematical notation is used as symbols for constants, special functions, and also conventionally for variables representing certain quantities. == Hindu-Arabic numerals == == Latin == == Greek == == Other scripts == === Hebrew === === Cyrillic === === Japanese === === Modified Latin === === Modified Greek === == References ==


id: list-of-automobile-drag-coefficients-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_automobile_drag_coefficients-0.md
category: reference
title: List of automobile drag coefficients
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_automobile_drag_coefficients
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:34.846816+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-automobile-drag-coefficients-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of automobile drag coefficients (Cd) and drag areas (CdA) for production, limited-production, and concept or experimental vehicles. The drag coefficient is a dimensionless measure of aerodynamic resistance used in automotive design; a lower value indicates a more streamlined vehicle that passes through the air with less resistance. The drag area (CdA) is the product of the drag coefficient and the vehicle's frontal reference area, and represents the total aerodynamic drag force per unit of dynamic pressure — making it a more complete measure of real-world aerodynamic performance than the drag coefficient alone. Entries are grouped first by drag coefficient and then by drag area. Within each grouping, production vehicles and concept or experimental vehicles are listed separately. Unless otherwise noted, figures given are for the base model of a vehicle in a standard configuration. Measurements can vary by up to 5% depending on the wind tunnel and test methodology used. == Drag coefficients == The average modern automobile achieves a drag coefficient of between 0.25 and 0.3. Sport utility vehicles (SUVs), with their typically boxy shapes, typically achieve a Cd=0.35–0.45. The drag coefficient of a vehicle is affected by the shape of body of the vehicle.


id: list-of-computational-physics-software-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computational_physics_software-0.md
category: reference
title: List of computational physics software
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computational_physics_software
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:36.006023+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-computational-physics-software-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of computational physics software which includes programs used to model, simulate, and analyze physical systems across electromagnetics, fluid dynamics, astrophysics, particle physics, and Monte Carlo simulations. == Computational electromagnetics == == Computational fluid dynamics == == Computational particle physics == == Computational astrophysics == == Monte Carlo simulation == == Others == == See also == High-performance computing List of computational chemistry software List of computer simulation software List of computer physics engines and List of open-source physics engines List of computational materials science software List of computational physics journals List of computer-aided engineering software List of finite element software packages List of mathematical software List of physicists List of plasma physics software List of quantum chemistry and solid-state physics software List of software for astronomy research and education List of software for nanostructures modeling List of software for nuclear engineering Multiphysics simulation == References == == External links == "Best Open Source Physics Software 2025". sourceforge.net. Retrieved December 17, 2025. "GitHub - wbierbower/awesome-physics: 🌌 A collaborative list of awesome software for exploring Physics concepts". github.com. Retrieved December 17, 2025. "Top Multiphysics Simulation Software in 2025". slashdot.org. Retrieved December 17, 2025. WIPL-D


id: list-of-mathematical-physics-journals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mathematical_physics_journals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of mathematical physics journals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mathematical_physics_journals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:38.366967+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mathematical-physics-journals-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of peer-reviewed scientific journals published in the field of Mathematical Physics. Advances in Theoretical and Mathematical Physics Annales Henri Poincaré Archive for Rational Mechanics and Analysis Communications in Mathematical Physics General Relativity and Gravitation International Journal of Geometric Methods in Modern Physics Journal of Geometry and Physics Journal of Mathematical Physics Journal of Mathematical Physics, Analysis, Geometry Journal of Modern Dynamics Journal of Nonlinear Mathematical Physics Journal of Physics A: Mathematical and Theoretical Journal of Statistical Physics Letters in Mathematical Physics Mathematics and Mechanics of Complex Systems Open Communications in Nonlinear Mathematical Physics Probability and Mathematical Physics Reports on Mathematical Physics Reviews in Mathematical Physics The Quarterly Journal of Mechanics and Applied Mathematics Középiskolai Matematikai és Fizikai Lapok SIGMA (Symmetry, Integrability and Geometry: Methods and Applications) Teoreticheskaya i Matematicheskaya Fizika (Theoretical and Mathematical Physics), Steklov Mathematical Institute == References == == See also == List of mathematics journals List of physics journals List of scientific journals List of statistics journals


id: list-of-textbooks-in-electromagnetism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_textbooks_in_electromagnetism-0.md
category: reference
title: List of textbooks in electromagnetism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_textbooks_in_electromagnetism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:40.196660+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-textbooks-in-electromagnetism-20260505-0
summary:
The study of electromagnetism in higher education, as a fundamental part of both physics and electrical engineering, is typically accompanied by textbooks devoted to the subject. The American Physical Society and the American Association of Physics Teachers recommend a full year of graduate study in electromagnetism for all physics graduate students. A joint task force by those organizations in 2006 found that in 76 of the 80 US physics departments surveyed, a course using John Jackson's Classical Electrodynamics was required for all first year graduate students. For undergraduates, there are several widely used textbooks, including David Griffiths' Introduction to Electrodynamics and Electricity and Magnetism by Edward Purcell and David Morin. Also at an undergraduate level, Richard Feynman's classic Lectures on Physics is available online to read for free. == Physics == === Undergraduate (introductory and intermediate) === There are several widely used undergraduate textbooks in electromagnetism, including David Griffiths' Introduction to Electrodynamics as well as Electricity and Magnetism by Edward Purcell and David Morin. Richard Feynman's Lectures on Physics also include a volume on electromagnetism that is available to read online for free, through the California Institute of Technology. In addition, there are popular physics textbooks that include electricity and


id: list-of-textbooks-in-electromagnetism-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_textbooks_in_electromagnetism-1.md
category: reference
title: List of textbooks in electromagnetism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_textbooks_in_electromagnetism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:40.196660+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-textbooks-in-electromagnetism-20260505-0
summary:
Barut AO, Electrodynamics and Classical Theory of Fields and Particles, Dover, 1980. Baylis WE, Electrodynamics: A Modern Geometric Approach, Birkhäuser, 1999. Böttcher CJF, Bordewijk P, Van Belle OC, Rip A, Theory of Electric Polarization, 2nd ed, 2 vols, Elsevier, 1973, 1978. Clemmow PC, Dougherty JP, Electrodynamics of Particles and Plasmas, CRC, 2018. Cullity DB, Stock SR, Elements of X-Ray Diffraction, 3rd ed, Pearson, 2014. Eringen AC, Maugin GA, Electrodynamics of Continua, 2 vols, Springer, 1990. Ginzburg VL, The Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves in Plasmas, 2nd ed, Pergamon, 1970. Hehl FW, Obukhov YN, Foundations of Classical Electrodynamics: Charge, Flux, and Metric, Springer, 2003. Landau LD, Lifshitz EM, The Classical Theory of Fields, 4th ed, Pergamon, 1975. Lechner K, Classical Electrodynamics: A Modern Perspective, Springer, 2018. Oppenheimer JR, Lectures on Electrodynamics, Gordon & Breach, 1970. Post EJ, Formal Structure of Electromagnetics: General Covariance and Electromagnetics, Dover, 1997. Rohrlich F, Classical Charged Particles, 3rd ed, World Scientific, 2007. Rybicki GB, Lightman AP, Radiative Processes in Astrophysics, Wiley, 1979. == Electrical engineering == According to a 2011 review of analytical and computational textbooks in electromagnetism by David Davidson, Julius Stratton's Electromagnetic Theory remains the classic text in electromagnetism and is still regularly cited. Davidson


id: list-of-textbooks-in-electromagnetism-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_textbooks_in_electromagnetism-2.md
category: reference
title: List of textbooks in electromagnetism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_textbooks_in_electromagnetism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:40.196660+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-textbooks-in-electromagnetism-20260505-0
summary:
=== Metamaterials === Caloz C, Itoh T, Electromagnetic Metamaterials: Transmission Line Theory and Microwave Applications (The Engineering Approach), Wiley-IEEE, 2006. Capolino F, (Ed), Metamaterials Handbook, 2 vols, CRC, 2009. Cui TJ, Smith DR, Liu R, (Eds), Metamaterials: Theory, Design, and Applications, Springer, 2010. Eleftheriades GV, Balmain KG, (Eds), Negative-Refraction Metamaterials: Fundamental Principles and Applications, Wiley-IEEE, 2005. Engheta N, Ziolkowski RW, (Eds), Metamaterials: Physics and Engineering Explorations, Wiley-IEEE, 2006. Marqués R, Martín F, Sorolla M, Metamaterials with Negative Parameters: Theory, Design, and Microwave Applications, Wiley, 2008. Munk BA, Frequency Selective Surfaces: Theory and Design, Wiley, 2000. Munk BA, Metamaterials: Critique and Alternatives, Wiley, 2009. Ramakrishna SA, Grzegorczyk TM, Physics and Applications of Negative Refractive Index Materials, CRC, 2008. Sarychev AK, Shalaev VM, Electrodynamics of Metamaterials, World Scientific, 2007. Tretyakov S, Analytical Modeling in Applied Electromagnetics, Artech House, 2003. Yang F, Rahmat-Samii Y, Electromagnetic Band Gap Structures in Antenna Engineering, Cambridge University, 2009. === Computational === Booton RC, Computational Methods for Electromagnetics and Microwaves, Wiley, 1992. Chew WC, Jin JM, Michielssen E, Song J, (Eds), Fast and Efficient Algorithms in Computational Electromagnetics, Artech House, 2001. Gibson WC, The Method of Moments in Electromagnetics, 3rd ed, CRC, 2022. Harrington RF, Field Computation by


id: list-of-textbooks-in-electromagnetism-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_textbooks_in_electromagnetism-3.md
category: reference
title: List of textbooks in electromagnetism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_textbooks_in_electromagnetism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:40.196660+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-textbooks-in-electromagnetism-20260505-0
summary:
== Magnetohydrodynamics == Magnetohydrodynamics is an interdisciplinary branch of physics that uses continuum mechanics to describe the interaction of electromagnetic fields with fluids that are conductive. It combines classical electromagnetism with fluid mechanics by combination of Maxwell equations with Navier-Stokes equations. This relatively new branch of physics was first developed by Hannes Alfvén in a 1942 paper published in Nature titled Existence of Electromagnetic-Hydrodynamic Waves. In 1950 Alfvén published a textbook titled Cosmical Electrodynamics which considered as the seminal work in the field of magnetohydrodynamics. There are also two closely related fields to the traditional field of magnetohydrodynamics which are called electrohydrodynamics and ferrohydrodynamics. Electrohydrodynamics deals with interaction of electromagnetic fields with weakly conductive fluids and ferrohydrodynamics deals with interaction of electromagnetic fields with magnetic fluids. Today magnetohydrodynamics and its related fields have many applications in plasma physics, electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, astrophysics, geophysics and many other scientific branches. Here is the list of some important textbooks in different areas of electro-magneto-ferro-hydrodynamics. Alfvén H, Fälthammar CG, Cosmical Electrodynamics: Fundamental Principles, 2nd ed, Oxford University, 1963. Biskamp D, Magnetohydrodynamic Turbulence, Cambridge University, 2003. Biskamp D, Nonlinear Magnetohydrodynamics, Cambridge University, 1993. Blums E, Cebers A, Maiorov MM, Magnetic Fluids, De Gruyter, 1996.


id: list-of-mesons-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mesons-0.md
category: reference
title: List of mesons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mesons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:41.487001+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mesons-20260505-0
summary:
This list is of all known and predicted scalar, pseudoscalar and vector mesons. See list of particles for a more detailed list of particles found in particle physics. This article contains a list of mesons, unstable subatomic particles composed of one quark and one antiquark. They are part of the hadron particle family—particles made of quarks. The other members of the hadron family are the baryons—subatomic particles composed of three quarks. The main difference between mesons and baryons is that mesons have integer spin (thus are bosons) while baryons are fermions (half-integer spin). Because mesons are bosons, the Pauli exclusion principle does not apply to them. Because of this, they can act as force mediating particles on short distances, and thus play a part in processes such as the nuclear interaction. Since mesons are composed of quarks, they participate in both the weak and strong interactions. Mesons with net electric charge also participate in the electromagnetic interaction. They are classified according to their quark content, total angular momentum, parity, and various other properties such as C-parity and G-parity. While no meson is stable, those of lower mass are nonetheless more stable than the most massive mesons, and are easier to


id: list-of-physics-mnemonics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physics_mnemonics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of physics mnemonics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physics_mnemonics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:43.935223+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-physics-mnemonics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a categorized list of physics mnemonics. == Mechanics == === Work: formula === "Lots of Work makes me Mad!": Work = Mad: M=Mass a=acceleration d=distance == Thermodynamics == === Ideal gas law === "Pure Virgins Never Really Tire": PV=nRT The equation PV = nRT represents the ideal gas law, where P is the pressure of the gas, V is the volume, n is the number of moles, R is the universal gas constant, and T is the temperature. === Gibbs's free energy formula === "Good Honey Tastes Sweet": (delta)G = H - T(delta)S. Gibbs free energy is a thermodynamic state function that measures the energy available for a system to do work, and is given by the formula G = H – TS, where H is enthalpy, T is temperature, and S is entropy. == Electrodynamics == === Ohm's law === "Virgins Are Rare": Volts = Amps x Resistance === Relation between Resistance and Resistivity === REPLAY Resistance = ρ (Length/Area) === Inductive and Capacitive circuits === Once upon a time, the symbol E (for electromotive force) was used to designate voltages. Then, every student learned the phrase ELI the ICE man as a reminder that: For an


id: list-of-moments-of-inertia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_moments_of_inertia-0.md
category: reference
title: List of moments of inertia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_moments_of_inertia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:45.115428+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-moments-of-inertia-20260505-0
summary:
The moment of inertia, denoted by I, measures the extent to which an object resists rotational acceleration about a particular axis; it is the rotational analogue to mass (which determines an object's resistance to linear acceleration). The moments of inertia of a mass have units of dimension ML2 ([mass] × [length]2). It should not be confused with the second moment of area, which has units of dimension L4 ([length]4) and is used in beam calculations. The mass moment of inertia is often also known as the rotational inertia or sometimes as the angular mass. For simple objects with geometric symmetry, one can often determine the moment of inertia in an exact closed-form expression. Typically this occurs when the mass density is constant, but in some cases, the density can vary throughout the object as well. In general, it may not be straightforward to symbolically express the moment of inertia of shapes with more complicated mass distributions and lacking symmetry. In calculating moments of inertia, it is useful to remember that it is an additive function and exploit the parallel axis and the perpendicular axis theorems. This article considers mainly symmetric mass distributions, with constant density throughout the object, and the


id: optical-properties-of-water-and-ice-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_properties_of_water_and_ice-0.md
category: reference
title: Optical properties of water and ice
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_properties_of_water_and_ice
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:46.430867+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: optical-properties-of-water-and-ice-20260505-0
summary:
The refractive index of water at 20 °C for visible light is 1.33. The refractive index of normal ice is 1.31 (from List of refractive indices). In general, an index of refraction is a complex number with real and imaginary parts, where the latter indicates the strength of absorption loss at a particular wavelength. In the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum, the imaginary part of the refractive index is very small. However, water and ice absorb in infrared and close the infrared atmospheric window, thereby contributing to the greenhouse effect. The absorption spectrum of pure water is used in numerous applications, including light scattering and absorption by ice crystals and cloud water droplets, theories of the rainbow, determination of the single-scattering albedo, ocean color, and many others. == Quantitative description of the refraction index == Over the wavelengths from 0.2 to 1.2 μm, and over temperatures from −12 to 500 °C (261 to 773 K), the real part of the index of refraction of water can be calculated from the following empirical expression: n 2 − 1 n 2 + 2 1 ρ ¯ = a 0 + a 1 ρ ¯ + a 2 T ¯ + a


id: index-of-optics-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_optics_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of optics articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_optics_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:47.646232+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-optics-articles-20260505-0
summary:
Optics is the branch of physics which involves the behavior and properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of instruments that use or detect it. Optics usually describes the behavior of visible, ultraviolet, and infrared light. Because light is an electromagnetic wave, other forms of electromagnetic radiation such as X-rays, microwaves, and radio waves exhibit similar properties. == A == == B == == C == == D == == E == == F == == G == == H == == I == == J == == K == == L == == M == == N == == O == == P == == Q == == R == == S == == T == == U == == W == == Z == == See also == Category:Optical components Category:Optical materials == References == == External links ==


id: list-of-hypothetical-particles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hypothetical_particles-0.md
category: reference
title: List of hypothetical particles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hypothetical_particles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:21:48.926351+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-hypothetical-particles-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of hypothetical particles. Hypothetical particles are proposed subatomic or composite entities arising in theoretical particle physics and cosmology that have not been experimentally confirmed. They are typically introduced to address limitations of the Standard Model, unify fundamental interactions, or explain unresolved observations such as dark matter, neutrino masses, baryon asymmetry, or cosmic inflation. Many are mathematically well defined within quantum field theory or its extensions and serve as mediators or constituents in speculative but testable frameworks beyond the Standard Model. Prominent classes include gauge or symmetry-related particles such as the graviton or graviphoton in quantum gravity and extra-dimensional theories, and supersymmetric partners (e.g., neutralinos or charginos) predicted by supersymmetry. Others address specific phenomena, including hidden-sector bosons such as dark photons or light force carriers proposed to explain nuclear anomalies. Hypothetical particles also encompass predicted bound states (e.g., glueballs), topological objects such as magnetic monopoles, and unconventional statistical entities such as anyons or tachyons. Collectively, they form a central component of theoretical model building, guiding experimental searches for physics beyond currently known particles. == Elementary particles == Some theories predict the existence of additional elementary bosons and fermions that are not found in the Standard Model. ===


id: list-of-particles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_particles-0.md
category: reference
title: List of particles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_particles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:02.237050+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-particles-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of known and hypothesized molecular, atomic, and subatomic particles in particle physics, condensed matter physics and cosmology. == Standard Model elementary particles == Elementary particles are particles with no measurable internal structure; that is, it is unknown whether they are composed of other particles. They are the fundamental objects of quantum field theory. Many families and sub-families of elementary particles exist. Elementary particles are classified according to their spin. Fermions have half-integer spin while bosons have integer spin. All the elementary particles of the Standard Model have been experimentally observed, including the Higgs boson in 2012. Many other hypothetical elementary particles, such as the graviton, have been proposed, but not observed experimentally. Notes: [†] An anti-electron (e+) is conventionally called a "positron". === Fermions === Fermions are one of the two fundamental classes of particles, the other being bosons. Fermion particles are described by Fermi–Dirac statistics and have quantum numbers described by the Pauli exclusion principle. They include the quarks and leptons, as well as any composite particles consisting of an odd number of these, such as all baryons and many atoms and nuclei. Fermions have half-integer spin; for all known elementary fermions this is ⁠1/2⁠ħ.


id: list-of-particles-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_particles-1.md
category: reference
title: List of particles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_particles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:02.237050+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-particles-20260505-0
summary:
Ordinary mesons are made up of a valence quark and a valence antiquark. Because mesons have integer spin (0 or 1) and are not themselves elementary particles, they are classified as "composite" bosons, although being made of elementary fermions. Examples of mesons include the pion, kaon, and the J/ψ. In quantum hadrodynamics, mesons mediate the residual strong force between nucleons. At one time or another, positive signatures have been reported for all of the following exotic mesons but their existences have yet to be confirmed. A tetraquark consists of two valence quarks and two valence antiquarks; A glueball is a bound state of gluons with no valence quarks; Hybrid mesons consist of one or more valence quark–antiquark pairs and one or more real gluons. === Atomic nuclei === Atomic nuclei typically consist of protons and neutrons, although exotic nuclei may consist of other baryons, such as hypertriton which contains a hyperon. These baryons (protons, neutrons, hyperons, etc.) which comprise the nucleus are called nucleons. Each type of nucleus is called a "nuclide", and each nuclide is defined by the specific number of each type of nucleon. "Isotopes" are nuclides which have the same number of protons but differing numbers of


id: list-of-particles-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_particles-2.md
category: reference
title: List of particles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_particles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:02.237050+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-particles-20260505-0
summary:
== Auxiliary particles == Virtual particles are mathematical tools used in calculations that exhibits some of the characteristics of an ordinary particle but do not obey the mass-shell relation. These particles are unphysical and unobservable. These include: Ghost particles, like Faddeev–Popov ghosts and Pauli–Villars ghosts Spurions, auxiliary field in a quantum field theory that can be used to parameterize any symmetry Soft photons, photons with energies below detectable in experiment. There are also instantons, field configurations which are a local minimum of the Yang–Mills field equation. Instantons are used in nonperturbative calculations of tunneling rates. Instantons have properties similar to particles, specific examples include: Calorons, finite temperature generalization of instantons. Merons, a field configuration which is a non-self-dual solution of the Yang–Mills field equation. The instanton is believed to be composed of two merons. Sphalerons are a field configuration which is a saddle point of the Yang–Mills field equations. Sphalerons are used in nonperturbative calculations of non-tunneling rates. Renormalons, a possible type of singularity arising when using Borel summation. It is a counterpart of an instanton singularity. == Classification by speed == A bradyon (or tardyon) travels slower than the speed of light in vacuum and has a non-zero, real


id: list-of-physicists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physicists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of physicists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physicists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:03.432252+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-physicists-20260505-0
summary:
Following is a list of physicists who are notable for their achievements. == A == Jules Aarons – United States (1921–2016) Ernst Karl Abbe – Germany (1840–1905) Derek Abbott – Australia (born 1960) Hasan Abdullayev – Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, Soviet Union, Azerbaijan (1918–1993) Alexei Alexeyevich Abrikosov – Soviet Union, Russia (1928–2017) Nobel laureate Robert Adler – United States (1913–2007) Stephen L. Adler – United States (born 1939) Franz Aepinus – Rostock (1724–1802) Mina Aganagic – Albania, United States David Z Albert – United States (born 1954) Felicie Albert – France, United States Miguel Alcubierre – Mexico (born 1964) Zhores Ivanovich Alferov – Soviet Union, Russia (1930–2019) Nobel laureate Hannes Olof Gösta Alfvén – Sweden (1908–1995) Nobel laureate Alhazen – Basra, Iraq (965–1040) Artem Alikhanian – Soviet Union, Armenia (1908–1978) Abram Alikhanov – Soviet Union, Russia (1904–1970) John E. Allen – United Kingdom (born 1928) William Allis – United States (1901–1999) Samuel King Allison – United States (1900–1965) Yakov Lvovich Alpert – Soviet Union, Russia, United States (1911–2010) Ralph Asher Alpher – United States (1921–2007) Semen Altshuler – Soviet Union (1911–1983) Luis Walter Alvarez – United States (1911–1988) Nobel laureate Viktor Ambartsumian – Soviet Union, Armenia (1908–1996) André-Marie Ampère – France


id: list-of-physicists-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physicists-1.md
category: reference
title: List of physicists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physicists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:03.432252+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-physicists-20260505-0
summary:
== C == Nicola Cabibbo – Italy (1935–2010) Nicolás Cabrera – Spain (1913–1989) Orion Ciftja – United States Curtis Callan – United States (born 1942) Annie Jump Cannon – United States (1863–1941) Fritjof Capra – Austria, United States (born 1939) Marcela Carena – Argentina (born 1962) Ricardo Carezani – Argentina, United States (1921–2016) Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot – France (1796–1832) David Carroll – United States (born 1963) Brandon Carter – Australia (born 1942) Hendrik Casimir – Netherlands (1909–2000) Henry Cavendish – U.K. (1731–1810) James Chadwick – U.K. (1891–1974) Nobel laureate Owen Chamberlain – United States (1920–2006) Nobel laureate Moses H. W. Chan – Hong Kong (born 1946) Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar – India, United States (1910–1995) Nobel laureate Tsao Chang - Chinese (born 1942) Georges Charpak – France (1924–2010) Nobel laureate Émilie du Châtelet – France (1706–1749) Swapan Chattopadhyay – India (born 1951) Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov – Imperial Russia, Soviet Union (1904–1990) Nobel laureate Maxim Chernodub – Soviet Union, Russia, France (born 1973) Geoffrey Chew – United States (1924–2019) Boris Chirikov – Soviet Union, Russia (1928–2008) Juansher Chkareuli – Soviet Union, Georgia (born 1940) Ernst Chladni – Germany (1756–1827) Nicholas Christofilos – Greece (1916–1972) Steven Chu – United States (born 1948) Nobel


id: list-of-physicists-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physicists-2.md
category: reference
title: List of physicists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physicists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:03.432252+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-physicists-20260505-0
summary:
== F == Ludvig Faddeev – Soviet Union, Russia (1934–2017) Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit – Prussia (1686–1736) Kazimierz Fajans – Russian Empire, Poland, United States (1887–1975) James E. Faller – United States Michael Faraday – U.K. (1791–1867) Eugene Feenberg – United States (1906–1977) Mitchell Feigenbaum – United States (1944–2019) Gerald Feinberg – United States (1933–1992) Enrico Fermi – Italy (1901–1954) Nobel laureate Albert Fert – France (born 1938) Nobel laureate Herman Feshbach – United States (1917–2000) Richard Feynman – United States (1918–1988) Nobel laureate Wolfgang Finkelnburg – Germany (1905–1967) David Finkelstein – United States (1929–2016) Johannes Fischer – Germany (born 1887) Willy Fischler – Belgium (born 1949) Val Logsdon Fitch – United States (1923–2015) Nobel laureate George Francis FitzGerald – Ireland (1851–1901) Hippolyte Fizeau – France (1819–1896) Georgy Flyorov – Russian Empire, Soviet Union (1913–1990) Vladimir Fock – Russian Empire, Soviet Union (1898–1974) Adriaan Fokker – Netherlands (1887–1972) Arthur Foley – America (1867–1945) James David Forbes – U.K. (1809–1868) Jeff Forshaw – U.K. (born 1968) Léon Foucault – France (1819–1868) Joseph Fourier – France (1768–1830) Ralph H. Fowler – U.K. (1889–1944) William Alfred Fowler – United States (1911–1995) Nobel laureate James Franck – Germany, United States (1882–1964) Nobel laureate Ilya Frank


id: list-of-physicists-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physicists-3.md
category: reference
title: List of physicists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physicists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:03.432252+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-physicists-20260505-0
summary:
== H == Rudolf Haag – Germany (1922–2016) Wander Johannes de Haas – Netherlands (1878–1960) Alain Haché – Canada (born 1970) Carl Richard Hagen – United States (born 1937) Otto Hahn – Germany (1879–1968) Edwin Hall – United States (1855–1938) John Lewis Hall – United States (born 1934) Nobel laureate Alexander Hamilton – U.K., Australia (born 1967) William Rowan Hamilton – Ireland (1805–1865) Theodor Wolfgang Hänsch – Germany (born 1941) Nobel laureate Peter Andreas Hansen – Denmark (1795–1874) W.W. Hansen – United States (1909–1949) Serge Haroche – France (born 1944) Nobel laureate Paul Harteck – Germany (1902–1985) John G. Hartnett – Australia (born 1952) Douglas Hartree – U.K. (1897–1958) Friedrich Hasenöhrl – Austria, Hungary (1874–1915) Lene Vestergaard Hau – Vejle, Denmark (born 1959) Stephen Hawking – U.K. (1942–2018) Wolf laureate Ibn al-Haytham – Iraq (965–1039) Evans Hayward – United States (1922–2020) Oliver Heaviside – U.K. (1850–1925) Werner Heisenberg – Germany (1901–1976) Nobel laureate Walter Heitler – Germany, Ireland (1904–1981) Hermann von Helmholtz – Germany (1821–1894) Charles H. Henry – United States (1937–2016) Joseph Henry – United States (1797–1878) John Herapath – U.K. (1790–1868) Carl Hermann – Germany (1898–1961) Gustav Ludwig Hertz – Germany (1887–1975) Nobel laureate Heinrich Rudolf Hertz –


id: list-of-physicists-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physicists-4.md
category: reference
title: List of physicists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physicists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:03.432252+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-physicists-20260505-0
summary:
== K == Menas Kafatos – Greece, United States (born 1945) Takaaki Kajita – Japan (born 1959) Nobel laureate Michio Kaku – United States (born 1947) Theodor Kaluza – Germany (1885–1954) Heike Kamerlingh Onnes – Netherlands (1853–1926) Nobel laureate William R. Kanne – United States Charles K. Kao – China, Hong Kong, U.K., United States (1933–2018) Nobel laureate Pyotr Kapitsa – Russian Empire, Soviet Union (1894–1984) Nobel laureate Theodore von Kármán – Hungary, United States (1881–1963) aeronautical engineer Alfred Kastler – France (1902–1984) Nobel laureate Amrom Harry Katz – United States (1915–1997) Moshe Kaveh – Israel (born 1943) President of Bar-Ilan University Predhiman Krishan Kaw – India (1948–2017) Heinrich Kayser – Germany (1853–1940) Willem Hendrik Keesom – Netherlands (1876–1956) Edwin C. Kemble – United States (1889–1984) Henry Way Kendall – United States (1926–1999) Nobel laureate Johannes Kepler – Germany (1571–1630) John Kerr – Scotland (1824–1907) Wolfgang Ketterle – Germany (born 1957) Nobel laureate Isaak Markovich Khalatnikov – Soviet Union, Russia (1919–2021) Jim Al-Khalili – U.K. (born 1962) Abdul Qadeer Khan – Pakistan (1936–2021) Yulii Borisovich Khariton – Russian Empire, Soviet Union, Russia (1904–1996) Erhard Kietz – Germany, United States (1909–1982) Jack Kilby – United States (1923–2005) electronics engineer, Nobel laureate


id: list-of-physicists-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physicists-5.md
category: reference
title: List of physicists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physicists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:03.432252+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-physicists-20260505-0
summary:
== M == Arthur B. McDonald – Canada (born 1943) Nobel laureate Carolina Henriette MacGillavry – Netherlands (1904–1993) Ernst Mach – Austria-Hungary (1838–1916) Katie Mack (astrophysicist) – United States (born 1981) Gladys Mackenzie – Scotland (1903–1972) Ray Mackintosh – U.K. Luciano Maiani – Italy, San Marino (born 1941) Theodore Maiman – United States (1927–2007) Arthur Maitland – U.K. (1925–1994) Ettore Majorana – Italy (1906–1938 presumed dead) Sudhansu Datta Majumdar – India (1915–1997) Richard Makinson – Australia (1913–1979) Juan Martín Maldacena – Argentina (born 1968) Étienne-Louis Malus – France (1775–1812) Leonid Isaakovich Mandelshtam – Russian Empire, Soviet Union (1879–1944) Franz Mandl – U.K. (1923–2009) Charles Lambert Manneback – Belgium (1894–1975) Peter Mansfield – U.K. (1933–2017) Carlo Marangoni – Italy (1840–1925) M. Cristina Marchetti – Italy, United States (born 1955) Guglielmo Marconi – Italy (1874–1937) Nobel laureate Henry Margenau – Germany, United States (1901–1977) Nina Marković – Yugoslavia, Croatia, United States William Markowitz – United States (1907–1998) Laurence D. Marks – United States (born 1954) Robert Marshak – United States (1916–1992) Walter Marshall – U.K. (1932–1996) Toshihide Maskawa – Japan (1940–2021) Nobel laureate Harrie Massey – Australia (1908–1983) John Cromwell Mather – United States (born 1946) Nobel laureate James Clerk Maxwell –


id: list-of-physicists-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physicists-6.md
category: reference
title: List of physicists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physicists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:03.432252+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-physicists-20260505-0
summary:
== P == Thanu Padmanabhan – India (1957–2021) Heinz Pagels – United States (1939–1988) Abraham Pais – Netherlands, United States (1918–2000) Wolfgang K. H. Panofsky – Germany, United States (1919–2007) Giorgio Parisi - Italy (born 1948) Nobel laureate Blaise Pascal – France (1623–1662) John Pasta – United States (1918–1984) Sabrina Gonzalez Pasterski – United States (born 1993) Jogesh Pati – United States (born 1937) Petr Paucek – United States Stephen Paul – United States (1953–2012) Wolfgang Paul – Germany (1913–1993) Nobel laureate Wolfgang Pauli – Austria-Hungary (1900–1958) Nobel laureate Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin – United States (1900–1979) astronomer and astrophysicist Ruby Payne-Scott – Australia (1912–1981) George B. Pegram – United States (1876–1958) Rudolf Peierls – Germany, U.K. (1907–1995) Jean Peltier – France (1785–1845) Roger Penrose – U.K. (born 1931) Wolf laureate, mathematician Arno Allan Penzias – United States (1933–2024) Nobel laureate, electrical engineer Martin Lewis Perl – United States (1927–2014) Nobel laureate Saul Perlmutter – United States (born 1959) Nobel laureate Jean Baptiste Perrin – France (1870–1942) Nobel laureate Mario Petrucci - U.K. (born 1958) Konstantin Petrzhak – Russian Empire, Soviet Union, Russia (1907–1998) Bernhard Philberth – Germany (1927–2010) William Daniel Phillips – United States (born 1948) Nobel laureate Max Planck –


id: list-of-physicists-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physicists-7.md
category: reference
title: List of physicists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physicists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:03.432252+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-physicists-20260505-0
summary:
== S == Subir Sachdev – United States (born 1961) Mendel Sachs – United States (1927–2012) Rainer K. Sachs – Germany and United States (born 1932) Robert G. Sachs – United States (1916–1999) Carl Sagan – United States (1934–1996) Georges-Louis le Sage – Switzerland (1724–1803) Georges Sagnac – France (1869–1926) Meghnad Saha – Bengali India (1893–1956) Shoichi Sakata – Japan (1911–1970) Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov – Soviet Union (1929–1989) Oscar Sala – Brazil (1922–2010) Abdus Salam – Pakistan (1926–1996) Nobel laureate Edwin Ernest Salpeter – Austria, Australia, United States (1924–2008) Anthony Ichiro Sanda – Japan, United States (born 1944) Leonard Sander – United States (living) Antonella De Santo – Italy, U.K. Vikram Sarabhai – India (1919–1971) Isidor Sauers – Austria (born 1948) Félix Savart – France (1791–1841) Brendan Scaife – Ireland (born 1928) Martin Schadt – Switzerland (born 1938) Arthur Leonard Schawlow – United States (1921–1999) Nobel laureate Craige Schensted – United States Joël Scherk – France (1946–1979) Otto Scherzer – Germany (1909–1982) Brian Schmidt – Australia, United States (born 1967) Nobel laureate Alan Schoen – United States (1924–2023) Walter H. Schottky – Germany (1886–1976) Kees A. Schouhamer Immink – Netherlands (born 1946) John Robert Schrieffer – United States (1931–2019) Nobel


id: list-of-physicists-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physicists-8.md
category: reference
title: List of physicists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physicists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:03.432252+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-physicists-20260505-0
summary:
== T == Igor Yevgenyevich Tamm – Imperial Russia, Soviet Union (1895–1971) Nobel laureate Rachel Takserman-Krozer – Ukraine (1921–1987) Abraham H. Taub – United States (1911–1999) Geoffrey Ingram Taylor – U.K. (1886–1975) Joseph Hooton Taylor, Jr. – United States (born 1941) Nobel laureate Richard Edward Taylor – United States (1929–2018) Nobel laureate Max Tegmark – Sweden, United States (born 1967) Valentine Telegdi – Hungary, United States (1922–2006) Wolf laureate Edward Teller – Austria-Hungary, United States (1908–2003) Igor Ternov – Russia (1921–1996) George Paget Thomson – U.K. (1892–1975) Nobel laureate J. J. Thomson – U.K. (1856–1940) Nobel laureate William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) – Ireland, U.K. (1824–1907) Charles Thorn – United States (born 1946) Kip Stephen Thorne – United States (born 1940) Peter Adolf Thiessen – Germany (1899–1990) Samuel Chao Chung Ting – United States (born 1936) Nobel laureate Frank J. Tipler – United States (born 1947) Ernest William Titterton – U.K., Australia (1916–1990) Yoshinori Tokura – Japan (born 1954) Samuel Tolansky – U.K. (1907–1973) Orlando Toledo -- Chile (born 1964) Sin-Itiro Tomonaga – Japan (1906–1979) Nobel laureate Lewi Tonks – United States (1897–1971) Akira Tonomura – Japan (1942–2012) Evangelista Torricelli – Italy (1608–1647) Yoji Totsuka – Japan (1942–2008) Bruno Touschek –


id: list-of-slovenian-physicists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Slovenian_physicists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Slovenian physicists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Slovenian_physicists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:04.616792+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-slovenian-physicists-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of notable Slovenian physicists. == A == Miroslav Adlešič == B == Robert Blinc (1933 - 2011) Silvo Breskvar (1902 - 1969) == C == Andrej Čadež - astrophysicist. Lavo Čermelj (1889 - 1980) == G == Peter Gosar (1923 - ) == K == Ignacij Klemenčič (1853 - 1901) Alojz Kodre (1944 - ) == P == Matjaž Perc (1979 - ) Anton Peterlin (1908 - 1993) - Rudolf Podgornik (1955 - 2024) Herman Potočnik Noordung (1892 - 1929) - pioneer of astronautics and cosmonautics, and rocket engineer. Tomaž Prosen (1970 - ) == S == Jožef Stefan (1835 - 1893) - physicist, mathematician and poet. Janez Strnad (1934 - 2015) - physicist and populariser of natural science. == T == Gašper Tkačik (1979 -) == V == Jurij Bartolomej Vega (1754 - 1802) - mathematician, physicist and artillery officer == Z == Danilo Zavrtanik (1953 - ) == See also == Physicist List of Slovenians


id: list-of-plasma-physics-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_plasma_physics_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: List of plasma physics articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_plasma_physics_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:05.979450+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-plasma-physics-articles-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of plasma physics topics. == A == == B == == C == == D == == E == == F == == G == == H == == I == == J == Jellium, uniform electron gas, homogeneous electron gas Jet (particle physics) Jet quenching Joint European Torus == K == == L == == M == == N == == O == Ohmic contact Onset of deconfinement Optode Optoelectric nuclear battery Orbitrap Outer space == P == == Q == == R == == S == == T == == U == U-HID, Ultra High Intensity Discharge UMIST linear system Undulator Upper hybrid oscillation Upper-atmospheric lightning == V == == W == == X == XANES, X-ray Absorption Near Edge Structure Xenon arc lamp X-ray transient X-ray astronomy X-shaped radio galaxy == Y == == Z == Zakharov system Zero-point energy ZETA (fusion reactor) Zonal and poloidal Zonal flow (plasma) Z Pulsed Power Facility == References ==


id: list-of-plasma-physicists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_plasma_physicists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of plasma physicists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_plasma_physicists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:07.276604+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-plasma-physicists-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of physicists who have worked in or made notable contributions to the field of plasma physics.


id: list-of-physics-concepts-in-primary-and-secondary-education-curricula-20260505-0
category: reference
title: List of physics concepts in primary and secondary education curricula
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physics_concepts_in_primary_and_secondary_education_curricula
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:08.497766+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-physics-concepts-in-primary-and-secondary-education-curricula-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physics_concepts_in_primary_and_secondary_education_curricula-0.md

summary:
This is a list of topics that are included in high school physics curricula or textbooks. == Mathematical Background == SI Units Scalar (physics) Euclidean vector Motion graphs and derivatives Pythagorean theorem Trigonometry == Motion and forces == Motion Force === Linear motion === Linear motion Displacement Speed Velocity Acceleration Center of mass Mass Momentum Newton's laws of motion Work (physics) Free body diagram === Rotational motion === Angular momentum (Introduction) Angular velocity Centrifugal force Centripetal force Circular motion Tangential velocity Torque == Conservation of energy and momentum == Energy Conservation of energy Elastic collision Inelastic collision Inertia Moment of inertia Momentum Kinetic energy Potential energy Rotational energy == Electricity and magnetism == Ampère's circuital law Capacitor Coulomb's law Diode Direct current Electric charge Electric current Alternating current Electric field Electric potential energy Electron Faraday's law of induction Ion Inductor Joule heating Lenz's law Magnetic field Ohm's law Resistor Transistor Transformer Voltage == Heat == Entropy First law of thermodynamics Heat Heat transfer Second law of thermodynamics Temperature Thermal energy Thermodynamic cycle Volume (thermodynamics) Work (thermodynamics) == Waves == Wave Longitudinal wave Transverse waves Transverse wave Standing Waves Wavelength Frequency Light Light ray Speed of light Sound Speed of sound


id: list-of-proton-synchrotron-experiments-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Proton_Synchrotron_experiments-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Proton Synchrotron experiments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Proton_Synchrotron_experiments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:09.755230+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-proton-synchrotron-experiments-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of past and current experiments at the CERN Proton Synchrotron (PS) facility since its commissioning in 1959. The PS was CERN's first synchrotron and the world's highest energy particle accelerator at the time. It served as the flagship of CERN until the 1980s when its main role became to provide injection beams to other machines such as the Super Proton Synchrotron. The information is gathered from the INSPIRE-HEP database. == See also == Experiments List of Super Proton Synchrotron experiments List of Large Hadron Collider experiments Facilities CERN: European Organization for Nuclear Research PS: Proton Synchrotron SPS: Super Proton Synchrotron ISOLDE: On-Line Isotope Mass Separator ISR: Intersecting Storage Rings LEP: Large Electron–Positron Collider LHC: Large Hadron Collider == References ==


id: list-of-physical-quantities-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physical_quantities-0.md
category: reference
title: List of physical quantities
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physical_quantities
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:12.234299+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-physical-quantities-20260505-0
summary:
This article consists of tables outlining a number of physical quantities. A physical quantity is a property of a material or system that can be quantified by measurement; it has a value and units. The International System of Quantities, which underlies the International System of Units, defines seven base quantities; other quantities are generally derived quantities, which can be expressed in terms of the base quantities. Neither the names nor the symbols used for the physical quantities are set by international standards, although ISO/IEC 80000 does list many of these without making them normative. Some quantities are known by several different names and symbols. The table typically lists the name and symbol that is most commonly used. The final column lists some properties and characteristics that a quantity has, such as their scaling behaviour (e.g. whether the quantity is intensive or extensive), their transformation properties (i.e. whether the quantity is a scalar, vector, matrix or tensor), and whether the quantity is conserved. == Scalar == == Vector == == Tensor == == See also == List of photometric quantities List of radiometric quantities List of dimensionless quantities List of electromagnetism quantities == References ==


id: list-of-quantum-mechanical-systems-with-analytical-solutions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_quantum-mechanical_systems_with_analytical_solutions-0.md
category: reference
title: List of quantum-mechanical systems with analytical solutions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_quantum-mechanical_systems_with_analytical_solutions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:13.558981+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-quantum-mechanical-systems-with-analytical-solutions-20260505-0
summary:
Much insight in quantum mechanics can be gained from understanding the closed-form solutions to the time-dependent non-relativistic Schrödinger equation. It takes the form H ^ ψ ( r , t ) = [ − ℏ 2 2 m ∇ 2 + V ( r ) ] ψ ( r , t ) = i ℏ ∂ ψ ( r , t ) ∂ t , {\displaystyle {\hat {H}}\psi {\left(\mathbf {r} ,t\right)}=\left[-{\frac {\hbar ^{2}}{2m}}\nabla ^{2}+V{\left(\mathbf {r} \right)}\right]\psi {\left(\mathbf {r} ,t\right)}=i\hbar {\frac {\partial \psi {\left(\mathbf {r} ,t\right)}}{\partial t}},} where ψ {\displaystyle \psi } is the wave function of the system, H ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {H}}} is the Hamiltonian operator, and t {\displaystyle t} is time. Stationary states of this equation are found by solving the time-independent Schrödinger equation, [ − ℏ 2 2 m ∇ 2 + V ( r ) ] ψ ( r ) = E ψ ( r ) , {\displaystyle \left[-{\frac {\hbar ^{2}}{2m}}\nabla ^{2}+V{\left(\mathbf {r} \right)}\right]\psi {\left(\mathbf {r} \right)}=E\psi {\left(\mathbf {r} \right)},} which is an eigenvalue equation. Very often, only numerical solutions to the Schrödinger equation can be found for a given physical system and its associated potential energy. However, there exists a subset of physical systems for


id: list-of-quasiparticles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_quasiparticles-0.md
category: reference
title: List of quasiparticles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_quasiparticles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:14.869296+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-quasiparticles-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of quasiparticles and collective excitations used in condensed matter physics. == List == == References ==


id: list-of-refractive-indices-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_refractive_indices-0.md
category: reference
title: List of refractive indices
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_refractive_indices
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:16.149064+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-refractive-indices-20260505-0
summary:
Most of the materials have a well-characterized refractive index, but these indices often depend strongly upon the frequency of light, causing optical dispersion. Standard refractive index measurements are taken at the "yellow doublet" sodium D line, with a wavelength (λ) of 589 nanometers. There are also weaker dependencies on temperature, pressure/stress, etc., as well on precise material compositions (presence of dopants, etc.); for many materials and typical conditions, however, these variations are at the percent level or less. Thus, it's especially important to cite the source for an index measurement if precision is required. In general, an index of refraction is a complex number with both a real and imaginary part, where the latter indicates the strength of absorption loss at a particular wavelength—thus, the imaginary part is sometimes called the extinction coefficient k {\displaystyle k} . Such losses become particularly significant, for example, in metals at short (e.g. visible) wavelengths, and must be included in any description of the refractive index. == List == == See also == Sellmeier equation Corrective lens#Ophthalmic material property tables Optical properties of water and ice == References == == External links == International Association for the Properties of Water and Steam Ioffe institute,


id: list-of-scattering-experiments-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scattering_experiments-0.md
category: reference
title: List of scattering experiments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scattering_experiments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:17.333764+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scattering-experiments-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of scattering experiments. == Specific experiments of historical significance == Davisson–Germer experiment Gold foil experiments, performed by Geiger and Marsden for Rutherford which discovered the atomic nucleus Elucidation of the structure of DNA by X-ray crystallography Discovery of the antiproton at the Bevatron Discovery of W and Z bosons at CERN Discovery of the Higgs boson at the Large Hadron Collider MINERνA == Types of experiment == === Optical methods === Compton scattering Raman scattering X-ray crystallography Biological small-angle scattering with X-rays, or Small-angle X-ray scattering Static light scattering Dynamic light scattering Polymer scattering with X-rays === Neutron-based methods === Neutron scattering Biological small-angle scattering with neutrons, or Small-angle neutron scattering Polymer scattering with neutrons === Particle accelerators === Electrostatic nuclear accelerator Linear induction accelerator Betatron Linear particle accelerator Cyclotron Synchrotron


id: list-of-scientific-publications-by-albert-einstein-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_publications_by_Albert_Einstein-0.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_publications_by_Albert_Einstein
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:18.603189+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-publications-by-albert-einstein-20260505-0
summary:
Albert Einstein (1879–1955) was a renowned theoretical physicist of the 20th century, best known for his special and general theories of relativity. He also made important contributions to statistical mechanics, especially by his treatment of Brownian motion, his resolution of the paradox of specific heats, and his connection of fluctuations and dissipation. Despite his reservations about its interpretation, Einstein also made seminal contributions to quantum mechanics and, indirectly, quantum field theory, primarily through his theoretical studies of the photon. Einstein's writings, including his scientific publications, have been digitized and released on the Internet with English translations by a consortium of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Princeton University Press, and the California Institute of Technology, called the Einstein Papers Project. Einstein's scientific publications are listed below in four tables: journal articles, book chapters, books and authorized translations. Each publication is indexed in the first column by its number in Schilpp's bibliography in the book Albert Einstein: Philosopher–Scientist (pp. 694–730), which Schilpp edited, and by its article number in Einstein's Collected Papers. Complete references for these two bibliographies may be found below in the Bibliography section. The Schilpp numbers are used for cross-referencing in the Notes (the final column of each table),


id: list-of-scientific-publications-by-albert-einstein-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_publications_by_Albert_Einstein-1.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_publications_by_Albert_Einstein
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:18.603189+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-publications-by-albert-einstein-20260505-0
summary:
=== The first period (1901–1933) === From 1901 to 1904, Einstein submitted his first scientific papers, dealing with problems in thermodynamics and statistical mechanics. His first few papers convinced him of the limitations of a purely thermodynamic approach, whereupon he turned to statistical mechanics as a path towards a deeper understanding of thermodynamics, and established for himself a number of key results such as the canonical distribution, the equipartition of energy, and the statistical interpretations of entropy and temperature. He was only somewhat cognizant of the Lectures on Gas Theory by Ludwig Boltzmann and completely unaware of the Elementary Principles in Statistical Mechanics by Josiah Willard Gibbs. In 1905, Einstein proposed that the existence of light quanta—dubbed photons by chemist Gilbert Lewis in 1926—could explain the photoelectric effect. He treated electromagnetic radiation as a gas and applied thermodynamic reasoning in his "heuristic" treatment, arguing that the energy E {\displaystyle E} of a photon is given by Planck's relation, E = h ν {\displaystyle E=h\nu } , where h {\displaystyle h} is a new constant of nature (the Planck constant), and ν {\displaystyle \nu } (nu) is the frequency of the photon. Whereas Max Planck had introduced the quantum hypothesis as


id: list-of-scientific-publications-by-albert-einstein-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_publications_by_Albert_Einstein-2.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_publications_by_Albert_Einstein
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:18.603189+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-publications-by-albert-einstein-20260505-0
summary:
He concluded that gravity is due to the curvature of spacetime and reasoned that because all massive objects fall under the influence of gravity at the same acceleration, known since the time of Galileo Galilei, such paths must be the shortest paths or geodesics in spacetime. Spacetime is thus a four-dimensional manifold. Einstein's collaborator during the early development of general relativity was his friend and former classmate at what is now the ETH Zurich, Marcel Grossmann, who taught Einstein the absolute differential geometry developed by Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro and Tullio Levi-Civita for expressing the equations of physics in a manner independent of coordinate choice. Armed with the new gravitational field equations, Einstein correctly calculated the perihelion of Mercury, not accounted for by Newton's law of universal gravitation, and was able to address the issue of momentum and energy conservation in a special case of the 1918 theorem proven by Emmy Noether, linking symmetries with conserved quantities. Einstein outpaced his competitor David Hilbert in deriving the final field equations, which Hilbert acknowledged to be Einstein's. General relativity makes a number of surprising predictions, such as the bending of light by gravity, that matter affects the flow of time, the stretching or redshift


id: list-of-scientific-publications-by-albert-einstein-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_publications_by_Albert_Einstein-3.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_publications_by_Albert_Einstein
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:18.603189+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-publications-by-albert-einstein-20260505-0
summary:
=== The second period (1933–1955) === In 1935, together with Boris Podolsky and Nathan Rosen, Einstein put forward what is now known as the EPR paradox. Einstein and his colleagues argued that the quantum-mechanical wave function must be an incomplete description of the physical world, and that there could be "hidden variables" not accounted for in standard quantum mechanics. This paper describes the phenomenon of quantum entanglement, a term coined by Erwin Schrödinger in a paper published in the same year in which Schrödinger states his cat paradox. It is Einstein's most controversial paper, and the most important one he published after migrating to the U.S. In 1951, David Bohm reformulated the original thought experiment in terms of spin and in 1964, John Stewart Bell proposed experiments to test the inequalities he derived. A variety of experiments conducted since the 1970s with ever improving reliability have demonstrated the reality of quantum entanglement and disproven Einstein's notion of local realism. In 1935, Einstein and Rosen proposed the Einstein–Rosen bridge, a hypothetical tunnel connecting different regions of the same universe, in order to resolve the difficulties associated with singularities, such as the ones in the Schwarzschild solution, the central singularity and the


id: timeline-of-discovery-of-solar-system-planets-and-their-moons-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_discovery_of_Solar_System_planets_and_their_moons-0.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of discovery of Solar System planets and their moons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_discovery_of_Solar_System_planets_and_their_moons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:19.830094+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-discovery-of-solar-system-planets-and-their-moons-20260505-0
summary:
The timeline of discovery of Solar System planets and their natural satellites charts the progress of the discovery of new bodies over history. Each object is listed in chronological order of its discovery (multiple dates occur when the moments of imaging, observation, and publication differ), identified through its various designations (including temporary and permanent schemes), and the discoverer(s) listed. Historically the naming of moons did not always match the times of their discovery. Traditionally, the discoverer enjoys the privilege of naming the new object; however, some neglected to do so (E. E. Barnard stated he would "defer any suggestions as to a name" [for Amalthea] "until a later paper" but never got around to picking one from the numerous suggestions he received) or actively declined (S. B. Nicholson stated "Many have asked what the new satellites [Lysithea and Carme] are to be named. They will be known only by the numbers X and XI, written in Roman numerals, and usually prefixed by the letter J to identify them with Jupiter."). The issue arose nearly as soon as planetary satellites were discovered: Galileo referred to the four main satellites of Jupiter using numbers while the names suggested by his rival Simon


id: list-of-states-of-matter-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_states_of_matter-0.md
category: reference
title: List of states of matter
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_states_of_matter
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:21.027768+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-states-of-matter-20260505-0
summary:
Matter organizes into various phases or states of matter depending on its constituents and external factors like pressure and temperature. Except at extreme temperatures and pressures, atoms form the three classical states of matter: solid, liquid and gas. Complex molecules can also form various mesophases such as liquid crystals, which are intermediate between the liquid and solid phases. At high temperatures or strong electromagnetic fields, atoms become ionized, forming plasma. At low temperatures, the electrons of solid materials can also organize into various electronic phases of matter, such as the superconducting state, with vanishing resistivity. Magnetic states such as ferromagnetism and antiferromagnetism can also be regarded as phases of matter in which the electronic and nuclear spins organize into different patterns. Such states of matter are studied in condensed matter physics. In extreme conditions found in some stars and in the early universe, atoms break into their constituents and matter exists as some form of degenerate matter or quark matter. Such states of matter are studied in high-energy physics. In the 20th century, increased understanding of the properties of matter resulted in the identification of many states of matter. This list includes some notable examples. == Low-energy states == ===


id: list-of-states-of-matter-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_states_of_matter-1.md
category: reference
title: List of states of matter
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_states_of_matter
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:21.027768+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-states-of-matter-20260505-0
summary:
=== Electronically ordered states === Ferroelectricity: A state of matter with spontaneous electric polarization. Antiferroelectricity: A state of matter in which the adjacent electric dipoles point in opposite directions. Charge ordering: Charge ordering is a (first- or second-order) phase transition occurring mostly in strongly correlated materials such as transition metal oxides or organic conductors. Due to the strong interaction between electrons, charges are localized on different sites leading to a disproportionation and an ordered superlattice. It appears in different patterns ranging from vertical to horizontal stripes to a checkerboard–like pattern [1][2], and it is not limited to the two-dimensional case. The charge order transition is accompanied by symmetry breaking and may lead to ferroelectricity. It is often found in close proximity to superconductivity and colossal magnetoresistance. Charge density wave: An ordered state in which charge density is periodically modulated. === Topological states of matter === Quantum Hall state: A topological state of matter with quantized Hall resistance. Fractional quantum Hall state: A state with fractionally charged quasiparticles. Hall resistance is quantized to fractional multiples of resistance quantum. Quantum spin Hall state: a theoretical phase that may pave the way for the development of electronic devices that dissipate less energy and


id: list-of-string-theory-topics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_string_theory_topics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of string theory topics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_string_theory_topics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:23.468285+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-string-theory-topics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of string theory topics. == String theory == Strings Nambu–Goto action Polyakov action Bosonic string theory Superstring theory Type I string Type II string Type IIA string theory Type IIB string theory Heterotic string N=2 superstring M-theory Matrix theory Introduction to M-theory F-theory String field theory Matrix string theory Nonlinear sigma model Tachyon condensation RNS formalism String theory landscape History of string theory First superstring revolution Second superstring revolution === String duality === T-duality S-duality U-duality Montonen–Olive duality Mysterious duality === Particles and fields === Graviton Dilaton Tachyon Ramond–Ramond field Kalb–Ramond field Magnetic monopole === Branes === D-brane S-brane Black brane Black holes Black string Brane cosmology Quiver diagram Hanany–Witten transition == Supersymmetry == Supergravity Superspace Lie superalgebra Lie supergroup == Conformal field theory == Two-dimensional conformal field theory Virasoro algebra Mirror symmetry Conformal anomaly Conformal algebra Superconformal algebra Vertex operator algebra Loop algebra Kac–Moody algebra Wess–Zumino–Witten model Monstrous moonshine == Geometry == Kaluza–Klein theory Compactification Why 10 dimensions? Kähler manifold Ricci-flat manifold Calabi–Yau manifold Hyperkähler manifold K3 surface G2 manifold Spin(7) manifold Generalized complex manifold Orbifold Conifold Orientifold Moduli space Hořava–Witten domain wall K-theory (physics) Twisted K-theory == Holography == Holographic principle AdS/CFT correspondence ==


id: list-of-synchrotron-radiation-facilities-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_synchrotron_radiation_facilities-0.md
category: reference
title: List of synchrotron radiation facilities
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_synchrotron_radiation_facilities
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:24.667200+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-synchrotron-radiation-facilities-20260505-0
summary:
This is a table of synchrotrons and storage rings used as synchrotron radiation sources, and free electron lasers. == References == == External links == List from lightsources.org (includes links to individual light sources' websites) BioSync – a structural biologist's resource for high energy data collection facilities (includes links and instrument information for biological beamlines) FELs of Europe IR/THz FELs Worldwide - A table containing infrared and terahertz free electron lasers compiled by HZDR Light Source Facilities - List of light source facilities from LSU CAMD website (outdated) X-ray Data Booklet


id: list-of-textbooks-in-physics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_textbooks_in_physics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of textbooks in physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_textbooks_in_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:25.926946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-textbooks-in-physics-20260505-0
summary:
List of textbooks in physics: Category:Physics textbooks List of textbooks on classical mechanics and quantum mechanics List of textbooks in electromagnetism List of textbooks on relativity List of textbooks in thermodynamics and statistical mechanics


id: list-of-theoretical-physicists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_theoretical_physicists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of theoretical physicists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_theoretical_physicists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:29.723887+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-theoretical-physicists-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a partial list of notable theoretical physicists. Arranged by century of birth, then century of death, then year of birth, then year of death, then alphabetically by surname. For explanation of symbols, see Notes at end of this article. == Ancient times == Kaṇāda (6th century BCE or 2nd century BCE) Thales (c. 624 – c. 546 BCE) Pythagoras^* (c. 570 – c. 495 BCE) Democritus° (c. 460 – c. 370 BCE) Aristotle‡ (384–322 BCE) Archimedesº* (c. 287 – c. 212 BCE) Ptolemy (c. 100 – c. 170 AD) Hypatia^ªº (c. 350–370; died 415 AD) == Middle Ages == Al Farabi (c.872–c.950) Ibn al-Haytham (c.965–c.1040) Al Beruni (c.973–c.1048) Omar Khayyám (c.1048–c.1131) Bhaskara II (c.1114–c.1185) Mu'ayyad al-Din al-Urdi (c.1200–c.1266) Nasir al-Din Tusi (1201–1274) Jean Buridan (1301–c.1359/62) Nicole Oresme (c.1320/1325–1382) Jamshid al-Kashi (1380–1429) Sigismondo Polcastro (1384–1473) Ulugh Beg (1394–1449) == 15th–16th century == Giovanni Bianchini (1410–1469) Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) Nicolaus Copernicusº (1473–1543) == 16th century and 16th–17th centuries == Gerolamo Cardano (1501–1576) Tycho Brahe (1546–1601) Giordano Bruno (1548–1600) Galileo Galileiº* (1564–1642) Johannes Keplerº (1571–1630) Benedetto Castelli (1578–1643) René Descartes‡^ (1596–1650) Bonaventura Cavalieri (1598–1647) == 17th century == Pierre de Fermat (1607–1665) Evangelista Torricelli (1608–1647) Giovanni Alfonso Borelli (1608–1679)


id: physical-theories-modified-by-general-relativity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_theories_modified_by_general_relativity-0.md
category: reference
title: Physical theories modified by general relativity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_theories_modified_by_general_relativity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:32.111460+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physical-theories-modified-by-general-relativity-20260505-0
summary:
This article will use the Einstein summation convention. The theory of general relativity required the adaptation of existing theories of physical, electromagnetic, and quantum effects to account for non-Euclidean geometries. These physical theories modified by general relativity are described below. == Classical mechanics and special relativity == Classical mechanics and special relativity are lumped together here because special relativity is in many ways intermediate between general relativity and classical mechanics, and shares many attributes with classical mechanics. In the following discussion, the mathematics of general relativity is used heavily. Also, under the principle of minimal coupling, the physical equations of special relativity can be turned into their general relativity counterparts by replacing the Minkowski metric (ηab) with the relevant metric of spacetime (gab) and by replacing any partial derivatives with covariant derivatives. In the discussions that follow, the change of metrics is implied. === Inertia === Inertial motion is motion free of all forces. In Newtonian mechanics, the force F acting on a particle with mass m is given by Newton's second law, F = m r ¨ {\displaystyle F=m{\ddot {r}}} , where the acceleration is given by the second derivative of position r with respect to time t .


id: list-of-thermodynamic-properties-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_thermodynamic_properties-0.md
category: reference
title: List of thermodynamic properties
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_thermodynamic_properties
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:33.386469+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-thermodynamic-properties-20260505-0
summary:
In thermodynamics, a physical property is any property that is measurable, and whose value describes a state of a physical system. Thermodynamic properties are defined as characteristic features of a system, capable of specifying the system's state. Some constants, such as the ideal gas constant, R, do not describe the state of a system, and so are not properties. On the other hand, some constants, such as Kf (the freezing point depression constant, or cryoscopic constant), depend on the identity of a substance, and so may be considered to describe the state of a system, and therefore may be considered physical properties. "Specific" properties are expressed on a per mass basis. If the units were changed from per mass to, for example, per mole, the property would remain as it was (i.e., intensive or extensive). == Regarding work and heat == Work and heat are not thermodynamic properties, but rather process quantities: flows of energy across a system boundary. Systems do not contain work, but can perform work, and likewise, in formal thermodynamics, systems do not contain heat, but can transfer heat. Informally, however, a difference in the energy of a system that occurs solely because of a difference in


id: list-of-non-coherent-units-of-measurement-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_non-coherent_units_of_measurement-0.md
category: reference
title: List of non-coherent units of measurement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_non-coherent_units_of_measurement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:36.133659+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-non-coherent-units-of-measurement-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of units of measurement in active use, which do not form part of a coherent system of measurement. Many of the items listed here are colloquial units based on familiar objects such as parts of the body. Many of the listed units are approximate or vaguely defined. Some are odd multiples or fractions of a base unit. == Length == === Ligne === The ligne is a French unit of length that is sometimes used in watchmaking and ribbon manufacture. It is equal to one twelfth of a Paris inch, or about 2.2558 mm. Diameters of buttons are also measured in a unit called the ligne, but it is defined as 1/40 inch. === Vee === In groff/troff and specifically in the included traditional manuscript macro set ms, the vee (v) is a unit of vertical distance often—but not always—corresponding to the height of an ordinary line of text. === Horizontal pitch === Horizontal pitch (HP) is a unit of length defined by the Eurocard printed circuit board standard used to measure the horizontal width of rack-mounted electronic equipment, similar to the rack unit (U) used to measure vertical heights of rack-mounted equipment. One HP is


id: list-of-non-coherent-units-of-measurement-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_non-coherent_units_of_measurement-1.md
category: reference
title: List of non-coherent units of measurement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_non-coherent_units_of_measurement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:36.133659+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-non-coherent-units-of-measurement-20260505-0
summary:
=== Earth radius === The globally-average radius of Earth, generally given as 6,371 kilometres (3,959 miles), is often employed as a unit of measure to intuitively compare objects of planetary size. === Lunar distance === Lunar distance (LD), the distance from the centre of Earth to the centre of the Moon, is a unit of measure in astronomy. The lunar distance is approximately 384,400 km (238,900 mi), or 1.28 light-seconds; this is roughly 30 times Earth's diameter. A little less than 400 lunar distances make up an astronomical unit. === Siriometer === The siriometer is an obsolete astronomical measure equal to one million astronomical units, i.e., one million times the average distance between the Sun and Earth. This distance is equal to about 15.8 light-years, 149.6 Pm, or 4.8 parsecs, and is about twice the distance from Earth to the star Sirius. == Area == === Barn === One barn is 10−28 square metres, about the cross-sectional area of a uranium nucleus. The name probably derives from early neutron-deflection experiments, when the uranium nucleus was described, and the phrases "big as a barn" and "hit a barn door" were used. Barn are typically used for cross sections in nuclear and


id: list-of-non-coherent-units-of-measurement-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_non-coherent_units_of_measurement-2.md
category: reference
title: List of non-coherent units of measurement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_non-coherent_units_of_measurement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:36.133659+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-non-coherent-units-of-measurement-20260505-0
summary:
The shot is a liquid volume measure that varies from country to country and state to state depending on legislation. It is routinely used for measuring strong liquor or spirits when the amount served and consumed is smaller than the more common measures of alcoholic "drink" and "pint". There is a legally defined maximum size of a serving in some jurisdictions. The size of a "single" shot is 20–60 ml (0.70–2.11 imp fl oz; 0.68–2.03 US fl oz). The smaller "pony" shot is 20–30 ml (0.70–1.06 imp fl oz; 0.68–1.01 US fl oz). According to Encyclopædia Britannica Almanac 2009, a pony is 0.75 fluid ounces of liquor. According to Wolfram Alpha, one pony is 1 U.S. fluid ounce. "Double" shots (surprisingly not always the size of two single shots, even in the same place) are 40–100 ml (1.4–3.5 imp fl oz; 1.4–3.4 US fl oz). In the UK, spirits are sold in shots of either 25 ml (0.88 imp fl oz; 0.85 US fl oz) (approximating the old fluid ounce) or 35 ml (1.2 imp fl oz; 1.2 US fl oz). === Board foot or super foot === A board foot is a United States and Canadian unit of approximate


id: list-of-non-coherent-units-of-measurement-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_non-coherent_units_of_measurement-3.md
category: reference
title: List of non-coherent units of measurement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_non-coherent_units_of_measurement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:36.133659+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-non-coherent-units-of-measurement-20260505-0
summary:
Double-decker bus The approximate volume of a double-decker bus, abbreviated to DDB, has been used informally to describe the size of hole created by a major sewer collapse. For example, a report might refer to "a 4 DDB hole". Olympic-size swimming pool For larger volumes of liquid, one measure commonly used in the media in many countries is the Olympic-size swimming pool. A 50 m × 25 m (164 ft × 82 ft) Olympic swimming pool, built to the FR3 minimum depth of 2 metres (6.6 ft) would hold 2,500 m3 (660,000 US gal). The US National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) defines the Olympic swimming pool as 1 million litres, which is the approximate volume of the smaller FR2 pool. Royal Albert Hall The Royal Albert Hall, a large concert hall, is sometimes used as a unit of volume in the UK, for example when referring to volumes of rubbish placed in landfill. It is famously used in the line "Now they know how many holes it takes to fill the Albert Hall." in The Beatles song "A Day in the Life". The volume of the auditorium is between 3 and 3.5 million cubic feet (between 85,000 and


id: list-of-non-coherent-units-of-measurement-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_non-coherent_units_of_measurement-4.md
category: reference
title: List of non-coherent units of measurement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_non-coherent_units_of_measurement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:36.133659+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-non-coherent-units-of-measurement-20260505-0
summary:
=== Thirds, fourths === The term "minute" usually means 1⁄60 of an hour, coming from "a minute division of an hour". The term "second" comes from "the second minute division of an hour", as it is 1⁄60 of a minute, or 1⁄60 of 1⁄60 of an hour. While usually sub-second units are represented with SI prefixes on the second (e.g. milliseconds), this system can be extrapolated further, such that a "third" would mean 1⁄60 of a second (16.7 milliseconds), and a "fourth" would mean 1⁄60 of a third (278 microseconds), etc. These units are occasionally used in astronomy to denote angles. === Moment === A moment was a medieval unit of time. The movement of a shadow on a sundial covered 40 moments in a solar hour. An hour in this case meant one twelfth of the period between sunrise and sunset. The length of a solar hour depended on the length of the day, which in turn varied with the season, so the length of a moment in modern seconds was not fixed, but on average, a moment corresponded to 90 seconds. === Sidereal day === The sidereal day is based on the Earth's rotation rate relative to fixed


id: list-of-non-coherent-units-of-measurement-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_non-coherent_units_of_measurement-5.md
category: reference
title: List of non-coherent units of measurement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_non-coherent_units_of_measurement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:36.133659+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-non-coherent-units-of-measurement-20260505-0
summary:
The Furman is a unit of angular measure equal to 1⁄65,536 of a circle, or just under 20 arcseconds. It is named for Alan T. Furman, the American mathematician who adapted the CORDIC algorithm for 16-bit fixed-point arithmetic sometime around 1980. 16 bits give a resolution of 216 = 65,536 distinct angles. A related unit of angular measure equal to 1⁄256 of a circle, represented by 8 bits, has found some use in machinery control where fine precision is not required, most notably crankshaft and camshaft position in internal combustion engine controllers, and in video game programming. There is no consensus as to its name, but it has been called the 8-Bit Furman. These units are convenient because binary integer overflow resembles angular arithmetic: the value of an 8-bit integer overflows from 255 to 0 when a full circle has been traversed. This means binary addition and subtraction work as expected for angular arithmetic. Measures are often made using a Gray code, which is trivially converted into more conventional notation. Its value is equivalent to about 0.0245 radians or 1.41°. === Mils, strecks === Mils and strecks are small units of angle used by various military organizations for range estimation


id: list-of-non-coherent-units-of-measurement-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_non-coherent_units_of_measurement-6.md
category: reference
title: List of non-coherent units of measurement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_non-coherent_units_of_measurement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:36.133659+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-non-coherent-units-of-measurement-20260505-0
summary:
=== Flow: Sverdrup === One sverdrup (Sv) is equal to 1,000,000 cubic metres per second (264,000,000 USgal/s). It is used almost exclusively in oceanography to measure the volumetric rate of transport of ocean currents. === Speed: Bubnoff unit === The Bubnoff unit is defined as 1 micrometre per year (3.169×10−14 m/s), or one millimeter per 1,000 years. It is employed in geology to measure rates of lowering of earth surfaces due to erosion. === Energy intensity === The langley (symbol Ly) is used to measure solar radiation or insolation. It is equal to one thermochemical calorie per square centimetre (4.184×104 J/m2 or ≈3.684 BTU/sq ft) and was named after Samuel Pierpont Langley. Its symbol should not be confused with that for the light-year, ly. === Kinematic viscosity === One of the few CGS units to see wider use, one stokes (symbol S or St) is a unit of kinematic viscosity, defined as 1 cm2/s, i.e., 10−4 m2/s (≈1.08×10−3 sq ft/s). === Angular velocity === A MERU (milli Earth rate unit) is a measure of angular velocity equal to 1⁄1000 of Earth's rotation rate: 1 MERU = 7.292115×10^−8 radians per second or about 0.2625 milliradians/hour. It was introduced by MIT's Instrumentation


id: list-of-non-coherent-units-of-measurement-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_non-coherent_units_of_measurement-7.md
category: reference
title: List of non-coherent units of measurement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_non-coherent_units_of_measurement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:36.133659+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-non-coherent-units-of-measurement-20260505-0
summary:
== Demography and epidemiology == Demography and quantitative epidemiology are statistical fields that deal with counts or proportions of people, or rates of change in these. Counts and proportions are technically dimensionless, and so have no units of measurement, although identifiers such as "people", "births", "infections" and the like are used for clarity. Rates of change are counts per unit of time and strictly have inverse time dimensions (per unit of time). In demography and epidemiology expressions such as "deaths per year" are used to clarify what is being measured. Prevalence, a common measure in epidemiology, is strictly a type of denominator data, a dimensionless ratio or proportion. Prevalence may be expressed as a fraction, a percentage or as the number of cases per 1,000, 10,000, or 100,000 in the population of interest. === Micromort === A micromort is a unit of risk measuring a one-in-a-million probability of death (from micro- and mortality). Micromorts can be used to measure riskiness of various day-to-day activities. A microprobability is a one-in-a million chance of some event; thus a micromort is the microprobability of death. For example, smoking 1.4 cigarettes increases one's death risk by one micromort, as does traveling 370 km (230


id: list-of-non-coherent-units-of-measurement-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_non-coherent_units_of_measurement-8.md
category: reference
title: List of non-coherent units of measurement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_non-coherent_units_of_measurement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:36.133659+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-non-coherent-units-of-measurement-20260505-0
summary:
=== Centimorgan: Genetic linkage === In genetics, a centimorgan (abbreviated cM) or map unit (m.u.) is a unit for measuring genetic linkage. It is defined as the distance between chromosome positions (also termed loci or markers) for which the expected average number of intervening chromosomal crossovers in a single generation is 0.01. It is often used to infer distance along a chromosome. One centimorgan corresponds to about 1 million base pairs in humans on average. === Centipawn: Chess position === Chess software frequently uses centipawns internally or externally as a unit measuring how strong each player's situation position is, and hence also by how much one player is beating the other, and how strong a possible move is. 100 centipawns = the value of 1 pawn – more specifically, something like the average value of the pawns at the start of the game, as the actual value of pawns depends on their position. Loss of a pawn will therefore typically lose that player 100 centipawns. The centipawn is often used for comparing possible moves, as in a given position, chess software will often rate the better of two moves within a few centipawns of each other. === Garn: Spacesickness ===


id: index-of-psychology-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_psychology_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of psychology articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_psychology_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:38.070719+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-psychology-articles-20260505-0
summary:
Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior. Its subject matter includes the behavior of humans and nonhumans, both conscious and unconscious phenomena, and mental processes such as thoughts, feelings, and motives. Psychology is an academic discipline of broad scope, crossing the boundaries between the natural and social sciences. Biological psychologists seek an understanding of the emergent properties of brains, linking the discipline to neuroscience. As social scientists, psychologists aim to understand the behavior of individuals and groups. Articles related to psychology (excluding psychologists – see list of psychologists) include: == 0–9 == == A == == B == == C == == D == == E == == F == == G == == H == == I == == J == == K == == L == == M == == N == == O == == P == == Q == == R == == S == == T == == U == == V == == W == == X == == Y == == Z == == See also == Psychology-related Outline of psychology List of counseling topics Psychology journals List of psychology topic lists List of thinking-related topic lists General reference List


id: outline-of-psychology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_psychology-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:39.294583+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to psychology: Psychology refers to the study of subconscious and conscious activities, such as emotions and thoughts. It is a field of study that bridges the scientific and social sciences and has a huge reach. Its goal is to comprehend individuals and groups by both establishing general principles and researching specific cases. Psychology is the study of people and the reasons for their behavior. It has grown in popularity in the last few decades and is now an undergraduate course at many universities. There are a variety of psychology branches that people specialize in, as outlined below. == Branches of psychology == === Basic psychological science === Abnormal psychology Applied psychology Asian psychology Behavioral genetics Biological psychology Black psychology Clinical neuropsychology Cognitive psychology Comparative psychology Conservation psychology Criminal psychology Critical psychology Cultural psychology Developmental psychology Differential psychology Evolutionary psychology Experimental psychology Forensic developmental psychology Group psychology Health psychology Indigenous psychology Mathematical psychology Medical psychology Motivation Music psychology Neuropsychology Pediatric psychology Personality psychology Positive psychology Psychopharmacology Quantitative psychology Rehabilitation psychology Social psychology Transpersonal psychology Theoretical psychology === Other areas by topic === Behavioral economics Child psychopathology Feminine psychology Indian


id: outline-of-autism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_autism-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of autism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_autism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:40.515086+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-autism-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to autism: Autism or autism spectrum disorder (ASD) – a condition characterized by differences or difficulties in social communication and interaction, a need or strong preference for predictability and routine, sensory processing differences, focused interests, or repetitive behaviors. == Descriptions of autism == Autism can be described as all of the following: Disability – may be physical, cognitive, mental, sensory, emotional, developmental or some combination of these. Developmental disability – a term used in the United States and Canada to describe certain lifelong disabilities attributable to mental or physical impairments, manifested prior to adulthood. Disorder – Developmental disorder – occur at some stage in a child's development, often slowing the development. Neurodevelopmental disorder – or disorder of neural development, is an impairment of the growth and development of the brain or central nervous system. Spectrum disorder A form of neurodiversity == Autistic traits == Signs of autism are highly variable, and different individuals will have a different mix of traits. Some more common traits include: Avoidance of eye contact – preference to avoid eye contact and feelings of fear or being overwhelmed when looking into someone's eyes Developmental


id: outline-of-autism-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_autism-1.md
category: reference
title: Outline of autism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_autism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:40.515086+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-autism-20260505-0
summary:
=== Pseudoscience and disproven treatments === Autistic enterocolitis – other studies have explicitly refuted its existence. Craniosacral therapy – (also called CST, also spelled Cranial Sacral bodywork or therapy) is an alternative medicine therapy used by physiotherapists, osteopaths, massage therapists, naturopaths, and chiropractors. Chelation therapy – the administration of chelating agents to remove heavy metals from the body. Not effective in autism. Facilitated communication – a debunked technique which purports to allow non-verbal autistics to communicate. Hyperbaric oxygen therapy – the medical use of oxygen at a level higher than atmospheric pressure. Secretin – a hormone that controls the secretions into the duodenum, and also separately, water homeostasis throughout the body. Ineffective in autism. Vaccines and autism – the thoroughly debunked claim that vaccines cause autism. MMR vaccine and autism – was a case of scientific misconduct which triggered a health scare. Thiomersal and vaccines – describing discredited claims that vaccines containing the mercury-based preservative thiomersal contribute to the development of autism and other developmental disorders. == Notable autistic people == Susan Boyle (b. 1961) was first seen on Britain's Got Talent when she sang "I Dreamed a Dream" from Les Misérables. She has since become a successful singer and


id: outline-of-autism-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_autism-2.md
category: reference
title: Outline of autism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_autism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:40.515086+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-autism-20260505-0
summary:
=== Organizations === Aspies For Freedom (AFF) – a solidarity and campaigning group which aims at raising public awareness of the autism rights movement. Autism Awareness Campaign UK – Autism Network International – founded and run by autistic people. Autism Resource Centre (Singapore) – non-profit organization focused on autistic people. Autism Society of America (ASA) – controversial, primarily parent-led advocacy group founded in 1965 by Bernard Rimland, Ruth C. Sullivan and others. Autistic Self Advocacy Network – a nonprofit advocacy organization run by and for autistic people. M.I.N.D. Institute – research and treatment center. National Autistic Society (NAS) – a British charity for autistic people. Sacar (charity) – a charity focusing on autistic people. TreeHouse – a school in the United Kingdom that focuses on educating autistic children. Wrong Planet – an online community designed for autistic and other neurodivergent people. There are forums and discussions to help neurodivergent people with daily life and the struggles that come with it, such as making friends, general socialization and tips for going to overwhelming places. (Sometimes referred to by its URL, WrongPlanet.net) === Events === Autism Sunday – also known as the International Day of Prayer for Autism and Asperger syndrome, is


id: outline-of-autism-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_autism-3.md
category: reference
title: Outline of autism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_autism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:40.515086+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-autism-20260505-0
summary:
Alexithymia – a term coined by psychotherapist Peter Sifneos in 1973 to describe a state of deficiency in understanding, processing, or describing emotions. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) – a condition with three subtypes: hyperactive, inattentive, and combined. Clinical depression – a mental illness involving low mood and fatigue. Coeliac disease – spelled celiac disease in North America and often celiac sprue, is an autoimmune disorder of the small intestine that occurs in genetically predisposed people of all ages from middle infancy onward. Communication disorder – a speech and language disorder which refers to problems in communication and in related areas such as oral motor function. Deafness – or hearing impairment, is a partial or total inability to hear where the ability would usually be expected. Developmental coordination disorder – a disorder involving motor skill impairments. Dyscalculia – a specific learning disability involving innate difficulty in learning or comprehending arithmetic. Dysgraphia – a deficiency in the ability to write primarily in terms of handwriting, but also in terms of coherence. Dyslexia – a very broad term defining a learning disability that impairs a person's fluency or comprehension accuracy in being able to read, and which can manifest itself as a


id: list-of-psychology-awards-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychology_awards-0.md
category: reference
title: List of psychology awards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychology_awards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:41.751836+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-psychology-awards-20260505-0
summary:
This list of psychology awards is an index to articles about notable awards given for work in the fields of psychology, cognitive sciences and psychiatry. == List == == See also == Lists of awards Lists of science and technology awards List of medicine awards == References ==


id: outline-of-brain-mapping-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_brain_mapping-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of brain mapping
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_brain_mapping
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:42.989942+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-brain-mapping-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to brain mapping: Brain mapping – set of neuroscience techniques predicated on the mapping of (biological) quantities or properties onto spatial representations of the (human or non-human) brain resulting in maps. Brain mapping is further defined as the study of the anatomy and function of the brain and spinal cord through the use of imaging (including intra-operative, microscopic, endoscopic and multi-modality imaging), immunohistochemistry, molecular and optogenetics, stem cell and cellular biology, engineering (material, electrical and biomedical), neurophysiology and nanotechnology. == Broad scope == History of neuroscience History of neurology Brain mapping Human brain Neuroscience Nervous system. === The neuron doctrine === Neuron doctrine – A set of carefully constructed elementary set of observations regarding neurons. For more granularity, more current, and more advanced topics, see the cellular level section Asserts that neurons fall under the broader cell theory, which postulates: All living organisms are composed of one or more cells. The cell is the basic unit of structure, function, and organization in all organisms. All cells come from preexisting, living cells. The Neuron doctrine postulates several elementary aspects of neurons: The brain is made up of individual cells


id: outline-of-brain-mapping-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_brain_mapping-1.md
category: reference
title: Outline of brain mapping
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_brain_mapping
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:42.989942+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-brain-mapping-20260505-0
summary:
=== General === Most imaging work to date on individual neurons has been conducted outside the brain, typically on large neurons, and has been most frequently destructive. New techniques are however rapidly emerging. Search on "Single neuron imaging" and see related topics: Biological neuron model, Single-unit recording, Neural oscillation, Computational neuroscience. dMRI (above) is also promising in non-destructive imaging of single neurons inside the brain. History of neuroimaging (redirects from Brain scanner) Neuroimaging (redirects from Brain function map) Connectomics – mapping technique showing neural connections in a nervous system. === Specific systems === Cortical stimulation mapping Diffusion MRI (dMRI) – includes diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and diffusion functional MRI (DfMRI). dMRI is a recent breakthrough in brain mapping allowing the visualization of cross connections between different anatomical parts of the brain. It allows noninvasive imaging of white matter fiber structure and in addition to mapping can be useful in clinical observations of abnormalities, including damage from stroke. Electroencephalography (EEG) – uses electrodes on the scalp and other techniques to detect the electrical flow of currents. Electrocorticography – intracranial EEG, the practice of using electrodes placed directly on the exposed surface of the brain to record electrical activity from the cerebral


id: outline-of-brain-mapping-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_brain_mapping-2.md
category: reference
title: Outline of brain mapping
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_brain_mapping
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:42.989942+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-brain-mapping-20260505-0
summary:
==== Information technology ==== Determining the number of clusters in a data set – a typical application is in data reduction: as the increase in temporal resolution of fMRI experiments routinely yields fMRI sequences containing several hundreds of images, it is sometimes necessary to invoke feature extraction to reduce the dimensionality of the data space. Fractional anisotropy – a measure often used in diffusion imaging where it is thought to reflect fiber density, axonal diameter, and myelination in white matter. The FA is an extension of the concept of eccentricity of conic sections in three dimensions, normalized to the unit range. Anisotropy is the property of being directionally dependent, as opposed to isotropy, which implies identical properties in all directions. General linear model – a statistical linear model. It may be written as Y=XB +U where Y is a matrix with series of multivariate measurements, X is a matrix that might be a design matrix, B is a matrix containing parameters that are usually to be estimated, and U is a matrix containing errors or noise. It is frequently used in the analysis of multiple brain scans in scientific experiments where Y contains data from brain scanners, X contains experimental


id: list-of-clinical-psychologists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_clinical_psychologists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of clinical psychologists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_clinical_psychologists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:44.159064+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-clinical-psychologists-20260505-0
summary:
This list includes notable clinical psychologists and contributors to clinical psychology, some of whom may not have thought of themselves primarily as clinical psychologists but are included here because of their important contributions to the discipline. == A == Jonathan Abramowitz Alfred W. Adler (inferiority complex) Lauren Alloy Nathan Azrin == B == Richard Bandler, co-founder of neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) David H. Barlow, known for his study and treatment of anxiety and related disorders Albert Bandura Deirdre Barrett, researcher on dreams and hypnosis Aaron T. Beck, founder of cognitive therapy Kim Bergman, surrogacy psychologist Eric Berne Larry E. Beutler, systematic treatment selection Wilfred Bion Theodore H. Blau Nathaniel Branden, notable as a clinician for sentence stems technique, style of group therapy, clinical approaches to self-esteem work David D. Burns, cognitive-behavioral therapy/theory == C == James Cantor Robert Cialdini Stephen Connor == D == Lisa Damour Daniel O David Arthur A. Dole == E == Steve Eichel Albert Ellis, founder of rational-emotive therapy (RET) Erik Erikson Hans Eysenck == F == Ronald Fairbairn theorist of object-relations psychoanalysis Edna B Foa Anna Freud Sigmund Freud, Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis == G == Paul Gilbert (psychologist), founder of compassion focused


id: list-of-cognitive-biases-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases-0.md
category: reference
title: List of cognitive biases
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:45.457283+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cognitive-biases-20260505-0
summary:
In psychology and cognitive science, cognitive biases are systematic patterns of deviation from norm and/or rationality in judgment. They are often studied in psychology, sociology and behavioral economics. A memory bias is a cognitive bias that either enhances or impairs the recall of a memory (either the chances that the memory will be recalled at all, or the amount of time it takes for it to be recalled, or both), or that alters the content of a reported memory. Explanations include information-processing rules (i.e., mental shortcuts), called heuristics, that the brain uses to produce decisions or judgments. Biases have a variety of forms and appear as cognitive ("cold") bias, such as mental noise, or motivational ("hot") bias, such as when beliefs are distorted by wishful thinking. Both effects can be present at the same time. There are also controversies over some of these biases as to whether they count as useless or irrational, or whether they result in useful attitudes or behavior. For example, when getting to know others, people tend to ask leading questions which seem biased towards confirming their assumptions about the person. However, this kind of confirmation bias has also been argued to be an example of


id: list-of-cognitive-biases-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases-1.md
category: reference
title: List of cognitive biases
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:45.457283+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cognitive-biases-20260505-0
summary:
=== Baseline === The anchoring bias, or focalism, is the tendency to rely too heavily—to "anchor"—on one trait or piece of information when making decisions (usually the first piece of information acquired on that subject). Base rate fallacy or base rate neglect, the tendency to ignore general information and focus on information only pertaining to the specific case, even when the general information is more important. Dunning–Kruger effect, the tendency for unskilled individuals to overestimate their own ability and the tendency for experts to underestimate their own ability. Gambler's fallacy, the tendency to think that future probabilities are altered by past events, when in reality they are unchanged. The fallacy arises from an erroneous conceptualization of the law of large numbers. For example, "I've flipped heads with this coin five times consecutively, so the chance of tails coming out on the sixth flip is much greater than heads." Hard–easy effect, the tendency to overestimate one's ability to accomplish hard tasks, and underestimate one's ability to accomplish easy tasks. Hot-hand fallacy (also known as "hot hand phenomenon" or "hot hand"), the belief that a person who has experienced success with a random event has a greater chance of further success in


id: list-of-cognitive-biases-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases-2.md
category: reference
title: List of cognitive biases
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:45.457283+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cognitive-biases-20260505-0
summary:
=== Association === Ambiguity effect, the tendency to avoid options for which the probability of a favorable outcome is unknown. Authority bias, the tendency to attribute greater accuracy to the opinion of an authority figure (unrelated to its content) and be more influenced by that opinion. Automation bias, the tendency to depend excessively on automated systems which can lead to erroneous automated information overriding correct decisions. Default effect, the tendency to favor the default option when given a choice between several options. Dread aversion, just as losses yield double the emotional impact of gains, dread yields double the emotional impact of savouring. The framing effect is the tendency to draw different conclusions from the same information, depending on how that information is presented. Hyperbolic discounting, where discounting is the tendency for people to have a stronger preference for more immediate payoffs relative to later payoffs. Hyperbolic discounting leads to choices that are inconsistent over time—people make choices today that their future selves would prefer not to have made, despite using the same reasoning. Also known as current moment bias or present bias, and related to Dynamic inconsistency. A good example of this is a study showed that when making food


id: list-of-cognitive-biases-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases-3.md
category: reference
title: List of cognitive biases
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:45.457283+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cognitive-biases-20260505-0
summary:
=== Inertia === Doubling-back aversion, the tendency for people to avoid retracing their steps or restarting a task, even when doing so would clearly save time or effort, because it feels like undoing past progress rather than making future gains. Endowment effect, the tendency for people to demand much more to give up an object than they would be willing to pay to acquire it. Escalation of commitment, irrational escalation, or sunk cost fallacy, where people justify increased investment in a decision, based on the cumulative prior investment, despite new evidence suggesting that the decision was probably wrong. Functional fixedness, a tendency limiting a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used. Mere exposure effect or familiarity principle (in social psychology): The tendency to express undue liking for things merely because of familiarity with them. Plan continuation bias, failure to recognize that the original plan of action is no longer appropriate for a changing situation or for a situation that is different from anticipated. Semmelweis reflex, the tendency to reject new evidence that contradicts a paradigm. Shared information bias: The tendency for group members to spend more time and energy discussing information that all members


id: list-of-cognitive-biases-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases-4.md
category: reference
title: List of cognitive biases
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:45.457283+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cognitive-biases-20260505-0
summary:
=== Association === Agent detection bias, the inclination to presume the purposeful intervention of a sentient or intelligent agent. Availability cascade, a self-reinforcing process in which a collective belief gains more and more plausibility through its increasing repetition in public discourse (or "repeat something long enough and it will become true"). See also availability heuristic. Cognitive dissonance is the perception of contradictory information and the mental toll of it. Common source bias, the tendency to combine or compare research studies from the same source, or from sources that use the same methodologies or data. False priors are initial beliefs and knowledge which interfere with the unbiased evaluation of factual evidence and lead to incorrect conclusions. Fluency heuristic: If one object is processed more fluently, faster, or more smoothly than another, the mind infers that this object has the higher value with respect to the question being considered. In other words, the more skillfully or elegantly an idea is communicated, the more likely it is to be considered seriously, whether or not it is logical Groupthink, the psychological phenomenon that occurs within a group of people in which the desire for harmony or conformity in the group results in an irrational


id: list-of-cognitive-biases-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases-5.md
category: reference
title: List of cognitive biases
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:45.457283+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cognitive-biases-20260505-0
summary:
=== Outcome === Barnum effect or Forer effect, the tendency for individuals to give high accuracy ratings to descriptions of their personality that supposedly are tailored specifically for them, but are in fact vague and general enough to apply to a wide range of people. This effect can provide a partial explanation for the widespread acceptance of some beliefs and practices, such as astrology, fortune telling, graphology, and some types of personality tests. Belief bias, an effect where someone's evaluation of the logical strength of an argument is biased by the believability of the conclusion. Berkson's paradox, the tendency to misinterpret statistical experiments involving conditional probabilities. Clustering illusion, the tendency to overestimate the importance of small runs, streaks, or clusters in large samples of random data (that is, seeing phantom patterns). Confirmation bias, the tendency to search for, interpret, focus on and remember information in a way that confirms one's preconceptions. Congruence bias, the tendency to test hypotheses exclusively through direct testing, instead of testing possible alternative hypotheses. Extension neglect occurs where the quantity of the sample size is not sufficiently taken into consideration when assessing the outcome, relevance or judgement. Gender bias, a widespread set of implicit biases that


id: list-of-cognitive-biases-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases-6.md
category: reference
title: List of cognitive biases
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:45.457283+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cognitive-biases-20260505-0
summary:
=== Outcome === Apophenia: The tendency to perceive meaningful connections between unrelated things. Assumed similarity bias: Where an individual assumes that others have more traits in common with them than those others actually do. Context neglect bias, the tendency to neglect the human context of technological challenges. Domain neglect bias, the tendency to neglect relevant domain knowledge while solving interdisciplinary problems. Embodiment bias: Biases in attribution of meaning and perceived properties to objects or events based on the physical capacities and properties of the body, such as sex and temperament Form function attribution bias: In human–robot interaction, the tendency of people to make systematic errors when interacting with a robot. People may base their expectations and perceptions of a robot on its appearance (form) and attribute functions which do not necessarily mirror the true functions of the robot. G. I. Joe fallacy, the tendency to think that knowing about cognitive bias is enough to overcome it. Group attribution error, the biased belief that the characteristics of an individual group member are reflective of the group as a whole or the tendency to assume that group decision outcomes reflect the preferences of group members, even when information is available that clearly


id: list-of-cognitive-biases-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases-7.md
category: reference
title: List of cognitive biases
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:45.457283+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cognitive-biases-20260505-0
summary:
=== Self-perspective === Actor-observer bias, the tendency for explanations of other individuals' behaviors to overemphasize the influence of their personality and underemphasize the influence of their situation (see also Fundamental attribution error), and for explanations of one's own behaviors to do the opposite (that is, to overemphasize the influence of our situation and underemphasize the influence of our own personality). Defensive attribution hypothesis, a tendency to attribute more blame for a mishap to the person or persons involved if they are perceived as dissimilar to the person making that judgment. Egocentric bias: Recalling the past in a self-serving manner, e.g., remembering one's exam grades as being better than they were, or remembering a caught fish as bigger than it really was. Also the tendency to rely too heavily on one's own perspective and/or have a different perception of oneself relative to others. Experimenter's or expectation bias, the tendency for experimenters to believe, certify, and publish data that agree with their expectations for the outcome of an experiment, and to disbelieve, discard, or downgrade the corresponding weightings for data that appear to conflict with those expectations. False uniqueness bias, the tendency of people to see their projects and themselves as more


id: list-of-cognitive-biases-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases-8.md
category: reference
title: List of cognitive biases
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:45.457283+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cognitive-biases-20260505-0
summary:
=== Association === Boundary extension: Remembering the background of an image as being larger or more expansive than the foreground Childhood amnesia: The retention of few memories from before the age of four. Consistency bias: Incorrectly remembering one's past attitudes and behaviour as resembling present attitudes and behaviour. Contrast effect, the enhancement or reduction of a certain stimulus's perception when compared with a recently observed, contrasting object. Cryptomnesia, where a memory is mistaken for novel thought or imagination, because there is no subjective experience of it being a memory. Cue-dependent forgetting context effect: That cognition and memory are dependent on context, such that out-of-context memories are more difficult to retrieve than in-context memories (e.g., recall time and accuracy for a work-related memory will be lower at home, and vice versa). Google effect: The tendency to forget information that can be found readily online by using Internet search engines. Duration neglect, the neglect of the duration of an episode in determining its value. Fading affect bias: A bias in which the emotion associated with unpleasant memories fades more quickly than the emotion associated with pleasant ones. False memory, where imagination is mistaken for a memory. Humor effect: That humorous items are


id: list-of-cognitive-biases-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases-9.md
category: reference
title: List of cognitive biases
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:45.457283+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cognitive-biases-20260505-0
summary:
=== Baseline === Bizarreness effect: Bizarre material is better remembered than common material. Frequency illusion or Baader–Meinhof phenomenon. The frequency illusion is that once something has been noticed then every instance of that thing is noticed, leading to the belief it has a high frequency of occurrence (a form of selection bias). The Baader–Meinhof phenomenon is the illusion where something that has recently come to one's attention suddenly seems to appear with improbable frequency shortly afterwards. It was named after an incidence of frequency illusion in which the Baader–Meinhof Group was mentioned. List-length effect: A smaller percentage of items are remembered in a longer list, but as the length of the list increases, the absolute number of items remembered increases as well. Negativity bias or Negativity effect: The phenomenon of having better recall of unpleasant memories than of pleasant ones. (see also actor-observer bias, group attribution error, positivity effect, and negativity effect). Primacy effect: Where an item at the beginning of a list is more easily recalled. A form of serial position effect. See also recency effect and suffix effect. Recency effect: A form of serial position effect where an item at the end of a list is easier to


id: list-of-cognitive-biases-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases-10.md
category: reference
title: List of cognitive biases
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:45.457283+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cognitive-biases-20260505-0
summary:
=== Self-perspective === Anthropocentric thinking, the tendency to use human analogies as a basis for reasoning about other, less familiar, biological phenomena. Anthropomorphism is characterization of animals, objects, and abstract concepts as possessing human traits, emotions, or intentions. The opposite bias, of not attributing feelings or thoughts to another person, is dehumanised perception, a type of objectification. Ben Franklin effect, where a person who has performed a favor for someone is more likely to do another favor for that person than they would be if they had received a favor from that person. Bias blind spot, the tendency to see oneself as less biased than other people, or to be able to identify more cognitive biases in others than in oneself. Illusion of asymmetric insight, where people perceive their knowledge of their peers to surpass their peers' knowledge of them. Illusory superiority, the tendency to overestimate one's desirable qualities, and underestimate undesirable qualities, relative to other people. (Also known as "Lake Wobegon effect", "better-than-average effect", or "superiority bias".) Impostor Syndrome, a psychological occurrence in which an individual doubts their skills, talents, or accomplishments and has a persistent internalized fear of being exposed as a fraud. Also known as impostor phenomenon.


id: list-of-cognitive-psychologists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_psychologists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of cognitive psychologists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive_psychologists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:46.709392+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cognitive-psychologists-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of academics, both past and present, recognized for their contributions to the field of cognitive psychology.


id: index-of-cognitive-science-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_cognitive_science_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of cognitive science articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_cognitive_science_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:48.119447+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-cognitive-science-articles-20260505-0
summary:
Cognitive science is the scientific study either of mind or of intelligence (e.g. Luger 1994). Practically every formal introduction to cognitive science stresses that it is a highly interdisciplinary research area in which psychology, neuroscience, linguistics, philosophy, computer science (in particular artificial intelligence), anthropology, and biology are its principal specialized or applied branches. Therefore, we may distinguish cognitive studies of either human or animal brains, the mind and the brain. == A == Alan Turing - anthropological linguistics - artificial intelligence - artificial life - attention - autism - anesthesia == B == brain–computer interface - behavioral economics == C == cognition - cognitive behaviour therapy - cognitive ergonomics - cognitive neuroscience - cognitive psychology - cognitive science - cognitive science of mathematics - Cognitive Science Society - cognitive therapy - collective intelligence - comparative linguistics - comparative method - comparative method (linguistics) - computational linguistics - computational semiotics - conceptual metaphor - connotation - constructed language - corpus linguistics - Creole language - cryptanalysis - cybernetics == D == decipherment - descriptive linguistics == E == embodied cognition - embodied philosophy - enactivism - ethnologue - etymology - evolutionary linguistics - epistemology - extended mind thesis == F ==


id: list-of-cognitive-behavioral-therapies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive–behavioral_therapies-0.md
category: reference
title: List of cognitive–behavioral therapies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cognitive–behavioral_therapies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:49.370151+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cognitive-behavioral-therapies-20260505-0
summary:
Cognitive behavioral therapy encompasses many therapeutical approaches, techniques and systems. Acceptance and commitment therapy was developed by Steven C. Hayes and others based in part on relational frame theory and has been called a "third wave" cognitive behavioral therapy. Anxiety management training was developed by Suinn and Richardson (1971) for helping clients control their anxiety by the use of relaxation and other skills. Aversion therapy, developed by Hans Eysenck Behavior therapy Behavioral activation is a behavioral approach to treating depression, developed by Neil Jacobson and others. Cognitive therapy was developed by Aaron Beck. Cognitive analytic therapy Cognitive behavioral analysis system of psychotherapy Cognitive emotional behavioral therapy Cognitive processing therapy for Post traumatic stress disorder Compassion focused therapy Computerised cognitive behavioral therapy Contingency management Counterconditioning Decoupling Desensitization Dialectical behavior therapy Direct therapeutic exposure Exposure and response prevention Exposure therapy Functional analytic psychotherapy Habit Reversal Training Metacognitive therapy Metacognitive training Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy Multimodal therapy Problem-solving therapy Prolonged exposure therapy Rational emotive behavior therapy, formerly called rational therapy and rational emotive therapy, was founded by Albert Ellis. Reality therapy Relapse prevention Schema therapy Self-control therapy Self-instructional training was developed by Donald Meichenbaum, influenced by the developmental psychology of Alexander Luria and Lev


id: list-of-credentials-in-psychology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_credentials_in_psychology-0.md
category: reference
title: List of credentials in psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_credentials_in_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:50.603251+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-credentials-in-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
This list is of professional and academic credentials in the field of psychology and allied fields in United States of America, including education, counseling, social work, and family therapy. == Degrees == Although undergraduate (Bachelor's) degrees for psychology and counseling exist, in most jurisdictions the minimum requirement for professional licensure is a graduate degree (master's or doctorate). Associate degrees Associate of Art (AA) or Associate of Science (AS): Associate degrees are usually two-year degrees and are often offered at community colleges. Many choose to start with associate degrees in counseling psychology, clinical psychology, or related fields, before starting work on degrees which require further education. An associate degree is usually not required in order to enroll in a bachelor's degree program. An associate degree does not meet the requirements for clinical practice or licensure. Bachelor's degrees Bachelor of Arts (BA), Bachelor of Science (BS): Bachelor's degrees usually require four years of study and are required prior to entry into graduate programs where Master's or Doctoral degrees may be earned. Although a person may earn a bachelor's degree in counseling psychology, clinical psychology or related fields in mental health, a person may have had a major concentration in another field of


id: list-of-developmental-psychologists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_developmental_psychologists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of developmental psychologists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_developmental_psychologists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:52.525800+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-developmental-psychologists-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of academics, both past and present, noted for their contributions to the field of developmental psychology. == A == Edith Ackermann (1946–2016) Lauren Adamson Mary Ainsworth (1913–1999) Martha W. Alibali Louise Bates Ames (1908–1906) Jeffrey Arnett Louise Arseneault == B == Donald M. Baer (1931–2002) Albert Bandura (1925–2021) Renée Baillargeon James Mark Baldwin (1861–1934) Paul Baltes (1939–2006) Simon Baron-Cohen Rachel Barr Nancy Bayley (1899–1994) Diana Baumrind (1927–2018) Jay Belsky (1952–) Rebecca Bigler Sidney W. Bijou (1908–2009) Leann Birch (1946–2019) David F. Bjorklund Lois Bloom Marc H. Bornstein (1947–) John Bowlby (1907–1990) Gene Brody Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917–2005) Jeanne Brooks-Gunn (1946–) Christia Spears Brown Jerome Bruner (1915–2016) Charlotte Bühler Erica Burman == C == Deborah M. Capaldi Stephen J. Ceci Dante Cicchetti Edouard Claparède (1873–1940) Mamie Phipps Clark (1917–1983) Ann M. Clarke (1928–2015) K. Alison Clarke-Stewart (1943–2014) Cynthia García Coll Rand Conger Wendy Craig Nicki R. Crick (1958–2012) == D == Brian D'Onofrio Kazimierz Dąbrowski William Damon Kirby Deater-Deckard Andreas Demetriou Martin Deutsch Rheta DeVries Adele Diamond Kenneth A. Dodge Judith Dunn == E == Jacquelynne Eccles Bruce J. Ellis == F == Robert L. Fantz (1925–1981) Shirley Feldman Anne Fernald John H. Flavell (1928–) Robyn Fivush


id: list-of-branches-of-psychology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_branches_of_psychology-0.md
category: reference
title: List of branches of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_branches_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:54.367478+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-branches-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
This non-exhaustive list contains many of the sub-fields within the field of psychology: == See also == List of psychology topics


id: list-of-people-with-dyslexia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_people_with_dyslexia-0.md
category: reference
title: List of people with dyslexia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_people_with_dyslexia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:55.746139+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-people-with-dyslexia-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of some notable people who have dyslexia. See also the People with dyslexia category for a longer list. == A == Eric Adams (born 1960), American politician and former mayor of New York Maggie Aderin-Pocock (born 1968), British space scientist and science educator Muhammad Ali (1942–2016), American professional boxer Sam Allardyce (born 1954), English footballer and football manager Marc Almond (born 1957), English singer (Soft Cell) Jennifer Aniston (born 1969), American actress == B == Mel B (born 1975), English singer (Spice Girls) Abhishek Bachchan (born 1976), Indian Bollywood actor David Bailey, (born 1938), English photographer Robert Ballard (born 1942), deep sea explorer Ann Bancroft (born 1955), American arctic explorer Geoff Barrow (born 1971), English musician Princess Beatrice (born 1988), member of the British royal family Rob Beckett (born 1986), English comedian, television presenter and actor BENEE (born 2000), New Zealand singer-songwriter Robert Benton (1932–2025), American screenwriter and film director Orlando Bloom (born 1977), English actor Todd Bol (born 1956), Founder of Little Free Library Roberto Bolaño (1953–2003), Chilean novelist and poet Chaz Bono (born 1969), American advocate, writer, musician and actor Charley Boorman (born 1966), British TV presenter, writer and actor Sir Richard Branson


id: list-of-people-with-dyslexia-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_people_with_dyslexia-1.md
category: reference
title: List of people with dyslexia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_people_with_dyslexia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:55.746139+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-people-with-dyslexia-20260505-0
summary:
Rebecca Kamen (born 1950), American artist and sculptor Ingvar Kamprad (1926–2018), Swedish industrialist Paul Kanjorski (born 1937), American politician John F. Kennedy (born 1917) 35th President of the United States Mollie King (born 1987), English singer and radio presenter Laura Kirkpatrick (born 1989), American model and fashion designer Tawny Kitaen (1961–2021), American actress and model Keira Knightley (born 1985), English actress Willem Johan Kolff (1911–2009), Dutch physician David Koresh (1959–1993), American cult leader of the Branch Davidians == L == LadBaby (born 1987), English YouTuber, blogger and philanthropist Penny Lancaster (born 1971), English model Eugene Landy (1934–2006), American psychologist J. F. Lawton (born 1960), American writer, producer and director Lee Kuan Yew (1923–2015), 1st Prime Minister of Singapore Peter Leitch (born 1944), New Zealand businessman and philanthropist Angie Le Mar (born 1965), British comedian, actress and writer Jay Leno (born 1950), American television presenter and comedian Tom Lewis (born 1991), English golfer Lil Pump (born 2000), American rapper Kenny Logan (born 1972), Scottish rugby union player Harry Lorayne (1926–2023) American magician, memory-training specialist, and author Greg Louganis (born 1960), American diver, author and LGBT rights activist Prince Louis of Luxembourg (born 1986), Prince of Luxembourg Noah Lyles (born 1997), American


id: list-of-people-with-dyslexia-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_people_with_dyslexia-2.md
category: reference
title: List of people with dyslexia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_people_with_dyslexia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:55.746139+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-people-with-dyslexia-20260505-0
summary:
== V == Krystal Versace (born 2001), English drag queen Victoria, Crown Princess of Sweden (born 1977), heir apparent to the Swedish throne == W == Lindsay Wagner (born 1949), American actress Camille Walala (born 1975), French artist Butch Walker (born 1969), American singer and record producer Andy Warhol (1928-1987) American artist and filmmaker Ben Watkins (born 1957), English musician Ben Way (born 1980), English entrepreneur Bob Weir (born 1947), American guitarist Cliff Weitzman (born 1995?), Israeli-American entrepreneur Willard Wigan (born 1957), English sculptor Florence Welch (born 1986), British-American singer Mark Wilkinson (1950–2017), English furniture designer Toyah Willcox (born 1958), English singer and actress Robbie Williams (born 1974), English singer-songwriter Robin Williams (1951–2014), American actor and comedian Holly Willoughby (born 1981), English television presenter Justin Wilson (1978–2015), British racing driver Henry Winkler (born 1945), American actor and spokesman for The Dyslexia Foundation Joshua Wong (born 1996), Hong Kong activist Bethan Laura Wood (born 1983), English designer Dominic Wood (born 1978), English radio and television presenter and magician == Y == Hamza Yassin (born 1990), British TV presenter and cameraman William Butler Yeats (1865–1939), Irish poet and playwright Michael Young (born 1966), British designer == Z == Benjamin Zephaniah (1958–2023), British


id: list-of-educational-psychologists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_educational_psychologists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of educational psychologists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_educational_psychologists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:56.939540+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-educational-psychologists-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of academicians, both past and present, who are widely renowned for their groundbreaking contributions to the field of educational psychology. == A == Patricia Alexander John Robert Anderson (born 1947) Richard C. Anderson (born 1934) Chris Argyris (1923–2013) Elliot Aronson Richard C. Atkinson (born 1929) David Ausubel (1918–2008) == B == Albert Bandura (1925–2021) Russell Barkley Carl Bereiter David Berliner Ellen Bialystok John B. Biggs Alfred Binet (1857–1911) Benjamin Bloom (1913–1999) Guy Bond Hilda Borko Ann Brown (1943–1999) Jerome Bruner (1915–2016) == C == Donald T. Campbell (1916–1996) Idit Harel Caperton (born 1958) John Bissell Carroll (1916–2003) Nancy Cole Allan Collins Lee Cronbach (1916–2001) == D == John Dewey (1859–1952) Andrea diSessa Stewart Donaldson == E == Robert L. Ebel (born 1942) Kieran Egan Noel Entwistle Dorothy Espelage (born 1968) == F == Charles Ferster (1922–1981) Reuven Feuerstein (1921–2014) John H. Flavell (born 1928) == G == Nathaniel Gage (1917–2008) Robert M. Gagné (1916–2002) Howard Gardner (born 1943) David C. Geary Robert Glaser Gene V. Glass (born 1940) Anthony Gregorc Loren Grey (1915–2007) == H == G. Stanley Hall (1844–1924) Diane F. Halpern Karen R. Harris Michael Hogg John L. Holland Klaus Holzkamp (1927–1995) Lois


id: list-of-psychological-effects-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychological_effects-0.md
category: reference
title: List of psychological effects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychological_effects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:58.165871+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-psychological-effects-20260505-0
summary:
Psychological effects refer to phenomenons of thinking that are influenced by external factors. They are similar to cognitive biases. This article contains a list of 'effects' that have been noticed in the field of psychology. == See also == List of cognitive biases List of fallacies False memory Uncanny valley


id: emanuel-miller-memorial-lectures-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emanuel_Miller_Memorial_Lectures-0.md
category: reference
title: Emanuel Miller Memorial Lectures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emanuel_Miller_Memorial_Lectures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:22:59.431962+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: emanuel-miller-memorial-lectures-20260505-0
summary:
The Emanuel Miller Memorial Lectures commemorate the British child psychiatrist Emanuel Miller (1892–1970). The Association for Child and Adolescent Mental Health began them in 1972. == List == 1972 Meyer Fortes, The First-born 1973 Jack Tizard, The Upbringing of Other People's Children: Implications of Research and for Research 1974 Leon Eisenberg, The Ethics of Intervention: Acting amidst Ambiguity 1975 Robert A. Hinde, On Describing Relationships 1976 Eric Midwinter, The Professional-Lay Relationship: A Victorian Legacy 1981 Michael Rutter, Stress, Coping and Development: Some Issues and Some Questions 1982 (9th) Jerome Kagan, The Emergence of Self 1987 P. H. Venables, Childhood markers for adult disorders 1990 Neville Bennett, Cooperative Learning in Classrooms: Processes and Outcomes 1991 Christopher Gillberg, Autism and autistic-like conditions 1992 Peter Fonagy, The theory and practice of resilience 1993 Robert Plomin, Genetic research and identification of environmental influences 1994 M. Kovacs, Depressive disorders in childhood: an impressionistic landscape 1995 J. Dunn, Children's relationships: bridging the divide between cognitive and social development 1996 M. Main, Current Issues in Attachment 1997 M. Sigman, Change and continuity in the development of children with autism. 1998 Michael Rutter, Autism: Two-way interplay between research and clinical work 2000 William Yule, From Pogroms to "Ethnic


id: list-of-psychology-journals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychology_journals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of psychology journals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychology_journals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:01.724824+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-psychology-journals-20260505-0
summary:
This list presents a selection of journals in the field of psychology and its branches. == A == Acta Psychologica Adaptive Behavior Adultspan Journal Aggressive Behavior Aging and Mental Health American Behavioral Scientist American Journal of Psychology American Psychologist Annual Review of Clinical Psychology Annual Review of Psychology Applied Psychological Measurement Archives of Scientific Psychology Archives of Sexual Behavior Archives of Suicide Research Asian Journal of Social Psychology Athletic Insight: The Online Journal of Sport Psychology == B == Basic and Applied Social Psychology Behavior Therapy Behavioral and Brain Functions Behavioral and Brain Sciences Behavioral Science & Policy British Journal of Clinical Psychology British Journal of Developmental Psychology British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology British Journal of Psychology British Journal of Social Psychology == C == Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology Canadian Journal of School Psychology Canadian Psychology Cerebral Cortex Clinical Psychological Science The Coaching Psychologist Cognition Cognitive Development Cognitive Neuropsychology Consciousness and Cognition Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research Couple and Family Psychology Cultic Studies Review Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology Current Directions in Psychological Science Clinical Psychology Review == D == Developmental Psychology Developmental Science == E == Ecopsychology Emotion Emotion


id: list-of-jungian-psychologists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Jungian_psychologists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Jungian psychologists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Jungian_psychologists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:02.959643+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-jungian-psychologists-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of clinicians and academics, both past and present, known for their association with analytical psychology. This school of psychology is based on the writings and practices of Carl Jung. == A == Gerhard Adler Michael Anderton == B == Cary Baynes Helton Godwin Baynes Brewster Yale Beach John Beebe Ean Begg Edward Armstrong Bennet Ernst Bernhard Pam Blackwell Jean Shinoda Bolen == C == Irene Claremont de Castillejo Wallace Clift Hugh Crichton-Miller == D == John P. Dourley Avis M. Dry == E == Edward F. Edinger Michael Edwards Clarissa Pinkola Estés == F == Linda Fierz-David Tirzah Firestone Frieda Fordham Michael Fordham Marie-Louise von Franz == G == Wolfgang Giegerich Ingaret Giffard Rosemary Gordon Adolf Guggenbühl-Craig == H == Barbara Hannah Mary Esther Harding Joseph L. Henderson Vera von der Heydt Gustav Heyer James Hillman Beatrice M. Hinkle James Hollis David Holt Judith Hubback == J == Jolande Jacobi Aniela Jaffé Robert A. Johnson Carl Jung Emma Jung == K == Hayao Kawai Tina Keller-Jenny Antoni Kępiński == L == John Layard == M == Kristine Mann Clifford Mayes Kevin F. McCready Carl Alfred Meier Jill Mellick Arnold Mindell Maria Moltzer Robert L. Moore


id: list-of-psychological-laboratories-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychological_laboratories-0.md
category: reference
title: List of psychological laboratories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychological_laboratories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:04.326360+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-psychological-laboratories-20260505-0
summary:
This list presents the establishment of psychological laboratories from 1879 to 1948. The list is primarily based on the list from "Historical and Conceptual Issues in Psychology" (Brysbaert, M. & Rastle, K. (2013)). This current list considered only the establishment of laboratories. Any psychology courses, seminars or lectures were excluded. However, due to inconsistent listings from some of the sources and different definitions of what comprises a laboratory, there is a possibility that a course instead of the establishment of a laboratory is listed. In the case of difference in the year from the sources, the earliest date was taken. == References == Shiraev, E. (2014). A history of psychology: A global perspective. Sage Publications.


id: list-of-language-disorders-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_language_disorders-0.md
category: reference
title: List of language disorders
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_language_disorders
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:05.643925+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-language-disorders-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of language disorders. A language disorder is a condition defined as a condition that limits or altogether stops natural speech. A language disorder may be neurological, physical, or psychological in origin. == List of language disorders == == Bibliography == Lahey, Margaret; Bloom, Lois (1988). Language Disorders and Language Development. New York: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-02-367130-2.


id: list-of-mental-disorders-in-the-dsm-iv-and-dsm-iv-tr-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mental_disorders_in_the_DSM-IV_and_DSM-IV-TR-0.md
category: reference
title: List of mental disorders in the DSM-IV and DSM-IV-TR
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mental_disorders_in_the_DSM-IV_and_DSM-IV-TR
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:06.907227+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mental-disorders-in-the-dsm-iv-and-dsm-iv-tr-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of mental disorders as defined in the DSM-IV, the fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Published by the American Psychiatry Association (APA), it was released in May 1994, superseding the DSM-III-R (1987). This list also includes updates featured in the text revision of the DSM-IV, the DSM-IV-TR, released in July 2000. Similar to the DSM-III-R, the DSM-IV-TR was created to bridge the gap between the DSM-IV and the next major release, then named DSM-V (eventually titled DSM-5). The DSM-IV-TR contains expanded descriptions of disorders. Wordings were clarified and errors were corrected. The categorizations and the diagnostic criteria were largely unchanged. No new disorders or conditions were introduced, although a small number of subtypes were added and removed. ICD-9-CM codes that were changed since the release of IV were updated. The DSM-IV and the DSM-IV-TR both contain a total of 297 mental disorders. For an alphabetical list, see List of mental disorders in the DSM-IV and DSM-IV-TR (alphabetical). == Disorders usually first diagnosed in infancy, childhood, or adolescence == === Mental retardation === 317 Mild mental retardation 318.0 Moderate mental retardation 318.1 Severe mental retardation 318.2 Profound mental retardation 319 Mental retardation,


id: list-of-mental-disorders-in-the-dsm-iv-and-dsm-iv-tr-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mental_disorders_in_the_DSM-IV_and_DSM-IV-TR-1.md
category: reference
title: List of mental disorders in the DSM-IV and DSM-IV-TR
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mental_disorders_in_the_DSM-IV_and_DSM-IV-TR
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:06.907227+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mental-disorders-in-the-dsm-iv-and-dsm-iv-tr-20260505-0
summary:
==== Cocaine use disorders ==== 304.20 Cocaine dependence 305.60 Cocaine abuse ==== Cocaine-induced disorders ==== 292.89 Cocaine intoxication 292.0 Cocaine withdrawal 292.81 Cocaine intoxication delirium 292.xx Cocaine-induced psychotic disorder .11 With delusions .12 With hallucinations 292.84 Cocaine-induced mood disorder 292.89 Cocaine-induced anxiety disorder 292.89 Cocaine-induced sexual dysfunction 292.89 Cocaine-induced sleep disorder 292.9 Cocaine-related disorder NOS === Hallucinogen-related disorders === ==== Hallucinogen use disorders ==== 304.50 Hallucinogen dependence 305.30 Hallucinogen abuse ==== Hallucinogen-induced disorders ==== 292.89 Hallucinogen intoxication 292.89 Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (Flashbacks) 292.81 Hallucinogen intoxication delirium 292.xx Hallucinogen-induced psychotic disorder .11 With delusions .12 With hallucinations 292.84 Hallucinogen-induced mood disorder 292.89 Hallucinogen-induced anxiety disorder 292.9 Hallucinogen-related disorder NOS === Inhalant-related disorders === ==== Inhalant use disorders ==== 304.60 Inhalant dependence 305.90 Inhalant abuse ==== Inhalant-induced disorders ==== 292.89 Inhalant intoxication 292.81 Inhalant intoxication delirium 292.82 Inhalant-induced persisting dementia 292.xx Inhalant-induced psychotic disorder .11 With delusions .12 With hallucinations 292.84 Inhalant-induced mood disorder 292.89 Inhalant-induced anxiety disorder 292.9 Inhalant-related disorder NOS === Nicotine-related disorders === ==== Nicotine use disorder ==== 305.1 Nicotine dependence (coded 305.10 in the DSM-IV) ==== Nicotine-induced disorder ==== 292.0 Nicotine withdrawal 292.9 Nicotine-related disorder NOS === Opioid-related disorders === ==== Opioid use disorders ==== 304.00 Opioid


id: list-of-mental-disorders-in-the-dsm-iv-and-dsm-iv-tr-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mental_disorders_in_the_DSM-IV_and_DSM-IV-TR-2.md
category: reference
title: List of mental disorders in the DSM-IV and DSM-IV-TR
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mental_disorders_in_the_DSM-IV_and_DSM-IV-TR
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:06.907227+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mental-disorders-in-the-dsm-iv-and-dsm-iv-tr-20260505-0
summary:
== Factitious disorders == 300.xx Factitious disorder .19 With combined psychological and physical signs and symptoms .19 With predominantly physical signs and symptoms .16 With predominantly psychological signs and symptoms 300.19 Factitious disorder NOS == Dissociative disorders == 300.12 Dissociative amnesia 300.13 Dissociative fugue 300.14 Dissociative identity disorder 300.6 Depersonalization disorder 300.15 Dissociative disorder NOS == Sexual and gender identity disorders == === Sexual dysfunctions === ==== Sexual desire disorders ==== 302.71 Hypoactive sexual desire disorder 302.79 Sexual aversion disorder ==== Sexual arousal disorders ==== 302.72 Female sexual arousal disorder 302.72 Male erectile disorder ==== Orgasmic disorders ==== 302.73 Female orgasmic disorder 302.74 Male orgasmic disorder 302.75 Premature ejaculation ==== Sexual pain disorders ==== 302.76 Dyspareunia (not due to a general medical condition) 306.51 Vaginismus (not due to a general medical condition) ==== Sexual dysfunction due to a general medical condition ==== 625.8 Female hypoactive sexual desire disorder due to ... [indicate the general medical condition] 608.89 Male hypoactive sexual desire disorder due to ... [indicate the general medical condition] 607.84 Male erectile disorder due to ... [indicate the general medical condition] 625.0 Female dyspareunia due to ... [indicate the general medical condition] 608.89 Male dyspareunia due to ... [indicate


id: list-of-mental-disorders-in-the-dsm-iv-and-dsm-iv-tr-alphabetical-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mental_disorders_in_the_DSM-IV_and_DSM-IV-TR_(alphabetical)-0.md
category: reference
title: List of mental disorders in the DSM-IV and DSM-IV-TR (alphabetical)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mental_disorders_in_the_DSM-IV_and_DSM-IV-TR_(alphabetical)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:08.225948+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mental-disorders-in-the-dsm-iv-and-dsm-iv-tr-alphabetical-20260505-0
summary:
This is an alphabetically sorted list of all mental disorders in the DSM-IV and DSM-IV-TR, along with their ICD-9-CM codes, where applicable. The DSM-IV-TR is a text revision of the DSM-IV. While no new disorders were added in this version, 11 subtypes were added and 8 were removed. This list features both the added and removed subtypes. Also, 22 ICD-9-CM codes were updated. The ICD codes stated in the first column are those from the DSM-IV-TR. The ones that were updated are marked yellow – the older ICD codes from the DSM-IV are stated in the third column. == List == == References == == External links == Official website of the DSM-IV-TR, published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA, via archive.org)


id: list-of-mass-panic-cases-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mass_panic_cases-0.md
category: reference
title: List of mass panic cases
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mass_panic_cases
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:09.459867+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mass-panic-cases-20260505-0
summary:
In sociology and psychology, mass hysteria is a phenomenon that transmits collective illusions of threats, whether real or imaginary, through a population and society as a result of rumors and fear. In medicine, the term is used to describe the spontaneous manifestation—or production of chemicals in the body—of the same or similar hysterical physical symptoms by more than one person. A common type of mass hysteria occurs when a group of people believes that they have a similar disease or ailment, sometimes referred to as mass sociogenic illness or epidemic hysteria. == Middle Ages == According to an account which was written by an author in 1784, a nun who lived in a German convent in the 15th century began to bite her companions, and the behavior soon spread through other convents in Germany, Holland and Italy. In The Epidemics of the Middle Ages, an 1844 collection of works written by J. F. C. Hecker (and translated by Benjamin Guy Babington), a translator's note by Babington, citing an unnamed medical textbook, recalls the story of a nun who lived in a French convent during an unspecified time (presumably in the Middle Ages) who inexplicably began to meow like a cat,


id: list-of-mass-panic-cases-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mass_panic_cases-1.md
category: reference
title: List of mass panic cases
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mass_panic_cases
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:09.459867+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mass-panic-cases-20260505-0
summary:
== 1800–1950 == Hammersmith Ghost hysteria (1803) – In November 1803, stories of ghost sightings in the Hammersmith neighbourhood of west London began to circulate. Many people assumed the ghost to be that of a recent suicide victim buried in Hammersmith's churchyard, which was in accordance with a popular notion at the time that suicides should not be buried in sacred grounds because their souls would be unable to find rest there. All witnesses reported the ghost as being very tall and clothed entirely in white, with some adding horns and glass eyes to the mix. As more individuals came forward to claim that they had not only seen the Hammersmith ghost, but had also been assaulted by it, alarm rapidly turned to widespread panic, and finally mass hysteria. Fearful residents responded by taking up guns and monitoring the area. This reaction resulted in one member of the public, Francis Smith, shooting and killing bricklayer Thomas Millwood by mistake, thinking he was the ghost. Spring-heeled Jack sightings (1837-1904) – The earliest known sightings of Spring-heeled Jack, a legendary figure in English folklore, are claimed to have occurred in London in 1837, and the final confirmed sighting is said to have


id: list-of-mass-panic-cases-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mass_panic_cases-2.md
category: reference
title: List of mass panic cases
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mass_panic_cases
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:09.459867+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mass-panic-cases-20260505-0
summary:
== 1950−2000 == Seattle windshield pitting epidemic (1954) Tanganyika laughter epidemic (1962) – began on January 30, 1962, at a mission-run boarding school for girls in Kashasha, Tanzania. The laughter started with three girls and spread haphazardly throughout the school, affecting 95 of the 159 pupils, aged 12–18. Symptoms lasted from a few hours to 16 days in those affected. The teaching staff were not affected but reported that students were unable to concentrate on their lessons. The school was forced to close down on March 18, 1962. After the school was closed and the students were sent home, the epidemic spread to Nshamba, a village that was home to several of the girls. In April and May, 217 people had laughing attacks in the village, most of them school children and young adults. The Kashasha school was reopened on May 21, only to be closed again at the end of June. In June, the laughing epidemic spread to Ramashenye girls' middle school, near Bukoba, affecting 48 girls. Another outbreak occurred in Kanyangereka and two nearby boys schools were closed. June bug epidemic (1962) – A mysterious disease broke out in a dressmaking department of an American textile factory. The


id: list-of-mass-panic-cases-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mass_panic_cases-3.md
category: reference
title: List of mass panic cases
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mass_panic_cases
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:09.459867+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mass-panic-cases-20260505-0
summary:
== 2000–present == Monkey-man of Delhi (2001) – Rumors about a hairy monkey-looking monster attacking people in Delhi in India led to the deaths of several panicked people who fell from roofs or stairwells while fleeing what they thought was the monster. North Carolina (2002) – Ten girls developed seizures and other symptoms at a rural North Carolinian high school. Symptoms persisted for five months across various grade levels. Incidents tended to happen outside of class, with half of all incidents estimated to have occurred around lunch hour. Half of the affected were cheerleaders or former cheerleaders. "Strawberries with Sugar virus" (2006) – In May 2006, an outbreak of the so-dubbed Morangos com Açúcar Virus ('Strawberries with Sugar virus') was reported in Portuguese schools, named after the popular teen girl's show Morangos com Açúcar ('Strawberries With Sugar'). At least 300 students at 14 schools reported similar symptoms to those experienced by the characters in a then recent episode where a life-threatening virus affected the school depicted in the show. Symptoms included rashes, difficulty breathing, and dizziness. The belief that there was a medical outbreak forced some schools to temporarily close. The Portuguese National Institute for Medical Emergency eventually dismissed the


id: list-of-mass-panic-cases-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mass_panic_cases-4.md
category: reference
title: List of mass panic cases
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mass_panic_cases
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:09.459867+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mass-panic-cases-20260505-0
summary:
Professor Simon Wessely a former president of the Royal College of Psychiatrists, suggested it was a form of 'collective behaviour'. Robert Bartholomew, a medical sociologist, suggested it was due to the stricter implementation of Islamic law in the school. The school responded to the outbreak by cutting down the trees around the school, believing they were home to supernatural spirits. Starehe Girls' Centre, Kenya (October 2019) – 52 students were isolated with an unknown disease, showing symptoms of a high-pitched cough, sneezing and low-grade fever, a number that later rose to 68. As the number rose, the school's administration shut the school down and instructed parents to pick up their daughters. Specimens collected from the affected students showed only two cases of rhinovirus, a virus that is the predominant cause of the common cold. After carrying out psychological assessments on the students, a team of mental health specialists dispatched by Kenya's Ministry of Health to the school concluded that the 'mysterious' disease was a case of mass hysteria. Iranian schoolgirls mass poisoning reports (2022-2023) A series of alleged chemical attacks during which students in dozens of schools in Iran were reportedly poisoned in various and undetermined manners by unidentified perpetrators.


id: list-of-mass-panic-cases-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mass_panic_cases-5.md
category: reference
title: List of mass panic cases
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mass_panic_cases
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:09.459867+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mass-panic-cases-20260505-0
summary:
== Potential cases in non-human animals == Great Sheep Panic (1888) – Several thousand sheep in Oxfordshire, England, begin displaying signs of distress and flee across an area of about 200 square miles (520 km2). They are found the next morning, many still hiding and in distress. A similar event occurred the next year in Berkshire. Explanations are varied and include a chain reaction of individuals responding to other sheep's fear, which stemmed from the thunder that was reported that evening, in addition to claims of mass psychogenic illness. == See also == Body-centred countertransference Conversion disorder Folie à deux (from the French for "a madness shared by two") Hysterical contagion Psychochemical weaponry == References == == Further reading == Bartholomew, Robert E. (2001). Little Green Men, Meowing Nuns and Head-hunting Panics: A Study of Mass Psychogenic Illnesses and Social Delusion. McFarland. Bartholomew, Robert E; Evans, Hilary. (2009). Outbreak! The Encyclopedia of Extraordinary Social Behavior. Anomalist Books. Craft, Amos Norton. (1881). Epidemic Delusions: Containing an Exposé of the Superstitions and Frauds which Underlie Some Ancient and Modern Delusions, Including Especial Reference to Modern Spiritualism. New York: Phillips & Hunt. Fleischer, Jeff. (2011). The Latest Craze: A Short History of Mass


id: list-of-psychiatric-medications-by-condition-treated-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychiatric_medications_by_condition_treated-0.md
category: reference
title: List of psychiatric medications by condition treated
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychiatric_medications_by_condition_treated
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:10.696775+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-psychiatric-medications-by-condition-treated-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of psychiatric medications used by psychiatrists and other physicians to treat mental illness or distress. The list is ordered alphabetically according to the condition or conditions, then by the generic name of each medication. The list is not exhaustive and not all drugs are used regularly in all countries. Some medications treat multiple conditions and appear multiple times. == Drug Dependence Therapy == === Used in the treatment of alcoholism and opioid dependence === === Used for smoking cessation === == Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder == === Stimulants === === Non-Stimulant Medications === == Anxiety Disorders == === Benzodiazepines === === Non-Benzodiazepine Anxiolytics === === Antidepressants === == Autism == === Atypical antipsychotics === == Bipolar Disorder == === Mood Stabilizers === === Atypical Antipsychotics === == Depressive Disorders == == Insomnia == === Benzodiazepines === === Z-Drugs === === Melatonergic Agents === === Barbiturates === === Sedating Antidepressants === === Antihistamines === === Others === == Psychotic Disorders == === Typical antipsychotics === ==== Low potency ==== ==== Medium potency ==== ==== High potency ==== === Atypical Antipsychotics === === Adjuncts === == See also == List of psychiatric medications == Notes == == References


id: list-of-psychiatric-medications-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychiatric_medications-0.md
category: reference
title: List of psychiatric medications
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychiatric_medications
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:11.884007+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-psychiatric-medications-20260505-0
summary:
This is an alphabetical list of psychiatric medications used by psychiatrists and other physicians to treat mental illness or distress. The list is not exhaustive. All mentioned drugs here are generic names. Not all drugs listed are used regularly in all countries. == A == Acamprosate, Alprazolam, Alpidem, Amisulpride, Amitriptyline, Amoxapine, Amphetamine, Mixed Amphetamine Salts, Aripiprazole, Atomoxetine, Azacyclonol == B == Benperidol, Biperiden, Bromazepam, Bupropion, Buprenorphine/naloxone, Buspirone == C == Calcium carbimide, Carbamazepine, Chloralhydrate, Chlordiazepoxide, Clomethiazole, Clorgiline, Chlorpromazine, Citalopram, Clomipramine, Clonazepam, Clonidine, Clorazepate, Clozapine == D == Daridorexant, Desvenlafaxine, Dextroamphetamine, Diazepam, Disulfiram, Divaplon, Doxepin, Duloxetine == E == Escitalopram, Eszopiclone == F == Fasiplon, Fluoxetine, Fluphenazine, Flurazepam, Fluvoxamine == G == Gabapentin, Guanfacine == H == Haloperidol == I == Imipramine, Indalpine, Indiplon, Itopride == L == Lamotrigine, Lemborexant, Levoamphetamine, Levomepromazine, Lisdexamfetamine, Lithium, Lorazepam, Lorediplon, Loxapine, Lumateperone, Lurasidone == M == Maprotiline, Melperone, Meprobamate, Mesoridazine, Methamphetamine, Methaqualone, Methylphenidate, Mianserin, Mirtazapine, Mixed Amphetamine Salts, Moclobemide, Modafinil == N == Nalmefene, Naltrexone, Necopidem, Nitrazepam, Nortriptyline == O == Ocinaplon, Olanzapine, Oxazepam, Oxcarbazepine == P == Pagoclone, Paliperidone, Panadiplon, Pargyline, Paroxetine, Pazinaclone, Perphenazine, Phenelzine, Phenytoin, Pipamperone, Pimavanserin, Pimozide, Pipotiazine, Pramipexole, Pregabalin, Primidone, Prochlorperazine, Promethazine, Propranolol, Prothipendyl, Protriptyline == Q == Quetiapine == R


id: list-of-mental-disorders-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mental_disorders-0.md
category: reference
title: List of mental disorders
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mental_disorders
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:13.131238+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mental-disorders-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of mental disorders as defined at any point by any of the two most prominent systems of classification of mental disorders, namely the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) or the International Classification of Diseases (ICD). A mental disorder, also known as a mental illness, mental health condition, or psychiatric disorder, is characterized by a pattern of behavior or mental function that significantly impairs personal functioning or causes considerable distress. The DSM, a classification and diagnostic guide published by the American Psychiatric Association, includes over 450 distinct definitions of mental disorders. Meanwhile, the ICD, published by the World Health Organization, stands as the international standard for categorizing all medical conditions, including sections on mental and behavioral disorders. Revisions and updates are periodically made to the diagnostic criteria and descriptions in the DSM and ICD to reflect current understanding and consensus within the mental health field. The list includes conditions currently recognized as mental disorders according to these systems. There is ongoing debate among mental health professionals, including psychiatrists, about the definitions and criteria used to delineate mental disorders. There is particular concern over whether certain conditions should be classified as "mental illnesses" or


id: list-of-mental-disorders-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mental_disorders-1.md
category: reference
title: List of mental disorders
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mental_disorders
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:13.131238+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mental-disorders-20260505-0
summary:
==== Disorders due to use of cocaine ==== Episode of harmful use of cocaine Harmful pattern of use of cocaine Cocaine dependence Cocaine intoxication Cocaine withdrawal Cocaine induced delirium Cocaine induced psychotic disorder Cocaine induced mood disorder Cocaine induced anxiety Cocaine induced OCD Cocaine induced impulse control disorder ==== Disorders due to use of amphetamines ==== Episode of harmful use of amphetamines Harmful pattern of use of amphetamines Amphetamines dependence Amphetamines intoxication Amphetamines withdrawal Amphetamines induced delirium Amphetamines induced psychotic disorder Amphetamines induced mood disorder Amphetamines induced anxiety Amphetamines induced OCD Amphetamines induced impulse control disorder ==== Disorders due to use of synthetic cathinone ==== Episode of harmful use of synthetic cathinone Harmful pattern of use of synthetic cathinone Synthetic cathinone dependence Synthetic cathinone intoxication Synthetic cathinone withdrawal Synthetic cathinone induced delirium Synthetic cathinone-induced psychotic disorder Synthetic cathinone-induced mood disorder Synthetic cathinone induced anxiety Synthetic cathinone induced OCD Synthetic cathinone induced impulse control disorder ==== Disorders due to use of caffeine ==== Episode of harmful use of caffeine Harmful pattern of use of caffeine Caffeine intoxication Caffeine withdrawal Caffeine induced anxiety disorder Caffeine-induced sleep disorder ==== Disorders due to use of hallucinogens ==== Episode of harmful use of hallucinogens Harmful


id: list-of-psychoactive-drugs-used-by-militaries-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychoactive_drugs_used_by_militaries-0.md
category: reference
title: List of psychoactive drugs used by militaries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychoactive_drugs_used_by_militaries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:14.300522+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-psychoactive-drugs-used-by-militaries-20260505-0
summary:
Militaries worldwide have used or are using various psychoactive drugs to improve performance of soldiers by suppressing hunger, increasing the ability to sustain effort without food, increasing and lengthening wakefulness and concentration, suppressing fear, reducing empathy, and improving reflexes and memory-recall, amongst other things. == Contemporary == For drugs that recently were or currently are being used by militaries.Administration tends to include strict medical supervision and prior briefing of the medical risks. Caffeine, diet pills, painkillers, nicotine, and alcohol are not included on the list. Non-administrated, illegally used drugs are also not included. == Historic == Alcohol has a long association of military use, and has been called "liquid courage" for its role in preparing troops for battle, anaesthetize injured soldiers, and celebrate military victories. It has also served as a coping mechanism for combat stress reactions and a means of decompression from combat to everyday life. However, this reliance on alcohol can have negative consequences for physical and mental health. Military and veteran populations face significant challenges in addressing the co-occurrence of PTSD and alcohol use disorder. Benzedrine was claimed to have been administered by Allied forces during WWII, esp. by the US Germany and Japan used methamphetamine. Fenethylline


id: mnemonic-link-system-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mnemonic_link_system-0.md
category: reference
title: Mnemonic link system
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mnemonic_link_system
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:15.547046+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mnemonic-link-system-20260505-0
summary:
A mnemonic link system, sometimes also known as a chain method, is a method of remembering lists that is based on creating an association between the elements of that list. For example, when memorizing the list (dog, envelope, thirteen, yarn, window), one could create a story about a "dog stuck in an envelope, mailed to an unlucky thirteen black cat playing with yarn by the window". It is argued that the story would be easier to remember than the list itself. Another method is to actually link each element of the list with a mental picture of an image that includes two elements in the list that are next to each other. This would form an open doubly linked list which could be traversed at will, backwards or forwards. For example, in the last list one could imagine their dog inside of a giant envelope, then a black cat eating an envelope. The same logic would be used with the rest of the items. The observation that absurd images are easier to remember is known as the Von Restorff effect, although the success of this effect was refuted by several studies (Hock et al. 1978; Einstein 1987), which found that


id: list-of-mnemonics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mnemonics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of mnemonics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mnemonics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:16.788943+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mnemonics-20260505-0
summary:
This article contains a list of notable mnemonics used to remember various objects, lists, etc. == Astronomy == Order of planets from the Sun: (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto) obsolete (per the IAU definition of planet): Most Vegetables Eat More Juice So Usually Never Pee My Very Educated Mother Just Served Us Nine Potatoes Many Vicious Elephants Met Just Slightly Under New Pineapples My Very Easy Method Just Speeds Up Naming Planets Mark's Very Extravagant Mother Just Sent Us Ninety Parakeets Mother Very Eagerly Made A (Asteroids) Jelly Sandwich Under No Protest Many Volcanoes Erupt Molten Jam Sandwiches Usually Not Palatable Since the IAU change the definition of a planet and relegated Pluto to the status of minor planet, the following has gained popularity My Very Excellent Mother Just Served Us Nachos Stellar classification sequence: O B A F G K M R N S Oh Be A Fine Girl/Guy, Kiss Me Right Now, Sweetheart! Revised stellar classification sequence: O B A F G K M L T Y Old, Bald, And Fat Generals Kiss More Ladies Than You Signs of the zodiac: == Biology == To remember the order of taxa in biology (Domain, Kingdom,


id: list-of-mnemonics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mnemonics-1.md
category: reference
title: List of mnemonics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mnemonics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:16.788943+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mnemonics-20260505-0
summary:
== Geography == Both names of the northern major circles of latitude (the Arctic Circle and Tropic of Cancer) have six letters; both southern ones (the Antarctic Circle and Tropic of Capricorn) have nine. The countries of South America in order of largest to smallest by area: Brazil, Argentina, Peru, Colombia, Bolivia, Venezuela, Chile, Paraguay, Ecuador, Guyana, Uruguay, Suriname Boring, Average Politics Can Become Very Corrupt. People Everywhere Get Used Sometimes The countries of Central America from North to South: Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama Big Gorillas Eat Hotdogs, Not Cold Pizza Including Mexico, My Grandma's Bunny Eats Hamburgers, Not Canned Peas The Lesser Antilles in the Caribbean Sea including the eight independent nations and eight larger island territories (and excluding the "ABC" islands of Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao), in order generally from northwest to southeast: BUt Angry SaM's StuBborn KNights ABandon Money to Guard Dominant Marines and SteaL SteVe's Barrels of Green Tobacco (British Virgin Islands, US Virgin Islands, Anguilla, St. Martin/Sint Maarten, St. Barthelemy, St. Kitts & Nevis, Antigua and Barbuda, Montserrat, Guadeloupe, Dominica, Martinique, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Barbados, Grenada, Trinidad and Tobago) The Great Lakes in order of largest


id: list-of-mnemonics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mnemonics-2.md
category: reference
title: List of mnemonics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mnemonics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:16.788943+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mnemonics-20260505-0
summary:
==== Letters of specific syllables in a word ==== BELIEVE Do not believe a lie. SECRETARY A secretary must keep a secret TEACHER There is an ache in every teacher. MEASUREMENT Be sure of your measurements before you start work. FRIEND Fri the end of your friend SPECIAL The CIA have special agents BEAUTIFUL Big Elephants Are Ugly SEPARATE Always smell a rat when you spell separate There was a farmer named Sep and one day his wife saw a rat. She yelled, "Sep! A rat – E!!!" TOMORROW I will go with Tom or Row. PRINCIPAL The principal is your pal. BEGINNING I will beg at the inn. ==== Distinguishing between similar words ==== Difference between Advice & Advise, Practice & Practise, Licence & License etc. Advice, Practice, Licence etc. (those with c) are nouns and Advise, Practise, License etc. are verbs. One way of remembering this is that the word 'noun' comes before the word 'verb' in the dictionary; likewise 'c' comes before 's', so the nouns are 'practice, licence, advice' and the verbs are 'practise, license, advise'. Here or Hear We hear with our ear. Complement and Compliment complement adds something to make it enough compliment puts


id: list-of-mnemonics-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mnemonics-3.md
category: reference
title: List of mnemonics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mnemonics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:16.788943+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mnemonics-20260505-0
summary:
To remember the 10 organ systems of the human body: NICER DRUMS (Nervous, Integumentary, Circulatory, Endocrine, Respiratory, Digestive, Reproductive, Urinary, Muscular, Skeletal) Intrinsic muscles of hand 'A OF A OF A' Thenar (lateral to medial-palmar surface): Abductor pollicis brevis Opponens pollicis Flexor pollicis brevis Adductor pollicis Hypothenar (lateral to medial-palmar surface): Opponens digiti minimi Flexor digiti minimi Abductor digiti minimi Muscles of mandibular nerve (V3 of trigeminal nerve) : Mylohyoid, Tensor tympani + Tensor veli palatini, Digastric (Anterior) – 4 Muscles of Mastication (temporalis, masseter, medial and lateral pterygoids My Tensors Dig Ants for Mom 2 big ones, 2 small ones, 2 tensors, 2 pterygoids Bones of the wrist:Scaphoid bone, Lunate bone, Triquetral bone, Pisiform bone, Trapezium (bone), Trapezoid bone, Capitate bone & Hamate bone Some Lovers Try Positions That They Can't Handle She Looks Too Pretty Try To Catch Her So Long To Pinky, Here Comes The Thumb Simply Learn The Positions That The Carpus Has Send Louis To Paris To Tame Carnal Hungers Stop Letting Those People Touch The Cadaver's Hands Differential Diagnosis VINDICATE Cranial nerves == Music == === Bowed strings === Mnemonics are used in remembering string names in violin standard tuning. Good Dogs Always Eat


id: list-of-mnemonics-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mnemonics-4.md
category: reference
title: List of mnemonics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mnemonics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:16.788943+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mnemonics-20260505-0
summary:
== Theology == TULIP, summarises the core tenets of Calvinism: Total depravity, Unconditional Election, Limited Atonement, Irresistible Grace, and Perseverance of the Saints. (Further Memory Peg: The Economic boom that allowed the Tulip mania in the Netherlands was ultimately enabled by the Calvinist Ethic) == Transportation == Marine "Red, Right, Return" reminds the skipper entering ("returning to") an IALA region B port to keep red markers to the starboard of the vessel. Conversely the opposite convention exists in IALA region A ports, where a similar (but significantly different) mnemonic of "Red on the Right Returning To Sea" can be used. The phrase "there's always some red port (wine) left" is used to remember the basics in seafaring. "Red" refers to the color of navigation lights on the port (left) side of a vessel (as opposed to green on the starboard side). "Nuclear Restrictions Constrain Fishing and Sailing, People Say" is used to encode the "order of priority" for which vessels have right of way (earlier in the list has priority over later): Not under command; Restricted; Constrained by draft; Fishing vessel; Sailboat; Powerboat; Seaplane. Aviation uses many mnemonics in addition to written checklists. See also Category: Aviation mnemonics CRAFT -


id: list-of-cases-of-factitious-disorder-imposed-on-another-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cases_of_factitious_disorder_imposed_on_another-0.md
category: reference
title: List of cases of factitious disorder imposed on another
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cases_of_factitious_disorder_imposed_on_another
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:17.976300+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cases-of-factitious-disorder-imposed-on-another-20260505-0
summary:
Factitious disorder imposed on another (FDIA), also known as fabricated or induced illness by carers (FII), medical child abuse and originally named Munchausen syndrome by proxy (MSbP) after Munchausen syndrome, is a mental health disorder in which a caregiver creates the appearance of health problems in another person – typically their child, and sometimes (rarely) when an adult falsely simulates an illness or health issues in another adult partner. This may include injuring the proxy or altering test samples. The caregiver then presents the proxy as being sick or injured. Permanent injury or death of the proxy may occur as a result of the disorder. Although the caregiver typically does not benefit from their own behaviour, there are notable cases where the caregiver defrauds charities, insurance companies or local friends and family under the guise of using the resources received for the aid of the proxy. == Origin of name == The name is derived from Munchausen syndrome, which in turn derives from the famous liar in literature, Baron Munchausen; the character was in turn derived from the historical Hieronymus Karl Friedrich, Freiherr von Münchhausen. == Notable victims == Jennifer Bush: used in a large-scale fraud involving political elites who


id: list-of-cases-of-factitious-disorder-imposed-on-another-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cases_of_factitious_disorder_imposed_on_another-1.md
category: reference
title: List of cases of factitious disorder imposed on another
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cases_of_factitious_disorder_imposed_on_another
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:17.976300+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cases-of-factitious-disorder-imposed-on-another-20260505-0
summary:
== Alleged perpetrators == Dee Dee Blanchard: Dee Dee faked multiple chronic illnesses of her daughter, Gypsy-Rose Blanchard, both for sympathy and charitable benefits. Her abuse of Gypsy-Rose led to the girl eventually aiding a secret boyfriend in the murder of Dee Dee, after which the abuse was finally discovered. Gypsy-Rose's experience has been dramatized in movies and TV shows. == Fictional examples == Boh, an obese infant child in the Japanese 2001 animated feature film Spirited Away, is kept in a padded room by his mother and convinced that he is too sickly to go outside, led by his mother to believe that he will catch germs if he wanders from the room. He later relents and leaves the room, thus meeting new friends and helping to save the life of his mother's gravely injured apprentice. Cheryl, a parent in the 2013 Lifetime movie The Good Mother (played by Helen Slater) poisons her teenage daughter to death with ricin, then moves on to her next daughter, while basking in the constant sympathy she receives as a grieving mother with terminally ill children. She tells people that the unnamed "illness" is a genetic condition of sorts, poisoning the daughters until


id: list-of-neurological-conditions-and-disorders-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_neurological_conditions_and_disorders-0.md
category: reference
title: List of neurological conditions and disorders
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_neurological_conditions_and_disorders
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:19.175230+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-neurological-conditions-and-disorders-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of major and frequently observed neurological disorders (e.g., Alzheimer's disease), symptoms (e.g., back pain), signs (e.g., aphasia) and syndromes (e.g., Aicardi syndrome). There is disagreement over the definitions and criteria used to delineate various disorders and whether some of these conditions should be classified as mental disorders or in other ways. == # == 22q13 deletion syndrome == A == Abulia Achromatopsia Acquired brain injury Acute flaccid myelitis Agraphia Agnosia Aicardi syndrome AIDS – neurological manifestations Akinetopsia Alexander Disease Alien hand syndrome Allan–Herndon–Dudley syndrome Alternating hemiplegia of childhood Alzheimer's disease Amaurosis fugax Amnesia Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis Anencephaly Aneurysm Angelman syndrome Anosognosia Aphasia Aphantasia Apraxia Arachnoiditis Arnold–Chiari malformation Asomatognosia Asperger syndrome Ataxia ATR-16 syndrome Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder predominately inattentive Auditory processing disorder Autism spectrum disorder == B == Back pain Behçet's disease Bell's palsy Bipolar disorder Blindsight Blindness Blurred vision Brain damage Brachial plexus injury Brain death Brain injury Brain infarction Brain tumor Brody myopathy == C == Canavan disease Capgras delusion Carpal tunnel syndrome Causalgia Central pain syndrome Central pontine myelinolysis Centronuclear myopathy Cephalic disorder Cerebral aneurysm Cerebral arteriosclerosis Cerebral atrophy Cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy Cerebral


id: outline-of-neuroscience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_neuroscience-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of neuroscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_neuroscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:20.385497+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-neuroscience-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to neuroscience: Neuroscience is the scientific study of the structure and function of the nervous system. It encompasses the branch of biology that deals with the anatomy, biochemistry, molecular biology, and physiology of neurons and neural circuits. It also encompasses cognition, and human behavior. Neuroscience has multiple concepts that each relate to learning abilities and memory functions. Additionally, the brain is able to transmit signals that cause conscious/unconscious behaviors that are responses verbal or non-verbal. This allows people to communicate with one another. == Branches of neuroscience == === Neurophysiology === Neurophysiology is the study of the function (as opposed to structure) of the nervous system. Brain mapping Electrophysiology Extracellular recording Intracellular recording Brain stimulation Electroencephalography Intermittent rhythmic delta activity Category: Neurophysiology Category: Neuroendocrinology Neuroendocrinology === Neuroanatomy === Neuroanatomy is the study of the anatomy of nervous tissue and neural structures of the nervous system. Immunostaining Category: Neuroanatomy === Neuropharmacology === Neuropharmacology is the study of how drugs affect cellular function in the nervous system. Drug Psychoactive drug Anaesthetic Narcotic === Behavioral neuroscience === Behavioral neuroscience, also known as biological psychology, biopsychology, or psychobiology, is the application of


id: list-of-optical-illusions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_optical_illusions-0.md
category: reference
title: List of optical illusions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_optical_illusions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:22.889375+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-optical-illusions-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of visual illusions. == See also == == Notes == == External links == Optical Illusion Examples by Great Optical Illusions Optical Illusions & Visual Phenomena by Michael Bach Optical Illusions Database by Mighty Optical Illusions Optical illusions and perception paradoxes by Archimedes Lab https://web.archive.org/web/20100419004856/http://ilusaodeotica.com/ hundreds of optical illusions Project LITE Atlas of Visual Phenomena Archived 2010-03-29 at the Wayback Machine Akiyoshi's illusion pages Professor Akiyoshi KITAOKA's anomalous motion illusions Spiral Or Not? by Enrique Zeleny, Wolfram Demonstrations Project Magical Optical Illusions by Rangki Hunch Optical Illusions by Hunch Optical Illusions by Ooh, My Brain!


id: list-of-psychology-organizations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychology_organizations-0.md
category: reference
title: List of psychology organizations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychology_organizations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:24.134395+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-psychology-organizations-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of organizations and societies in psychology. == A == Academy for Eating Disorders Academy of Counseling Psychology Aelation Lifelong Learning Research Council American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry American Academy of Clinical Neuropsychology American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law American Academy of Psychoanalysis and Dynamic Psychiatry American Association of Community Psychiatrists American Association of Geriatric Psychiatry American Group Psychotherapy Association American Psychiatric Association American Psychiatric Nurses Association American Psychoanalytic Association American Psychological Association Archives of the History of American Psychology ASC Healthcare Association for Advancement of Behavior Therapy Association for Behavior Analysis International Association for Child and Adolescent Mental Health Association for College Psychiatry Association for Contextual Behavioral Science Association for the Scientific Study of Consciousness Association for Psychological Science Association for Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy Association for Transpersonal Psychology Association of Black Psychologists Anxiety and Depression Association of America Australian Psychological Society Australian Association of Psychologists Inc Australian Psychology Accreditation Council == B == Beat (formerly Eating Disorders Association) The Behavior Analyst Certification Board Behavior Genetics Association Belgian Psychological Association B. F. Skinner Foundation British Association for Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapies British Psychoanalytical Society British Psychological Society Buenos Aires Psychoanalytic Association == C


id: list-of-phobias-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phobias-0.md
category: reference
title: List of phobias
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phobias
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:25.313112+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-phobias-20260505-0
summary:
The English suffixes -phobia, -phobic, -phobe (from Greek φόβος phobos, 'fear') occur in technical usage in psychiatry to construct words that describe irrational, abnormal, unwarranted, persistent, or disabling fear as a mental disorder (e.g., agoraphobia), in chemistry to describe chemical aversions (e.g., hydrophobic), in biology to describe organisms that dislike certain conditions (e.g., acidophobia), and in medicine to describe hypersensitivity to a stimulus, usually sensory (e.g., photophobia). In common usage, they also form words that describe dislike or hatred of a particular thing or subject (e.g., homophobia). The suffix is antonymic to -phil-. For more information on the psychiatric side, including how psychiatry groups phobias such as agoraphobia, social phobia, or simple phobia, see phobia. The following lists include words ending in -phobia, and include fears that have acquired names. In some cases, the naming of phobias has become a word game, a notable example being a 1998 humorous article published by BBC News. In some cases, a word ending in -phobia may have an antonym with the suffix -phil-, e.g., Germanophobe/Germanophile. Many -phobia lists circulate on the Internet, with words collected from indiscriminate sources, often copying each other. Also, a number of psychiatric websites exist that at the first


id: list-of-psychiatrists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychiatrists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of psychiatrists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychiatrists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:27.874436+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-psychiatrists-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of notable psychiatrists. Additional lists of psychiatrists can be found in the articles Fictional psychiatrists and List of physicians. Medical doctors who are psychiatrists appear in those lists and are also included below. Some psychiatrists also in the list of neurologists and the list of neuroscientists. == See also == Psychiatry American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology American Psychiatric Association Royal College of Psychiatrists Lists List of cognitive scientists List of physicians List of psychologists List of fictional psychiatrists == References == == External links ==


id: glossary-of-psychiatry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry-0.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of psychiatry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:29.284349+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-psychiatry-20260505-0
summary:
This glossary covers terms found in the psychiatric literature; the word origins are primarily Greek, but there are also Latin, French, German, and English terms. Many of these terms refer to expressions dating from the early days of psychiatry in Europe; some are deprecated, and thus are of historic interest. == A == === abreaction === Abreaction is a process of vividly reliving repressed memories and emotions related to a past event. Sigmund Freud used hypnosis to rid his patients of pathological memories through abreaction. === abulia === Aboulia or Abulia, in neurology, refers to a lack of will or initiative. The individual is unable to act or make decisions independently. The condition may range from subtle to overwhelming in severity. === achromatopsia === Achromatopsia is a term referring to or acquired agnosia for color. This term includes color blindness. Achromatopsia is a condition characterized by a partial or total absence of color vision. People with complete achromatopsia cannot perceive any colors; they see only black, white, and shades of gray. Incomplete achromatopsia is a milder form of the condition that allows some color discrimination. Achromatopsia also involves other problems with vision, including an increased sensitivity to light and glare


id: glossary-of-psychiatry-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry-1.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of psychiatry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:29.284349+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-psychiatry-20260505-0
summary:
Astasia-abasia is a form of psychogenic gait disturbance in which gait becomes impaired in the absence of any neurological or physical pathology. The person usually walks in a bizarre manner. They stagger and appear as if going to fall, but always manage to catch hold of something in time. Sometimes these people cannot even stand, but on the other hand they are well able to move their legs while lying down or sitting. Often associated with conversion disorder or somatization disorder. === asyndesis === Asyndesis means loosening of association. A milder form of derailment of thought, it is marked by the individual leaping from topic to topic which have only the most tenuous, if any, connection with each other. This is in contrast with § flight of ideas, whereby the individual's successive ideas may be linked and "understandable" to the listener. See also § akataphasia and § entgleisen term introduced by (Cameron). === autism === From aut = "self" and -ism = "state or orientation". Originally, Eugen Bleuler used this term to describe schizophrenia. In general, it refers to any (pathological) tendency to be self-absorbed to such a degree that the feelings, thoughts and desires of a person are governed


id: glossary-of-psychiatry-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry-2.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of psychiatry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:29.284349+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-psychiatry-20260505-0
summary:
=== clouding of consciousness === Clouding of consciousness, also known as brain fog or mental fog, is a global impairment in higher central nervous functioning. All aspects of cognitive functioning are affected. On mental status examinations it is manifest by disorientation in time, place and person, memory difficulties caused by failure to register and recall, aphasia, and agnosia. Impaired perception functioning leads to illusions and hallucinations often in the visual sensory modality. This then causes agitation and distress and secondary delusions. The term confusion state is sometimes used to mean clouding of consciousness, but is avoided whenever possible because it is ambiguous. === coenestopathic state === Coenestopathic state refers to a situation in which an individual in a coenestopathic state has a localized distortion of body awareness. === confabulation === Confabulation is the confusion of imagination with memory, or the confusion of true memories with false memories. === conversion disorder === Conversion disorder involves the unintentional production of symptoms or deficits affecting motor or sensory function that are not fully explained by a neurological or medical condition. This can manifest as paralysis, for example. It generally involves psychological factors, and symptoms may worsen in the context of situational conflict. ===


id: glossary-of-psychiatry-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry-3.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of psychiatry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:29.284349+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-psychiatry-20260505-0
summary:
=== flight of ideas === "Flight of ideas" describes excessive speech at a rapid rate that involves causal association between ideas. Links between ideas may involve usage of puns or rhymes. It is typical of mania, classically seen in bipolar disorder. Compare § derailment and Racing thoughts. === folie à deux === Also called "induced psychosis", folie à deux is a delusional disorder shared by two or more people who are closely related emotionally. One has real psychosis while the symptoms of psychosis are induced in the other or others due to close attachment to the one with psychosis. Separation usually results in symptomatic improvement in the one who is not psychotic. Folie communiquée, folie imposée, folie induite, and folie simultanée are the four subtypes of folie à deux. folie communiquée Folie communiquée, or subtype C of folie à deux, occurs when a normal person has a contagion of their ideas after resisting them for a long time. Once they acquire these beliefs they maintain them despite separation. folie imposée Folie imposée, or subtype A of folie à deux, is the most common form in which the dominant person imposes a delusion into a person who was not previously mentally


id: glossary-of-psychiatry-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry-4.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of psychiatry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:29.284349+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-psychiatry-20260505-0
summary:
Logorrhoea, also known as "volubility", is characterized by fluent and rambling speech using numerous words. Compare § derailment. == M == === mania === Mania is often mirrored as a minor image of depression. Mania is a state of abnormally elevated arousal, affect, and energy level. As mania intensifies, irritability can be more pronounced and result in anxiety or violence. Mania symptoms are elevated mood, flights of ideas, pressure of speech, increased energy, decreased need or desire for sleep, and hyperactivity. === mania a potu === Mania a potu is an alcohol intoxication state with violent and markedly disinhibited behavior. This condition is different from violent behavior in otherwise normal individuals who are intoxicated. === metonymy === Metonymy is a speech disturbance in which patients, commonly with schizophrenia, use inappropriate words or expressions that are related to the proper ones. Examples include: consume a menu, instead of a meal; lose the piece of string of the conversation, not the thread of the conversation. See also § word approximation. === mitgehen === Mitgehen (German: [ˈmɪtˌɡeːən] ) is an extreme form of mitmachen in which very slight pressure leads to movement in any direction, also called the "anglepoise" effect or "anglepoise lamp


id: glossary-of-psychiatry-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry-5.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of psychiatry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:29.284349+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-psychiatry-20260505-0
summary:
=== pseudologia fantastica === Pseudologia fantastica is a condition in which a person grossly exaggerates their symptoms or even tells a lie about their symptoms in order to get medical attention. Seen in malingering and Munchausen syndrome. === psychological pillow === Where the individual holds their head a few centimetres above the bed. No explanation is offered for this. It is a symptom of catatonia and can last for many hours. === psychopathology === Psychopathology is a term which refers to either the study of mental illness or mental distress or to the manifestation of behaviours and experiences which may be indicative of mental illness or psychological impairment. == R == === rabbit syndrome === Rabbit syndrome is characterized by rapid, vertical, rhythmic movements of lips so that it resembles a rabbit chewing. It is a type of extrapyramidal symptom, distinct from tardive dyskinesia as it spares the tongue and involves vertical movements only. === reduplicative hallucination === In reduplicative hallucinations there is the perception of seeing a double. Particular kinds of reduplicative hallucination include autoscopy, heautoscopy and out-of-body experiences. === reduplicative paramnesia === Reduplicative paramnesia is a delusional misidentification syndrome in which one's surroundings are believed to exist in


id: glossary-of-psychiatry-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry-6.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of psychiatry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_psychiatry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:29.284349+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-psychiatry-20260505-0
summary:
=== verbigeration === Verbigeration is a verbal stereotypy (repetition) in which usually one or several sentences or strings of fragmented words are repeated continuously. Sometimes individuals will produce incomprehensible jargon in which stereotypies are embedded. The tone of voice is usually monotonous. This can be produced spontaneously or precipitated by questioning. The term verbigeration was first used in psychiatry by Karl Kahlbaum in 1874, and it referred to a manner of talking which was very fast and incomprehensible. At the time verbigeration was seen as a "disorder of language" and represented a central feature of catatonia. The word is derived from the Latin word verbum (also the source of verbiage), plus the verb gerĕre, to carry on or conduct, from which the Latin verb verbigerāre, to talk or chat, is derived. However, clinically the term verbigeration never achieved popularity and as such has virtually disappeared from psychiatric terminology. Compare Echolalia. === verstimmung === An ill-humored mood state often accompanied by low mood and depressive symptoms. The people surrounding the individual often feel upset by this condition. === vorbeigehen; vorbeireden === In vorbeigehen or vorbeireden, an individual will answer a question in such a way that it is clear the question


id: psychoanalytic-institutes-and-societies-in-the-united-states-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanalytic_institutes_and_societies_in_the_United_States-0.md
category: reference
title: Psychoanalytic institutes and societies in the United States
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanalytic_institutes_and_societies_in_the_United_States
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:30.600165+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: psychoanalytic-institutes-and-societies-in-the-united-states-20260505-0
summary:
Psychoanalytic institutes and societies in the United States are often linked together, though a distinction may be made between the functions of the institutes (mainly training, education, and research) and the societies (other professional activities including advocacy and networking). Some local psychoanalytic organizations have both words in their title while others have only one or the other. Psychoanalytic institutes are organizations that train psychoanalysts and psychoanalytically oriented psychotherapists, provide continuing education for psychoanalytically oriented mental health professionals, and/or carry out psychoanalytically informed research in mental health or social sciences and humanities. Psychoanalytic societies are local or regional professional associations of psychoanalysts and sometimes other psychoanalytically oriented professionals. Psychoanalytic institutes in the United States may be affiliated with the American Psychoanalytic Association (APsaA), the International Psychoanalytic Association (IPA), or The National Association for the Advancement of Psychoanalysis (NAAP). The associations differ slightly in their training guidelines over such things as length and frequency of so-called "control cases" (patients seen for psychoanalysis as part of the training of candidate) or of the candidates themselves. The organizations also historically differed in their rules for allowing different types of professionals to undergo psychoanalytic training (e.g., for many years APsaA only allowed physicians to undergo


id: psychoanalytic-institutes-and-societies-in-the-united-states-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanalytic_institutes_and_societies_in_the_United_States-1.md
category: reference
title: Psychoanalytic institutes and societies in the United States
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanalytic_institutes_and_societies_in_the_United_States
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:30.600165+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: psychoanalytic-institutes-and-societies-in-the-united-states-20260505-0
summary:
== List == American Institute for Psychoanalysis (AIP) - the second oldest continuously functioning institute in New York City, and third oldest institute in the United States, based on the growth-oriented philosophy Karen Horney pioneered in psychoanalysis. Berkshire Psychoanalytic Institute (BPI) was founded in 2001 in Stockbridge, Massachusetts. Boston Graduate School of Psychoanalysis was founded in 1973. Its main campus is in Brookline, Massachusetts. Boston Psychoanalytic Society and Institute is the third-oldest psychoanalytic institute in the United States, founded in 1932 by Franz Alexander. It is affiliated with both APsaA and IPA. Center for Modern Psychoanalytic Studies. The Center holds an absolute charter from the Board of Regents of the New York State Education Department and is recognized by New York State as a licensure-qualifying institute for those seeking license as a psychoanalyst. It is accredited by the American Board for Accreditation in Psychoanalysis and is a member institute of the National Association for the Advancement of Psychoanalysis. The Institute for Modern Psychoanalysis of Philadelphia (IMPP) (Formerly Philadelphia School of Psychoanalysis (PSP) until it was renamed in 2025), formed in 1971, offers accredited, online, modern psychoanalytic programs. It is accredited by the American Board for Accreditation in Psychoanalysis (ABAP). The


id: psychoanalytic-institutes-and-societies-in-the-united-states-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanalytic_institutes_and_societies_in_the_United_States-2.md
category: reference
title: Psychoanalytic institutes and societies in the United States
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanalytic_institutes_and_societies_in_the_United_States
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:30.600165+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: psychoanalytic-institutes-and-societies-in-the-united-states-20260505-0
summary:
Founding members were Erich Fromm and Clara Thompson, joined by Harry Stack Sullivan, Frieda Fromm-Reichmann, David Rioch and Janet Rioch. The National Association for the Advancement of Psychoanalysis (NAAP), founded in 1972, with the purpose to unite the various schools of psychoanalytic thought and to ensure the independence, advancement, recognition, and sustainability of the profession of psychoanalysis. The American Board for Accreditation in Psychoanalysis (ABAP), established in 1997, in order to achieve autonomy between accreditation and membership society functions. For nearly twenty-five years, ABAP has been independently fostering quality improvement, evaluating, and accrediting a diverse group of psychoanalytic training programs. Those that meet ABAP’s Standards for Accreditation are accredited members of the Assembly of Psychoanalytic Institutes. == See also == List of schools of psychoanalysis == References == == Further reading == == External links == Approved Training Institutes – APsaA


id: list-of-psychologists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychologists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of psychologists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychologists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:31.836242+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-psychologists-20260505-0
summary:
This list includes notable psychologists and contributors to psychology, some of whom may not have thought of themselves primarily as psychologists but are included here because of their important contributions to the discipline. Specialized lists of psychologists can be found at the articles on comparative psychology, list of clinical psychologists, list of developmental psychologists, list of educational psychologists, list of evolutionary psychologists, list of social psychologists, and list of cognitive scientists. Many psychologists included in those lists are also listed below: == A == == B == == C == == D == == E == == F == == G == == H == == I == Bärbel Inhelder == J == == K == == L == == M == == N == Albert Nalchajyan Ulric Neisser Erich Neumann Richard Nisbett Donald Norman Kent Norman == O == Charles E. Osgood Joy Osofsky J. Buzz Von Ornsteiner Lise Østergaard == P == == R == == S == == T == == U == Dimitri Uznadze == V == Douglas Vakoch Alfons Vansteenwegen Magdalen Dorothea Vernon Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga Hedwig von Restorff Lev Vygotsky, (cultural-historical psychology) Stuart Vyse == W == == X == Fei Xu, Developmental Psychology and


id: list-of-psychologists-on-postage-stamps-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychologists_on_postage_stamps-0.md
category: reference
title: List of psychologists on postage stamps
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychologists_on_postage_stamps
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:33.202383+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-psychologists-on-postage-stamps-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of psychologists and contributors to the field of psychology who have been commemorated on worldwide postage stamps. It is adapted from two philatelic listings published by psychologists Dr. Gary Brucato and Dr. John D. Hogan in 1999, and psychology historian Dr. Ludy T. Benjamin in 2003. The following index provides the name of each honoree, a brief description of his or her contributions, and the nation and year in which the stamp was issued: == A == Aristotle (384-322 B.C.). Eminent Greek philosopher, often regarded as the father of "pre-science" psychology. His book De Anima (On the Soul) was among the first to address the interplay between psychological and physiological processes, as well as the concept of human intellect. He departed from the philosophical principles of his teacher Plato, emphasizing the importance of empirical observation, and postulating that the body and the mind exist as facets of the same being, with the mind being simply one of the body's functions. Stamps issued: Greece (1956); Greece (1978); Cyprus (1978); Mali (1978); Mexico (1978); Spain (1992); Uruguay (1996); Chad (2000); Gibraltar (2009); Greece (2016); Bosnia and Herzegovina (2018) St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). Italian theologian and Roman Catholic


id: list-of-psychologists-on-postage-stamps-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychologists_on_postage_stamps-1.md
category: reference
title: List of psychologists on postage stamps
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychologists_on_postage_stamps
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:33.202383+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-psychologists-on-postage-stamps-20260505-0
summary:
== D == Charles Darwin (1809-1882). English naturalist who presented compelling evidence that all living creatures evolved over time from common ancestors through a process he called natural selection. He published three books in which he explored how human mental qualities and emotional states could be understood as the results of evolution; specifically, The Descent of Man in 1871, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals in 1872 and Biographical Sketch of an Infant in 1877. Darwin's work had far-reaching impacts on the theory and practice of psychology. Its emphasis on the individual's adaptation to the environment helped to establish the "functional" view of the mind and of human behavior later developed by such thinkers as John Dewey and James Rowland Angell, and influenced the work of George Romanes, the father of comparative psychology. Moreover, the concept of natural selection led to greater interests in variation and individual differences among members of the same species. Stamps issued: Ecuador (1935); Ecuador (1936); East Germany (1958); Czechoslovakia (1959); Poland (1959); Romania (1959: Soviet Union (1959); Turalu (1977); Cocos Islands (1981); St. Helena (1981); Antigua (1982); Australia (1982); Ecuador (1982); Falkland Islands (1982); Great Britain (1982); India (1983); Mauritius (1982); St.


id: list-of-psychologists-on-postage-stamps-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychologists_on_postage_stamps-2.md
category: reference
title: List of psychologists on postage stamps
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychologists_on_postage_stamps
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:33.202383+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-psychologists-on-postage-stamps-20260505-0
summary:
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Freud, an Austrian neurologist, was the founder of psychoanalysis, which was a theory of the normal mind and the neuroses as well as both a method for investigating the unconscious and a method of psychotherapeutic treatment. His influence was principally on the fields of personality and clinical psychology but he influenced psychology more broadly as well, for example, recognizing the role of unconscious processes, emphasizing the importance of early experiences in shaping later behaviors, noting that psychological disorders could result from psychic causes as well as somatic ones, positing a number of defense mechanisms that individuals use to cope with anxiety, and emphasizing the importance of sexual behavior. Stamps issued: Grenada (1973), Liberia (1973), Austria (1981), Great Britain (1986), Cuba (1993), Marshall Islands (1997), Guyana (1999), Palau (2000), St. Vincent & Grenadines (2000), Belgium (2001), Congo (2001), Austria (2006), Czech Republic (2006) == G == Lillian Moller Gilbreth (1878-1972). Gilbreth's doctoral dissertation was on the psychology of management. In 1904 she married Frank Gilbert. Together they would become pioneers in the Scientific Management movement started by Frederick Winslow Taylor. The Gilbreths were especially well known for their time and motion studies, researching the "one best way" to


id: list-of-psychologists-on-postage-stamps-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychologists_on_postage_stamps-3.md
category: reference
title: List of psychologists on postage stamps
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychologists_on_postage_stamps
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:33.202383+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-psychologists-on-postage-stamps-20260505-0
summary:
== K == Immanuel Kant (1724-1804). Kant was a German philosopher, recognized as perhaps the most significant voice of the Age of Enlightenment. His best known work was A Critique of Pure Reason published in 1781. It influenced many scholarly fields, including psychology by its treatment of cognitive processes such as thinking and perception. Stamps issued: Germany (1927), West Germany (1961), (1974) == L == Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716). A German mathematician and philosopher, Leibniz is seen, like Immanuel Kant, as a major influence on the psychology of Wilhelm Wundt who founded psychology's first research laboratory in 1879. Leibniz wrote on attention, consciousness, association, memory, and perception, all of which were and are central concepts in scientific psychology, and his writing found fuller expression in Wundt's early books on psychology. Stamps issued: Germany (1926), 1950), (1966), Romania (1966), West Germany (1980), Germany (1996), Chad (2015) == M == Egaz Moniz (1874-1955). Moniz, a Portuguese physician, received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1949. It is perhaps the only Nobel Prize that the Swedish Academy should take back. Moniz won the prize for his surgical technique which he touted as a cure for certain kinds of mental illness, particularly


id: list-of-psychologists-on-postage-stamps-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychologists_on_postage_stamps-4.md
category: reference
title: List of psychologists on postage stamps
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychologists_on_postage_stamps
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:33.202383+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-psychologists-on-postage-stamps-20260505-0
summary:
Jean Piaget (1896-1980). Piaget was a Swiss psychologist known especially for his stage-theory of children's cognitive development. His doctoral degree was actually in zoology, but his early employment was with a distinguished array of psychologists including Alfred Binet, Theodore Simon, and Édouard Claparède. He used methods of investigation that were quite unconventional, including studying his own children. And he emphasized that in-depth questioning of children about their cognitions allowed a fuller understanding of the mental processes involved. His stage theory of cognitive development dominated psychology through much of the 20th century, however more recent work has challenged his views and his research methods. Stamps issued: Switzerland (1996) Philippe Pinel (1745-1826). Pinel was a French physician and social reformer who was in charge of two mental asylums in Paris shortly after the French Revolution, first the Biĉetre and later the Salpêtrière. He was distressed by the treatment of mentally ill patients and argued for more humane measures. He recognized that they were treated more as inmates than patients and that their treatment often involved beatings, isolation for long periods of time, and being kept in chains. As superintendent of these asylums he sought to eliminate such practices and trained his hospital


id: list-of-psychologists-on-postage-stamps-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychologists_on_postage_stamps-5.md
category: reference
title: List of psychologists on postage stamps
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychologists_on_postage_stamps
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:33.202383+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-psychologists-on-postage-stamps-20260505-0
summary:
== W == Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913). Wallace was a British naturalist who independently arrived at an explanation of evolution by natural selection. Because he knew of Darwin's work on this subject, in 1858 Wallace sent Darwin by mail a brief manuscript of his theory which Darwin recognized as a bare bones statement of his own ideas. Darwin was devastated. He had worked largely in secret on this theory for almost 20 years and now he was about to lose all credit for that work. The full story of this situation is beyond the scope of this entry but many scholarly accounts describe its history and resolution. Wallace would enjoy a career of considerable scientific accomplishment. But he is listed here for his theory of evolution that has greatly impacted psychology as it has so many of the other sciences. Stamps issued: Sao Tome & Principe (2009), Great Britain (2010) Torsten Wiesel (1924 - ). Wiesel is a Swedish neurophysiologist whose collaboration with David Hubel on the cellular structure and function of the visual cortex won them both the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1981 (see the earlier entry on David Hubel). Stamps issued: Sweden (1984) == See


id: index-of-psychometrics-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_psychometrics_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of psychometrics articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_psychometrics_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:34.565067+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-psychometrics-articles-20260505-0
summary:
Articles related to psychometrics (measuring intelligence and cognitive traits) include: Intelligence quotient Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Big Five personality traits Personality tests Enneagram of Personality Scholastic Aptitude Test


id: list-of-psychotherapies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychotherapies-0.md
category: reference
title: List of psychotherapies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychotherapies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:35.862086+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-psychotherapies-20260505-0
summary:
This is an alphabetical list of psychotherapies. This list contains some approaches that may not call themselves a psychotherapy but have a similar aim of improving mental health and well-being through talk and other means of communication. In the 20th century, a great number of psychotherapies were created. All of these face continuous change in popularity, methods, and effectiveness. Sometimes they are self-administered, either individually, in pairs, small groups or larger groups. However, a professional practitioner will usually use a combination of therapies and approaches, often in a team treatment process that involves reading/talking/reporting to other professional practitioners. The older established therapies usually have a code of ethics, professional associations, training programs, and so on. The newer and innovative therapies may not yet have established these structures or may not wish to. This list is a mixture of psychotherapy articles that cover topics at various levels of abstraction, such as theoretical frameworks, specific therapy packages, and individual techniques. == A == Abreaction therapy Accelerated experiential dynamic psychotherapy (AEDP) Acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) Adlerian therapy Adventure therapy Analytical psychology Animal-assisted therapy Art therapy Association splitting Attack therapy Attachment-based psychotherapy Attachment-based therapy (children) Attachment therapy Autogenic training Aversion therapy == B


id: list-of-psychological-research-methods-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychological_research_methods-0.md
category: reference
title: List of psychological research methods
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychological_research_methods
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:37.146437+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-psychological-research-methods-20260505-0
summary:
A wide range of research methods are used in psychology. These methods vary by the sources from which information is obtained, how that information is sampled, and the types of instruments that are used in data collection. Methods also vary by whether they collect qualitative data, quantitative data or both. Qualitative psychological research findings are not arrived at by statistical or other quantitative procedures. Quantitative psychological research findings result from mathematical modeling and statistical estimation or statistical inference. The two types of research differ in the methods employed, rather than the topics they focus on. There are three main types of psychological research: Correlational research Descriptive research Experimental research == Common methods == Common research designs and data collection methods include: Archival research Case study uses different research methods (e.g. interview, observation, self-report questionnaire) with a single case or small number of cases. Clustered randomized controlled trial Computer simulation (modeling) Ethnography Event sampling methodology, also referred to as experience sampling methodology, diary study, or ecological momentary assessment Experiment, often with separate treatment and control groups (see scientific control and design of experiments). See Experimental psychology for many details. Field experiment Focus group Interview, can be structured or unstructured. Meta-analysis Neuroimaging


id: list-of-russian-physicians-and-psychologists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russian_physicians_and_psychologists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Russian physicians and psychologists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russian_physicians_and_psychologists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:38.399796+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-russian-physicians-and-psychologists-20260505-0
summary:
This list of Russian physicians and psychologists includes the famous physicians and psychologists, medical scientists and medical doctors from the Russian Federation, the Soviet Union, the Russian Empire and other predecessor states of Russia. Physicians of all specialties may be listed here. == Alphabetical list == === A === Nikolai Amosov, prominent cardiovascular surgery developer, best-selling author === B === Aleksandr Bakulev, prominent cardiovascular surgery developer Vladimir Bekhterev, neuropathologist, founder of objective psychology, noted the role of the hippocampus in memory, major contributor to reflexology, studied the Bekhterev’s Disease Vladimir Betz, discovered Betz cells of primary motor cortex Peter Borovsky, described the causative agent of Oriental sore Sergey Botkin, major therapist and court physician Nikolay Burdenko, major developer of neurosurgery Konstantin Buteyko, developed the Buteyko method for the treatment of asthma and other breathing disorders === C === Mikhail Chumakov, co-discovered tick-borne encephalitis, co-developed oral polio vaccine === D === Livery Darkshevich, neurologist, described the nucleus of posterior commissure Vladimir Demikhov, major pioneer of transplantology === F === Vladimir Filatov, ophthalmologist, corneal transplantation pioneer Svyatoslav Fyodorov, inventor of radial keratotomy === G === Pyotr Gannushkin, psychiatrist, pioneer researcher of psychopathies known today as personality disorders Oleg Gazenko, founder of space


id: list-of-schools-of-psychoanalysis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_schools_of_psychoanalysis-0.md
category: reference
title: List of schools of psychoanalysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_schools_of_psychoanalysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:41.159388+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-schools-of-psychoanalysis-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of schools of psychoanalysis. == International schools and organizations == International Federation of Psychoanalytic Societies (IFPS) École Européenne de Psychanalyse (EEP) (Europe) International Psychoanalytical Association (founded 1910) La Nueva Escuela Lacaniana (NEL) (Peru, Ecuador, Venezuela, Cuba, Colombia and Miami) World Association of Psychoanalysis (founded 1992) School of Psychoanalysis of the Forums of the Lacanian Field (IF-EPFCL) Federation of the European Schools of Psychoanalysis (FESP) International Association for Relational Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy == Argentina == Fundación Descartes Escuela de la Orientación Lacaniana Asociación de Psicoanálisis de La Plata (La Plata) Foro Analítico del Río de la Plata (Buenos Aires) == Belgium == New Lacanian School (NLS) (Brussels) == Brazil == Escola Brasileira de Psicanalise (EBP) Escola de Psicanálise dos Fóruns do Campo Lacaniano (EPFCL) Sociedade Brasileira de Psicanálise Integrativa (SBPI) Associação Brasileira de Psicanálise Insight Sociedade Paulista de Psicanálise Instituto Paulista de Psicanálise Escola Letra Freudiana (ELF) Associação Brasileira de Filosofia e Psicanálise (ABRAFP) Escola Freudiana de Formação em Psicanalítica (EFFP) Escola Lacaniana de Formação Psicanalítica (ELFP) Sociedade Brasileira de Psicanálise Lacaniana (SBPL) == Canada == Institute for the Advancement of Self Psychology (IASP) Toronto Institute for Contemporary Psychoanalysis (TICP) Toronto Psychoanalytic Society and Institute (TPS) The


id: list-of-psychological-schools-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychological_schools-0.md
category: reference
title: List of psychological schools
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychological_schools
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:42.474952+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-psychological-schools-20260505-0
summary:
The psychological schools are the great classical theories of psychology. Each has been highly influential; however, most psychologists hold eclectic viewpoints that combine aspects of each school. == Most influential == The most influential ones and their main founders are:: Behaviorism: John B. Watson Cognitivism: Aaron T. Beck, Albert Ellis Functionalism: William James Humanistic/Gestalt: Max Wertheimer Psychoanalytic school: Sigmund Freud Systems psychology: Gregory Bateson, Felix Guattari == Complete list == The list below includes these, and other, influential schools of thought in psychology: Activity-oriented approach Analytical psychology Anomalistic psychology Anti-psychiatry Associationism Behaviorism (see also radical behaviorism) Behavioural genetics Bioenergetics Biological psychology Biopsychosocial model Cognitivism Constructivism Cultural-historical psychology Depth psychology Descriptive psychology Developmental psychology Ecological psychology Ecological systems theory Ecopsychology Ego psychology Environmental psychology Evolutionary psychology Existential psychology Experimental analysis of behavior - the school descended from B.F. Skinner's work Functionalism Gestalt psychology Gestalt therapy Humanistic psychology Individual psychology Industrial psychology Liberation psychology Logotherapy Organismic psychology Organizational psychology Phenomenological psychology Process psychology Psychoanalysis Psychohistory Psychology of self Radical behaviorism - often considered a school of philosophy, not psychology Social psychology (sociocultural psychology) Strength-based practice Structuralism Systems psychology Transactional analysis Transpersonal psychology == See also == History of psychology


id: list-of-social-psychologists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_social_psychologists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of social psychologists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_social_psychologists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:43.767652+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-social-psychologists-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of academicians, both past and present, who are widely renowned for their groundbreaking contributions to the field of social psychology. == A == Dominic Abrams Lauren Alloy Icek Ajzen Floyd Allport Gordon Allport Irwin Altman Craig A. Anderson Norman H. Anderson Michael Argyle Elliot Aronson Solomon Asch Berit Ås == B == Anna Costanza Baldry Mahzarin Banaji Albert Bandura - Canadian psychologist known for social learning theory (or social cognitive theory) and self efficacy John Bargh - known for having several priming experiments that failed subsequent attempts at direct replication Robert A. Baron Daniel Batson Martin Bauer Roy Baumeister Howard Becker Daryl Bem - proposed self-perception theory of attitude change, competitor to Leon Festinger's cognitive dissonance theory Ellen S. Berscheid Michael Billig Hart Blanton Marilynn Brewer Roger Brown Brad Bushman == C == John Cacioppo Donald T. Campbell Tijuana L. Canders Merrill Carlsmith Nicholas Christenfeld Robert Cialdini - known for his research on influence processes Ronald L. Cohen Peter T. Coleman Terri Conley Stuart W. Cook Charles Horton Cooley Nora Cortiñas William Crano == D == James M. Dabbs, Jr. John M. Darley Shai Davidai Edward L. Deci - co-founder of Self-Determination Theory Morton Deutsch


id: list-of-social-psychology-theories-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_social_psychology_theories-0.md
category: reference
title: List of social psychology theories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_social_psychology_theories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:44.988117+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-social-psychology-theories-20260505-0
summary:
Social psychology utilizes a wide range of specific theories for various kinds of social and cognitive phenomena. Here is a sampling of some of the more influential theories that can be found in this branch of psychology. Attribution theory – is concerned with the ways in which people explain (or attribute) the behaviour of others. The theory divides the way people attribute causes to events into two types. External or "situational" attributions assign causality to an outside factor, such as the weather. Internal or "dispositional" attributions assign causality to factors within the person, such as ability or personality. Cognitive dissonance – was originally based on the concept of cognitive consistency, but is now more related to self-concept theory. When people do something that violates their view of themselves, this causes an uncomfortable state of dissonance that motivates a change in either attitudes or behaviour (Festinger, 1957). Drive theory – posits that the presence of an audience causes arousal which creates dominant or typical responses in the context of the situation. Elaboration likelihood model – maintains that information processing, often in the case of a persuasion attempt can be divided into two separate processes based on the "likelihood of cognitive elaborations,"


id: list-of-psychological-tests-by-gender-difference-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychological_tests_by_gender_difference-0.md
category: reference
title: List of psychological tests by gender difference
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychological_tests_by_gender_difference
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:46.227272+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-psychological-tests-by-gender-difference-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of specific psychological tests by the effect size for gender as reported in the most recent meta-analysis or norm. Only some psychological tests have been the subject of such research. The standard guidelines for interpreting effect size state that 0.2 is a small difference; 0.5 is medium difference, one that would be noticeable to a casual observer; 0.8 is large difference, one that would be obvious to a casual observer. == Self-report scales == == Objective tests == == References ==


id: outline-of-thought-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_thought-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of thought
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_thought
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:50.401724+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-thought-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to thought (thinking): Thought is the object of a mental process called thinking, in which beings form psychological associations and models of the world. Thinking is manipulating information, as when we form concepts, engage in problem solving, reason and make decisions. Thought, the act of thinking, produces more thoughts. A thought may be an idea, an image, a sound or even control an emotional feeling. == Nature of thought == Thought (or thinking) can be described as all of the following: An activity taking place in a: brain – organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals (only a few invertebrates such as sponges, jellyfish, adult sea squirts and starfish do not have a brain). It is the physical structure associated with the mind. mind – abstract entity with the cognitive faculties of consciousness, perception, thinking, judgement, and memory. Having a mind is a characteristic of living creatures. Activities taking place in a mind are called mental processes or cognitive functions. computer (see § Machine thought below) – general purpose device that can be programmed to carry out a


id: outline-of-thought-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_thought-1.md
category: reference
title: Outline of thought
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_thought
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:50.401724+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-thought-20260505-0
summary:
== Organizations == Associations pertaining to thought Association for Automated Reasoning Association for Informal Logic and Critical Thinking International Joint Conference on Automated Reasoning – Conferences series on automated reasoning, automated deduction, and related fields High IQ societies – Organization for people with a high IQ scorePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Mind Sports Organisation – Association for promoting mind sportss World Mind Sports Games – Multi-sport event Think tank – Organization that performs policy research and advocacy == Media == === Publications === ==== Books ==== Handbook of Automated Reasoning ==== Periodicals ==== Journal of Automated Reasoning Journal of Formalized Reasoning Positive Thinking Magazine === Television programs === Thinkabout (U.S. TV series) == Persons associated with thinking == === People notable for their extraordinary ability to think === Geniuses List of Nobel laureates (see also Nobel Prize) Polymaths Intellectual === Scientists in fields that study thought === List of cognitive scientists === Scholars of thinking === Aaron T. Beck Edward de Bono Tony Buzan Noam Chomsky Albert Ellis Howard Gardner Eliyahu M. Goldratt Douglas Hofstadter Ray Kurzweil Marvin Minsky Richard W. Paul Steven Pinker Bertrand Russell Baruch Spinoza Robert Sternberg == Related concepts == Cognition Knowledge Multiple intelligences


id: timeline-of-coaching-psychology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_coaching_psychology-0.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of coaching psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_coaching_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:51.734825+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-coaching-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
== 1900s == In 1926, American sports psychologist Coleman Griffith published his first book entitled The Psychology of Coaching: A Study of Coaching Methods in the Point of View of Psychology. In 1951, John Lawther of Penn State University published Psychology of Coaching. in 1967 Curtiss Gaylord published a book titled Modern Coaching Psychology, the first book to use "coaching psychology" in its title In 1970, James William Moore published The Psychology of Athletic Coaching. In 1976, Tim Gallwey publishes the book, The Inner Game of Tennis In 1977, James O. Prochaska of the University of Rhode Island, and Carlo Di Clemente and colleagues developed the transtheoretical model. In 1981, earliest known mention of S.M.A.R.T. goals In the late 1980s and 1990s, the GROW model was developed in the United Kingdom and was used extensively in corporate coaching. In 1997, Max Landsberg writes up GROW model in The tao of coaching == 21st century == In January 2000, Anthony Grant established the Coaching Psychology Unit at University of Sydney and through his doctoral studies set the stage for further research into coaching as an evidence-based discipline. In 2003, International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in Education was formed In 2005,


id: timeline-of-psychology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_psychology-0.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:53.107806+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
This article is a general timeline of psychology. == Ancient history – BCE == c. 1550 BCE – The Ebers Papyrus mentioned depression and thought disorders. c. 600 BCE – Many cities in Greece had temples to Asklepios that provided cures for psychosomatic illnesses. 540–475 Heraclitus c. 500 Alcmaeon – suggested theory of humors as regulating human behavior (similar to Empedocles' elements) 500–428 Anaxagoras 490–430 Empedocles proposed a first natural, non-religious system of factors that create things around, including human characters. In his model he used four elements (water, fire, earth, air) and four seasons to derive diversity of natural systems. 490–421 Protagoras 470–399 Socrates – Socrates has been called the father of western philosophy, if only via his influence on Plato and Aristotle. Socrates made a major contribution to pedagogy via his dialectical method and to epistemology via his definition of true knowledge as true belief buttressed by some rational justification. 470–370 Democritus – Democritus distinguished between insufficient knowledge gained through the senses and legitimate knowledge gained through the intellect—an early stance on epistemology. 460 BC – 370 BCE – Hippocrates introduced principles of scientific medicine based upon naturalistic observation and logic, and denied the influence of spirits and


id: timeline-of-psychology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_psychology-1.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:53.107806+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
== 6th–10th century == 625–690 – Paul of Aegina suggested that hysteria should be treated by ligature of the limbs, and mania by tying the patient to a mattress placed inside a wicker basket and suspended from the ceiling. He also recommended baths, wine, special diets, and sedatives for the mentally ill. He described the following mental disorders: phrenitis, delirium, lethargus, melancholia, mania, incubus, lycanthropy, and epilepsy c. 800 – The first bimaristan was built in Baghdad. By the 13th century, bimaristans grew into hospitals with specialized wards, including wards for mentally ill patients. c. 850 – Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari wrote a work emphasizing the need for psychotherapy. c. 900 – Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi urged doctors to ensure that they evaluated the state of both their patients' bodies and souls, and highlighted the link between spiritual or mental health and overall health. c. 900 – al-Razi (Rhazes) promoted psychotherapy and an understanding attitude towards those with psychological distress. == 11th–15th century == 1025 – In The Canon of Medicine, Avicenna described a number of conditions, including hallucination, insomnia, mania, nightmare, melancholia, dementia, epilepsy, paralysis, stroke, vertigo and tremor. c. 1030 – Al-Biruni employed an experimental method in


id: timeline-of-psychology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_psychology-2.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:53.107806+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
== 18th century == 1701 – Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz published the Law of Continuity, which he applied to psychology, becoming the first to postulate an unconscious mind; he also introduced the concept of threshold. 1710 – George Berkeley published Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge, which claims that the outside world is composed solely of ideas. 1732 – Christian Wolff published Psychologia Empirica, followed in 1734 by Psychologia Rationalis, popularizing the term "psychology". 1739 – David Hume published A Treatise of Human Nature, claiming that all contents of mind are solely built from sense experiences. 1781 – Immanuel Kant published Critique of Pure Reason, rejecting Hume's extreme empiricism and proposing that there is more to knowledge than bare sense experience, distinguishing between "a posteriori" and "a priori" knowledge, the former being derived from perception, hence occurring after perception, and the latter being a property of thought, independent of experience and existing before experience. 1783 – Ferdinand Ueberwasser designated himself Professor of Empirical Psychology and Logic at the Old University of Münster; four years later, he published the comprehensive textbook Instructions for the regular study of empirical psychology for candidates of philosophy at the University of Münster which complemented his


id: timeline-of-psychology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_psychology-3.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:53.107806+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
=== 1880s === 1882 – The Society for Psychical Research was founded in England. 1883 – G. Stanley Hall opened the first American experimental psychology research laboratory at Johns Hopkins University. 1883 – Emil Kraepelin published Compendium der Psychiatrie. 1884 – Ivan Pavlov began studying the digestive secretion of animals. 1884 – Tourette's Syndrome was first described. 1885 – Hermann Ebbinghaus published Über das Gedächtnis (On Memory), a groundbreaking work based on self-experiments, first describing the learning curve, forgetting curve, and spacing effect. 1886 – John Dewey published the first American textbook on psychology, titled Psychology. 1886 – Vladimir Bekhterev established the first laboratory of experimental psychology in Russia at Kazan University. 1886 – Sigmund Freud began private practice in Vienna. 1887 – Georg Elias Müller opened the 2nd German experimental psychology research laboratory in Göttingen. 1887 – George Trumbull Ladd (Yale) published Elements of Physiological Psychology, the first American textbook to include a substantial amount of information on the new experimental form of the discipline. 1887 – James McKeen Cattell founded an experimental psychology laboratory at the University of Pennsylvania, the 3rd in the United States. 1887 – G. Stanley Hall founded the American Journal of Psychology with a


id: timeline-of-psychology-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_psychology-4.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:53.107806+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
=== 1900s === 1900 – Sigmund Freud published The Psychopathology of Everyday Life. 1903 – John B. Watson graduated from the University of Chicago; his dissertation on rat behavior has been described as a "classic of developmental psychobiology" by historian of psychology Donald Dewsbury. 1903 – Helen Thompson Woolley published her doctoral dissertation, The Mental Traits of Sex, for which she had conducted the first experimental test of sex differences. 1904 – Ivan Pavlov won the Nobel Prize for his studies of conditioning. This was the first Prize given for research adopted by psychologists. 1904 – Charles Spearman published the article General Intelligence in the American Journal of Psychology, introducing the g factor theory of intelligence. 1905- Mary Calkins was the first woman elected president of the American Psychological Association. 1905 – Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon created the Binet-Simon scale to identify students needing extra help, marking the beginning of standardized psychological testing. 1905 – Edward Thorndike published the law of effect. 1905 – Sigmund Freud published Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality. 1906 – The Journal of Abnormal Psychology was founded by Morton Prince, for which Boris Sidis was an associate editor and significant contributor. 1908 –


id: timeline-of-psychology-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_psychology-5.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:53.107806+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
=== 1930s === 1930 – Edwin Boring discussed the Boring figure. 1931 – Gordon Allport et al. published the Allport-Vernon-Lindzey Study of Values, which defines six major value types. 1932 – Journal of Personality founded as first personality psychology research periodical originally titled Character and Personality. 1933 – Pyotr Gannushkin published Manifestations of Psychopathies. 1933 – Clark L. Hull published Hypnosis and Suggestibility, proving that hypnosis is not sleep and founding the modern study of hypnosis. 1933 – Wilhelm Reich published Character Analysis and The Mass Psychology of Fascism. 1934 – Lev Vygotsky published Thought and Language (Thinking and Speech). 1934 – Ruth Winifred Howard became the first African American woman to earn a PhD in psychology. 1935 – John Ridley Stroop developed a color-word task to demonstrate the interference of attention, the Stroop effect 1935 – Helen Flanders Dunbar published Emotions and Bodily Changes: A Survey of Literature on Psychosomatic Interrelationships; in 1942 she founded the American Psychosomatic Society (American Society for Research in Psychosomatic Problems), and was the first editor of the society's journal Psychosomatic Medicine: Experimental and Clinical Studies, founded in 1939. 1935 – Henry Murray and Christiana Morgan of Harvard University published the Thematic Apperception Test


id: timeline-of-psychology-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_psychology-6.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:53.107806+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
=== 1950s === 1950 – Karen Horney summarized her ideas in her magnum opus Neurosis and Human Growth: The Struggle Toward Self-Realization. 1950 – Erik Erikson published Childhood and Society, in which he introduced his theory on the stages of psycho-social development and the concept of an identity crisis. 1950 – Rollo May published The Meaning of Anxiety. 1951 – Solomon Asch published the Asch conformity experiments, demonstrating the power of conformity in groups. 1951 – Morton Deutsch published Interracial Housing: A Psychological Evaluation of a Social Experiment, producing scientific evidence of the bad effects of segregated housing, helping to end it in the U.S. 1951 – Carl Rogers published his magnum opus Client-Centered Therapy. 1951 – Lee Cronbach published his measure of reliability, now known as Cronbach's alpha. 1952 – The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) was published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA), marking the beginning of modern mental illness classification; it was revised in 1968, 1980–7, 1994, 2000 and 2013. 1952 – Hans Eysenck started a debate on psychotherapy with his critical review, claiming that psychotherapy had no documented effect, and psychoanalysis had negative effects. 1953 – Alfred Kinsey published Sexual Behavior in the


id: timeline-of-psychology-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_psychology-7.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:53.107806+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
=== 1960s === 1960 – John L. Fuller and W. Robert Thompson published the seminal text Behavior Genetics. 1960 – Thomas Szasz inaugurated the anti-psychiatry movement with the publication of his book, The Myth of Mental Illness. 1961 – Albert Bandura published the Bobo doll experiment, a study of behavioral patterns of aggression. 1961 – Neal E. Miller proposed the use of biofeedback to control involuntary functions. 1962 – Wilfred Bion presented his unconventional theory of thinking. 1962 – Albert Ellis published Reason and Emotion in Psychotherapy, describing the theoretical foundations of his therapeutic system known as Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy. 1962 – George Armitage Miller published Psychology, the Science of Mental Life, rejecting the idea that psychology should study only behavior. 1962 – Abraham Maslow published Toward a Psychology of Being, presenting his ideas of self-actualization and the hierarchy of human needs. 1962 – Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer proposed the two-factor theory of emotion, which considers emotion to be a function of both cognitive factors and physiological arousal; "People search the immediate environment for emotionally relevant cues to label and interpret unexplained physiological arousal." 1962 – Silvan Tomkins published volume one (of two) of Affect Imagery Consciousness, presenting


id: timeline-of-psychology-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_psychology-8.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:53.107806+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
=== 1970s === 1970 – At an APA Town Hall Meeting, with the support of the Association for Women in Psychology, Phyllis Chesler and Nancy Henley prepared a statement on APA's obligations to women and demanded one million dollars in reparation for the damage psychology had perpetrated against women's minds and bodies. 1970 – APA Division 29 gives its first Distinguished Professional Award in Psychology and Psychotherapy to Eugene Gendlin. 1970 – "Critical psychology" became a psychological theoretical field. Klaus Holzkamp, who worked as a professor at the Free University of Berlin, took a central role in defining critical psychology based on the works of Karl Marx and Aleksei N. Leontiev. 1970 – Masters and Johnson published Human Sexual Inadequacy. 1971 – The Stanford prison experiment, conducted by Philip Zimbardo et al. at Stanford University, studied the human response to captivity; the experiment quickly got out of hand and was ended early. 1971 – Martin Shubik performed the dollar auction, illustrating irrational choices. 1971 – In Nov. John O'Keefe and Jonathan O. Dostrovsky announced their discovery of place cells in the hippocampus. 1971 – The Leibniz Institute for Psychology Information at the University of Trier was founded to publish the


id: timeline-of-psychology-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_psychology-9.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:53.107806+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
1979 – Alice Miller published The Drama of the Gifted Child, the first of a series of books criticizing Freud and Jung for blaming the child for the sexual abuse of the parents, which she calls the "poisonous pedagogies". 1979 – Urie Bronfenbrenner published The Ecology of Human Development, founding ecological systems theory.


id: timeline-of-psychology-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_psychology-10.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:53.107806+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
=== 1980s === 1980 – Transgender people were officially classified by the American Psychiatric Association as having "gender identity disorder." 1980 – DSM-III was published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA). 1980 – George Mandler published Recognizing: The Judgment of Previous Occurrence, claiming a dual process basis of recognition, prior occurrence and identification. 1980 – Robert Zajonc published the paper "Feeling and Thinking: Preferences Need No Inferences", arguing that affective and cognitive systems are largely independent, and that affect is more powerful and important, reviving the study of emotion and affective processes. 1981 – Alan P. Bell, Martin S. Weinberg, and Sue Kiefer Hammersmith's Sexual Preference is published. The work later becomes one of the most frequently cited retrospective studies relating to sexual orientation. 1982 – Carol Gilligan published In a Different Voice, a work on feminist psychology. 1982 – The Caucus of Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Members of the American Psychiatric Association (APA) was recognized as a representative in the APA assembly, speaking directly on matters of special concern to lesbian and gay members. 1983 – Howard Gardner published Frames of Mind, introducing his theory of multiple intelligences. 1983 – The Caucus of Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Members of


id: timeline-of-psychology-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_psychology-11.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:53.107806+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
=== 1990s === 1990 – On 17 May the World Health Organization (WHO) declassified homosexuality as a mental disorder, launching the International Day Against Homophobia and Transphobia. 1990 – Leonard Berkowitz published the cognitive neoassociation model of aggressive behavior to cover the cases missed by the frustration-aggression hypothesis. 1991 – Steven Pinker proposed his theory on how children acquire language in Science, later popularized in the book The Language Instinct. 1991 – The first issue of Feminism & Psychology was published. 1991- The American Psychoanalytic Association (APsaA) passed a resolution opposing "public or private discrimination" against homosexuals. It stopped short, however, of agreeing to open its training institutes to these individuals. 1992 – The American Psychoanalytic Association (APsaA) extended the provisions of its 1991 resolution (see above) to training candidates at its affiliated institutes. 1992 – Jaak Panksepp coined the term affective neuroscience for the name of the field that studies neural mechanisms of emotion, and in 1998 published the book Affective Neuroscience – The Foundations of Human and Animal Emotions 1992 – Sandra Scarr published Developmental Theories of the 1990s, proposing that genes control experiences, and search and create environments. 1992 – Joseph LeDoux summarized and published his research


id: timeline-of-psychology-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_psychology-12.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:53.107806+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
=== 2010s === 2010s – As research on the topic accumulates and its usage increases, scientists investigate neuroenhancement – such as nootropics – regarding psychological mechanisms underlying cognitive functions, neuroethics, effects on moral decision-making, public perception, their potential for the treatment of mental diseases, and the potential or ongoing use by professionals or self-administering civilians. 2010s – With the rise of smartphone gaming and a continued large and nearly entirely commercially-driven gaming industry and Big Tech, mobile apps and social media are made intentionally addictive using insights from psychology. Research works such as The Age of Addiction: How Bad Habits Became Big Business propose that the methods of "limbic capitalism" have become substantially more sophisticated. (see also below) 2010s – With increasing legalization of cannabis within the U.S. and worldwide, chronic effects of various types of cannabis consumption on cognition, along with comparisons of legalization impacts, become a more common focus of psychological research. 2010s – As digital content becomes more abundant and more immediately available, attention gains a higher value, with the attention economy, where attention is the capital alongside data on consumers, taking shape as part of "mental capitalism". 2010s – Neuroscience and genetics investigate neurological and heritable


id: timeline-of-psychology-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_psychology-13.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:53.107806+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
2020s – Researchers investigate the impacts of different forms (types or categories) of digital media uses on cognition and the impacts of digital media use(s) on different types of biological cognitive abilities. 2020s – The pandemic COVID-19 and its mitigation have a substantiall toll on mental health worldwide. With growing awareness and impacts of climate change and other environmental issues, ecopsychology increasingly gathers public attention and becomes a more common topic of research Studies investigate the psychological benefits of urban green spaces (UGS) in detail, with one 2021 study reporting that higher exposure to woodland urban green spaces or urban forest but not grassland is associated with improved cognitive development and risks of mental problems for urban adolescents. August 2020 – A review concludes that "Within a generation, children's lives have largely moved indoors" and that "research indicates that direct experiences of nature in childhood contribute to care for nature across the life span." March 2021 – A study concludes that "eco-anger", termed in the style of the recently coined "eco-anxiety" which is reported to be rising, "predicted better mental health outcomes, as well as greater engagement in pro-climate activism and personal behaviours". Anger may be "powerful in motivating people


id: timeline-of-psychotherapy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_psychotherapy-0.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of psychotherapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_psychotherapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:54.342486+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-psychotherapy-20260505-0
summary:
This article is a compiled timeline of psychotherapy. A more general description of the development of the subject of psychology can be found in the History of psychology article. For related overviews see the Timeline of psychology and Timeline of psychiatry articles. == Antiquity == c. 1550 BCE – Ancient Egyptians codified their knowledge of psychiatry, medicine, and surgery in the Ebers Papyrus and the Edwin Smith Papyrus. The former mentioned dementia and depression, while the latter gave detailed instructions for various neurosurgical procedures. The power of magic (suggestion) was recognized as complementary to medicine. c. 500 BCE – Siddhartha Gautama (Lumbini, Nepal) founded the psychotherapeutic practices of Buddhism on the principle that the origin of mental suffering is ignorance, that the symptoms of ignorance are attachment and craving, and that attachment and craving can be ended by following the Noble Eightfold Path. c. 400 BCE – Hippocrates (Kos, Greece) taught that melancholia (depression) has a biological cause, namely an excess of black bile, one of the four humours. Ancient Greek therapy for disorders of mood involved adjustment of the humours, to bring them into balance. c. 300 BCE – Composition of the Huangdi Neijing began in China. This medical


id: timeline-of-psychotherapy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_psychotherapy-1.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of psychotherapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_psychotherapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:54.342486+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-psychotherapy-20260505-0
summary:
=== 1910s === 1910 – Freud proposes Jung as his "eldest son and heir" to his new science. 1910 – Boris Sidis opens the Sidis Psychotherapeutic Institute (a private hospital) at Maplewood Farms in Portsmouth, NH for the treatment of nervous patients using the latest scientific methods. 1911 – Alfred Adler left Freud's Psychoanalytic Group to form his own school of thought, individual psychology, accusing Freud of overemphasizing sexuality and basing his theory on his own childhood. 1912 – Publication of Jung's Psychology of the Unconscious: a study of the transformations and symbolisms of the libido, (subsequently republished as Symbols of Transformation), containing his dissenting view on the libido, it represented largely a "psychoanalytical Jung". 1913 – Carl Jung departed from Freudian views, a final break ensued and he developed his own theories citing Freud's inability to acknowledge religion and spirituality and his restricted view of libido. His "new school of thought" became known as Analytical Psychology. 1913 – Jacob L. Moreno applied group psychotherapy methods in Vienna. His methods, which emphasized spontaneity and interaction, later became known as psychodrama and sociometry. 1914 – Boris Sidis publishes The Foundations of Normal and Abnormal Psychology where he provides the scientific foundation


id: timeline-of-psychotherapy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_psychotherapy-2.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of psychotherapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_psychotherapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:54.342486+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-psychotherapy-20260505-0
summary:
=== 1990s === 1990 – Michael White and David Epston publish Narrative Means to Therapeutic Ends, the first major text in what later comes to be known as narrative therapy. 1991 – The American Psychoanalytic Association passed a resolution opposing "public or private discrimination" against homosexuals. It stopped short, however, of agreeing to open its training institutes to these individuals. 1992 – The American Psychoanalytic Association extended the provisions of its 1991 resolution (see above) to training candidates at its affiliated institutes. 1994 – DSM IV (The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) published by the American Psychiatric Association. 1997 – The American Psychoanalytic Association became the first national mental health organization to support same-sex marriage. == 21st century == === 2000s === 2000 – The DSM-IV-TR, was published in May 2000 in order to correct several errors in DSM-IV, and to update and change diagnostic codes to reflect the ICD-9-CM coding system. === 2010s === 2013 – The Fifth Edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) was released at the American Psychiatric Association's Annual Meeting in May 2013, marking the end of more than a decade's journey in revising the criteria for the diagnosis


id: list-of-women-psychologists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_women_psychologists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of women psychologists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_women_psychologists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:55.947070+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-women-psychologists-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of women psychologists. == A == == B == == C == == D == == E == == F == == G == == H == == I == == J == == K == == L == == M == == N == == O == == P == == Q–R == == S == == T == == U == == V == == W == == X–Z == == Notes == == References ==


id: lists-of-publications-in-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_publications_in_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of publications in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_publications_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:23:57.699944+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-publications-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
Lists of publications in science cover publications in various fields of science that have introduced a major new topic, made a significant advance in knowledge or have significantly influenced the world. List of publications in biology List of publications in chemistry List of publications in data science List of publications in economics List of publications in mathematics List of publications in medicine List of publications in philosophy List of publications in physics List of publications in statistics List of humor research publications Bibliography of sociology


id: bibliography-of-water-clocks-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_water_clocks-0.md
category: reference
title: Bibliography of water clocks
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_water_clocks
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:24:00.353692+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bibliography-of-water-clocks-20260505-0
summary:
This is a bibliography of water clocks. == Overview of water clocks and other time instruments == Barnett, Jo Ellen (1998). Time's Pendulum: From Sundials to Atomic Clocks, the Fascinating History of Timekeeping and How Our Discoveries Changed the World. New York: Plenum Press. ISBN 0-15-600649-9. Bruton, Eric (1979). The History of Clocks and Watches. Rizzoli. ISBN 0-8478-0261-2. Cowan, Harrison J. (1958). Time and Its Measurement: From the stone age to the nuclear age. Ohio: The World Publishing Company. Bibcode:1958tmfs.book.....C. Dohrn-van Rossum, Gerhard (1996). History of the Hour: Clocks and Modern Temporal Orders. Translated by Dunlap, Thomas. The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-15510-2. OCLC 33440282. Higgins, K.; Miner, D.; Smith, C.N.; Sullivan, D.B. (2004). "A Walk Through Time (version 1.2.1)". Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology. Retrieved October 13, 2022. Jespersen, James; Fitz-Randolph, Jane (1999). From Sundials to Atomic Clocks: Understanding Time and Frequency (Second revised ed.). Courier Corporation. ISBN 0-486-40913-9. King, David A. (July 2004). "Towards a History from Antiquity to the Renaissance of Sundials and Other Instruments for Reckoning Time by the Sun and Stars". Annals of Science. 61 (3): 375–388. doi:10.1080/00033790310001642795.. Landes, D (1983). Revolution in Time. Harvard University Press. McNown, J.S. (1976). "When


id: bibliography-of-water-clocks-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_water_clocks-1.md
category: reference
title: Bibliography of water clocks
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_water_clocks
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:24:00.353692+00:00
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parent: bibliography-of-water-clocks-20260505-0
summary:
== European water clocks == Bedini, S.A. (1962). "The Compartmented Cylindrical Clepsydra". Technology and Culture. 3 (2): 115–141. doi:10.2307/3101437. ISSN 0040-165X. JSTOR 3101437. S2CID 112844914. Drover, C.B. (1954). "A Medieval Monastic Water Clock". Antiquarian Horology. I (5): 54–58. Hill, Donald Routledge (1996). A History of Engineering in Classical and Medieval Times. La Salle, IL: Open Court. ISBN 0-415-15291-7. Hill, D.R (1994). "The Toledo Water-Clocks of c.1075". History of Technology. 16: 62–71. Maddison, Francis; Scott, Byan; Kent, Allan (1962). "An early medieval water-clock". Antiquarian Horology. 3, n. 12: 348–353.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Scattergood, John. (October 2003). "Writing the clock: the reconstruction of time in the late Middle Ages". European Review. 11 (4): 453–474. doi:10.1017/S1062798703000425. S2CID 145056908. == Greek and Alexandrian water clocks == Hill, Donald Routledge, ed. (1976). Archimedes' On the Construction of Water-Clocks. Paris: Turner & Devereux. Lepschy, Antonio M. (February 1992). "Feedback Control in Ancient Water and Mechanical Clocks". IEEE Transactions on Education. 35 (1): 3–10. Bibcode:1992ITEdu..35....3L. doi:10.1109/13.123411. Lewis, Michael (2000). "Theoretical Hydraulics, Automata, and Water Clocks". In Wikander, Örjan (ed.). Handbook of Ancient Water Technology. Technology and Change in History. Vol. 2. Leiden. pp. 343–369 (356f.). ISBN 90-04-11123-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing


id: bibliography-of-water-clocks-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_water_clocks-2.md
category: reference
title: Bibliography of water clocks
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_water_clocks
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:24:00.353692+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bibliography-of-water-clocks-20260505-0
summary:
== Non-English resources == Bilfinger, Gustav (1888). Die babylonische Doppelstunde: Eine chronologische Untersuchung (in German). Stuttgart: Wildt. Borchardt, Ludwig (1920). Die Altägyptische Zeitmessung [Old Egyptian time measurement] (in German). Berlin: Leipzig. Daressy, G. (1915). "Deux clepsydres antiques". BIE (in French). 5 (9): 5–16. Ginzel, Friedrich Karl (1920). "Die Wassermessungen der Babylonier und das Sexagesimalsystem". Klio: Beiträge zur alten Geschichte (in German). 16: 234–241. Hahn, Young-Ho; Nam, Moon-Hyon (1997). "Reconstruction of the Armillary Spheres of Mid-Chosun: The Armillary Clocks of Yi Minchol". Hanguk Kwahaksa Hakhoeji (Journal of the Korean History of Science Society) (in Korean). 19 (1): 3–19. Hahn, Young-Ho (2000). "Astronomical Clocks of Chosun Dynasty: King Sejong's Heumgyonggaknu". Kisulgwa Yoksa (Journal of the Korean Society for the History of Technology and Industry) (in Korean). 1 (1): 99–140. Nam, Moon-Hyon (1995). Korean Water Clocks: Jagyongnu, The Striking Clepsydra and The History of Control and Instrumentation Engineering (in Korean). Seoul: Konkuk University Press. Nam, Moon-Hyon (1998). "On the BORUGAKGI of Kim Don—Principles and Structures of JAYEONGNU". Hanguksa Yeongu (Studies on Korean History) (in Korean). 101: 75–114. Nam, Moon-Hyon (2002). Jang Yeong-Shil and Jagyeongnu – Reconstruction of Time Measuring History of Choseon Period (in Korean). Seoul National University Press. Planchon. "L'Heure Par Les


id: bibliography-of-biology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_biology-0.md
category: reference
title: Bibliography of biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:24:01.700996+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bibliography-of-biology-20260505-0
summary:
This bibliography of biology is a list of notable works, organized by subdiscipline, on the subject of biology. Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy. Biology is a vast subject containing many subdivisions, topics, and disciplines. Subdisciplines of biology are recognized on the basis of the scale at which organisms are studied and the methods used to study them. == Anatomy == This section contains a list of works in anatomy, the study of the structure of living things. Ibn Sīnā (Avicenna) (1025). The Canon of Medicine. Vesalius, Andreas (1543). De humani corporis fabrica libri septem (On the fabric of the human body in seven books). A landmark publication in anatomy and medicine. It is the 400th birthyear of the beautiful book which graces the lectern in front of me, the most artistic book and one of the most illuminating in the history of medicine. As Osier remarked, 1543 is a starred year in the history of science. In it appeared the two great works which inaugurated modern science, Copernicus' Revolutions of the heavenly bodies, which gave us a rational and abiding explanation


id: bibliography-of-biology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_biology-1.md
category: reference
title: Bibliography of biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:24:01.700996+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bibliography-of-biology-20260505-0
summary:
Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon (1749–1788). Histoire Naturelle. Until the publication of this encyclopedia much of the European scientific community thought that all animals were created by God about 6,000 years ago. Not only did this 44-volume encyclopedia contain all descriptive biological knowledge of its time, it offered a new theory. One hundred years before Darwin, Buffon claimed that man and ape might have a common ancestor. His work also had a significant impact on ecology. It is no exaggeration to claim that virtually all the well-known writers of the Enlightenment, and even of later generations, in France as well as in other European countries were Buffonians, either directly or indirectly. Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste (1809). Philosophie zoologique ou exposition des considérations relatives à l'histoire naturelle des animaux. Dentu and The Author. English translation: Lamarck, Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet (2001). Zoological philosophy: an exposition with regard to the natural history of animals. Nabu Press. ISBN 978-1-178-26555-2. Darwin, Charles; Wallace, Alfred Russel (1858). "On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 3 (9): 46–50. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1858.tb02500.x. In September 1838 Charles Darwin conceived his


id: bibliography-of-biology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_biology-2.md
category: reference
title: Bibliography of biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:24:01.700996+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bibliography-of-biology-20260505-0
summary:
Mendel, Gregor (1866). "Versuche über Pflanzen-Hybriden". Verhandlungen des naturforschenden Vereins Brünn. Published in English as "Experiments on Plant Hybridization". Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society. 26: 1–30. 1901. (Online version) The result of years spent studying genetic traits in pea plants. Mendel compared seven discrete traits. Through experimentation, Mendel discovered that one inheritable trait would invariably be dominant to its recessive alternative. This model, later known as Mendelian inheritance or Mendelian genetics, provided an alternative to blending inheritance, which was the prevailing theory at the time. Fisher, Ronald (1918). "The Correlation Between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance". Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. 52 (2): 399–433. doi:10.1017/s0080456800012163. S2CID 181213898. Schrödinger, Erwin (1944). What is life? the physical aspects of the living cell (2001 reprint ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-521-42708-1. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) Based on a series of public lectures delivered at Trinity College, Dublin. Schrödinger's lecture focused on one important question: "how can the events in space and time which take place within the spatial boundary of a living organism be accounted for by physics and chemistry?" He introduced the idea of an "aperiodic crystal" that contained genetic information in its


id: bibliography-of-science-and-technology-in-canada-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_science_and_technology_in_Canada-0.md
category: reference
title: Bibliography of science and technology in Canada
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_science_and_technology_in_Canada
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:24:03.000907+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bibliography-of-science-and-technology-in-canada-20260505-0
summary:
This is a bibliography on the history of science and technology in Canada mainly compiled in 2011 from the Canadiana : the national bibliography with very few additions since then. == Overviews == G. Bruce Doern; Peter W. B. Phillips; David Castle (2016). Canadian Science, Technology, and Innovation Policy: The Innovation Economy and Society Nexus. McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 978-0-7735-4724-7. Edward Jones-Imhotep; Tina Adcock (2018). Made Modern: Science and Technology in Canadian History. UBC Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-3726-2. Council of Canadian Academies (2012). The State of Science and Technology in Canada, 2012. Council of Canadian Academies. ISBN 978-1-926558-47-9. == Nuclear issues == Atomic Energy Canada Limited (1997), Canada enters the nuclear age, McGill-Queen's University Press, ISBN 0-7735-1601-8 Buckley, Brian (2000). Canada's early nuclear policy: fate, chance and character. McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP. ISBN 978-0-7735-2077-6. Clearwater, John (1998), Canadian nuclear weapons: the untold story of Canada's Cold War arsenal, Dundurn Press Ltd., ISBN 978-1-55002-299-5 Doern, G. Bruce; Robert W. Morrison; Arslan Dorman (2001). Canadian nuclear energy policy: changing ideas, institutions, and interests. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-4788-5. Eggleston, Wilfred, Canada's Nuclear Story *Toronto: Clarke Irwin, 1965) Richter, Andrew (2002), Avoiding Armageddon: Canadian military strategy and nuclear weapons, 1950-63, UBC Press, ISBN


id: bibliography-of-science-and-technology-in-canada-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_science_and_technology_in_Canada-1.md
category: reference
title: Bibliography of science and technology in Canada
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_science_and_technology_in_Canada
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:24:03.000907+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bibliography-of-science-and-technology-in-canada-20260505-0
summary:
== Technological and industrial == Avery, Donald H., The Science of War: Canadian Scientists and Allied Military Technology During the Second World War, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1998. Babaian, Sharon, Radio Communication in Canada: A Historical and Technological Survey, Transformation Series 1, National Museum of Science and Technology, Ottawa, 1992. Ball, Norman R., Mind, Heart, and Vision: Professional Engineering in Canada 1887 to 1987, National Museum of Science and Technology/Museums of Canada, Ottawa, 1987. Ball, Norman R. ed., Building Canada: A History of Public Works, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1988. Barris, Theodore (26 September 2015). Fire Canoe: Prairie Steamboat Days Revisited. Dundurn Press 2015. ISBN 9781459732100. Retrieved 2020-08-22. Berger, Carl, Science, God, and Nature in Victorian Canada, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1983. Bliss, Michael, Northern Enterprise: Five Centuries of Canadian Business, McClelland and Stewart, Toronto, 1987. Bothwell, Robert, Nucleus: The History of Atomic Energy of Canada Limited, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1988. Brown, J.J., Ideas in Exile, McClelland and Stewart, Toronto, 1967. Bryden, John, Deadly Allies: Canada's Secret War 1937–1947, McClelland & Stewart, Toronto, 1989. Chisholm, Barbara, ed., Castles of the North: Canada's Grand Hotels, Lynx Images Inc., Toronto, 2001. Collins, Robert, A Voice from Afar:


id: bibliography-of-science-and-technology-in-canada-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_science_and_technology_in_Canada-2.md
category: reference
title: Bibliography of science and technology in Canada
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_science_and_technology_in_Canada
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:24:03.000907+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bibliography-of-science-and-technology-in-canada-20260505-0
summary:
== Natural scientific research == Ainley, Marianne Gosztonyi, ed., Despite All Odds: Essays on Canadian Women and Science, Vehicle Press, Montreal, 1990. Anstey, T.H., One Hundred Harvests: Research Branch Agriculture Canada 1886–1986, Research Branch Agriculture Canada, Historical Series No. 27, 1986. Appley, M.H., Rickwood, Jean, Psychology in Canada, Science Secretariat, Ottawa, 1967. Avery, Donald H., The Science of War: Canadian Scientists and Allied Military Technology During the Second World War, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1998. Babbitt, J.D. ed., Science in Canada: Selections from the Speeches of Dr. E.W.R. Steacie, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1965. Beltzner, Klaus P., Coleman, A. John, Edwards, Gordon G., Mathematical Sciences in Canada, Science Council of Canada, ottawa, 1976. Berger, Carl, Science, God, and Nature in Victorian Canada, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1983. Berger, Carl, Honour and the Search for Influence: A History of the Royal Society of Canada, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1996. Bliss, Michael, Northern Enterprise: Five Centuries of Canadian Business, McClelland and Stewart, Toronto, 1987. Bothwell, Robert, Nucleus: The History of Atomic Energy of Canada Limited, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1988. Bryden, John, Best-Kept Secret: Canadian Secret Intelligence in the Second World War, Lester Publishing, Toronto, 1993. Bryden,


id: bibliography-of-science-and-technology-in-canada-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_science_and_technology_in_Canada-3.md
category: reference
title: Bibliography of science and technology in Canada
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_science_and_technology_in_Canada
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:24:03.000907+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bibliography-of-science-and-technology-in-canada-20260505-0
summary:
== Invention == Ainley, Marianne Gosztonyi, ed., Despite All Odds: Essays on Canadian Women and Science, Vehicle Press, Montreal, 1990. Anstey, T.Branch Agriculture Canada, Historical Series No. 27, 1986. Avery, Donald H., The Science of War: Canadian Scientists and Allied Military Technology During the Second World War, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1998. Babaian, Sharon, Radio Communication in Canada: A Historical and Technological Survey, Transformation Series 1, National Museum of Science and Technology, Ottawa, 1992. Babbitt, J.D. ed., Science in Canada: Selections from the Speeches of Dr. E.W.R. Steacie, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1965. Ball, Norman R., Mind, Heart, and Vision: Professional Engineering in Canada 1887 to 1987, National Museum of Science and Technology/Museums of Canada, Ottawa, 1987. Ball, Norman R. ed., Building Canada: A History of Public Works, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1988. Barris, Theodore, Fire Canoe: Prairie Steamboat Days Revisited, McClelland and Stewart, Toronto, 1977. Berger, Carl, Science, God, and Nature in Victorian Canada, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1983. Bothwell, Robert, Nucleus: The History of Atomic Energy of Canada Limited, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1988. Brown, J.J., Ideas in Exile, McClelland and Stewart, Toronto, 1967. Bryden, John, Deadly Allies: Canada's Secret War 1937 -


id: list-of-publications-in-chemistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_chemistry-0.md
category: reference
title: List of publications in chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:24:04.357044+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-publications-in-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of publications in chemistry, organized by field. Some factors that correlate with publication notability include: Topic creator – A publication that created a new topic. Breakthrough – A publication that changed scientific knowledge significantly. Influence – A publication that has significantly influenced the world or has had a massive impact on the teaching of chemistry. == Foundations == === The Sceptical Chymist === Boyle, Robert (1979) [1661]. The Sceptical Chymist. London; New York: J.M. Dent & Sons, Ltd.; E.P. Dutton & Co. OCLC 3165496. Description: Boyle, in the form of a dialogue, argued that chemical theories should be firmly grounded in experiment before their acceptance, and for the foundation of chemistry as a science separate from medicine and alchemy. Importance: Topic Creator, Influence. Boyle, in this book, became the first to argue that experiment should form the basis of all theory, a common practice in chemistry today. He also expounded on a rudimentary atomic theory and the existence of chemical elements beyond the classic earth, fire, air, and water. He is seen as the father of chemistry, and this is his most celebrated book, with continued relevance to the present day. === Traité Élémentaire de Chimie


id: list-of-publications-in-chemistry-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_chemistry-1.md
category: reference
title: List of publications in chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:24:04.357044+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-publications-in-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
=== Chemical Applications of Group Theory === F. Albert Cotton Wiley, John & Sons, Incorporated, 1st Ed. 1963, 3rd Ed. 1990. Description: Explains the use of symmetry groups in describing molecular symmetry and its role in determining molecular properties. Importance: Significant influence by introducing group theory to a much wider group of chemists. === Advanced Inorganic Chemistry === F. Albert Cotton and Geoffrey Wilkinson Wiley, John & Sons, Incorporated, 1st Ed. 1962, 6th Ed. 1999 Description: A classic general textbook for an undergraduate course in inorganic chemistry Importance: This book is not only a good introduction to the subject, it was very different from earlier texts and "led to a fundamental shift in the way in which inorganic chemistry was studied". It seemed to be symbolic of the renaissance in inorganic chemistry starting in the 1950s. Every new text in inorganic chemistry since this text has had to respond to it. === Inorganic and Theoretical Chemistry === F. Sherwood Taylor and H. M. N. H. Irving Heinemann, 1st Ed 1931, 10th Ed. 1960 Description: Unique very advanced and comprehensive coverage of every element known at the time by chapter describing all known compounds yet discovered or synthesised. Approaches chemistry as


id: list-of-publications-in-chemistry-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_chemistry-2.md
category: reference
title: List of publications in chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:24:04.357044+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-publications-in-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
=== Principles of Polymer Chemistry === Flory, Paul J. (1953) Cornell University Press. 1953, ISBN 0-8014-0134-8. Description: Discusses structure and stereochemistry of synthetic polymers, polymerization kinetics, behaviour of polymers in solution, chain dimensions. Importance: First major text on polymer chemistry; presents both organic and physical chemistry aspects. Written by a chemist who made major contributions to the physical chemistry of polymers, for which he won the Nobel prize in 1974. == Environmental chemistry == === Aquatic Chemistry, Chemical Equilibria and Rates in Natural Waters === Stumm, Werner and James J. Morgan. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1st Edition 1970, 3rd Edition 1996, ISBN 0-471-51185-4. Description. This book covers the full spectrum of the discipline including acid/base equilibria, carbonate chemistry, mass transfer, complexation, sorption phenomenon, oxidation/reduction, colloid chemistry, and flocculation/coagulation. The authors generally present the material using a ground up approach that emphasizes fundamental principles of thermodynamics and kinetics. Importance. The publication is one of the most widely cited texts in environmental chemistry. In 1999, Stumm and Morgan received the Stockholm Water Prize for their contributions in the field. The citation specifically mentioned Aquatic Chemistry where it was described as a "seminal book" that is "used in education all over the


