# kb

id: meta-analysis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-analysis-0.md
category: reference
title: Meta-analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:08.077779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: meta-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
Meta-analysis is a method of synthesis of quantitative data from multiple independent studies addressing a common research question. An important part of this method involves computing a combined effect size across all of the studies. As such, this statistical approach involves extracting effect sizes and variance measures from various studies. By combining these effect sizes the statistical power is improved and can resolve uncertainties or discrepancies found in individual studies. Meta-analyses are integral in supporting research grant proposals, shaping treatment guidelines, and influencing health policies. They are also pivotal in summarizing existing research to guide future studies, thereby cementing their role as a fundamental methodology in metascience. Meta-analyses are often, but not always, important components of a systematic review. == History == The term "meta-analysis" was coined in 1976 by the statistician Gene Glass, who stated "Meta-analysis refers to the analysis of analyses". Glass's work aimed at describing aggregated measures of relationships and effects. While Glass is credited with authoring the first modern meta-analysis, a paper published in 1904 by the statistician Karl Pearson in the British Medical Journal collated data from several studies of typhoid inoculation and is seen as the first time a meta-analytic approach was used to


id: meta-analysis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-analysis-1.md
category: reference
title: Meta-analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:08.077779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: meta-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
=== Approaches === In general, two types of evidence can be distinguished when performing a meta-analysis: individual participant data (IPD), and aggregate data (AD). The aggregate data can be direct or indirect. AD is more commonly available (e.g. from the literature) and typically represents summary estimates such as odds ratios or relative risks. This can be directly synthesized across conceptually similar studies using several approaches. On the other hand, indirect aggregate data measures the effect of two treatments that were each compared against a similar control group in a meta-analysis. For example, if treatment A and treatment B were directly compared vs placebo in separate meta-analyses, we can use these two pooled results to get an estimate of the effects of A vs B in an indirect comparison as effect A vs Placebo minus effect B vs Placebo. IPD evidence represents raw data as collected by the study centers. This distinction has raised the need for different meta-analytic methods when evidence synthesis is desired, and has led to the development of one-stage and two-stage methods. In one-stage methods the IPD from all studies are modeled simultaneously whilst accounting for the clustering of participants within studies. Two-stage methods first compute summary


id: meta-analysis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-analysis-2.md
category: reference
title: Meta-analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:08.077779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: meta-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
Heterogeneity of precision Heterogeneity of effect size Since neither of these factors automatically indicates a faulty larger study or more reliable smaller studies, the re-distribution of weights under this model will not bear a relationship to what these studies actually might offer. Indeed, it has been demonstrated that redistribution of weights is simply in one direction from larger to smaller studies as heterogeneity increases until eventually all studies have equal weight and no more redistribution is possible. Another issue with the random effects model is that the most commonly used confidence intervals generally do not retain their coverage probability above the specified nominal level and thus substantially underestimate the statistical error and are potentially overconfident in their conclusions. Several fixes have been suggested but the debate continues on. A further concern is that the average treatment effect can sometimes be even less conservative compared to the fixed effect model and therefore misleading in practice. One interpretational fix that has been suggested is to create a prediction interval around the random effects estimate to portray the range of possible effects in practice. However, an assumption behind the calculation of such a prediction interval is that trials are considered more or less


id: meta-analysis-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-analysis-3.md
category: reference
title: Meta-analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:08.077779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: meta-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
===== Bayesian framework ===== Specifying a Bayesian network meta-analysis model involves writing a directed acyclic graph (DAG) model for general-purpose Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) software such as WinBUGS. In addition, prior distributions have to be specified for a number of the parameters, and the data have to be supplied in a specific format. Together, the DAG, priors, and data form a Bayesian hierarchical model. To complicate matters further, because of the nature of MCMC estimation, overdispersed starting values have to be chosen for a number of independent chains so that convergence can be assessed. Recently, multiple R software packages were developed to simplify the model fitting (e.g., metaBMA and RoBMA) and even implemented in statistical software with graphical user interface (GUI): JASP. Although the complexity of the Bayesian approach limits usage of this methodology, recent tutorial papers are trying to increase accessibility of the methods. Methodology for automation of this method has been suggested but requires that arm-level outcome data are available, and this is usually unavailable. Great claims are sometimes made for the inherent ability of the Bayesian framework to handle network meta-analysis and its greater flexibility. However, this choice of implementation of framework for inference, Bayesian or


id: meta-analysis-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-analysis-4.md
category: reference
title: Meta-analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:08.077779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: meta-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
=== Validation of meta-analysis results === The meta-analysis estimate represents a weighted average across studies and when there is heterogeneity this may result in the summary estimate not being representative of individual studies. Qualitative appraisal of the primary studies using established tools can uncover potential biases, but does not quantify the aggregate effect of these biases on the summary estimate. Although the meta-analysis result could be compared with an independent prospective primary study, such external validation is often impractical. This has led to the development of methods that exploit a form of leave-one-out cross validation, sometimes referred to as internal-external cross validation (IOCV). Here each of the k included studies in turn is omitted and compared with the summary estimate derived from aggregating the remaining k- 1 studies. A general validation statistic, Vn based on IOCV has been developed to measure the statistical validity of meta-analysis results. For test accuracy and prediction, particularly when there are multivariate effects, other approaches which seek to estimate the prediction error have also been proposed. == Challenges == A meta-analysis of several small studies does not always predict the results of a single large study. Some have argued that a weakness of the method


id: meta-analysis-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-analysis-5.md
category: reference
title: Meta-analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:08.077779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: meta-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
=== Problems related to the statistical approach === Other weaknesses are that it has not been determined if the statistically most accurate method for combining results is the fixed, IVhet, random or quality effect models, though the criticism against the random effects model is mounting because of the perception that the new random effects (used in meta-analysis) are essentially formal devices to facilitate smoothing or shrinkage and prediction may be impossible or ill-advised. The main problem with the random effects approach is that it uses the classic statistical thought of generating a "compromise estimator" that makes the weights close to the naturally weighted estimator if heterogeneity across studies is large but close to the inverse variance weighted estimator if the between study heterogeneity is small. However, what has been ignored is the distinction between the model we choose to analyze a given dataset, and the mechanism by which the data came into being. A random effect can be present in either of these roles, but the two roles are quite distinct. There's no reason to think the analysis model and data-generation mechanism (model) are similar in form, but many sub-fields of statistics have developed the habit of assuming, for theory


id: meta-analysis-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-analysis-6.md
category: reference
title: Meta-analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:08.077779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: meta-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
=== Weak inclusion standards lead to misleading conclusions === Meta-analyses in education are often not restrictive enough in regards to the methodological quality of the studies they include. For example, studies that include small samples or researcher-made measures lead to inflated effect size estimates. However, this problem also troubles meta-analysis of clinical trials. The use of different quality assessment tools (QATs) lead to including different studies and obtaining conflicting estimates of average treatment effects. == Applications in modern science == Modern statistical meta-analysis does more than just combine the effect sizes of a set of studies using a weighted average. It can test if the outcomes of studies show more variation than the variation that is expected because of the sampling of different numbers of research participants. Additionally, study characteristics such as measurement instrument used, population sampled, or aspects of the studies' design can be coded and used to reduce variance of the estimator (see statistical models above). Thus some methodological weaknesses in studies can be corrected statistically. Other uses of meta-analytic methods include the development and validation of clinical prediction models, where meta-analysis may be used to combine individual participant data from different research centers and to assess the


id: metascience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metascience-0.md
category: reference
title: Metascience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metascience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:09.274638+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: metascience-20260505-0
summary:
Metascience (also known as meta-research) is the use of scientific methodology to study science itself. Metascience seeks to increase the quality of scientific research and enhance its efficiency. It is also known as "research on research" and "the science of science", as it uses research methods to study how research is done and find where improvements can be made. Metascience concerns itself with all fields of research and has been described as "a bird's eye view of science". In the words of John Ioannidis, "Science is the best thing that has happened to human beings ... but we can do it better." In 1966, an early meta-research paper examined the statistical methods of 295 papers published in ten high-profile medical journals. It found that "in almost 73% of the reports read ... conclusions were drawn when the justification for these conclusions was invalid." Meta-research in the following decades found many methodological flaws, inefficiencies, and poor practices in research across numerous scientific fields. Many scientific studies could not be reproduced, particularly in medicine and the soft sciences. The term "replication crisis" was coined in the early 2010s as part of a growing awareness of the problem. Measures have been implemented to


id: metascience-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metascience-1.md
category: reference
title: Metascience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metascience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:09.274638+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: metascience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Reporting === Meta-research has identified poor practices in reporting, explaining, disseminating and popularizing research, particularly within the social and health sciences. Poor reporting makes it difficult to accurately interpret the results of scientific studies, to replicate studies, and to identify biases and conflicts of interest in the authors. Solutions include the implementation of reporting standards, and greater transparency in scientific studies (including better requirements for disclosure of conflicts of interest). There is an attempt to standardize reporting of data and methodology through the creation of guidelines by reporting agencies such as CONSORT and the larger EQUATOR Network. === Reproducibility === The replication crisis is an ongoing methodological crisis in which it has been found that many scientific studies are difficult or impossible to replicate. While the crisis has its roots in the meta-research of the mid- to late 20th century, the phrase "replication crisis" was not coined until the early 2010s as part of a growing awareness of the problem. The replication crisis has been closely studied in psychology (especially social psychology) and medicine, including cancer research. Replication is an essential part of the scientific process, and the widespread failure of replication puts into question the reliability of affected


id: metascience-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metascience-2.md
category: reference
title: Metascience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metascience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:09.274638+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: metascience-20260505-0
summary:
===== Science funding and awards ===== Scientific awards are one category of science incentives. Metascience can explore existing and hypothetical systems of science awards. For instance, it found that work honored by Nobel Prizes clustered in only a few scientific fields with only 36/71 having received at least one Nobel Prize. Of the 114/849 domains science could be divided into their DC2 and DC3 classification systems, five were shown to comprise over half of the Nobel Prizes awarded between 1995 and 2017 (particle physics [14%], cell biology [12.1%], atomic physics [10.9%], neuroscience [10.1%], molecular chemistry [5.3%]). A study found that delegation of responsibility by policy-makers – a centralized authority-based top-down approach – for knowledge production and appropriate funding to science with science subsequently somehow delivering "reliable and useful knowledge to society" is too simple. Measurements show that allocation of bio-medical resources can be more strongly correlated to previous allocations and research than to burden of diseases. A study suggests that "[i]f peer review is maintained as the primary mechanism of arbitration in the competitive selection of research reports and funding, then the scientific community needs to make sure it is not arbitrary". Studies indicate there to is a need to


id: metascience-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metascience-3.md
category: reference
title: Metascience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metascience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:09.274638+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: metascience-20260505-0
summary:
Metascience can investigate how scientific processes evolve over time. A study found that teams are growing in size, "increasing by an average of 17% per decade". (see labor advantage below) It was found that prevalent forms of non-open access publication and prices charged for many conventional journals – even for publicly funded papers – are unwarranted, unnecessary – or suboptimal – and detrimental barriers to scientific progress. Open access can save considerable amounts of financial resources, which could be used otherwise, and level the playing field for researchers in developing countries. There are substantial expenses for subscriptions, gaining access to specific studies, and for article processing charges. Paywall: The Business of Scholarship is a documentary on such issues. Another topic are the established styles of scientific communication (e.g. long text-form studies and reviews) and the scientific publishing practices – there are concerns about a "glacial pace" of conventional publishing. The use of preprint-servers to publish study-drafts early is increasing and open peer review, new tools to screen studies, and improved matching of submitted manuscripts to reviewers are among the proposals to speed up publication. ==== Science overall and intrafield developments ==== Metadata from research publications can be extracted, enriched, and


id: metascience-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metascience-4.md
category: reference
title: Metascience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metascience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:09.274638+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: metascience-20260505-0
summary:
Some research is investigating scientific controversy or controversies, and may identify currently ongoing major debates (e.g. open questions), and disagreement between scientists or studies. One study suggests the level of disagreement was highest in the social sciences and humanities (0.61%), followed by biomedical and health sciences (0.41%), life and earth sciences (0.29%); physical sciences and engineering (0.15%), and mathematics and computer science (0.06%). Such research may also show, where the disagreements are, especially if they cluster, including visually such as with cluster diagrams. === Challenges of interpretation of pooled results === Studies about a specific research question or research topic are often reviewed in the form of higher-level overviews in which results from various studies are integrated, compared, critically analyzed and interpreted. Examples of such works are scientific reviews and meta-analyses. These and related practices face various challenges and are a subject of metascience. Various issues with available studies such as, for example, heterogeneity of methods used may lead to faulty conclusions of the meta-analysis. === Knowledge integration and living documents === Various problems require swift integration of new and existing science-based knowledge. Especially setting where there are a large number of loosely related projects and initiatives benefit from a


id: metascience-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metascience-5.md
category: reference
title: Metascience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metascience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:09.274638+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: metascience-20260505-0
summary:
==== As and for acceleration of progress ==== A study suggests that improving the way science is done could accelerate the rate of scientific discovery and its applications which could be useful for finding urgent solutions to humanity's problems, improve humanity's conditions, and enhance understanding of nature. Metascientific studies can seek to identify aspects of science that need improvement, and develop ways to improve them. If science is accepted as the fundamental engine of economic growth and social progress, this could raise "the question of what we – as a society – can do to accelerate science, and to direct science toward solving society's most important problems." One author clarified that funding science requires diverse approaches rather than a single model. DARPA models, curiosity-driven research, peer-champion mechanisms, and other approaches each have merit and application in different contexts. Nevertheless, evaluation of them can help build knowledge of what works or works best. == Reforms == Meta-research identifying flaws in scientific practice has inspired reforms in science. These reforms seek to address and fix problems in scientific practice which lead to low-quality or inefficient research. A 2015 study lists "fragmented" efforts in meta-research. === Pre-registration === The practice of registering a


id: metascience-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metascience-6.md
category: reference
title: Metascience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metascience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:09.274638+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: metascience-20260505-0
summary:
Clinical research in medicine is often of low quality, and many studies cannot be replicated. An estimated 85% of research funding is wasted. Additionally, the presence of bias affects research quality. The pharmaceutical industry exerts substantial influence on the design and execution of medical research. Conflicts of interest are common among authors of medical literature and among editors of medical journals. While almost all medical journals require their authors to disclose conflicts of interest, editors are not required to do so. Financial conflicts of interest have been linked to higher rates of positive study results. In antidepressant trials, pharmaceutical sponsorship is the best predictor of trial outcome. Blinding is another focus of meta-research, as error caused by poor blinding is a source of experimental bias. Blinding is not well reported in medical literature, and widespread misunderstanding of the subject has resulted in poor implementation of blinding in clinical trials. Furthermore, failure of blinding is rarely measured or reported. Research showing the failure of blinding in antidepressant trials has led some scientists to argue that antidepressants are no better than placebo. In light of meta-research showing failures of blinding, CONSORT standards recommend that all clinical trials assess and report the quality


id: model-for-assessment-of-telemedicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_for_assessment_of_telemedicine-0.md
category: reference
title: Model for assessment of telemedicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_for_assessment_of_telemedicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:10.473207+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: model-for-assessment-of-telemedicine-20260505-0
summary:
Model for assessment of telemedicine (MAST) is a framework for assessment of the value of telemedicine. == Description == Telemedicine services may have many different types of outcomes and can be studied in many ways. In order for those who develop new telemedicine services to produce the information that healthcare managers need for making decisions on investment in telemedicine, a model for assessment of telemedicine (MAST) was developed. This work was done in 2010 through stakeholder workshops and on the basis of a systematic literature review. If the goal of evaluating telemedicine applications is to assess their effectiveness and impact on the quality of care, and to provide a foundation for decision-making, then according to MAST, the appropriate assessment framework is a multidisciplinary process. This process involves summarizing and evaluating information concerning medical, social, economic, and ethical considerations related to telemedicine in a systematic, impartial, and rigorous manner. This statement is based on the definition of Health technology assessment (HTA) in the EUnetHTA project. Key concepts are "multidisciplinary" and "systematic, unbiased and robust". The first concept implies that the assessments should include all important outcomes of the applications for patients, clinicians, healthcare institutions and society in general. The others imply


id: national-registry-of-evidence-based-programs-and-practices-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Registry_of_Evidence-Based_Programs_and_Practices-0.md
category: reference
title: National Registry of Evidence-Based Programs and Practices
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Registry_of_Evidence-Based_Programs_and_Practices
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:11.663231+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-registry-of-evidence-based-programs-and-practices-20260505-0
summary:
The National Registry of Evidence-based Programs and Practices (NREPP) was a searchable online database of interventions designed to promote mental health or to prevent or treat substance abuse and mental disorders. The registry was funded and administered by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), part of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The goal of the Registry was to encourage wider adoption of evidence-based interventions and to help those interested in implementing an evidence-based intervention to select one that best meets their needs. The NREPP website was phased out in 2018. The included phaseout section has more information. == Overview == In the behavioral health field, there is an ongoing need for researchers, developers, evaluators, and practitioners to share information about what works to improve outcomes among individuals coping with, or at risk for, mental disorders and substance abuse. Discussing how this need led to the development of NREPP, Brounstein, Gardner, and Backer (2006) wrote: It is important to note that not all prevention programs work. Still other programs have no empirically based support regarding their effectiveness. […] Many others have empirical support, but the methods used to generate that support are suspect. This is


id: national-registry-of-evidence-based-programs-and-practices-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Registry_of_Evidence-Based_Programs_and_Practices-1.md
category: reference
title: National Registry of Evidence-Based Programs and Practices
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Registry_of_Evidence-Based_Programs_and_Practices
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:11.663231+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-registry-of-evidence-based-programs-and-practices-20260505-0
summary:
A brief description of the reviewed intervention, including targeted goals and theoretical basis Study populations (age, gender, race/ethnicity) Study settings and geographical locations Implementation history Funding information Comparative evaluation research conducted with the intervention Adaptations Adverse effects List of studies and materials reviewed List of outcomes Description of measures and key findings for each outcome Research design of the studies reviewed Quality of Research and Readiness for Dissemination ratings Reviewer comments (Strengths and Weaknesses) Costs Replication studies Contact information NREPP maintained an online Learning Center that included learning modules on implementation and preparing for NREPP submission; a research paper on evidence-based therapy relationships; and links to screening and assessment tools for mental health and substance use. == Predecessor system == The registry originated in 1997 as the National Registry of Effective Prevention Programs (later renamed the National Registry of Effective Programs and Practices) and has gone through several changes. This predecessor to the NREPP was developed by SAMHSA's Center for Substance Abuse Prevention as part of the Model Programs initiative. Procedures under this earlier registry were developed to review, rate, and designate programs as Model, Effective, or Promising. Based on extensive input from scientific communities, service providers, expert panels, and


id: patient-safety-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_safety-0.md
category: reference
title: Patient safety
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_safety
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:13.019610+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patient-safety-20260505-0
summary:
Patient safety is a specialized field focused on enhancing healthcare quality through the systematic prevention, reduction, reporting, and analysis of medical errors and preventable harm that can lead to negative patient outcomes. Although healthcare risks have long existed, patient safety only gained formal recognition in the 1990s following reports of alarming rates of medical error-related injuries in many countries. The urgency of the issue was underscored when the World Health Organization (WHO) identified that 1 in 10 patients globally experience harm due to healthcare errors, declaring patient safety an "endemic concern" in modern medicine. Today, patient safety is a distinct healthcare discipline, supported by an ever evolving scientific framework. It is underpinned by a robust transdisciplinary body of theoretical and empirical research, with emerging technologies, such as mobile health applications, playing a pivotal role in its advancement. == Prevalence of adverse events == Millennia ago, Hippocrates recognized the potential for injuries that arise from the well-intentioned actions of healers. Greek healers in the 4th century BC drafted the Hippocratic Oath, pledging to "prescribe regimens for the good of my patients according to my ability and my judgment and never do harm to anyone." Since then, the directive primum non nocere


id: patient-safety-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_safety-1.md
category: reference
title: Patient safety
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_safety
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:13.019610+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patient-safety-20260505-0
summary:
== Communication == Communication involves distributing relevant information across operational sites to ensure alignment. It also reduces administrative burden by using model-driven instructions, freeing up operational staff and easing procedural demands. This enables consistent execution with minimal but essential feedback, ensuring processes remain both efficient and controlled. === Effective and ineffective communication === The use of effective communication among patients and healthcare professionals is associated with a patient's health outcome. However, scientific patient safety research by Annegret Hannawa et al. has shown that ineffective communication can lead to patient harm. Communication regarding patient safety can be classified into two categories: the prevention of adverse events and the response to adverse events. Effective communication may help to prevent adverse events, whereas ineffective communication may contribute to their occurrence. If ineffective communication contributes to an adverse event, improved communication skills may be applied in response to achieve optimal outcomes for the patient's safety. There are different modes in which healthcare professionals can work to optimize the safety of patients which include both verbal and nonverbal communication, as well as the effective use of communication technologies. Methods of effective verbal and nonverbal communication include treating patients with respect and showing empathy, clearly communicating


id: patient-safety-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_safety-2.md
category: reference
title: Patient safety
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_safety
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:13.019610+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patient-safety-20260505-0
summary:
The simplest definition of a healthcare error is a preventable adverse effect of care, whether or not it is evident or harmful to the patient. Errors have been, in part, and/or attributed to: === Human factors === Variations in healthcare provider training and experience, fatigue, depression and burnout. Diverse patients, unfamiliar settings, and time pressures. Failure to acknowledge the prevalence and seriousness of medical errors. Increasing working hours of healthcare personnel. Mislabeling specimen or forgetting to label specimen. States of anxiety and stress put on the healthcare provider. === Medical complexity === Complicated technologies, powerful drugs. Intensive care, prolonged hospital stays. === System failures === Unsafe communication. Unclear lines of authority or guidelines for physicians, nurses, and other care providers. Complication increasing when the patient to nurse staffing ratio increases to a point where the patient rate is higher than the rate of staff. Disconnected reporting systems within a hospital: fragmented systems in which numerous hand-offs of patients result in errors in examples such as coordination or other general reports due to even minor errors. Drug names that look alike or sound alike. The impression that action is being taken by other groups within the institution. Reliance on automated systems


id: patient-safety-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_safety-3.md
category: reference
title: Patient safety
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_safety
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:13.019610+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patient-safety-20260505-0
summary:
=== Aviation safety === In the United States, two organizations contribute to one of the world's lowest aviation accident rates. Mandatory accident investigation is carried out by the National Transportation Safety Board, while the Aviation Safety Reporting System receives voluntary reports to identify deficiencies and provide data for planning improvements. The latter system is confidential and provides reports back to stakeholders without regulatory action. Similarities and contrasts have been noted between the "cultures of safety" in medicine and aviation. Pilots and medical personnel operate in complex environments, interact with technology, and are subject to fatigue, stress, danger, and loss of life and prestige as a consequence of error. Given the enviable record of aviation in accident prevention, a similar medical adverse event system would include both mandatory (for severe incidents) and voluntary non-punitive reporting, teamwork training, feedback on performance and an institutional commitment to data collection and analysis. The Patient Safety Reporting System (PSRS) is a program modeled upon the Aviation Safety Reporting System and developed by the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to monitor patient safety through voluntary, confidential reports. Required training in crew resource management (CRM), which focused on team


id: patient-safety-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_safety-4.md
category: reference
title: Patient safety
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_safety
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:13.019610+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patient-safety-20260505-0
summary:
Identification upon request of health care personnel, using scanners (similar to readers for passive RFID tags or scanners for barcode labels) to identify patients semi-automatically upon presentation of the patient with a tag to staff Automatic identification upon entry of patient. An automatic identification check is carried out on each person with tags (primarily patients) entering the area to determine the presented patient in contrast to other patient earlier entered into reach of the used reader. Automatic identification and range estimation upon approach to the most proximate patient, excluding reads from more distant tags of other patients in the same area Any of these options may be applied whenever and wherever patient details are required in electronic form Such identifying is essential when the information concerned is critical. There are increasing numbers of hospitals that have an RFID system to identify patients, for instance: Hospital La Fe in Valencia, Spain; Wayne Memorial Hospital (US); Royal Alexandria Hospital (UK). === Computerized provider order entry (CPOE) === Prescribing errors are the largest identified source of preventable errors in hospitals (IOM, 2000; 2007). The IOM (2006) estimates that each hospitalized patient, on average, is exposed to one medication error each day. Computerized provider


id: patient-safety-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_safety-5.md
category: reference
title: Patient safety
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_safety
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:13.019610+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patient-safety-20260505-0
summary:
Managed care plans may attempt to limit "unnecessary" services to cut the costs of health care, despite evidence that guidelines are not designed for general screening, but rather as decision-making tools when an individual practitioner evaluates a specific patient. The medical literature is evolving and often controversial; the development of guidelines requires consensus. Implementing guidelines and educating the entire health care team within a facility costs time and resources (which may be recovered by future efficiency and error reduction). Clinicians may resist evidence-based medicine as a threat to traditional relationships between patients, doctors, and other health professionals since any participant can influence decisions. Failing to follow guidelines might increase the risk of liability or disciplinary action by regulators. == Quality and Safety Initiatives in Community Pharmacy practice == Community pharmacy practice is making important advances in the quality and safety movement, despite the limited number of federal and state regulations that exist and in the absence of national accreditation organizations such as the Joint Commission - a driving force for performance improvement in health care systems. Community pharmacies are using automated drug dispensing devices (robots), computerized drug utilization review tools, and, most recently, the ability to receive electronic prescriptions from


id: patient-safety-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_safety-6.md
category: reference
title: Patient safety
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_safety
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:13.019610+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patient-safety-20260505-0
summary:
Possible additions to the dataset will address the patient's condition on admission and increase the understanding of how laboratory and pharmacy utilization impact patient outcomes. The goal of AHRQ is to refine the area-level indicators to improve outcomes for children receiving outpatient care and reduce the incidence of hospitalization for those defined conditions. === Collaborations for pediatric safety and quality === Numerous groups are engaged in improving pediatric care, quality, and safety. Each of these groups has a unique mission and membership. The following table details these groups' missions and websites. === Nurse staffing and pediatric outcomes === While the number of nurses providing patient care is recognized as an inadequate measure of nursing care quality, there is hard evidence that nurse staffing is directly related to patient outcomes. Studies by Aiken and Needleman have demonstrated that patient death, nosocomial infections, cardiac arrest, and pressure ulcers are linked to inadequate nurse-to-patient ratios. The presence or absence of registered nurses (RNs) impacts the outcome for pediatric patients requiring pain management and/or peripheral administration of intravenous fluids and/or medications. These two indicators of pediatric nursing care quality are sensitive measures of nursing care. Professional nurses play a key role in successful pain


id: patient-safety-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_safety-7.md
category: reference
title: Patient safety
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_safety
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:13.019610+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patient-safety-20260505-0
summary:
=== United Kingdom === In the United Kingdom, the National Health Service (NHS) began an ambitious pay-for-performance initiative in 2004, known as the Quality and Outcomes Framework (QOF). General practitioners agreed to increases in existing income according to performance with respect to 146 quality indicators covering clinical care for 10 chronic diseases, organization of care, and patient experience. Unlike proposed quality incentive programs in the United States, funding for primary care was increased by 20% over previous levels. This allowed practices to invest in extra staff and technology; 90% of general practitioners use the NHS Electronic Prescription Service, and up to 50% use electronic health records for the majority of clinical care. Early analysis showed that substantially increasing physicians' pay based on their success in meeting quality performance measures is successful. The 8,000 family practitioners included in the study earned an average of $40,000 more by collecting nearly 97% of the points available. A component of this program, known as exception reporting, allows physicians to use criteria to exclude individual patients from the quality calculations that determine physician reimbursement. There was initial concern that exception reporting would allow inappropriate exclusion of patients in whom targets were missed ("gaming"). However, a


id: patient-safety-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_safety-8.md
category: reference
title: Patient safety
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_safety
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:13.019610+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patient-safety-20260505-0
summary:
=== Complex illness === Pay-for-performance programs often target patients with serious and complex illnesses; such patients commonly interact with multiple healthcare providers and facilities. However, pilot programs now underway focus on simple indicators such as improvement in lab values or use of emergency services, avoiding areas of complexity such as multiple complications or several treating specialists. A 2007 study analyzing Medicare beneficiaries' healthcare visits showed that a median of two primary care physicians and five specialists provide care for a single patient. The authors doubt that pay-for-performance systems can accurately attribute responsibility for the outcome of care for such patients. The American College of Physicians Ethics has stated concerns about using a limited set of clinical practice parameters to assess quality, "especially if payment for good performance is grafted onto the current payment system, which does not reward robust comprehensive care...The elderly patient with multiple chronic conditions is especially vulnerable to this unwanted effect of powerful incentives." Present pay-for-performance systems measure good performance based on specified clinical measurements, such as glycohemoglobin for diabetic patients. Healthcare providers who are monitored by such limited criteria have a powerful incentive to deselect (dismiss or refuse to accept) patients whose outcome measures fall below


id: patient-safety-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_safety-9.md
category: reference
title: Patient safety
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_safety
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:13.019610+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patient-safety-20260505-0
summary:
===== Medical error ===== Ethical standards of the Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations (JCAHO), the American Medical Association (AMA) Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs, and the American College of Physicians Ethics Manual require disclosure of the most serious adverse events. However, many doctors and hospitals do not report errors under the current system because of concerns about malpractice lawsuits; this prevents collection of information needed to find and correct the conditions that lead to mistakes. As of 2008, 35 US states have statutes allowing doctors and health care providers to apologize and offer expressions of regret without their words being used against them in court, and 7 states have also passed laws mandating written disclosure of adverse events and bad outcomes to patients and families. In September 2005, US Senators Clinton and Obama introduced the National Medical Error Disclosure and Compensation (MEDiC) Bill, providing physicians protection from liability and a safe environment for disclosure, as part of a program to notify and compensate patients harmed by medical errors. It is now the policy of several academic medical centers, including Johns Hopkins, University of Illinois and Stanford, to promptly disclose medical errors, offering apologies and compensation. This national


id: peer-instruction-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer_instruction-0.md
category: reference
title: Peer instruction
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer_instruction
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:14.206293+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: peer-instruction-20260505-0
summary:
Peer instruction is a teaching method popularized by Harvard Professor Eric Mazur in the early 1990s. Originally used in introductory undergraduate physics classes at Harvard University, peer instruction is used in various disciplines and institutions around the globe. It is a student-centered learning approach that involves flipping the traditional classroom. It expects students to prepare for class by exploring provided materials and then engage with a series of questions about the material in class. == Method == Peer instruction as a learning system works by moving information transfer out and moving information assimilation, or application of learning, into the classroom. Students prepare to learn outside of class by doing pre-class readings and answering questions about those readings using another method, called Just in Time Teaching. Then, in class, the instructor engages students by posing prepared conceptual questions or ConcepTests that are based on student difficulties. The questioning procedure outlined by Eric Mazur is as follows: Instructor poses question based on students' responses to their pre-class reading Students reflect on the question Students commit to an individual answer Instructor reviews student responses Students discuss their thinking and answers with their peers Students then commit again to an individual answer The instructor


id: pico-process-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PICO_process-0.md
category: reference
title: PICO process
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PICO_process
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:15.419573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pico-process-20260505-0
summary:
The PICO process (or framework) is a mnemonic used in evidence-based practice (and specifically evidence-based medicine) to frame and answer a clinical or health care related question, though it is also argued that PICO "can be used universally for every scientific endeavour in any discipline with all study designs". The PICO framework is also used to develop literature search strategies, for instance in systematic reviews. The PICO acronym has come to stand for: P – Patient, problem, or population I – Intervention C – Comparison, control, or comparator O – Outcome(s) (e.g. pain, fatigue, nausea, infections, death) An application that covers clinical questions about interventions, as well as exposures, risk/ prognostic factors, and test accuracy, is: P – Patient, problem, or population I – Investigated condition (e.g. intervention, exposure, risk/ prognostic factor, or test result) C – Comparison condition (e.g. intervention, exposure, risk/ prognostic factor, or test result respectively) O – Outcome(s) (e.g. symptom, syndrome, or disease of interest) Alternatives such as SPICE and PECO (among many others) can also be used. Some authors suggest adding T and S, as follows: T - Timing (e.g. duration of intervention, or date of publication) S - Study type (e.g. randomized controlled trial,


id: policy-based-evidence-making-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policy-based_evidence_making-0.md
category: reference
title: Policy-based evidence making
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policy-based_evidence_making
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:16.631033+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: policy-based-evidence-making-20260505-0
summary:
"Policy-based evidence making" is a pejorative term which refers to the commissioning of research in order to support a policy which has already been decided upon. It is the converse of evidence-based policy making. As the name suggests, policy-based evidence making means working back from a predefined policy to produce underpinning evidence. Working from a conclusion to provide only supporting evidence is an approach which contradicts most interpretations of the scientific method; however, it should be distinguished from research into the effects of a policy where such research may provide either supporting or opposing evidence. == Examples == In The Politics of Evidence: From evidence-based policy to the good governance of evidence, Justin Parkhurst quotes the following example from Professor Anne Glover, then Chief Scientific Officer to the European Commission: Let's imagine a Commissioner over the weekend thinks, "Let's ban the use of credit cards in the EU because credit cards lead to personal debt". So that commissioner will come in on Monday morning and say to his or her Director General, "Find me the evidence that demonstrates that this is the case". Similar reasoning has been advanced in respect of public policy on alcohol and narcotics. == Mentions ==


id: preregistration-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preregistration_(science)-0.md
category: reference
title: Preregistration (science)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preregistration_(science)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:22.218636+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preregistration-science-20260505-0
summary:
Preregistration is the practice of registering the hypotheses, methods, or analyses of a scientific study before it is conducted. Clinical trial registration is similar, although it may not require the registration of a study's analysis protocol. Finally, registered reports include the peer review and in principle acceptance of a study protocol prior to data collection. Preregistration has the goal to transparently evaluate the severity of hypothesis tests, and can have a number of secondary goals (which can also be achieved without preregistering ), including (a) facilitating and documenting research plans, (b) identifying and reducing questionable research practices and researcher biases, (c) distinguishing between confirmatory and exploratory analyses, and, in the case of Registered Reports, (d) facilitating results-blind peer review, and (e) reducing publication bias. Although the idea of preregistration is old, the practice of preregistering studies has gained prominence to mitigate certain issues that contribute to the replication crisis in scientific studies. Among others, these issues include publication bias and questionable research practices, such as p-hacking and HARKing. == Types == === Standard preregistration === In the standard preregistration format, researchers prepare a research protocol document prior to conducting their research. Ideally, this document indicates the research hypotheses, sampling procedure,


id: preregistration-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preregistration_(science)-1.md
category: reference
title: Preregistration (science)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preregistration_(science)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:22.218636+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preregistration-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Creation and development === For many years, scientists and others have worried about reporting biases such that negative or null results from initiated clinical trials may be less likely to be published than positive results, thus skewing the literature and our understanding of how well interventions work. This worry has been international and written about for over 50 years. One of the proposals to address this potential bias was a comprehensive register of initiated clinical trials that would inform the public which trials had been started. Ethical issues were those that seemed to interest the public most, as trialists (including those with potential commercial gain) benefited from those who enrolled in trials, but were not required to "give back," telling the public what they had learned. Those who were particularly concerned by the double standard were systematic reviewers, those who summarize what is known from clinical trials. If the literature is skewed, then the results of a systematic review are also likely to be skewed, possibly favoring the test intervention when in fact the accumulated data do not show this, if all data were made public. ClinicalTrials.gov was originally developed largely as a result of breast cancer consumer lobbying,


id: preregistration-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preregistration_(science)-2.md
category: reference
title: Preregistration (science)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preregistration_(science)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:22.218636+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preregistration-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Benefits == Several articles have outlined the rationale for preregistration (e.g., Lakens, 2019; Nosek et al., 2018; Wagenmakers et al., 2012). The primary goal of preregistration is to improve the transparency of reported hypothesis tests, which allows readers to evaluate the extent to which decisions during the data analysis were pre-planned (maintaining statistical error control) or data-driven (increasing the Type 1 or Type 2 error rate). Meta-scientific research has revealed additional benefits. Researchers indicate preregistering a study leads to a more carefully thought through research hypothesis, experimental design, and statistical analysis. In addition, preregistration has been shown to encourage better learning of Open Science concepts and students felt that they understood their dissertation and it improved the clarity of the manuscript writing, promoted rigour and were more likely to avoid questionable research practices. In addition, it becomes a tool that supervisors can use to shape students to combat any questionable research practices. A 2024 study in the Journal of Political Economy: Microeconomics preregistration in economics journals found that preregistration reduced p-hacking and publication bias if the preregistration was accompanied by a preanalysis plan, but not if the preregistration did not specify the planned analyses. == Criticisms == === Analytical


id: preregistration-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preregistration_(science)-3.md
category: reference
title: Preregistration (science)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preregistration_(science)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:22.218636+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preregistration-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Practical Implementation === There are also concerns about the practical implementation of preregistration. Many preregistered protocols leave plenty of room for p-hacking (Bakker et al., 2020; Heirene et al., 2021; Ikeda et al., 2019; Singh et al., 2021; Van den Akker et al., 2023), and researchers rarely follow the exact research methods and analyses that they preregister (Abrams et al., 2020; Claesen et al., 2019; Heirene et al., 2021; Clayson et al., 2025; see also Boghdadly et al., 2018; Singh et al., 2021; Sun et al., 2019). In terms of credibility, pre-registered studies are only of higher quality than non-pre-registered studies if the former has a power analysis and higher sample size than the latter but other than that they do not seem to prevent p-hacking and HARKing, as both the proportion of positive results and effect sizes are similar between preregistered and non-preregistered studies (Van den Akker et al., 2023). In terms of adherence, a study of 92 EEG/ERP studies showed that only 60% of studies adhered to their preregistrations or disclosed all deviations. Notably, registered reports had the higher adherence rates (92%) than unreviewed preregistrations (60%). In general, around three-quarters of preregistered studies included at least one


id: randomized-controlled-trial-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial-0.md
category: reference
title: Randomized controlled trial
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:23.353341+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: randomized-controlled-trial-20260505-0
summary:
A randomized controlled trial (RCT) is a type of statistical experiment designed to evaluate the efficacy or safety of an intervention by minimizing bias through the random allocation of participants to one or more comparison groups. In this approach, at least one group receives the intervention or process under study (such as a drug, surgical procedure, medical device or diet), while the other groups receive an alternative treatment, a placebo, or standard care. RCTs are a fundamental methodology in modern clinical trials and have been widely considered one of the highest-quality sources of evidence in evidence-based medicine, due to their ability to reduce selection bias and the influence of confounding factors. However, they have also been criticized for failing to reduce bias in some cases. Participants who enroll in RCTs differ from one another in known and unknown ways that can influence study outcomes, and yet cannot be directly controlled. By randomly allocating participants among compared treatments, an RCT enables statistical control over these influences. Provided it is designed well, conducted properly, and enrolls enough participants, an RCT may achieve sufficient control over these confounding factors to deliver a useful comparison of the treatments studied. == Definition and examples ==


id: randomized-controlled-trial-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial-1.md
category: reference
title: Randomized controlled trial
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:23.353341+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: randomized-controlled-trial-20260505-0
summary:
== Ethics == Although subjects almost always provide informed consent for their participation in an RCT, studies since 1982 have documented that RCT subjects may believe that they are certain to receive treatment that is best for them personally; that is, they do not understand the difference between research and treatment. Determining the amount of information required to ensure informed consent can be difficult, and further research is necessary to determine the prevalence of and ways to address therapeutic misconception. Placebo-controlled trials have been deemed unethical in instances where not receiving treatment may lead to harm for the patient, such as an aggravation of symptoms or risk of death. Crossover trials, active-controlled trials, and other approaches have been used to mitigate this issue, though these options may not always be suitable for study, and have received their own criticism. Active-controlled trials in particular may raise ethical considerations regarding clinical equipoise. Although the principle of equipoise ("genuine uncertainty within the expert medical community... about the preferred treatment") is common to clinical trials and has been applied to RCTs, equipoise may be difficult to ascertain, and the ethics of RCTs have special considerations. It has been argued that equipoise itself is insufficient


id: randomized-controlled-trial-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial-2.md
category: reference
title: Randomized controlled trial
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:23.353341+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: randomized-controlled-trial-20260505-0
summary:
"It eliminates bias in treatment assignment," specifically selection bias and confounding. "It facilitates blinding (masking) of the identity of treatments from investigators, participants, and assessors." "It permits the use of probability theory to express the likelihood that any difference in outcome between treatment groups merely indicates chance." There are two processes involved in randomizing patients to different interventions. First is choosing a randomization procedure to generate an unpredictable sequence of allocations; this may be a simple random assignment of patients to any of the groups at equal probabilities, may be "restricted", or may be "adaptive." A second and more practical issue is allocation concealment, which refers to the stringent precautions taken to ensure that the group assignment of patients are not revealed prior to definitively allocating them to their respective groups. Non-random "systematic" methods of group assignment, such as alternating subjects between one group and the other, can cause "limitless contamination possibilities" and can cause a breach of allocation concealment. However empirical evidence that adequate randomization changes outcomes relative to inadequate randomization has been difficult to detect. === Procedures === The treatment allocation is the desired proportion of patients in each treatment arm. An ideal randomization procedure would achieve the


id: randomized-controlled-trial-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial-3.md
category: reference
title: Randomized controlled trial
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:23.353341+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: randomized-controlled-trial-20260505-0
summary:
"Allocation concealment" (defined as "the procedure for protecting the randomization process so that the treatment to be allocated is not known before the patient is entered into the study") is important in RCTs. In practice, clinical investigators in RCTs often find it difficult to maintain impartiality. Stories abound of investigators holding up sealed envelopes to lights or ransacking offices to determine group assignments in order to dictate the assignment of their next patient. Such practices introduce selection bias and confounders (both of which should be minimized by randomization), possibly distorting the results of the study. Adequate allocation concealment should defeat patients and investigators from discovering treatment allocation once a study is underway and after the study has concluded. Treatment related side-effects or adverse events may be specific enough to reveal allocation to investigators or patients thereby introducing bias or influencing any subjective parameters collected by investigators or requested from subjects. Some standard methods of ensuring allocation concealment include sequentially numbered, opaque, sealed envelopes (SNOSE); sequentially numbered containers; pharmacy controlled randomization; and central randomization. It is recommended that allocation concealment methods be included in an RCT's protocol, and that the allocation concealment methods should be reported in detail in a publication


id: randomized-controlled-trial-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial-4.md
category: reference
title: Randomized controlled trial
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:23.353341+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: randomized-controlled-trial-20260505-0
summary:
=== Relative importance and observational studies === Two studies published in The New England Journal of Medicine in 2000 found that observational studies and RCTs overall produced similar results. The authors of the 2000 findings questioned the belief that "observational studies should not be used for defining evidence-based medical care" and that RCTs' results are "evidence of the highest grade." However, a 2001 study published in Journal of the American Medical Association concluded that "discrepancies beyond chance do occur and differences in estimated magnitude of treatment effect are very common" between observational studies and RCTs. According to a 2014 (updated in 2024) Cochrane review, there is little evidence for significant effect differences between observational studies and randomized controlled trials. To evaluate differences it is necessary to consider things other than design, such as heterogeneity, population, intervention or comparator. Two other lines of reasoning question RCTs' contribution to scientific knowledge beyond other types of studies: If study designs are ranked by their potential for new discoveries, then anecdotal evidence would be at the top of the list, followed by observational studies, followed by RCTs. RCTs may be unnecessary for treatments that have dramatic and rapid effects relative to the expected stable


id: randomized-controlled-trial-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial-5.md
category: reference
title: Randomized controlled trial
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:23.353341+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: randomized-controlled-trial-20260505-0
summary:
=== Time and costs === RCTs can be expensive; one study found 28 Phase III RCTs funded by the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke prior to 2000 with a total cost of US$335 million, for a mean cost of US$12 million per RCT. Nevertheless, the return on investment of RCTs may be high, in that the same study projected that the 28 RCTs produced a "net benefit to society at 10-years" of 46 times the cost of the trials program, based on evaluating a quality-adjusted life year as equal to the prevailing mean per capita gross domestic product. The conduct of an RCT takes several years until being published; thus, data is restricted from the medical community for long years and may be of less relevance at time of publication. It is costly to maintain RCTs for the years or decades that would be ideal for evaluating some interventions. Interventions to prevent events that occur only infrequently (e.g., sudden infant death syndrome) and uncommon adverse outcomes (e.g., a rare side effect of a drug) would require RCTs with extremely large sample sizes and may, therefore, best be assessed by observational studies. Due to the costs of running RCTs,


id: randomized-controlled-trial-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial-6.md
category: reference
title: Randomized controlled trial
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:23.353341+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: randomized-controlled-trial-20260505-0
summary:
=== Economics === RCTs have become a staple of identifying causal inference among microeconomic studies, particularly in development economics. In 1994, Paul Glewwe, eventual Nobel Prize winner, Michael Kremer, and Sylvie Moulin started one of the earliest RCTs in an economic setting by conducting a long run intervention in a school in Kenya, publishing the results fifteen years later. Three years later in 1997, the largest field experiment in a developing context, the PROGRESA program in Mexico, was studied by a multitude of economic researchers. The impact of RCTs on the discipline has only grown, as economists have found this method as a first-best approach to causal inference identification. While not at the forefront, the use of RCTs has helped to bolster the credibility revolution in empirical microeconomics, as well as becoming popularized as a result of the need for more rigorous identification. Despite the shift towards using RCTs in research, there still remains division between economists on its use. John A. List, a proponent of field experiments, particularly RCTs, finds that this method differs significantly from lab experiments, and therefore provide more robust measures for identification. RCTs also offer the advantage of providing true observational data that can be


id: rapid-reviews-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_reviews-0.md
category: reference
title: Rapid reviews
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_reviews
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:24.531048+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rapid-reviews-20260505-0
summary:
Rapid reviews are a systematic survey of literature on a topic or question of interest. Compared to a systematic review of literature, in a rapid review, several design decisions and practical steps are undertaken to reduce the time it takes to identify, aggregate and answer the question of interest. The Cochrane Rapid Reviews Methods Group proposes that rapid reviews can take different forms, and they define rapid reviews as: "A form of knowledge synthesis that accelerates the process of conducting a traditional systematic review through streamlining or omitting specific methods to produce evidence for stakeholders in a resource-efficient manner". == In medicine and healthcare == Rapid reviews are a form of evidence synthesis, similar to a systematic review, that can be used to inform decision-making and healthcare initiative. The World Health Organization (WHO) considers rapid reviews as a way of generating evidence in a short period using an abbreviated systematic review method. During the COVID-19 pandemic rapid reviews were employed to answer pressing questions under strict time constraints. == In software engineering == For Software Engineering, Rico et al. have recently adapted and extended the rapid review method. Their proposal takes into account the unique requirements of industry-academia collaboration in


id: realist-evaluation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realist_Evaluation-0.md
category: reference
title: Realist Evaluation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realist_Evaluation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:25.759116+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: realist-evaluation-20260505-0
summary:
Realist evaluation or realist review (also realist synthesis) is a type of theory-driven evaluation used in evaluating social programmes. It was originally based on the epistemological foundations of critical realism. Ray Pawson, one of the originators of realist evaluation was "initially impressed" by how critical realism explains generative causation in experimental science; however, he later criticised its "philosophical grandstanding" and "explain-all Marxism". Based on specific theories, realist evaluation provides an alternative lens to empiricist evaluation techniques for the study and understanding of programmes and policies. Some writers on realist evaluation argue that interventions are theories. This technique assumes that knowledge is a social and historical product, thus the social and political context as well as theoretical mechanisms, need consideration in analysis of programme or policy effectiveness. Realist evaluation techniques recognise that there are many interwoven variables operative at different levels in society, thus this evaluation method suits complex social interventions, rather than traditional cause-effect, non-contextual methods of analysis. This realist technique acknowledges that intervention programmes and policy changes do not necessarily work for everyone, since people are different and are embedded in different contexts. Realist evaluation was popularised by the work of Ray Pawson and Nick Tilley in 1997. They


id: secondary-research-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_research-0.md
category: reference
title: Secondary research
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_research
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:26.994087+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: secondary-research-20260505-0
summary:
Secondary research involves the summary, collation and/or synthesis of existing research. Secondary research is contrasted with primary research in that primary research involves the generation of data, whereas secondary research uses primary research sources as a source of data for analysis. A notable marker of primary research is the inclusion of a "methods" section, where the authors describe how the data was generated. Common examples of secondary research include textbooks, encyclopedias, news articles, review articles, and meta analyses. When conducting secondary research, authors may draw data from published academic papers, government documents, statistical databases, and historical records. == Fields == The term is widely used in fields such as history, legal research, market research, and Wikipedia editing. The principal methodology in health secondary research is the systematic review, commonly using meta-analytic statistical techniques. Other methods of synthesis, like realist reviews and meta-narrative reviews, have been developed in the 21st century. Secondary market research includes the reuse by a second party of any data collected from a first party such as telephone interviews or surveys. Secondary market research can be broken up into two categories: information from internal sources such as an agency or company, and information from external sources held


id: single-arm-study-design-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-arm_study_design-0.md
category: reference
title: Single-arm study design
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-arm_study_design
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:28.254007+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: single-arm-study-design-20260505-0
summary:
A single-arm study design is a type of clinical or experimental study where all participants receive the same intervention, with no control or placebo group. The term "single-arm" refers to the presence of only one participant group, in contrast to designs such as randomized controlled trials, which include both a treatment arm and control or placebo arm. == Overview == Single-arm trials include one experimental group without the inclusion of a parallel control group. The design is open-label and does not involve randomization or blinding. This type of study design is commonly applied to advance stage cancer, rare diseases, emerging infectious diseases, new treatment methods, and medical devices. While randomized control trials are considered the “gold standard” in clinical research, they are not always feasible due to limitations in the study population, challenges in obtaining evidence, high costs, and ethical considerations. As a result, single arm trials are used to address these concerns. == Applications == Since there is no randomization in single-arm trials, all patients receive the same intervention within a particular study/trial. This design is most commonly used in early-phase clinical trials or in studies of rare or serious diseases, where including a control group may be impractical


id: spaced-repetition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaced_repetition-0.md
category: reference
title: Spaced repetition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaced_repetition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:29.414379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: spaced-repetition-20260505-0
summary:
Spaced repetition is an evidence-based learning technique that is usually performed with flashcards. Newly introduced and more difficult flashcards are shown more frequently, while older and less difficult flashcards are shown less frequently in order to exploit the psychological spacing effect. The use of spaced repetition has been proven to increase the rate of learning. Although the principle is useful in many contexts, spaced repetition is commonly applied in contexts in which a learner must acquire many items and retain them indefinitely in memory. It is, therefore, well suited for the problem of vocabulary acquisition in the course of second-language learning. A number of spaced repetition software programs have been developed to aid the learning process. It is also possible to perform spaced repetition with physical flashcards using the Leitner system. The testing effect and spaced repetition can be combined to improve long-term memory. Therefore, memorization can be easier to do. == History == The method of spaced repetition was first conceived of in the 1880s by German scientist Hermann Ebbinghaus. Ebbinghaus created the 'forgetting curve'—a graph portraying the loss of learned information over time—and postulated that it can be curbed by reviewing such information at several intervals over a


id: spaced-repetition-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaced_repetition-1.md
category: reference
title: Spaced repetition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaced_repetition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:29.414379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: spaced-repetition-20260505-0
summary:
The notion that spaced repetition could be used for improving learning was first proposed in the book Psychology of Study by C. A. Mace in 1932: "Perhaps the most important discoveries are those which relate to the appropriate distribution of the periods of study... Acts of revision should be spaced in gradually increasing intervals, roughly intervals of one day, two days, four days, eight days, and so on." In 1939, H. F. Spitzer tested the effects of a type of spaced repetition on sixth-grade students in Iowa who were learning science facts. Spitzer tested over 3600 students in Iowa and showed that spaced repetition was effective. This early work went unnoticed, and the field was relatively quiet until the late 1960s when cognitive psychologists, including Melton and Landauer and Bjork, explored manipulation of repetition timing as a means to improve recall. Around the same time, Pimsleur language courses pioneered the practical application of spaced repetition theory to language learning, and in 1973 Sebastian Leitner devised his "Leitner system", an all-purpose spaced repetition learning system based on flashcards. With the increase in access to personal computers in the 1980s, spaced repetition began to be implemented with computer-assisted language learning software-based solutions


id: spaced-repetition-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaced_repetition-2.md
category: reference
title: Spaced repetition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaced_repetition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:29.414379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: spaced-repetition-20260505-0
summary:
Leitner system—a simple scheme that uses five levels and an arbitrary number of study stages Neural-network-based The SM family of algorithms (SuperMemo#Algorithms), ranging from SM-0 (a paper-and-pencil prototype) to SM-18, which is built into SuperMemo 18 and 19. The DASH (Difficulty, Ability and Study History) family SSP-MMC (Stochastic Shortest Path Minimize Memorization Cost) and the closely related FSRS (Free Spaced Repetition Scheduler), which is available in Anki starting with release 23.10 and in RemNote starting with release 1.16 == Evidence and criticism == Spaced repetition is widely accepted as a performant learning strategy in a number of domains, with many researchers suggesting implementing this method in formal education. There is evidence that the popular method of "expanding intervals" (when the interval between the repetitions increases with each repetition) performs as well as or better than uniformly spaced repetitions. Some papers find expanding intervals to be beneficial for recall. Other meta-analyses tend to conclude that both methods yield similar results, therefore concluding that "strong recommendations to teachers and students in favor of spaced retrieval practice are warranted". Several mechanisms were suggested for expanding intervals providing an additional benefit; the most notable one is that one of the core tenets of spaced


id: systematic-review-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic_review-0.md
category: reference
title: Systematic review
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic_review
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:30.659047+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: systematic-review-20260505-0
summary:
A systematic review is a scholarly synthesis of the evidence on a clearly presented topic using critical methods to identify, define and assess research on the topic. A systematic review extracts and interprets data from published studies on the topic (in the scientific literature), then analyzes, describes, critically appraises and summarizes interpretations into a refined evidence-based conclusion. For example, a systematic review of randomized controlled trials is a way of summarizing and implementing evidence-based medicine. Systematic reviews, sometimes along with meta-analyses, are generally considered the highest level of evidence in medical research. While a systematic review may be applied in the biomedical or health care context, it may also be used where an assessment of a precisely defined subject can advance understanding in a field of research. A systematic review may examine clinical tests, public health interventions, environmental interventions, social interventions, adverse effects, qualitative evidence syntheses, methodological reviews, policy reviews, and economic evaluations. Systematic reviews are closely related to meta-analyses, and often the same instance will combine both (being published with a subtitle of "a systematic review and meta-analysis"). The distinction between the two is that a meta-analysis uses statistical methods to induce a single number from the pooled data


id: systematic-review-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic_review-1.md
category: reference
title: Systematic review
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic_review
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:30.659047+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: systematic-review-20260505-0
summary:
=== Scoping reviews === Scoping reviews are distinct from systematic reviews in several ways. A scoping review is an attempt to search for concepts by mapping the language and data which surrounds those concepts and adjusting the search method iteratively to synthesize evidence and assess the scope of an area of inquiry. This can mean that the concept search and method (including data extraction, organisation and analysis) are refined throughout the process, sometimes requiring deviations from any protocol or original research plan. A scoping review may often be a preliminary stage before a systematic review, which 'scopes' out an area of inquiry and maps the language and key concepts to determine if a systematic review is possible or appropriate, or to lay the groundwork for a full systematic review. The goal can be to assess how much data or evidence is available regarding a certain area of interest. This process is further complicated if it is mapping concepts across multiple languages or cultures. As a scoping review should be systematically conducted and reported (with a transparent and repeatable method), some academic publishers categorize them as a kind of 'systematic review', which may cause confusion. Scoping reviews are helpful when it


id: systematic-review-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic_review-2.md
category: reference
title: Systematic review
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic_review
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:30.659047+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: systematic-review-20260505-0
summary:
=== Analyse and combine the data === Analysing and combining data can provide an overall result from all the data. Because this combined result may use qualitative or quantitative data from all eligible sources of data, it is considered more reliable as it provides better evidence, as the more data included in reviews, the more confident we can be of conclusions. When appropriate, some systematic reviews include a meta-analysis, which uses statistical methods to combine data from multiple sources. A review might use quantitative data, or might employ a qualitative meta-synthesis, which synthesises data from qualitative studies. A review may also bring together the findings from quantitative and qualitative studies in a mixed methods or overarching synthesis. The combination of data from a meta-analysis can sometimes be visualised. One method uses a forest plot (also called a blobbogram). In an intervention effect review, the diamond in the 'forest plot' represents the combined results of all the data included. An example of a 'forest plot' is the Cochrane Collaboration logo. The logo is a forest plot of one of the first reviews which showed that corticosteroids given to women who are about to give birth prematurely can save the life of


id: systematic-review-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic_review-3.md
category: reference
title: Systematic review
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic_review
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:30.659047+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: systematic-review-20260505-0
summary:
Joining a collaborative volunteer effort to help categorise and summarise healthcare evidence Data extraction and risk of bias assessment Translation of reviews into other languages A systematic review of how people were involved in systematic reviews aimed to document the evidence-base relating to stakeholder involvement in systematic reviews and to use this evidence to describe how stakeholders have been involved in systematic reviews. Thirty percent involved patients and/or carers. The ACTIVE framework provides a way to describe how people are involved in systematic review and may be used as a way to support systematic review authors in planning people's involvement. Standardised Data on Initiatives (STARDIT) is another proposed way of reporting who has been involved in which tasks during research, including systematic reviews. There has been some criticism of how Cochrane prioritises systematic reviews. Cochrane has a project that involved people in helping identify research priorities to inform Cochrane Reviews. In 2014, the Cochrane–Wikipedia partnership was formalised. ==== Environmental health and toxicology ==== Systematic reviews are a relatively recent innovation in the field of environmental health and toxicology. Although mooted in the mid-2000s, the first full frameworks for conduct of systematic reviews of environmental health evidence were published in 2014


id: systematic-review-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic_review-4.md
category: reference
title: Systematic review
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic_review
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:30.659047+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: systematic-review-20260505-0
summary:
=== Out-dated or risk of bias === While systematic reviews are regarded as the strongest form of evidence, a 2003 review of 300 studies found that not all systematic reviews were equally reliable, and that their reporting can be improved by a universally agreed upon set of standards and guidelines. A further study by the same group found that of 100 systematic reviews monitored, 7% needed updating at the time of publication, another 4% within a year, and another 11% within 2 years; this figure was higher in rapidly changing fields of medicine, especially cardiovascular medicine. A 2003 study suggested that extending searches beyond major databases, perhaps into grey literature, would increase the effectiveness of reviews. A 2005 analysis of 377 Cochrane systematic reviews of healthcare interventions found that, after four years, 9% of the updated reviews resulted in a changed conclusion compared to the original versions. Among Cochrane systematic reviews on medical interventions published in 2010 and updated by 2017, very few (4%) of the updated reviews reported a change in conclusion for a primary outcome. Some authors have highlighted problems with systematic reviews, particularly those conducted by Cochrane, noting that published reviews are often biased, out of date,


id: systematic-review-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic_review-5.md
category: reference
title: Systematic review
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic_review
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:30.659047+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: systematic-review-20260505-0
summary:
== References == This article was submitted to WikiJournal of Medicine for external academic peer review in 2019 (reviewer reports). The updated content was reintegrated into the Wikipedia page under a CC-BY-SA-3.0 license (2020). The version of record as reviewed is: Jack Nunn; Steven Chang; et al. (9 November 2020). "What are Systematic Reviews?" (PDF). WikiJournal of Medicine. 7 (1): 5. doi:10.15347/WJM/2020.005. ISSN 2002-4436. Wikidata Q99440266. STARDIT report Q101116128. == External links == Systematic Review Tools — Search and list of systematic review software tools Cochrane Collaboration MeSH: Review Literature—articles about the review process MeSH: Review [Publication Type] - limit search results to reviews Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) Statement Archived 27 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine, "an evidence-based minimum set of items for reporting in systematic reviews and meta-analyses" PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR): Checklist and explanation Animated Storyboard: What Are Systematic Reviews? - Cochrane Consumers and Communication Group Sysrev - a free platform with open access systematic reviews. STARDIT - an open access data-sharing system to standardise the way that information about initiatives is reported. Cao, Christian; Arora, Rohit; Cento, Paul; Manta, Katherine; Farahani, Elina; Cecere, Matthew; Selemon, Anabel; Sang, Jason; Gong,


id: theory-driven-evaluation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory-driven_evaluation-0.md
category: reference
title: Theory-driven evaluation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory-driven_evaluation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:31.832962+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theory-driven-evaluation-20260505-0
summary:
Theory-driven evaluation (also theory-based evaluation) is an umbrella term for any approach to program evaluation – quantitative, qualitative, or mixed method – that develops a theory of change and uses it to design, implement, analyze, and interpret findings from an evaluation. More specifically, an evaluation is theory-driven if it: formulates a theory of change using some combination of social science, lived experience, and program-related professionals' expertise; develops and prioritizes evaluation questions using the theory; uses the theory to guide the design and implementation of the evaluation; uses the theory to operationalize contextual, process, and outcome variables; provides a causal explanation of how and why outcomes were achieved, including whether the program worked and/or had any unintended consequences (desirable or harmful); and explains what factors moderate outcomes. By investigating the mechanisms leading to outcomes, theory-driven approaches facilitate learning to improve programs and how they are implemented, and help knowledge to accumulate – including across ostensibly different programs. This is in contrast to methods-driven "black box" evaluations, which focus on following the steps of a method (for instance, randomized experiment or focus group) and only assess whether a program achieves its intended outcomes. Theory-driven approaches can also improve the validity of evaluations,


id: theory-driven-evaluation-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory-driven_evaluation-1.md
category: reference
title: Theory-driven evaluation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory-driven_evaluation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:31.832962+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theory-driven-evaluation-20260505-0
summary:
The target population includes a specification of who participants are and how they are recruited. The implementing organization (for instance a clinic or school) and its staff of implementers (for instance therapists or teachers) are responsible for allocating resources, training, and delivering the interventions. Intervention and service delivery protocols would include therapy manuals or subject curricula. Associated organizations and community partners refers to organisations other than the implementing organisation. In the case of a psychotherapy intervention, this may include schools or general practitioners who advertise the program or refer beneficiaries to it. Ecological context refers to aspects of the environment, for instance family, friends, co-workers, other students, etc., that may moderate the effects of a program. == Theory-driven methods == The full-range of research methods has been argued to apply. Chen (2015) provides examples using randomized experiments, quasi-experimental designs, process and outcome monitoring, and qualitative methods. Although proponents of theory-driven evaluation are critical of "black box" experiments, Chen and Rossi (1983, p. 292) argue that theory-driven experiments are possible and desirable: [A]dvocates of the black box experimental paradigm often neglect the fact that after randomization exogenous variables are still correlated with outcome variables. Knowing how such exogenous factors affect outcomes


id: uk-evaluation-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Evaluation_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: UK Evaluation Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Evaluation_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:33.012095+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: uk-evaluation-society-20260505-0
summary:
The UK Evaluation Society (UKES) was founded in 1994 and is the principal professional organisation for evaluation of social policy and programmes in the UK. It is a member of the UK Academy of Social Sciences. Its president is Dr Kirstine Szifris (December 2023 until November 2026) and Executive Director is Nick Posford. UKES was registered as a charity on 27 November 2024. == Activities == Developed a Manifesto for Evaluation, coinciding with the 2024 United Kingdom general election. Organises an annual conference, which in 2023 was sponsored by RSM UK and Kantar Public (now Verian). In 2023, keynote speakers were Emily Gates (Boston College), Kelly Beaver MBE (Ipsos), Urvashi Parashar (Department for Culture, Media and Sport), and Nigel Ball (Social Purpose Lab) at University of the Arts London). Develops guidance for conducting evaluations, for example Guidelines for Good Practice in Evaluation (revised 2018) and Quality of Evidence Rubrics for Single Cases (2023). Offers training course on evaluation, which are recommended by the UK government for civil servants. Provides peer review for the UK government Magenta Book, the HM Treasury guidance on key considerations when conducting evaluations of public policies and programmes, which was last updated 2020. Also acts as


id: umbrella-review-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbrella_review-0.md
category: reference
title: Umbrella review
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbrella_review
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:39.323460+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: umbrella-review-20260505-0
summary:
In medical research, an umbrella review is a review of systematic reviews or meta-analyses. They may also be called overviews of reviews, reviews of reviews, summaries of systematic reviews, or syntheses of reviews. Umbrella reviews are among the highest levels of evidence currently available in medicine. By summarizing information from multiple overview articles, umbrella reviews make it easier to review the evidence and allow for comparison of results between each of the individual reviews. Umbrella reviews may address a broader question than a typical review, such as discussing multiple different treatment comparisons instead of only one. They are especially useful for developing guidelines and clinical practice, and when comparing competing interventions. == References ==


id: aha-ha-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aha_ha-0.md
category: reference
title: Aha ha
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aha_ha
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:41.060136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aha-ha-20260505-0
summary:
Aha ha is a species of Australian wasp, named by the entomologist Arnold Menke in 1977 as a joke. Menke described several years after its discovery how, when he received a package from a colleague containing insect specimens, he exclaimed "Aha, a new genus", with fellow entomologist Eric Grissell responding "ha" doubtfully. The name of the insect is commonly found in lists of bizarre scientific names. The name was also used as the vehicle registration plate of Menke's car, "AHA HA". == See also == List of short species names == References ==


id: ba-humbugi-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba_humbugi-0.md
category: reference
title: Ba humbugi
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba_humbugi
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:42.229237+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ba-humbugi-20260505-0
summary:
Ba humbugi is the only species and therefore the type species in the genus Ba, a genus of land snail, belonging to the family Charopidae. Both the genus and the species were named by the American malacologist Alan Solem. The genus is endemic to the Fijian island of Viti Levu, and B. humbugi is an endangered species. == Taxonomic history == Alan Solem, the curator of invertebrates at the Field Museum of Natural History, created the genus Ba for his newly-described species B. humbugi. Solem based his description of the type species B. humbugi on a holotype which the American malacologist Yoshio Kondo had collected in 1938 and three paratypes. One paratype was deposited in the Field Museum; the remaining specimens in the type series were deposited in the Bishop Museum. === Etymology === Solem chose the generic name Ba after Ba District, Fiji, which extends into B. humbugi's range. This led to him having an "irresistible impulse" to name the type species Ba humbugi, in reference to the character Ebenezer Scrooge's catchphrase "Bah! Humbug!" from Charles Dickens's novella A Christmas Carol. One review of Solem's monograph naming this species said his choice in taxa names "may either lighten the


id: continental-drip-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_drip-0.md
category: reference
title: Continental drip
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_drip
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:43.376763+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: continental-drip-20260505-0
summary:
Continental drip is the observation that southward-pointing landforms are more numerous and prominent than northward-pointing landforms. For example, Africa, South America, the Indian subcontinent, and Greenland all taper off to a point towards the south. The name is a play on continental drift. The observation was made by Ormonde de Kay in a 1973 tongue-in-cheek paper, which he introduced as "another earth-shaking new theory derived from simply looking at maps." It satirizes the acceptance of plate tectonics theory as it was being formulated and refined at the time to describe the movement of the Earth's continents that is now thoroughly accepted. Given examples of smaller-than-continental drips include Baja California Peninsula, Florida, all of Europe's peninsulas except Jutland (Italy, Greece, Iberia, Scandinavia, Crimea) as well as in southeast Asia, the Malay Peninsula and Indochina. John C. Holden expanded and illustrated his own version of the idea in 1976, almost entirely as a parody, in the Journal of Irreproducible Results. In Holden's expansion of the concept, he satirically invents the fictional German words Südpolarfluchtkraft ("south polar fleeing force") having created Südpolarfluchttropfen ("south polar fleeing drips"). He does, however, cite an actual theory of northward drift of Gondwanaland descendant continents of Australia, Africa,


id: dihydrogen-monoxide-parody-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dihydrogen_monoxide_parody-0.md
category: reference
title: Dihydrogen monoxide parody
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dihydrogen_monoxide_parody
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:44.581138+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dihydrogen-monoxide-parody-20260505-0
summary:
The dihydrogen monoxide parody involves referring to water (H2O) by its unfamiliar chemical systematic name "dihydrogen monoxide" (DHMO) and describing some properties of water in a particularly concerning manner – such as its ability to accelerate corrosion (rust) and cause suffocation (drowning) – often calling for it to be banned, regulated strictly, or labeled as a hazardous chemical. The motivation behind the parody is to play into chemophobia, and to demonstrate how exaggerated analysis, information overload, and a lack of scientific literacy can lead to misplaced fears. Occasionally, reports also reference its widespread contamination of rivers or municipal water supplies. The parody has also involved other uncommon chemical nomenclatures for water such as "hydrogen hydroxide", "dihydrogen oxide" and "hydric acid". == History == In 1983, on April Fools' Day, an edition of the Durand Express, a weekly newspaper in Durand, Michigan, reported that "dihydrogen oxide" had been found in the city's water pipes, and warned that it was fatal if inhaled, and could produce blistering vapors. The first appearance of the parody as "dihydrogen monoxide" on the Internet was attributed to the "Coalition to Ban Dihydrogen Monoxide", a parody organization at the University of California, Santa Cruz following on-campus postings


id: dihydrogen-monoxide-parody-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dihydrogen_monoxide_parody-1.md
category: reference
title: Dihydrogen monoxide parody
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dihydrogen_monoxide_parody
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:44.581138+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dihydrogen-monoxide-parody-20260505-0
summary:
In 1989–1990, several students circulated a dihydrogen monoxide contamination warning on the University of California, Santa Cruz, campus via photocopied fliers. In 1994, Craig Jackson created a web page for the Coalition to Ban DHMO. The Friends of Hydrogen Hydroxide website was created by Dan Curtis Johnson, partly as a foil on the Coalition page, claiming to oppose its "subversive agenda". The site points out that hydrogen hydroxide is "environmentally safe" and "enhances the functionality, growth, and health of many forms of life". In 1997, Nathan Zohner, a 14-year-old student at Eagle Rock Junior High School in Idaho Falls, Idaho, gathered 43 votes to ban the chemical, out of 50 ninth-graders surveyed. Zohner received the first prize at Greater Idaho Falls Science Fair for analysis of the results of his survey. In recognition of his experiment, journalist James K. Glassman coined the term "Zohnerism" to refer to "the use of a true fact to lead a scientifically and mathematically ignorant public to a false conclusion". In late 1997, drawing inspiration from Jackson's web page and Zohner's research, Tom Way created a website at DHMO.org, including links to some legitimate sites such as the Environmental Protection Agency and National Institutes of


id: han-trilobite-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_(trilobite)-0.md
category: reference
title: Han (trilobite)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_(trilobite)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:45.799686+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: han-trilobite-20260505-0
summary:
Han is a monotypic genus of agnostid trilobite, whose sole member is Han solo. The type specimen of H. solo was found in marine strata of the Arenig to Llanvirn-aged Zitai Formation of Middle Ordovician southern China and is named after the character in Star Wars. == Taxonomy == This taxon was erected in 2005, based upon fossil material found in beds of lower Zitai Formation exposed in Maocaopu, Reshi, Taoyuan County in north Hunan, China. Fossil material include a cephalon and two pygidia. It was found to belong to family Diplagnostidae, subfamily Pseudagnostinae; it was originally thought to be most closely related to the genus Pseudorhaptagnostus, but it differed substantially from that genus in both some important diagnostic characters, and in the age of the beds in it was deposited, so a new genus was erected. == Etymology == According to the original publication, the generic name Han is a reference to the Han Chinese, the largest ethnic group in China; and the specific epithet solo refers to the fact that the species is the youngest Diplagnostidae fossil found to that date, suggesting that it was the last surviving member of that family. However, Samuel Turvey has stated elsewhere


id: holotypic-occlupanid-research-group-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holotypic_Occlupanid_Research_Group-0.md
category: reference
title: Holotypic Occlupanid Research Group
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holotypic_Occlupanid_Research_Group
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:47.043165+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: holotypic-occlupanid-research-group-20260505-0
summary:
The Holotypic Occlupanid Research Group (or HORG, IPA: [hɔːrɡ]) is a parody research organisation which studies bread clips (called "occlupanids" by HORG) as if they were living organisms with a focus on synthetic taxonomy. Plastic bread clips may perforate or obstruct the gastrointestinal tract, and are potentially fatal. This prompted the site creator to treat the cataloguing and study of bread clips as important, as if the precise identification of bread clips could save lives. == Reception == The parody site has been noted by independent media, drawing similarities to real taxonomies, and noting how the synthetic taxonomy can assist in learning the design history of the object itself (bread clips). HORG's efforts were included in a 2018 exhibition comprising Mmuseumm's sixth season. "Milk & Bread", a 2025 art and design work by Susan Goldberg, mentions HORG. It was inspired by her experience collecting and displaying bread clips before and during the COVID-19 pandemic and how their display can reflect the increased workload and repetitive domesticity put on women and especially mothers during lockdown. Terms coined by HORG have found their way into academic research. == References ==


id: ig-nobel-prize-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ig_Nobel_Prize-0.md
category: reference
title: Ig Nobel Prize
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ig_Nobel_Prize
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:49.479456+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ig-nobel-prize-20260505-0
summary:
The Ig Nobel Prize (), also known as the Ig Nobels or simply the Igs, is a satirical prize awarded annually since 1991 to promote public engagement with scientific research. Its aim is to "honor achievements that first make people laugh, and then make them think". The award parodies the Nobel Prize and is named after Ignatius Nobel, a fictional cousin of the Nobel Prize's founder, Alfred Nobel. The name is also a pun on the word ignoble. Most awards are for genuine scientific achievements with an unorthodox, obvious or humorous slant, while other awards are given ironically to various politicians, media figures, or promoters of pseudoscience. Organized by the scientific humor magazine Annals of Improbable Research, the Ig Nobel Prizes are awarded in 10 categories each year, presented by Nobel laureates in a ceremony that was held at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology or Harvard University until 2026, when the ceremony was moved to Zurich, Switzerland, due to safety concerns about international visitors entering the United States. The winners deliver 60-second acceptance speeches, and receive a low-quality home-made prize and a monetary award of 10 trillion Zimbabwean dollars (US$0.04). The ceremony contains a number of whimsical events and running


id: ig-nobel-prize-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ig_Nobel_Prize-1.md
category: reference
title: Ig Nobel Prize
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ig_Nobel_Prize
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:49.479456+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ig-nobel-prize-20260505-0
summary:
The Ig Nobel Prize has received some criticism from scientists. Robert May, who at the time was the chief scientific adviser for the UK, requested that British scientists be excluded from the prize, worried that it would harm their career prospects. As the prize has become more well-known, the scientific community have been more appreciative of it, with some research getting more attention due to winning. At the 2025 ceremony, Tomoki Kojima, one of the winners of the year's biology prize, said that the award "serves as motivation for us to continue striving for excellence". A September 2009 article in The National titled "A noble side to Ig Nobels" said that, although the prize is often awarded to research of "trivial" questions, history shows that trivial research sometimes leads to important breakthroughs. In 2006, a study showing that mosquitoes that can carry malaria are attracted equally to the smell of Limburger cheese and the smell of human feet earned the Ig Nobel Prize in biology. As a result of these findings, traps baited with this cheese have been used to combat the malaria epidemic in Africa. Before receiving the 2010 Nobel Prize in Physics for his research on graphene, Andre


id: journal-of-irreproducible-results-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Irreproducible_Results-0.md
category: reference
title: Journal of Irreproducible Results
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Irreproducible_Results
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:50.946217+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: journal-of-irreproducible-results-20260505-0
summary:
The Journal of Irreproducible Results is a magazine of science humor. It was established in Israel in 1955 by virologist Alexander Kohn and physicist Harry J. Lipkin, who wanted a humor magazine about science, for scientists. It contains a mix of jokes, satire of scientific practice, science cartoons, and discussion of funny but real research. It has passed through several hands and as of 2015 is published in San Mateo, California. == History == Alexander Kohn and Harry J. Lipkin founded The Journal of Irreproducible Results in 1955 in Ness Ziona, Israel. Kohn remained editor until 1989. Lipkin remained an editor until volume 16, number 1, August 1967, when Kohn became Editor-in-Chief, and Lipkin became one of the associate editors. Medical researcher George H. Scherr was the publisher from 1964 to 1989, after which JIR was published by Blackwell Scientific Publications. Under Blackwell, James A. Krosschell was editor and publisher starting with volume 35, number 1, 1990, and remained publisher throughout the Blackwell ownership. Marc Abrahams was editor from 1991, to the next-to-last Blackwell issue in 1994, when he left to form the rival Annals of Improbable Research (AIR) and create the Ig Nobel Prize. The final Blackwell issue, volume


id: parody-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parody_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Parody science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parody_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:52.239208+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: parody-science-20260505-0
summary:
Parody science, sometimes called spoof science, is the act of mocking science in a satirical way. Science can be parodied for a purpose, ranging from social commentary and making political points, to humor for its own sake. Parody science is different from science humor or from real science that happens to be humorous, in that parody science has little or no basis in real science. One of the forms of parody science are spoof scientific articles. Some can be seen as a subgenre of science fiction. == List of parody science resources == Journal of Irreproducible Results – Parody science journal since 1955. Science Made Stupid – 1985 parody science book by Tom Weller. Speculative Grammarian – "the premier scholarly journal featuring research in the neglected field of satirical linguistics". Dihydrogen monoxide parody, which exploits common fears about science to make people think that water is dangerous. Look Around You, a BBC scientific satire based on school science programmes from the '70s and '80s. Ask Dr. Science, a humorous radio and television program. Worm Runner's Digest. The satirical flip-side of the Journal of Biological Psychology, known for such articles as "A Stress Analysis of a Strapless Evening Gown." Sokal affair,


id: spherical-cow-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherical_cow-0.md
category: reference
title: Spherical cow
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherical_cow
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:57.871990+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: spherical-cow-20260505-0
summary:
The spherical cow is a humorous metaphor for highly simplified scientific models of complex phenomena. Originating in theoretical physics, the metaphor refers to some scientific tendencies to develop toy models that reduce a problem to the simplest form imaginable, making calculations more feasible, even if the simplification hinders the model's application to reality. == History == The phrase comes from a joke that spoofs the simplifying assumptions sometimes used in theoretical physics. Milk production at a dairy farm was low, so the farmer wrote to the local university, asking for help from academia. A multidisciplinary team of professors was assembled, headed by a theoretical physicist, and two weeks of intensive on-site investigation took place. The scholars then returned to the university, notebooks crammed with data, where the task of writing the report was left to the team leader. Shortly thereafter the physicist returned to the farm, saying to the farmer, "I have the solution, but it works only in the case of spherical cows in a vacuum." John Harte, who received his Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin in 1965, reported that he first heard the joke as a graduate student. One of the earliest published references is in a


id: umma-gumma-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umma_gumma-0.md
category: reference
title: Umma gumma
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umma_gumma
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:59.283175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: umma-gumma-20260505-0
summary:
Umma gumma is a species of damselfly in the family Calopterygidae. The genus name was established in 1890 and this species described in 2015 from Africa was found to belong to the genus. The species was named after the Pink Floyd album Ummagumma. == References ==


id: what-if-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_If-0.md
category: reference
title: What If? (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_If?_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:01.686050+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: what-if-book-20260505-0
summary:
What If?: Serious Scientific Answers to Absurd Hypothetical Questions is a 2014 non-fiction book by Randall Munroe in which the author answers hypothetical science questions sent to him by readers of his webcomic, xkcd. The book contains a selection of questions and answers originally published on his blog What If?, along with several new ones. The book is divided into several dozen chapters, most of which are devoted to answering a unique question. What If? was released on September 2, 2014, and was received positively by critics. A sequel to the book, titled What If? 2, was released on September 13, 2022. In 2024, a 10th anniversary edition of the book was released. == Conception of the blog == In the introduction section of the book, Randall Munroe recounts wondering as a child whether "there were more hard things or soft things in the world", concluding that "the world contained about three billion soft things and five billion hard things". The conversation that was produced by this question impressed Munroe's mother to such a degree that she wrote it down. Though Munroe later stated that his question was rather meaningless, he used it as an example of how "thoroughly answer[ing]


id: what-if-book-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_If-1.md
category: reference
title: What If? (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_If?_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:01.686050+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: what-if-book-20260505-0
summary:
What would happen if you tried to hit a baseball pitched at 90% the speed of light? Using mathematics and physics, Munroe concluded such a situation would result in a nuclear fusion explosion, and that ultimately, the result would be a ruling of hit by pitch. What If? approaches its subject matter with a sense of wit and sometimes makes use of approximations to answer questions that seem impossible to solve. Most questions demand assumptions and cross-disciplinary science skills to answer, resulting in "back-of-the-envelope" calculations. What If? is interspersed with "charmingly-amateur" stick figure illustrations. The book also features periodic sections titled "Weird (and Worrying) Questions from the What If? Inbox", which are short collections of questions Munroe had not answered because he did not "want to think about that". In an interview, Munroe stated that he "never got past the initial mental image" of the question "How cold would your teeth have to get in order for a cup of hot coffee to make them shatter on contact?" == Reception == The book was received positively by critics. Ethan Gilsdorf of the Boston Globe stated that "it's fun to watch as Munroe tackles each question and examines every possible complication."


id: what-if-2-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_If-0.md
category: reference
title: What If? 2 (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What_If?_2_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:02.939398+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: what-if-2-book-20260505-0
summary:
What If? 2: Additional Serious Scientific Answers to Absurd Hypothetical Questions is a 2022 non-fiction book by Randall Munroe. The book seeks to provide scientific answers to hypothetical questions proposed by readers of the author's webcomic, xkcd, and blog, What If? A follow-up to Munroe's 2014 title What If?, the book was released on September 13, 2022, to generally positive reviews, with Time saying, "Science isn't easy, but in Munroe's capable hands, it surely can be fun." == Background == Munroe, whose career began as a roboticist for NASA, began writing his webcomic xkcd in 2005, and following its success took up cartooning full-time soon after. With many of his drawings revolving around the topics of science and mathematics, Munroe soon began receiving questions from readers about those subject areas. As a result, he created a spinoff blog titled What If? where he compiled these questions and his subsequent responses. The blog formed the basis for his 2014 book What If?, which reached the top of The New York Times Best Seller list, and inspired the creation of a second volume, What If? 2. == Synopsis == What If? 2 continues in the same vein as its predecessor in attempting


id: f-d-c-willard-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F._D._C._Willard-0.md
category: reference
title: F. D. C. Willard
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F._D._C._Willard
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:04.093310+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: f-d-c-willard-20260505-0
summary:
F. D. C. Willard (1968–1982) was the pen name of Chester, a Siamese cat, used on several papers written by his owner, J. H. Hetherington, in physics journals. On one occasion, he was listed as the sole author. == Background == In 1975, the American physicist and mathematician Jack H. Hetherington of Michigan State University wanted to publish some of his research results in the field of low-temperature physics in the scientific journal Physical Review Letters. A colleague, to whom he had given his paper for review, pointed out that Hetherington had used the first person plural, "we", in his text, and that the journal would reject this form on submissions with a sole author. Rather than take the time to retype the article to use the singular form, or to bring in a co-author, Hetherington decided to invent one. == Publications == Hetherington had a Siamese cat named Chester, who had been sired by a Siamese named Willard. Fearing that colleagues might recognize his pet's name, he thought it better to use the pet's initial. Aware that most Americans have at least two given names, he invented two more given names based on the scientific name for a house


id: albany-law-journal-of-science-and-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albany_Law_Journal_of_Science_and_Technology-0.md
category: reference
title: Albany Law Journal of Science and Technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albany_Law_Journal_of_Science_and_Technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:05.669688+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: albany-law-journal-of-science-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
The Albany Law Journal of Science and Technology (Bluebook abbreviation: Alb. L.J. Sci. & Tech.) is a triannual law journal edited by students at Albany Law School. It was established in 1990 and covers legal issues involving science and technology. The journal also organizes an annual symposia. == Membership == Members are students at Albany Law School. Students become eligible for journal membership upon completion of their first year of law school. Offers of membership are extended based on student class standing or on the results of a writing competition jointly administered by the school's three student-edited journals. == Notable symposia == Facebook Firing: The Intersection of Social Media, Employment, & Ethics (2013) Building a High-Tech, 21st Century Economy (2015) == Past Editors-in-Chief == Vol. 36 - John Rainey (2026) Vol. 35 - Savannah Everson (2025) Vol. 34 - Natalie Turney (2024) Vol. 33 - Claire Stratton (2023) Vol. 32 - Anneliese Aliasso (2022) Vol. 29 - Daniel Young (2019) Vol. 27 - Erin Ginty (2017) Vol. 26 - James Faucher II (2016) Vol. 25 - Gary J. Repke, Jr. (2015) Vol. 24 - Elizabeth A. Cappillino (2014) Vol. 23 - Nadia Isobel Arginteanu (2013) Vol. 22 - Christina M.


id: biological-patent-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_patent-0.md
category: reference
title: Biological patent
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_patent
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:06.993445+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biological-patent-20260505-0
summary:
A biological patent is a patent on an invention in the field of biology that by law allows the patent holder to exclude others from making, using, selling, or importing the protected invention for a limited period of time. The scope and reach of biological patents vary among jurisdictions, and may include biological technology and products, genetically modified organisms and genetic material. The applicability of patents to substances and processes wholly or partially natural in origin is a subject of debate. == Biological patents in different jurisdictions == === Australia === In February 2013, Judge Justice John Nicholas ruled in the Federal Court of Australia in favour of a Myriad Genetics patent on the BRCA1 gene. This was a landmark ruling, affirming the validity of patents on naturally occurring DNA sequences. However, the U.S. Supreme Court came to the opposite conclusion only a few months later. The Australian ruling has been appealed to the Full Bench of the Federal Court; submissions in the case include consideration of the U.S. Supreme Court ruling. This decision was decided in 2014, affirming Nicholas J's decision in favor of Myriad, confirming that isolated genetic material (genes) are valid subjects of patents. In October 2015,


id: biological-patent-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_patent-1.md
category: reference
title: Biological patent
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_patent
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:06.993445+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biological-patent-20260505-0
summary:
In the United States, up until 2013 natural biological substances themselves could have been patented (apart from any associated process or usage) if they were sufficiently "isolated" from their naturally occurring states. Prominent historical examples of such patents include those on adrenaline, insulin, vitamin B12, and various genes. A landmark ruling by the U.S. Supreme Court in June 2013 declared naturally occurring DNA sequences ineligible for patents. == Ethics == === Patenting genes === Gene patents are a form of intellectual property which provide the patent holder with the exclusive right to exclude others from making, using, selling, or importing the invention for a specified period of time, typically twenty years. The patenting of genes is a controversial issue in terms of bioethics. Some believe it is unethical to patent genetic material because it treats life as a commodity, or that it undermines the dignity of people and animals by allowing ownership of genes. Some say that living materials occur naturally, and therefore cannot be patented. Along with concerns about the commodification of human life, the medical community has also warned that gene patents can inhibit the practice of medicine and progress of science. For example, the American Medical Association's


id: biological-patent-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_patent-2.md
category: reference
title: Biological patent
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_patent
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:06.993445+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biological-patent-20260505-0
summary:
=== Patents relating to the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of COVID-19 === In light of the COVID-19 pandemic, several companies around the world raced to develop testing, vaccines, and cures for COVID-19. This required a substantial investment of time and money, and patents were used to protect this innovation. Patent holders are able to refuse licensing for third-parties to manufacture the patented medicine, creating a monopoly for the patent holder and lower supply levels. Furthermore, patent-holders control pricing for licensing and access. This patent-regime has the potential to limit access to life-saving vaccines and cures, especially for those in poor countries. Pharmaceutical industry executives diminished the idea of sharing intellectual property, arguing that companies would have no incentive to innovate if their patents were considered worthless during a pandemic. However, health advocates argue that taxpayers substantially contributed to the development of the vaccines and they should thus be regarded as global public goods. A lack of access to medication and vaccines is especially problematic during a global pandemic. In April 2020, the Director General of the World Health Organization supported a proposal by Carlos Alvarado, to create a pool of rights for testing medicine and vaccine with free access or


id: buck-v-bell-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_v._Bell-0.md
category: reference
title: Buck v. Bell
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_v._Bell
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:08.352062+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: buck-v-bell-20260505-0
summary:
Buck v. Bell, 274 U.S. 200 (1927), is a landmark decision of the United States Supreme Court, written by Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr., in which the Court ruled that a state statute permitting compulsory sterilization of the unfit, including the intellectually disabled, "for the protection and health of the state" did not violate the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. Despite changing attitudes about sterilization, the Supreme Court has never expressly overturned Buck v. Bell. It is widely believed to have been weakened by Skinner v. Oklahoma, 316 U.S. 535 (1942), which deemed compulsory sterilization of male habitual criminals unconstitutional. Legal scholar and Holmes biographer G. Edward White, in fact, wrote, "the Supreme Court has distinguished the case [Buck v. Bell] out of existence". In addition, federal statutes, including the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, provide protections for people with disabilities, defined as both physical and mental impairments. == Background == The modern concept of eugenics was propounded in 1883 by Francis Galton, who also coined the name. The idea first became popular in the United States and had found proponents in Europe by the start


id: buck-v-bell-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_v._Bell-1.md
category: reference
title: Buck v. Bell
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_v._Bell
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:08.352062+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: buck-v-bell-20260505-0
summary:
On March 28, 1924, she gave birth to a daughter. Since Buck had been declared mentally incompetent to raise her child, the Dobbses adopted the baby and named her "Vivian Alice Elaine Dobbs". She attended Venable Public Elementary School of Charlottesville for four terms, from September 1930 until May 1932. By all accounts, Vivian was of average intelligence, far above feeblemindedness.She was a perfectly normal, quite average student, neither particularly outstanding nor much troubled. In those days before grade inflation, when C meant "good, 81–87" (as defined on her report card) rather than barely scraping by, Vivian Dobbs received A's and B's for deportment and C's for all academic subjects but mathematics (which was always difficult for her, and where she scored a D) during her first term in Grade 1A, from September 1930 to January 1931. She improved during her second term in 1B, meriting an A in deportment, C in mathematics, and B in all other academic subjects; she was placed on the honor roll in April 1931. Promoted to 2A, she had trouble during the fall term of 1931, failing mathematics and spelling but receiving A in deportment, B in reading, and C in writing and English.


id: buck-v-bell-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_v._Bell-2.md
category: reference
title: Buck v. Bell
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_v._Bell
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:08.352062+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: buck-v-bell-20260505-0
summary:
=== Legal appeals and rulings === The case then moved to the Supreme Court of Appeals of Virginia, where Whitehead offered a 5‑page compared to the state's 40-page brief. Buck lost there too. Her only recourse was to the U.S. Supreme Court, but that was merely an illusion: even if Whitehead had put forth an effort, Carrie's case was put before a Supreme Court with at least two avowed believers in eugenics: Chief Justice (and former president) William Howard Taft and Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. In 1915, Taft had written the introduction to the book How to Live, which contained a sizable portion devoted to eugenics. As for Holmes, in 1921, he told future justice Felix Frankfurter that he had no problem "restricting propagation by the undesirables and putting to death infants that didn't pass the examination." Buck and her guardian contended that the due process clause guarantees all adults the right to procreate which was being violated. They also made the argument that the Equal Protection Clause in the 14th Amendment was being violated since not all similarly situated people were being treated the same. The sterilization law was only for the "feeble-minded" at certain state institutions and


id: buck-v-bell-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_v._Bell-3.md
category: reference
title: Buck v. Bell
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_v._Bell
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:08.352062+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: buck-v-bell-20260505-0
summary:
=== Aftermath === According to famed eugenicist Harry H. Laughlin, whose written testimony was presented during the trial in his absence, Buck's legal defeat signaled the end of "eugenical sterilization's 'experimental period.'" Following the Supreme Court ruling, over two dozen states enacted similar laws, including Oregon and the Carolinas, doubling American sterilizations from 6,000 to more than 12,000 by 1947. Buck was sterilized on October 19, 1927, roughly five months after the Supreme Court trial verdict. She became the first Virginian sterilized since the 1924 Eugenical Sterilization Act passed. The Virginia sterilization law is said to have inspired Nazi Germany's 400,000 sterilizations, including those sanctioned under the 1933 Law for Protection Against Genetically Defective Offspring. Carrie Buck was operated upon, receiving a compulsory salpingectomy (a form of tubal ligation). She was later paroled from the institution as a domestic worker to a family in Bland, Virginia. She was an avid reader until her death in 1983. Her daughter Vivian had been pronounced "feeble minded" after a cursory examination by ERO field worker Dr. Arthur Estabrook. According to his report, Vivian "showed backwardness", thus the "three generations" of the majority opinion. It is worth noting that the child did very well


id: buck-v-bell-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_v._Bell-4.md
category: reference
title: Buck v. Bell
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buck_v._Bell
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:08.352062+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: buck-v-bell-20260505-0
summary:
Cohen, Adam (2016), Imbeciles: The Supreme Court, American Eugenics, and the Sterilization of Carrie Buck, Penguin, ISBN 978-1-59420-418-0. Cullen-DuPont, Kathryn. Encyclopedia of Women's History in America (Infobase Publishing, 2009) pp 37–38 Breed, Allen G. (August 13, 2011). "Eugenics victim, son fighting together for justice". Winfall, North Carolina. Associated Press. Archived from the original on March 6, 2019. Retrieved August 13, 2011. Bruinius, Harry (2007). Better for All the World: The Secret History of Forced Sterilization and America's Quest for Racial Purity. New York: Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0-375-71305-7. Leuchtenburg, William E. (1995), "Mr. Justice Holmes and Three Generations of Imbeciles", The Supreme Court Reborn: The Constitutional Revolution in the Age of Roosevelt, New York: Oxford, pp. 3–25, ISBN 978-0-19-511131-6. Lombardo, Paul (2008), Three Generations, No Imbeciles: Eugenics, the Supreme Court, and Buck v. Bell., Johns Hopkins University Press, p. 365, ISBN 978-0-8018-9010-9 Smith, J. David. The Sterilization of Carrie Buck (New Horizon Press, 1989) == External links == Text of Buck v. Bell, 274 U.S. 200 (1927) is available from: CourtListener Findlaw Google Scholar Internet Archive Justia Library of Congress Professor Thomas D. Russell An account of the case from the Dolan DNA Learning Center Buck v. Bell (Case File #31681),


id: chemical-patent-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_patent-0.md
category: reference
title: Chemical patent
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_patent
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:09.617535+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chemical-patent-20260505-0
summary:
A chemical patent, pharmaceutical patent or drug patent is a patent for an invention in the chemical or pharmaceuticals industry. Strictly speaking, in most jurisdictions, there are essentially no differences between the legal requirements to obtain a patent for an invention in the chemical or pharmaceutical fields, in comparison to obtaining a patent in the other fields, such as in the mechanical field. A chemical patent or a pharmaceutical patent is therefore not a sui generis right, i.e. a special legal type of patent. Chemical patent claims often use generic, Markush structures contained within them, named after the inventor Eugene Markush who won a lawsuit in the US in 1925 to allow such structures to be used in patent claims. These generic structures are used to make the patent claim as broad as possible. In the United States, patents on pharmaceuticals were considered unethical by the medical profession during most of the nineteenth-century. Drug patent terms in the US were extended from 17 to 20 years in 1994. Pharmaceutical patents are typically more valuable than any other type of patents, and thus play an essential role in the pharmaceutical industry. There are several reasons for this peculiarity: the cost of


id: clandestine-chemistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clandestine_chemistry-0.md
category: reference
title: Clandestine chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clandestine_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:11.015131+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: clandestine-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
Clandestine chemistry is chemistry carried out in secret, and particularly in illegal drug laboratories. Larger labs are usually run by gangs or organized crime intending to produce for distribution on the black market. Smaller labs can be run by individual chemists working clandestinely in order to synthesize smaller amounts of controlled substances or simply out of a hobbyist interest in chemistry, often because of the difficulty in ascertaining the purity of other, illegally synthesized drugs obtained on the black market. The term clandestine lab is generally used in any situation involving the production of illicit compounds, regardless of whether the facilities being used qualify as a true laboratory. == History == Ancient forms of clandestine chemistry included the manufacturing of explosives. From 1919 to 1933, the United States prohibited the sale, manufacture, or transportation of alcoholic beverages. This opened a door for brewers to supply their own town with alcohol. Just like modern-day drug labs, distilleries were placed in rural areas. The term moonshine generally referred to "corn whiskey", that is, a whiskey-like liquor made from corn. Today, American-made corn whiskey can be labeled or sold under that name, or as bourbon or Tennessee whiskey, depending on the details of


id: clandestine-chemistry-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clandestine_chemistry-1.md
category: reference
title: Clandestine chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clandestine_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:11.015131+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: clandestine-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
Operation Purple is a U.S. DEA driven international chemical control initiative designed to reduce the illicit manufacture of cocaine in the Andean Region, identify rogue firms and suspect individuals, gather intelligence on diversion methods, trafficking trends, and shipping routes, and take administrative, civil and/or criminal action as appropriate. Critical to the success of this operation is the communication network that gives notification of shipments and provides the government of the importer sufficient time to verify the legitimacy of the transaction and take appropriate action. The effects of this initiative have been dramatic and far-reaching. Operation Purple has exposed a significant vulnerability among traffickers, and has grown to include almost thirty nations. According to the DEA, Operation Purple has been highly effective at interfering with cocaine production. However, illicit chemists always find new methods to evade the DEA's scrutiny. In countries where strict chemical controls have been put in place, illicit drug production has been seriously affected. For example, few of the chemicals needed to process coca leaf into cocaine are manufactured in Bolivia or Peru. Most are smuggled in from neighbouring countries with advanced chemical industries or diverted from a smaller number of licit handlers. Increased interdiction of chemicals in


id: clandestine-chemistry-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clandestine_chemistry-2.md
category: reference
title: Clandestine chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clandestine_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:11.015131+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: clandestine-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
===== Methamphetamine ===== As of the early 1990s, methamphetamine use was concentrated among young white males in California and nearby states. Since then its use has spread both demographically and geographically. Methamphetamine has been a favorite among various populations including motorcycle gangs, truckers, laborers, soldiers, and ravers. Known as a "club drug", the National Institute on Drug Abuse tracks its incidence of use in children as young as twelve, and the prevalence of users increases with age. In the 1980s and early 1990s, most methamphetamine production in the United States occurred in small independent laboratories. Phenylacetone, one precursor of methamphetamine, became a Schedule II controlled immediate precursor in 1979. Underground chemists searched for alternative methods for producing methamphetamine. The two predominant methods which appeared both involve the reduction of ephedrine or pseudoephedrine to methamphetamine. At the time, neither was a watched chemical, and pills containing the substance could be bought by the thousands without raising any kind of suspicion. In the 1990s, the DEA recognized that legally imported precursors were being diverted to the production of methamphetamine. Changes to federal regulations in 1988 and throughout the 1990s enabled the DEA to more closely track the ephedrine and pseudoephedrine precursors. Many


id: clandestine-chemistry-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clandestine_chemistry-3.md
category: reference
title: Clandestine chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clandestine_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:11.015131+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: clandestine-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
In Oregon, Brett Sherry of the Oregon Clandestine Drug Lab Cleanup Program has been quoted as stating that only 10–20% of drug labs are discovered by police. Statistics reporting the prevalence of meth labs and arrest of meth producers can vary greatly from county to county and state to state. Factors affecting policing and reporting include funding, specialized training, support from local residents, and willingness to make the issue a priority in policing. How information is categorized and tracked may also inflate or minimize the apparent results. Missouri has reported some of the highest rates of meth-lab arrests in the country, and has pursued an aggressive and highly publicized policy of policing meth labs. This has resulted in as many as 205 cases per year in one county. In contrast, West Virginia reports and/or prosecutes very few cases. It's possible that these low numbers are because of cost. In WV, a police agency which reports a meth lab is responsible for the cost of its cleanup—which can cost tens of thousands of dollars, as proper disposal of toxic and hazardous materials is very expensive. The high cost of cleanup is a clear disincentive for all agencies, but especially those with


id: data-quality-act-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Quality_Act-0.md
category: reference
title: Data Quality Act
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Quality_Act
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:16.979534+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: data-quality-act-20260505-0
summary:
The Information Quality Act (IQA) or Data Quality Act (DQA), passed through the United States Congress in Section 515 of the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2001 (Pub. L. 106–554 (text) (PDF)). Because the Act was a two-sentence rider in a spending bill, it had no name given in the actual legislation. The Government Accountability Office uses the name "Information Quality Act". IQA directs the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) to issue government-wide guidelines that "provide policy and procedural guidance to federal agencies for ensuring and maximizing the quality, objectivity, utility, and integrity of information (including statistical information) disseminated by Federal agencies". Other federal agencies are also required to publish their own guidelines for information quality and peer review agendas. == Text of the IQA == Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2001 Sec. 515 reads: (a) In General. – The Director of the Office of Management and Budget shall, by not later than September 30, 2001, and with public and Federal agency involvement, issue guidelines under sections 3504(d)(1) and 3516 of title 44, United States Code, that provide policy and procedural guidance to Federal agencies for ensuring and maximizing the quality, objectivity, utility, and integrity of information (including statistical information) disseminated by Federal


id: data-quality-act-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Quality_Act-1.md
category: reference
title: Data Quality Act
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Quality_Act
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:16.979534+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: data-quality-act-20260505-0
summary:
== Information Quality Act failing as a basis for law suits == The Competitive Enterprise Institute filed a lawsuit to prevent dissemination of Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)'s "Climate Action Report 2002" published May 2002, claiming the research did not meet requirements of the Federal Data Quality Act (FDQA), which came into effect in October 2002. The case was dismissed in November 2003. In 2004, a multi-party dispute regarding the management of the Missouri River led to a case in which the District Court declared that "the IQA directs the Office of Management and Budget ("OMB") to issue guidelines that provide policy and procedural guidance to Federal agencies for ensuring and maximizing the quality, objectivity, utility, and integrity of information disseminated by the agency, the plain language of the legislation fails to define these terms. 44 U.S.C. § 3516. Moreover, the history of the legislation fails to provide any indication as to the scope of these terms. Absent any "meaningful standard" against which to evaluate the agency's discretion, the Court finds that Congress did not intend the IQA to provide a private cause of action, and therefore Blaske Marine Plaintiffs' IQA claim fails." Four days after this judgement the Department of


id: daubert-standard-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daubert_standard-0.md
category: reference
title: Daubert standard
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daubert_standard
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:18.264783+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: daubert-standard-20260505-0
summary:
In United States federal law, the Daubert standard ( DAW-bərt) is a rule of evidence regarding the admissibility of expert witness testimony. A party may raise a Daubert motion, a special motion in limine raised before or during trial, to exclude the presentation of unqualified evidence to the jury. The Daubert trilogy are the three United States Supreme Court cases that articulated the Daubert standard: Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc. (1993), which held that Rule 702 of the Federal Rules of Evidence did not incorporate the Frye standard as a basis for assessing the admissibility of scientific expert testimony, but that the rule incorporated a flexible reliability standard instead; General Electric Co. v. Joiner (1997), which held that a district court judge may exclude expert testimony when there are gaps between the evidence relied on by an expert and that person's conclusion, and that an abuse-of-discretion standard of review is the proper standard for appellate courts to use in reviewing a trial court's decision of whether it should admit expert testimony; Kumho Tire Co. v. Carmichael (1999), which held that the judge's gatekeeping function identified in Daubert applies to all expert testimony, including that which is non-scientific. Important appellate-level


id: daubert-standard-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daubert_standard-1.md
category: reference
title: Daubert standard
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daubert_standard
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:18.264783+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: daubert-standard-20260505-0
summary:
=== Timing === To attack expert testimony as inadmissible, counsel may bring pretrial motions, including motions in limine. The motion in limine may be brought prior to trial, although counsel may bring the motion during trial as well. A motion attacking expert testimony should be brought within a reasonable time after the close of discovery if the grounds for the objection can be reasonably anticipated. The hearing should be made well in advance of the first time a case appears on a trial calendar. In one case where a Daubert hearing was conducted on the day of the trial, in which the district court excluded all plaintiff's expert testimony, resulting in the dismissal of all claims, the appellate court remanded the case because of multiple irregularities and a defective record of lower court proceedings. The appellate court noted that in cases that rely heavily on expert testimony, a district court should set a discovery and trial schedule that realistically provides both sides with an adequate opportunity to introduce necessary evidence. The application of Federal Rule of Evidence 702 to proposed expert testimony can often be an uncertain process and is best conducted in such a manner that litigants have a


id: daubert-standard-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daubert_standard-2.md
category: reference
title: Daubert standard
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daubert_standard
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:18.264783+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: daubert-standard-20260505-0
summary:
If scientific, technical, or other specialized knowledge will assist the trier of fact to understand the evidence or determine a fact in issue, a witness qualified as an expert by knowledge, skill, experience, training, or education, may testify thereto in the form of an opinion or otherwise. In Daubert, the court ruled that nothing in the Federal Rules of Evidence governing expert evidence "gives any indication that 'general acceptance' is a necessary precondition to the admissibility of scientific evidence. Moreover, such a rigid standard would be at odds with the Rules' liberal thrust and their general approach of relaxing the traditional barriers to 'opinion' testimony." By requiring experts to provide relevant opinions grounded in reliable methodology, proponents of Daubert were satisfied that these standards would result in a fair and rational resolution of the scientific and technological issues which lie at the heart of product liability adjudication. Daubert has not appeared to further the Federal Rules philosophy of admitting generally all relevant testimony, and specifically of relaxing the traditional barriers to 'opinion' testimony. The Daubert decision has instead been heralded by some political commentators as one of the most important Supreme Court decisions in imposing higher barriers for toxic tort


id: daubert-standard-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daubert_standard-3.md
category: reference
title: Daubert standard
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daubert_standard
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:18.264783+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: daubert-standard-20260505-0
summary:
== International influence == The Canadian Supreme Court expressly discussed the Daubert standard in R. v. J.-L.J., [2000]. In J.-L.J., the court took a look at the development of U.S. law in this regard, noting the U.S. Supreme Court's rejection of the Frye standard and its replacement with the Daubert standard. While the court did note that "Daubert must be read in light of the specific text of the Federal Rules of Evidence, which differs from our own procedures", the court also stated in the same sentence that "the U.S. Supreme Court did list a number of factors that could be helpful in evaluating the soundness of novel science." The court then incorporated elements from the Daubert standard in their decision regarding the Quebec Court of Appeal ruling while ultimately rejecting the lower court's decision and reinstating the defendant's conviction. Later, in 2016, the Supreme Court of Canada in White Burgess Langille Inman v. Abbott and Haliburton Co. [2015] 2 SCR 182 endorsed the parts of R v. J.-L.J. that cited Daubert, saying: "in the case of an opinion based on novel or contested science or science used for a novel purpose, the reliability of the underlying science for that


id: european-law-on-drug-precursors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_law_on_drug_precursors-0.md
category: reference
title: European law on drug precursors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_law_on_drug_precursors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:19.548051+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: european-law-on-drug-precursors-20260505-0
summary:
European law on illicit drug precursors: Regulation (EC) No 273/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 February 2004 on drug precursors (contains list of substances) Council Regulation (EC) No 111/2005 of 22 December 2004 laying down rules for the monitoring of trade between the Union and third countries in drug precursors. Consolidated text (2021) (contains the same list of substances) Commission Regulation (EC) No 297/2009 of 8 April 2009 amending Regulation (EC) No 1277/2005 laying down implementing rules for Regulation (EC) No 273/2004 of the European Parliament and of the Council on drug precursors and for Council Regulation (EC) No 111/2005 laying down rules for the monitoring of trade between the Community and third countries in drug precursors The list of 23 substances is identical to list of UN-controlled drug precursors, except for the different categorization and inclusion of stereoisomers in EU Category 1. == List of substances == === Category 1 Precursors === phenylacetone methyl 2-phenylacetoacetate (MAPA) methyl 2-methyl-3-phenyloxirane-2-carboxylate (BMK methyl glycidate) 2-methyl-3-phenyloxirane-2-carboxylic acid (BMK glycidic acid) N-acetylanthranilic acid alpha-phenylacetoacetamide (APAA) alpha-phenylacetoacetonitrile (APAAN) isosafrole (cis + trans) 3,4-methylenedioxyphenylpropan-2-one piperonal safrole methyl 3-(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)-2-methyloxirane-2-carboxylate (PMK methyl glycidate) 3-(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)-2-methyloxirane-2-carboxylic acid (PMK glycidic acid) 4-anilino-N-phenethylpiperidine (ANPP) N-phenethyl-4-piperidone (NPP) ephedrine


id: harvey-v-horan-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvey_v._Horan-0.md
category: reference
title: Harvey v. Horan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvey_v._Horan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:20.751122+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: harvey-v-horan-20260505-0
summary:
Harvey v. Horan, 278 F. 3d 370 (4th Cir. 2002), is a federal court case dealing with felons' rights of access to DNA testing. The Eastern Virginia District Court originally found that felons were entitled access to DNA testing on potentially exculpatory evidence, but this finding was later overturned by the Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals. Nevertheless, the case paved the way for the Innocence Protection Act, which ensures that convicted offenders can try to prove their innocence by requesting DNA testing on evidence in government's possession that was used in their case. == The case == On April 30, 1990, James Harvey was convicted of rape and forcible sodomy by a jury in Fairfax County Circuit Court. He was sentenced to 25 years in prison. One piece of evidence used to convict Harvey was restriction fragment length polymorphism ("RFLP") DNA testing. The victim had two assailants, and this test prevented both Harvey and his co-defendant from being excluded as a possible source of spermatozoa recovered from the victim through conventional serology. Harvey was also implicated by testimony from his co-defendant, the victim, and a third prosecution witness. However, this testimony indicated that Harvey had not ejaculated during the attack.


id: harvey-v-horan-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvey_v._Horan-1.md
category: reference
title: Harvey v. Horan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvey_v._Horan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:20.751122+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: harvey-v-horan-20260505-0
summary:
== The appeal == On September 26, 2001, Horan's lawyer, Jack L. Gould, appealed the decision to the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit. He contended that § 1983 was not an appropriate vehicle for Harvey's action. He stated that the procedural flaws in the claim required that it be dismissed because it was really a successive petition for a writ of habeas corpus and an attempt to get around strict rules and deadlines. On January 23, 2002, the court concluded that Harvey's rights had not been violated and that the lower court had erred in its decision. Fourth Circuit Chief Judge J. Harvie Wilkinson III wrote the opinion, in which Judge Niemeyer joined. Judge King wrote a concurring opinion. The majority opinion stated that the claim was, in effect, a petition for a writ of habeas corpus brought without leave of court. According to a previous case, Heck v. Humphrey (1994), a convicted criminal defendant cannot bring a § 1983 action that would "necessarily imply the invalidity of his conviction or sentence" unless the defendant can prove that his "conviction or sentence has already been invalidated." In this decision, the Supreme Court found that civil tort


id: harvey-v-horan-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvey_v._Horan-2.md
category: reference
title: Harvey v. Horan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvey_v._Horan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:20.751122+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: harvey-v-horan-20260505-0
summary:
== Fallout == After the January 2002 decision was handed down, Harvey applied to Virginia's Fairfax Circuit Court for DNA testing based on a 2001 law allowing felons increased access to potentially exculpatory biological evidence that had not previously been subjected to the current DNA testing method. On March 1, 2002, the court ordered the Division of Forensic Science to conduct the testing. On May 15, 2002, after the testing was completed, the division filed a certificate of analysis stating that Harvey could not be eliminated as a possible contributor to the sperm fractions found on the victim. On September 24, 2002, Harvey filed a petition for a writ of habeas corpus in the Virginia Supreme Court, challenging the validity of the certificate of analysis and related test results. The court dismissed the petition on June 10, 2004, saying that it did not have jurisdiction to consider it. Back in March 2002, the federal appeal had come before the full Fourth Circuit as an en banc reconsideration (as opposed to the original three-judge panel). By this time, the issue was moot, but two judges, J. Michael Luttig and Wilkinson, wrote anyway. Luttig wrote that the "right of access to evidence


id: institute-for-law-science-and-global-security-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Law,_Science_and_Global_Security-0.md
category: reference
title: Institute for Law, Science and Global Security
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Law,_Science_and_Global_Security
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:21.974381+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: institute-for-law-science-and-global-security-20260505-0
summary:
The Institute for Law, Science and Global Security in the Department of Government at Georgetown University was established to promote teaching and research in the area of intersection between international law and international relations. The Institute sponsors undergraduate and graduate courses and runs a Master's Program in International Law and Global Security. The Institute seeks to inform the public policy debate about the nature, role and importance of international law as it connected to issues of science and global security. To this end, it sponsors a series of specific programs including the Program on Non-Proliferation Law and Policy, which is jointly run with the James Martin Center of the Monterey Institute of International Studies. Most recently, the Institute has begun a special initiative in the area of cyber security. Among the participants in this initiative have been former Director of the Central Intelligence Agency General Michael Hayden, Siobhan Gorman, national security correspondent of The Wall Street Journal, and Suzanne Spaulding, former General Counsel for the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence. Since its creation, the Institute has also sponsored events with a variety of other speakers, including Paul D. Clement, former Solicitor General of the United States, Bill Richardson, the Governor


id: michael-kopelman-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Kopelman-0.md
category: reference
title: Michael Kopelman
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Kopelman
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:23.840629+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: michael-kopelman-20260505-0
summary:
Michael David Kopelman (born February 8, 1950) is a British researcher of memory disorders, having contributed for more than 30 years to the development of cognitive neuropsychology and cognitive neuropsychiatry. Until his retirement in 2015, he was lead clinician at the Neuropsychiatry and Memory Disorders Clinic at St Thomas' National Health Service teaching hospital in Central London. Beginning in 1981, he also served as an expert witness in legal proceedings, including high-profile cases. == Education == Kopelman's first degree was in psychology. He subsequently studied medicine at Middlesex University, and in 1978 completed his medical degree at the University of London. From 1980 to 1988, Kopelman trained in psychiatry at Bethlem-Maudsley Joint Hospitals. In 1988, he earned his PhD from the Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London. == Research and career == Kopelman's research interests include neurological memory disorders, especially retrograde amnesia; confabulation; executive function; semantic dementia; and psychogenic amnesia, particularly the nature of amnesia for offences. === Academic career === From 1989 to 2015, Kopelman was first a consultant neuropsychiatrist, then professor of neuropsychiatry at Guy's, King's and St Thomas' School of Medicine. He is Emeritus Professor of Neuropsychiatry at the Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and


id: legal-psychology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_psychology-0.md
category: reference
title: Legal psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:25.069000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: legal-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
Legal psychology is a field focused on the application of psychological principles within the legal system and its interactions with individuals. Professionals in this area are involved in understanding, assessing, evaluating potential jurors, investigating crimes and crime scenes, conducting forensic investigations The term "legal psychology" distinguishes this practical branch of psychology from the more theory-oriented field of clinical psychology. Together, legal psychology and forensic psychology form the field more generally recognized as "psychology and law". Following earlier efforts by psychologists to address legal issues, psychology and law became a field of study in the 1960s, though that originating concern has lessened over time. The multidisciplinary American Psychological Association's Division 41, the American Psychology–Law Society, is active with the goal of promoting the contributions of psychology to the understanding of law and legal systems through research; as well as providing education to psychologists in legal issues and providing education to legal personnel on psychological issues. Further, its mandate is to inform the psychological and legal communities, along with the general public, about current research, education, and services in the field of psychology and law. There are similar societies in Canada, Britain, and Europe. The Canadian Psychological Association also serves as a


id: legal-psychology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_psychology-1.md
category: reference
title: Legal psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:25.069000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: legal-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
== Roles of a legal psychologist == === Academics and research === Many legal psychologists work as professors in university psychology departments, criminal justice departments or law schools. Like other professors, legal psychologists generally conduct and publish empirical research, teach various classes, and mentor graduate and undergraduate students. Many legal psychologists also conduct research in a more general area of psychology (e.g., social, clinical, cognitive) with only a tangential legal focus. Those legal psychologists who work in law schools almost always hold a JD in addition to a PhD. Academics and researchers make up a significant amount of the psychologists involved today with applying psychology to legal contexts. While many think of clinical psychology as the main form of psychology in the law, however the utility of psychology, including applications of social, developmental, and neurological psychology has given significant amount of evidence-based methods to support a fair, proper, and humane justice system. The application of psychological knowledge and principles of evidence-based care are significant to maintaining fairness and integrity across the criminal justice system. === Amicus briefs === One method that psychologists and researchers use to provide best practices to the justice system is through amicus briefs (defined by the


id: legal-psychology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_psychology-2.md
category: reference
title: Legal psychology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_psychology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:25.069000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: legal-psychology-20260505-0
summary:
== Example of legal psychology in action == One of the earliest experiments on eyewitness reliability was conducted in March 1893 J. McKeen Cattell posted questions to fifty-six of his students at Columbia University. The questions he asked his students were comparable to those asked in a court of justice. What he found was that it was reasonable to conclude eyewitness accounts of events were unreliable. His students were all sure they were mostly correct, even when they were not, and some were hesitant when they were in fact correct. He could not figure out specifically why each student had inaccurate testimonies. Research into eyewitness testimony became more popular nearly a century later in the 1980s and 1990s. As some research emerged about the potential unreliability of eyewitness memory concerns rose given the prevalent use of eyewitnesses for key evidence. Many details of crimes are obtained by interviewing witnesses, some of whom might testify in court, providing their account of the event into official evidence. Eyewitness testimony and identification of an accused is often a salient piece of evidence which unduly influences the opinions of the jury. As a result, incorrect or false eyewitness testimony has been found to be


id: jules-li-geois-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jules_Liégeois-0.md
category: reference
title: Jules Liégeois
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jules_Liégeois
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:26.427074+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jules-li-geois-20260505-0
summary:
Jules Joseph Liégeois (30 November 1833 – 14 August 1908), Knight of the Legion of Honour ("Chevalier de l'Ordre de la Légion d'Honneur"), and the Professor of administrative law at the University of Nancy for forty years, was a universally respected French jurist who was also widely known as an important foundation member, promoter, and defender of the Nancy School of Hypnosis — some would even say "the founder" of the School, not "just a participant" (Touzeil-Divina, 2024a). In addition to his numerous influential publications on administrative law and the relationship between economics and the law, he was internationally recognized for the significance, scope, and systematic nature of his critical and innovative personal investigations into natural/spontaneous somnambulism, hypnotism, and hypnotic suggestion in the wider medico-legal domain. He "was the first forensic scientist to scientifically address the medical question of hypnotism", and "was the leading researcher in the nineteenth century into the possibilities of the abuse of hypnosis for the purposes of crime", not only in the sense of crimes committed upon a hypnotized subject, and those committed by a hypnotized subject, but also in the sense of the hypnotized subject having no memory of either their hypnotization or their subsequent


id: jules-li-geois-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jules_Liégeois-1.md
category: reference
title: Jules Liégeois
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jules_Liégeois
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:26.427074+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jules-li-geois-20260505-0
summary:
At the time of their (1784) inquiries, the two Royal Commissions on Animal Magnetism — one was from the Paris Faculty of Medicine) and the French Royal Academy of Sciences (i.e., Bailly, 1784a; 1800; 1784b), and the other from the Royal Society of Medicine of Paris (i.e., Poissonnier, et al., 1784) — independently and emphatically concluded from their controlled trials and "blind" experiments that the (metaphysical) claims made by Mesmer's former associate, Charles d’Eslon, for the substantial existence of "animal magnetism" (le magnétisme animal) and of a substantial (rather than metaphorical) "magnetic fluid" (le fluide magnétique) were nothing more than a case (as Mesmer himself had argued) of the inappropriate reification of metaphor (i.e, Alfred Whitehead's "fallacy of misplaced concreteness"), and were, therefore, entirely without foundation. ==== Dominant ideas ==== Anticipating the (c.1820) work of Thomas Brown, the Chair of Moral Philosophy at Edinburgh University, James Braid's teacher, in relation to the suggestive influence of "dominant ideas", and the work of Braid himself, in relation to the "mono-ideo-dynamic principle of action" concept (Braid, 1855) that he had developed from the work of his associates William Benjamin Carpenter, and Daniel Noble, both of the (1784) investigatory committees concluded that — having


id: jules-li-geois-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jules_Liégeois-2.md
category: reference
title: Jules Liégeois
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jules_Liégeois
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:26.427074+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jules-li-geois-20260505-0
summary:
"The hypnotic condition is not an abnormal one, it does not create new functions nor extraordinary phenomena; it develops those which are produced in the waking condition; because of a new psychical modality, it exaggerates the normal susceptibility to suggestion, which we all possess to some extent; our psychical condition is modified so as to carry out the images and impressions evoked with greater boldness and distinctness." — Hippolyte Bernheim (1888). "Hypnotism, like natural sleep, exalts the imagination, and makes the brain more susceptible to suggestion. ... It is a physiological law, that sleep puts the brain into such a psychical condition that the imagination accepts and recognizes as real the impressions transmitted to it. To provoke this special psychical condition by means of hypnotism, and to cultivate the suggestibility thus artificially increased with the aim of cure or relief, this is the role of psychotherapeutics." — Hippolyte Bernheim (1888, emphasis in original). Of the foundation members of "Suggestion School" — Prof. Jules Liégeois (faculty of Law), Prof. Hippolyte Bernheim (1840–1919) (faculty of Medicine), and Prof. Henri-Étienne Beaunis (1830–1921) (chair of Physiology), from the University of Nancy — the first to associate himself with the experiments, principles, and practices of


id: jules-li-geois-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jules_Liégeois-3.md
category: reference
title: Jules Liégeois
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jules_Liégeois
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:26.427074+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jules-li-geois-20260505-0
summary:
=== "Waking" and "hypnotic" suggestion === Although Liégeois' initial experiments reflected his academic interest in the legal parallels between hypnotism and natural/spontaneous (i.e., rather than "mesmeric" or "artificially induced") somnambulism, his major work over an extended period involved a thorough investigation into the principles and practices responsible for a far wider range of applications of "suggestion" — involving both 'waking' suggestion and 'hypnotic' suggestion — than their medical and/or therapeutic applications alone. In particular, given his forensic interest in the effects of "suggestion" and their significance in relation to issues of posthypnotic amnesia, and the personal responsibility/culpability for the phenomena produced by "suggestion", he was also deeply interested in the nature, form, and content of the "suggestions" made. Driven by his concern with the philosophical and forensic (rather than therapeutic) aspects of hypnotism and hypnotic suggestion, Liégeois asserted, along with Charcot's associate Pierre Janet (1920, pp.284–285), that the critical feature of the subject-operator interaction was not the operator's making of the "suggestion", but, instead, was the subject's taking of the "suggestion" made by the operator. As Yeates (2016a) observed, in the same way that "one is only a "hypnotist" if one induces "hypnotism" ... an idea is only a "suggestion"


id: jules-li-geois-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jules_Liégeois-4.md
category: reference
title: Jules Liégeois
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jules_Liégeois
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:26.427074+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jules-li-geois-20260505-0
summary:
"[In the mid-1880s, in addition to concerns relating to the possibility] of rape under hypnotic sleep ... another type of moral concern associated with hypnotism was gaining public attention abroad: the possibility of inciting people under hypnosis to commit criminal acts. It was Jules Liégeois, the French lawyer associated with the Nancy School of hypnotism, who in 1884 first pointed to this danger in a report for the French Academy of Moral and Political Sciences." — Kaat Wils (2017). Liégeois' own experiments, relating to both serious and petty crimes, which employed a wide range of suggested "mock" activities involving fake weapons, fake poisons, etc. — i.e., "crimes expérimentaux" ('experimental crimes'), or "crimes de laboratoire" ('laboratory crimes), in place of "crimes véritable" ('real crimes') — was work for which he was much admired by the experimental psychologist, Joseph Delbœuf (e.g., Delbœuf, 1892), and much denigrated by Charcot's associate, Georges Gilles de la Tourette (e.g., Gilles de la Tourette, 1891b). However, as Bogousslavsky, Walusinski & Veyrunes (2009, pp. 197-198) observe, Gilles de la Tourette's criticism was somewhat unfair: not only had Gilles de la Tourette (some time earlier) personally conducted similar "hypnotic murder" experiments involving fake pistols and mock poisons at the


id: jules-li-geois-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jules_Liégeois-5.md
category: reference
title: Jules Liégeois
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jules_Liégeois
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:26.427074+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jules-li-geois-20260505-0
summary:
=== Prosecution === The two expert witnesses for the prosecution, Paul Brouardel, the eminent professor of forensics at the Faculté de Médecine de Paris, and Gilbert Ballet, Charcot's chef de clinique ('clinical head') at the Salpêtrière, gave evidence that, in their view, any such thing was impossible; and in an extensive (later) discussion of the matter, Georges Gilles de La Tourette, a former pupil of Brouardel and close associate of Charcot, published an extensive account of the matter (i.e., 1891a, and 1891b), "which denied all possibility of a violent act under hypnosis and by suggestion" (Walusinski, 2011, p. 76). === Defence === Called upon as an expert witness for Bompard's defence as a representative of the Nancy School, Liégeois produced extensive details of the numerous experiments that had satisfied both himself and his Nancy colleagues that crimes could be committed by (innocent) subjects under the influence of hypnotic suggestion. His constant emphasis throughout his testimony that both he and Bernheim held the same opinions is easily explained: Liégeois was a last-minute substitute for Bernheim — and was, therefore, only present as a proxy for Bernheim, rather than as Liégeois, the legal expert who had addressed the Académie des Sciences Morales


id: jules-li-geois-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jules_Liégeois-6.md
category: reference
title: Jules Liégeois
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jules_Liégeois
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:26.427074+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jules-li-geois-20260505-0
summary:
1863: admitted as an Associate Member of the Académie de Stanislas on 23 January 1863. 1874: admitted as a Full Member of the Académie de Stanislas on 27 March 1874. 1881: admitted as a Full Member of the Society of Comparative Legislation in May 1881. 1881-1882: served as President of the Académie de Stanislas. 1886: made a Corresponding Member of the Society for Psychical Research. 1889: appointed vice-president of the First International Congress of Experimental and Therapeutic Hypnotism, in Paris, in August 1889. c.1890: made an Honorary Member of the Gesellschaft Für Psychologische Forschung ('Society for Psychological Research'). 1892: appointed vice-president of the Second International Congress of Experimental Psychology, in London, in August 1892. 1897: appointed Honorary President of the International Congress of Neurology, Psychiatry, Medical Electricity, and Hypnology, in Brussels, in 1897. 1899: made a Corresponding Member of the Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques, the organization to which he had made a significant presentation in 1884. 1900: appointed vice-president of the Second International Congress of Experimental and Therapeutic Hypnotism, in Paris, in August 1900. 1904: made a Chevalier (Knight) of the Légion d'honneur (Legion of Honour), by decree, on 26 July 1904. == Memorials == === Bains-les-Bains (1909)


id: national-clearinghouse-for-science-technology-and-the-law-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Clearinghouse_for_Science,_Technology_and_the_Law-0.md
category: reference
title: National Clearinghouse for Science, Technology and the Law
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Clearinghouse_for_Science,_Technology_and_the_Law
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:27.710402+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-clearinghouse-for-science-technology-and-the-law-20260505-0
summary:
The National Clearinghouse for Science, Technology and the Law at Stetson University College of Law is an organization that provides information sharing and professional development to forensic scientists, lawyers, judges, other legal professionals, law enforcement personnel, educators, and the general public. Sponsored by a grant from the National Institute of Justice, NCSTL offers educational programs and a database of forensic-related information. Within the context of the promotion of justice based on sound science and technology, NCSTL focuses on raising awareness and fostering communication and understanding among the various parties interested in scientific evidence and expert testimony. == Free Forensics Database == One of the primary purposes of NCSTL is to provide a resource that collects and tracks the latest available sources related to forensics and technology. NCSTL scrutinizes and disseminates useful information in the form of a research database on the Internet that is free and available to the public. The NCSTL database was first offered live to the public in February 2005. It collects and distributes bibliographic information on thousands of court decisions, pieces of legislation, legal and scientific publications, news and media features, websites and educational opportunities. Using the database, researchers can choose to view all types of


id: neurolaw-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurolaw-0.md
category: reference
title: Neurolaw
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurolaw
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:29.062328+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neurolaw-20260505-0
summary:
Neurolaw is a field of interdisciplinary study that explores the effects of discoveries in neuroscience on legal rules and standards. Drawing from neuroscience, philosophy, social psychology, cognitive neuroscience, and criminology, neurolaw practitioners seek to address not only the descriptive and predictive issues of how neuroscience is and will be used in the legal system, but also the normative issues of how neuroscience should and should not be used. The rapid growth of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) research has led to new insights on neuroanatomical structure and function, which has led to a greater understanding of human behavior and cognition. As a response, there has been an emergence of questions regarding how these findings can be applied to criminology and legal processes. Major areas of current neurolaw research include courtroom applications, legal implications of neuroscience findings, and how neuroscience-related jurisdiction can be created and applied. Despite the growing interest in neurolaw and its potential applications, the legal realm recognizes the substantial opportunity for misuse and is proceeding cautiously with novel research outcomes. == History == The term neurolaw was first coined by J. Sherrod Taylor in 1991, in a Neuropsychology journal article analyzing the role of psychologists and lawyers in


id: neurolaw-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurolaw-1.md
category: reference
title: Neurolaw
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurolaw
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:29.062328+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neurolaw-20260505-0
summary:
=== Insanity defense === The tendency of the United States criminal justice system has been to limit the degree to which one can claim innocence based on mental illness. During the middle of the 20th century many courts, through the Durham Rules and the American Law Institute Model Penal Code, regarded impaired volition as legitimate grounds for the insanity defense. However, when John Hinckley was acquitted due to insanity in 1982, a reversal of this opinion occurred, which spurred a narrowing definition of mental illness. Insanity decisions became increasingly based on the M’Naghten Rules, which asserted that unless one was able to prove that a mental illness kept him or her from knowing that their actions were wrong, or knowing the disposition of the criminal act, one would not be able to be tried as criminally insane. Contemporary research conducted on the prefrontal cortex has criticized this standpoint because it considers impaired volition as a factor. Many researchers and courts are beginning to consider "irresistible impulse" as legitimate grounds for mental illness. One of the factors neurosciences have added to the insanity defense is the claim that the brain “made someone do it.” In these cases, the argument is based


id: neurolaw-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurolaw-2.md
category: reference
title: Neurolaw
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurolaw
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:29.062328+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neurolaw-20260505-0
summary:
=== Epigenetics === Current research is exploring how genetic analysis can be used to assess risk and predict atypical behaviors. Studies have shown links between violent behaviors and a low allele variant of the MAOA gene. Preliminary research suggests that males that have this dysfunctional gene and have experienced childhood abuse are several hundred times more likely to commit a violent crime than those with normal MAOA gene expression. Findings like this have sparked a conversation about 'neuroprediction' or using genetics and neuroimaging modalities to predict criminal behavior and assess individual risk. If the science behind prediction improves, lawmakers will need to decide the role that genetic, neuroanatomical, or neuropathic predictions can play in legal decisions for risk assessment, particularly when a criminal is being sentenced or released. === Neuroimaging === Understanding structural and mechanistic neural dysfunction in criminals can help to determine motives and define criminal responsibility. fMRI is particularly important because it allows for detailed functional mapping of the human brain. fMRI measures blood oxygen level dependent (BOLD) contrast, which allows us to view the most active areas of the brain at a given moment based on blood flow. This imaging modality allows researchers to identify and understand


id: neurolaw-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurolaw-3.md
category: reference
title: Neurolaw
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurolaw
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:29.062328+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neurolaw-20260505-0
summary:
=== Criminal law === In the United States, brain scan results have been increasingly utilized during the sentencing phase of trials, with the rate of cases involving neuroscience evidence doubling from 2006 to 2009. In two instances occurring in California and New York, defendants were able to reduce their sentence of first-degree murder to manslaughter using neuroimaging. Each case presented brain scans suggesting hindered neurological function hoping to mitigate their responsibility in the crime. Brain images were also used in the case of Harrington v. State of Iowa in 2003 as evidence for the defense. However, in the case of Harrington v. State of Iowa, the brain images were solely shown to the judge and not a jury panel, reducing the ability of this case to be used as precedent for utilizing brain imaging as evidence. In Mumbai, India, the legal system has taken a more rapid approach in applying neuroscience and has already incorporated it into criminal convictions. In 2008, an Indian woman was convicted of murder based on strong circumstantial evidence, including a brain scan that suggested her guilt. This conviction was sharply criticized by Hank Greely, a professor of law at Stanford University. Greely contested the scan


id: neurolaw-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurolaw-4.md
category: reference
title: Neurolaw
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurolaw
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:29.062328+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neurolaw-20260505-0
summary:
== Cautions and concerns == Public opinion of neurolaw is influenced by cultural, political, and media-related factors. Surveys show that the general public does not have a well-formed understanding of neurolaw. Approval seems to depend highly on how the topic is framed and may even vary depending on partisanship. Due to glorified depictions of forensics labs on popular television shows, brain imaging has faced criticism for having a "CSI effect". It is possible that some people have a false understanding of forensic science based on inaccurate portrayals. This could lead to them having a stronger opinion about technological evidence or neurolaw initiatives. Neuroscience is still not fully understood. There is not enough evidence of structural and functional relationships to be able to confidently link a brain feature to a criminal behavior or issue. This uncertainty leaves room for misuse of neuroscientific evidence in a courtroom. American professor of law and psychology Stephen J. Morse described the abuse of neuroscience in courtrooms with a pseudo-disease he called "brain overclaim syndrome". He comments on the idea of people having diminished responsibility or no responsibility for their actions because those actions were caused by "the brain", in situations where the science could not


id: patome-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patome-0.md
category: reference
title: Patome
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patome
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:35.407997+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patome-20260505-0
summary:
Patome is a database of biological sequence data of issued patents and/or published applications. == See also == Patents Gene patent == References == == External links == https://web.archive.org/web/20101223004907/http://www.patome.org/


id: project-on-scientific-knowledge-and-public-policy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_on_Scientific_Knowledge_and_Public_Policy-0.md
category: reference
title: Project on Scientific Knowledge and Public Policy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_on_Scientific_Knowledge_and_Public_Policy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:36.559247+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: project-on-scientific-knowledge-and-public-policy-20260505-0
summary:
The Project on Scientific Knowledge and Public Policy (SKAPP), based at the George Washington University in Washington, D.C., examines the nature of science and the ways in which it is both used and misused in government decision-making and legal proceedings. Through empirical research, conversations among scholars, and publications, SKAPP aims to enhance understanding of how knowledge is generated and interpreted. SKAPP's mission is to promote transparent decision-making based on the best available science in order to promote public safety and health. SKAPP provides information about the impacts of existing legislation and regulation on drug safety, occupational health and safety, and environmental health. It has examined the use of science in regulation of specific hazards, including bisphenol A, beryllium, hexavalent chromium, and the butter-flavoring chemical diacetyl. Support for SKAPP is provided by the George Washington University School of Public Health and Health Services, the Open Society Institute, and the Rockefeller Family Fund. Past support has been provided by the Common Benefit Trust, a fund established pursuant to a court order in the Silicone Gel Breast Implant Products Liability litigation; the Alice Hamilton Fund; and the Bauman Foundation. == Scientific evidence and the law == The Supreme Court of the United States


id: regulation-of-nanotechnology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulation_of_nanotechnology-0.md
category: reference
title: Regulation of nanotechnology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulation_of_nanotechnology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:37.701684+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: regulation-of-nanotechnology-20260505-0
summary:
Because of the ongoing controversy on the implications of nanotechnology, there is significant debate concerning whether nanotechnology or nanotechnology-based products merit special government regulation. This mainly relates to when to assess new substances prior to their release into the market, community and environment. Nanotechnology refers to an increasing number of commercially available products – from socks and trousers to tennis racquets and cleaning cloths. Such nanotechnologies and their accompanying industries have triggered calls for increased community participation and effective regulatory arrangements. However, these calls have presently not led to such comprehensive regulation to oversee research and the commercial application of nanotechnologies, or any comprehensive labeling for products that contain nanoparticles or are derived from nano-processes. Regulatory bodies such as the United States Environmental Protection Agency and the Food and Drug Administration in the U.S. or the Health and Consumer Protection Directorate of the European Commission have started dealing with the potential risks posed by nanoparticles. So far, neither engineered nanoparticles nor the products and materials that contain them are subject to any special regulation regarding production, handling or labelling. == Managing risks: human and environmental health and safety == Studies of the health impact of airborne particles generally shown that


id: regulation-of-nanotechnology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulation_of_nanotechnology-1.md
category: reference
title: Regulation of nanotechnology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulation_of_nanotechnology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:37.701684+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: regulation-of-nanotechnology-20260505-0
summary:
== Democratic governance == Many argue that government has a responsibility to provide opportunities for the public to be involved in the development of new forms of science and technology. Community engagement can be achieved through various means or mechanisms such as referendums, consultation documents, and advisory committees that include community members and other stakeholders as possible governance structures for nanotechnologies. Other conventional approaches include public meetings and "closed" dialog with stakeholders. More contemporary engagement processes that have been employed to include community members in decisions about nanotechnology include citizens' juries and consensus conferences. Leach and Scoones argue that since that “most debates about science and technology options involve uncertainty, and often ignorance, public debate about regulatory regimes is essential.” It has been argued that limited nanotechnology labeling and regulation may exacerbate potential human and environmental health and safety issues associated with nanotechnology, and that the development of comprehensive regulation of nanotechnology will be vital to ensure that the potential risks associated with the research and commercial application of nanotechnology do not overshadow its potential benefits. Regulation may also be required to meet community expectations about responsible development of nanotechnology, as well as ensuring that public interests are included in


id: regulation-of-nanotechnology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulation_of_nanotechnology-2.md
category: reference
title: Regulation of nanotechnology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulation_of_nanotechnology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:37.701684+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: regulation-of-nanotechnology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Newness === The question of whether nanotechnology represents something 'new' must be answered to decide how best nanotechnology should be regulated. The Royal Society recommended that the UK government assess chemicals in the form of nanoparticles or nanotubes as new substances. Subsequent to this, in 2007 a coalition of over forty groups called for nanomaterials to be classified as new substances, and regulated as such. Despite these recommendations, chemicals comprising nanoparticles that have previously been subject to assessment and regulation may be exempt from regulation, regardless of the potential for different risks and impacts. In contrast, nanomaterials are often recognized as 'new' from the perspective of intellectual property rights (IPRs), and as such are commercially protected via patenting laws. There is significant debate about who is responsible for the regulation of nanotechnology. While some non-nanotechnology specific regulatory agencies currently cover some products and processes (to varying degrees) – by "bolting on" nanotechnology to existing regulations – there are clear gaps in these regimes. This enables some nanotechnology applications to figuratively "slip through the cracks" without being covered by any regulations. An example of this has occurred in the US, and involves nanoparticles of titanium dioxide (TiO2) for use in


id: regulation-of-nanotechnology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulation_of_nanotechnology-3.md
category: reference
title: Regulation of nanotechnology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulation_of_nanotechnology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:37.701684+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: regulation-of-nanotechnology-20260505-0
summary:
Wide use of the term nanotechnology in recent years has created the impression that regulatory frameworks are suddenly having to contend with entirely new challenges that they are unequipped to deal with. Many regulatory systems around the world already assess new substances or products for safety on a case by case basis, before they are permitted on the market. These regulatory systems have been assessing the safety of nanometre scale molecular arrangements for many years and many substances comprising nanometre scale particles have been in use for decades e.g. Carbon black, Titanium dioxide, Zinc oxide, Bentonite, Aluminum silicate, Iron oxides, Silicon dioxide, Diatomaceous earth, Kaolin, Talc, Montmorillonite, Magnesium oxide, Copper sulphate. These existing approval frameworks almost universally use the best available science to assess safety and do not approve substances or products with an unacceptable risk benefit profile. One proposal is to simply treat particle size as one of the several parameters defining a substance to be approved, rather than creating special rules for all particles of a given size regardless of type. A major argument against special regulation of nanotechnology is that the projected applications with the greatest impact are far in the future, and it is unclear how


id: regulation-of-nanotechnology-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulation_of_nanotechnology-4.md
category: reference
title: Regulation of nanotechnology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulation_of_nanotechnology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:37.701684+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: regulation-of-nanotechnology-20260505-0
summary:
=== United States === Rather than adopt a new nano-specific regulatory framework, the United States' Food and Drug Administration (FDA) convenes an 'interest group' each quarter with representatives of FDA centers that have responsibility for assessment and regulation of different substances and products. This interest group ensures coordination and communication. A September 2009 FDA document called for identifying sources of nanomaterials, how they move in the environment, the problems they might cause for people, animals and plants, and how these problems could be avoided or mitigated. The Bush administration in 2007 decided that no special regulations or labeling of nanoparticles were required. Critics derided this as treating consumers like a "guinea pig" without sufficient notice due to lack of labelling. Berkeley, CA is currently the only city in the United States to regulate nanotechnology. Cambridge, MA in 2008 considered enacting a similar law, but the committee it instituted to study the issue Cambridge recommended against regulation in its final report, recommending instead other steps to facilitate information-gathering about potential effects of nanomaterials. On December 10, 2008 the U.S. National Research Council released a report calling for more regulation of nanotechnology. ==== California ==== Assembly Bill (AB) 289 (2006) authorizes the


id: regulation-of-nanotechnology-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulation_of_nanotechnology-5.md
category: reference
title: Regulation of nanotechnology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulation_of_nanotechnology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:37.701684+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: regulation-of-nanotechnology-20260505-0
summary:
Hundreds of consumer products incorporating nano-materials are now on the market, including cosmetics, sunscreens, sporting goods, clothing, electronics, baby and infant products, and food and food packaging. But evidence indicates that current nano-materials may pose significant health, safety, and environmental hazards. In addition, the profound social, economic, and ethical challenges posed by nano-scale technologies have yet to be addressed ... 'Since there is currently no government oversight and no labeling requirements for nano-products anywhere in the world, no one knows when they are exposed to potential nano-tech risks and no one is monitoring for potential health or environmental harm. That's why we believe oversight action based on our principles is urgent' ... This industrial boom is creating a growing nano-workforce which is predicted to reach two million globally by 2015. 'Even though potential health hazards stemming from exposure have been clearly identified, there are no mandatory workplace measures that require exposures to be assessed, workers to be trained, or control measures to be implemented,' explained Bill Kojola of the AFL-CIO. 'This technology should not be rushed to market until these failings are corrected and workers assured of their safety'" also [1]. The group has urged action based on eight principles.


id: therapeutic-jurisprudence-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therapeutic_jurisprudence-0.md
category: reference
title: Therapeutic jurisprudence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therapeutic_jurisprudence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:40.248804+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: therapeutic-jurisprudence-20260505-0
summary:
Therapeutic jurisprudence (TJ) is an interdisciplinary approach to legal scholarship with the goal of reforming the law so it has a positive impact on the well-being of defendants appearing in court. TJ researchers and practitioners typically make use of social science methods to explore ways in which negative consequences can be reduced, and therapeutic consequences enhanced, without breaching due process requirements. By taking a non-adversarial approach to the administration of justice, judges and lawyers work together to create strategies that help offenders make positive changes in their own lives. Therapeutic jurisprudence has been used successfully in mental health courts and other problem-solving courts, such as drug courts for defendants with addictions. == Early development == The term was first used by Professor David Wexler, of the University of Arizona Rogers College of Law and University of Puerto Rico School of Law, in a paper delivered to the National Institute of Mental Health in 1987. Constance Backhouse, a leading legal historian from Canada, has published a biography of Wexler and his work. Along with Professor Bruce Winick of the University of Miami School of Law, who developed the area with Wexler, these law professors suggested the need for a new perspective,


id: scientific-misconduct-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_misconduct-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific misconduct
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_misconduct
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:42.017412+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-misconduct-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific misconduct is the violation of ethical and professional standards in research, including fabrication, falsification, plagiarism, and other practices that compromise the integrity of the design, conduct, analysis, reporting, or publication of scientific or research findings. == Basic definitions and urgency of dealing with misconduct == Various research ethics bodies provide definitions of scientific misconduct. For example, the U.S. Office of Research Integrity (ORI) defines research misconduct to include (any of) fabrication, falsification, and plagiarism. A Lancet review on Handling of Scientific Misconduct in Scandinavian countries provides the following sample definitions, reproduced in The COPE report 1999: Danish definition: "Intention or gross negligence leading to fabrication of the scientific message or a false credit or emphasis given to a scientist" Swedish definition: "Intention[al] distortion of the research process by fabrication of data, text, hypothesis, or methods from another researcher's manuscript form or publication; or distortion of the research process in other ways." Scientific misconduct can harm the credibility of the research record, damage careers, and undermine public trust in science. It may also affect other researchers who rely on falsified or fabricated findings. Additionally, it can harm individuals who expose it. In addition there are public health implications attached to


id: scientific-misconduct-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_misconduct-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientific misconduct
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_misconduct
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:42.017412+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-misconduct-20260505-0
summary:
A reviewer or editor with a conflict of interest can coerce the author to cite the reviewer's publications prior to recommending publication. This can inflate the perceived citation impact of a researcher's work and their reputation in the scientific community, similar to excessive self-citation. Suggesting fake peer reviewers can happen when journals invite authors to recommend a list of suitable peer reviewers, along with their contact information. In some cases, authors have recommended a "reviewer" for whom they provide a fake email address that in fact belongs to the author. If the editor follows the author's reviewer recommendation, the author can then write their own review. A rarer case of scientific misconduct is editorial misconduct, where an editor does not declare conflicts of interest, creates pseudonyms to review papers, gives strongly worded editorial decisions to support reviews suggesting to add excessive citations to their own unrelated works or to add themselves as a co-author or their name to the title of the manuscript. === Photo manipulation === Manipulation of images constitutes a form of research misconduct that some journals actively screen for because it can be detected through image analysis tools. In 2006, the Journal of Cell Biology gained publicity


id: scientific-misconduct-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_misconduct-2.md
category: reference
title: Scientific misconduct
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_misconduct
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:42.017412+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-misconduct-20260505-0
summary:
=== Scientists === All authors of a scientific publication are expected to have made reasonable attempts to check findings submitted to academic journals for publication. Simultaneous submission of scientific findings to more than one journal or duplicate publication of findings is usually regarded as misconduct, under what is known as the Ingelfinger rule, named after the editor of The New England Journal of Medicine 1967–1977, Franz Ingelfinger. Guest authorship (where there is stated authorship in the absence of involvement, also known as gift authorship) and ghost authorship (where the real author is not listed as an author) are commonly regarded as forms of research misconduct. In some cases coauthors of faked research have been accused of inappropriate behavior or research misconduct for failing to verify reports authored by others or by a commercial sponsor. Examples include the case of Gerald Schatten who co-authored with Hwang Woo-Suk, the case of Professor Geoffrey Chamberlain named as guest author of papers fabricated by Malcolm Pearce, (Chamberlain was exonerated from collusion in Pearce's deception) – and the coauthors with Jan Hendrik Schön at Bell Laboratories. More recent cases include that of Charles Nemeroff, then the editor-in-chief of Neuropsychopharmacology, and a well-documented case involving the


id: scientific-misconduct-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_misconduct-3.md
category: reference
title: Scientific misconduct
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_misconduct
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:42.017412+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-misconduct-20260505-0
summary:
The COPE guidelines state that journal editors should consider retracting a publication if they have clear evidence that the findings are unreliable, either as a result of misconduct (e.g. data fabrication) or honest error (e.g. miscalculation or experimental error). Retraction is also appropriate in cases of redundant publication, plagiarism and unethical research. Journal editors should consider issuing an expression of concern if they receive inconclusive evidence of research or publication misconduct by the authors, there is evidence that the findings are unreliable but the authors' institution will not investigate the case, they believe that an investigation into alleged misconduct related to the publication either has not been, or would not be, fair and impartial or conclusive, or an investigation is underway but a judgement will not be available for a considerable time. Journal editors should consider issuing a correction if a small portion of an otherwise reliable publication proves to be misleading (especially because of honest error), or the author / contributor list is incorrect (i.e. a deserving author has been omitted or somebody who does not meet authorship criteria has been included). Evidence emerged in 2012 that journals learning of cases where there is strong evidence of possible misconduct,


id: scientific-misconduct-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_misconduct-4.md
category: reference
title: Scientific misconduct
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_misconduct
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:42.017412+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-misconduct-20260505-0
summary:
=== Regulatory violations and consequences === Title 10 Code of Federal Regulation (CFR) Part 50.5, Deliberate Misconduct of the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) regulations, addresses the prohibition of certain activities by individual involved in NRC-licensed activities. 10 CFR 50.5 is designed to ensure the safety and integrity of nuclear operations. 10 CFR Part 50.9, Completeness and Accuracy of Information, focuses on the requirements for providing information and data to the NRC. The intent of 10 CFR 50.5 is to deter and penalize intentional wrongdoing (i.e., violations). 10 CFR 50.9 is crucial in maintaining transparency and reliability in the nuclear industry, which effectively emphasizes honesty and integrity in maintaining the safety and security of nuclear operations. Providing false or misleading information or data to the NRC is therefore a violation of 10 CFR 50.9. Violation of any of these rules can lead to severe penalties, including termination, fines and criminal prosecution. It can also result in the revocation of licenses or certifications, thereby barring individuals or entities from participating in any NRC-licensed activities in the future. === Consequences for those who report misconduct === The potentially severe consequences for individuals who are found to have engaged in misconduct also reflect


id: scientific-misconduct-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_misconduct-5.md
category: reference
title: Scientific misconduct
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_misconduct
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:42.017412+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-misconduct-20260505-0
summary:
=== Exposure === There are several tools available to aid in the detection of plagiarism and multiple publication within biomedical literature. One tool developed in 2006 by researchers in Dr. Harold Garner's laboratory at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas is Déjà vu, an open-access database containing several thousand instances of duplicate publication. All of the entries in the database were discovered through the use of text data mining algorithm eTBLAST, also created in Dr. Garner's laboratory. The creation of Déjà vu and the subsequent classification of several hundred articles contained therein have ignited much discussion in the scientific community concerning issues such as ethical behavior, journal standards, and intellectual copyright. Studies within this database have been published in journals such as Nature and Science, among others. Other tools which may be used to detect fraudulent data include error analysis. Measurements generally have a small amount of error, and repeated measurements of the same item will generally result in slight differences in readings. These differences can be analyzed, and follow certain known mathematical and statistical properties. Should a set of data appear to be too faithful to the hypothesis, i.e., the amount of error that would normally


id: allocation-concealment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allocation_concealment-0.md
category: reference
title: Allocation concealment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allocation_concealment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:43.310319+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: allocation-concealment-20260505-0
summary:
In a randomized experiment, allocation concealment hides the sorting of trial participants into treatment groups so that this knowledge cannot be exploited. Adequate allocation concealment serves to prevent study participants from influencing treatment allocations for subjects. Studies with poor allocation concealment (or none at all) are prone to selection bias. Some standard methods of ensuring allocation concealment include sequentially numbered, opaque, sealed envelopes (SNOSE); sequentially numbered containers; pharmacy controlled randomization; and central randomization. CONSORT guidelines recommend that allocation concealment methods be included in a study's protocol, and that the allocation concealment methods be reported in detail in their publication; however, a 2005 study determined that most clinical trials have unclear allocation concealment in their protocols, in their publications, or both. A 2008 study of 146 meta-analyses concluded that the results of randomized controlled trials with inadequate or unclear allocation concealment tended to be biased toward beneficial effects only if the trials' outcomes were subjective as opposed to objective. Allocation concealment is different from blinding. An allocation concealment method prevents influence on the randomization process, while blinding conceals the outcome of the randomization. However, allocation concealment may also be called "randomization blinding". == Impact == Without the use of allocation concealment,


id: betrayers-of-the-truth-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betrayers_of_the_Truth-0.md
category: reference
title: Betrayers of the Truth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betrayers_of_the_Truth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:44.532981+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: betrayers-of-the-truth-20260505-0
summary:
Betrayers of the Truth: Fraud and Deceit in the Halls of Science is a book by William Broad and Nicholas Wade, published in 1982 by Simon & Schuster in New York, and subsequently (1983) also by Century Publishing in London, and with a simplified subtitle as Betrayers of the Truth: Fraud and Deceit in Science by Oxford University Press in 1985. The book is a critique of some widely held beliefs about the nature of science and the scientific process. Broad and Wade argue that the conventional wisdom that science is a strictly logical process, with objectivity the essence of scientist's attitudes, errors being speedily corrected by rigorous peer scrutiny and experiment replication, is a mythical ideal. Our conclusion, in brief, is that science bears little resemblance to its conventional portrait. We believe that the logical structure discernible in scientific knowledge says nothing about the process by which the structure was built or the mentality of the builders. In the acquisition of knowledge, scientists are not guided by logic and objectivity alone, but also by such nonrational factors as rhetoric, propaganda, and personal prejudice. Scientists do not depend solely on rational thought, and have no monopoly on it. The authors


id: elisabeth-bik-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elisabeth_Bik-0.md
category: reference
title: Elisabeth Bik
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elisabeth_Bik
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:45.772187+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: elisabeth-bik-20260505-0
summary:
Elisabeth Margaretha Harbers-Bik (born 1966) is a Dutch microbiologist and scientific integrity consultant. Bik is known for her work detecting photo manipulation in scientific publications, and identifying over 4,000 potential cases of improper research conduct. Bik is the founder of Microbiome Digest, a blog with daily updates on microbiome research, and the Science Integrity Digest blog. Bik was awarded the 2021 John Maddox Prize for "outstanding work exposing widespread threats to research integrity in scientific papers". == Early life and education == Bik was born in the Netherlands. She studied at the Utrecht University, where she obtained her MSc degree and subsequently a PhD in 1996, both in microbiology. Her dissertation was about developing vaccines for new strains of Vibrio cholerae involved in cholera epidemics across India and Bangladesh. She conducted her doctorate and her postdoctoral studies at the molecular microbiology department in the National Institute of Health and the Environment in Bilthoven. == Career == === Public sector === After receiving her doctorate, Bik worked for the Netherlands National Institute for Public Health and the Environment and St. Antonius Hospital in Nieuwegein, where she organized the development of new molecular techniques for identifying infectious agents. === Academia === In


id: elisabeth-bik-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elisabeth_Bik-1.md
category: reference
title: Elisabeth Bik
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elisabeth_Bik
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:45.772187+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: elisabeth-bik-20260505-0
summary:
==== Hydroxychloroquine ==== In March 2020, commenting on the publication of the results of a clinical trial by Didier Raoult on the effect of hydroxychloroquine against COVID-19, she identified a conflict of interest and strongly criticized the methodology of the study. The owners of the journal that had published the results admitted that the publication was not at the level expected by the society, in particular due to a lack of justification of the criteria for patient selection and triage. They then rebutted allegations of a conflict of interest, stating that the peer review process prior to publication had been respected because Jean-Marc Rolain, one of the co-authors of the article and editor of the journal, had not participated in the evaluation. The publisher Elsevier then announced an additional independent evaluation to determine whether the concerns about the article were well founded. In May 2021, the French non profit association Citizen4Science, made up of scientists and citizens, published a press release in response to an announcement by Didier Raoult's lawyer that IHU Marseille was suing Bik. Citizen4Science linked a petition denouncing the harassment of scientists and defenders of science integrity, specifically mentioning Bik and calling on French authorities to intervene


id: bird-of-washington-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird_of_Washington-0.md
category: reference
title: Bird of Washington
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird_of_Washington
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:47.008127+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bird-of-washington-20260505-0
summary:
The Bird of Washington, Washington Eagle, or Great Sea Eagle (Falco washingtonii, F. washingtoniensis, F. washingtonianus, or Haliaetus washingtoni) was a putative species of sea eagle which was claimed in 1826 and published by John James Audubon in his famous work The Birds of America. It was most notable for its reported wingspan of 10 feet 2 inches. The validity of this species has been questioned since 1870, and the consensus among modern ornithologists is that it was fabricated. Theories about its true nature include the following: It was an invention and that the picture was plagiarized from a picture of a golden eagle in Rees's Cyclopædia. It was a juvenile specimen, aberrant individual, or subspecies of bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus). It was actually a genuine species, but it was rare and became extinct after Audubon's sightings. John James Audubon's painting of the bird was acquired by Sidney Dillon Ripley, and his family donated it to the Smithsonian American Art Museum in 1994. Other illustrations by Audubon whose provenance is now disputed include western meadowlark, Harris's hawk and the red-winged blackbird. == History == Audubon attributes his first sighting of the bird to the year 1814. He was on a


id: dorothy-v-m-bishop-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorothy_V._M._Bishop-0.md
category: reference
title: Dorothy V. M. Bishop
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorothy_V._M._Bishop
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:52.728788+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dorothy-v-m-bishop-20260505-0
summary:
Dorothy Vera Margaret Bishop (born 14 February 1952) is a British psychologist specialising in developmental disorders specifically, developmental language impairments. She is Emeritus Professor of Developmental Neuropsychology at the University of Oxford, where she worked from 1998 until her retirement in 2022. She is an honorary fellow of St John's College, Oxford. == Early life and education == Bishop was born in Ilford, East London, on 14 February 1952. In 1973, she earned a Bachelor of Arts degree with Honours in Experimental Psychology from St Hugh's College, Oxford. In 1975, she completed her Master of Philosophy in Clinical Psychology at the University of London. In 1978, Bishop completed her Doctor of Philosophy at University of Oxford. While studying for her undergraduate degree, Bishop developed an interest in cognitive disorders. After her MPhil, she returned to Oxford to work with Freda Newcombe at the Neuropsychology Unit in Radcliffe Infirmary. Newcombe steered Bishop towards cases of children with developmental language disorders and launched her career as a developmental neuropsychologist. == Research and career == Bishop's research spanned Psychology, Neuroscience, Genetics, Language and Developmental Disorders. She is one of the co-founders of the video-led campaign, RALLI ("Raising Awareness of Language Learning Impairments", now


id: citation-cartel-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citation_cartel-0.md
category: reference
title: Citation cartel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citation_cartel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:53.892368+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: citation-cartel-20260505-0
summary:
A citation cartel is a group of academic authors who collude to cite one another's publications in order to artificially increase their citation impact. In many cases the cited works have no strong relevance to the works they are cited in. The practice of making excessive or spurious citations is known as citation stacking. Mutual citation can occur naturally when small numbers of authors publish in a specialist field, but the term "citation cartel" is usually used to describe the situation where mutual citation is done without reasonable excuse. Because of the difficulty of proving intent, publishers are reluctant to use the term "citation cartel", but are known to deal with individual journals and authors when cartel-like behavior is suspected. Alleged citation cartels have been found in numerous academic fields, including mathematics, medicine and dentistry. Possible citation cartels can be detected by network analysis of the citation graph. Some citation cartels submit papers claiming to be from developing countries to avoid publication fees in open-access journals. == See also == Clique Coercive citation == References ==


id: conflict-of-interest-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest-0.md
category: reference
title: Conflict of interest
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:55.281412+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conflict-of-interest-20260505-0
summary:
A conflict of interest (COI) is a situation in which a person or organization is involved in multiple interests, financial or otherwise, and serving one interest could involve working against another. Typically, this relates to situations in which the personal interest of an individual or organization might adversely affect a duty owed to make decisions for the benefit of a third party. An "interest" is a commitment, obligation, duty or goal associated with a specific social role or practice. By definition, a "conflict of interest" occurs if, within a particular decision-making context, an individual is subject to two coexisting interests that are in direct conflict with each other ("competing interests"). This is important because under these circumstances, the decision-making process can be disrupted or compromised, affecting the integrity or reliability of the outcomes. Typically, a conflict of interest arises when an individual occupies two social roles simultaneously, generating opposing benefits or loyalties. The interests involved can be pecuniary or non-pecuniary. The existence of such conflicts is an objective fact, not a state of mind, and does not in itself indicate any lapse or moral error. However, especially where a decision is being taken in a fiduciary context, it is important


id: conflict-of-interest-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest-1.md
category: reference
title: Conflict of interest
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:55.281412+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conflict-of-interest-20260505-0
summary:
==== Direct adversity to current client ==== An attorney owes the client undivided loyalty. The courts have described this principle as "integral to the nature of an attorney's duty". Without undivided loyalty, irreparable damage may be done "to the existing client's sense of trust and security – features essential to the effective functioning of the fiduciary relationship..." A key feature of the duty of loyalty is that an attorney may not act directly adverse to a current client or represent a litigation adversary of the client in an unrelated matter. The damage done is to the client's confidence that the lawyer is serving their interests faithfully. An example of a lawyer acting directly adverse to a client is when the lawyer sues the client. At the other end of the spectrum is when a lawyer represents business competitors of the client who are not adverse to it in a lawsuit or negotiation. Representing a client's business competitors in unrelated matters does not constitute direct adversity nor give rise to a loyalty conflict. As one state bar ethics committee has noted: Direct adversity may arise in litigation when an attorney sues a client or defends an adversary in an action their


id: conflict-of-interest-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest-2.md
category: reference
title: Conflict of interest
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:55.281412+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conflict-of-interest-20260505-0
summary:
the lawyer reasonably believes that the lawyer will be able to provide competent and diligent representation to each affected client; the representation is not prohibited by law; the representation does not involve the assertion of a claim by one client against another client represented by the lawyer in the same litigation or other proceeding before a tribunal; and each affected client gives informed consent, confirmed in writing. Informed consent requires that each affected client be fully advised about the material ways that the representation could adversely affect that client. In joint representations, the information provided should include the interests of the lawyer and other affected clients, the courses of action that could be foreclosed due to the joint representation, the potential danger that the client's confidential information might be disclosed, and the potential consequences if the lawyer had to withdraw at a later stage in the proceedings. Merely telling the client that there are conflicts, without further explanation, is not adequate disclosure. The lawyer must fully disclose the potential impairment to the lawyer's loyalty and explain how another unconflicted attorney might better serve the client's interests. ===== Prospective consent to future conflicts ===== It is not unusual in the current


id: conflict-of-interest-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest-3.md
category: reference
title: Conflict of interest
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:55.281412+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conflict-of-interest-20260505-0
summary:
physical, geographic, and departmental separation of attorneys; prohibitions against and sanctions for discussing confidential matters; established rules and procedures preventing access to confidential information and files; procedures preventing a disqualified attorney from sharing in the profits from the representation; continuing education in professional responsibility. Judicial disqualification, also referred to as recusal, refers to the act of abstaining from participation in an official action such as a court case/legal proceeding due to a conflict of interest of the presiding court official or administrative officer. Applicable statutes or canons of ethics may provide standards for recusal in a given proceeding or matter. Providing that the judge or presiding officer must be free from disabling conflicts of interest makes the fairness of the proceedings less likely to be questioned. In the practice of law, the duty of loyalty owed to a client prohibits an attorney (or a law firm) from representing any other party with interests adverse to those of a current client. The few exceptions to this rule require informed written consent from all affected clients, i.e., an "ethical wall". In some circumstances, a client can never waive a conflict of interest. In perhaps the most common example encountered by the general


id: conflict-of-interest-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest-4.md
category: reference
title: Conflict of interest
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:55.281412+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conflict-of-interest-20260505-0
summary:
An organizational conflict of interest (OCI) may exist in the same way as described above, for instance where a corporation provides two types of service to the government and these services conflict (e.g.: manufacturing parts and then participating in a selection committee comparing parts manufacturers). Corporations may develop simple or complex systems to mitigate the risk or perceived risk of a conflict of interest. These risks can be evaluated by a government agency (for example, in a U.S. Government RFP) to determine whether the risks create a substantial advantage to the organization in question over its competition, or will decrease the overall competitiveness of the bidding process. == Types == The following are the most common forms of conflicts of interests: Self-dealing, in which an official who controls an organization causes it to enter into a transaction with the official, or with another organization that benefits the official only. The official is on both sides of the "deal." Outside employment, in which the interests of one job conflict with another. Nepotism, in which a spouse, child, or other close relative is employed (or applies for employment) by an individual, or where goods or services are purchased from a relative or


id: conflict-of-interest-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest-5.md
category: reference
title: Conflict of interest
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:55.281412+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conflict-of-interest-20260505-0
summary:
=== Finance industry and economists === Economists (unlike other professions such as sociologists) do not formally subscribe to a professional ethical code. Close to 300 economists have signed a letter urging the American Economic Association (the discipline's foremost professional body), to adopt such a code. The signatories include George Akerlof, a Nobel laureate, and Christina Romer, who headed Barack Obama's Council of Economic Advisers. This call for a code of ethics was supported by the public attention the documentary Inside Job (winner of an Academy Award) drew to the consulting relationships of several influential economists. This documentary focused on conflicts that may arise when economists publish results or provide public recommendations on topics that affect industries or companies with which they have financial links. Critics of the profession argue, for example, that it is no coincidence that financial economists, many of whom were engaged as consultants by Wall Street firms, were opposed to regulating the financial sector. In response to criticism that the profession not only failed to predict the 2008 financial crisis but may actually have helped create it, the American Economic Association has adopted new rules in 2012: economists will have to disclose financial ties and other potential


id: conflict-of-interest-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest-6.md
category: reference
title: Conflict of interest
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:55.281412+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conflict-of-interest-20260505-0
summary:
Regulating conflict of interest in government is an aim of political ethics. Public officials are expected to put service to the public and their constituents ahead of their personal interests. Conflict of interest rules are intended to prevent officials from making decisions in circumstances that could reasonably be perceived as violating this duty of office. Limiting conflicts is vital to the success of a democracy. Rules in the executive branch tend to be stricter and easier to enforce than in the legislative branch. This is visible through one study that highlights how members of Congress with specific stock investments may vote on regulatory and interventionist legislation. Two problems make legislative ethics of conflicts difficult and distinctive. First, as James Madison wrote, legislators should share a "communion of interests" with their constituents. Legislators cannot adequately represent their constituents' interests without also representing some of their own. As Senator Robert S. Kerr said, "I represent the farmers of Oklahoma, although I have large farm interests. I represent the oil business in Oklahoma...and I am in the oil business...They don't want to send a man here who has no community of interest with them, because he wouldn't be worth a nickel to them."


id: conflict-of-interest-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest-7.md
category: reference
title: Conflict of interest
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:55.281412+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conflict-of-interest-20260505-0
summary:
=== Insurance claims adjusters === Insurance companies retain claims adjusters to represent their interest in adjusting claims. It is in the best interest of the insurance companies that the very smallest settlement is reached with its claimants. Based on the adjuster's experience and knowledge of the insurance policy it is very easy for the adjuster to convince an unknowing claimant to settle for less than what they may otherwise be entitled which could be a larger settlement. There is always a very good chance for a conflict of interest existing when one adjuster tries to represent both sides of a financial transaction such as an insurance claim. This problem is exacerbated when the claimant is told or believes, the insurance company's claims adjuster is fair and impartial enough to satisfy both their and the insurance company's interests. These types of conflicts could easily be avoided by the use of a third-party platform, independent of the insurers, which is agreed to, and named in the policy. === News media === Commercial news media have a conflict of interest in discussing anything that may impact their ability to communicate with their audience. Most news outlets, when reporting a story that involves a


id: conflict-of-interest-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest-8.md
category: reference
title: Conflict of interest
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:55.281412+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conflict-of-interest-20260505-0
summary:
=== Purchasing agents and sales personnel === A person working as the equipment purchaser for a company may earn a bonus proportionate to the amount the company is under budget at year-end. However, this becomes an incentive for the employee to purchase inexpensive, substandard equipment. Therefore, this is counter to the interests of those in the company who must actually use the equipment. W. Edwards Deming listed "purchasing on price alone" as number 4 of his famous 14 points, and he often said things to the effect that "He who purchases on price alone deserves to get rooked." === Real estate agents === Real estate brokers have an inherent conflict of interest with the sellers they represent, because the usual commission structures of brokers motivate them to sell quickly rather than to sell at a higher price. However, a broker representing a buyer has a distinct disincentive to negotiate a lower price on behalf of their client, because they will simultaneously be negotiating their own commission lower. === Self-regulation === Self-regulation of any group may also be a conflict of interest. If an entity, such as a corporation or government bureaucracy, is asked to eliminate unethical behavior within its own


id: conflict-of-interest-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest-9.md
category: reference
title: Conflict of interest
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:55.281412+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conflict-of-interest-20260505-0
summary:
=== Disclosure === Commonly, politicians and high-ranking government officials are required to disclose financial information—assets such as stock, debts such as loans, and/or corporate positions held, typically annually. To protect privacy (to some extent), financial figures are often disclosed in ranges such as "$100,000 to $500,000" and "over $2,000,000". Certain professionals are required either by rules related to their professional organization, or by statute, to disclose any actual or potential conflicts of interest. In some instances, the failure to provide full disclosure is a crime. However, there is limited evidence regarding the effect of conflict of interest disclosure despite its widespread acceptance. A 2012 study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association showed that routine disclosure of conflicts of interest by American medical school educators to pre-clinical medical students were associated with an increased desire among students for limitations in some industry relationships. However, there were no changes in the perceptions of students about the value of disclosure, the influence of industry relationships on educational content, or the instruction by faculty with relevant conflicts of interest. One line of research suggests that disclosure can have "perverse effects" or, at least, is not the panacea regulators often take it


id: covid-19-proxalutamide-trial-in-brazil-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_proxalutamide_trial_in_Brazil-0.md
category: reference
title: COVID-19 proxalutamide trial in Brazil
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_proxalutamide_trial_in_Brazil
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:56.502524+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: covid-19-proxalutamide-trial-in-brazil-20260505-0
summary:
In the wake of the global COVID-19 pandemic, several lines of research targeted the development of a pharmaceutical treatment or cure for the disease. One of those researches involved a clinical trial that took place in Brazil and was led by Brazilian endocrinologist Flávio Cadegiani. == Background == In the beginning of the pandemic, it was believed that men were generally more prone to the illness than women and as a result of that, some researchers explored human male hormone blockers, also known as antiandrogens, as a treatment. The trial led by Cadegiani looked at the experimental prostate cancer and antiandrogen proxalutamide, and people from the Brazilian region of Amazon were recruited as patients in the study, given the surge in COVID-19 cases in that region in the early months of the COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil which would, according to the study's author, favor the accuracy of the research. Brazilian president Jair Bolsonaro backed the unproven use of proxalutamide drug to treat COVID-19 as well as he previously did with ivermectin and hydroxychloroquine, both of which are also unproven treatments for the virus. == Method == A total of 645 patients with COVID-19 were administered proxalutamide at nine hospitals in


id: danish-committees-on-scientific-dishonesty-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_Committees_on_Scientific_Dishonesty-0.md
category: reference
title: Danish Committees on Scientific Dishonesty
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_Committees_on_Scientific_Dishonesty
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:57.639685+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: danish-committees-on-scientific-dishonesty-20260505-0
summary:
The Danish Committees on Scientific Dishonesty (Danish: Udvalgene vedrørende Videnskabelig Uredelighed, or UVVU) are a set of three committees under the Danish Ministry of Research and Information Technology: a committee for natural science, agricultural and veterinary science and technical science; a committee for health and medical science; and a committee for social science and the humanities. They have a common chairman. Previously obscure, the DCSD became embroiled in controversy after its January 2003 decision that the 2001 book The Skeptical Environmentalist by Bjørn Lomborg was "clearly contrary to the standards of good scientific practice", due to the author's systematically biased choice of data, and objectively was scientifically irredeemable, but Lomborg himself could not be subjectively convicted of intentional or gross negligence. Lomborg had argued in his book that claims by environmentalists about global warming, overpopulation, deforestation, and other matters are not scientifically substantiated. The DCSD further held that because of Lomborg's lack of scientific expertise, he had not shown intentional or gross negligence, and acquitted him of the accusations of scientific dishonesty. In February 2003, Lomborg filed a complaint with the Ministry, and in December 2003, the Ministry found that the DCSD's handling of the investigation in the case had


id: data-colada-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Colada-0.md
category: reference
title: Data Colada
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Colada
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:27:58.802282+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: data-colada-20260505-0
summary:
Data Colada is a blog dedicated to investigative analysis and replication of academic research, focusing in particular on the validity of findings in the social sciences. It is known for its advocacy against problematic research practices such as p-hacking, and for publishing evidence of data manipulation and research misconduct in several prominent cases, including celebrity professors Dan Ariely and Francesca Gino. Data Colada was established in 2013 by three behavioral science researchers: Uri Simonsohn, a professor at ESADE Business School, Barcelona/Spain (as of 2023), Leif Nelson, a professor at the University of California, Berkeley, and Joe Simmons, a professor at the University of Pennsylvania. == History == Around 2011, Simmons, Nelson and Simonsohn "bonded over the false, ridiculous, and flashy findings that the field [of behavioral sciences] was capable of producing", such as a paper by Cornell psychologist Daryl Bem that had supposedly found evidence for clairvoyance. They reacted by publishing an influential 2011 paper about false positive results in psychology, illustrating the problem with a parody research finding that supposedly showed that listening to the Beatles song "When I’m Sixty-Four" made experimental subjects one and a half years younger. The "Data Colada" blog was launched two years later, in


id: data-dredging-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_dredging-0.md
category: reference
title: Data dredging
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_dredging
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:00.034910+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: data-dredging-20260505-0
summary:
Data dredging, also known as data snooping or p-hacking, is the misuse of data analysis to find patterns in data that can be presented as statistically significant, thus dramatically increasing and understating the risk of false positives. This is done by performing many statistical tests on the data and only reporting those that come back with significant results. Thus data dredging is also often a misused or misapplied form of data mining. The process of data dredging involves testing multiple hypotheses using a single data set by exhaustively searching—perhaps for combinations of variables that might show a correlation, and perhaps for groups of cases or observations that show differences in their mean or in their breakdown by some other variable. Conventional tests of statistical significance are based on the probability that a particular result would arise if chance alone were at work, and necessarily accept some risk of mistaken conclusions of a certain type (mistaken rejections of the null hypothesis). This level of risk is called the significance. When large numbers of tests are performed, some produce false results of this type; hence 5% of randomly chosen hypotheses might be (erroneously) reported to be statistically significant at the 5% significance


id: data-dredging-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_dredging-1.md
category: reference
title: Data dredging
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_dredging
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:00.034910+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: data-dredging-20260505-0
summary:
=== Post-hoc grouping === If a dataset contains multiple features, then one or more of the features can be used as grouping, and potentially create a statistically significant result. For example, if a dataset of patients records their age and sex, then a researcher can consider grouping them by age and check if the illness recovery rate is correlated with age. If it does not work, then the researcher might check if it correlates with sex. If not, then perhaps it correlates with age after controlling for sex, etc. The number of possible groupings grows exponentially with the number of features. === Hypothesis suggested by non-representative data === Suppose that a study of a random sample of people includes exactly two people with a birthday of August 7: Mary and John. Someone engaged in data dredging might try to find additional similarities between Mary and John. By going through hundreds or thousands of potential similarities between the two, each having a low probability of being true, an unusual similarity can almost certainly be found. Perhaps John and Mary are the only two people in the study who switched minors three times in college. A hypothesis, biased by data dredging, could


id: data-dredging-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_dredging-2.md
category: reference
title: Data dredging
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_dredging
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:00.034910+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: data-dredging-20260505-0
summary:
== Appearance in media == One example is the chocolate weight loss hoax study conducted by journalist John Bohannon, who explained publicly in a Gizmodo article that the study was deliberately conducted fraudulently as a social experiment. This study was widespread in many media outlets around 2015, with many people believing the claim that eating a chocolate bar every day would cause them to lose weight, against their better judgement. This study was published in the Institute of Diet and Health. According to Bohannon, to reduce the p-value to below 0.05, taking 18 different variables into consideration when testing was crucial. == Remedies == While looking for patterns in data is legitimate, applying a statistical test of significance or hypothesis test to the same data until a pattern emerges is prone to abuse. One way to construct hypotheses while avoiding data dredging is to conduct randomized out-of-sample tests. The researcher collects a data set, then randomly partitions it into two subsets, A and B. Only one subset—say, subset A—is examined for creating hypotheses. Once a hypothesis is formulated, it must be tested on subset B, which was not used to construct the hypothesis. Only where B also supports such a


id: data-fabrication-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_fabrication-0.md
category: reference
title: Data fabrication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_fabrication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:01.264404+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: data-fabrication-20260505-0
summary:
In scientific inquiry and academic research, data fabrication is the intentional misrepresentation of research results. As with other forms of scientific misconduct, it is the intent to deceive that marks fabrication as unethical, and thus different from scientists deceiving themselves. There are many ways data can be fabricated. Experimental data can be fabricated by reporting experiments that were never conducted, and accurate data can be manipulated or misrepresented to suit a desired outcome. One of the biggest problems with this form of scientific fraud is that "university investigations into research misconduct are often inadequate, opaque and poorly conducted. They challenge the idea that institutions can police themselves on research integrity." Sometimes intentional fabrication can be difficult to distinguish from unintentional academic incompetence or malpractice. Examples of this include the failure to account for measurement error, or the failure to adequately control experiments for any parameters being measured. Fabrication can also occur in the context of undergraduate or graduate studies wherein a student fabricates a laboratory or homework assignment. Such cheating, when discovered, is usually handled within the institution, and does not become a scandal within the larger academic community (as cheating by students seldom has any academic significance). == Consequences


id: data-sharing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_sharing-0.md
category: reference
title: Data sharing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_sharing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:02.473355+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: data-sharing-20260505-0
summary:
Data sharing denotes the dissemination of research datasets to enable access and use by other investigators. Policies governing this practice are increasingly instituted by funding agencies, academic institutions, and scholarly journals, reflecting the consensus that transparency and openness constitute foundational principles of the scientific method. A number of funding agencies and science journals require authors of peer-reviewed papers to share any supplemental information (raw data, statistical methods or source code) necessary to understand, develop or reproduce published research. A great deal of scientific research is not subject to data sharing requirements, and many of these policies have liberal exceptions. In the absence of any binding requirement, data sharing is at the discretion of the scientists themselves. In addition, in certain situations governments and institutions prohibit or severely limit data sharing to protect proprietary interests, national security, and subject/patient/victim confidentiality. Data sharing may also be restricted to protect institutions and scientists from use of data for political purposes. Data and methods may be requested from an author years after publication. In order to encourage data sharing and prevent the loss or corruption of data, a number of funding agencies and journals established policies on data archiving. Access to publicly archived data


id: data-sharing-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_sharing-1.md
category: reference
title: Data sharing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_sharing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:02.473355+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: data-sharing-20260505-0
summary:
The idea is: An article about computational science in a scientific publication is not the scholarship itself, it is merely advertising of the scholarship. The actual scholarship is the complete software development environment and the complete set of instructions which generated the figures. The Data Observation Network for Earth (DataONE) and Data Conservancy are projects supported by the National Science Foundation to encourage and facilitate data sharing among research scientists and better support meta-analysis. In environmental sciences, the research community is recognizing that major scientific advances involving integration of knowledge in and across fields will require that researchers overcome not only the technological barriers to data sharing but also the historically entrenched institutional and sociological barriers. Dr. Richard J. Hodes, director of the National Institute on Aging has stated, "the old model in which researchers jealously guarded their data is no longer applicable". The Alliance for Taxpayer Access is a group of organizations that support open access to government sponsored research. The group has expressed a "Statement of Principles" explaining why they believe open access is important. They also list a number of international public access policies. This is no more so than in timely communication of essential information to


id: ease-guidelines-for-authors-and-translators-of-scientific-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EASE_Guidelines_for_Authors_and_Translators_of_Scientific_Articles-0.md
category: reference
title: EASE Guidelines for Authors and Translators of Scientific Articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EASE_Guidelines_for_Authors_and_Translators_of_Scientific_Articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:03.735343+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ease-guidelines-for-authors-and-translators-of-scientific-articles-20260505-0
summary:
EASE Guidelines for Authors and Translators of Scientific Articles to be Published in English (often shortened to EASE Guidelines for Authors and Translators or EASE Guidelines) were first published by the European Association of Science Editors (EASE) in 2010. Updated versions are periodically released at the EASE Guidelines page of the EASE website. EASE Guidelines summarize the most important editorial recommendations, aiming to make international scientific communication more efficient and to aid in preventing scientific misconduct. They also support the global initiative Healthcare Information For All by 2015 by advising authors to make abstracts of their papers highly informative, reliable, and easily understandable. The document has been translated into many languages to facilitate its popularization worldwide and help scientists from non-Anglophone countries. == History == EASE Guidelines are a result of long discussions on the electronic EASE Forum and during the 2009 EASE conference in Pisa, as well as subsequent consultations within the EASE Council. == Contents == The document includes a succinct set of practical guidelines explaining how to write complete, concise and clear manuscripts. It is supplemented with a list for further reading as well as several short appendices (Abstracts; Ambiguity; Cohesion; Ethics; Plurals; Simplicity; Spelling; Text-tables) that


id: expression-of-concern-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expression_of_concern-0.md
category: reference
title: Expression of concern
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expression_of_concern
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:09.711477+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expression-of-concern-20260505-0
summary:
In academic publishing, an expression of concern is a notice issued by a publisher against a particular publication, warning that it may contain errors or be otherwise untrustworthy. == Definitions == Expressions of concern are part of the post-publication process used to maintain the integrity of the scientific record. They are typically issued when credible allegations regarding the validity or ethics of a study arise, but conclusive evidence is not yet available to justify a retraction or correction. In such cases, journal editors may publish a statement indicating that concerns have been raised and that the article is under investigation. == Guidelines and editorial practices == Publishing practices around expressions of concern vary between journals and publishers. The Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) recommends their use when: There is inconclusive evidence of research or publication misconduct. There is evidence that the findings are unreliable, but the authors' institution has not investigated or refused to investigate. An investigation is ongoing and a judgment is not yet available. The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors also acknowledges the role of expressions of concern in its 2019 recommendations that a publisher may choose to issue an expression of concern while an investigation of


id: inauthentic-text-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inauthentic_text-0.md
category: reference
title: Inauthentic text
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inauthentic_text
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:10.872686+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: inauthentic-text-20260505-0
summary:
An inauthentic text is a computer-generated expository document meant to appear as genuine, but which is actually meaningless. Frequently they are created in order to be intermixed with genuine documents and thus manipulate the results of search engines, as with Spam blogs. They are also carried along in email in order to fool spam filters by giving the spam the superficial characteristics of legitimate text. Sometimes nonsensical documents are created with computer assistance for humorous effect, as with Dissociated press or Flarf poetry. They have also been used to challenge the veracity of a publication—MIT students submitted papers generated by a computer program called SCIgen to a conference, where they were initially accepted. This led the students to claim that the bar for submissions was too low. With the amount of computer generated text outpacing the ability of people to humans to curate it, there needs some means of distinguishing between the two. Yet automated approaches to determining absolutely whether a text is authentic or not face intrinsic challenges of semantics. Noam Chomsky coined the phrase "Colorless green ideas sleep furiously" giving an example of grammatically correct, but semantically incoherent sentence; some will point out that in certain contexts one


id: india-research-watch-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_Research_Watch-0.md
category: reference
title: India Research Watch
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_Research_Watch
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:12.108581+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: india-research-watch-20260505-0
summary:
India Research Watch (IRW) is a volunteer-run non-profit organization established in 2022 to combat scientific misconduct and research fraud in India. The group monitors cases of suspected research fraud, plagiarism, duplicate publication, data fabrication, and related malpractice reported anonymously. == History == IRW was founded in 2022 by Achal Agrawal, an engineer and research scientist who earned a PhD at the Paris-Saclay University. Agrawal, a former professor of computer science, became concerned after he realised that a first-year student had published a research paper by simply paraphrasing another work. In its early work, IRW analysed public databases and launched anonymous tip lines to gather information on suspected misconduct. As of July 2025, IRW members, comprising scientists, students, and data analysts from various institutions, investigate tips about suspect papers and flag issues publicly (e.g., on PubPeer or social media) to pressure journals and universities to take disciplinary action. IRW and its founder, Achal Agrawal, were recognised by Nature's 10 in 2025. == Activities == IRW published an article in The Hindu, on 17 November 2023, presenting data on a rising trend of scientific misconduct by showing evidence from Retraction Data. This article was among the earliest in Indian media to discuss


id: international-publisher-ltd-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Publisher_Ltd.-0.md
category: reference
title: International Publisher Ltd.
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Publisher_Ltd.
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:13.320986+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-publisher-ltd-20260505-0
summary:
International Publisher Ltd. (or International Publisher LLC) is an academic paper mill company that coordinates the sale of fake authorships on research papers for publication in an academic journal. The company is headquartered in Moscow (Russia) with offices in Ukraine, Kazakhstan, and Iran, and lists its chief editor as Ksenia Badziun. Its website has existed since 2018. Buyers can preselect a number of critera for their desired article. Many papers are created specifically for the purpose of selling co-authorships, and only after a sufficient number of slots are sold, and the company recruits writers to produce at least some of these papers. Others may be otherwise legitimate articles; there is evidence that it also approaches authors published in high-quality journals to sell co-authorship slots. Slots are priced according to the prestige of the journal and the position of the slot in the list of purported collaborators. == Discovery and investigation == The company was exposed by scientific misconduct tracking website Retraction Watch in 2019. In 2022, a report on arXiv was covered by Science Magazine detailing how International Publisher Ltd. had published hundreds of academic papers across diverse academic journals, including from respected publishing companies. Some of these publishers have


id: invalid-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invalid_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Invalid science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invalid_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:14.614270+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: invalid-science-20260505-0
summary:
Invalid science consists of scientific claims based on experiments that cannot be reproduced or that are contradicted by experiments that can be reproduced. Recent analyses indicate that the proportion of retracted claims in the scientific literature is steadily increasing. The number of retractions has grown tenfold over the past decade, but they still make up approximately 0.2% of the 1.4 million papers published annually in scholarly journals. The U.S. Office of Research Integrity (ORI) investigates scientific misconduct. == Incidence == Science magazine ranked first for the number of articles retracted at 70, just edging out PNAS, which retracted 69. 32 of Science's retractions were due to fraud or suspected fraud, and 37 to error. A subsequent "retraction index" indicated that journals with relatively high impact factors, such as Science, Nature and Cell, had a higher rate of retractions. Under 0.1% of papers in PubMed had were retracted of more than 25 million papers going back to the 1940s. The fraction of retracted papers due to scientific misconduct was estimated at two-thirds, according to studies of 2,047 papers published since 1977. Misconduct included fraud and plagiarism. Another one-fifth were retracted because of mistakes, and the rest were pulled for unknown or


id: invalid-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invalid_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Invalid science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invalid_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:14.614270+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: invalid-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Peer review === Peer review is the primary validation technique employed by scientific publications. However, a prominent medical journal tested the system and found major failings. It supplied research with induced errors and found that most reviewers failed to spot the mistakes, even after being told of the tests. A pseudonymous fabricated paper on the effects of a chemical derived from lichen on cancer cells was submitted to 304 journals for peer review. The paper was filled with errors of study design, analysis and interpretation. 157 lower-rated journals accepted it. Another study sent an article containing eight deliberate mistakes in study design, analysis and interpretation to more than 200 of the British Medical Journal's regular reviewers. On average, they reported fewer than two of the problems. Peer reviewers typically do not re-analyze data from scratch, checking only that the authors' analysis is properly conceived. === Statistics === ==== Type I and type II errors ==== Scientists divide errors into type I, incorrectly asserting the truth of a hypothesis (false positive) and type II, rejecting a correct hypothesis (false negative). Statistical checks assess the probability that data which seem to support a hypothesis come about simply by chance. If the


id: invalid-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invalid_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Invalid science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invalid_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:14.614270+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: invalid-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Lack of access to data and software === Clinical trials are generally too costly to rerun. Access to trial data is the only practical approach to reassessment. A campaign to persuade pharmaceutical firms to make all trial data available won its first convert in February 2013 when GlaxoSmithKline became the first to agree. Software used in a trial is generally considered to be proprietary intellectual property and is not available to replicators, further complicating matters. Journals that insist on data-sharing tend not to do the same for software. Even well-written papers may not include sufficient detail and/or tacit knowledge (subtle skills and extemporisations not considered notable) for the replication to succeed. One cause of replication failure is insufficient control of the protocol, which can cause disputes between the original and replicating researchers. == Reform == === Statistics training === Geneticists have begun more careful reviews, particularly of the use of statistical techniques. The effect was to stop a flood of specious results from genome sequencing. === Protocol registration === Registering research protocols in advance and monitoring them over the course of a study can prevent researchers from modifying the protocol midstream to highlight preferred results. Providing raw data for


id: least-publishable-unit-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Least_publishable_unit-0.md
category: reference
title: Least publishable unit
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Least_publishable_unit
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:15.876367+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: least-publishable-unit-20260505-0
summary:
In academic publishing, the least publishable unit (LPU), also smallest publishable unit (SPU), minimum publishable unit (MPU), loot, or publon, is the minimum amount of information that can be used to generate a publication in a peer-reviewed venue, such as a journal or a conference. (Maximum publishable unit and optimum publishable unit are also used.) The term is often used as a joking, ironic, or derogatory reference to the strategy of artificially inflating the quantity of one's publications. Publication of the results of research is an essential part of science. The number of publications is often used to assess the work of a scientist and as a basis for distributing research funds. In order to achieve a high rank in such an assessment, there is a trend to split up research results into smaller parts that are published separately, thus inflating the number of publications. This process has been described as splitting the results into the smallest publishable units. "Salami publication", sometimes also referred to as "salami slicing" or "salami science", is a variant of the smallest-publishable-unit strategy. In salami publishing, data gathered by one research project is separately reported (wholly or in part) in multiple end publications. Salami publishing,


id: ivan-oransky-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Oransky-0.md
category: reference
title: Ivan Oransky
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Oransky
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:17.160913+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ivan-oransky-20260505-0
summary:
Ivan Oransky (born 1972) is an American physician and journalist. He co-founded the blog Retraction Watch in 2010 to document retractions in academic publishing and has since campaigned for greater transparency and accountability in research publishing. He is known for his advocacy of scientific integrity by tracking research misconduct and promoting institutional reforms. His opinions and statistics on scientific misconduct have been described in the media. == Education and career == Oransky graduated cum laude with a B.A. in biology from Harvard College in 1994, where he served as executive editor of The Harvard Crimson. He obtained his M.D. from the New York University School of Medicine in 1998, where he served during his studies as editor-in-chief of "Pulse", the medical student section of the Journal of the American Medical Association. Oransky has held senior editorial positions including deputy editor of The Scientist (2004–2008), managing editor for online content at Scientific American (2008–2009), executive editor of Reuters Health (2009–2013), vice president and global editorial director of MedPage Today (2013–2017), and vice president of editorial at Medscape (2018–2020). From 2017 to 2021, he served as president of the Association of Health Care Journalists. He has also taught medical journalism at New


id: outcome-switching-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outcome_switching-0.md
category: reference
title: Outcome switching
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outcome_switching
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:18.338870+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outcome-switching-20260505-0
summary:
Outcome switching is the practice of changing the primary or secondary outcomes of a clinical trial after its initiation. An outcome is the goal of the clinical trial, such as survival after five years for cancer treatment. Outcome switching can lead to bias and undermine the reliability of the trial, for instance when outcomes are switched after researchers already have access to trial data. That way, researchers can cherry pick an outcome which is statistically significant. == Problem == Outcome switching can undermine the reliability of the trial, for instance when outcomes are switched when researchers already have access to the trial data. It can lead to bias in terms of benefits and harms. For example, when the findings using the original protocol were statistically insignificant, a study may cherry pick a new outcome measure that is statistically significant. If there are a large number of outcomes to choose from, it is likely at least one will show significant findings, assuming no correction is made for multiple testing. Incomplete or misleading reporting of outcomes is an example of unethical research practice. == Possible solutions == Primary outcomes for clinical trials need to be defined upfront to prevent a biased selection


id: ashok-pandey-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashok_Pandey-0.md
category: reference
title: Ashok Pandey
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashok_Pandey
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:20.921984+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ashok-pandey-20260505-0
summary:
Ashok Kumar Pandey (born 1 January 1956) is an Indian chemist and biotechnologist, who had served as Distinguished Scientist at CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, Government of India, and Executive Director at the Centre for Energy and Environmental Sustainability. With over 1450 research papers, 16 patents, 95 books, he became India's most prolific researcher. By 2018, he was one of the most highly cited researchers in the world, within the top 1% according to Web of Science; and number 1 from India by 2021. For his enormous research outputs, Human Resource Development minister Shri Prakash Javadekar honoured him as the "most outstanding researcher" in biology in 2018. Pandey was the editor and then editor-in-chief of Elsevier's journal Bioresource Technology for over a decade. By 2025, 43 of the research papers he co-authored in the journal were retracted, as Elsevier established that he added his name in those papers and violated the journal's policies in the peer review process. In most of his papers, he added his named after he received the manuscripts, and then handled the entire peer reviewing. Elsevier also retracted several papers by different researchers which Pandey edited and handled the reviewing, but Pandey's name was there


id: ashok-pandey-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashok_Pandey-1.md
category: reference
title: Ashok Pandey
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashok_Pandey
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:20.921984+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ashok-pandey-20260505-0
summary:
=== Modus operandi === Pandey had no research or intellectual contributions to most of the retracted papers. As Elsevier investigation announced, different researchers submit their manuscripts to the journal, he returned the manuscript and when the authors revised and resubmit their manuscript, his name was incorporated as one of the authors. Then, he handled the entire peer reviewing process. The same pattern was verified in 35 of his research papers. As Elsevier retraction notice described:Review of the initial submission of this paper was handled by the then journal Editor-in-Chief (Ashok Pandey) and revision required. Upon submission of the revised version, the journal Editor-in-Chief was added as a co-author. No justification was provided for this addition. A second editor was assigned to the paper, eventually accepting the paper for publication. This compromised the editorial process and breached the journal's policies.Elsevier also pointed out that Pandey's name was in four other research papers in which his name was included in the initial manuscripts, but was removed in the final publication. It is Elsevier's policy that if any editor is an author or co-author in the same journal, editorial duty and peer reviewing are handled by other editors. In his defence, Pandey told


id: predatory-publishing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatory_publishing-0.md
category: reference
title: Predatory publishing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatory_publishing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:22.490657+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: predatory-publishing-20260505-0
summary:
Predatory publishing, also known as write-only publishing or deceptive publishing, is an exploitative and fraudulent academic publishing model in which journals or publishers prioritize their own financial or reputational gain over the advancement of scholarship. It is characterized by misleading or false information about editorial practices, a deviation from standard peer-review procedures, lack of transparency, and the use of aggressive or coercive solicitation tactics to attract authors. Predatory publishers often exploit the pressures on researchers to publish, undermining the integrity and credibility of scholarly communication. The phenomenon of "open-access predatory publishers" was first noticed by Jeffrey Beall around 2012, when he described "publishers that are ready to publish any article for payment". However, criticisms about the label "predatory" have been raised. A lengthy review of the controversy started by Beall appears in The Journal of Academic Librarianship. Predatory publishers are so regarded because scholars are tricked into publishing with them, although some authors may be aware that the journal is poor quality or even fraudulent but publish in them anyway. New scholars from developing countries are said to be especially at risk of being misled by predatory publishers. A 2022 report found that "nearly a quarter of the respondents from


id: predatory-publishing-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatory_publishing-1.md
category: reference
title: Predatory publishing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatory_publishing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:22.490657+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: predatory-publishing-20260505-0
summary:
=== "Dr Fraud" experiment === In 2015, four researchers created a fictitious sub-par scientist named Anna O. Szust (oszust is Polish for "fraudster"), and applied on her behalf for an editor position to 360 scholarly journals. Szust's qualifications were dismal for the role of an editor; she had never published a single article and had no editorial experience. The books and book chapters listed on her CV were made-up, as were the publishing houses that published the books. One-third of the journals to which Szust applied were sampled from Beall's List of predatory journals. Forty of these predatory journals accepted Szust as editor without any background vetting and often within days or even hours. By comparison, she received minimal to no positive response from the "control" journals which "must meet certain standards of quality, including ethical publishing practices". Among journals sampled from the Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ), 8 of 120 accepted Szust. The DOAJ has since removed some of the affected journals in a 2016 purge. None of the 120 sampled journals listed in Journal Citation Reports (JCR) offered Szust the position. The results of the experiment were published in Nature in March 2017, and widely presented in


id: predatory-publishing-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatory_publishing-2.md
category: reference
title: Predatory publishing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatory_publishing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:22.490657+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: predatory-publishing-20260505-0
summary:
The publisher is not a member of any recognized professional organisation committed to best publishing practices (like COPE or EASE) The journal is not indexed in well-established electronic databases (like MEDLINE or Web of Science) The publisher claims to be a "leading publisher" even though it just got started The journal and the publisher are unfamiliar to you and all your colleagues The papers of the journal are of poor research quality, and may not be academic at all (for instance allowing for obvious pseudo-science) There are fundamental errors in the titles and abstracts, or frequent and repeated typographical or factual errors throughout the published papers The journal website is not professional The journal website does not present an editorial board or gives insufficient detail on names and affiliations The journal website does not reveal the journal's editorial office location or uses an incorrect address The publishing schedule is not clearly stated The journal title claims a national affiliation that does not match its location (such as "American Journal of ..." while being located on another continent) or includes "International" in its title while having a single-country editorial board The journal mimics another journal title or the website of said


id: predatory-publishing-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatory_publishing-3.md
category: reference
title: Predatory publishing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatory_publishing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:22.490657+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: predatory-publishing-20260505-0
summary:
=== Growth and structure === A study in 2015 found that predatory journals rapidly increased their publication volumes from 53,000 in 2010 to an estimated 420,000 articles in 2014, published by around 8,000 active journals. Early on, publishers with more than 100 journals dominated the market, but since 2012 publishers in the 10–99 journal size category have captured the largest market share. As of 2022, almost one third of the 100 largest publishers (by journal count) could be deemed predatory. The regional distribution of both the publisher's country and authorship is highly skewed, with three-quarters of the authors from Asia or Africa. Authors paid an average fee of US $178 each for articles to be published rapidly without review, typically within two to three months of submission. As reported in 2019, some 5% of Italian researchers have published in predatory journals, with a third of those journals engaging in fraudulent editorial practices. == Causes and impact == The root cause of exploitative practices is the author-facing article-processing charge (APC) business model, in which authors are charged to publish rather than to read. Such a model provides incentives for publishers to focus on the quantity of articles published, rather than their


id: predatory-publishing-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatory_publishing-4.md
category: reference
title: Predatory publishing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatory_publishing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:22.490657+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: predatory-publishing-20260505-0
summary:
University of Colorado Denver librarian and researcher Jeffrey Beall, who coined the term "predatory publishing", first published his list of predatory publishers in 2010. Beall's list of potential, possible, or probable predatory scholarly open-access publishers attempted to identify scholarly open-access publishers with questionable practices. In 2013, Nature reported that Beall's list and web site were "widely read by librarians, researchers, and open-access advocates, many of whom applaud his efforts to reveal shady publishing practices." Others have raised the objection that "(w)hether it's fair to classify all these journals and publishers as 'predatory' is an open question—several shades of gray may be distinguishable." Beall's analyses have been called sweeping generalizations with no supporting evidence, and he has also been criticized for being biased against open-access journals from less economically developed countries. A 2018 study has shown that Beall's criteria of "predatory" publishing were in no way limited to OA publishers and that, applying them to both OA and non-OA journals in the field of library and information science, even top tier non-OA journals could be qualified as predatory. Similarly, another study reported on the difficulties of demarcating predatory and non-predatory journals in biomedicine. One librarian wrote that Beall's list "attempts a


id: predatory-publishing-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatory_publishing-5.md
category: reference
title: Predatory publishing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatory_publishing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:22.490657+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: predatory-publishing-20260505-0
summary:
==== Cabells' Predatory Reports ==== At the May 2017 meeting of the Society for Scholarly Publishing, Cabell's International, a company that offers scholarly publishing analytics and other scholarly services, announced that it intended to launch a blacklist of predatory journals (not publishers) in June, and said that access would be by subscription only. The company had started work on its blacklist criteria in early 2016. In July 2017, both a black list and a white list were offered for subscription on their website. ==== Other blacklists ==== Since Beall's list closed, other list groups have started. These include Kscien's list, which used Beall's list as a starting point, updating it to add and remove publishers. In 2020, the Ministry of Science and Technology of China ordered Chinese Center of Scientometrics to launch a blacklist called Chinese Early Warning Journal List (EWJL). EWJL classifies journals into three grades: low, medium, or high risk, rather than two (predatory or not) like most other lists. Nevertheless, there is an ongoing criticism of this list as well. According to a 2020 systematic review of 93 lists, only three were assessed as evidence-based according to the authors' criteria. === Science funders === Multiple science funders


id: predatory-publishing-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatory_publishing-6.md
category: reference
title: Predatory publishing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predatory_publishing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:22.490657+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: predatory-publishing-20260505-0
summary:
More transparent peer review, such as open peer review and post-publication peer review, has been advocated to combat predatory journals. Others have argued instead that the discussion on predatory journals should not be turned "into a debate over the shortcomings of peer review—it is nothing of the sort. It is about fraud, deception, and irresponsibility..." In an effort to "set apart legitimate journals and publishers from non-legitimate ones", principles of transparency and best practice have been identified and issued collectively by the Committee on Publication Ethics, the DOAJ, the Open Access Scholarly Publishers Association, and the World Association of Medical Editors. Various journal review websites (crowd-sourced or expert-run) have been started, some focusing on the quality of the peer review process and extending to non-OA publications. A group of libraries and publishers launched an awareness campaign. A number of measures have been suggested to further combat predatory journals. Others have called on research institutions to improve the publication literacy notably among junior researchers in developing countries. Some organisations have also developed criteria in which predatory publishers could be spotted through providing tips. As Beall has ascribed predatory publishing to a consequence of gold open access (particularly its author-pays variant), one


id: research-integrity-risk-index-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_Integrity_Risk_Index-0.md
category: reference
title: Research Integrity Risk Index
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_Integrity_Risk_Index
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:28.883838+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: research-integrity-risk-index-20260505-0
summary:
Research Integrity Risk Index (RI²) is a diagnostic, bibliometric framework designed to assess institutional exposure to selected research-integrity-related risks. Developed in 2025 by Lokman Meho (لقمان محّو), a professor and University Librarian at the American University of Beirut, RI² is presented as complementary to conventional global university rankings, which primarily emphasize publication volume and citation counts. RI² evaluates universities using three institution-level bibliometric indicators associated with integrity risk signals in scholarly publishing: retracted journal articles, publications in journals that were subsequently delisted from major bibliographic databases, and institutional self-citation patterns. The framework emerged amid broader debates over the limitations of citation- and volume-based ranking methodologies in capturing research integrity-related risks. == How does RI² work? == === Methodology === RI² assesses academic institutions using three bibliometric indicators derived from verifiable publications and citation data. Delisted Journal Risk (D Rate) measures the percentage of an institution's research output published in journals that were later delisted from Scopus or Web of Science following those databases' re-evaluation processes for editorial or publishing standards. Retraction Risk (R-Rate) measures the number of retracted journal articles per 1,000 published articles over a defined publication window. Retraction data are compiled and cross-validated using multiple independent sources, including


id: research-paper-mill-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_paper_mill-0.md
category: reference
title: Research paper mill
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_paper_mill
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:30.198721+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: research-paper-mill-20260505-0
summary:
In research, a paper mill is a business that produces poor quality or completely fraudulent journal papers that seem to resemble genuine research, as well as sells authorship on such papers. Paper mills are an example of academic dishonesty that affects all fields of academic publishing including academic writing, scientific writing and medical writing, and represents a failure of research ethics and research integrity. == Activities == In some cases, paper mills are sophisticated operations that sell authorship positions on legitimate (but poor quality) research, but in many cases the papers contain fraudulent data and can be heavily plagiarized or otherwise unprofessional. These services are advertised on platforms such as Facebook, Telegram and WhatsApp. Activities include contract cheating, academic ghostwriting and medical ghostwriting. It may include data fabrication, leading to junk science and retractions in academic literature. == History and prevalence == Research paper mills first emerged as a significant problem during the 2010s, though the earliest known papers attributed to paper mills are known from the 2000s, at least as early as 2004. In 2013, Science published an investigation of various kinds of research misconduct in China, including noting the practice of buying papers from an online catalogue. In


id: retraction-in-academic-publishing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retraction_in_academic_publishing-0.md
category: reference
title: Retraction in academic publishing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retraction_in_academic_publishing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:31.503137+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: retraction-in-academic-publishing-20260505-0
summary:
In academic publishing, a retraction is a mechanism by which the content of a paper published in an academic journal is disavowed so that its results and conclusions can no longer be relied upon. Retracted articles are not usually removed from the published literature but marked as retracted. In some rare cases a retracted article may be removed from publication, such as if it is defamatory, breaches copyright, violates personal privacy, is the subject of a court order, or might pose a health risk to the public. The purpose of retraction is to correct the literature and ensure its integrity, not to punish the authors. Detailed guideline on retraction have been published. Papers are typically retracted as seriously flawed and essentially incorrect, due to error or misdeeds, as distinct from small corrections to published articles. Although the majority of retractions in biomedical and life sciences are linked to scientific misconduct, they are often cited as evidence of the self-correcting nature of science. However, some scholars argue this view is misleading, describing it as a myth. A retraction may simply be due to a paper later being found to be in serious error, as in the historical case of Benjamin Wilson's


id: retraction-in-academic-publishing-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retraction_in_academic_publishing-1.md
category: reference
title: Retraction in academic publishing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retraction_in_academic_publishing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:31.503137+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: retraction-in-academic-publishing-20260505-0
summary:
=== Retraction for error === 2025 - A controversial paper claiming that the ancient village of Tall el-Hammam in the Jordan Valley near the Dead Sea was destroyed by a cosmic airburst was retracted by the journal because the evidence did not support the conclusions; the authors maintained their position, and intended to republish the original article with new data. 2013 - Study on the Mediterranean diet published in New England Journal of Medicine and widely covered by media was retracted due to unreported non-random assignments. This was part of a larger effort by anesthesiologist John Carlisle to verify proper randomization in thousands of studies; he found problems in about 2% of those analyzed. 2012 - Séralini affair - Article suggesting reported an increase in tumors among rats fed genetically modified corn and the herbicide RoundUp retracted due to criticism of experimental design. According to the editor of the journal, a "more in-depth look at the raw data revealed that no definitive conclusions can be reached with this small sample size". 2003 - A study on the relationship between use of the drug ecstasy and dopaminergic neurotoxicity in primates published in Science was retracted, due to methamphetamine unintentionally being used


id: retraction-in-academic-publishing-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retraction_in_academic_publishing-2.md
category: reference
title: Retraction in academic publishing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retraction_in_academic_publishing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:31.503137+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: retraction-in-academic-publishing-20260505-0
summary:
=== Retraction for fraud or misconduct === 2025 An article written by Aidan Toner-Rodgers, a doctoral student of economics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), intended to be published in The Quarterly Journal of Economics, claimed that artificial intelligence had been shown to massively improve efficiency at an unnamed materials science lab. Despite not having been peer-reviewed, the paper, available through ArXiv, enjoyed favourable coverage from outlets such as The Wall Street Journal, The Atlantic, and Nature. In addition, it was praised by MIT economists Daron Acemoglu and David Autor, the former of whom had been co-awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for 2024. The economists were then contacted in January 2025 by a computer scientist with experience in material science, who had disputed the legitimacy of the data, which was followed by an internal review conducted at MIT in early February; the review concluded that the paper was fraudulent, with Toner-Rodgers being expelled from the school. MIT requested that the paper be removed from arXiv. A press release from MIT's economics department issued on 16 May 2025 stated that they "[had] no confidence in the provenance, reliability or validity of the data and [had] no confidence


id: retraction-in-academic-publishing-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retraction_in_academic_publishing-3.md
category: reference
title: Retraction in academic publishing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retraction_in_academic_publishing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:31.503137+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: retraction-in-academic-publishing-20260505-0
summary:
=== Retraction for ethical violations === 2019 An article by Wendy Rogers (Macquarie University, Australia) and colleagues on BMJ Open called for the mass retraction of more than 400 scientific papers on organ transplantation, due to concerns that the organs had been obtained unethically from Chinese prisoners. Rogers said the journals, researchers and clinicians who used these studies were complicit in these methods of organ trafficking. According to the study, the transplant research community had failed to live up to ethical standards, continuing to publish articles based on use of organs from death row inmates. In 2019, PLOS ONE retracted 21 articles related to this incident. 2017 The journal Liver International retracted a Chinese study of liver transplantation because 564 livers grafted in the course of the research over 4 years could not be traced. The experts pointed out that it was implausible a hospital could have so many freely donated livers for transplantation, given the small number of donors in China at the time. === Retraction over data provenance === 2020 On 22 May 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, an article was published in The Lancet which claimed to find evidence, based on a database of 96032 COVID-19 patients,


id: retraction-watch-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retraction_Watch-0.md
category: reference
title: Retraction Watch
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retraction_Watch
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:32.785773+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: retraction-watch-20260505-0
summary:
Retraction Watch is a blog that reports on retractions of scientific papers and on related topics. The blog was launched in August 2010 and is produced by science writers Ivan Oransky (Former Vice President, Editorial Medscape) and Adam Marcus (editor of Gastroenterology & Endoscopy News). Its parent organization is The Center for Scientific Integrity (CSI), a US 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization. == Motivation and scope == In 2011, Oransky and Marcus pointed out in Nature that the peer review process for scholarly publications continues long after the publication date. They were motivated to launch Retraction Watch to encourage this continuation and to increase the transparency of the retraction process. They observed that retractions of papers generally are not announced, that the reasons for retractions are not publicized, and that other researchers or the public who are unaware of the retraction may make decisions based on invalid results. Oransky described an example of a paper published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences that reported a potential role for a drug against some types of breast cancers. Although the paper was later retracted, its retraction was not reported in media outlets that had earlier reported its positive conclusions, with a company


id: salami-slicing-tactics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salami_slicing_tactics-0.md
category: reference
title: Salami slicing tactics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salami_slicing_tactics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:34.172381+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: salami-slicing-tactics-20260505-0
summary:
Salami slicing tactics, also known as salami slicing, salami tactics, the salami-slice strategy, or salami attacks, is the practice of using a series of many small actions to produce a much larger action or result that would be difficult or unlawful to perform all at once. Salami tactics are a generally subversive strategy used extensively in geopolitics, such as countries attempting to expand their borders, and war games as a method of achieving goals gradually without provoking significant escalation. Perhaps the most famous example of the salami tactic was through WWII and into the start of the Cold War, with the formation of the Eastern Bloc in Europe by the USSR. By the time WWII ended, Eastern Europe was under the control of the Soviets. This advantage was used to ensure the election of submissive communist satellite states in several countries. As a result, from 1945 to 1949 through a series of slices, the USSR was able to bring Albania, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Romania, Hungary, and East Germany under its control without escalating incidents between its near peer adversaries. In finance, the term "salami attack" is used to describe schemes by which large sums are fraudulently accumulated by repeated transfers of


id: scientific-plagiarism-in-germany-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_plagiarism_in_Germany-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific plagiarism in Germany
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_plagiarism_in_Germany
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:35.380148+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-plagiarism-in-germany-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific plagiarism in Germany became widely discussed during the Guttenberg plagiarism scandal, which has led to other, mostly doctoral, dissertations being scrutinised. Initially focused on the dissertations of notable persons submitted at German institutions, non-doctoral works in languages other than German submitted at institutions outside Germany have since also been scrutinised. This scrutiny has found extensive plagiarism in the work of several notable persons, including cabinet members, and in a significant number of cases – but not all – their academic degree has been rescinded. As of 2024, the German VroniPlag Wiki has, since it started in 2011, published the plagiarism found in over 200 works; in at least 90 of these cases the academic degree was rescinded. Each year, about 30,000 doctorates are completed in Germany. However, academic misconduct has been a topic in Germany for centuries, especially at the doctoral level since one of the rights and privileges that come with an academic degree at this level is the title of doctor. In Germany, this title has been regarded since the 16th century "almost equal to a noble title." While the legal privileges of royalty and nobility were abolished in Germany in 1919 following the German revolution and


id: secretariat-on-the-responsible-conduct-of-research-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretariat_on_the_Responsible_Conduct_of_Research-0.md
category: reference
title: Secretariat on the Responsible Conduct of Research
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretariat_on_the_Responsible_Conduct_of_Research
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:36.546551+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: secretariat-on-the-responsible-conduct-of-research-20260505-0
summary:
The Secretariat on the Responsible Conduct of Research (SRCR) is an agency of Canada's federal government that provides ethical oversight in scientific research. The agency was established in 2011 and contains two volunteer panels. It is the successor to a research integrity group established in 1994 and adopted its framework. As of 2019, it has investigated 274 cases, which has resulted in 133 researchers being disciplined for academic misconduct. The organization determines consequences such as funding bans. It mostly relies on affiliated universities to report suspected violations and to do their own internal investigations. Formal complaints are not required for the organization to get involved. The organization has limited transparency and does not release information about the cases it investigates, even where there is police involvement, due to privacy implications. In 2024, when researching the Prince Albert School Study, scientist Janice Parente was told by the organization that it does not oversee privately funded research, which accounts for 85% of research conducted in Canada, and that these research subjects should instead seek recourse through the court system. == See also == Education in Canada United States Office of Research Integrity == References == == External links == Official website


id: source-criticism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_criticism-0.md
category: reference
title: Source criticism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_criticism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:37.756794+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: source-criticism-20260505-0
summary:
Source criticism (or information evaluation) is the process of evaluating an information source, i.e.: a document, a person, a speech, a fingerprint, a photo, an observation, or anything used in order to obtain knowledge. In relation to a given purpose, a given information source may be more or less valid, reliable or relevant. Broadly, "source criticism" is the interdisciplinary study of how information sources are evaluated for given tasks. == Meaning == Problems in translation: The Danish word kildekritik, like the Norwegian word kildekritikk and the Swedish word källkritik, derived from the German Quellenkritik and is closely associated with the German historian Leopold von Ranke (1795–1886). Historian Wolfgang Hardtwig wrote: His [Ranke's] first work Geschichte der romanischen und germanischen Völker von 1494–1514 (History of the Latin and Teutonic Nations from 1494 to 1514) (1824) was a great success. It already showed some of the basic characteristics of his conception of Europe, and was of historiographical importance particularly because Ranke made an exemplary critical analysis of his sources in a separate volume, Zur Kritik neuerer Geschichtsschreiber (On the Critical Methods of Recent Historians). In this work he raised the method of textual criticism used in the late eighteenth century, particularly in


id: source-criticism-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_criticism-1.md
category: reference
title: Source criticism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_criticism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:37.756794+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: source-criticism-20260505-0
summary:
Empiricism evaluates sources by considering the observations (or sensations) on which they are based. Sources without basis in experience are not seen as valid. Rationalism provides low priority to sources based on observations. In order to be meaningful, observations must be explained by clear ideas or concepts. It is the logical structure and the well definedness that is in focus in evaluating information sources from the rationalist point of view. Historicism evaluates information sources on the basis of their reflection of their sociocultural context and their theoretical development. Pragmatism evaluate sources on the basis of how their values and usefulness to accomplish certain outcomes. Pragmatism is skeptical about claimed neutral information sources. The evaluation of knowledge or information sources cannot be more certain than is the construction of knowledge. If one accepts the principle of fallibilism then one also has to accept that source criticism can never 100% verify knowledge claims. As discussed in the next section, source criticism is intimately linked to scientific methods. The presence of fallacies of argument in sources is another kind of philosophical criterion for evaluating sources. Fallacies are presented by Walton (1998). Among the fallacies are the ad hominem fallacy (the use of personal


id: source-criticism-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_criticism-2.md
category: reference
title: Source criticism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_criticism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:37.756794+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: source-criticism-20260505-0
summary:
Photos are often manipulated during wars and for political purposes. One well known example is Joseph Stalin's manipulation of a photograph from May 5, 1920, on which Stalin's predecessor Lenin held a speech for Soviet troops that Leon Trotsky attended. Stalin had later Trotsky retouched out of this photograph. (cf. King, 1997). A recent example is reported by Healy (2008) about North Korean leader Kim Jong Il. === Internet sources === Much interest in evaluating Internet sources (such as Wikipedia) is reflected in the scholarly literature of library and information science and in other fields. Mintz (2002) is an edited volume about this issue. Examples of literature examining Internet sources include Chesney (2006), Fritch & Cromwell (2001), Leth & Thurén (2000) and Wilkinson, Bennett, & Oliver (1997). === Archaeology and history === "In history, the term historical method was first introduced in a systematic way in the sixteenth century by Jean Bodin in his treatise of source criticism, Methodus ad facilem historiarium cognitionem (1566). Characteristically, Bodin's treatise intended to establish the ways by which reliable knowledge of the past could be established by checking sources against one another and by so assessing the reliability of the information conveyed by them,


id: source-criticism-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_criticism-3.md
category: reference
title: Source criticism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_criticism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:37.756794+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: source-criticism-20260505-0
summary:
The most important legal sources are created by parliaments, governments, courts, and legal researchers. They may be written or informal and based on established practices. Views concerning the quality of sources differ among legal philosophies: Legal positivism is the view that the text of the law should be considered in isolation, while legal realism, interpretivism (legal), critical legal studies and feminist legal criticism interprets the law on a broader cultural basis. == See also == == Notes == == References == American Library Association (1994) Evaluating Information: A Basic Checklist. Brochure. American Library Association Anderson, Richard C. (1978). Schema-directed processes in language comprehension. IN: NATO International Conference on Cognitive Psychology and Instruction, 1977, Amsterdam: Cognitive Psychology and Instruction. Ed. by A. M. Lesgold, J. W. Pellegrino, S. D. Fokkema & R. Glaser. New York: Plenum Press (pp. 67–82). Anderson, Richard C. & Pichert, J. W. (1977). Recall of previously unrecallable information following a shift of perspective. Urbana, Il: University of Illinois, Center for the Study of Reading, April. 1977. (Technical Report 41). Available in full-text from: http://eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/31/83/58.pdf Bazerman, Charles (1995). The Informed Writer: Using Sources in the Disciplines. 5th ed. Houghton Mifflin. Bee, Ronald E. (1983). Statistics and Source Criticism.


id: source-criticism-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_criticism-4.md
category: reference
title: Source criticism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_criticism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:37.756794+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: source-criticism-20260505-0
summary:
== External links == The Source Compass: Source Criticism The History Sourcebook: The Need for Source Criticism


category: reference
title: The Letter Of Roger Bacon Concerning The Marvelous Power Of Art And Nature And The Nullity Of Magic
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:39.069704+00:00
instance: kb-cron
id:
the-letter-of-roger-bacon-concerning-the-marvelous-power-of-art-and-nature-and-the-nullity-of-magic-20260505-0

file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Letter_Of_Roger_Bacon_Concerning_The_Marvelous_Power_Of_Art_And_Nature_And_The_Nullity_Of_Magic-0.md

summary:
The Letter Of Roger Bacon Concerning The Marvelous Power Of Art And Nature And The Nullity Of Magic (Latin: Epistola fratris Rogerii Baconis de secretis operibus artis et naturae, et de nullitate magiae) is a work on the technical applications of natural phenomena and speculative designs for future mechanisms. According to Simon Singh, it is the first European book that systematically outlines the principles of cryptography. Most scholars attribute the authorship to Franciscan monk Roger Bacon, an English philosopher and natural scientist of the mid-13th century. The Letter is the concluding work in a series by Roger Bacon aimed at compiling contemporary mathematical, physical, and linguistic knowledge, while establishing clear distinctions between magic, religion, and what later became technical and humanistic sciences. The Letter also includes reflections on the education and moral qualities of the clergy. Some of Bacon's philosophical and theological positions were deemed heretical by the Catholic Church, leading to his imprisonment. However, there is no definitive evidence that the Letter directly contributed to his incarceration. == History of creation == Around 1257, Bacon joined the Franciscan Order, hoping for support in his scientific pursuits. Instead, he faced restrictions from senior members of the order, who, from 1257

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Letter_Of_Roger_Bacon_Concerning_The_Marvelous_Power_Of_Art_And_Nature_And_The_Nullity_Of_Magic

parent:
the-letter-of-roger-bacon-concerning-the-marvelous-power-of-art-and-nature-and-the-nullity-of-magic-20260505-0


category: reference
title: The Letter Of Roger Bacon Concerning The Marvelous Power Of Art And Nature And The Nullity Of Magic
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:39.069704+00:00
instance: kb-cron
id:
the-letter-of-roger-bacon-concerning-the-marvelous-power-of-art-and-nature-and-the-nullity-of-magic-20260505-1

file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Letter_Of_Roger_Bacon_Concerning_The_Marvelous_Power_Of_Art_And_Nature_And_The_Nullity_Of_Magic-1.md

summary:
== Content of the book == In a brief preface, Bacon expresses admiration for the power of nature, stating that only the art of harnessing nature surpasses it. The opening section, "Against the False Invocation of Spirits", comprises two chapters. The first debunks ventriloquists and tricksters who pass off sleight of hand, mechanical, or optical instruments as miracles, or mimic animal voices. It reveals the secret behind telekinesis tricks performed at dusk or night, using light and shadow. The second chapter refutes the reality of spiritualist séances from a philosophical perspective, arguing that spirits either will not interact with humans or will not aid in base pursuits due to the inferiority of human power compared to spirits. The section "On Songs, Signs, and Their Uses" includes six chapters exposing various forms of divination, predictions, and charms. In "Symbols, Signs, and Magical Rituals," Bacon rejects the supernatural power of mysterious signs in sages' books, suggesting they are encrypted descriptions of natural laws meant to remain secret. He considers only fools attribute magical power to obscure formulas. "Some Affairs of Church Authorities" criticizes clergy engaging in divination with holy water or heated iron, particularly to determine guilt in cases of adultery or

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Letter_Of_Roger_Bacon_Concerning_The_Marvelous_Power_Of_Art_And_Nature_And_The_Nullity_Of_Magic

parent:
the-letter-of-roger-bacon-concerning-the-marvelous-power-of-art-and-nature-and-the-nullity-of-magic-20260505-0


category: reference
title: The Letter Of Roger Bacon Concerning The Marvelous Power Of Art And Nature And The Nullity Of Magic
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:39.069704+00:00
instance: kb-cron
id:
the-letter-of-roger-bacon-concerning-the-marvelous-power-of-art-and-nature-and-the-nullity-of-magic-20260505-2

file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Letter_Of_Roger_Bacon_Concerning_The_Marvelous_Power_Of_Art_And_Nature_And_The_Nullity_Of_Magic-2.md

summary:
==== In German ==== A 1613 Basel edition and a 1750 Vienna edition appeared, followed by a 1776 translation by Hamberger. ==== In Russian ==== In 2005, Moscow published a translation of Opus Majus and the first eight chapters of the Letter, edited by Ivan Lupandin. == Relevance of the book == The Letter has captivated researchers for eight centuries due to its harmonious coexistence of magic and science. It connects Bacon's works on mathematics, natural science, philosophy, and theology, establishing hierarchies and parallels, embodying the medieval struggle between magic, science, and religion. Historian John Rose names Bacon among the six greatest figures in history as a philosopher, theologian, scientist, and writer. However, early 21st-century scholars view Bacon's scientific contributions as limited due to their fragmentary nature. The book's historical and scientific relevance lies in its empirical facts and philosophical reflections, including Bacon's concept of spiritual experience or intuition as part of scientific discovery, a precursor to heuristics and intuition in science. The chapter "On the Wondrous Art of Instruments" anticipates Leonardo da Vinci's designs, predicting submarines, scuba gear, cars, and jacks. Bacon's famous quote, "Of the three ways by which people suppose they acquire knowledge of things—authority, reasoning, and

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Letter_Of_Roger_Bacon_Concerning_The_Marvelous_Power_Of_Art_And_Nature_And_The_Nullity_Of_Magic


id: united-states-office-of-research-integrity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Office_of_Research_Integrity-0.md
category: reference
title: United States Office of Research Integrity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Office_of_Research_Integrity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:40.315191+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: united-states-office-of-research-integrity-20260505-0
summary:
The Office of Research Integrity (ORI) is a U.S. government agency that focuses on research integrity, especially in health. It was created when the Office of Scientific Integrity (OSI) in the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and the Office of Scientific Integrity Review (OSIR) in the Office of the Assistant Secretary for Health merged in May 1992. The Office of Research Integrity oversees and directs Public Health Service (PHS) research integrity activities on behalf of the Secretary of Health and Human Services, except for the regulatory research integrity activities of the Food and Drug Administration. Organizationally, ORI is located within the Office of the Assistant Secretary for Health (OASH) within the Office of the Secretary of Health and Human Services (OS), in the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). == Activities == ORI carries out its responsibility by: Developing policies, procedures and regulations related to the detection, investigation, and prevention of research misconduct and the responsible conduct of research; Reviewing and monitoring research misconduct investigations conducted by applicant and awardee institutions, intramural research programs, and the Office of Inspector General in the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS); Recommending research misconduct findings and administrative actions to the Assistant


id: voodoo-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voodoo_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Voodoo Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voodoo_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:46.326818+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: voodoo-science-20260505-0
summary:
Voodoo Science: The Road from Foolishness to Fraud is a book published in 2000 by physics professor Robert L. Park, critical of research that falls short of adhering to the scientific method. Other people have used the term "voodoo science", but amongst academics it is most closely associated with Park. The book is critical of, among other things, homeopathy, cold fusion and the International Space Station. == Categories == Park uses the term voodoo science (see the quote section below, Page 10) as covering four categories which evolve from self-delusion to fraud: pathological science, wherein genuine scientists deceive themselves junk science, speculative theorizing which bamboozles rather than enlightens pseudoscience proper, work falsely claiming to have a scientific basis, which may be dependent on supernatural explanations fraudulent science, exploiting bad science for the purposes of fraud Park criticizes junk science as the creature of "scientists, many of whom have impressive credentials, who craft arguments deliberately intended to deceive or confuse." == Examples cited == Perpetual motion, free energy suppression and fringe physics claims Robert Fludd Garabed T. K. Giragossian The Energy Machine of Joseph Newman Better World Technologies (Dennis Lee) Blacklight Power, formerly HydroCatalysis (Randell Mills) Cold fusion (Stanley Pons and


id: voodoo-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voodoo_Science-1.md
category: reference
title: Voodoo Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voodoo_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:46.326818+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: voodoo-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Reception == Matt Nisbet in the Skeptical Inquirer noted that the reaction to Voodoo Science has been mostly favorable. Bob Goldstein in a book review for Nature Cell Biology described Park as an equivalent to Richard Dawkins and Stephen Jay Gould, scientific writers who have "talent for defending a view of the world that is perfectly rational and free of witchcraft and superstition." American chemist Nicholas Turro wrote "the book is entertaining and provocative reading... Whether or not you agree with Park's take on voodoo science, a message of the book is that if scientists do not take a more significant role in the way that science is disseminated to the public and especially to politicians, voodoo science will continue to survive." The mathematician Malcolm Sherman in the American Scientist gave the book a positive review stating "Park does more than analyze and expose various kinds of bad ("voodoo") science. He demonstrates how valid science is distorted or ignored by the media and by those (including scientists) seeking to influence public policy." The physicist Kenneth R. Foster also positively reviewed the book concluding "Park is an articulate and skeptical voice of reason about science." Reviewing the book for The


id: list-of-science-centers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_centers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of science centers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_centers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:48.071624+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-science-centers-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of science centers (spelt science centre in Commonwealth English) organized by continent. Science centers are a type of science museum that emphasizes an interactive, hands-on approach with its exhibitions. == Africa == == Asia == == Europe == == Middle East == == North America == == Oceania == == South America == == References ==


id: list-of-science-museums-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_museums-0.md
category: reference
title: List of science museums
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_museums
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:49.369860+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-science-museums-20260505-0
summary:
Below is a list of science museums all over the world. See Science museum for definitions. == Europe == === Austria === Ars Electronica Center, Linz Haus der Musik (House of Music), Vienna Naturhistorisches Museum Wien (Natural History Museum), Vienna Technisches Museum Wien (Vienna Technical Museum), Vienna === Belgium === Euro Space Center, Libin Hidrodoe, Herentals Pass, Frameries Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, Brussels Technopolis, Mechelen === Bulgaria === National Polytechnical Museum, Sofia === Croatia === Nikola Tesla Memorial Center, Smiljan Split Science Museum and Zoo, Split Technical Museum, Zagreb === Czech Republic === National Technical Museum, Prague Techmania Science Center, Plzeň === Denmark === Kroppedal, Copenhagen Natural History Museum of Denmark, Copenhagen Science Museums, Aarhus Tycho Brahe Planetarium, Copenhagen === Estonia === AHHAA, Tartu === Finland === Arktikum, Rovaniemi Heureka, Vantaa Tietomaa, Oulu === France === Ampère Museum, Lyon Cité de l'espace, Toulouse Cité des Sciences et de l'Industrie, Paris Micropolis (La Cité des Insectes), Millau Musée des Arts et Métiers, Paris Palais de la Découverte, Paris Vulcania, Saint-Ours-les-Roches Exploradôme, Vitry-sur-Seine === Germany === Deutsches Museum, Munich experimenta, Heilbronn German Hygiene Museum, Dresden German Museum of Technology (Berlin) Hermann Oberth Space Travel Museum, Feucht, Bavaria Mathematikum, Gießen Mathematisch-Physikalischer


id: list-of-science-museums-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_museums-1.md
category: reference
title: List of science museums
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_museums
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:49.369860+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-science-museums-20260505-0
summary:
=== China === China Science and Technology Museum, Beijing Beijing Museum of Natural History Shanghai Science and Technology Museum, Pudong, Shanghai Sichuan Science and Technology Museum, Sichuan Guangdong Science Center, Guangzhou === Hong Kong === Health Education Exhibition and Resource Centre, Kowloon Park Hong Kong Museum of Medical Sciences, Mid-Levels Fanling Environmental Resource Centre, Fanling Hong Kong Science Museum, Tsim Sha Tsui Hong Kong Space Museum, Tsim Sha Tsui Jockey Club Museum of Climate Change, New Territories === India === Birla Industrial & Technological Museum, Kolkata Birla Science Museum, Hyderabad Gujarat Science City, Ahmedabad Birla Planetarium, Chennai Hakim Karam Hussain Museum on History of Medicine and Sciences Kerala Science and Technology Museum, Thiruvananthapuram National Council of Science Museums (NCSM) National Science Centre, Delhi Nehru Museum of Science and Technology, Kharagpur Nehru Science Centre, Mumbai Regional Science Centre, Bhopal Science City Kolkata, Kolkata Science Park, Jaipur Srikrishna Science Centre, Patna Visvesvaraya Industrial and Technological Museum, Bangalore === Indonesia === Bandung Geological Museum, Bandung Puspa Iptek Sundial, Bandung Bogor Zoology Museum, Bogor Jakarta Planetarium and Observatory, Taman Ismail Marzuki, Jakarta Taman Pintar Yogyakarta, Yogyakarta === Iran === Iran National museum of science and technology, Tehran === Israel === Bloomfield Science Museum, Jerusalem


id: science-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Science museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:52.227996+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-museum-20260505-0
summary:
A science museum is a museum devoted primarily to science. Older science museums tended to concentrate on static displays of objects related to natural history, paleontology, geology, industry and industrial machinery, etc. Modern trends in museology have broadened the range of subject matter and introduced many interactive exhibits. Modern science museums, increasingly referred to as "science centres" or "discovery centres", also feature technology. While the mission statements of science centres and modern museums may vary, they are commonly places that make science accessible and encourage the excitement of discovery. == History == As early as the Renaissance period, aristocrats collected curiosities for display. Universities, and in particular medical schools, also maintained study collections of specimens for their students. Scientists and collectors displayed their finds in private cabinets of curiosities. Such collections were the predecessors of modern natural history museums. In 1683, the first purpose-built museum covering natural philosophy, the original Ashmolean museum (now called the Museum of the History of Science) in Oxford, England, was opened, although its scope was mixed. This was followed in 1752 by the first dedicated science museum, the Museo de Ciencias Naturales, in Madrid, which almost did not survive Francoist Spain. Today, the museum works


id: science-museum-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_museum-1.md
category: reference
title: Science museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:52.227996+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-museum-20260505-0
summary:
Museums that brand themselves as science centres emphasise a hands-on approach, featuring interactive exhibits that encourage visitors to experiment and explore. Recently, there has been a push for science museums to be more involved in science communication and educating the public about the scientific process. Microbiologist and science communicator Natalia Pasternak Taschner stated, "I believe that science museums can promote critical thinking, especially in teenagers and young adults, by teaching them about the scientific method and the process of science, and how by using this to develop knowledge and technology, we can be less wrong." Urania was a science centre founded in Berlin in 1888. Most of its exhibits were destroyed during World War II, as were those of a range of German technical museums. The Academy of Science of Saint Louis (founded in 1856) created the Saint Louis Museum of Science and Natural History in 1959 (Saint Louis Science Center), but generally science centres are a product of the 1960s and later. In the United Kingdom, many were founded as Millennium projects, with funding from the National Lotteries Fund. The first "science centre" in the United States was the Science Center of Pinellas County, founded in 1959. The Pacific


id: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums-0.md
category: reference
title: List of natural history museums
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:53.629949+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of natural history museums whose exhibits focus on the subject of natural history, including such topics as animals, plants, ecosystems, geology, paleontology, and climatology. Some museums feature natural-history collections in addition to other collections, such as ones related to history, art and science. In addition, nature centers often include natural history exhibits. == Africa == === Algeria === Beni Abbes Museum (Musee de Beni-Abbes), Béni Abbès === Angola === National Museum of Natural History of Angola (Museu Nacional de História Natural de Angola), Luanda === Botswana === Botswana National Museum, Gaborone === Egypt === Egyptian Geological Museum, Cairo Alexandria Aquarium Museum, Alexandria === Ethiopia === Zoological Natural History Museum, Addis Ababa === Kenya === Kitale Museum, Kitale National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi === Mozambique === Museu de História Natural de Moçambique, Maputo === Namibia === National Earth Science Museum, Geological Survey of Namibia, Windhoek === Nigeria === Natural History Museum, OAU, Ifẹ, located at the Obafemi Awolowo University === South Africa === Albany Museum, Grahamstown Amathole Museum, King William's Town Bleloch Geological Museum, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg Wits Life Sciences Museum, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg CP Nel Museum, Oudtshoorn Natural Science Museum, Durban Iziko


id: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums-1.md
category: reference
title: List of natural history museums
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:53.629949+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-0
summary:
=== Singapore === Science Centre Singapore Lee Kong Chian Natural History Museum === Taiwan === Insect Science Museum, Taipei National Museum of Natural Science, Taichung National Museum of Taiwan History, Tainan City National Taiwan Museum, Taipei City National Chiayi University Insect Museum, Chiayi City === Thailand === Thailand National Science Museum, Pathum Thani Chulalongkorn University Museum of Natural History, Bangkok Chulalongkorn University's Geological Museum, Bangkok Chulalongkorn University's Traditional Medicine Museum, Bangkok Mahidol University's Mollusk Museum, Bangkok Mahidol University's Mosquito Museum, Bangkok Mahidol University's Bio-Geo Path, Bangkok Rattanakosin Natural History Museum, Kasetsart University, Bangkok Veterinarical Anatomy Museum, Kasetsart University, Bangkok Pathology Museum, Kasetsart University, Bangkok Kasetsart University's Ant Museum, Bangkok Kasetsart University's Zoological Museum, Bangkok Kasetsart University Museum of Fisheries (Natural History), Bangkok Kasetsart University's 60th Anniversary Museum and Park of Insects, Bangkok Lichen Museum, Ramkhamhaeng University, Bangkok Bangkok Butterfly and Insect Park, Bangkok Dusit Zoo Museum, Bangkok Soil Museum, Bangkok Geological Museum, Bangkok Horn and Antler Museum, Bangkok Biological Science Museum at Faculaty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai Chiang Mai University's Geological Museum, Chiang Mai Museum of World Insects and Natural Heritages, Chiang Mai Lignite Learning Centre Museum, Lampang King Mongkut Memeorail Park of Science and Technology, Prachuap


id: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums-2.md
category: reference
title: List of natural history museums
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:53.629949+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-0
summary:
=== Croatia === Croatian Natural History Museum, Zagreb (Hrvatski prirodoslovni muzej) Dubrovnik Natural History Museum, Dubrovnik Hunting Museum, Zagreb Karlovac Municipal Museum, Karlovac Museum of Evolution and Prehistoric Human Habitation, Krapina Museum of Slavonia, Osijek Mushroom Museum, Zagreb Natural History Museum, Rijeka Natural History Museum and Zoo, Split Ornithological Collection, Metković Senj City Museum, Senj Varazdin Municipal Museum: The Herzer Palace, Varaždin Zoological Museum of Baranja – Kopačevo, Baranja – Kopačevo === Czech Republic === Moravian Museum, Brno National Museum (Prague), Prague Chlupáč's Museum of the History of Earth, Prague Městské muzeum Čáslav, Čáslav === Denmark === Copenhagen Amber Museum, Copenhagen Natural History Museum of Denmark, Copenhagen Fossil and Mo-clay Museum, near Sejerslev (northern Mors Island) Fur Museum, Nederby (on Fur Island) GeoCenter Møns Klint, Borre (eastern Møn) Gram Natural History Museum, Gram Museum of Evolution at Knuthenborg Safaripark, Bandholm NaturBornholm, Aakirkeby Naturhistorisk Museum, Aarhus Naturama, Svendborg Stevns Klint Experience, Rødvig Wadden Sea Centre, Vester Vedsted (near Ribe) === Estonia === Estonian Museum of Natural History, Tallinn Ice Age Centre, Tartu University of Tartu Natural History Museum, Tartu === Finland === Finnish Museum of Natural History, Helsinki Geological Museum, University of Oulu, Oulu Mineralogical Museum of the Geological Survey of


id: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums-3.md
category: reference
title: List of natural history museums
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:53.629949+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-0
summary:
=== Italy === Museo Civico Scienze Naturali Enrico Caffi, Bergamo University Museums, University of Bologna, Bologna Museo della Preistoria Luigi Donini, San Lazzaro di Savena, Bologna Museo del Fossile del Monte Baldo, Brentonico, Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol Museo Civico di Storia Naturale, Carmagnola, Piedmont Museo Civico Comunale di Comiso, Sicily Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Ferrara, Ferrara Museo di Storia Naturale di Firenze, University of Florence, Florence Museo Civico di Storia Naturale Giacomo Doria, Genoa Museo di Storia Naturale della Maremma, Grosseto Museo di Storia Naturale del Mediterraneo, Livorno Museo di Scienze Naturali, Lodi, Lombardy Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Milano, Milan Zoological Museum of Naples, Naples Museo di Geologia e Paleontologia, University of Padua, Padua Museo per la Storia dell'Università, University of Pavia, Pavia Museo di Storia Naturale, University of Pavia, Pavia Museo di Archeologia, University of Pavia, Pavia Museo di Mineralogia, University of Pavia, Pavia Natural History Museum, Pisa Museo Geologico delle Dolomiti, Predazzo, Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol Museo Civico di Zoologia di Roma, Rome Geological Museum, Rome Museo Civico Rovereto, Rovereto Museo Regionale di Scienze Naturali, Saint-Pierre Museo di Storia Naturale, Sulmona Museo di Storia Naturale Bios Taras, Taranto Museo Tridentino di Scienze Naturali, Trento Museo Civico di Storia


id: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums-4.md
category: reference
title: List of natural history museums
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:53.629949+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-0
summary:
=== Spain === Cau del Cargol Conquilles del Món (Shells of the World Museum, malacology), Catalonia Institut Paleontològic Dr. M. Crusafont, Sabadell Museo de Ciencias de Arnedo (Museum of Science Arnedo), Arnedo Museo de Ciencias Naturales, Álava Museu de Ciències Naturals, Barcelona Museo de Ciencias Naturales (Guadalcazar) and Mocha Tower, Córdoba Museo Geominero, Madrid Museo Municipal de Ciencias Naturales (Municipal Museum of Natural Science), Valencia Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, Madrid Museo Paleontologico de la Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza Museu de Ciencies Naturals de Costix, Mallorca Museu de Granollers Ciències Naturals, Granollers Museu de les Papallones de Catalunya, Lleida Museu Geològic del Seminari de Barcelona, Barcelona Museu Montsia, Amposta Museu Valencià d'Història Natural – Fundación Entomológica Torres Sala, Valencia Museum of Zoology, University of Navarra, Pamplona === Sweden === Biologiska Museet (Biological Museum), Djurgården, Stockholm Gotland Museum (Gotlands museum), Visby Geological Museum Villa Heidelberg, Klimpfjäll Göteborg Natural History Museum (Göteborgs Naturhistoriska Museum), Gothenburg Malmö Museums – Natural History Museum, Malmö Lund University Zoology Museum (Lunds Universitet Zoologiska museet), Lund Museum of Evolution, Uppsala University (Evolutions Museet Uppsala Universitet), Uppsala Swedish Museum of Natural History (Naturhistoriska riksmuseet), Stockholm Swedish Amber Museum, Höllviken === Switzerland === Musée cantonal de géologie (Cantonal Museum


id: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums-5.md
category: reference
title: List of natural history museums
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:53.629949+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-0
summary:
==== Ontario ==== 1000 Islands History Museum, Gananoque Aquatarium, Brockville Arkona Lions Museum, Arkona Ball's Falls Centre for Conservation, Ball's Falls, Ontario Bonnechere Museum, Bonnechere Canadian Museum of Nature, Ottawa Dynamic Earth, Sudbury Entomica Insectarium, Sault Ste. Marie Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto The Earth Sciences Museum, University of Waterloo, Waterloo The Miller Museum of Geology, Queen's University at Kingston Museum of Northern History, Kirkland Lake The Niagara Falls Museum, Niagara Falls Pelee Island Heritage Centre, Pelee Science North, Greater Sudbury Stones 'N Bones Museum, Sarnia ==== Quebec ==== Lake Timiskaming Fossil Centre, Quebec City Montreal Biosphere, Montreal Montreal Insectarium, Montreal Musée de la Nature et des Sciences, Sherbrooke Musee du Fjord, La Baie Musée de Paléontologie et de l'Evolution, Montreal Musée Minéralogique d'Asbestos, Asbestos Musée minèralogique et minier de Thetford Mines, Thetford Mines Redpath Museum, Montreal Sherbrooke Nature and Science Museum, Sherbrooke ==== Saskatchewan ==== Abernethy Nature-Heritage Museum, Abernethy Ancient Echoes Interpretive Center, Herschel Museum of Natural Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon Royal Saskatchewan Museum, Regina T.rex Discovery Centre, Eastend ==== Yukon ==== Kluane Museum of Natural History, Burwash Landing Yukon Beringia Interpretive Centre, Whitehorse === Mexico === Caracol, Museo de Ciencias de Ensenada, Ensenada Museo de Geología UNAM, Mexico


id: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums-6.md
category: reference
title: List of natural history museums
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:53.629949+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-natural-history-museums-20260505-0
summary:
=== Brazil === Museu de Arqueologia e Etnologia – USP, São Paulo, SP Museu de Ciências Naturais – PUC MINAS, Belo Horizonte, MG Museu Entomológico Fritz Plaumann, Santa Catarina Museu Geológico Valdemar Lefèvre, São Paulo, SP Museu de Geociências – USP, São Paulo, SP Museu de História Natural de Taubaté, Taubaté Museu de Historia Natural Capão da Imbuia Wood, Curitiba Museu Nacional, UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi, Belém Museu de Rochas, Minerais e Minérios – USP, São Paulo, SP Museum of Veterinary Anatomy FMVZ USP, São Paulo Museu de Zoologia da Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo state Museu de Zoologia da Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo === Chile === Chilean National Museum of Natural History, Santiago Museo de Historia Natural de Valparaiso, Región de Valparaiso Museo de Historia Natural de Concepción, Región del Biobío === Colombia === Museo de Historia Natural, Popayán Museo La Salle, Bogotá Museo Prehistórico National University of Colombia, Bogotá: Museo de Historia Natural (Museum of Natural History) Museo Entomológico (Museum of Entomology) Museo Paleontológico (Museum of Paleontology) Botanic Garden Medellín === Ecuador === Gustavo Orcés V. Natural History Museum, Quito === Guyana === Guyana National Museum, Georgetown === Paraguay


id: ahhaa-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AHHAA-0.md
category: reference
title: AHHAA
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AHHAA
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:54.961964+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ahhaa-20260505-0
summary:
Science Centre AHHAA (Estonian: Teaduskeskus AHHAA) is a science centre located in Tartu, Estonia, and is currently the largest science centre in the Baltic states. AHHAA was established to promote science and technology using interactive exhibits. Since 7 May 2011, Science Centre AHHAA has been in the building located in the centre of Tartu. == History == AHHAA was established as a project of the University of Tartu on 1 September 1997. Since 12.03.2004, it has operated as a foundation constituted by the city of Tartu and the University of Tartu. The activities of the Science Centre AHHAA Foundation are coordinated by a committee composed of Katrin Pihor, Hannes Astok, Aune Valk, Reno Laidre, Jaanika Anderson and Sulev Valner. Additionally, the practical aspects of the activities of the foundation are appraised by a science committee composed of experts consisting of Jaan Kikas, Peeter Saari, Jaak Jaaniste, Mart Noorma, Arko Olesk, Toivo Maimets, Priit Põdra and Margit Timakov. AHHAA is governed by the board consisting of two members. Tiiu Sild was the head of the board until 2012. She was followed by Andres Juur (head of board since 2012). The second board member is Pilvi Kolk (member of board since 2005).


id: asia-pacific-network-of-science-and-technology-centres-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia_Pacific_Network_of_Science_and_Technology_Centres-0.md
category: reference
title: Asia Pacific Network of Science and Technology Centres
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia_Pacific_Network_of_Science_and_Technology_Centres
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:56.252744+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: asia-pacific-network-of-science-and-technology-centres-20260505-0
summary:
The Asia Pacific Network of Science & Technology Centres (ASPAC), is a not-for-profit association initiated in 1997. It was formed to facilitate communication and cooperation among Science Centres and Museums and other organisations that use interactive approaches for learning and public understanding of science and technology in the Asia-Pacific region. The network hosts annual conferences where members exchange the latest updates on science exhibitions, educational advancements, and upcoming events. ASPAC has over 50 members from 20 countries (2022). Members include different forms of organisations, like science centres, science museums, children’s museums, exhibit design and fabrication firms. == See also == List of science centers == References == == External links == ASPAC website


id: association-of-science-and-technology-centers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_of_Science_and_Technology_Centers-0.md
category: reference
title: Association of Science and Technology Centers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_of_Science_and_Technology_Centers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:57.855883+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: association-of-science-and-technology-centers-20260505-0
summary:
The Association of Science and Technology Centers (ASTC) is a non-profit, global organization based in Washington, D.C., in the United States, that provides professional support for science centers, museums, and related institutions. ASTC's goal is to increase awareness of the contributions its members make to their communities and the field of informal STEM learning. Founded in 1973, ASTC represents nearly 700 members in almost 50 countries, including not only science centers and museums, but also nature centers, aquariums, planetariums, zoos, botanical gardens, and natural history and children's museums, as well as companies, consultants, and other organizations that share an interest in informal science education. == Member programs == === Passport Program === ASTC member institutions can participate in ASTC's Passport Program, allowing members of participating institutions to visit other participating institutions for free, provided the member is visiting an institution more than 90 miles from their home institution. More than 300 institutions in over a dozen countries participate in the Passport Program. === Annual conference === Each year, nearly 2,000 individuals representing science centers and museums from across the world, informal science educators, and companies collaborating with the museum field gather for ASTC's annual conference. === Professional development === ASTC


id: baghdad-planetarium-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baghdad_Planetarium-0.md
category: reference
title: Baghdad Planetarium
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baghdad_Planetarium
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:28:59.725917+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: baghdad-planetarium-20260505-0
summary:
The Baghdad Planetarium (Arabic: القبة الفلكية البغدادي) was a green-domed astronomical Planetarium based in al-Zawra'a Park located diagonally across from the Baghdad Central Railway Station in Baghdad, Iraq. == Biography == === Historical background === Plans to construct a planetarium in Baghdad can be traced back to the Kingdom of Iraq period in which plans for a Greater Baghdad were outlined. Among the people invited for the plans by King Faisal II was American architect and designer Frank Lloyd Wright who designed several cultural buildings as part of the project, one of these was a planetarium next to a civic auditorium located below several vast ramps for east access to the planetarium. The planetarium was supposed to be located on an island alongside an Opera House, a grand Islamic bazaar, and a monument of Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashid. However, these plans were never implemented due to the 1958 coup that overthrew the Iraqi monarchy and killed King Faisal II, and lack of interest upon the new Iraqi government established by Abd al-Karim Qasim to continue the project. === Establishment === The Planetarium was built and opened in 1979 under the leadership of former Iraqi President Saddam Hussein. It is considered


id: botanical-garden-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_garden-0.md
category: reference
title: Botanical garden
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_garden
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:29:01.074157+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: botanical-garden-20260505-0
summary:
A botanical garden or botanic garden is a garden with a documented collection of living plants for the purpose of scientific research, conservation, display, and education. Plants in larger gardens are often labelled with their botanical names and additional information. It may contain specialist plant collections such as cacti and other succulent plants, herb gardens, or plants from particular parts of the world. There may be glasshouses or shadehouses with special collections such as tropical plants, alpine plants, or other exotic plants that are not native to the local region. Most are at least partly open to the public, and may offer guided tours, public programming such as workshops, courses, educational displays, art exhibitions, book rooms, open-air theatrical and musical performances, and other entertainment. Botanical gardens are often run by universities or other scientific research organizations, and usually have associated herbaria and research programmes in plant taxonomy or some other aspect of botanical science. In principle, their role is to maintain documented collections of living plants for the purposes of scientific research, conservation, display, and education, although this will depend on the resources available and the special interests pursued at each particular garden. The staff will normally include botanists as


id: botanical-garden-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_garden-1.md
category: reference
title: Botanical garden
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_garden
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:29:01.074157+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: botanical-garden-20260505-0
summary:
Worldwide, there are now about 1800 botanical gardens and arboreta in about 150 countries (mostly in temperate regions) of which about 550 are in Europe (150 of which are in Russia), 200 in North America, and an increasing number in East Asia. These gardens attract about 300 million visitors a year. Historically, botanical gardens exchanged plants through the publication of seed lists (called Latin: Indices Seminum in the 18th century). This was a means of transferring both plants and information between botanical gardens. This system continues today, though with attention to the risks of genetic piracy and transmission of invasive species. The International Association of Botanic Gardens was formed in 1954 as a worldwide organisation affiliated to the International Union of Biological Sciences. More recently, coordination has also been provided by Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI), which has the mission "To mobilise botanic gardens and engage partners in securing plant diversity for the well-being of people and the planet". Regional coordination is seen in the United States with the American Public Gardens Association (formerly the American Association of Botanic Gardens and Arboreta), while in Australasia there is the Botanic Gardens of Australia and New Zealand (BGANZ). == History == The


id: botanical-garden-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_garden-2.md
category: reference
title: Botanical garden
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_garden
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:29:01.074157+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: botanical-garden-20260505-0
summary:
In the 17th century, botanical gardens began their contribution to a deeper scientific curiosity about plants. If a botanical garden is defined by its scientific or academic connection, then the first true botanical gardens were established with the revival of learning that occurred in the European Renaissance. These were secular gardens attached to universities and medical schools, used as resources for teaching and research. The superintendents of these gardens were often professors of botany with international reputations, a factor that probably contributed to the creation of botany as an independent discipline rather than a descriptive adjunct to medicine. ==== Origins in the Italian Renaissance ==== The botanical gardens of Southern Europe were associated with university faculties of medicine and were founded in Italy at Orto botanico di Pisa (1544), Orto botanico di Padova (1545), Orto Botanico di Firenze (1545), Orto Botanico dell'Università di Pavia (1558) and Orto Botanico dell'Università di Bologna (1568). Here the physicians (known in English as apothecaries) delivered lectures on the Mediterranean "simples" or "officinals" that were being cultivated in the grounds. Student education was no doubt stimulated by the relatively recent advent of printing and the publication of the first herbals. ==== Northern Europe ==== The


id: botanical-garden-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_garden-3.md
category: reference
title: Botanical garden
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_garden
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:29:01.074157+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: botanical-garden-20260505-0
summary:
At this time, British horticulturalists were importing many woody plants from Britain's colonies in North America, and the popularity of horticulture had increased enormously, encouraged by the horticultural and botanical collecting expeditions overseas fostered by the directorship of Sir William Jackson Hooker and his keen interest in economic botany. At the end of the 18th century, Kew, under the directorship of Sir Joseph Banks, enjoyed a golden age of plant hunting, sending out collectors to the South African Cape, Australia, Chile, China, Ceylon, Brazil, and elsewhere, and acting as "the great botanical exchange house of the British Empire". From its earliest days to the present, Kew has in many ways exemplified botanic garden ideals, and is respected worldwide for the published work of its scientists, the education of horticultural students, its public programmes, and the scientific underpinning of its horticulture. In 1728, John Bartram founded Bartram's Garden in Philadelphia, one of the continent's first botanical gardens. The garden is now managed as a historical site that includes a few original and many modern specimens as well as extensive archives and restored historical farm buildings. ==== Plant classification ==== The large number of plants needing description were listed in garden catalogues;


id: botanical-garden-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_garden-4.md
category: reference
title: Botanical garden
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_garden
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:29:01.074157+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: botanical-garden-20260505-0
summary:
Presidents George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and James Madison, all experienced farmers, shared the dream of a national botanic garden, leading to the founding in 1820 of the United States Botanic Garden, next to the Capitol in Washington DC. In 1859, the Missouri Botanical Garden was founded at St Louis, Missouri; it is one of the world's leading gardens specializing in tropical plants. Russia's botanical gardens include Moscow University Botanic Garden ('the Apothecary Garden'), founded in 1706 by Tsar Peter the Great, and the Saint Petersburg Botanical Garden, (1714). === 20th century === ==== Civic and municipal botanical gardens ==== A large number of civic or municipal botanical gardens were founded in the 19th and 20th centuries. These did not develop scientific facilities or programmes, but the horticultural aspects were strong and the plants often labelled. They were botanical gardens in the sense of building up collections of plants and exchanging seeds with other gardens around the world, although their collection policies were determined by those in day-to-day charge of them. They tended to become little more than beautifully maintained parks and were, indeed, often under general parks administrations. ==== Community engagement ==== The second half of the 20th century saw


id: cape-town-science-centre-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Town_Science_Centre-0.md
category: reference
title: Cape Town Science Centre
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Town_Science_Centre
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:29:07.302960+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cape-town-science-centre-20260505-0
summary:
The Cape Town Science Centre is a not-for-profit science centre in Cape Town, South Africa. It forms part of a wide range of non-classroom initiatives to improve the quality of science understanding and science literacy in South Africa. Until early 2010, the MTN Sciencentre was located in the Canal Walk shopping mall. It reopened in Observatory in 2011. The MTN Sciencentre's Ericsson cell phone is in the Guinness Book of World Records as the world's largest working cell phone. == References == == External links == Official website


id: clock-tower-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock_Tower_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Clock Tower Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock_Tower_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:29:08.575573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: clock-tower-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Clock Tower Museum is a museum occupying the top four floors of the Mecca Royal Clock Tower in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. The museum, located at the highest point in Makkah, is operated by the Misk Foundation, a non-profit organization established by Crown Prince Muhammad Bin Salman. == Departments == The museum opened to visitors in May 2019. It has four floors where each floor represents a unique topic. The first floor documents the Makkah tower, its architectural and foundational design and progresses through the production stages. The second floor exhibits time measurements used in ancient days. The third floor explains how the sun, the moon, and the Earth were used in the past to organize life and activities. The fourth floor depicts details of space and planets. There is also a balcony with a panoramic view of the Grand Mosque. == See also == List of museums in Saudi Arabia The Clock Towers Islamic Dinar Museum == References == == External links == Clock Tower Museum


id: european-network-of-science-centres-and-museums-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Network_of_Science_Centres_and_Museums-0.md
category: reference
title: European Network of Science Centres and Museums
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Network_of_Science_Centres_and_Museums
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:29:09.825916+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: european-network-of-science-centres-and-museums-20260505-0
summary:
The European Network of Science Centres and Museums (ECSITE), is a not-for-profit organisation initiated in 1989. In 1991, it was formed under Belgian jurisdiction to facilitate communication and cooperation among Science Centres and Museums in Europe. ECSITE is linking science engagement professionals of over 400 institutions in 50 countries for projects, activities and to facilitates the exchange of ideas and best practice on current science issues. While many countries have national networks consistent of science centres, international networks like Ecsite, provide through their annual network conference science centre personnel to gather, share expertise, and discuss key issues. Sister networks focusing similarly on science engagement in different regional context and gather science engagement professionals are: Association of Science and Technology Centers (ASTC) Asia Pacific Network of Science and Technology Centres (ASPAC) Network for the Popularization of Science and Technology in Latin America and The Caribbean (RedPOP) North Africa and Middle East science centres (NAMES) Southern African Association of Science and Technology Centres (SAASTEC) == Projects == Ecsite coordinates and participates in collaborative projects with its member organisations with the goal of influencing the development of science engagement. These projects can be funded by the European Commission or run as initiatives organised


id: hainan-science-and-technology-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hainan_Science_and_Technology_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Hainan Science and Technology Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hainan_Science_and_Technology_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:29:11.013985+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hainan-science-and-technology-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Hainan Science and Technology Museum (Chinese: 海南科技馆) is an under-construction building in Haikou's west coast area, Hainan, China. It is expected to be completed in 2025. It is located about 600 metres southeast of the Wuyuan River Stadium. == References == == External links == Media related to Hainan Science and Technology Museum at Wikimedia Commons


id: ice-age-centre-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_Age_Centre-0.md
category: reference
title: Ice Age Centre
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_Age_Centre
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:29:12.279191+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ice-age-centre-20260505-0
summary:
The Ice Age Centre (Estonian: Jääaja Keskus) is a museum dedicated to the understanding of ice ages, located in Äksi village, Tartu County, Estonia. The museum popularises knowledge about the origins and dynamics of different ice ages, including their effect on the landscape, animal life, and humans, with a special focus on the impact of the latest ice age on the modern-day country Estonia. The centre was awarded the Best New Tourist Venue in Estonia in 2012. == About the Centre == === Location === The centre is in Aksi village, situated on the shores of Lake Saadjärv, in Tartu county, which is a two-hour drive from Tallinn, Estonia's capital. Located on the property is a lake, a small zoo and an amusement park. One of the National Geographic "Yellow Windows" is situated near the Ice Age Centre, emphasizing the importance of this region for tourists to discover Southern Estonia. The area is known for the ice age and Estonian Kalevipoeg legends. === Exhibitions === The Ice Age Centre is an interactive exhibition, exploiting three floors of educational entertainment. It's generally geared towards children, but there are activities for visitors of all ages. On the first floor, visitors will learn


id: little-einstein-science-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Einstein_Science_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Little Einstein Science Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Einstein_Science_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:29:13.589593+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: little-einstein-science-museum-20260505-0
summary:
Little Einstein Science Museum is an interactive science museum in Yerevan which incorporates 25 exhibits of different scientific areas such as electricity, magnetism, optics, physics, mechanics, natural sciences, etc. == History == The museum is for children aging seven or higher. Since the time of its inauguration in 2016, the founders of the museum have organized interactive show programs and established science centers. Here the children have been able to learn about different sciences through games and experiments as well as write scientific pieces. == Exhibits == The museum has about 25 exhibits related to electricity, magnetism, optics, and mechanics which were brought from Russia and China. These exhibits have a practical use both in scientific areas and on a daily basis. They are envisaged for the children to be able to touch different physical phenomena while learning about them. == Working Hours == Monday – Friday 13:00-20:00 Saturdays and Sundays 12:00-21:00 == References ==


id: the-mind-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mind_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: The Mind Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mind_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:29:14.841119+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-mind-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Mind Museum is a science museum in Taguig, Metro Manila, Philippines. It is located on a 1.2-hectare (3.0-acre) lot in the J. Y. Campos Park in Bonifacio Global City, a business district of the city. The museum opened on March 16, 2012, although a pre-launch reception was held a year earlier on December 15 where Vice President Jejomar Binay delivered a speech on behalf of President Benigno Aquino III. The facility was developed by the Bonifacio Art Foundation Inc (BAFI). == Museum building == The museum was designed by architect Ed Calma from Lor Calma & Partners. The design of the structure was inspired from cellular structure and growth and had a solar reflective exterior, natural wind ventilation and rainwater flow drainage. == Exhibits == As of 2012, the museum has five main galleries occupying a 4,900-square-meter (53,000 sq ft) exhibit area and spanning two floors. The galleries each had its own theme namely, atom, life, earth, universe and technology which are linked by features called "Nature’s Webways". The atom, life, earth, and universe galleries are located on the ground floor, while the technology gallery are found on the first floor of the two-story museum. With assistance from a


id: moxi-the-wolf-museum-of-exploration-innovation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOXI,_The_Wolf_Museum_of_Exploration_+_Innovation-0.md
category: reference
title: MOXI, The Wolf Museum of Exploration + Innovation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOXI,_The_Wolf_Museum_of_Exploration_+_Innovation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:29:16.073260+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: moxi-the-wolf-museum-of-exploration-innovation-20260505-0
summary:
MOXI, The Wolf Museum of Exploration + Innovation is a non-profit science and children's museum in Santa Barbara, California. A 501(c)(3) non-profit, the museum opened on February 25, 2017. The 17,000 square feet (1,600 m2) of exhibits are primarily geared towards children with a particular emphasis placed on STEAM education. As of 2024 MOXI saw just over 167,000 visitors annually and in June 2024 celebrated its 1-millionth visitor. The Wolf in the museum's name comes from Dick Wolf who donated multiple millions of dollars to the museum and whose ex-wife Noelle sat on the board for over a decade. The museum is located between the historic Santa Barbara Train Station and Santa Barbara's Hotel Indigo. == History == The 25,000-square-foot (2,300 m2) building sits on land which was leased from the city at $1 a year. The exterior of the museum was designed by the late Santa Barbara architect Barry Berkus. The museum broke ground in October 2014 at a ceremony attended by then Santa Barbara mayor Helene Schneider and emceed by Andrew Firestone. As part of their $1 a year lease with the city, MOXI was tasked with removing all possible barriers to exploring the sciences. One such example


id: museum-des-kapitalismus-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_des_Kapitalismus-0.md
category: reference
title: Museum des Kapitalismus
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_des_Kapitalismus
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:29:17.339479+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: museum-des-kapitalismus-20260505-0
summary:
Museum des Kapitalismus (Museum of Capitalism) is a museum Berlin's Köpenicker Straße 172 in Berlin-Kreuzberg district which deals with different aspects of capitalism. == History == The first exhibition was opened on June 27, 2014. A second exhibition took place from July to November 2015. In 2017, the museum exhibited for a week in Hamburg-St. Pauli. The museum is run by the association Bildung und Partizipation e.V., which is funded by the Berlin-state's institution for political education. == Contents == The museum attempts to explain aspects of capitalism in its exhibitions. Five exhibition rooms deal with needs and mechanisms of exclusions, crisis, colonialism and the beyond of capitalism. The museum seeks to establish an open space that is accessible to everyone. Interactive exhibits are also intended to make the content easy to understand and therefore accessible to everyone. == References == == External links == Website of the Museums des Kapitalismus Video from 2015 openning Exhibition on expropriation: The bad word


id: museum-of-science-and-technology-accra-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_Science_and_Technology_(Accra)-0.md
category: reference
title: Museum of Science and Technology (Accra)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_Science_and_Technology_(Accra)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:29:18.680052+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: museum-of-science-and-technology-accra-20260505-0
summary:
The Museum of Science and Technology in Accra, Ghana was established in 1963 and first opened its doors in 1965. The museum is under the administration of the Ghana Museums and Monuments Board and the National Commission on Culture. == Background == The aim in establishing the museum was to create an awareness of past and present developments in science and technology in Ghana. Two lecturers from the University of Ghana presented a proposal to Kwame Nkrumah, who was the President of Ghana at the time. The original museum building has been shut down and the exhibits have migrated into its current building which experience enormous delays in its construction. == Location == The museum is located in the heart of Accra. It is located close to the intersection of Barnes Road to the east and Liberia Road to the south in Accra. West of the museum is the University of Ghana Accra City Campus and to the north are the offices of the National Service Scheme and the Regional Coordination Council. == Activities == In addition to displaying exhibits to the public, the museum contains a library. It also organises educational activities for school children. In 2019, there was


id: national-videogame-museum-united-states-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Videogame_Museum_(United_States)-0.md
category: reference
title: National Videogame Museum (United States)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Videogame_Museum_(United_States)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:29:24.250876+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-videogame-museum-united-states-20260505-0
summary:
The National Videogame Museum is a video game museum about the history of video games and the video game industry, located in Frisco, Texas. Opened in 2016, the museum includes classic video game arcade machines in an arcade setting, games on different video game consoles in a living room setting, games on historic computers, exhibits on the history of the industry, artifacts and memorabilia about the video game industry. One of the museum's goals is to have visitors experience the games, so there are many interactive displays which feature playable games. == History == Beginning in 1999, John Hardie, Sean Kelly and Joe Santulli hosted the first Classic Gaming Expo in Las Vegas to organize "the world's first event paying tribute to the people, systems and games of yesteryear". The Video Game Museum was a traveling exhibition of classic games and systems that was shown at the Expo, as well as displayed at such trade conventions as E3 (Electronic Entertainment Expo) and GDC (Game Developers Conference). In 2011, the founders started a Kickstarter campaign in an effort to mobilize their archive as a first step towards finding a permanent location, to be known as the Videogame History Museum. On September


id: nikola-tesla-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesla_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Nikola Tesla Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikola_Tesla_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:29:25.478465+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nikola-tesla-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Nikola Tesla Museum (Serbian: Музеј Николе Тесле, Muzej Nikole Tesle) is a science museum located in Belgrade, Serbia. It is dedicated to honoring and displaying the life and work of Nikola Tesla as well as the final resting place for Tesla. It holds more than 160,000 original documents, over 2,000 books and journals, over 1,200 historical technical exhibits, over 1,500 photographs and photo plates of original, technical objects, instruments and apparatus, and over 1,000 plans and drawings. Very little is on display in the small ground floor exhibition space. The Nikola Tesla Archive was inscribed on UNESCO's Memory of the World Programme Register in 2003 due to its critical role regarding history of electrification of the world and future technological advancements in this area. == History == The Nikola Tesla Museum is housed in a residential villa built in 1927 for Đorđe Genčić, according to the designs of Dragiša Brašovan, a distinguished Serbian architect. Following its confiscation by the new communist authorities in 1945 the building was used for various purposes until December 5, 1952, when the Nikola Tesla Museum was founded in accordance with the decision of the Government of the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia. Certain items


id: nur-al-din-bimaristan-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nur_al-Din_Bimaristan-0.md
category: reference
title: Nur al-Din Bimaristan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nur_al-Din_Bimaristan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:29:26.669985+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nur-al-din-bimaristan-20260505-0
summary:
Nur al-Din Bimaristan (Arabic: البيمارستان النوري) is a large Muslim medieval bimaristan ("hospital") in Damascus, Syria. It is located in the al-Hariqa quarter in the old walled city, to the southwest of the Umayyad Mosque. It was built and named after the Zengid Sultan Nur ad-Din in 1154, and later on an extension was added to the main building in 1242 by a physician Badr al-Din. It was restored in 1975 and now houses the Museum of Medicine and Science in the Arab World. Constructed in two phases the first construction phase was commissioned by Nur al-Din in 1154 CE and the second phase was about 90 years later and was commissioned by a physician, Badr al-Din, circa 1242 CE. It was renovated in 1975 and a small museum was established here. == See also == Nur al-Din Madrasa == References == == External links == Nur al-Din Bimaristan, at archnet.org


id: oman-children-s-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oman_Children's_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Oman Children's Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oman_Children's_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:29:27.917268+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: oman-children-s-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Oman Children's Museum is a children's science museum, located near Qurum Nature Park off Sultan Qaboos Street in a white-domed building in Muscat, Oman. The museum was established by the Ministry of National Heritage and Culture and opened on November 17, 1990, by Sultan Qaboos bin Said al Said on the 20th National Day celebration in Oman. The museum has 45 exhibits and two demonstrations and comprises 10,000 square feet (930 m2). It was the first science museum in Oman and is visited by around 50,000 visitors annually. The museum is currently run by a former school teacher, Samirah Ahmed al Raisi, who has run the museum for over six years. The museum addresses the scientific ways of human life and the exhibition section is divided into three parts; The Human life, Physics and observation which investigates the progression of science through the ages. The museum has many hands-on displays. These include experiences of a fake electric shock, trigger a lightning bolt, launching a hot air balloon, photographing your own shadow, and sending message through a whisper dish. == See also == List of museums in Oman == References ==


id: petrosains-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrosains-0.md
category: reference
title: Petrosains
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrosains
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:29:29.168789+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: petrosains-20260505-0
summary:
Petrosains, also known as Petrosains, The Discovery Centre is a Malaysian science and technology museum located in the heart of Kuala Lumpur within Suria KLCC, Petronas Twin Towers. Petrosains was a brainchild of 4th Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad and established on 25 March 1999. It is owned and operated by Petrosains Sdn. Bhd., a wholly owned subsidiary of the Malaysian oil and gas conglomerate Petronas. Tengku Nasariah Tengku Syed Ibrahim is the CEO of Petrosains until 2018. The current CEO is Ezarisma Azni Mohamad. Petrosains also a principal organizer of the annual Petrosains Science Festival since its inauguration in 2013. Since its establishment in 1999, Petrosains' primary language has been always English, which was used in all of its daily operations and official matters instead of Malay. However, most of programs held in Petrosains are still conducted in Malay. == Galleries == Among galleries available at Petrosains are: Dark Ride Space Speed Molecule Nano World 3D Theatre == Operating Hours == Weekdays: 9:30 a.m. - 5:30 p.m. (Last admission 4:00 p.m.) Weekdays and Public Holidays: 9:30 a.m. - 6:30 p.m. (Last admission 5:00 p.m.) Closed On The First Monday of The Month == Admission Rates == === Optional Admissions ===


id: pusat-sains-negara-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pusat_Sains_Negara-0.md
category: reference
title: Pusat Sains Negara
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pusat_Sains_Negara
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:29:30.317962+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pusat-sains-negara-20260505-0
summary:
Pusat Sains Negara or National Science Centre is a science centre in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Perched atop a hill on 8 hectares of landscaped grounds at Bukit Kiara on the northwestern fringes of the city, the centre was officially opened on 29 November 1996 by Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad. The main aim of the science centre is to promote greater understanding and interest in science and technology. The building resembles a truncated cone capped with a geodesic dome. Among the themes featured in the exhibition galleries are an environmental odyssey, pathways to discovery, future world and thinking machines. In addition, National Science Center also has a new branch in Mount Keriang, Kedah which opened on 1 March 2010. == History == The National Science Center open on 6 April 1986, at a temporary renovated bungalow located at Jalan Kelantan, Kuala Lumpur. Plans for a permanent national science centre began in 1978, as a contribution by the private sector to the national development. The concept was revived in the early 1980s. Council of Scientific Research and Development (NCSRD) has played an important role in their concept of the establishment of a National Science Centre with the objective of which is to


id: scientific-collection-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_collection-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific collection
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_collection
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:29:31.583037+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-collection-20260505-0
summary:
A scientific collection is a collection of items that are preserved, catalogued, and managed for the purpose of scientific study. Scientific collections dealing specifically with organisms plants, fungi, animals, insects and their remains, may also be called natural history collections or biological collections. The latter may contain either living stocks or preserved repositories of biodiversity specimens and materials. Scientific collections hold a tangible portion of the cumulative evidence base in such fields as biology (especially taxonomy and evolutionary biology), geology, and archaeology. They may be stored and managed by governments, educational institutions (e.g. colleges and universities), private organizations (including museums), or individuals. Prominent uses of scientific collections include the systematic description and identification of biological species, the study and prediction of long-term historical trends (including impacts of climate change), the dating and analysis of historical objects (e.g. via wood samples and ice cores with annual rings), and the maintenance of teaching resources. == Indexing == The indexing of the collections was historically made by directories, catalogs, index cards, today supplemented by or replaced by databases with information such as e.g. scientific description, including picture, name, location, find circumstances, fund age, scientific analysis, phylogenetic relationships, DNA and isotope analysis results, analysis


id: scientific-collection-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_collection-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientific collection
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_collection
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:29:31.583037+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-collection-20260505-0
summary:
in France: Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris contains 9,500,000 specimens; Université Montpellier contains 4,000,000 specimens; Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1 contains 4,000,000 specimens in Russia: Komarov Botanical Institute in St. Petersburg contains 7,160,000 specimens, in Great Britain: Royal Botanic Gardens Kew contains 7,000,000 specimens; British Museum of Natural History contains 80,000,000 specimens; Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh contains 2,000,000 specimens; University of Cambridge contains 1,000,000 specimens; University of Manchester contains 1,000,000 specimens; in Switzerland: Conservatoire et Jardin botaniques de la Ville de Genève contains 6,000,000 specimens; Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich contains 1,500,000 specimens, in Austria: Naturhistorisches Museum Wien contains 5,000,000 specimens; Universität Wien contains 1,400,000 specimens, in Sweden: Swedish Museum of Natural History (Naturhistoriska riksmuseet) contains 4,400,000 specimens; Uppsala University contains 3,000,000 specimens, Botanical Museum, Lund contains 2,500,000 specimens, University of Gothenburg contains 1,600,000 specimens, in Netherlands: National Herbarium of the Netherlands (Nationaal Herbarium Nederland) contains 4,000,000 specimens in Italy: Museo di Storia Naturale dell'Università, Florence contains 3,650,000 specimens; Università degli Studi di Roma La Sapienza, Rome contains 1,120,000 specimens; Università degli Studi di Torino contains 1,000,000 specimens, in Belgium: National Botanic Garden of Belgium contains 3,500,000 specimens, in Germany: Botanischer Garten und Botanisches Museum Berlin-Dahlem, Zentraleinrichtung der Freien Universität Berlin


id: tudor-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tudor_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Tudor Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tudor_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:29:32.946074+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tudor-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Tudor Museum (French: Musée Tudor), also known as Rosport Castle (French: Château de Rosport, Luxembourgish: Schlass vu Rouspert), is located in the little town of Rosport (Luxembourgish: Rouspert) in north-eastern Luxembourg. Built in 1892, it was the home of the Luxembourg inventor Henri Tudor. Since May 2009, the castle has housed the Tudor Museum. == Location == The building is located not far from the Irminenhof and is surrounded by magnificent gardens. Locally it is known as the neit Schlass or new castle. == History == During the German occupation of Luxembourg in the Second World War, the castle was used to accommodate girls assigned to the Reichsarbeitsdient who performed farming and house-keeping work. Around 1957, it became a guest house and, in 1964, the American firm Monsanto converted it into a hotel. However business was not very successful and in 1970, the Commune of Rosport bought the castle for its own administrative offices while continuing to rent out the first-floor apartments to vacationers. In 1972, these were replaced by a holiday home for old people. After restoration work was completed in 1999, serious consideration was given to opening a museum on the premises. In 1981, the celebrations for


id: unizulu-science-centre-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unizulu_Science_Centre-0.md
category: reference
title: Unizulu Science Centre
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unizulu_Science_Centre
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:29:34.661570+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unizulu-science-centre-20260505-0
summary:
Unizulu Science Centre is an interactive learning centre located in Richards Bay, South Africa. The centre opened on November 6, 1986 and sees roughly 30,000 students annually. The centre has over 130 exhibits and regularly hosts workshops, teacher training, and other instructional activities aimed at improving the educational capacity in the communities it serves. The science center works in a region comprising over 500 High Schools, many of which remain virtually unchanged since Apartheid and suffer from a severe lack of infrastructure and resources, including lack of access to water and qualified educators. The Unizulu Science Centre is a non-profit organisation and is nationally and internationally recognised for its efforts to uplift science education in disadvantaged regions within Kwa-Zulu Natal. == See also == List of science centers == References ==


id: william-phelps-ornithological-collection-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Phelps_Ornithological_Collection-0.md
category: reference
title: William Phelps Ornithological Collection
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Phelps_Ornithological_Collection
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:29:36.000379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: william-phelps-ornithological-collection-20260505-0
summary:
The William Phelps Ornithological Collection, also known as the Phelps Ornithological Museum, is a museum of natural sciences dedicated to the study, exhibition and preservation of the birds of Venezuela and the rest of Latin America. The collection is located east of Caracas and in the geographic center of Greater Caracas, in the heart of the Sabana Grande district. The William Phelps ornithological collection is the most important in Latin America and it is also the most important private collection in the world in its research area. In this private museum one will find important Phelps family study books, as well as 8000 scientific volumes in the library, more than 83,000 anatomical specimens, more than 80,000 skins, etc. For the year 1990, it was said that the William Phelps Ornithological Collection contained more than 76,300 skins and a small number of anatomical specimens, in the Gran Sabana Building of Sabana Grande. The Phelps library in 1990 already had 6,000 books, 800 journals and 5,500 reprints, mostly from natural sciences. == History == The ornithological collection was born in 1938, although it did not have its own headquarters on the Boulevard of Sabana Grande until 1949. At the beginning of 2018,


id: yersin-museum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yersin_Museum-0.md
category: reference
title: Yersin Museum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yersin_Museum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:29:41.950904+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: yersin-museum-20260505-0
summary:
The Alexandre Yersin Museum, or simply known as Yersin Museum, is a museum in Nha Trang, Vietnam. It is dedicated to Alexandre Yersin, the French-Swiss bacteriologist. It is located on 8–10 Trần Phú Boulevard, also the former home of Yersin and in the enclosure of the Pasteur Institute. The museum contains a large collection of Yersin's research pieces of equipment and letters as well as provides a description of his contributions to bacteriology, medicine, and science. The captions are in French with accompanied English and Vietnamese translations. It is open from 8 am until 11 am and 2 pm until 4:30 pm on weekdays and closed on Saturdays and Sundays. The entry fee is VND 26,000 for adults. == References == Bảo tàng Dr. A.Yersin


id: and-yet-it-moves-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/And_yet_it_moves-0.md
category: reference
title: And yet it moves
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/And_yet_it_moves
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:29:45.071176+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: and-yet-it-moves-20260505-0
summary:
E pur si muove or Eppur si muove [epˈpur si ˈmwɔːve] ('And yet it moves' or 'Although it does move') is an Italian phrase commonly attributed to the Italian physicist and astronomer Galileo Galilei (1564–1642). The Catholic Church persecuted Galileo for promoting the Copernican model of the Solar System in which the Earth moves around the Sun, which contradicted Catholic orthodoxy that the Earth remained fixed in the center of the universe. According to popular legend, Galileo muttered this in 1633 after the Roman Inquisition forced him to recant his claims, though this is likely apocryphal. == History == According to Stephen Hawking, some historians believe this episode might have happened upon Galileo's transfer from house arrest under the watch of Archbishop Ascanio Piccolomini to "another home, in the hills above Florence". This other home was also his own, the Villa Il Gioiello, in Arcetri. The earliest biography of Galileo, written by his disciple Vincenzo Viviani in 1655–1656, does not mention this phrase, and records of his trial do not cite it. Some authors say it would have been imprudent for Galileo to have said such a thing before the Inquisition. The event was first reported in English print in


id: antipositivism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipositivism-0.md
category: reference
title: Antipositivism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipositivism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:29:46.264669+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: antipositivism-20260505-0
summary:
In social science, antipositivism (also interpretivism, negativism or antinaturalism) is a theoretical stance which proposes that the social realm cannot be studied with the methods of investigation utilized within the natural sciences, and that investigation of the social realm requires a different epistemology. Fundamental to that antipositivist epistemology is the belief that the concepts and language researchers use in their research shape their perceptions of the social world they are investigating and seeking to define. Interpretivism (anti-positivism) developed among researchers dissatisfied with post-positivism, the theories of which they considered too general and ill-suited to reflect the nuance and variability found in human interaction. Because the values and beliefs of researchers cannot fully be removed from their inquiry, interpretivists believe research on human beings by human beings cannot yield objective results. Thus, rather than seeking an objective perspective, interpretivists look for meaning in the subjective experiences of individuals engaging in social interaction. Many interpretivist researchers immerse themselves in the social context they are studying, seeking to understand and formulate theories about a community or group of individuals by observing them from the inside. Interpretivism is an inductive practice influenced by philosophical frameworks such as hermeneutics, phenomenology, and symbolic interactionism. Interpretive methods


