# kb

id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-1-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_1)-5.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 1)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_1)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:04.950617+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-1-20260505-0
summary:
=== EC 1.3.1 With NAD+ or NADP+ as acceptor === EC 1.3.1.1: dihydrouracil dehydrogenase (NAD+) EC 1.3.1.2: dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase (NADP+) EC 1.3.1.3: Δ4-3-oxosteroid 5β-reductase EC 1.3.1.4: transferred to EC 1.3.1.22, 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (NADP+) EC 1.3.1.5: cucurbitacin Δ23-reductase EC 1.3.1.6: fumarate reductase (NADH) EC 1.3.1.7: meso-tartrate dehydrogenase EC 1.3.1.8: acyl-CoA dehydrogenase (NADP+) EC 1.3.1.9: enoyl-[acyl-carrier-protein] reductase (NADH) EC 1.3.1.10: enoyl-[acyl-carrier-protein] reductase (NADPH, Si-specific) EC 1.3.1.11: 2-coumarate reductase EC 1.3.1.12: prephenate dehydrogenase EC 1.3.1.13: prephenate dehydrogenase (NADP+) EC 1.3.1.14: dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (NAD+) EC 1.3.1.15: dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (NADP+) EC 1.3.1.16: β-nitroacrylate reductase EC 1.3.1.17: 3-methyleneoxindole reductase EC 1.3.1.18: kynurenate-7,8-dihydrodiol dehydrogenase EC 1.3.1.19: cis-1,2-dihydrobenzene-1,2-diol dehydrogenase EC 1.3.1.20: trans-1,2-dihydrobenzene-1,2-diol dehydrogenase EC 1.3.1.21: 7-dehydrocholesterol reductase EC 1.3.1.22: 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (NADP+) EC 1.3.1.23: Identical to EC 1.3.1.3, Δ4-3-oxosteroid 5β-reductase EC 1.3.1.24: biliverdin reductase EC 1.3.1.25: 1,6-dihydroxycyclohexa-2,4-diene-1-carboxylate dehydrogenase EC 1.3.1.26: Now EC 1.17.1.8, 4-hydroxy-tetrahydrodipicolinate reductase EC 1.3.1.27: 2-hexadecenal reductase EC 1.3.1.28: 2,3-dihydro-2,3-dihydroxybenzoate dehydrogenase EC 1.3.1.29: cis-1,2-dihydro-1,2-dihydroxynaphthalene dehydrogenase EC 1.3.1.30: transferred to EC 1.3.1.22, 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (NADP+) EC 1.3.1.31: 2-enoate reductase EC 1.3.1.32: maleylacetate reductase EC 1.3.1.33: protochlorophyllide reductase EC 1.3.1.34: 2,4 Dienoyl-CoA reductase (NADPH) EC 1.3.1.35: Now EC 1.14.19.22, microsomal oleoyl-lipid 12-desaturase EC 1.3.1.36: geissoschizine dehydrogenase EC 1.3.1.37: cis-2-enoyl-CoA reductase (NADPH) EC 1.3.1.38: trans-2-enoyl-CoA reductase (NADPH) EC 1.3.1.39:


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-1-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_1)-6.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 1)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_1)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:04.950617+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-1-20260505-0
summary:
=== EC 1.3.99 With unknown physiological acceptors === EC 1.3.99.1: The activity is included in EC 1.3.5.1, succinate dehydrogenase (quinone) EC 1.3.99.2: Now EC 1.3.8.1, butyryl-CoA dehydrogenase. EC 1.3.99.3: now EC 1.3.8.7, medium-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase, EC 1.3.8.8, long-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase and EC 1.3.8.9, very-long-chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase EC 1.3.99.4: 3-oxosteroid 1-dehydrogenase EC 1.3.99.5: 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (acceptor) EC 1.3.99.6: 3-oxo-5β-steroid 4-dehydrogenase EC 1.3.99.7: Now EC 1.3.8.6, glutaryl-CoA dehydrogenase EC 1.3.99.8: 2-furoyl-CoA dehydrogenase EC 1.3.99.9: Now EC 1.21.99.1, β-cyclopiazonate dehydrogenase EC 1.3.99.10: Now EC 1.3.8.4, isovaleryl-CoA dehydrogenase EC 1.3.99.11: transferred to EC 1.3.5.2, dihydroorotate dehydrogenase EC 1.3.99.12: Now classified as EC 1.3.8.5, 2-methyl-branched-chain-enoyl-CoA reductase EC 1.3.99.13: Now EC 1.3.8.8, long-chain-acyl-CoA dehydrogenase EC 1.3.99.14: cyclohexanone dehydrogenase EC 1.3.99.15: Now EC 1.3.7.8 EC 1.3.99.16: isoquinoline 1-oxidoreductase EC 1.3.99.17: quinoline 2-oxidoreductase EC 1.3.99.18: quinaldate 4-oxidoreductase EC 1.3.99.19: quinoline-4-carboxylate 2-oxidoreductase EC 1.3.99.20: Now EC 1.3.7.9, 4-hydroxybenzoyl-CoA reductase EC 1.3.99.21: Now EC 1.3.8.3, (R)-benzylsuccinyl-CoA dehydrogenase EC 1.3.99.22: Now EC 1.3.98.3, coproporphyrinogen dehydrogenase EC 1.3.99.23: all-trans-retinol 13,14-reductase EC 1.3.99.24: Now EC 1.3.8.16, 2-amino-4-deoxychorismate dehydrogenase EC 1.3.99.25: carvone reductase EC 1.3.99.26: all-trans-ζ-carotene desaturase EC 1.3.99.27: 1-hydroxycarotenoid 3,4-desaturase EC 1.3.99.28: phytoene desaturase (neurosporene-forming) EC 1.3.99.29: phytoene desaturase (zeta-carotene-forming) EC 1.3.99.30: phytoene desaturase (3,4-didehydrolycopene-forming) EC 1.3.99.31: phytoene desaturase (lycopene-forming) EC 1.3.99.32: glutaryl-CoA


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-1-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_1)-7.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 1)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_1)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:04.950617+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-1-20260505-0
summary:
=== EC 1.5.1 With NAD+ or NADP+ as acceptor === EC 1.5.1.1: 1-piperideine-2-carboxylate/1-pyrroline-2-carboxylate reductase (NAD(P)H) EC 1.5.1.2: pyrroline-5-carboxylate reductase EC 1.5.1.3: dihydrofolate reductase EC 1.5.1.4: Now included with EC 1.5.1.3 dihydrofolate reductase EC 1.5.1.5: methylenetetrahydrofolate dehydrogenase (NADP+) EC 1.5.1.6: formyltetrahydrofolate dehydrogenase EC 1.5.1.7: saccharopine dehydrogenase (NAD+, L-lysine-forming) EC 1.5.1.8: saccharopine dehydrogenase (NADP+, L-lysine-forming) EC 1.5.1.9: saccharopine dehydrogenase (NAD+, L-glutamate-forming) EC 1.5.1.10: saccharopine dehydrogenase (NADP+, L-glutamate-forming) EC 1.5.1.11: D-octopine dehydrogenase EC 1.5.1.12: Now EC 1.2.1.88, L-glutamate γ-semialdehyde dehydrogenase EC 1.5.1.13: Now EC 1.17.1.5, nicotinate dehydrogenase EC 1.5.1.14: Now included with EC 1.5.1.21 Δ1-piperideine-2-carboxylate reductase EC 1.5.1.15: methylenetetrahydrofolate dehydrogenase (NAD+) EC 1.5.1.16: D-lysopine dehydrogenase EC 1.5.1.17: alanopine dehydrogenase EC 1.5.1.18: ephedrine dehydrogenase EC 1.5.1.19: D-nopaline dehydrogenase EC 1.5.1.20: methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase (NAD(P)H) EC 1.5.1.21: 1-piperideine-2-carboxylate/1-pyrroline-2-carboxylate reductase (NADPH) EC 1.5.1.22: strombine dehydrogenase EC 1.5.1.23: tauropine dehydrogenase EC 1.5.1.24: N5-(carboxyethyl)ornithine synthase EC 1.5.1.25: thiomorpholine-carboxylate dehydrogenase EC 1.5.1.26: β-alanopine dehydrogenase EC 1.5.1.27: 1,2-dehydroreticulinium reductase (NADPH) EC 1.5.1.28: opine dehydrogenase EC 1.5.1.29: Now covered by EC 1.5.1.38 [FMN reductase (NADPH)], EC 1.5.1.39 [FMN reductase [NAD(P)H])] and EC 1.5.1.41 (riboflavin reductase [NAD(P)H]) EC 1.5.1.30: flavin reductase (NADPH) EC 1.5.1.31: berberine reductase EC 1.5.1.32: vomilenine reductase EC 1.5.1.33: pteridine reductase EC 1.5.1.34: 6,7-dihydropteridine reductase EC 1.5.1.35: identical to EC


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-1-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_1)-8.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 1)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_1)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:04.950617+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-1-20260505-0
summary:
=== EC 1.6.6 With a nitrogenous group as acceptor === EC 1.6.6.1: Now EC 1.7.1.1, nitrate reductase (NADH) EC 1.6.6.2: Now EC 1.7.1.2, nitrate reductase [NAD(P)H] EC 1.6.6.3: Now EC 1.7.1.3, nitrate reductase (NADPH) EC 1.6.6.4: Now EC 1.7.1.4, nitrite reductase [NAD(P)H] EC 1.6.6.5: Now EC 1.7.2.1, nitrite reductase (NO-forming) EC 1.6.6.6: Now EC 1.7.1.5, hyponitrite reductase EC 1.6.6.7: Now EC 1.7.1.6, azobenzene reductase EC 1.6.6.8: Now EC 1.7.1.7, GMP reductase EC 1.6.6.9: Now known to be catalysed by EC 1.7.2.3, trimethylamine-N-oxide reductase EC 1.6.6.10: Now EC 1.7.1.9, nitroquinoline-N-oxide reductase] EC 1.6.6.11: Now EC 1.7.1.10, hydroxylamine reductase (NADH) EC 1.6.6.12: Now EC 1.7.1.11, 4-(dimethylamino)phenylazoxybenzene reductase EC 1.6.6.13: Now EC 1.7.1.12, N-hydroxy-2-acetamidofluorene reductase === EC 1.6.7 With an iron–sulfur protein as acceptor (deleted sub-subclass) === EC 1.6.7.1: now EC 1.18.1.2 ferredoxin—NADP+ reductase EC 1.6.7.2: now EC 1.18.1.1 rubredoxin—NAD+ reductase EC 1.6.7.3: now EC 1.18.1.3 ferredoxin—NAD+ reductase === EC 1.6.8 With a flavin as acceptor (deleted sub-subclass) === EC 1.6.8.1: Now EC 1.5.1.29 FMN reductase EC 1.6.8.2: Now EC 1.5.1.30 flavin reductase === EC 1.6.99 With unknown physiological acceptors === EC 1.6.99.1: NADPH dehydrogenase EC 1.6.99.2: Now EC 1.6.5.2, NAD(P)H dehydrogenase (quinone EC 1.6.99.3: The activity is covered by EC 7.1.1.2, NADH:ubiquinone


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-1-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_1)-9.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 1)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_1)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:04.950617+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-1-20260505-0
summary:
=== EC 1.8.6 With a nitrogenous group as acceptor (deleted sub-subclass) === EC 1.8.6.1: Now included with EC 2.5.1.18 glutathione transferase === EC 1.8.7 With an iron–sulfur protein as acceptor === EC 1.8.7.1: assimilatory sulfite reductase (ferredoxin) EC 1.8.7.2: ferredoxin:thioredoxin reductase EC 1.8.7.3: ferredoxin:CoB-CoM heterodisulfide reductase === EC 1.8.98 With other, known, acceptors === EC 1.8.98.1: dihydromethanophenazine:CoB-CoM heterodisulfide reductase EC 1.8.98.2: sulfiredoxin === EC 1.8.99 With other acceptors === EC 1.8.99.1: Now covered by EC 1.8.1.2, assimilatory sulfite reductase (NADPH) and EC 1.8.7.1, assimilatory sulfite reductase (ferredoxin) EC 1.8.99.2: adenylyl-sulfate reductase EC 1.8.99.3: an in vitro artifact of EC 1.8.1.22, dissimilatory sulfite reductase EC 1.8.99.4: Now EC 1.8.4.8, phosphoadenylyl-sulfate reductase (thioredoxin) EC 1.8.99.5: Now EC 1.8.1.22, dissimilatory sulfite reductase == EC 1.9 Acting on a heme group of donors == === EC 1.9.3 With oxygen as acceptor === EC 1.9.3.1: Now EC 7.1.1.9, cytochrome-c oxidase EC 1.9.3.2: Now included with EC 1.7.2.1, nitrite reductase (NO-forming) === EC 1.9.6 With a nitrogenous group as acceptor === EC 1.9.6.1: nitrate reductase (cytochrome) === EC 1.9.98 With other, known, physiological acceptors === EC 1.9.98.1: iron—cytochrome-c reductase === EC 1.9.99 With other acceptors === EC 1.9.99.1: Now EC 1.9.98.1, iron—cytochrome-c reductase == EC 1.10


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-1-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_1)-10.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 1)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_1)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:04.950617+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-1-20260505-0
summary:
=== EC 1.13.11 With incorporation of two atoms of oxygen === EC 1.13.11.1: catechol 1,2-dioxygenase EC 1.13.11.2: catechol 2,3-dioxygenase EC 1.13.11.3: protocatechuate 3,4-dioxygenase EC 1.13.11.4: gentisate 1,2-dioxygenase EC 1.13.11.5: homogentisate 1,2-dioxygenase EC 1.13.11.6: 3-hydroxyanthranilate 3,4-dioxygenase EC 1.13.11.7: deleted EC 1.13.11.8: protocatechuate 4,5-dioxygenase EC 1.13.11.9: 2,5-dihydroxypyridine 5,6-dioxygenase EC 1.13.11.10: 7,8-dihydroxykynurenate 8,8a-dioxygenase EC 1.13.11.11: tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase EC 1.13.11.12: linoleate 13S-lipoxygenas EC 1.13.11.13: The activity is the sum of several enzymatic and spontaneous reactions EC 1.13.11.14: 2,3-dihydroxybenzoate 3,4-dioxygenase EC 1.13.11.15: 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetate 2,3-dioxygenase EC 1.13.11.16: 3-carboxyethylcatechol 2,3-dioxygenase EC 1.13.11.17: indole 2,3-dioxygenase EC 1.13.11.18: persulfide dioxygenase EC 1.13.11.19: cysteamine dioxygenase EC 1.13.11.20: cysteine dioxygenase EC 1.13.11.21: Now EC 1.14.99.36, β-carotene 15,15′-monooxygenase EC 1.13.11.22: caffeate 3,4-dioxygenase EC 1.13.11.23: 2,3-dihydroxyindole 2,3-dioxygenase EC 1.13.11.24: quercetin 2,3-dioxygenase EC 1.13.11.25: 3,4-dihydroxy-9,10-secoandrosta-1,3,5(10)-triene-9,17-dione 4,5-dioxygenase EC 1.13.11.26: peptide-tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase EC 1.13.11.27: 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase EC 1.13.11.28: 2,3-dihydroxybenzoate 2,3-dioxygenase EC 1.13.11.29: stizolobate synthase EC 1.13.11.30: stizolobinate synthase EC 1.13.11.31: arachidonate 12-lipoxygenase EC 1.13.11.32: Now EC 1.13.12.16, nitronate monooxygenase EC 1.13.11.33: arachidonate 15-lipoxygenase EC 1.13.11.34: arachidonate 5-lipoxygenase EC 1.13.11.35: pyrogallol 1,2-oxygenase EC 1.13.11.36: chloridazon-catechol dioxygenase EC 1.13.11.37: hydroxyquinol 1,2-dioxygenase EC 1.13.11.38: 1-hydroxy-2-naphthoate 1,2-dioxygenase EC 1.13.11.39: biphenyl-2,3-diol 1,2-dioxygenase EC 1.13.11.40: arachidonate 8-lipoxygenase EC 1.13.11.41: 2,4′-dihydroxyacetophenone dioxygenase EC 1.13.11.42: identical to EC 1.13.11.11, tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase EC 1.13.11.43: lignostilbene


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-1-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_1)-11.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 1)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_1)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:04.950617+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-1-20260505-0
summary:
=== EC 1.14.11 With 2-oxoglutarate as one donor, and incorporation of one atom each of oxygen into both donors === EC 1.14.11.1: γ-butyrobetaine dioxygenase EC 1.14.11.2: procollagen-proline dioxygenase EC 1.14.11.3: pyrimidine-deoxynucleoside 2′-dioxygenase EC 1.14.11.4: procollagen-lysine 5-dioxygenase EC 1.14.11.5: Now included with EC 1.14.11.6 thymine dioxygenase EC 1.14.11.6: thymine dioxygenase EC 1.14.11.7: procollagen-proline 3-dioxygenase EC 1.14.11.8: trimethyllysine dioxygenase EC 1.14.11.9: flavanone 3-dioxygenase EC 1.14.11.10: pyrimidine-deoxynucleoside 1′-dioxygenase EC 1.14.11.11: hyoscyamine (6S)-dioxygenase EC 1.14.11.12: gibberellin-44 dioxygenase EC 1.14.11.13: gibberellin 2β-dioxygenase EC 1.14.11.14: Now EC 1.14.20.13, 6β-hydroxyhyoscyamine epoxidase EC 1.14.11.15: gibberellin 3β-dioxygenase EC 1.14.11.16: peptide-aspartate β-dioxygenase EC 1.14.11.17: taurine dioxygenase EC 1.14.11.18: phytanoyl-CoA dioxygenase EC 1.14.11.19: Now EC 1.14.20.4, anthocyanidin synthase EC 1.14.11.20: deacetoxyvindoline 4-hydroxylase EC 1.14.11.21: clavaminate synthase EC 1.14.11.22: Now EC 1.14.20.5, flavone synthase EC 1.14.11.23: Now EC 1.14.20.6, flavonol synthase EC 1.14.11.24: 2′-deoxymugineic-acid 2′-dioxygenase EC 1.14.11.25: mugineic-acid 3-dioxygenase EC 1.14.11.26: deacetoxycephalosporin-C hydroxylase EC 1.14.11.27: [histone H3]-dimethyl-L-lysine36 demethylase EC 1.14.11.28: proline 3-hydroxylase EC 1.14.11.29: hypoxia-inducible factor-proline dioxygenase EC 1.14.11.30: hypoxia-inducible factor-asparagine dioxygenase EC 1.14.11.31: thebaine 6-O-demethylase EC 1.14.11.32: codeine 3-O-demethylase EC 1.14.11.33: DNA oxidative demethylase EC 1.14.11.34: Now EC 1.14.20.7, 2-oxoglutarate/L-arginine monooxygenase/decarboxylase (succinate-forming) EC 1.14.11.35: 1-deoxypentalenic acid 11β-hydroxylase EC 1.14.11.36: pentalenolactone F synthase EC 1.14.11.36: pentalenolactone F synthase EC 1.14.11.37: kanamycin B


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-1-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_1)-12.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 1)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_1)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:04.950617+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-1-20260505-0
summary:
=== EC 1.14.13 With NADH or NADPH as one donor, and incorporation of one atom of oxygen into the other donor === EC 1.14.13.1: salicylate 1-monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.2: 4-hydroxybenzoate 3-monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.3: Now EC 1.14.14.9, 4-hydroxyphenylacetate 3-monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.4: melilotate 3-monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.5: imidazoleacetate 4-monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.6: orcinol 2-monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.7: phenol 2-monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.8: flavin-containing monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.9: kynurenine 3-monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.10: 2,6-dihydroxypyridine 3-monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.11: Now EC 1.14.14.91, trans-cinnamate 4-monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.12: Now EC 1.14.14.92, benzoate 4-monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.13: Now classified as EC 1.14.15.18, calcidiol 1-monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.14: trans-cinnamate 2-monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.15: Now EC 1.14.15.15, cholestanetriol 26-monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.16: cyclopentanone monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.17: Now EC 1.14.14.23, cholesterol 7α-monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.18: 4-hydroxyphenylacetate 1-monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.19: taxifolin 8-monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.20: 2,4-dichlorophenol 6-monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.21: Now EC 1.14.14.82, flavonoid 3′-monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.22: cyclohexanone monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.23: 3-hydroxybenzoate 4-monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.24: 3-hydroxybenzoate 6-monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.25: methane monooxygenase (soluble) EC 1.14.13.26: Now classified as EC 1.14.18.4, phosphatidylcholine 12-monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.27: 4-aminobenzoate 1-monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.28: Now EC 1.14.14.93, 3,9-dihydroxypterocarpan 6a-monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.29: 4-nitrophenol 2-monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.30: Now EC 1.14.14.94, leukotriene-B4 20-monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.31: 2-nitrophenol 2-monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.32: albendazole monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.33: 4-hydroxybenzoate 3-monooxygenase (NAD(P)H) EC 1.14.13.34: leukotriene-E4 20-monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.35: anthranilate 3-monooxygenase (deaminating) EC


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-1-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_1)-13.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 1)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_1)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:04.950617+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-1-20260505-0
summary:
EC 1.14.13.141: Now EC 1.14.15.29, cholest-4-en-3-one 26-monooxygenase [(25S)-3-oxocholest-4-en-26-oate forming] EC 1.14.13.142: Now EC 1.14.15.30, 3-ketosteroid 9α-monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.143: Now EC 1.14.14.76 ent-isokaurene C2/C3-hydroxylase EC 1.14.13.144: Now EC 1.14.14.111, 9β-pimara-7,15-diene oxidase EC 1.14.13.145: Now EC 1.14.14.112, ent-cassa-12,15-diene 11-hydroxylase EC 1.14.13.146: taxoid 14β-hydroxylase EC 1.14.13.147: Now EC 1.14.14.182, taxoid 7β-hydroxylase EC 1.14.13.148: trimethylamine monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.149: phenylacetyl-CoA 1,2-epoxidase EC 1.14.13.150: Now EC 1.14.14.113, α-humulene 10-hydroxylase EC 1.14.13.151: Now EC 1.14.14.84, linalool 8-monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.152: Now EC 1.14.14.83, geraniol 8-hydroxylase EC 1.14.13.153: (+)-sabinene 3-hydroxylase EC 1.14.13.154: erythromycin 12-hydroxylase EC 1.14.13.155: α-pinene monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.156: Now EC 1.14.14.133, 1,8-cineole 2-endo-monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.157: Now EC 1.14.14.56, 1,8-cineole 2-exo-monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.158: Now EC 1.14.14.114, amorpha-4,11-diene 12-monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.159: Now EC 1.14.14.24, vitamin D 25-hydroxylase EC 1.14.13.160: (2,2,3-trimethyl-5-oxocyclopent-3-enyl)acetyl-CoA 1,5-monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.161: (+)-camphor 6-exo-hydroxylase EC 1.14.13.162: Now EC 1.14.14.108, 2,5-diketocamphane 1,2-monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.163: 6-hydroxy-3-succinoylpyridine 3-monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.164: withdrawn: see EC 1.13.11.65, carotenoid isomerooxygenase EC 1.14.13.165: Now classified as EC 1.14.14.47, nitric-oxide synthase (flavodoxin) EC 1.14.13.166: 4-nitrocatechol 4-monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.167: 4-nitrophenol 4-monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.168: indole-3-pyruvate monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.169: Now EC 1.14.18.5, sphingolipid C4-monooxygenase EC 1.14.13.170: pentalenolactone D synthase EC 1.14.13.171: neopentalenolactone D synthase EC 1.14.13.172: salicylate 5-hydroxylase EC 1.14.13.173: Now EC 1.14.14.115, 11-oxo-β-amyrin 30-oxidase EC 1.14.13.174: Now EC 1.14.14.116,


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-1-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_1)-14.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 1)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_1)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:04.950617+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-1-20260505-0
summary:
=== EC 1.14.14 With reduced flavin or flavoprotein as one donor, and incorporation of one atom of oxygen === EC 1.14.14.1: unspecific monooxygenase EC 1.14.14.2: Now included with EC 1.14.14.1 unspecific monooxygenase EC 1.14.14.3: alkanal monooxygenase (FMN-linked) EC 1.14.14.4: identical to EC 1.14.15.7, choline monooxygenase. EC 1.14.14.5: alkanesulfonate monooxygenase EC 1.14.14.6: Now EC 1.14.13.111, methanesulfonate monooxygenase EC 1.14.14.7: transferred to EC 1.14.19.9, tryptophan 7-halogenase EC 1.14.14.8: anthranilate 3-monooxygenase (FAD) EC 1.14.14.9: 4-hydroxyphenylacetate 3-monooxygenase EC 1.14.14.10: nitrilotriacetate monooxygenase EC 1.14.14.11: styrene monooxygenase EC 1.14.14.12: 3-hydroxy-9,10-secoandrosta-1,3,5(10)-triene-9,17-dione monooxygenase EC 1.14.14.13: 4-(γ-L-glutamylamino)butanoyl-[BtrI acyl-carrier protein] monooxygenase EC 1.14.14.14: aromatase EC 1.14.14.15: (3S)-3-amino-3-(3-chloro-4-hydroxyphenyl)propanoyl-[peptidyl-carrier protein SgcC2] monooxygenase EC 1.14.14.16: steroid 21-monooxygenase EC 1.14.14.17: squalene monooxygenase EC 1.14.14.18: heme oxygenase (biliverdin-producing) EC 1.14.14.19: steroid 17α-monooxygenase EC 1.14.14.20: phenol 2-monooxygenase (FADH2) EC 1.14.14.21: dibenzothiophene monooxygenase EC 1.14.14.22: dibenzothiophene sulfone monooxygenase EC 1.14.14.23: cholesterol 7α-monooxygenase EC 1.14.14.24: vitamin D 25-hydroxylase EC 1.14.14.25: cholesterol 24-hydroxylase EC 1.14.14.26: 24-hydroxycholesterol 7α-hydroxylase EC 1.14.14.27: resorcinol 4-hydroxylase (FADH2) EC 1.14.14.28: long-chain alkane monooxygenase EC 1.14.14.29: 25/26-hydroxycholesterol 7α-hydroxylase EC 1.14.14.30: isobutylamine N-monooxygenase EC 1.14.14.31: ipsdienol synthase EC 1.14.14.32: 17α-hydroxyprogesterone deacetylase EC 1.14.14.33: ethylenediaminetetraacetate monooxygenase EC 1.14.14.34: methanesulfonate monooxygenase (FMNH2) EC 1.14.14.35: dimethylsulfone monooxygenase EC 1.14.14.36: tyrosine N-monooxygenase EC 1.14.14.37: 4-hydroxyphenylacetaldehyde oxime monooxygenase EC 1.14.14.38: valine N-monooxygenase


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-1-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_1)-15.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 1)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_1)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:04.950617+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-1-20260505-0
summary:
=== EC 1.14.15 With reduced iron–sulfur protein as one donor, and incorporation of one atom of oxygen === EC 1.14.15.1: camphor 5-monooxygenase EC 1.14.15.2: Now EC 1.14.13.162, 2,5-diketocamphane 1,2-monooxygenase. EC 1.14.15.3: alkane 1-monooxygenase EC 1.14.15.4: steroid 11β-monooxygenase EC 1.14.15.5: corticosterone 18-monooxygenase EC 1.14.15.6: cholesterol monooxygenase (side-chain-cleaving) EC 1.14.15.7: choline monooxygenase EC 1.14.15.8: steroid 15β-monooxygenase EC 1.14.15.9: spheroidene monooxygenase EC 1.14.15.10: (+)-camphor 6-endo-hydroxylase EC 1.14.15.11: pentalenic acid synthase EC 1.14.15.12 : pimeloyl-[acyl-carrier protein] synthase. Now EC 1.14.14.46, pimeloyl-[acyl-carrier protein] synthase EC 1.14.15.13: pulcherriminic acid synthase EC 1.14.15.14: methyl-branched lipid ω-hydroxylase EC 1.14.15.15: cholestanetriol 26-monooxygenase EC 1.14.15.16: vitamin D3 24-hydroxylase EC 1.14.15.17: pheophorbide a oxygenase EC 1.14.15.18: calcidiol 1-monooxygenase EC 1.14.15.19: C-19 steroid 1α-hydroxylase EC 1.14.15.20: heme oxygenase (biliverdin-producing, ferredoxin) EC 1.14.15.21: zeaxanthin epoxidase EC 1.14.15.22: vitamin D 1,25-hydroxylase EC 1.14.15.23: chloroacetanilide N-alkylformylase EC 1.14.15.24: β-carotene 3-hydroxylase EC 1.14.15.25: p-cymene methyl-monooxygenase EC 1.14.15.26: toluene methyl-monooxygenase EC 1.14.15.27: β-dihydromenaquinone-9 ω-hydroxylase EC 1.14.15.28: cholest-4-en-3-one 26-monooxygenase [(25R)-3-oxocholest-4-en-26-oate forming] EC 1.14.15.29: cholest-4-en-3-one 26-monooxygenase [(25S)-3-oxocholest-4-en-26-oate forming] EC 1.14.15.30: 3-ketosteroid 9α-monooxygenase EC 1.14.15.31: 2-hydroxy-5-methyl-1-naphthoate 7-hydroxylase EC 1.14.15.32: pentalenene oxygenase EC 1.14.15.33: pikromycin synthase EC 1.14.15.34: 20-oxo-5-O-mycaminosyltylactone 23-monooxygenase EC 1.14.15.35: 6-deoxyerythronolide B hydroxylase EC 1.14.15.36: sterol 14α-demethylase (ferredoxin) EC 1.14.15.37: luteothin monooxygenase EC 1.14.15.38: N,N-dimethyl phenylurea N-demethylase EC 1.14.15.39:


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-1-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_1)-16.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 1)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_1)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:04.950617+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-1-20260505-0
summary:
=== EC 1.14.99 Miscellaneous === EC 1.14.99.1: prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase EC 1.14.99.2: kynurenine 7,8-hydroxylase EC 1.14.99.3: Now EC 1.14.14.18, heme oxygenase (biliverdin-producing) EC 1.14.99.4: progesterone monooxygenase EC 1.14.99.5: Now EC 1.14.19.1, stearoyl-CoA 9-desaturase EC 1.14.99.6: Now EC 1.14.19.2, acyl-[acyl-carrier-protein] desaturase EC 1.14.99.7: Transferred to EC 1.14.13.132, squalene monooxygenase EC 1.14.99.8: Now included with EC 1.14.14.1 unspecific monooxygenase EC 1.14.99.9: Now classified as EC 1.14.14.19, steroid 17α-monooxygenase EC 1.14.99.10: Now EC 1.14.14.16, steroid 21-monooxygenase EC 1.14.99.11: estradiol 6β-monooxygenase EC 1.14.99.12: 4-androstene-3,17-dione monooxygenase EC 1.14.99.13: Now EC 1.14.13.23, 3-hydroxybenzoate 4-monooxygenase EC 1.14.99.14: Now EC 1.14.14.197, progesterone 11α-monooxygenase EC 1.14.99.15: 4-methoxybenzoate monooxygenase (O-demethylating) EC 1.14.99.16: Now EC 1.14.13.72, methylsterol monooxygenase EC 1.14.99.17: Now EC 1.14.16.5, glyceryl-ether monooxygenase EC 1.14.99.18: deleted EC 1.14.99.19: Now classified as EC 1.14.19.77, plasmanylethanolamine desaturase EC 1.14.99.20: phylloquinone monooxygenase (2,3-epoxidizing) EC 1.14.99.21: Latia-luciferin monooxygenase (demethylating) EC 1.14.99.22: ecdysone 20-monooxygenase EC 1.14.99.23: 3-hydroxybenzoate 2-monooxygenase EC 1.14.99.24: steroid 9α-monooxygenase EC 1.14.99.25: Now EC 1.14.19.3, linoleoyl-CoA desaturase EC 1.14.99.26: 2-hydroxypyridine 5-monooxygenase EC 1.14.99.27: Now classified as EC 1.17.3.4, juglone 3-monooxygenase EC 1.14.99.28: Now EC 1.14.14.84, linalool 8-monooxygenase EC 1.14.99.29: deoxyhypusine monooxygenase EC 1.14.99.30: Now EC 1.3.5.6, 9,9′-dicis-ζ-carotene desaturase. EC 1.14.99.31: Now classified as EC 1.14.19.24, myristoyl-CoA 11-(E) desaturase EC 1.14.99.32: Now classified as


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-1-20260505-17
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_1)-17.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 1)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_1)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:04.950617+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-1-20260505-0
summary:
=== EC 1.18.1 With NAD+ or NADP+ as acceptor === EC 1.18.1.1: rubredoxin—NAD+ reductase EC 1.18.1.2: ferredoxin—NADP+ reductase EC 1.18.1.3: ferredoxin—NAD+ reductase EC 1.18.1.4: rubredoxin—NAD(P)+ reductase EC 1.18.1.5: Putidaredoxin—NAD+ reductase EC 1.18.1.6: adrenodoxin-NADP+ reductase EC 1.18.1.7: ferredoxin—NAD(P)+ reductase (naphthalene dioxygenase ferredoxin-specific) EC 1.18.1.8: Now EC 7.2.1.2, ferredoxin—NAD+ oxidoreductase (Na+-transporting) === EC 1.18.2 With dinitrogen as acceptor (deleted sub-subclass) === EC 1.18.2.1: now EC 1.18.6.1, nitrogenase === EC 1.18.3 With H+ as acceptor (deleted sub-subclass) === EC 1.18.3.1: Now EC 1.12.7.2, ferredoxin hydrogenase === EC 1.18.6 With dinitrogen as acceptor === EC 1.18.6.1: nitrogenase EC 1.18.6.2: vanadium-dependent nitrogenase === EC 1.18.96 With other, known, acceptors (deleted sub-subclass) === EC 1.18.96.1: Now EC 1.15.1.2, superoxide reductase === EC 1.18.99 With H+ as acceptor (deleted sub-subclass) === EC 1.18.99.1: Now EC 1.12.7.2, ferredoxin hydrogenase == EC 1.19 Acting on reduced flavodoxin as donor == === EC 1.19.1 With NAD+ or NADP+ as acceptor === EC 1.19.1.1: flavodoxin—NADP+ reductase === EC 1.19.6 With dinitrogen as acceptor === EC 1.19.6.1: nitrogenase (flavodoxin) == EC 1.20 Acting on phosphorus or arsenic in donors == === EC 1.20.1 Acting on phosphorus or arsenic in donors, with NAD+ as acceptor === EC 1.20.1.1: phosphonate dehydrogenase === EC 1.20.2


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-2-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_2)-0.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 2)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_2)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:06.752346+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-2-20260505-0
summary:
This list contains a list of EC numbers for the second group, EC 2, transferases, placed in numerical order as determined by the Nomenclature Committee of the International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. All official information is tabulated at the website of the committee. The database is developed and maintained by Andrew McDonald. == EC 2.1: Transferring One-Carbon Groups ==


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-2-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_2)-1.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 2)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_2)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:06.752346+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-2-20260505-0
summary:
=== EC 2.1.1: Methyltransferases === EC 2.1.1.1: nicotinamide N-methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.2: guanidinoacetate N-methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.3: thetin—homocysteine S-methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.4: acetylserotonin O-methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.5: betaine—homocysteine S-methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.6: catechol O-methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.7: nicotinate N-methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.8: histamine N-methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.9: thiol S-methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.10: homocysteine S-methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.11: magnesium protoporphyrin IX methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.12: methionine S-methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.13: methionine synthase EC 2.1.1.14: 5-methyltetrahydropteroyltriglutamate—homocysteine S-methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.15: fatty-acid O-methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.16: methylene-fatty-acyl-phospholipid synthase EC 2.1.1.17: phosphatidylethanolamine N-methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.18: polysaccharide O-methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.19: trimethylsulfonium—tetrahydrofolate N-methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.20: glycine N-methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.21: methylamine—glutamate N-methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.22: carnosine N-methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.23: now covered by EC 2.1.1.124, EC 2.1.1.125 and EC 2.1.1.126 EC 2.1.1.24: now covered by EC 2.1.1.77, EC 2.1.1.80 and EC 2.1.1.100 EC 2.1.1.25: phenol O-methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.26: iodophenol O-methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.27: tyramine N-methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.28: phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.29: Now covered by EC 2.1.1.202, EC 2.1.1.203 and EC .1.1.204 EC 2.1.1.30: tRNA (purine-2- or -6-)-methyltransferase: Reactions previously described are due to EC 2.1.1.32 EC 2.1.1.31: Now covered by EC 2.1.1.221 and EC 2.1.1.228 EC 2.1.1.32: Now covered by EC 2.1.1.213, EC 2.1.1.214, EC 2.1.1.215 and EC 2.1.1.216 EC 2.1.1.33: tRNA (guanine46-N7)-methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.34: tRNA (guanosine18-2′-O)-methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.35: tRNA (uracil54-C5)-methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.36: Now


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-2-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_2)-2.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 2)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_2)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:06.752346+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-2-20260505-0
summary:
Now known to have the activity of EC 2.1.1.359, [histone H3]-lysine36 N-trimethyltransferase. EC 2.1.1.359: [histone H3]-lysine36 N-trimethyltransferase EC 2.1.1.360: [histone H3]-lysine79 N-trimethyltransferase EC 2.1.1.361: [histone H4]-lysine20 N-methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.362: [histone H4]-N-methyl-L-lysine20 N-methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.363: pre-sodorifen synthase EC 2.1.1.364: [histone H3]-lysine4 N-methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.365: MMP 1-O-methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.366: [histone H3]-N6,N6-dimethyl-lysine9 N-methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.367: [histone H3]-lysine9 N-methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.368: [histone H3]-lysine9 N-dimethyltransferase EC 2.1.1.369: [histone H3]-lysine27 N-methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.370: [histone H3]-lysine4 N-dimethyltransferase EC 2.1.1.371: [histone H3]-lysine27 N-dimethyltransferase EC 2.1.1.372: [histone H4]-lysine20 N-trimethyltransferase EC 2.1.1.373: 2-hydroxy-4-(methylsulfanyl)butanoate S-methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.374: 2-heptyl-1-hydroxyquinolin-4(1H)-one methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.375: NNS virus cap methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.376: glycine betaine—corrinoid protein Co-methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.377: [methyl-Co(III) glycine betaine-specific corrinoid protein]—coenzyme M methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.378: [methyl-Co(III) glycine betaine-specific corrinoid protein]—tetrahydrofolate methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.379: [methyl coenzyme M reductase]-L-arginine C-5-methyltransferase


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-2-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_2)-3.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 2)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_2)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:06.752346+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-2-20260505-0
summary:
=== EC 2.1.2: Hydroxymethyl-, Formyl- and Related Transferases === EC 2.1.2.1: glycine hydroxymethyltransferase EC 2.1.2.2: phosphoribosylglycinamide formyltransferase 1 EC 2.1.2.3: phosphoribosylaminoimidazolecarboxamide formyltransferase EC 2.1.2.4: glycine formimidoyltransferase EC 2.1.2.5: glutamate formiminotransferase EC 2.1.2.6: deleted, included in EC 2.1.2.5 EC 2.1.2.7: D-alanine 2-hydroxymethyltransferase EC 2.1.2.8: deoxycytidylate 5-hydroxymethyltransferase EC 2.1.2.9: methionyl-tRNA formyltransferase EC 2.1.2.10: aminomethyltransferase EC 2.1.2.11: 3-methyl-2-oxobutanoate hydroxymethyltransferase EC 2.1.2.12: now EC 2.1.1.74 EC 2.1.2.13: UDP-4-amino-4-deoxy-L-arabinose formyltransferase EC 2.1.2.14: GDP-perosamine N-formyltransferase === EC 2.1.3: Carboxy- and Carbamoyltransferases === EC 2.1.3.1: methylmalonyl-CoA carboxytransferase EC 2.1.3.2: aspartate carbamoyltransferase EC 2.1.3.3: ornithine carbamoyltransferase EC 2.1.3.4: deleted EC 2.1.3.5: oxamate carbamoyltransferase EC 2.1.3.6: putrescine carbamoyltransferase EC 2.1.3.7: 3-hydroxymethylcephem carbamoyltransferase EC 2.1.3.8: lysine carbamoyltransferase EC 2.1.3.9: N-acetylornithine carbamoyltransferase EC 2.1.3.10: malonyl-S-ACP:biotin-protein carboxyltransferase EC 2.1.3.11: N-succinylornithine carbamoyltransferase EC 2.1.3.13: [[The enzyme has been replaced by EC 6.1.2.2]] EC 2.1.3.14: [[The enzyme has been replaced by EC 6.1.2.2]] EC 2.1.3.15: acetyl-CoA carboxytransferase === EC 2.1.4: Amidinotransferases === EC 2.1.4.1: glycine amidinotransferase EC 2.1.4.2: scyllo-inosamine-4-phosphate amidinotransferase EC 2.1.4.3: L-arginine:L-lysine amidinotransferase === EC 2.1.5: Methylenetransferases === EC 2.1.5.1: sesamin methylene transferase == EC 2.2: Transferring Aldehyde or Ketonic Groups == === EC 2.2.1: Transketolases and Transaldolases === EC 2.2.1.1: transketolase EC 2.2.1.2: transaldolase EC 2.2.1.3: formaldehyde transketolase EC 2.2.1.4: acetoin—ribose-5-phosphate transaldolase


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-2-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_2)-4.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 2)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_2)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:06.752346+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-2-20260505-0
summary:
=== EC 2.3.1: Transferring groups other than amino-acyl groups === EC 2.3.1.1: amino-acid N-acetyltransferase EC 2.3.1.2: imidazole N-acetyltransferase EC 2.3.1.3: glucosamine N-acetyltransferase EC 2.3.1.4: glucosamine-phosphate N-acetyltransferase EC 2.3.1.5: arylamine N-acetyltransferase EC 2.3.1.6: choline O-acetyltransferase EC 2.3.1.7: carnitine O-acetyltransferase EC 2.3.1.8: phosphate acetyltransferase EC 2.3.1.9: acetyl-CoA C-acetyltransferase EC 2.3.1.10: hydrogen-sulfide S-acetyltransferase EC 2.3.1.11: thioethanolamine S-acetyltransferase EC 2.3.1.12: dihydrolipoyllysine-residue acetyltransferase EC 2.3.1.13: glycine N-acyltransferase EC 2.3.1.14: glutamine N-phenylacetyltransferase EC 2.3.1.15: glycerol-3-phosphate O-acyltransferase EC 2.3.1.16: acetyl-CoA C-acyltransferase EC 2.3.1.17: aspartate N-acetyltransferase EC 2.3.1.18: galactoside O-acetyltransferase EC 2.3.1.19: phosphate butyryltransferase EC 2.3.1.20: diacylglycerol O-acyltransferase EC 2.3.1.21: carnitine O-palmitoyltransferase EC 2.3.1.22: 2-acylglycerol O-acyltransferase EC 2.3.1.23: 1-acylglycerophosphocholine O-acyltransferase EC 2.3.1.24: sphingosine N-acyltransferase EC 2.3.1.25: plasmalogen synthase EC 2.3.1.26: sterol O-acyltransferase EC 2.3.1.27: cortisol O-acetyltransferase EC 2.3.1.28: chloramphenicol O-acetyltransferase EC 2.3.1.29: glycine C-acetyltransferase EC 2.3.1.30: serine O-acetyltransferase EC 2.3.1.31: homoserine O-acetyltransferase EC 2.3.1.32: lysine N-acetyltransferase EC 2.3.1.33: histidine N-acetyltransferase EC 2.3.1.34: D-tryptophan N-acetyltransferase EC 2.3.1.35: glutamate N-acetyltransferase EC 2.3.1.36: D-amino-acid N-acetyltransferase EC 2.3.1.37: 5-aminolevulinate synthase EC 2.3.1.38: [acyl-carrier-protein] S-acetyltransferase EC 2.3.1.39: [acyl-carrier-protein] S-malonyltransferase EC 2.3.1.40: acyl-[acyl-carrier-protein]—phospholipid O-acyltransferase EC 2.3.1.41: β-ketoacyl-[acyl-carrier-protein] synthase I EC 2.3.1.42: glycerone-phosphate O-acyltransferase EC 2.3.1.43: phosphatidylcholine—sterol O-acyltransferase EC 2.3.1.44: N-acetylneuraminate 4-O-acetyltransferase EC 2.3.1.45: N-acetylneuraminate 7-O(or 9-O)-acetyltransferase EC 2.3.1.46: homoserine O-succinyltransferase EC 2.3.1.47: 8-amino-7-oxononanoate synthase


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-2-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_2)-5.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 2)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_2)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:06.752346+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-2-20260505-0
summary:
=== EC 2.3.2: Aminoacyltransferases === EC 2.3.2.1: D-glutamyltransferase EC 2.3.2.2: γ-glutamyltransferase EC 2.3.2.3: lysyltransferase EC 2.3.2.4: Now classified as EC 4.3.2.9, γ-glutamylcyclotransferase EC 2.3.2.5: glutaminyl-peptide cyclotransferase EC 2.3.2.6: leucyltransferase EC 2.3.2.7: aspartyltransferase EC 2.3.2.8: arginyltransferase EC 2.3.2.9: agaritine γ-glutamyltransferase EC 2.3.2.10: UDP-N-acetylmuramoylpentapeptide-lysine N6-alanyltransferase EC 2.3.2.11: alanylphosphatidylglycerol synthase EC 2.3.2.12: peptidyltransferase EC 2.3.2.13: protein-glutamine g-glutamyltransferase EC 2.3.2.14: D-alanine γ-glutamyltransferase EC 2.3.2.15: glutathione γ-glutamylcysteinyltransferase EC 2.3.2.16: lipid II:glycine glycyltransferase EC 2.3.2.17: N-acetylmuramoyl-L-alanyl-D-glutamyl-L-lysyl-(N6-glycyl)-D-alanyl-D-alanine-diphosphoundecaprenyl-N-acetylglucosamine:glycine glycyltransferase EC 2.3.2.18: N-acetylmuramoyl-L-alanyl-D-glutamyl-L-lysyl-(N6-triglycine)-D-alanyl-D-alanine-diphosphoundecaprenyl-N-acetylglucosamine:glycine glycyltransferase EC 2.3.2.19: ribostamycin:4-(γ-L-glutamylamino)-(S)-2-hydroxybutanoyl-[BtrI acyl-carrier protein] 4-(γ-L-glutamylamino)-(S)-2-hydroxybutanoate transferase EC 2.3.2.20: cyclo(L-leucyl-L-phenylalanyl) synthase EC 2.3.2.21: cyclo(L-tyrosyl-L-tyrosyl) synthase EC 2.3.2.22: cyclo(L-leucyl-L-leucyl) synthase EC 2.3.2.23: E2 ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme EC 2.3.2.24: (E3-independent) E2 ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme EC 2.3.2.25: N-terminal E2 ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme EC 2.3.2.26: HECT-type E3 ubiquitin transferase EC 2.3.2.27: RING-type E3 ubiquitin transferase EC 2.3.2.28: L-allo-isoleucyltransferase EC 2.3.2.29: aspartate/glutamate leucyltransferase EC 2.3.2.30: L-ornithine Nα-acyltransferase EC 2.3.2.31: RBR-type E3 ubiquitin transferase EC 2.3.2.32: cullin-RING-type E3 NEDD8 transferase EC 2.3.2.33: RCR-type E3 ubiquitin transferase EC 2.3.2.34: E2 NEDD8-conjugating enzyme EC 2.3.2.35: capsaicin synthase EC 2.3.2.36: RING-type E3 ubiquitin transferase (cysteine targeting) === EC 2.3.3: Acyl groups converted into alkyl on transfer === EC 2.3.3.1: citrate (Si)-synthase EC 2.3.3.2: decylcitrate synthase EC 2.3.3.3: citrate (Re)-synthase EC 2.3.3.4: decylhomocitrate synthase EC 2.3.3.5: 2-methylcitrate synthase


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-2-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_2)-6.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 2)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_2)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:06.752346+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-2-20260505-0
summary:
=== EC 2.4.1: Hexosyltransferases === EC 2.4.1.1: Glycogen phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.2: dextrin dextranase EC 2.4.1.3: deleted, included in EC 2.4.1.25 EC 2.4.1.4: amylosucrase EC 2.4.1.5: dextransucrase EC 2.4.1.6: deleted EC 2.4.1.7: sucrose phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.8: maltose phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.9: inulosucrase EC 2.4.1.10: levansucrase EC 2.4.1.11: glycogen(starch) synthase EC 2.4.1.12: cellulose synthase (UDP-forming) EC 2.4.1.13: sucrose synthase EC 2.4.1.14: sucrose-phosphate synthase EC 2.4.1.15: α,α-trehalose-phosphate synthase (UDP-forming) EC 2.4.1.16: chitin synthase EC 2.4.1.17: glucuronosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.18: ,4-α-glucan branching enzyme EC 2.4.1.19: cyclomaltodextrin glucanotransferase EC 2.4.1.20: cellobiose phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.21: starch synthase EC 2.4.1.22: lactose synthase EC 2.4.1.23: sphingosine β-galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.24: 1,4-α-glucan 6-α-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.25: 4-α-glucanotransferase EC 2.4.1.26: DNA α-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.27: DNA β-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.28: glucosyl-DNA β-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.29: cellulose synthase (GDP-forming) EC 2.4.1.30: 1,3-β-oligoglucan phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.31: laminaribiose phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.32: glucomannan 4-β-mannosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.33: mannuronan synthase EC 2.4.1.34: 1,3-β-glucan synthase EC 2.4.1.35: phenol β-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.36: α,α-trehalose-phosphate synthase (GDP-forming) EC 2.4.1.37: fucosylgalactoside 3-α-galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.38: β-N-acetylglucosaminylglycopeptide β-1,4-galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.39: steroid N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.40: glycoprotein-fucosylgalactoside α-N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.41: polypeptide N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.42: deleted, included in EC 2.4.1.17 EC 2.4.1.43: polygalacturonate 4-α-galacturonosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.44: lipopolysaccharide 3-α-galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.45: now included with EC 2.4.1.47, N-acylsphingosine galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.46: monogalactosyldiacylglycerol synthase EC 2.4.1.47:


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-2-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_2)-7.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 2)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_2)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:06.752346+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-2-20260505-0
summary:
Now included in EC 2.4.1.122, N-acetylgalactosaminide β-1,3-galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.308: GDP-Fuc:β-D-Gal-1,3-α-D-GalNAc-1,3-α-GalNAc-diphosphoundecaprenol α-1,2-fucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.309: UDP-Gal:α-L-Fuc-1,2-β-Gal-1,3-α-GalNAc-1,3-α-GalNAc-diphosphoundecaprenol α-1,3-galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.310: vancomycin aglycone glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.311: chloroorienticin B synthase EC 2.4.1.312: protein O-mannose β-1,4-N-acetylglucosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.313: protein O-mannose β-1,3-N-acetylgalactosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.314: ginsenoside Rd glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.315: diglucosyl diacylglycerol synthase (1,6-linking) EC 2.4.1.316: tylactone mycaminosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.317: O-mycaminosyltylonolide 6-deoxyallosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.318: demethyllactenocin mycarosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.319: β-1,4-mannooligosaccharide phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.320: 1,4-β-mannosyl-N-acetylglucosamine phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.321: cellobionic acid phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.322: devancosaminyl-vancomycin vancosaminetransferase EC 2.4.1.323: 7-deoxyloganetic acid glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.324: 7-deoxyloganetin glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.325: TDP-N-acetylfucosamine:lipid II N-acetylfucosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.326: aklavinone 7-L-rhodosaminyltransferase EC 2.4.1.327: aclacinomycin-T 2-deoxy-L-fucose transferase EC 2.4.1.328: erythronolide mycarosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.329: sucrose 6F-phosphate phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.330: β-D-glucosyl crocetin β-1,6-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.331: 8-demethyltetracenomycin C L-rhamnosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.332: 1,2-α-glucosylglycerol phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.333: 1,2-β-oligoglucan phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.334: 1,3-α-oligoglucan phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.335: dolichyl N-acetyl-α-D-glucosaminyl phosphate 3-β-D-2,3-diacetamido-2,3-dideoxy-β-D-glucuronosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.336: monoglucosyldiacylglycerol synthase EC 2.4.1.337: 1,2-diacylglycerol 3-α-glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.338: validoxylamine A glucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.339: β-1,2-mannobiose phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.340: 1,2-β-oligomannan phosphorylase EC 2.4.1.341: α-1,2-colitosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.342: α-maltose-1-phosphate synthase EC 2.4.1.343: UDP-Gal:α-D-GlcNAc-diphosphoundecaprenol α-1,3-galactosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.344: type 2 galactoside α-(1,2)-fucosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.345: phosphatidyl-myo-inositol α-mannosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.346: phosphatidyl-myo-inositol dimannoside synthase EC 2.4.1.347: α,α-trehalose-phosphate synthase (ADP-forming) EC 2.4.1.348: N-acetyl-α-D-glucosaminyl-diphospho-ditrans,octacis-undecaprenol 3-α-mannosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.349: mannosyl-N-acetyl-α-D-glucosaminyl-diphospho-ditrans,octacis-undecaprenol 3-α-mannosyltransferase EC 2.4.1.350: mogroside IE synthase


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-2-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_2)-8.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 2)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_2)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:06.752346+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-2-20260505-0
summary:
=== EC 2.4.2: Pentosyltransferases === EC 2.4.2.1: purine-nucleoside phosphorylase EC 2.4.2.2: pyrimidine-nucleoside phosphorylase EC 2.4.2.3: uridine phosphorylase EC 2.4.2.4: thymidine phosphorylase EC 2.4.2.5: nucleoside ribosyltransferase EC 2.4.2.6: nucleoside deoxyribosyltransferase EC 2.4.2.7: adenine phosphoribosyltransferase EC 2.4.2.8: hypoxanthine phosphoribosyltransferase EC 2.4.2.9: uracil phosphoribosyltransferase EC 2.4.2.10: orotate phosphoribosyltransferase EC 2.4.2.11: now EC 6.3.4.21 nicotinate phosphoribosyltransferase EC 2.4.2.12: nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase EC 2.4.2.13: now EC 2.5.1.6 methionine adenosyltransferase EC 2.4.2.14: amidophosphoribosyltransferase EC 2.4.2.15: guanosine phosphorylase EC 2.4.2.16: urate-ribonucleotide phosphorylase EC 2.4.2.17: ATP phosphoribosyltransferase EC 2.4.2.18: anthranilate phosphoribosyltransferase EC 2.4.2.19: nicotinate-nucleotide diphosphorylase (carboxylating) EC 2.4.2.20: dioxotetrahydropyrimidine phosphoribosyltransferase EC 2.4.2.21: nicotinate-nucleotide—dimethylbenzimidazole phosphoribosyltransferase EC 2.4.2.22: xanthine phosphoribosyltransferase EC 2.4.2.23: [[This activity has been shown to be catalysed by EC 2.4.2.2, ((pyrimidine-nucleoside phosphorylase)), EC 2.4.2.3, ((uridine phosphorylase)), and EC 2.4.2.4, ((thymidine phosphorylase)).|This activity has been shown to be catalysed by EC 2.4.2.2, pyrimidine-nucleoside phosphorylase, EC 2.4.2.3, uridine phosphorylase, and EC 2.4.2.4, thymidine phosphorylase.]] EC 2.4.2.24: 1,4-β-D-xylan synthase EC 2.4.2.25: flavone apiosyltransferase EC 2.4.2.26: protein xylosyltransferase EC 2.4.2.27: dTDP-dihydrostreptose—streptidine-6-phosphate dihydrostreptosyltransferase EC 2.4.2.28: S-methyl-5′-thioadenosine phosphorylase EC 2.4.2.29: tRNA-guanosine34 preQ1 transglycosylase EC 2.4.2.30: NAD+ ADP-ribosyltransferase EC 2.4.2.31: NAD+—protein-arginine ADP-ribosyltransferase EC 2.4.2.32: dolichyl-phosphate D-xylosyltransferase EC 2.4.2.33: dolichyl-xylosyl-phosphate—protein xylosyltransferase EC 2.4.2.34: indolylacetylinositol arabinosyltransferase EC 2.4.2.35: flavonol-3-O-glycoside xylosyltransferase EC 2.4.2.36: NAD+—diphthamide ADP-ribosyltransferase EC 2.4.2.37: NAD+


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-2-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_2)-9.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 2)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_2)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:06.752346+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-2-20260505-0
summary:
=== EC 2.5.1: Transferring alkyl or aryl groups, other than methyl groups (only sub-subclass identified to date) === EC 2.5.1.1: dimethylallyltranstransferase EC 2.5.1.2: thiamine pyridinylase EC 2.5.1.3: thiamine-phosphate diphosphorylase EC 2.5.1.4: adenosylmethionine cyclotransferase EC 2.5.1.5: galactose-6-sulfurylase EC 2.5.1.6: methionine adenosyltransferase EC 2.5.1.7: UDP-N-acetylglucosamine 1-carboxyvinyltransferase EC 2.5.1.8: transferred to EC 2.5.1.75, tRNA dimethylallyltransferase EC 2.5.1.9: riboflavin synthase EC 2.5.1.10: (2E,6E)-farnesyl diphosphate synthase EC 2.5.1.11: Now covered by EC 2.5.1.84 (all-trans-nonaprenyl-diphosphate synthase [geranyl-diphosphate specific]) and EC 2.5.1.85 (all-trans-nonaprenyl diphosphate synthase [geranylgeranyl-diphosphate specific]) EC 2.5.1.12: deleted, now included with EC 2.5.1.18 glutathione transferase EC 2.5.1.13: deleted, now included with EC 2.5.1.18 glutathione transferase EC 2.5.1.14: deleted, now included with EC 2.5.1.18 glutathione transferase EC 2.5.1.15: dihydropteroate synthase EC 2.5.1.16: spermidine synthase EC 2.5.1.17: cob(I)yrinic acid a,c-diamide adenosyltransferase EC 2.5.1.18: glutathione transferase EC 2.5.1.19: 3-phosphoshikimate 1-carboxyvinyltransferase EC 2.5.1.20: rubber cis-polyprenylcistransferase EC 2.5.1.21: squalene synthase EC 2.5.1.22: spermine synthase EC 2.5.1.23: sym-norspermidine synthase EC 2.5.1.24: discadenine synthase EC 2.5.1.25: tRNA-uridine aminocarboxypropyltransferase EC 2.5.1.26: alkylglycerone-phosphate synthase EC 2.5.1.27: adenylate dimethylallyltransferase EC 2.5.1.28: dimethylallylcistransferase EC 2.5.1.29: farnesyltranstransferase EC 2.5.1.30: trans-hexaprenyltranstransferase EC 2.5.1.31: ditrans,polycis-undecaprenyl-diphosphate synthase [(2E,6E)-farnesyl-diphosphate specific] EC 2.5.1.32: 15-cis-phytoene synthase EC 2.5.1.33: deleted, now covered by EC 2.5.1.82 hexaprenyl diphosphate synthase [geranylgeranyl-diphosphate specific] and EC 2.5.1.83 hexaprenyl


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-2-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_2)-10.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 2)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_2)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:06.752346+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-2-20260505-0
summary:
=== EC 2.6.1: Transaminases === EC 2.6.1.1: aspartate transaminase EC 2.6.1.2: alanine transaminase EC 2.6.1.3: cysteine transaminase EC 2.6.1.4: glycine transaminase EC 2.6.1.5: tyrosine transaminase EC 2.6.1.6: leucine transaminase EC 2.6.1.7: kynurenine—oxoglutarate transaminase EC 2.6.1.8: 2,5-diaminovalerate transaminase EC 2.6.1.9: histidinol-phosphate transaminase EC 2.6.1.10: deleted, included with EC 2.6.1.21, D-amino-acid transaminase EC 2.6.1.11: acetylornithine transaminase EC 2.6.1.12: alanine—oxo-acid transaminase EC 2.6.1.13: ornithine aminotransferase EC 2.6.1.14: asparagine—oxo-acid transaminase EC 2.6.1.15: glutamine—pyruvate transaminase EC 2.6.1.16: glutamine—fructose-6-phosphate transaminase (isomerizing) EC 2.6.1.17: succinyldiaminopimelate transaminase EC 2.6.1.18: β-alanine—pyruvate transaminase EC 2.6.1.19: 4-aminobutyrate transaminase EC 2.6.1.20: deleted EC 2.6.1.21: D-amino-acid transaminase EC 2.6.1.22: (S)-3-amino-2-methylpropionate transaminase EC 2.6.1.23: 4-hydroxyglutamate transaminase EC 2.6.1.24: diiodotyrosine transaminase EC 2.6.1.25: deleted, Now included with EC 2.6.1.24 diiodotyrosine transaminase EC 2.6.1.26: thyroid-hormone transaminase EC 2.6.1.27: tryptophan transaminase EC 2.6.1.28: tryptophan—phenylpyruvate transaminase EC 2.6.1.29: diamine transaminase EC 2.6.1.30: pyridoxamine—pyruvate transaminase EC 2.6.1.31: pyridoxamine—oxaloacetate transaminase EC 2.6.1.32: valine—3-methyl-2-oxovalerate transaminase EC 2.6.1.33: dTDP-4-amino-4,6-dideoxy-D-glucose transaminase EC 2.6.1.34: UDP-N-acetylbacillosamine transaminase EC 2.6.1.35: glycine—oxaloacetate transaminase EC 2.6.1.36: L-lysine 6-transaminase EC 2.6.1.37: (2-aminoethyl)phosphonate—pyruvate transaminase EC 2.6.1.38: histidine transaminase EC 2.6.1.39: 2-aminoadipate transaminase EC 2.6.1.40: (R)-3-amino-2-methylpropionate—pyruvate transaminase EC 2.6.1.41: D-methionine—pyruvate transaminase EC 2.6.1.42: branched-chain-amino-acid transaminase EC 2.6.1.43: aminolevulinate transaminase EC 2.6.1.44: alanine—glyoxylate transaminase EC 2.6.1.45: serine—glyoxylate transaminase EC 2.6.1.46: diaminobutyrate—pyruvate transaminase


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-2-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_2)-11.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 2)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_2)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:06.752346+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-2-20260505-0
summary:
=== EC 2.7.1: Phosphotransferases with an alcohol group as acceptor === EC 2.7.1.1: hexokinase EC 2.7.1.2: glucokinase EC 2.7.1.3: ketohexokinase EC 2.7.1.4: fructokinase EC 2.7.1.5: rhamnulokinase EC 2.7.1.6: galactokinase EC 2.7.1.7: mannokinase EC 2.7.1.8: glucosamine kinase EC 2.7.1.9: deleted EC 2.7.1.10: phosphoglucokinase EC 2.7.1.11: 6-phosphofructokinase EC 2.7.1.12: gluconokinase EC 2.7.1.13: dehydrogluconokinase EC 2.7.1.14: sedoheptulokinase EC 2.7.1.15: ribokinase EC 2.7.1.16: ribulokinase EC 2.7.1.17: xylulokinase EC 2.7.1.18: phosphoribokinase EC 2.7.1.19: phosphoribulokinase EC 2.7.1.20: adenosine kinase EC 2.7.1.21: thymidine kinase EC 2.7.1.22: ribosylnicotinamide kinase EC 2.7.1.23: NAD+ kinase EC 2.7.1.24: dephospho-CoA kinase EC 2.7.1.25: adenylyl-sulfate kinase EC 2.7.1.26: riboflavin kinase EC 2.7.1.27: erythritol kinase (D-erythritol 4-phosphate-forming) EC 2.7.1.28: triokinase EC 2.7.1.29: glycerone kinase EC 2.7.1.30: glycerol kinase EC 2.7.1.31: glycerate kinase EC 2.7.1.32: choline kinase EC 2.7.1.33: pantothenate kinase EC 2.7.1.34: pantetheine kinase EC 2.7.1.35: pyridoxal kinase EC 2.7.1.36: mevalonate kinase EC 2.7.1.37: now divided into EC 2.7.11.1, EC 2.7.11.8, EC 2.7.11.9, EC 2.7.11.10, EC 2.7.11.11, EC 2.7.11.12, EC 2.7.11.13, EC 2.7.11.21, EC 2.7.11.22, EC 2.7.11.24, EC 2.7.11.25, EC 2.7.11.30 and EC 2.7.12.1 EC 2.7.1.38: now EC 2.7.11.19, phosphorylase kinase EC 2.7.1.39: homoserine kinase EC 2.7.1.40: pyruvate kinase EC 2.7.1.41: glucose-1-phosphate phosphodismutase EC 2.7.1.42: riboflavin phosphotransferase EC 2.7.1.43: glucuronokinase EC 2.7.1.44: galacturonokinase EC


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-2-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_2)-12.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 2)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_2)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:06.752346+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-2-20260505-0
summary:
=== EC 2.7.2: Phosphotransferases with a carboxy group as acceptor === EC 2.7.2.1: acetate kinase EC 2.7.2.2: carbamate kinase EC 2.7.2.3: phosphoglycerate kinase EC 2.7.2.4: aspartate kinase EC 2.7.2.5: Now EC 6.3.4.16, carbamoyl-phosphate synthase (ammonia) EC 2.7.2.6: formate kinase EC 2.7.2.7: butyrate kinase EC 2.7.2.8: acetylglutamate kinase EC 2.7.2.9: Now EC 6.3.5.5, carbamoyl-phosphate synthase (glutamine-hydrolysing) EC 2.7.2.10: phosphoglycerate kinase (GTP) EC 2.7.2.11: glutamate 5-kinase EC 2.7.2.12: acetate kinase (diphosphate) EC 2.7.2.13: Now known to be due to the activities of EC 6.1.1.17, glutamate—tRNA ligase, EC 1.2.1.70, glutamyl-tRNA reductase and EC 5.4.3.8 glutamate-1-semialdehyde 2,1-aminomutase EC 2.7.2.14: branched-chain-fatty-acid kinase EC 2.7.2.15: propionate kinase EC 2.7.2.16: 2-phosphoglycerate kinase EC 2.7.2.17: [amino-group carrier protein]-L-2-aminoadipate 6-kinase EC 2.7.2.18: fatty acid kinase === EC 2.7.3: Phosphotransferases with a nitrogenous group as acceptor === EC 2.7.3.1: guanidinoacetate kinase EC 2.7.3.2: creatine kinase EC 2.7.3.3: arginine kinase EC 2.7.3.4: taurocyamine kinase EC 2.7.3.5: lombricine kinase EC 2.7.3.6: hypotaurocyamine kinase EC 2.7.3.7: opheline kinase EC 2.7.3.8: ammonia kinase EC 2.7.3.9: phosphoenolpyruvate—protein phosphotransferase EC 2.7.3.10: agmatine kinase EC 2.7.3.11: now EC 2.7.13.1, protein-histidine pros-kinase EC 2.7.3.12: now EC 2.7.13.2, protein-histidine tele-kinase EC 2.7.3.13: glutamine kinase === EC 2.7.4: Phosphotransferases with a phosphate group as acceptor === EC 2.7.4.1: ATP-polyphosphate phosphotransferase


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-2-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_2)-13.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 2)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_2)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:06.752346+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-2-20260505-0
summary:
=== EC 2.7.8: Transferases for other substituted phosphate groups === EC 2.7.8.1: diacylglycerol ethanolaminephosphotransferase EC 2.7.8.2: diacylglycerol cholinephosphotransferase EC 2.7.8.3: ceramide cholinephosphotransferase EC 2.7.8.4: serine ethanolaminephosphotransferase EC 2.7.8.5: CDP-diacylglycerol—glycerol-3-phosphate 1-phosphatidyltransferase EC 2.7.8.6: undecaprenyl-phosphate galactose phosphotransferase EC 2.7.8.7: holo-[acyl-carrier-protein] synthase EC 2.7.8.8: CDP-diacylglycerol—serine O-phosphatidyltransferase EC 2.7.8.9: phosphomannan mannosephosphotransferase EC 2.7.8.10: sphingosine cholinephosphotransferase EC 2.7.8.11: CDP-diacylglycerol—inositol 3-phosphatidyltransferase EC 2.7.8.12: CDP-glycerol glycerophosphotransferase EC 2.7.8.13: phospho-N-acetylmuramoyl-pentapeptide-transferase EC 2.7.8.14: CDP-ribitol ribitolphosphotransferase EC 2.7.8.15: UDP-N-acetylglucosamine—dolichyl-phosphate N-acetylglucosaminephosphotransferase EC 2.7.8.16: deleted, now included with EC 2.7.8.2 diacylglycerol cholinephosphotransferase EC 2.7.8.17: UDP-N-acetylglucosamine—lysosomal-enzyme N-acetylglucosaminephosphotransferase EC 2.7.8.18: UDP-galactose—UDP-N-acetylglucosamine galactose phosphotransferase EC 2.7.8.19: UDP-glucose—glycoprotein glucose phosphotransferase EC 2.7.8.20: phosphatidylglycerol—membrane-oligosaccharide glycerophosphotransferase EC 2.7.8.21: membrane-oligosaccharide glycerophosphotransferase EC 2.7.8.22: 1-alkenyl-2-acylglycerol choline phosphotransferase EC 2.7.8.23: carboxyvinyl-carboxyphosphonate phosphorylmutase EC 2.7.8.24: CDP-diacylglycerol—choline O-phosphatidyltransferase EC 2.7.8.25: Now EC 2.4.2.52, triphosphoribosyl-dephospho-CoA synthase EC 2.7.8.26: adenosylcobinamide-GDP ribazoletransferase EC 2.7.8.27: sphingomyelin synthase EC 2.7.8.28: 2-phospho-L-lactate transferase EC 2.7.8.29: L-serine-phosphatidylethanolamine phosphatidyltransferase EC 2.7.8.30: Now EC 2.4.2.53, undecaprenyl-phosphate 4-deoxy-4-formamido-L-arabinose transferase EC 2.7.8.31: undecaprenyl-phosphate glucose phosphotransferase EC 2.7.8.32: 3-O-α-D-mannopyranosyl-α-D-mannopyranose xylosylphosphotransferase EC 2.7.8.33: UDP-N-acetylglucosamine—undecaprenyl-phosphate N-acetylglucosaminephosphotransferase EC 2.7.8.34: CDP-L-myo-inositol myo-inositolphosphotransferase EC 2.7.8.35: UDP-N-acetylglucosamine—decaprenyl-phosphate N-acetylglucosaminephosphotransferase EC 2.7.8.36: undecaprenyl phosphate N,N′-diacetylbacillosamine 1-phosphate transferase EC 2.7.8.37: α-D-ribose 1-methylphosphonate 5-triphosphate synthase EC 2.7.8.38: archaetidylserine synthase EC 2.7.8.39: archaetidylinositol phosphate synthase EC 2.7.8.40: UDP-N-acetylgalactosamine-undecaprenyl-phosphate N-acetylgalactosaminephosphotransferase EC 2.7.8.41: cardiolipin synthase (CMP-forming) EC 2.7.8.42:


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-3-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_3)-0.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 3)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_3)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:08.231305+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-3-20260505-0
summary:
This list contains a list of EC numbers for the third group, EC 3, hydrolases, placed in numerical order as determined by the Nomenclature Committee of the International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. All official information is tabulated at the website of the committee. The database is developed and maintained by Andrew McDonald. == EC 3.1: Acting on Ester Bonds == === EC 3.1.1: Carboxylic Ester Hydrolases === EC 3.1.1.1: carboxylesterase EC 3.1.1.2: arylesterase EC 3.1.1.3: triacylglycerol lipase EC 3.1.1.4: phospholipase A2 EC 3.1.1.5: lysophospholipase EC 3.1.1.6: acetylesterase EC 3.1.1.7: acetylcholinesterase EC 3.1.1.8: cholinesterase EC 3.1.1.9: deleted, a side reaction of EC 3.1.1.8 cholinesterase EC 3.1.1.10: tropinesterase EC 3.1.1.11: pectinesterase EC 3.1.1.12: deleted, identical with EC 3.1.1.1 carboxylesterase EC 3.1.1.13: sterol esterase EC 3.1.1.14: chlorophyllase EC 3.1.1.15: L-arabinonolactonase EC 3.1.1.16: deleted, mixture of EC 5.3.3.4 (muconolactone Δ-isomerase) and EC 3.1.1.24 (3-oxoadipate enol-lactonase) EC 3.1.1.17: gluconolactonase EC 3.1.1.18: deleted, now included with EC 3.1.1.17 gluconolactonase EC 3.1.1.19: uronolactonase EC 3.1.1.20: tannase EC 3.1.1.21: deleted, now known to be catalysed by EC 3.1.1.1, carboxylesterase and EC 3.1.1.3, triacylglycerol lipase. EC 3.1.1.22: hydroxybutyrate-dimer hydrolase EC 3.1.1.23: acylglycerol lipase EC 3.1.1.24: 3-oxoadipate enol-lactonase EC 3.1.1.25: 1,4-lactonase EC 3.1.1.26: galactolipase EC 3.1.1.27: 4-pyridoxolactonase EC


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-3-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_3)-1.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 3)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_3)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:08.231305+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-3-20260505-0
summary:
=== EC 3.1.3: Phosphoric Monoester Hydrolases === EC 3.1.3.1: alkaline phosphatase EC 3.1.3.2: acid phosphatase EC 3.1.3.3: phosphoserine phosphatase EC 3.1.3.4: phosphatidate phosphatase EC 3.1.3.5: 5′-nucleotidase EC 3.1.3.6: 3′-nucleotidase EC 3.1.3.7: 3′(2′),5′-bisphosphate nucleotidase EC 3.1.3.8: 3-phytase EC 3.1.3.9: glucose-6-phosphatase EC 3.1.3.10: glucose-1-phosphatase EC 3.1.3.11: fructose-bisphosphatase EC 3.1.3.12: trehalose-phosphatase EC 3.1.3.13: [[Recent studies have shown that this is a partial activity of ((EnzExplorer|5.4.2.11)), phosphoglycerate mutase (2,3-diphosphoglycerate-dependent)|Recent studies have shown that this is a partial activity of EC 5.4.2.11, phosphoglycerate mutase (2,3-diphosphoglycerate-dependent)]] EC 3.1.3.14: methylphosphothioglycerate phosphatase EC 3.1.3.15: histidinol-phosphatase EC 3.1.3.16: protein serine/threonine phosphatase EC 3.1.3.17: (phosphorylase) phosphatase EC 3.1.3.18: phosphoglycolate phosphatase EC 3.1.3.19: glycerol-2-phosphatase EC 3.1.3.20: phosphoglycerate phosphatase EC 3.1.3.21: glycerol-1-phosphatase EC 3.1.3.22: mannitol-1-phosphatase EC 3.1.3.23: sugar-phosphatase EC 3.1.3.24: sucrose-phosphatase EC 3.1.3.25: inositol-phosphate phosphatase EC 3.1.3.26: 4-phytase EC 3.1.3.27: phosphatidylglycerophosphatase EC 3.1.3.28: ADP-phosphoglycerate phosphatase EC 3.1.3.29: N-acylneuraminate-9-phosphatase EC 3.1.3.30: The activity may be that of an acid phosphatase EC 3.1.3.31: The activity may be that of an acid phosphatase EC 3.1.3.32: polynucleotide 3′-phosphatase EC 3.1.3.33: polynucleotide 5′-phosphatase EC 3.1.3.34: deoxynucleotide 3′-phosphatase EC 3.1.3.35: thymidylate 5′-phosphatase EC 3.1.3.36: phosphoinositide 5-phosphatase EC 3.1.3.37: sedoheptulose-bisphosphatase EC 3.1.3.38: 3-phosphoglycerate phosphatase EC 3.1.3.39: streptomycin-6-phosphatase EC 3.1.3.40: guanidinodeoxy-scyllo-inositol-4-phosphatase EC 3.1.3.41: 4-nitrophenylphosphatase EC 3.1.3.42: glycogen-synthase-D] phosphatase EC 3.1.3.43:


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-3-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_3)-2.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 3)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_3)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:08.231305+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-3-20260505-0
summary:
=== EC 3.1.15: Exonucleases Active with either Ribo- or Deoxyribonucleic Acids and Producing 5'-Phosphomonoesters === EC 3.1.15.1: venom exonuclease === EC 3.1.16: Exonucleases Active with either Ribo- or Deoxyribonucleic Acids and Producing 3'-Phosphomonoesters === EC 3.1.16.1: spleen exonuclease === EC 3.1.21: Endodeoxyribonucleases Producing 5'-Phosphomonoesters === EC 3.1.21.1: deoxyribonuclease I EC 3.1.21.2: deoxyribonuclease IV EC 3.1.21.3: type I site-specific deoxyribonuclease EC 3.1.21.4: type II site-specific deoxyribonuclease EC 3.1.21.5: type III site-specific deoxyribonuclease EC 3.1.21.6: CC-preferring endodeoxyribonuclease EC 3.1.21.7: deoxyribonuclease V EC 3.1.21.8: T4 deoxyribonuclease II EC 3.1.21.9: T4 deoxyribonuclease IV EC 3.1.21.10: crossover junction endodeoxyribonuclease === EC 3.1.22: Endodeoxyribonucleases Producing 3'-Phosphomonoesters === EC 3.1.22.1: deoxyribonuclease II EC 3.1.22.2: Aspergillus deoxyribonuclease K1 EC 3.1.22.3: now EC 3.1.21.7 EC 3.1.22.4: crossover junction endodeoxyribonuclease EC 3.1.22.5: deoxyribonuclease X === EC 3.1.23: and EC 3.1.24 now EC 3.1.21.3, EC 3.1.21.4 and EC 3.1.21.5 === Deleted sub-subclasses. === EC 3.1.25: Site-Specific Endodeoxyribonucleases Specific for Altered Bases === EC 3.1.25.1: deoxyribonuclease (pyrimidine dimer) EC 3.1.25.2: Now EC 4.2.99.18, DNA-(apurinic or apyrimidinic site) lyase === EC 3.1.26: Endoribonucleases Producing 5'-Phosphomonoesters === EC 3.1.26.1: Physarum polycephalum ribonuclease EC 3.1.26.2: ribonuclease α EC 3.1.26.3: ribonuclease III EC 3.1.26.4: ribonuclease H EC 3.1.26.5: ribonuclease P EC 3.1.26.6: ribonuclease IV EC 3.1.26.7:


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-3-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_3)-3.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 3)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_3)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:08.231305+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-3-20260505-0
summary:
=== EC 3.2.1: Glycosidases, i.e. enzymes hydrolysing O- and S-glycosyl compounds === EC 3.2.1.1: α-amylase EC 3.2.1.2: β-amylase EC 3.2.1.3: glucan 1,4-α-glucosidase EC 3.2.1.4: cellulase EC 3.2.1.5: deleted EC 3.2.1.6: endo-1,3(4)-β-glucanase EC 3.2.1.7: inulinase EC 3.2.1.8: endo-1,4-β-xylanase EC 3.2.1.9: deleted EC 3.2.1.10: oligo-1,6-glucosidase EC 3.2.1.11: dextranase EC 3.2.1.12: Now included with EC 3.2.1.54, cyclomaltodextrinase EC 3.2.1.13: Now included with EC 3.2.1.54, cyclomaltodextrinase EC 3.2.1.14: chitinase EC 3.2.1.15: polygalacturonase EC 3.2.1.16: deleted EC 3.2.1.17: lysozyme EC 3.2.1.18: exo-α-sialidase EC 3.2.1.19: deleted EC 3.2.1.20: α-glucosidase EC 3.2.1.21: β-glucosidase EC 3.2.1.22: α-galactosidase EC 3.2.1.23: β-galactosidase EC 3.2.1.24: α-mannosidase EC 3.2.1.25: β-mannosidase EC 3.2.1.26: β-fructofuranosidase (invertase) EC 3.2.1.27: deleted EC 3.2.1.28: α,α-trehalase EC 3.2.1.29: Now included with EC 3.2.1.52, β-N-acetylhexosaminidase EC 3.2.1.30: Now included with EC 3.2.1.52, β-N-acetylhexosaminidase EC 3.2.1.31: β-glucuronidase EC 3.2.1.32: endo-1,3-β-xylanase EC 3.2.1.33: amylo-α-1,6-glucosidase EC 3.2.1.34: Now included with EC 3.2.1.35, hyaluronoglucosaminidase EC 3.2.1.35: hyaluronoglucosaminidase EC 3.2.1.36: hyaluronoglucuronidase EC 3.2.1.37: xylan 1,4-β-xylosidase EC 3.2.1.38: β-D-fucosidase EC 3.2.1.39: glucan endo-1,3-β-D-glucosidase EC 3.2.1.40: α-L-rhamnosidase EC 3.2.1.41: pullulanase EC 3.2.1.42: GDP-glucosidase EC 3.2.1.43: β-L-rhamnosidase EC 3.2.1.44: Now EC 3.2.1.211, endo-(13)-fucoidanase and EC 3.2.1.212, endo-(14)-fucoidanase EC 3.2.1.45: glucosylceramidase EC 3.2.1.46: galactosylceramidase EC 3.2.1.47: Now known to be catalyzed by EC 3.2.1.22, α-galactosidase EC 3.2.1.48: sucrose


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-3-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_3)-4.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 3)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_3)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:08.231305+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-3-20260505-0
summary:
=== EC 3.2.2: Hydrolysing N-Glycosyl Compounds === EC 3.2.2.1: purine nucleosidase EC 3.2.2.2: inosine nucleosidase EC 3.2.2.3: uridine nucleosidase EC 3.2.2.4: AMP nucleosidase EC 3.2.2.5: NAD+ glycohydrolase EC 3.2.2.6: ADP-ribosyl cyclase/cyclic ADP-ribose hydrolase EC 3.2.2.7: adenosine nucleosidase EC 3.2.2.8: ribosylpyrimidine nucleosidase EC 3.2.2.9: adenosylhomocysteine nucleosidase EC 3.2.2.10: pyrimidine-5′-nucleotide nucleosidase EC 3.2.2.11: β-aspartyl-N-acetylglucosaminidase EC 3.2.2.12: inosinate nucleosidase EC 3.2.2.13: 1-methyladenosine nucleosidase EC 3.2.2.14: NMN nucleosidase EC 3.2.2.15: DNA-deoxyinosine glycosylase EC 3.2.2.16: methylthioadenosine nucleosidase EC 3.2.2.17: deoxyribodipyrimidine endonucleosidase EC 3.2.2.18: Now included with EC 3.5.1.52, peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl)asparagine amidase EC 3.2.2.19: ADP-ribosylarginine hydrolase EC 3.2.2.20: DNA-3-methyladenine glycosylase I EC 3.2.2.21: DNA-3-methyladenine glycosylase II, MAG1 EC 3.2.2.22: rRNA 'N-glycosylase EC 3.2.2.23: DNA-formamidopyrimidine glycosylase EC 3.2.2.24: ADP-ribosyl-[dinitrogen reductase] hydrolase EC 3.2.2.25: N-methyl nucleosidase EC 3.2.2.26: futalosine hydrolase EC 3.2.2.27: uracil-DNA glycosylase EC 3.2.2.28: double-stranded uracil-DNA glycosylase EC 3.2.2.29: thymine-DNA glycosylase EC 3.2.2.30: aminodeoxyfutalosine nucleosidase EC 3.2.2.31: adenine glycosylase === EC 3.2.3: Hydrolysing S-Glycosyl Compounds === Deleted sub-subclass == EC 3.3: Acting on Ether Bonds == === EC 3.3.1: Thioether and trialkylsulfonium hydrolases === EC 3.3.1.1: adenosylhomocysteinase EC 3.3.1.2: S-adenosyl-L-methionine hydrolase (L-homoserine-forming) EC 3.3.1.3: [[The activity is most probably attributable to ((EnzExplorer|4.4.1.21)), S-ribosylhomocysteine lyase|The activity is most probably attributable to EC 4.4.1.21, S-ribosylhomocysteine lyase]] === EC 3.3.2:


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-3-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_3)-5.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 3)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_3)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:08.231305+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-3-20260505-0
summary:
=== EC 3.4.13 Dipeptidases === EC 3.4.13.1: Now EC 3.4.13.18, cytosol nonspecific dipeptidase EC 3.4.13.2: Now EC 3.4.13.18, cytosol nonspecific dipeptidase EC 3.4.13.3: The activity is covered by EC .4.13.18, cytosol nonspecific dipeptidase and EC 3.4.13.20, β-Ala-His dipeptidase EC 3.4.13.4: Xaa-Arg dipeptidase EC 3.4.13.5: Xaa-methyl-His dipeptidase EC 3.4.13.6: Now EC 3.4.11.2, membrane alanyl aminopeptidase EC 3.4.13.7: Glu-Glu dipeptidase EC 3.4.13.8: Now EC 3.4.13.18, cytosol nonspecific dipeptidase EC 3.4.13.9: Xaa-Pro dipeptidase EC 3.4.13.10: Now EC 3.4.19.5, β-aspartyl-peptidase EC 3.4.13.11: Now EC 3.4.13.19, membrane dipeptidase EC 3.4.13.12: Met-Xaa dipeptidase EC 3.4.13.13: Now EC 3.4.13.3, Xaa-His dipeptidase EC 3.4.13.14: Deleted EC 3.4.13.15: Now EC 3.4.13.18, cytosol nonspecific dipeptidase EC 3.4.13.16: Deleted EC 3.4.13.17: non-stereospecific dipeptidase EC 3.4.13.18: cytosol nonspecific dipeptidase EC 3.4.13.19: membrane dipeptidase EC 3.4.13.20: β-Ala-His dipeptidase EC 3.4.13.21: dipeptidase E EC 3.4.13.22: D-Ala-D-Ala dipeptidase EC 3.4.13.23: cysteinylglycine-S-conjugate dipeptidase === EC 3.4.14 Dipeptidyl peptidases and tripeptidyl peptidases === EC 3.4.14.1: dipeptidyl-peptidase I EC 3.4.14.2: dipeptidyl-peptidase II EC 3.4.14.3: Now EC 3.4.19.1, acylaminoacyl-peptidase EC 3.4.14.4: dipeptidyl-peptidase III EC 3.4.14.5: dipeptidyl-peptidase IV EC 3.4.14.6: dipeptidyl-dipeptidase EC 3.4.14.7: Deleted EC 3.4.14.8: Now EC 3.4.14.10, tripeptidyl-peptidase II EC 3.4.14.9: tripeptidyl-peptidase I EC 3.4.14.10: tripeptidyl-peptidase II EC 3.4.14.11: Xaa-Pro dipeptidyl-peptidase EC 3.4.14.12: Xaa-Xaa-Pro tripeptidyl-peptidase EC 3.4.14.13: γ-D-glutamyl-Llysine


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-3-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_3)-6.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 3)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_3)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:08.231305+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-3-20260505-0
summary:
=== EC 3.4.21: Serine proteases === EC 3.4.21.1: chymotrypsin EC 3.4.21.2: chymotrypsin C EC 3.4.21.3: metridin EC 3.4.21.4: trypsin EC 3.4.21.5: thrombin EC 3.4.21.6: coagulation factor Xa EC 3.4.21.7: plasmin EC 3.4.21.8: Now EC 3.4.21.34 (plasma kallikrein) and EC 3.4.21.35 (tissue kallikrein) EC 3.4.21.9: enteropeptidase EC 3.4.21.10: acrosin EC 3.4.21.11: Now EC 3.4.21.37, leukocyte elastase EC 3.4.21.12: α-lytic endopeptidase EC 3.4.21.13: Now EC 3.4.16.6, carboxypeptidase D EC 3.4.21.14: now EC 3.4.21.67, endopeptidase So EC 3.4.21.15: Now EC 3.4.21.63, oryzin EC 3.4.21.16: Deleted EC 3.4.21.17: Deleted EC 3.4.21.18: Deleted EC 3.4.21.19: glutamyl endopeptidase EC 3.4.21.20: cathepsin G EC 3.4.21.21: coagulation factor VIIa EC 3.4.21.22: coagulation factor IXa EC 3.4.21.23: Deleted EC 3.4.21.24: Deleted EC 3.4.21.25: cucumisin EC 3.4.21.26: prolyl oligopeptidase EC 3.4.21.27: coagulation factor XIa EC 3.4.21.28: Now EC 3.4.21.74, venombin A EC 3.4.21.29: Now EC 3.4.21.74, venombin A EC 3.4.21.30: Now EC 3.4.21.74, venombin A EC 3.4.21.31: Now EC 3.4.21.73, u-plasminogen activator EC 3.4.21.32: brachyurin EC 3.4.21.33: Deleted EC 3.4.21.34: plasma kallikrein EC 3.4.21.35: tissue kallikrein EC 3.4.21.36: pancreatic elastase EC 3.4.21.37: leukocyte elastase EC 3.4.21.38: coagulation factor XIIa EC 3.4.21.39: chymase EC 3.4.21.40: Deleted EC 3.4.21.41: Complement subcomponent C1r EC 3.4.21.42: complement subcomponent C1s EC 3.4.21.43: classical-complement-pathway C3/C5 convertase


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-3-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_3)-7.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 3)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_3)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:08.231305+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-3-20260505-0
summary:
=== EC 3.4.23 Aspartic endopeptidases === EC 3.4.23.1: pepsin A EC 3.4.23.2: pepsin B EC 3.4.23.3: gastricsin EC 3.4.23.4: chymosin EC 3.4.23.5: cathepsin D EC 3.4.23.6: Now EC 3.4.23.30, pycnoporopepsin EC 3.4.23.7: Now EC 3.4.23.20, penicillopepsin EC 3.4.23.8: Now EC 3.4.23.25, saccharopepsin EC 3.4.23.9: Now EC 3.4.23.21, rhizopuspepsin EC 3.4.23.10: Now EC 3.4.23.22, endothiapepsin EC 3.4.23.11: Deleted entry EC 3.4.23.12: nepenthesin EC 3.4.23.13: Deleted EC 3.4.23.14: Deleted EC 3.4.23.15: renin EC 3.4.23.16: HIV-1 retropepsin EC 3.4.23.17: pro-opiomelanocortin converting enzyme EC 3.4.23.18: aspergillopepsin I EC 3.4.23.19: aspergillopepsin II EC 3.4.23.20: penicillopepsin EC 3.4.23.21: rhizopuspepsin EC 3.4.23.22: endothiapepsin EC 3.4.23.23: mucorpepsin EC 3.4.23.24: candidapepsin EC 3.4.23.25: saccharopepsin EC 3.4.23.26: rhodotorulapepsin EC 3.4.23.27: Now EC 3.4.21.103, physarolisin EC 3.4.23.28: acrocylindropepsin EC 3.4.23.29: polyporopepsin EC 3.4.23.30: pycnoporopepsin EC 3.4.23.31: scytalidopepsin A EC 3.4.23.32: scytalidopepsin B EC 3.4.23.33: Now EC 3.4.21.101, xanthomonalisin EC 3.4.23.34: cathepsin E EC 3.4.23.35: barrierpepsin EC 3.4.23.36: signal peptidase II EC 3.4.23.37: Now EC 3.4.21.100, pseudomonalisin EC 3.4.23.38: plasmepsin I EC 3.4.23.39: plasmepsin II EC 3.4.23.40: phytepsin EC 3.4.23.41: yapsin 1 EC 3.4.23.42: thermopsin EC 3.4.23.43: prepilin peptidase EC 3.4.23.44: nodavirus endopeptidase EC 3.4.23.45: memapsin 1 EC 3.4.23.46: memapsin 2 EC 3.4.23.47: HIV-2 retropepsin EC 3.4.23.48: plasminogen activator Pla EC 3.4.23.49:


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-3-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_3)-8.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 3)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_3)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:08.231305+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-3-20260505-0
summary:
=== 3.5.1: In linear amides === EC 3.5.1.1: asparaginase EC 3.5.1.2: glutaminase EC 3.5.1.3: ω-amidase EC 3.5.1.4: amidase EC 3.5.1.5: urease EC 3.5.1.6: β-ureidopropionase EC 3.5.1.7: ureidosuccinase EC 3.5.1.8: formylaspartate deformylase EC 3.5.1.9: arylformamidase EC 3.5.1.10: formyltetrahydrofolate deformylase EC 3.5.1.11: penicillin amidase EC 3.5.1.12: biotinidase EC 3.5.1.13: aryl-acylamidase EC 3.5.1.14: N-acyl-aliphatic-L-amino acid amidohydrolase EC 3.5.1.15: aspartoacylase EC 3.5.1.16: acetylornithine deacetylase EC 3.5.1.17: acyl-lysine deacylase EC 3.5.1.18: succinyl-diaminopimelate desuccinylase EC 3.5.1.19: nicotinamidase EC 3.5.1.20: citrullinase EC 3.5.1.21: N-acetyl-β-alanine deacetylas EC 3.5.1.22: pantothenase EC 3.5.1.23: ceramidase EC 3.5.1.24: choloylglycine hydrolase EC 3.5.1.25: N-acetylglucosamine-6-phosphate deacetylase EC 3.5.1.26: N4-(β-N-acetylglucosaminyl)-L-asparaginase EC 3.5.1.27: The activity is covered by EC 3.5.1.88, peptide deformylase EC 3.5.1.28: N-acetylmuramoyl-L-alanine amidase EC 3.5.1.29: 2-(acetamidomethylene)succinate hydrolase EC 3.5.1.30: 5-aminopentanamidase EC 3.5.1.31: formylmethionine deformylase EC 3.5.1.32: hippurate hydrolase EC 3.5.1.33: N-acetylglucosamine deacetylase EC 3.5.1.34: [[Identical with ((EnzExplorer|3.4.13.5)), Xaa-methyl-His dipeptidase|Identical with EC 3.4.13.5, Xaa-methyl-His dipeptidase]] EC 3.5.1.35: D-glutaminase EC 3.5.1.36: N-methyl-2-oxoglutaramate hydrolase EC 3.5.1.37: [[Delete, identical with ((EnzExplorer|3.5.1.26)) N(4)-(β-N-acetylglucosaminyl)-L-asparaginase|Delete, identical with EC 3.5.1.26 N4-(β-N-acetylglucosaminyl)-L-asparaginase]] EC 3.5.1.38: glutamin-(asparagin-)ase EC 3.5.1.39: alkylamidase EC 3.5.1.40: acylagmatine amidase EC 3.5.1.41: chitin deacetylase EC 3.5.1.42: nicotinamide-nucleotide amidase EC 3.5.1.43: peptidyl-glutaminase EC 3.5.1.44: protein-glutamine glutaminase EC 3.5.1.45: Now listed only as EC 6.3.4.6 urea carboxylase EC 3.5.1.46: 6-aminohexanoate-dimer hydrolase EC


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-3-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_3)-9.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 3)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_3)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:08.231305+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-3-20260505-0
summary:
=== 3.5.5: In nitriles === EC 3.5.5.1: nitrilase EC 3.5.5.2: ricinine nitrilase EC 3.5.5.3: Now EC 4.2.1.104, cyanate hydratase EC 3.5.5.4: cyanoalanine nitrilase EC 3.5.5.5: arylacetonitrilase EC 3.5.5.6: bromoxynil nitrilase EC 3.5.5.7: aliphatic nitrilase EC 3.5.5.8: thiocyanate hydrolase === 3.5.99: In other compounds === EC 3.5.99.1: riboflavinase EC 3.5.99.2: aminopyrimidine aminohydrolase EC 3.5.99.3: Now EC 3.5.4.43, hydroxydechloroatrazine ethylaminohydrolase EC 3.5.99.4: Now EC 3.5.4.42, N-isopropylammelide isopropylaminohydrolase EC 3.5.99.5: 2-aminomuconate deaminase EC 3.5.99.6: glucosamine-6-phosphate deaminase EC 3.5.99.7: 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate deaminase EC 3.5.99.8: 5-nitroanthranilic acid aminohydrolase EC 3.5.99.9: 2-nitroimidazole nitrohydrolase EC 3.5.99.10: 2-iminobutanoate/2-iminopropanoate deaminase EC 3.5.99.11: 2-aminomuconate deaminase (2-hydroxymuconate-forming) EC 3.5.99.14: (S)-norcoclaurine synthase == EC 3.6: Acting on acid anhydrides == === 3.6.1: In phosphorus-containing anhydrides === EC 3.6.1.1: inorganic diphosphatase EC 3.6.1.2: trimetaphosphatase EC 3.6.1.3: adenosinetriphosphatase EC 3.6.1.4: Now included with EC 3.6.1.3, adenosinetriphosphatase EC 3.6.1.5: apyrase EC 3.6.1.6: nucleoside diphosphate phosphatase EC 3.6.1.7: acylphosphatase EC 3.6.1.8: ATP diphosphatase EC 3.6.1.9: nucleotide diphosphatase EC 3.6.1.10: endopolyphosphatase EC 3.6.1.11: exopolyphosphatase EC 3.6.1.12: dCTP diphosphatase EC 3.6.1.13: ADP-ribose diphosphatase EC 3.6.1.14: adenosine-tetraphosphatase EC 3.6.1.15: nucleoside-triphosphatase EC 3.6.1.16: CDP-glycerol diphosphatase EC 3.6.1.17: bis(5′-nucleosyl)-tetraphosphatase (asymmetrical)) EC 3.6.1.18: FAD diphosphatase EC 3.6.1.19: Now EC 3.6.1.9, nucleotide diphosphatase EC 3.6.1.20: 5′-acylphosphoadenosine hydrolase EC 3.6.1.21: ADP-sugar diphosphatase EC 3.6.1.22: NAD+


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-3-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_3)-10.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 3)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_3)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:08.231305+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-3-20260505-0
summary:
=== 3.6.4: Acting on acid anhydrides to facilitate cellular and subcellular movement === EC 3.6.4.1: Now EC 5.6.1.8, myosin ATPase EC 3.6.4.2: Now EC 5.6.1.2, dynein ATPase EC 3.6.4.3: Now EC 5.6.1.1, microtubule-severing ATPase EC 3.6.4.4: Now EC 5.6.1.3, plus-end-directed kinesin ATPase EC 3.6.4.5: Now EC 5.6.1.4, minus-end-directed kinesin ATPase EC 3.6.4.6: vesicle-fusing ATPase EC 3.6.4.7: peroxisome-assembly ATPase EC 3.6.4.8: Now EC 5.6.1.5, proteasome ATPase EC 3.6.4.9: Now EC 5.6.1.7, chaperonin ATPase EC 3.6.4.10: non-chaperonin molecular chaperone ATPase EC 3.6.4.11: Deleted, the activity has been shown not to take place EC 3.6.4.12: DNA helicase EC 3.6.4.13: RNA helicase === 3.6.5: Acting on GTP to facilitate cellular and subcellular movement === EC 3.6.5.1: heterotrimeric G-protein GTPase EC 3.6.5.2: small monomeric GTPase EC 3.6.5.3: protein-synthesizing GTPase EC 3.6.5.4: signal-recognition-particle GTPase EC 3.6.5.5: dynamin GTPase EC 3.6.5.6: tubulin GTPase == EC 3.7: Acting on carbon-carbon bonds == === EC 3.7.1: In ketonic substances === EC 3.7.1.1: oxaloacetase EC 3.7.1.2: fumarylacetoacetase EC 3.7.1.3: kynureninase EC 3.7.1.4: phloretin hydrolase EC 3.7.1.5: acylpyruvate hydrolase EC 3.7.1.6: acetylpyruvate hydrolase EC 3.7.1.7: β-diketone hydrolase EC 3.7.1.8: 2,6-dioxo-6-phenylhexa-3-enoate hydrolase EC 3.7.1.9: 2-hydroxymuconate-semialdehyde hydrolase EC 3.7.1.10: cyclohexane-1,3-dione hydrolase EC 3.7.1.11: cyclohexane-1,2-dione hydrolase EC 3.7.1.12: cobalt-precorrin 5A hydrolase EC 3.7.1.13: 2-hydroxy-6-oxo-6-(2-aminophenyl)hexa-2,4-dienoate


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-4-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_4)-0.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 4)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_4)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:09.661506+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-4-20260505-0
summary:
This list contains a list of EC numbers for the fourth group, EC 4, lyases, placed in numerical order as determined by the Nomenclature Committee of the International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. All official information is tabulated at the website of the committee. The database is developed and maintained by Andrew McDonald. == EC 4.1: Carbon-Carbon Lyases == === EC 4.1.1: Carboxy-lyases === EC 4.1.1.1: pyruvate decarboxylase EC 4.1.1.2: oxalate decarboxylase EC 4.1.1.3: Now recognized to be two enzymes EC 7.2.4.2 [oxaloacetate decarboxylase (Na+ extruding)] and EC 4.1.1.112 (oxaloacetate decarboxylase). EC 4.1.1.4: acetoacetate decarboxylase EC 4.1.1.5: acetolactate decarboxylase EC 4.1.1.6: cis-aconitate decarboxylase EC 4.1.1.7: benzoylformate decarboxylase EC 4.1.1.8: oxalyl-CoA decarboxylase EC 4.1.1.9: malonyl-CoA decarboxylase EC 4.1.1.10: Now included with EC 4.1.1.12, aspartate 4-decarboxylase EC 4.1.1.11: aspartate 1-decarboxylase EC 4.1.1.12: aspartate 4-decarboxylase EC 4.1.1.13: deleted EC 4.1.1.14: valine decarboxylase EC 4.1.1.15: glutamate decarboxylase EC 4.1.1.16: hydroxyglutamate decarboxylase EC 4.1.1.17: ornithine decarboxylase EC 4.1.1.18: lysine decarboxylase EC 4.1.1.19: arginine decarboxylase EC 4.1.1.20: diaminopimelate decarboxylase EC 4.1.1.21: phosphoribosylaminoimidazole carboxylase EC 4.1.1.22: histidine decarboxylase EC 4.1.1.23: orotidine-5′-phosphate decarboxylase EC 4.1.1.24: aminobenzoate decarboxylase EC 4.1.1.25: tyrosine decarboxylase EC 4.1.1.26: Now included with EC 4.1.1.28 aromatic-L-amino-acid decarboxylase EC 4.1.1.27: Now included with EC 4.1.1.28


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-4-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_4)-1.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 4)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_4)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:09.661506+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-4-20260505-0
summary:
=== EC 4.1.3: Oxo-Acid-Lyases === EC 4.1.3.1: isocitrate lyase EC 4.1.3.2: Now EC 2.3.3.9, malate synthase EC 4.1.3.3: N-acetylneuraminate lyase EC 4.1.3.4: hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA lyase EC 4.1.3.5: Now EC 2.3.3.10, hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA synthase EC 4.1.3.6: citrate (pro-3S)-lyase EC 4.1.3.7: Now EC 2.3.3.1, citrate (Si)-synthase EC 4.1.3.8: Now EC 2.3.3.8, ATP citrate synthase EC 4.1.3.9: Now EC 2.3.3.11, 2-hydroxyglutarate synthase EC 4.1.3.10: Now EC 2.3.3.7, 3-ethylmalate synthase EC 4.1.3.11: Now EC 2.3.3.12, 3-propylmalate synthase EC 4.1.3.12: Now EC 2.3.3.13, 2-isopropylmalate synthase EC 4.1.3.13: oxalomalate lyase EC 4.1.3.14: L-erythro-3-hydroxyaspartate aldolase EC 4.1.3.15: Now EC 2.2.1.5, 2-hydroxy-3-oxoadipate synthase EC 4.1.3.16: 4-hydroxy-2-oxoglutarate aldolase EC 4.1.3.17: 4-hydroxy-4-methyl-2-oxoglutarate aldolase EC 4.1.3.18: Now EC 2.2.1.6, acetolactate synthase EC 4.1.3.19: Now EC 2.5.1.56 EC 4.1.3.20: Now EC 2.5.1.57 EC 4.1.3.21: Now EC 2.3.3.14 EC 4.1.3.22: citramalate lyase EC 4.1.3.23: Now EC 2.3.3.2, decylcitrate synthase EC 4.1.3.24: malyl-CoA lyase EC 4.1.3.25: (S)-citramalyl-CoA lyase EC 4.1.3.26: 3-hydroxy-3-isohexenylglutaryl-CoA lyase EC 4.1.3.27: anthranilate synthase EC 4.1.3.28: Now EC 2.3.3.3, citrate (Re)-synthase EC 4.1.3.29: Now EC 2.3.3.4, decylhomocitrate synthase EC 4.1.3.30: methylisocitrate lyase EC 4.1.3.31: Now EC 2.3.3.5, 2-methylcitrate synthase EC 4.1.3.32: 2,3-dimethylmalate lyase EC 4.1.3.33: Now EC 2.3.3.6 EC 4.1.3.34: citryl-CoA lyase EC 4.1.3.35: (1-hydroxycyclohexan-1-yl)acetyl-CoA lyase EC 4.1.3.36: naphthoate synthase EC 4.1.3.37: Now EC


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-4-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_4)-2.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 4)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_4)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:09.661506+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-4-20260505-0
summary:
=== EC 4.2.1: Hydro-lyases === EC 4.2.1.1: carbonic anhydrase EC 4.2.1.2: fumarate hydratase EC 4.2.1.3: aconitate hydratase EC 4.2.1.4: Now known to be a partial reaction catalysed by EC 4.2.1.3, aconitate hydratase EC 4.2.1.5: arabinonate dehydratase EC 4.2.1.6: galactonate dehydratase EC 4.2.1.7: altronate dehydratase EC 4.2.1.8: mannonate dehydratase EC 4.2.1.9: dihydroxy-acid dehydratase EC 4.2.1.10: 3-dehydroquinate dehydratase EC 4.2.1.11: phosphopyruvate hydratase (enolase) EC 4.2.1.12: phosphogluconate dehydratase EC 4.2.1.13: Now EC 4.3.1.17, L-serine ammonia-lyase EC 4.2.1.14: Now EC 4.3.1.18, D-serine ammonia-lyase EC 4.2.1.15: Identical with EC 4.4.1.1 cystathionine γ-lyase EC 4.2.1.16: Now EC 4.3.1.19, threonine ammonia-lyase EC 4.2.1.17: enoyl-CoA hydratase EC 4.2.1.18: methylglutaconyl-CoA hydratase EC 4.2.1.19: imidazoleglycerol-phosphate dehydratase EC 4.2.1.20: tryptophan synthase EC 4.2.1.21: Now EC 4.2.1.22 cystathionine β-synthase EC 4.2.1.22: cystathionine β-synthase EC 4.2.1.23: deleted, the reaction was due to a side-reaction of EC 4.2.1.22 cystathionine β-synthase EC 4.2.1.24: porphobilinogen synthase EC 4.2.1.25: L-arabinonate dehydratase EC 4.2.1.26: identical to EC 4.3.1.9, glucosaminate ammonia-lyase EC 4.2.1.27: acetylenecarboxylate hydratase EC 4.2.1.28: propanediol dehydratase EC 4.2.1.29: Now EC 4.99.1.6, indoleacetaldoxime dehydratase EC 4.2.1.30: glycerol dehydratase EC 4.2.1.31: maleate hydratase EC 4.2.1.32: L(+)-tartrate dehydratase EC 4.2.1.33: 3-isopropylmalate dehydratase EC 4.2.1.34: (S)-2-methylmalate dehydratase EC 4.2.1.35: (R)-2-methylmalate dehydratase EC 4.2.1.36: homoaconitate hydratase EC 4.2.1.37: Now EC 3.3.2.4,


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-4-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_4)-3.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 4)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_4)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:09.661506+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-4-20260505-0
summary:
=== EC 4.2.2: Acting on Polysaccharides === EC 4.2.2.1: hyaluronate lyase EC 4.2.2.2: pectate lyase EC 4.2.2.3: mannuronate-specific alginate lyase EC 4.2.2.4: Now known to comprise two enzymes: EC 4.2.2.20, chondroitin-sulfate-ABC endolyase and EC 4.2.2.21, chondroitin-sulfate-ABC exolyase EC 4.2.2.5: chondroitin AC lyase EC 4.2.2.6: oligogalacturonide lyase EC 4.2.2.7: heparin lyase EC 4.2.2.8: heparin-sulfate lyase EC 4.2.2.9: pectate disaccharide-lyase EC 4.2.2.10: pectin lyase EC 4.2.2.11: guluronate-specific alginate lyase EC 4.2.2.12: xanthan lyase EC 4.2.2.13: exo-(1→4)-α-D-glucan lyase EC 4.2.2.14: glucuronan lyase EC 4.2.2.15: anhydrosialidase EC 4.2.2.16: levan fructotransferase (DFA-IV-forming) EC 4.2.2.17: inulin fructotransferase (DFA-I-forming) EC 4.2.2.18: inulin fructotransferase (DFA-III-forming) EC 4.2.2.19: chondroitin B lyase EC 4.2.2.20: chondroitin-sulfate-ABC endolyase EC 4.2.2.21: chondroitin-sulfate-ABC exolyase EC 4.2.2.22: pectate trisaccharide-lyase EC 4.2.2.23: rhamnogalacturonan endolyase EC 4.2.2.24: rhamnogalacturonan exolyase EC 4.2.2.25: gellan lyase EC 4.2.2.26: oligo-alginate lyase EC 4.2.2.27: pectin monosaccharide-lyase === EC 4.2.3: Acting on phosphates === EC 4.2.3.1: threonine synthase EC 4.2.3.2: ethanolamine-phosphate phospho-lyase EC 4.2.3.3: methylglyoxal synthase EC 4.2.3.4: 3-dehydroquinate synthase EC 4.2.3.5: chorismate synthase EC 4.2.3.6: trichodiene synthase EC 4.2.3.7: pentalenene synthase EC 4.2.3.8: casbene synthase EC 4.2.3.9: aristolochene synthase EC 4.2.3.10: (–)-endo-fenchol synthase EC 4.2.3.11: sabinene-hydrate synthase EC 4.2.3.12: 6-pyruvoyltetrahydropterin synthase EC 4.2.3.13: (+)-δ-cadinene synthase EC 4.2.3.14: Now covered by EC 4.2.3.119,


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-4-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_4)-4.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 4)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_4)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:09.661506+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-4-20260505-0
summary:
=== EC 4.2.99: Other Carbon-Oxygen Lyases === EC 4.2.99.1: Now EC 4.2.2.1, hyaluronate lyase EC 4.2.99.2: Now EC 4.2.3.1, threonine synthase EC 4.2.99.3: Now EC 4.2.2.2, pectate lyase EC 4.2.99.4: Now EC 4.2.2.3, poly(β-D-mannuronate) lyase EC 4.2.99.5: deleted EC 4.2.99.6: Now included with EC 4.2.2.4 (chondroitin ABC lyase) and EC 4.2.2.5 (chondroitin AC lyase) EC 4.2.99.7: Now EC 4.2.3.2, ethanolamine-phosphate phospho-lyase EC 4.2.99.8: Now EC 2.5.1.47, cysteine synthase EC 4.2.99.9: Now EC 2.5.1.48, cystathionine γ-synthase EC 4.2.99.10: Now EC 2.5.1.49 EC 2.5.1.49, O-acetylhomoserine aminocarboxypropyltransferase EC 4.2.99.11: Now EC 4.2.3.3, methylglyoxal synthase EC 4.2.99.12: carboxymethyloxysuccinate lyase EC 4.2.99.13: Now EC 2.5.1.50, zeatin 9-aminocarboxyethyltransferase EC 4.2.99.14: Now EC 2.5.1.51, β-pyrazolylalanine synthase EC 4.2.99.15: Now EC 2.5.1.52, L-mimosine synthase EC 4.2.99.16: Now EC 2.5.1.53, uracilylalanine synthase EC 4.2.99.17: Listed as EC 2.5.1.51, β-pyrazolylalanine synthase EC 4.2.99.18: DNA-(apurinic or apyrimidinic site) lyase EC 4.2.99.19: Now EC 4.4.1.23, 2-hydroxypropyl-CoM lyase EC 4.2.99.20: 2-succinyl-6-hydroxy-2,4-cyclohexadiene-1-carboxylate synthase EC 4.2.99.21: isochorismate lyase EC 4.2.99.22: tuliposide A-converting enzyme EC 4.2.99.23: tuliposide B-converting enzyme EC 4.2.99.24: thebaine synthase == EC 4.3: Carbon-Nitrogen Lyases == === EC 4.3.1: Ammonia-Lyases === EC 4.3.1.1: aspartate ammonia-lyase EC 4.3.1.2: methylaspartate ammonia-lyase EC 4.3.1.3: histidine ammonia-lyase EC 4.3.1.4: formiminotetrahydrofolate cyclodeaminase EC 4.3.1.5: Now divided into EC


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-5-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_5)-0.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 5)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_5)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:10.997779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-5-20260505-0
summary:
This list contains a list of EC numbers for the fifth group, EC 5, isomerases, placed in numerical order as determined by the Nomenclature Committee of the International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. All official information is tabulated at the website of the committee. The database is developed and maintained by Andrew McDonald. == EC 5.1: Epimerases and racemases == === EC 5.1.1: Acting on Amino acids and Derivatives === EC 5.1.1.1: alanine racemase EC 5.1.1.2: methionine racemase EC 5.1.1.3: glutamate racemase EC 5.1.1.4: proline racemase EC 5.1.1.5: lysine racemase EC 5.1.1.6: threonine racemase EC 5.1.1.7: diaminopimelate epimerase EC 5.1.1.8: 4-hydroxyproline epimerase EC 5.1.1.9: arginine racemase EC 5.1.1.10: amino-acid racemase EC 5.1.1.11: phenylalanine racemase (ATP-hydrolysing) EC 5.1.1.12: ornithine racemase EC 5.1.1.13: aspartate racemase EC 5.1.1.14: nocardicin-A epimerase EC 5.1.1.15: 2-aminohexano-6-lactam racemase EC 5.1.1.16: protein-serine epimerase EC 5.1.1.17: isopenicillin-N epimerase EC 5.1.1.18: serine racemase EC 5.1.1.20: L-Ala-D/L-Glu epimerase EC 5.1.1.21: isoleucine 2-epimerase EC 5.1.1.22: 4-hydroxyproline betaine 2-epimerase EC 5.1.1.23: UDP-N-acetyl-α-D-muramoyl-L-alanyl-L-glutamate epimerase EC 5.1.1.24: histidine racemase === EC 5.1.2: Acting on Hydroxy acids and Derivatives === EC 5.1.2.1: lactate racemase EC 5.1.2.2: mandelate racemase EC 5.1.2.3: 3-hydroxybutyryl-CoA epimerase EC 5.1.2.4: acetoin racemase EC 5.1.2.5: tartrate epimerase EC 5.1.2.6: isocitrate epimerase EC


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-5-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_5)-1.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 5)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_5)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:10.997779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-5-20260505-0
summary:
=== EC 5.4.1: Transferring Acyl Groups === EC 5.4.1.1: lysolecithin acylmutase EC 5.4.1.2: Now EC 5.4.99.61, precorrin-8X methylmutase EC 5.4.1.3: 2-methylfumaryl-CoA isomerase EC 5.4.1.4: D-galactarolactone isomerase === EC 5.4.2: Phosphotransferases (Phosphomutases) === EC 5.4.2.1: Now recognized as two separate enzymes EC 5.4.2.11, phosphoglycerate mutase (2,3-diphosphoglycerate-dependent) and EC 5.4.2.12, phosphoglycerate mutase (2,3-diphosphoglycerate-independent) EC 5.4.2.2: phosphoglucomutase (α-D-glucose-1,6-bisphosphate-dependent) EC 5.4.2.3: phosphoacetylglucosamine mutase EC 5.4.2.4: bisphosphoglycerate mutase EC 5.4.2.5: phosphoglucomutase (glucose-cofactor) EC 5.4.2.6: β-phosphoglucomutase EC 5.4.2.7: phosphopentomutase EC 5.4.2.8: phosphomannomutase EC 5.4.2.9: phosphoenolpyruvate mutase EC 5.4.2.10: phosphoglucosamine mutase EC 5.4.2.11: phosphoglycerate mutase (2,3-diphosphoglycerate-dependent) EC 5.4.2.12: phosphoglycerate mutase (2,3-diphosphoglycerate-independent) EC 5.4.2.13: phosphogalactosamine mutase === EC 5.4.3: Transferring Amino Groups === EC 5.4.3.1: deleted; this reaction was due to a mixture of EC 5.1.1.12 (ornithine racemase) and EC 5.4.3.5 (D-ornithine 4,5-aminomutase) EC 5.4.3.2: lysine 2,3-aminomutase EC 5.4.3.3: lysine 5,6-aminomutase EC 5.4.3.4: Now included in EC 5.4.3.3, lysine 5,6-aminomutase EC 5.4.3.5: D-ornithine 4,5-aminomutase EC 5.4.3.6: tyrosine 2,3-aminomutase EC 5.4.3.7: leucine 2,3-aminomutase EC 5.4.3.8: glutamate-1-semialdehyde 2,1-aminomutase EC 5.4.3.9: glutamate 2,3-aminomutase EC 5.4.3.10: phenylalanine aminomutase (L-β-phenylalanine forming) EC 5.4.3.11: phenylalanine aminomutase (D-β-phenylalanine forming) === EC 5.4.4: Transferring hydroxy groups === EC 5.4.4.1: (hydroxyamino)benzene mutase EC 5.4.4.2: isochorismate synthase EC 5.4.4.3: 3-(hydroxyamino)phenol mutase EC 5.4.4.4: geraniol isomerase EC 5.4.4.5: 9,12-octadecadienoate


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-6-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_6)-0.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 6)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_6)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:12.205809+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-6-20260505-0
summary:
This list contains a list of EC numbers for the sixth group, EC 6, ligases, placed in numerical order as determined by the Nomenclature Committee of the International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. All official information is tabulated at the website of the committee. The database is developed and maintained by Andrew McDonald. == EC 6.1: Forming Carbon-Oxygen Bonds == === EC 6.1.1: Ligases Forming Aminoacyl-tRNA and Related Compounds (Aminoacyl tRNA synthetase) === EC 6.1.1.1: tyrosine—tRNA ligase EC 6.1.1.2: tryptophan—tRNA ligase EC 6.1.1.3: threonine—tRNA ligase EC 6.1.1.4: leucine—tRNA ligase EC 6.1.1.5: isoleucine—tRNA ligase EC 6.1.1.6: lysine—tRNA ligase EC 6.1.1.7: alanine—tRNA ligase EC 6.1.1.8: Deleted EC 6.1.1.9: valine—tRNA ligase EC 6.1.1.10: methionine—tRNA ligase EC 6.1.1.11: serine—tRNA ligase EC 6.1.1.12: aspartate—tRNA ligase EC 6.1.1.13: D-alanine—poly(phosphoribitol) ligase EC 6.1.1.14: glycine—tRNA ligase EC 6.1.1.15: proline—tRNA ligase EC 6.1.1.16: cysteine—tRNA ligase EC 6.1.1.17: glutamate—tRNA ligase EC 6.1.1.18: glutamine—tRNA ligase EC 6.1.1.19: arginine—tRNA ligase EC 6.1.1.20: phenylalanine—tRNA ligase EC 6.1.1.21: histidine—tRNA ligase EC 6.1.1.22: asparagine—tRNA ligase EC 6.1.1.23: aspartate—tRNAAsn ligase EC 6.1.1.24: glutamate—tRNAGln ligase EC 6.1.1.25: The tRNAPyl is now known only to be charged with pyrrolysine (cf. EC 6.1.1.26) EC 6.1.1.26: pyrrolysine—tRNAPyl ligase EC 6.1.1.27: O-phospho-L-serine—tRNA ligase EC 6.1.1.28: "proline/cysteine—tRNA ligase". Later published work


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-6-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_6)-1.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 6)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_6)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:12.205809+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-6-20260505-0
summary:
=== EC 6.3.2: Acid—Amino-Acid Ligases (Peptide Synthases) === EC 6.3.2.1: pantoate—β-alanine ligase (AMP-forming) EC 6.3.2.2: glutamate—cysteine ligase EC 6.3.2.3: glutathione synthase EC 6.3.2.4: D-alanine—D-alanine ligase EC 6.3.2.5: phosphopantothenate—cysteine ligase (CTP) EC 6.3.2.6: phosphoribosylaminoimidazolesuccinocarboxamide synthase EC 6.3.2.7: UDP-N-acetylmuramoyl-L-alanyl-D-glutamate—L-lysine ligase EC 6.3.2.8: UDP-N-acetylmuramate—L-alanine ligase EC 6.3.2.9: UDP-N-acetylmuramoyl-L-alanine—D-glutamate ligase EC 6.3.2.10: UDP-N-acetylmuramoyl-tripeptide—D-alanyl-D-alanine ligase EC 6.3.2.11: carnosine synthase EC 6.3.2.12: dihydrofolate synthase EC 6.3.2.13: UDP-N-acetylmuramoyl-L-alanyl-D-glutamate—2,6-diaminopimelate ligase EC 6.3.2.14: enterobactin synthase EC 6.3.2.15: Deleted, The activity observed is due to EC 6.3.2.10, UDP-N-acetylmuramoyl-tripeptideD-alanyl-D-alanine ligase EC 6.3.2.16: D-alanine—alanyl-poly(glycerolphosphate) ligase EC 6.3.2.17: tetrahydrofolate synthase EC 6.3.2.18: γ-glutamylhistamine synthase EC 6.3.2.19: The ubiquitinylation process is now known to be performed by several enzymes in sequence, starting with EC 6.2.1.45 (ubiquitin-activating enzyme E1) and followed by several transfer reactions, including those of EC 2.3.2.23 (E2 ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme) and EC 2.3.2.27 (RING-type E3 ubiquitin transferase) EC 6.3.2.20: indoleacetate—lysine synthetase EC 6.3.2.21: [[The reaction is performed by the sequential action of EC 6.2.1.45 (ubiquitin-activating enzyme E1), several ubiquitin transferases and finally by EC 2.3.2.27 (ubiquitin transferase RING E3 (calmodulin-selective))|The reaction is performed by the sequential action of EC 6.2.1.45 (ubiquitin-activating enzyme E1), several ubiquitin transferases and finally by EC 2.3.2.27 [ubiquitin transferase RING E3 (calmodulin-selective)]]] EC 6.3.2.22: Now EC 6.3.1.14, diphthine—ammonia


id: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-7-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_7)-0.md
category: reference
title: List of EC numbers (EC 7)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_7)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:13.488832+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ec-numbers-ec-7-20260505-0
summary:
This list contains a list of sub-classes for the seventh group of Enzyme Commission numbers, EC 7, translocases, placed in numerical order as determined by the Nomenclature Committee of the International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. All official information is tabulated at the website of the committee. The database is developed and maintained by Andrew McDonald. == EC 7.1: Catalysing the translocation of hydrons == NOTE: Hydron is a generic term that includes all isotopes of H+, i.e. not only 1H+ but also 2H+ (D+) and 3H+ (T+). === EC 7.1.1: Linked to oxidoreductase reactions === EC 7.1.1.1: proton-translocating NAD(P)+ transhydrogenase EC 7.1.1.2: NADH:ubiquinone reductase (H+-translocating) EC 7.1.1.3: ubiquinol oxidase (H+-transporting) EC 7.1.1.4: caldariellaquinol oxidase (H+-transporting) EC 7.1.1.5: menaquinol oxidase (H+-transporting) EC 7.1.1.6: plastoquinol—plastocyanin reductase EC 7.1.1.7: quinol oxidase (electrogenic, proton-motive force generating) EC 7.1.1.8: quinol—cytochrome-c reductase EC 7.1.1.9: cytochrome-c oxidase EC 7.1.1.10: ferredoxin—quinone oxidoreductase (H+-translocating) EC 7.1.1.11: ferredoxin—NAD+ oxidoreductase (H+-transporting) === EC 7.1.2: Linked to the hydrolysis of a nucleoside triphosphate === EC 7.1.2.1: P-type H+-exporting transporter EC 7.1.2.2: H+-transporting two-sector ATPase === EC 7.1.3: Linked to the hydrolysis of diphosphate === EC 7.1.3.1: H+-exporting diphosphatase EC 7.1.3.2: Na+-exporting diphosphatase == EC 7.2: catalysing the translocation of inorganic


id: list-of-enzymes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_enzymes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of enzymes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_enzymes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:14.761189+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-enzymes-20260505-0
summary:
Enzymes are listed here by their classification in the International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology's Enzyme Commission (EC) numbering system: == Category:Oxidoreductases (EC 1) (Oxidoreductase) == Dehydrogenase Luciferase DMSO reductase === Category:EC 1.1 (act on the CH-OH group of donors) === Category:EC 1.1.1 (with NAD+ or NADP+ as acceptor) Alcohol Dehydrogenase (NAD) EC 1.1.1.1 Alcohol Dehydrogenase (NADP) EC 1.1.1.2 Homoserine Dehydrogenase EC 1.1.1.3 Aminopropanol Oxidoreductase EC 1.1.1.4 Diacetyl Reductase EC 1.1.1.5 Glycerol Dehydrogenase EC 1.1.1.6 Propanediol-Phosphate Dehydrogenase EC 1.1.1.7 Glycerol-3-Phoshitiendopene Dehydrogenase (NAD+) EC 1.1.1.8 D-xylulose reductase EC 1.1.1.9 L-xylulose reductase EC 1.1.1.10 Lactate dehydrogenase EC 1.1.1.27 Malate dehydrogenase EC 1.1.1.37 Isocitrate dehydrogenase EC 1.1.1.42 HMG-CoA reductase EC 1.1.1.88 Category:EC 1.1.2 (with a cytochrome as acceptor) Category:EC 1.1.3 (with oxygen as acceptor) Glucose oxidase EC 1.1.3.4 L-Gulonolactone oxidase EC 1.1.3.8 Thiamine oxidase EC 1.1.3.23 Xanthine oxidase EC 1.1.3.32 Category:EC 1.1.4 (with a disulfide as acceptor) Category:EC 1.1.5 (with a quinone or similar compound as acceptor) Category:EC 1.1.99 (with other acceptors) === Category:EC 1.2 (act on the aldehyde or oxo group of donors) === Category:EC 1.2.1 (with NAD+ or NADP+ as acceptor) Acetaldehyde dehydrogenase EC 1.2.1.10 Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase EC 1.2.1.12 Pyruvate dehydrogenase EC 1.2.1.51 Category:EC 1.2.4 Oxoglutarate dehydrogenase EC 1.2.4.2


id: list-of-enzymes-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_enzymes-1.md
category: reference
title: List of enzymes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_enzymes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:14.761189+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-enzymes-20260505-0
summary:
=== Category:EC 1.18 (act on iron–sulfur proteins as donors) === Category:EC 1.18.6 Nitrogenase EC 1.18.6.1 === Category:EC 1.19 (act on reduced flavodoxin as donor) === Category:EC 1.19.6 Nitrogenase (flavodoxin) EC 1.19.6.1 === Category:EC 1.20 (act on phosphorus or arsenic as donors) === Category:EC 1.20.1 Category:EC 1.20.2 Category:EC 1.20.4 Arsenate reductase (glutaredoxin) EC 1.20.4.1 Glutaredoxin Category:EC 1.20.9 Category:EC 1.20.99 === Category:EC 1.21 (act on X-H and Y-H to form an X-Y bond) === Category:EC 1.21.1 Iodotyrosine deiodinase EC 1.21.1.1 Category:EC 1.21.3 Isopenicillin N synthase EC 1.21.3.1 Tetrahydrocannabinolic acid synthase EC 1.21.3.7 Category:EC 1.21.4 Category:EC 1.21.99 Thyroxine 5-deiodinase EC 1.21.99.3 Iodothyronine deiodinase EC 1.21.99.3 and EC 1.21.99.4 === Category:EC 1.97 (other oxidoreductases) === Category:EC 1.97.1 Deiodinase EC 1.97.1.10 == Category:Transferases (EC 2) (Transferase) == Glutathione S-transferase === Category:EC 2.1 (transfer one-carbon groups, Methylase) === Category:EC 2.1.1 Catechol-O-methyl transferase EC 2.1.1.6 DNA methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.72, EC 2.1.1.113, EC 2.1.1.37 Histone methyltransferase EC 2.1.1.43, EC 2.1.1.125 Category:EC 2.1.3 Aspartate transcarbamoylase EC 2.1.3.2 Ornithine transcarbamoylase EC 2.1.3.3 === Category:EC 2.2 (transfer aldehyde or ketone groups) === Category:EC 2.2.1 Transketolase EC 2.2.1.1 Transaldolase EC 2.2.1.2 Acetolactate synthase EC 2.2.1.6 2-Succinyl-5-enolpyruvyl-6-hydroxy-3-cyclohexene-1-carboxylic-acid synthase EC 2.2.1.9 === Category:EC 2.3 (acyltransferases) === Category:EC 2.3.1 Aminolevulinic acid synthase EC 2.3.1.37 Choline


id: list-of-enzymes-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_enzymes-2.md
category: reference
title: List of enzymes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_enzymes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:14.761189+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-enzymes-20260505-0
summary:
=== Category:EC 3.5 (act on carbon–nitrogen bonds, other than peptide bonds) === Category:EC 3.5.1 (In linear amides) Urease (EC 3.5.1.5) Category:EC 3.5.2 (In cyclic amides) Beta-lactamase (EC 3.5.2.6) Category:EC 3.5.3 (In linear amidines) Arginase (EC 3.5.3.1) Category:EC 3.5.4 (In cyclic amidines) Adenosine deaminase (EC 3.5.4.4) GTP cyclohydrolase I (EC 3.5.4.16) Category:EC 3.5.5 (In nitriles) Nitrilase (EC 3.5.5.1) === Category:EC 3.6 (act on acid anhydrides) === Category:EC 3.6.1 Helicase DnaB helicase RecQ helicase Category:EC 3.6.3 ATPase NaKATPase (EC 3.6.3.9) ATP synthase (EC 3.6.3.14) === Category:EC 3.7 (act on carbon–carbon bonds) === Kynureninase EC 3.7.1.3 === Category:EC 3.8 (act on halide bonds) === EC 3.8.1.3 Haloacetate dehalogenase === Category:EC 3.9 (act on phosphorus–nitrogen bonds) === EC 3.9.1.1: Phosphoamidase EC 3.9.1.2: Protein arginine phosphatase EC 3.9.1.3: Phosphohistidine phosphatase === Category:EC 3.10 (act on sulfur–nitrogen bonds) === EC 3.10.1.1: N-sulfoglucosamine sulfohydrolase EC 3.10.1.2: Cyclamate sulfohydrolase === Category:EC 3.11 (act on carbon–phosphorus bonds) === EC 3.11.1.1: Phosphonoacetaldehyde hydrolase EC 3.11.1.2: Phosphonoacetate hydrolase EC 3.11.1.3: Phosphonopyruvate hydrolase === Category:EC 3.12 (act on sulfur–sulfur bonds) === EC 3.12.1.1: Trithionate hydrolase === Category:EC 3.13 (act on carbon–sulfur bonds) === EC 3.13.1.1: UDP-sulfoquinovose synthase EC 3.13.1.3: 2'-hydroxybiphenyl-2-sulfinate desulfinase EC 3.13.1.4: 3-sulfinopropanoyl—CoA desulfinase EC 3.13.1.5: Carbon disulfide hydrolase EC 3.13.1.6:


id: list-of-sequenced-eukaryotic-genomes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_eukaryotic_genomes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of sequenced eukaryotic genomes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_eukaryotic_genomes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:16.090445+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-sequenced-eukaryotic-genomes-20260505-0
summary:
This list of "sequenced" eukaryotic genomes contains all the eukaryotes known to have publicly available complete nuclear and organelle genome sequences that have been sequenced, assembled, annotated and published; draft genomes are not included, nor are organelle-only sequences. DNA was first sequenced in 1977. The first free-living organism to have its genome completely sequenced was the bacterium Haemophilus influenzae, in 1995. In 1996 Saccharomyces cerevisiae (baker's yeast) was the first eukaryote genome sequence to be released and in 1998 the first genome sequence for a multicellular eukaryote, Caenorhabditis elegans, was released. For mitochondrial genomes, see list of mitochondrial genomes. == Protists == Following are the nine earliest sequenced genomes of protists. For a more complete list, see the List of sequenced protist genomes. == Plants == Following are the five earliest sequenced genomes of plants. For a more complete list, see the List of sequenced plant genomes. == Fungi == Following are the five earliest sequenced genomes of fungi. For a more complete list, see the List of sequenced fungi genomes. == Animals == Following are the five earliest sequenced genomes of animals. For a more complete list, see the List of sequenced animal genomes. == See also == Genome


id: index-of-evolutionary-biology-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_evolutionary_biology_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of evolutionary biology articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_evolutionary_biology_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:17.405760+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-evolutionary-biology-articles-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of topics in evolutionary biology. == A == abiogenesis – adaptation – adaptive mutation – adaptive radiation – allele – allele frequency – allochronic speciation – allopatric speciation – altruism – anagenesis – anti-predator adaptation – applications of evolution – apomorphy – aposematism – Archaeopteryx – aquatic adaptation – artificial selection – atavism == B == Henry Walter Bates – biological organisation – Black Queen hypothesis – Brassica oleracea – breed == C == Cambrian explosion – camouflage – Sean B. Carroll – catagenesis – gene-centered view of evolution – cephalization – Sergei Chetverikov – chronobiology – chronospecies – clade – cladistics – climatic adaptation – coalescent theory – co-evolution – co-operation – coefficient of relationship – common descent – convergent evolution – creation–evolution controversy – cultivar – conspecific song preference == D == Darwin (unit) – Charles Darwin – Darwinism – Darwin's finches – Richard Dawkins – directed mutagenesis – Directed evolution – directional selection – disruptive selection – Theodosius Dobzhansky – dog breeding – domestication – domestication of the horse == E == E. coli long-term evolution experiment – ecological genetics – ecological selection – ecological speciation – Endless Forms Most Beautiful – endosymbiosis


id: lists-of-human-genes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_human_genes-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of human genes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_human_genes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:34.120829+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-human-genes-20260505-0
summary:
Lists of human genes are as follows: == By chromosome == Human chromosomes, each of which contains an incomplete list of genes located on that chromosome, are as follows: == Protein-coding genes == The lists below constitute a complete list of all known human protein-coding genes: == Transcription factors == 1639 genes which encode proteins that are known or expected to function as human transcription factors: List of human transcription factors == See also == List of enzymes List of proteins List of disabled human pseudogenes == External links == iHOP-Protein Information Database NextBio-Life Science Search Engine Entrez-Cross Database Query Search System TranscriptomeBrowser


id: list-of-genetically-modified-crops-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_genetically_modified_crops-0.md
category: reference
title: List of genetically modified crops
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_genetically_modified_crops
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:42.484550+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-genetically-modified-crops-20260505-0
summary:
Genetically modified crops are plants used in agriculture, the DNA of which has been modified using genetic engineering techniques. In most cases, the aim is to introduce a new trait to the plant which does not occur naturally in the species. As of 2015, 26 plant species have been genetically modified and approved for commercial release in at least one country. The majority of these species contain genes that make them either tolerant to herbicides or resistant to insects. Other common traits include virus resistance, delayed ripening, modified flower colour or altered composition. In 2014, 28 countries grew GM crops, and 39 countries imported but did not grow them. == Background == Regulations regarding the commercialisation of genetically modified crops are mostly conducted by individual countries. For cultivation, environmental approval determines whether a crop can be legally grown. Separate approval is generally required to use GM crops in food for human consumption or as animal feed. GM crops were first planted commercially on a large scale in 1996, in the US, China, Argentina, Canada, Australia, and Mexico. Some countries have approved but not actually cultivated GM crops, due to public uncertainty or further government restrictions, while at the same time,


id: list-of-habitats-of-principal-importance-in-wales-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_habitats_of_principal_importance_in_Wales-0.md
category: reference
title: List of habitats of principal importance in Wales
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_habitats_of_principal_importance_in_Wales
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:43.643305+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-habitats-of-principal-importance-in-wales-20260505-0
summary:
Wales is obliged by law to maintain lists of species and habitats of principal importance for biodiversity conservation; the other countries within the UK: Scotland, England and Northern Ireland, have their own laws for this purpose. Public bodies, including local authorities now have a legal duty to have regard to conserving biodiversity in the exercise of their normal functions. In Wales, that obligation originally derived from section 42 of the Natural Environment and Rural Communities (NERC) Act 2006. However, this requirement for Wales has since been superseded by an almost identical requirement enshrined within the Environment (Wales) Act 2016. == Selection == The habitats that have been designated to be of "principal importance for the purpose of conserving biodiversity" derive from lists originally drawn up for the UK Biodiversity Action Plan (UK BAP). These lists were reviewed in 2007, and the total number of UK BAP habitats increased from 45 to 65, and the number of UK BAP species increased from under 600 to 1,150. From these, the formal list just for Wales (and laid out below) now contains 53 of those 65 habitats. === Legal obligations === Section 6 of the Environment (Wales) Act 2016 places a legal obligation


id: list-of-herbaria-in-europe-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_herbaria_in_Europe-0.md
category: reference
title: List of herbaria in Europe
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_herbaria_in_Europe
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:44.957745+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-herbaria-in-europe-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of herbaria in Europe, organized first by region where the herbarium is located (using the United Nations geoscheme for Europe), then within each region by size of the collection. For other continents, see List of herbaria. == Eastern Europe == The tables below list herbaria located in Eastern Europe as defined by the United Nations geoscheme for Europe. === Black Sea === The following table includes herbaria located in countries on the Black Sea, including Bulgaria, Moldova, Romania, and Ukraine. === Czech Republic === The following table includes herbaria located in the Czech Republic. === Hungary === The following table includes herbaria located in Hungary. === Poland === The following table includes herbaria located in Poland. === Russia === The following table includes herbaria located in European Russia. === Ukraine === National Herbarium of Ukraine (KW) == Northern Europe == The tables below list herbaria located in Northern Europe as defined by the United Nations geoscheme for Europe: Ireland, the British Isles, Baltic states, Scandinavia, and Iceland. === Baltic states === The following table includes herbaria located in the Baltic states: Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. === Britain & Ireland === The following table includes herbaria located


id: list-of-herbaria-in-north-america-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_herbaria_in_North_America-0.md
category: reference
title: List of herbaria in North America
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_herbaria_in_North_America
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:46.406363+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-herbaria-in-north-america-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of herbaria in North America, organized first by country or region where the herbarium is located, then within each region by size of the collection. All herbarium codes follow the Index Herbariorum. For other continents, see List of herbaria. == Canada == == Central America and the Caribbean == The table below lists herbaria located in Central America and the Caribbean. == Mexico == == United States == == References ==


id: list-of-herbaria-in-turkey-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_herbaria_in_Turkey-0.md
category: reference
title: List of herbaria in Turkey
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_herbaria_in_Turkey
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:47.752683+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-herbaria-in-turkey-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of herbaria in Turkey. Herbaria are established within faculties and institutes of credible universities. Those created in departments that are concerned with natural sciences such as botany, ecology, biogeography and climatology are mostly used to do research on the genetics of the plants, to examine their distribution on specific geographical locations and to protect them for future generations, while those affiliated with more practice-based departments such as pharmacy are used as a resource for drug production techniques. The first herbarium in Turkey was opened in 1933 within the Faculty of Science at Ankara University. Founded by Kurt Krause and Hikmet Birand, this herbarium is the oldest among its counterparts in the country and has the most number of species within its 200,000-piece collection. Therefore, it is also called Herbarium Turcicum (Turkish Herbarium). The Sugar Institute Herbarium, Atatürk University Faculty of Science Herbarium and Ege University Faculty of Pharmacy Herbarium are closed to visitors and scientific researchers. However, thanks to a specially created website, it is possible to access all the data related to the Ege University Faculty of Pharmacy Herbarium remotely. Altınbaş University Faculty of Pharmacy Herbarium, which opened in 2018, is the first herbarium


id: list-of-herbaria-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_herbaria-0.md
category: reference
title: List of herbaria
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_herbaria
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:49.087516+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-herbaria-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of active herbaria, organized first by continent where the herbarium is located, then within each continent by size of the collection. The list is based on the Index Herbariorum, a global directory of herbaria and their associated staff. == Background == A herbarium (plural "herbaria") is a collection of preserved plant specimens. These specimens may be whole plants or plant parts: these will usually be in a dried form, mounted on a sheet, but depending upon the material may also be kept in alcohol or other preservative. The same term is often used in mycology to describe an equivalent collection of preserved fungi and in phycology to describe a collection of algae. To preserve their form and color, plants collected in the field are spread flat on sheets of newsprint and dried, usually in a plant press, between blotters or absorbent paper. The specimens, which are then mounted on sheets of stiff white paper, are labeled with all essential data, such as collector, date and place found, description of the plant, elevation, and special habitat conditions. The sheet is then placed in a protective case. As a precaution against insect damage, the pressed plant is frozen


id: list-of-human-blood-components-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_human_blood_components-0.md
category: reference
title: List of human blood components
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_human_blood_components
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:50.504785+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-human-blood-components-20260505-0
summary:
In blood banking, the fractions of Whole Blood used for transfusion are also called components. == See also == Reference ranges for common blood tests == References ==


id: list-of-human-transcription-factors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_human_transcription_factors-0.md
category: reference
title: List of human transcription factors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_human_transcription_factors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:52.034125+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-human-transcription-factors-20260505-0
summary:
This list of manually-curated human transcription factors is taken from Lambert, Jolma, Campitelli, et al. More detailed information can be found in the manuscript and accompanying web site. == List of human transcription factors (1639) == == External links == https://humantfs.ccbr.utoronto.ca == References ==


id: list-of-immune-cells-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_immune_cells-0.md
category: reference
title: List of immune cells
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_immune_cells
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:53.612657+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-immune-cells-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of immune cells, also known as white blood cells, white cells, leukocytes, or leucocytes. They are cells involved in protecting the body against both infectious disease and foreign invaders. == References ==


id: list-of-interstitial-cells-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_interstitial_cells-0.md
category: reference
title: List of interstitial cells
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_interstitial_cells
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:54.838208+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-interstitial-cells-20260505-0
summary:
Interstitial cell refers to any cell that lies in the spaces between the functional cells of a tissue. Examples include: Interstitial cell of Cajal (ICC) Leydig cells, cells present in the male testes responsible for the production of androgen (male sex hormone) A portion of the stroma of ovary Certain cells in the pineal gland Renal interstitial cells Neuroglial cells == See also == List of human cell types derived from the germ layers == References == Sybil B Parker (ed). "Interstitial cell". McGraw Hill Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms. Fifth Edition. International Edition. 1994. Page 1041.


id: list-of-animals-by-number-of-legs-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_animals_by_number_of_legs-0.md
category: reference
title: List of animals by number of legs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_animals_by_number_of_legs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:58.669142+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-animals-by-number-of-legs-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of selected animals in order of increasing number of legs, from 0 legs to 653 pairs of legs, the maximum recorded in the animal kingdom. Each entry provides the relevant taxa up to the rank of phylum. Each entry also provides the common name of the animal. If the relevant taxon includes different animals with different common names, then the entry provides the common name of a familiar example. If juveniles have fewer legs than adults, then the animal is listed by the number of legs recorded in mature adults. If this number varies among adults within the taxon, then this variation is noted in a comment. In counting legs, this list follows conventions adopted in the relevant literature. For example, millipedes with gonopods are listed by numbers that exclude leg pairs that become gonopods, but numbers for millipedes with telopods include leg pairs that become telopods. Animals have been selected so that each number from 0 to 55 leg pairs has one example listed. Each of these examples is listed by a number closely associated with the relevant taxon, either because that number is the one most commonly observed in that taxon or because


id: list-of-endemic-species-of-clipperton-island-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_endemic_species_of_Clipperton_Island-0.md
category: reference
title: List of endemic species of Clipperton Island
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_endemic_species_of_Clipperton_Island
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:56:59.962941+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-endemic-species-of-clipperton-island-20260505-0
summary:
Clipperton Island, also known as Île de la Passion, is an uninhabited French atoll in the eastern Pacific Ocean. == Algae == == Fish == == Invertebrates == == Vertebrates == == References ==


id: list-of-honey-bee-pheromones-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_honey_bee_pheromones-0.md
category: reference
title: List of honey bee pheromones
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_honey_bee_pheromones
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:07.461626+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-honey-bee-pheromones-20260505-0
summary:
The pheromones of the honey bee are mixtures of chemical substances released by individual bees into the hive or environment that cause changes in the physiology and behaviour of other bees. == Introduction == Honey bees (Apis mellifera) have one of the most complex pheromonal communication systems found in nature, possessing 15 known glands that produce an array of compounds. These chemical messengers secreted by a queen, drone, worker bee or laying worker bee to elicit a response in other bees. The chemical messages are received by the bee's antenna and other body parts. They are produced as a volatile or non-volatile liquid and transmitted by direct contact as a liquid or vapor. Honey bee pheromones can be grouped into releaser pheromones which temporarily affect the recipient's behavior, and primer pheromones which have a long-term effect on the physiology of the recipient. Releaser pheromones trigger an almost immediate behavioral response from the receiving bee. Under certain conditions a pheromone can act as both a releaser and primer pheromone. The pheromones may either be single chemicals or a complex mixture of numerous chemicals in different percentages. == Types of honey bee pheromones == === Alarm pheromone === Two main alarm pheromones


id: list-of-honey-bee-pheromones-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_honey_bee_pheromones-1.md
category: reference
title: List of honey bee pheromones
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_honey_bee_pheromones
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:07.461626+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-honey-bee-pheromones-20260505-0
summary:
=== Queen mandibular pheromone === Queen mandibular pheromone (QMP), emitted by the queen, is one of the most important sets of pheromones in the bee hive. It affects social behavior, maintenance of the hive, swarming, mating behavior, and inhibition of ovary development in worker bees. The effects can be short term or long term or both. Some of the chemicals found in QMP are carboxylic acids and aromatic compounds. The following compounds have been shown to be important in retinue attraction of workers to their queen and other effects. (E)-9-Oxodec-2-enoic acid (9-ODA) – inhibits queen rearing as well as ovarian development in worker bees; strong sexual attractant for drones when on a nuptial flight; critical to worker recognition of the presence of a queen in the hive (R,E)-(−)-9-Hydroxydec-2-enoic acid] (-9-HDA) promotes stability of a swarm, or a "calming" influence (S,E)-(+)-9-Hydroxydec-2-enoic acid (+9-HDA) Methylparaben (also known as methyl p-hydroxybenzoate) (HOB) 4-Hydroxy-3-methoxy phenylethanol (HVA) Work on synthetic pheromones was done by Keith N. Slessor, Lori-ann Kaminski, Gaylord G. S. King, John H. Borden, and Mark L. Winston; their work was patented in 1991. Synthetic queen mandibular pheromone (QMP) is a mixture of five components: 9-ODA, (−)-9-HDA, (+)-9-HDA, HOB and HVA in a


id: list-of-longest-living-organisms-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_longest-living_organisms-0.md
category: reference
title: List of longest-living organisms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_longest-living_organisms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:08.624136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-longest-living-organisms-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of the longest-living biological organisms: the individuals or clones of a species with the longest natural maximum life spans. For a given species, such a designation may include: The oldest known individual(s) that are currently alive, with verified ages. Verified individual record holders, such as the longest-lived human, Jeanne Calment, or the longest-lived domestic cat, Creme Puff. The definition of "longest-living" used in this article considers only the observed or estimated length of an individual organism's natural lifespan – that is, the duration of time between its birth or conception (or the earliest emergence of its identity as an individual organism) and its death – and does not consider other conceivable interpretations of "longest-living", such as the length of time between the earliest appearance of a species in the fossil record and the present day (the historical "age" of the species as a whole) or the time between a species' first speciation and its extinction (the phylogenetic "lifespan" of the species). This list includes long-lived organisms that are currently still alive as well as those that have already died. Determining the length of an organism's natural lifespan is complicated by many problems of definition and interpretation,


id: list-of-longest-living-organisms-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_longest-living_organisms-1.md
category: reference
title: List of longest-living organisms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_longest-living_organisms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:08.624136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-longest-living-organisms-20260505-0
summary:
In July 2018, scientists from four Russian institutions collaborating with Princeton University reported that they had analyzed about 300 prehistoric nematode worms recovered from permafrost above the Arctic Circle in the Sakha Republic, and that after being thawed, two of the nematodes revived and began moving and eating. One found in a Pleistocene squirrel burrow in the Duvanny Yar outcrop on the Kolyma River was believed to be about 32,000 years old, while the other, recovered in 2015 near the Alazeya River, was dated at approximately 30,000–40,000 years old. These nematodes were believed to be the oldest living non-clonal multicellular organisms on Earth. In 2021, biologists reported the restoration of bdelloid rotifers frozen for 24,000 years in the Siberian permafrost. In 2023, it was reported that nematodes of the previously undescribed Panagrolaimus kolymaensis were revived after 46,000 years in cryptobiosis. Like bacterial spores, plant seeds are often capable of germinating after very long periods of metabolic inactivity. A seed from the previously extinct Judean date palm was revived and managed to sprout after nearly 2,000 years. Named "Methuselah", it is currently growing at Kibbutz Ketura, Israel. Similarly, the flowering plant Silene stenophylla was grown from frozen fruit found in an


id: list-of-longest-living-organisms-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_longest-living_organisms-2.md
category: reference
title: List of longest-living organisms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_longest-living_organisms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:08.624136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-longest-living-organisms-20260505-0
summary:
Methuselah, a Great Basin bristlecone pine (Pinus longaeva) in the White Mountains of California, has been measured by ring count to be 4,857 years old. It is therefore the oldest known living individual non-clonal tree in the world. A specimen of Fitzroya cupressoides in Chile was measured by ring count as 3,655 years old, meaning this species has the second-oldest verified age of any non-clonal tree species. The Cypress of Abarkuh, a Mediterranean cypress (Cupressus sempervirens) in Iran, is estimated to be between 4,000 and 5,000 years old. The Llangernyw Yew, an ancient yew (Taxus baccata) in the churchyard of the village of Llangernyw in North Wales, is believed to be between 4,000 and 5,000 years old. The President, located in Sequoia National Park, California, is the oldest known living giant sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum) at approximately 3,200 years of age. Yareta is a tiny flowering plant in the family Apiaceae native to South America, occurring in the Puna grasslands of the Andes in Peru, Bolivia, northern Chile, and western Argentina between 3,200 and 4,500 metres (10,500 and 14,800 ft) in altitude. Some yaretas may be up to 3,000 years old. A Panke baobab (Adansonia digitata) in Zimbabwe was some 2,450


id: list-of-longest-living-organisms-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_longest-living_organisms-3.md
category: reference
title: List of longest-living organisms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_longest-living_organisms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:08.624136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-longest-living-organisms-20260505-0
summary:
The Greenland shark had been estimated to live to about 200 years, but a study published in 2016 found that a 5.02 m (16.5 ft) specimen was between 272 and 512 years old. That makes the Greenland shark the longest-lived vertebrate. The maximum lifespan of the freshwater pearl mussel (Margaritifera margaritifera) may be 210–250 years. Some confirmed sources estimate bowhead whales to have lived at least 211 years of age, making them the oldest mammals. Rougheye rockfish can reach an age of 205 years. Specimens of the Red Sea urchin Strongylocentrotus franciscanus have been found to be over 200 years old. Many sub-families of the marine fish Oreosomatidae, including the Allocyttus, Neocyttus, and Pseudocyttus (collectively referred to as the Oreos) have been reported to live up to 170 years, based on otolith-increment estimates and radiometric dating. The deepsea hydrocarbon seep tubeworm Lamellibrachia luymesi (Annelida, Polychaeta) lives for more than 170 years. Geoduck, a species of saltwater clam native to the Puget Sound, have been known to live more than 160 years. A Swedish man claimed that a European eel named Åle was 155 years old when it died in 2014. If correct, it would have been the world's oldest, having


id: list-of-longest-living-organisms-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_longest-living_organisms-4.md
category: reference
title: List of longest-living organisms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_longest-living_organisms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:08.624136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-longest-living-organisms-20260505-0
summary:
Adwaita, an Aldabra giant tortoise, died at an estimated age of 255 in March 2006 in Zoological Garden, Alipore, Kolkata, India. If confirmed, the tortoise would have been the oldest known terrestrial animal to have ever existed. Jonathan, a Seychelles giant tortoise living on the island of Saint Helena, is reported to be at least 193 years old, hence the oldest currently living terrestrial animal. If Adwaita's claim is not true, Jonathan might be the oldest known terrestrial animal to have ever existed. Tu'i Malila, a radiated tortoise, died at the age of 188 in May 1966, at the time the oldest verified vertebrate. This tortoise was hatched in 1777. Harriet, a Galápagos tortoise, died at the age of 175 in June 2006. Timothy, a Greek tortoise, born in Turkey died at the age of 165 on 3 April 2004 in the UK. The oldest known bird in the world was an Australian sulphur-crested cockatoo called Cocky Bennett, who lived to 120. He could recall phrases such as "one feather more and I'll fly" and "one at a time, gentlemen, please". He lived from 1796 to 1916 and traveled the world with various owners. The tuatara, a lizard-like reptile native


id: list-of-carnivorans-by-population-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_carnivorans_by_population-0.md
category: reference
title: List of carnivorans by population
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_carnivorans_by_population
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:10.038322+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-carnivorans-by-population-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of estimated global populations of Carnivora species. This list is not comprehensive, as not all carnivorans have had their numbers quantified. == List == == Species without population estimates == == See also == Lists of organisms by population Lists of mammals by population == References ==


id: list-of-elephant-species-by-population-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_elephant_species_by_population-0.md
category: reference
title: List of elephant species by population
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_elephant_species_by_population
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:11.308171+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-elephant-species-by-population-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of estimated global populations of elephant species (including delineated subspecies of Asian elephant). This list is generally comprehensive, but there is also uncertainty to some estimations. == See also == Lists of organisms by population Lists of mammals by population == References ==


id: list-of-even-toed-ungulates-by-population-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_even-toed_ungulates_by_population-0.md
category: reference
title: List of even-toed ungulates by population
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_even-toed_ungulates_by_population
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:12.564414+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-even-toed-ungulates-by-population-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of even-toed ungulate species by estimated global population. This list is not comprehensive, as not all ungulates have had their numbers quantified. Note that this is only a subset of the order Artiodactyla, listing terrestrial species only. For populations of the cetaceans (infraorder Cetacea), see list of cetaceans. Where available, population is given as number of mature individuals following IUCN reporting standards of estimating effective population size. == Wild species by population == == Domestic species by population == == Species without population estimates == == See also == Lists of mammals by population Lists of organisms by population == References ==


id: list-of-marsupials-by-population-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_marsupials_by_population-0.md
category: reference
title: List of marsupials by population
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_marsupials_by_population
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:14.141361+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-marsupials-by-population-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of estimated global populations of Marsupials (infraclass Marsupialia) species. This list is not comprehensive, as not all Marsupials have had their numbers quantified. Some members of Marsupialia are extinct, and thus have population sizes of zero: Thylacine (Thylacinus cynocephalus) - last recorded wild individual captured in 1933, and died in captivity in 1936. Liverpool Plains striped bandicoot (Perameles fasciata) - went extinct in 1840s. Marl (Perameles myosuros) - last seen in 1907, extinct circa 1910. South-eastern striped bandicoot (Perameles notina) - extinct sometime in late 19th century. Nullarbor barred bandicoot (Perameles papillon) - formerly considered a subspecies of P. bougainville. Last record from 1920s, believed to have gone extinct circa 1928. Desert bandicoot (Perameles eremiana) - last confirmed record from 1943. Unconfirmed reports persisted into the late 1960s. Southern pig-footed bandicoot (Chaeropus ecaudatus) - last specimen collected in 1900, but likely persisted into the 1930s. Northern pig-footed bandicoot, or Yirratji (Chaeropus yirratji) - likely went extinct in the 1950s. Lake Mackay hare-wallaby, or Kuluwarri (Lagorchestes asomatus) - known from a single specimen taken in 1932. Likely went extinct by 1960. Eastern hare-wallaby (Lagorchestes leporides) - last recorded in 1890. Toolache wallaby (Notamacropus greyi) - last confirmed


id: list-of-odd-toed-ungulates-by-population-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_odd-toed_ungulates_by_population-0.md
category: reference
title: List of odd-toed ungulates by population
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_odd-toed_ungulates_by_population
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:16.058484+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-odd-toed-ungulates-by-population-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of odd-toed ungulate species (order Perissodactyla) by estimated global population. Unless otherwise noted, primary populations given are for number of mature individuals. == See also == Lists of mammals by population Lists of organisms by population == References ==


id: list-of-primates-by-population-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_primates_by_population-0.md
category: reference
title: List of primates by population
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_primates_by_population
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:17.360838+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-primates-by-population-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of primate species by estimated global population. This list is not comprehensive as not all primates have had their numbers quantified. Unless specified in the Notes section, primary population values given are for number of mature individuals. == Species without population estimates == == See also == Lists of organisms by population Lists of mammals by population Human population The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates == References ==


id: lists-of-mammals-by-population-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_mammals_by_population-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of mammals by population
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_mammals_by_population
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:18.572951+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-mammals-by-population-20260505-0
summary:
This is a collection of lists of mammal species by the estimated global population, divided by orders. Lists only exist for some orders; for example, the most diverse order - rodents - is missing. Much of the data in these lists were created by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Global Mammal Assessment Team, which consists of 1700 mammalogists from over 130 countries. They recognize 5488 species in the class. These lists are not comprehensive, as not all mammals have had their numbers estimated. For example, a live specimen of the spade-toothed whale was first observed in December 2010, and the event only recognized as such in November 2012; no estimate yet exists for the global population. The accuracy of the quote numbers may only be an order of magnitude. It is estimated that the total number of wild mammals in the world is about 130 billion. == Lists by taxonomic order == Monotremata List of monotremes by population – platypus, echidnas Marsupialia (infraclass containing 7 extant orders) List of marsupials by population – shrew opossums, opossums, marsupial moles, bandicoots, dasyurids, diprodonts (kangaroos, wallabies, wombats, koalas). Xenarthra (superorder containing 2 extant orders) List of xenarthrans by population –


id: list-of-marine-ecoregions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_marine_ecoregions-0.md
category: reference
title: List of marine ecoregions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_marine_ecoregions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:19.837482+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-marine-ecoregions-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of marine ecoregions, as defined by the WWF and The Nature Conservancy The WWF/Nature Conservancy scheme groups the individual ecoregions into 12 marine realms, which represent the broad latitudinal divisions of polar, temperate, and tropical seas, with subdivisions based on ocean basins. The marine realms are subdivided into 62 marine provinces, which include one or more of the 232 marine ecoregions. The WWF/Nature Conservancy scheme currently encompasses only coastal and continental shelf areas. == Arctic realm == (no provinces identified) North Greenland North and East Iceland East Greenland Shelf West Greenland Shelf Northern Grand Banks-Southern Labrador Northern Labrador Baffin Bay-Davis Strait Hudson Complex Lancaster Sound High Arctic Archipelago Beaufort-Admunsen-Viscount Melville-Queen Maud Beaufort Sea-continental coast and shelf Chukchi Sea Eastern Bering Sea East Siberian Sea Laptev Sea Kara Sea North and East Barents Sea White Sea == Temperate Northern Atlantic == === Northern European Seas === South and West Iceland Faroe Plateau Southern Norway Northern Norway and Finnmark Baltic Sea North Sea Celtic Seas === Lusitanian === South European Atlantic Shelf Saharan Upwelling Azores Canaries Madeira === Mediterranean Sea === Adriatic Sea Aegean Sea Levantine Sea Tunisian Plateau/Gulf of Sidra Ionian Sea Western Mediterranean Alboran Sea


id: list-of-microorganisms-tested-in-outer-space-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_microorganisms_tested_in_outer_space-0.md
category: reference
title: List of microorganisms tested in outer space
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_microorganisms_tested_in_outer_space
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:21.198342+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-microorganisms-tested-in-outer-space-20260505-0
summary:
The survival of some microorganisms exposed to outer space has been studied using both simulated facilities and low Earth orbit exposures. Bacteria were some of the first organisms investigated, when in 1960 a Russian satellite carried Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus, and Enterobacter aerogenes into orbit. Many kinds of microorganisms have been selected for exposure experiments since, as listed in the table below. Experiments of the adaption of microbes in space have yielded unpredictable results. While sometimes the microorganism may weaken, they can also increase in their disease-causing potency. It is possible to classify these microorganisms into two groups, the human-borne and the extremophiles. Studying the human-borne microorganisms is significant for human welfare and future crewed missions in space, whilst the extremophiles are vital for studying the physiological requirements of survival in space. NASA has pointed out that normal adults have ten times as many microbial cells as human cells in their bodies. They are also nearly everywhere in the environment and, although normally invisible, can form slimy biofilms. Extremophiles have adapted to live in some of the most extreme environments on Earth. This includes hypersaline lakes, arid regions, deep sea, acidic sites, cold and dry polar regions and permafrost. The existence


id: list-of-mitosporic-ascomycota-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mitosporic_Ascomycota-0.md
category: reference
title: List of mitosporic Ascomycota
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mitosporic_Ascomycota
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:22.436296+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mitosporic-ascomycota-20260505-0
summary:
The mitosporic Ascomycota are a heterogeneous group of ascomycotic fungi whose common characteristic is the absence of a sexual state (anamorph); many of the pathogenic fungi in humans belong to this group. == References == https://www.uniprot.org/taxonomy/108599. Retrieved 29 November 2011


id: list-of-model-organisms-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms-0.md
category: reference
title: List of model organisms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:23.660934+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-model-organisms-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of model organisms used in scientific research. == Viruses == Phages (infecting prokaryotes): Escherichia virus Lambda (Phage lambda) Phi X 174, the first DNA genome ever to be sequenced (circular, 5386 base pairs in length), shortly after the RNA genome of bacteriophage MS2 (in 1976). T4 phage Animal viruses: SV40 Human alphaherpesvirus (Herpes simplex virus) Plant viruses: Tobacco mosaic virus == Bacteria == Escherichia coli (E. coli), common Gram-negative gut bacterium widely used in molecular genetics. Main lab strain is 'K-12'. Bacillus subtilis, endospore forming Gram-positive bacterium. Main lab strain is '168'. Caulobacter crescentus, bacterium that divides into two distinct cells used to study cellular differentiation. Mycoplasma genitalium, minimal organism and human STD pathogen. Aliivibrio fischeri, quorum sensing, bioluminescence and animal-bacterial symbiosis with Hawaiian bobtail squid. Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron, polysaccharide-degrading member of the human gut microbiota, used to study functional aspects of the gut microbiota. Synechocystis (specifically PCC 6803), photosynthetic cyanobacterium widely used in photosynthesis research. Pseudomonas fluorescens, soil bacterium that readily diversifies into different strains in the lab. Azotobacter vinelandii, obligate aerobe diazotroph used in nitrogen fixation research. Streptomyces coelicolor, soil-dwelling filamentous bacterium used to produce many clinically useful antibiotics. === Bacteria with minimal synthetic genomes


id: list-of-model-organisms-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms-1.md
category: reference
title: List of model organisms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:23.660934+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-model-organisms-20260505-0
summary:
Lemna gibba, rapidly growing aquatic monocot, one of the smallest flowering plants. Lemna growth assays are used to evaluate the toxicity of chemicals to plants in ecotoxicology. Because it can be grown in pure culture, microbial action can be excluded. Lemna is being used as a recombinant expression system for economical production of complex biopharmaceuticals. It is also used in education to demonstrate population growth curves. Zea mays L. (Maize/corn), cereal grain. It is a diploid monocot with 10 large chromosome pairs, easily studied with the microscope. Its genetic features, including many known and mapped phenotypic mutants and a large number of progeny per cross (typically 100–200) facilitated the discovery of transposons ("jumping genes"). Many DNA markers have been mapped and the genome has been sequenced. (Genetics, Molecular biology, Agronomy) Medicago truncatula, model legume, closely related to the common alfalfa. Its rather small genome is currently being sequenced. It is used to study the symbiosis responsible for nitrogen fixation. (Agronomy, Molecular biology) Mimulus guttatus, model organism used in evolutionary and functional genomes studies. The genus Mimulus contains c. 120 species and is in the family Phrymaceae. Several genetic resources have been designed for the study of this genus and some


id: list-of-model-organisms-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms-2.md
category: reference
title: List of model organisms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:23.660934+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-model-organisms-20260505-0
summary:
Amphimedon queenslandica, a demosponge from the phylum Porifera used as a model for evolutionary developmental biology and comparative genomics Arbacia punctulata, the purple-spined sea urchin, classical subject of embryological studies Aplysia, a sea slug, whose ink release response serves as a model in neurobiology and whose growth cones serve as a model of cytoskeletal rearrangements Branchiostoma floridae, a species commonly known as amphioxus or lancelet from the subphylum Cephalochordata of the phylum Chordata used as a model for understanding the evolution of nonchordate deuterostomes, invertebrate chordates, and vertebrates Caenorhabditis elegans, a nematode, usually called C. elegans - an excellent model for understanding the genetic control of development and physiology. C.elegans has a fixed number of 1031 cells. C. elegans was the first multicellular organism whose genome was completely sequenced Callosobruchus maculatus, the bruchid beetle, used to study sexual selection and sexual conflict Chorthippus parallelus (the meadow grasshopper), used to study sexual selection and sexual conflict Ciona intestinalis, a sea squirt Daphnia spp., small planktonic crustaceans, highly sensitive to pollution, used for evaluating environmental toxicity of chemicals on aquatic invertebrates. Coelopidae, seaweed flies, used to study sexual selection and sexual conflict Diopsidae, stalk-eyed flies, used to study sexual selection and sexual


id: list-of-model-organisms-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms-3.md
category: reference
title: List of model organisms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_model_organisms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:23.660934+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-model-organisms-20260505-0
summary:
Canis lupus familiaris (Dog), important respiratory and cardiovascular model, also contributed to the discovery of classical conditioning. Felis sylvestris catus (Cat), used in neurophysiological research. Mustela furo (Ferret), used as a model organism to study influenza A virus infection. Ambystoma mexicanum (Axolotl), used to study regeneration and developmental processes Bombina bombina and Bombina variegata, used to study sexual selection and sexual conflict Anolis carolinensis (Carolina anole), used to study reptile genomics Gallus gallus domesticus (Chicken), used for developmental studies, as it is an amniote and excellent for micromanipulation (e.g. tissue grafting) and over-expression of gene products. Sigmodon hispidus (Cotton rat), formerly used in polio research. Mesocricetus auratus (Golden hamster), first used to study kala-azar (leishmaniasis). Cavia porcellus (Guinea pig), used by Robert Koch and other early bacteriologists as a host for bacterial infections, hence a byword for "laboratory animal" even though less commonly used today. Myotis lucifugus (Little brown bat), used to prove echolocation exists in bats in 1930s and also used in experiments predicting microbat behavior as it is a reliable species that has typical features of a temperate bat species. Oryzias latipes (Medaka, or Japanese ricefish), important model in developmental biology, and has the advantage of being much


id: index-of-molecular-biology-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_molecular_biology_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of molecular biology articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_molecular_biology_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:24.969272+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-molecular-biology-articles-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of topics in molecular biology. See also index of biochemistry articles. == # == 2-amino-4-deoxychorismate dehydrogenase - 2-dehydropantolactone reductase (B-specific) - 2-methylacyl-CoA dehydrogenase - 2-nitropropane dioxygenase - 2-oxobutyrate synthase - (2,3-dihydroxybenzoyl)adenylate synthase - 2,4-Dihydroxy-1,4-benzoxazin-3-one-glucoside dioxygenase - 2010107G12Rik - 27-hydroxycholesterol 7alpha-monooxygenase - 3' end - 3' flanking region - 3-hydroxy-2-methylpyridinecarboxylate dioxygenase - 3-Ketosteroid 9alpha-monooxygenase - 3-oxoacyl-(acyl-carrier-protein) reductase (NADH) - (3,5-dihydroxyphenyl)acetyl-CoA 1,2-dioxygenase - 3(or 17)a-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase - 3110001I22Rik - 3alpha-hydroxyglycyrrhetinate dehydrogenase - 4932414N04Rik - 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (A-specific) - 3alpha,7alpha,12alpha-trihydroxy-5beta-cholestanoyl-CoA 24-hydroxylase - 3alpha,7alpha,12alpha-trihydroxycholestan-26-al 26-oxidoreductase - 4-Cresol dehydrogenase (hydroxylating) - 4-Hydroxycyclohexanecarboxylate dehydrogenase - 4-hydroxyphenylacetaldehyde oxime monooxygenase - 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate oxidase - 4-Nitrophenol 4-monooxygenase - 4933425L06Rik - 5' end - 5' flanking region - 5-pyridoxate dioxygenase - 6-endo-hydroxycineole dehydrogenase - 7-deoxyloganin 7-hydroxylase - 7beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (NADP+) - 8-oxocoformycin reductase - 12beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase - 25-hydroxycholesterol 7α-hydroxylase - == A == abietadiene hydroxylase - acido-1 RNA motif -acrylamide gels - act 1 adaptor protein - actino-ugpB RNA motif - actinomyces-1 RNA motif - adenine - adenosine deaminase deficiency - adenovirus - adenylyl-(glutamate—ammonia ligase) hydrolase - agarose gel electrophoresis - agarose gel - akaryocyte - Alagille syndrome - alkaline lysis - allele - amino acids - amino terminus - amp resistance - amplification - amplicon


id: index-of-molecular-biology-articles-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_molecular_biology_articles-1.md
category: reference
title: Index of molecular biology articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_molecular_biology_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:24.969272+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-molecular-biology-articles-20260505-0
summary:
== H == haemagglutination activity domain - haemolysin expression modulating protein family - hairpin - haploid - haploinsufficiency - HdeA family - helix-loop-helix - helminth protein - hematopoietic stem cell - hemophilia - heteroduplex DNA - heterozygous - highly conserved sequence - Hirschsprung's disease - histone - HLA-Y - hnRNA - holoprosencephaly - homologous recombination - homology - homozygous - host strain (bacterial) - HspQ protein domain - human artificial chromosome - Human Genome Project - human immunodeficiency virus - HumHot - Huntington's disease - hybridization - hybridoma - hydrophilicity plot - hydroxydechloroatrazine ethylaminohydrolase - == I == immunoblot - immunoprecipitation - immunotherapy - IMPDH/GMPR family - in situ hybridization - in vitro translation - indoleacetaldoxime dehydratase - inducer - infologs - inherited - initiation codon - insert - insertion - insertion sequence - intellectual property rights - intergenic - interleukin 40 - intron - inverted repeat - IscR stability element - isopiperitenol dehydrogenase - == J == juglone 3-monooxygenase - junk DNA - == K == k+-transporting ATPase - karyotype - KduI/IolB isomerase family - kilobase - kinase - Klenow fragment - Knock-down - knock-out - knock-out experiment - knockout - Kozak sequence == L == L-amino-acid alpha-ligase -


id: index-of-molecular-biology-articles-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_molecular_biology_articles-2.md
category: reference
title: Index of molecular biology articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_molecular_biology_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:24.969272+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-molecular-biology-articles-20260505-0
summary:
== S == S1 end mapping - S1 nuclease - satellite DNA - screening - SDS-PAGE - secondary structure - selection - selenium responsive proteins - sense strand - sequence - sequence motif - sequence polymorphism - sequence-tagged site - sequential epitope - severe combined immunodeficiency - sex chromosome - sex-linked - Shine-Dalgarno sequence - shotgun cloning - shotgun cloning or sequencing - shotgun sequencing - shuttle vector - Siah interacting protein N-terminal domain - sickle-cell disease - side chain - sigma factor - signal peptidase - signal sequence - silent mutation - single nucleotide polymorphism - siRNA - site-directed mutagenesis - site-specific recombination - Slc22a21 - slot blot - SNP - Slc22a21 - SMCR2 - snRNA - snRNP - solution hybridization - somatic cells - Southern blot - southwestern blot - SP6 RNA polymerase - SpAB protein domain - spectral karyotype - splicing - Simple Sequence Repeats (SSR) - SPR domain - SQ2397 - SRG1 RNA - ST7-AS2 - ST7-OT3 - stable transfection - start codon - stem-loop - sticky end - stomoxyn - stop codon - streptavidin - stringency - structural motif - sub-cloning - substitution - succinate—citramalate CoA-transferase - suicide gene - sulfate-transporting ATPase - suPARnostic -


id: outline-of-ants-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_ants-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of ants
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_ants
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:26.219128+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-ants-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to ants: Ants – social insects with geniculate (elbowed) antennae and a distinctive node-like structure that forms a slender waist. Ants are of the family Formicidae and evolved from wasp-like ancestors in the mid-Cretaceous period between 110 and 130 million years ago, diversifying after the rise of flowering plants. More than 12,500 out of an estimated total of 22,000 species have been classified. == Essence of ants == Ant colony Myrmecology – scientific study of ants === Biological classification === Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Arthropoda Class: Insecta Order: Hymenoptera Suborder: Apocrita Superfamily: Vespoidea Family: Formicidae (family authority: Latreille, 1809) == Kinds of ants == Ant List of ant genera List of ants of Great Britain === Subfamilies === Extant subfamilies Agroecomyrmecinae Amblyoponinae Aneuretinae Dolichoderinae Dorylinae Ectatomminae Formicinae Heteroponerinae Leptanillinae Martialinae Myrmeciinae Myrmicinae Paraponerinae Ponerinae Proceratiinae Pseudomyrmecinae Fossil subfamilies †Armaniinae (sometimes treated as the family Armaniidae within the superfamily Formicoidea) †Brownimeciinae †Formiciinae †Sphecomyrminae == General myrmecology concepts == Ant colony optimization algorithms Ant mill == Myrmecologists == Murray S. Blum (1929–2015) Barry Bolton Horace Donisthorpe (1870–1951) Auguste Forel (1848–1931) William Gould (1715–1799) Bert Hölldobler (born 1936) Thomas C. Jerdon (1811–1872)


id: list-of-institutes-and-centers-of-the-national-institutes-of-health-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_institutes_and_centers_of_the_National_Institutes_of_Health-0.md
category: reference
title: List of institutes and centers of the National Institutes of Health
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_institutes_and_centers_of_the_National_Institutes_of_Health
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:27.533947+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-institutes-and-centers-of-the-national-institutes-of-health-20260505-0
summary:
The National Institutes of Health (NIH) is an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services and is the primary agency of the United States government responsible for biomedical and health-related research. It comprises 27 separate institutes and centers (ICs) that carry out its mission in different areas of biomedical research. It also includes the Office of the Director, which sets policies and coordinates activities of the 27 ICs. == Institutes == == Centers of the NIH == In addition to being divided by research area, NIH has many operating groups called centers operating across all of the Institutes. == Office of the Director == The Office of the Director is the central office at NIH. The OD is responsible for setting policy for NIH and for planning, managing, and coordinating the programs and activities of all the NIH components. Program offices in the Office of the Director are responsible for stimulating specific areas of research throughout NIH and for planning and supporting research and related activities. Current program areas are: minority health, women's health, AIDS research, disease prevention, and behavioral and social sciences research. In July 2009, President Barack Obama nominated Dr. Francis S. Collins, M.D.,


id: outline-of-neuroscience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_neuroscience-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of neuroscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_neuroscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:28.802178+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-neuroscience-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to neuroscience: Neuroscience is the scientific study of the structure and function of the nervous system. It encompasses the branch of biology that deals with the anatomy, biochemistry, molecular biology, and physiology of neurons and neural circuits. It also encompasses cognition, and human behavior. Neuroscience has multiple concepts that each relate to learning abilities and memory functions. Additionally, the brain is able to transmit signals that cause conscious/unconscious behaviors that are responses verbal or non-verbal. This allows people to communicate with one another. == Branches of neuroscience == === Neurophysiology === Neurophysiology is the study of the function (as opposed to structure) of the nervous system. Brain mapping Electrophysiology Extracellular recording Intracellular recording Brain stimulation Electroencephalography Intermittent rhythmic delta activity Category: Neurophysiology Category: Neuroendocrinology Neuroendocrinology === Neuroanatomy === Neuroanatomy is the study of the anatomy of nervous tissue and neural structures of the nervous system. Immunostaining Category: Neuroanatomy === Neuropharmacology === Neuropharmacology is the study of how drugs affect cellular function in the nervous system. Drug Psychoactive drug Anaesthetic Narcotic === Behavioral neuroscience === Behavioral neuroscience, also known as biological psychology, biopsychology, or psychobiology, is the application of


id: list-of-neuroscience-databases-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_neuroscience_databases-0.md
category: reference
title: List of neuroscience databases
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_neuroscience_databases
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:30.180215+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-neuroscience-databases-20260505-0
summary:
A number of online neuroscience databases are available which provide information regarding gene expression, neurons, macroscopic brain structure, and neurological or psychiatric disorders. Some databases contain descriptive and numerical data, some to brain function, others offer access to 'raw' imaging data, such as postmortem brain sections or 3D MRI and fMRI images. Some focus on the human brain, others on non-human. As the number of databases that seek to disseminate information about the structure, development and function of the brain has grown, so has the need to collate these resources themselves. As a result, there now exist databases of neuroscience databases, some of which reach over 3000 entries. == Neuroscience databases == == Databases of neuroscience databases == == See also == Neuroinformatics Budapest Reference Connectome == References ==


id: list-of-obo-foundry-ontologies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_OBO_Foundry_ontologies-0.md
category: reference
title: List of OBO Foundry ontologies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_OBO_Foundry_ontologies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:31.492650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-obo-foundry-ontologies-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of ontologies that are part of the OBO Foundry as of January 2020. == OBO Foundry ontologies == == References ==


id: list-of-obsolete-taxa-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_obsolete_taxa-0.md
category: reference
title: List of obsolete taxa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_obsolete_taxa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:32.709983+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-obsolete-taxa-20260505-0
summary:
In the history of the Linnaean classification system, many taxa (e.g. species, genera, families, and higher taxonomic ranks) have become defunct or obsolete, and are no longer used. == Kingdoms == == Animals == == Protists == == References ==


id: lists-of-organisms-by-population-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_organisms_by_population-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of organisms by population
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_organisms_by_population
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:34.046405+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-organisms-by-population-20260505-0
summary:
This is a collection of lists of organisms by their population. While most of the numbers are estimates, they have been made by the experts in their fields. Wildlife population measurement is a science falling under the purview of population ecology and biogeography. Individuals are counted by census, as carried out for the piping plover; using the transect method, as done for the mountain plover; and beginning in 2012 by satellite, with the emperor penguin being first subject counted in this manner. == Number of species == More than 99 percent of all species, amounting to over five billion species, that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct. Estimates on the number of Earth's current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described. According to another study, the number of described species has been estimated at 1,899,587. 2000–2009 saw approximately 17,000 species described per year. The total number of undescribed organisms is unknown, but marine microbial species alone could number 20,000,000. For this reason, the number of quantified species will always lag behind the number of described species, and species contained


id: outline-of-cell-biology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_cell_biology-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of cell biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_cell_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:35.262817+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-cell-biology-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to cell biology: Cell biology – A branch of biology that includes study of cells regarding their physiological properties, structure, and function; the organelles they contain; interactions with their environment; and their life cycle, division, and death. This is done both on a microscopic and molecular level. Cell biology research extends to both the great diversities of single-celled organisms like bacteria and the complex specialized cells in multicellular organisms like humans. Formerly, the field was called cytology (from Greek κύτος, kytos, "a hollow;" and -λογία, -logia). == A branch of science == Cell biology can be described as all of the following: Branch of science – A systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. Branch of natural science – The branch of science concerned with the description, prediction, and understanding of natural phenomena based on observational and empirical evidence. Validity, accuracy, and social mechanisms ensuring quality control, such as peer review and repeatability of findings, are among the criteria and methods used for this purpose. Branch of biology – The study of life and living organisms, including


id: outline-of-cell-biology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_cell_biology-1.md
category: reference
title: Outline of cell biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_cell_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:35.262817+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-cell-biology-20260505-0
summary:
== General cellular anatomy == Cellular compartment – All closed parts within a cell whose lumen is usually surrounded by a single or double lipid layer membrane. Organelles – A specialized subunit within a cell that has a specific function, and is separately enclosed within its own lipid membrane or traditionally any subcellular functional unit. === Organelles === Endomembrane system Endoplasmic reticulum – An organelle composed of an interconnected network of tubules, vesicles and cisternae. Membrane bound polyribosome – Polyribosomes that are attached to a cell's endoplasmic reticulum. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum – A section of endoplasmic reticulum on which ribosomes are not attached is termed as smooth endoplasmic reticulum. It has functions in several metabolic processes, including synthesis of lipids, metabolism of carbohydrates and calcium concentration, drug detoxification, and attachment of receptors on cell membrane proteins. Rough endoplasmic reticulum – A section of the endoplasmic reticulum on with the protein manufacturing organelle i.e. ribosomes are attached is termed as rough endoplasmic reticulum which give it a "rough" appearance (hence its name). Its primary function is the synthesis of enzymes and other proteins. Vesicle – A relatively small intracellular, membrane-enclosed sac that stores or transports substances. Golgi apparatus – A eukaryotic


id: outline-of-cell-biology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_cell_biology-2.md
category: reference
title: Outline of cell biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_cell_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:35.262817+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-cell-biology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Structures === Cell membrane – (also called the plasma membrane, plasmalemma or "phospholipid bilayer") A semipermeable lipid bilayer found in all cells; it contains a wide array of functional macromolecules. Cell wall – A fairly rigid layer surrounding a cell, located external to the cell membrane, which provides the cell with structural support, protection, and acts as a filtering mechanism. Centriole – A barrel shaped microtubule structure found in most eukaryotic cells other than those of plants and fungi. Cluster of differentiation – A cell surface molecules present on white blood cells initially but found in almost any kind of cell of the body, providing targets for immunophenotyping of cells. Physiologically, CD molecules can act in numerous ways, often acting as receptors or ligands (the molecule that activates a receptor) important to the cell. A signal cascade is usually initiated, altering the behavior of the cell (see cell signaling). Cytoskeleton – A cellular "scaffolding" or "skeleton" contained within the cytoplasm that is composed of three types of fibers: microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules. Cytoplasm – A gelatinous, semi-transparent fluid that fills most cells, it includes all cytosol, organelles and cytoplasmic inclusions. Cytosol – It is the internal fluid of


id: outline-of-cell-biology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_cell_biology-3.md
category: reference
title: Outline of cell biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_cell_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:35.262817+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-cell-biology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Cellular metabolism === Cellular respiration – Glycolysis – The foundational process of both aerobic and anaerobic respiration, glycolysis is the archetype of universal metabolic processes known and occurring (with variations) in many types of cells in nearly all organisms. Pyruvate dehydrogenase – Enzyme in the eponymous complex linking glycolysis and the subsequent citric acid cycle. Citric acid cycle – Also known as the Krebs cycle, an important aerobic metabolic pathway. Electron transport chain – A biochemical process which associates electron carriers (such as NADH and FADH2) and mediating biochemical reactions that produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which is a major energy intermediate in living organisms. Typically occurs across a cellular membrane. Photosynthesis – The conversion of light energy into chemical energy by living organisms. Light-dependent reactions – A series of biochemical reactions driven by light that take place across thylakoid membrane to provide for the Calvin cycle reactions. Calvin cycle – A series of anabolic biochemical reactions that takes place in the stroma of chloroplasts in photosynthetic organisms. It is one of the light-independent reactions or dark reactions. Electron transport chain – A biochemical process which associates electron carriers (such as NADH and FADH2) and mediating biochemical reactions that produce


id: outline-of-cell-biology-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_cell_biology-4.md
category: reference
title: Outline of cell biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_cell_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:35.262817+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-cell-biology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Miscellaneous cellular processes === Cell transport Osmosis – The diffusion of water through a cell wall or membrane or any partially permeable barrier from a solution of low solute concentration to a solution with high solute concentration. Passive transport – Movement of molecules into and out of cells without the input of cellular energy. Active transport – Movement of molecules into and out of cells with the input of cellular energy. Bulk transport Endocytosis – It is a form of active transport in which a cell transports molecules (such as proteins) into the cell by engulfing them in an energy-using process. Exocytosis – It is a form of active transport in which a cell transports molecules (such as proteins) out of the cell by expelling them. Phagocytosis – The process a cell uses when engulfing solid particles into the cell membrane to form an internal phagosome, or "food vacuole." Tonicity – This is a measure of the effective osmotic pressure gradient (as defined by the water potential of the two solutions) of two solutions separated by a semipermeable membrane. Programmed cell death – The death of a cell in any form, mediated by an intracellular program (ex. apoptosis or


id: outline-of-cell-biology-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_cell_biology-5.md
category: reference
title: Outline of cell biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_cell_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:35.262817+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-cell-biology-20260505-0
summary:
== Cell biologists == Karl August Möbius – In 1884 first observed the structures that would later be called "organelles". Bengt Lidforss – Coined the word "organells" which later became "organelle". Robert Hooke – Coined the word "cell" after looking at cork under a microscope. Anton van Leeuwenhoek – First observed microscopic single celled organisms in apparently clean water. Hans Adolf Krebs – Discovered the citric acid cycle in 1937. Konstantin Mereschkowski – Russian botanist who in 1905 described the Theory of Endosymbiosis. Edmund Beecher Wilson – Known as America's first cellular biologist, discovered the sex chromosome arrangement in humans. Albert Claude – Shared the Nobel Prize in 1974 "for describing the structure and function of organelles in biological cells" Theodor Boveri – In 1888 identified the centrosome and described it as the 'special organ of cell division.' Peter D. Mitchell – British biochemist who was awarded the 1978 Nobel Prize for Chemistry for his discovery of the chemiosmotic mechanism of ATP synthesis. Lynn Margulis – An American biologist best known for her theory on the origin of eukaryotic organelles, and her contributions and support of the endosymbiotic theory. Günter Blobel – An American biologist who won a Nobel Prize


id: list-of-parasitic-organisms-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_parasitic_organisms-0.md
category: reference
title: List of parasitic organisms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_parasitic_organisms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:36.434419+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-parasitic-organisms-20260505-0
summary:
This is an incomplete list of organisms that are true parasites upon other organisms. == Endoparasites == (endo = within; parasites that live inside their hosts) === Plants === Rafflesia Cuscuta Mistletoe === Parasitic worms === These can be categorized into three groups; cestodes, nematodes and trematodes. Examples include: Acanthocephala Ascariasis (roundworms) Cestoda (tapeworms) including: Taenia saginata (human beef tapeworm), Taenia solium (human pork tapeworm), Diphyllobothrium latum (fish tapeworm) and Echinococcosis (hydatid tapeworm) Clonorchis sinensis (the Chinese liver fluke) Dracunculus medinensis (Guinea worm) Enterobius vermicularis (pinworm) Filariasis Hookworm Loa loa Onchocerciasis (river blindness) Schistosomiasis Strongyloides stercoralis Tapeworm Toxocara canis (dog roundworm) Trichinella Whipworm === Protozoans === Entamoeba histolytica and Entamoeba coli - can cause Amoebiasis Acanthamoeba Balamuthia mandrillaris Giardia Cyclospora cayetanensis Cryptosporidium Toxoplasma gondii Leishmania - L. tropica, L. donovani, and L. mexicana are known to cause Leishmaniasis. Plasmodium - causes the fatal disease, Malaria. P. falciparum, P. vivax, and P. malariae are pathogenic to humans. Babesia === Fungi === Gymnosporangium and other rusts Pyrenophora teres Cordyceps === Arthropods === Pentastomida == Ectoparasites == (ecto = outside; parasites that live on but not within their hosts, for example, attached to their skin) === Arthropoda === Acari Varroa destructor Cymothoa exigua


id: list-of-participants-in-the-evolving-genes-and-proteins-symposium-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_participants_in_the_Evolving_Genes_and_Proteins_symposium-0.md
category: reference
title: List of participants in the Evolving Genes and Proteins symposium
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_participants_in_the_Evolving_Genes_and_Proteins_symposium
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:37.680304+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-participants-in-the-evolving-genes-and-proteins-symposium-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of scientists who participated in the 1964 Evolving Genes and Proteins symposium, a landmark event in the history of molecular evolution. The symposium, supported by the National Science Foundation, took place on September 17 and September 18, 1964 at the Institute of Microbiology of Rutgers University. A summary of the proceedings was published in Science, and the full proceedings were edited by Vernon Bryson and Henry J. Vogel and published in 1965. == References ==


id: list-of-plant-orders-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_plant_orders-0.md
category: reference
title: List of plant orders
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_plant_orders
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:38.983809+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-plant-orders-20260505-0
summary:
This article lists the living orders of the Viridiplantae, based primarily on the work of Ruggiero et al. 2015. Living order of Lycophytes and ferns are taken from Christenhusz et al. 2011b and Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group. Living orders of Gymnosperms are added from Christenhusz et al. 2011a while extinct orders are from Anderson, Anderson & Cleal 2007. == Division Prasinodermophyta == === Class Prasinodermophyceae === Order Prasinodermatales === Class Palmophyllophyceae === Order Prasinococcales Order Palmophyllales == Division Chlorophyta == === Subdivision Prasinophytina === ==== Class Mamiellophyceae ==== Order Monomastigales Order Dolichomastigales Order Mamiellales ==== Class Pyramimonadophyceae ==== Order Pyramimonadales === Subdivision Chlorophytina === ==== Class Nephroselmidophyceae ==== Order Nephroselmidales ==== Class Picocystophyceae ==== Order Picocystales Order ?Pseudoscourfieldiales ==== Class Chloropicophyceae ==== Order Chloropicales ==== Class Pedinophyceae ==== Order ?Scourfieldiales Order Marsupiomonadales Order Pedinomonadales ==== Class Chlorodendrophyceae ==== Order Chlorodendrales ==== Class Trebouxiophyceae ==== Order ?Phyllosiphonales Order Chlorellales Order Prasiolales Order Microthamniales Order Trebouxiales ==== Class Ulvophyceae ==== Order Ignatiales Order Oltmannsiellopsidales Order Scotinosphaerales Order Ulotrichales Order Ulvales Order Trentepohliales Order Cladophorales Order Dasycladales Order Bryopsidales ==== Class Chlorophyceae ==== Order Chaetopeltidales Order Chaetophorales Order Chlamydomonadales Order Chlorococcales Order Microsporales Order Oedogoniales Order Sphaeropleales Order Tetrasporales == Division Streptophyta == ===


id: list-of-prehistoric-bryozoan-genera-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prehistoric_bryozoan_genera-0.md
category: reference
title: List of prehistoric bryozoan genera
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prehistoric_bryozoan_genera
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:40.298558+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-prehistoric-bryozoan-genera-20260505-0
summary:
This list of prehistoric bryozoans is an attempt to create a comprehensive listing of all genera that have ever been included in the bryozoa which are known from the fossil record. This list excludes purely vernacular terms. It includes all commonly accepted genera, but also genera that are now considered invalid, doubtful (nomina dubia), or were not formally published (nomina nuda), as well as junior synonyms of more established names, and genera that are no longer considered bryozoans. Naming conventions and terminology follow the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, as indicated. == A == Acanthocella Acanthoceramoporella Acanthocladia Acanthoclema Acanthodesia Acantholaminatus Acanthopora Acanthoporella Acanthoporidea Acanthotrypa Acanthotrypina Acoscinopleura Acrogenia Actinopora Actinotaxia Actinotrypa Actinotrypella Actisecos Adenifera Adeona Adeonella Adeonellopsis Admiratella Aechmella Aegyptopora Aeolopora Aetea Aetomacladia Aggregopora Aimulosia Aisenvergia Akatopora Alderina Allantopora Allonema Alternifenestella Altshedata Aluverina Alveolaria Alwynopora Alysidota Amalgamoporous Amalgamoprus Amathia Ammatophora Amphiblestrella Amphiblestrum Amphimorsoniella Amphiporella Amplexopora Amsassipora Amurodictya Anaphragma Anaptopora Anarthropora Anastomopora Andriopora Angelopora Anguisia Anisotrypa Anisotrypella Annectocyma Annunziopora Anolotichia Anomalotoechus Anornithopora Anotopora Antropora Aostipora Apatotervia Apertostella Aplousina Apsendesia Arachnidid Arachnidium Arachnoidella Arachnopusia Araxopora Arborocladia Archaeofenestella Archaeomeson Archimedes Arcticopora Arctipoora Argopora Armillopora Artchedella Arthroclema Arthropoma Arthrostyloecia Arthrostylus Arthrotrypa Ascodictyon Ascopora Ascoporella Asperopora Aspidopora Aspidostoma Assatkinella Astralochoma Astrovidictya Astroviella Astroviellina Atacama (see Plesiothoa)


id: list-of-prehistoric-bryozoan-genera-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prehistoric_bryozoan_genera-1.md
category: reference
title: List of prehistoric bryozoan genera
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prehistoric_bryozoan_genera
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:40.298558+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-prehistoric-bryozoan-genera-20260505-0
summary:
== M == Macropora Macroporina Magnea Magnederella Mamillopora Manzonella Marcusodictyon Marcusopora Margaretta Marginaria Marquetta Marssoniella Marssonopora Mastigophora (see Herentia) Mastigophorella Matherocladia Matheropora Matsutrypa Maychella Maychellina Meandropora Mecynoecia Mediapora Medisemicoscinium Meekopora Meekoporella Megacanthopora Megacanthoporina Melicerita Melicerita Meliceritella Meliceritites Meliceritites Membranipora Membraniporella Membraniporidra Membraniporina Membrendoecium Meniscopora Mesenteripora Mesonea Mesonopora Mesostomaria Mesotrypa Mesotrypina Metadictya Metastenodiscus Metelipora Metracolposa Metradolium Metrarabdotos Metrocrypta Metroperiella Microcampylus Microecia Micropora Microporella Microporina Minilya Minussina Mirifenestella Mitoclema Mitoclemella Mojczatrypa Mollia Mongoloclema Mongolodictya Monoceratopora Monocerina Monodesmopora Monoporella Monotrypa Monotrypella Monsella Monticellaria Monticulipora Moorephylloporina Morozovapora Morozoviella Morphasmopora Mosathoa Moyanopora Moyerella Mucronella Multicavea Multicrescis Multifascigera Multigalea Multiphragma Multisparsa Multitubigera Multizonopora Mumiella Murengoloclema Murinopsia Myagropora Myriapora Myriozoum Mystriopora == N == Nannopora Nekhoroshoviella Neliella Nellia Nemacanthclema Nemacanthopora Nemataxidra Nemataxis Nematifera Nematopora Nematoporella Nematotrypa Neoeridocampilus Neoeridotrypella Neoretenoa Neoreteporina Neorhombopora Neotrematopora Nephropora Neuropora Neuroporella Nevianopora Newportopora Nicholsonella Nicklesopora Niigaella Nikiforopora Nikiforovella Nipponstenopora Notamia Notoplagioecia Nudonychocella Nudymiella == O == Oanduella Oanduellina Obliquostoma Ochetosella Ochetosellina Odonotrypa Odontionella Oeciophylloporina Ogbinopora Ogiva Ogivalia Ogivalina Oligotopora Omalosecosa Oncousoecia Onychocella Onychocellaria Opisthornithopora Orbignyella Orbignyopora Orbipora Orbitulipora Orectodictya Orthopora Osburnostylus Osculipora Osthimosia Otionella Otopora Ottoseetaxis == P == Pachycraspedon Pachydera Pachydictya Pachystomaria Pachyteichopora Pachythecella Pakridictya Palaeocoryne Palaeocrisidia Paleoatactoechus Paleschara Palmicellaria Pamirella Pancheilopora Papillalunaria Parachasmatopora Paracrescis Parafenestalia Parafenestella Paralhederella Paralioclema Parametelipora Paranicklespora Paraseptopora


id: list-of-proteins-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_proteins-0.md
category: reference
title: List of proteins
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_proteins
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:41.469510+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-proteins-20260505-0
summary:
Proteins are a class of macromolecular organic compounds that are essential to life. They consist of a long polypeptide chain that usually adopts a single stable three-dimensional structure. They fulfill a wide variety of functions including providing structural stability to cells, catalyzing chemical reactions that produce or store energy or synthesize other biomolecules including nucleic acids and proteins, transporting essential nutrients, or serving other roles such as signal transduction. They are selectively transported to various compartments of the cell or in some cases, secreted from the cell. This list aims to organize information on how proteins are most often classified: by structure, by function, or by location. == Structure == Proteins may be classified as to their three-dimensional structure (also known a protein fold). The two most widely used classification schemes are: CATH database Structural Classification of Proteins database (SCOP) Both classification schemes are based on a hierarchy of fold types. At the top level are all alpha proteins (domains consisting of alpha helices), all beta proteins (domains consisting of beta sheets), and mixed alpha helix/beta sheet proteins. While most proteins adopt a single stable fold, a few proteins can rapidly interconvert between one or more folds. These are referred


id: bibliography-of-biology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_biology-0.md
category: reference
title: Bibliography of biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:42.724301+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bibliography-of-biology-20260505-0
summary:
This bibliography of biology is a list of notable works, organized by subdiscipline, on the subject of biology. Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy. Biology is a vast subject containing many subdivisions, topics, and disciplines. Subdisciplines of biology are recognized on the basis of the scale at which organisms are studied and the methods used to study them. == Anatomy == This section contains a list of works in anatomy, the study of the structure of living things. Ibn Sīnā (Avicenna) (1025). The Canon of Medicine. Vesalius, Andreas (1543). De humani corporis fabrica libri septem (On the fabric of the human body in seven books). A landmark publication in anatomy and medicine. It is the 400th birthyear of the beautiful book which graces the lectern in front of me, the most artistic book and one of the most illuminating in the history of medicine. As Osier remarked, 1543 is a starred year in the history of science. In it appeared the two great works which inaugurated modern science, Copernicus' Revolutions of the heavenly bodies, which gave us a rational and abiding explanation


id: bibliography-of-biology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_biology-1.md
category: reference
title: Bibliography of biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:42.724301+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bibliography-of-biology-20260505-0
summary:
Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon (1749–1788). Histoire Naturelle. Until the publication of this encyclopedia much of the European scientific community thought that all animals were created by God about 6,000 years ago. Not only did this 44-volume encyclopedia contain all descriptive biological knowledge of its time, it offered a new theory. One hundred years before Darwin, Buffon claimed that man and ape might have a common ancestor. His work also had a significant impact on ecology. It is no exaggeration to claim that virtually all the well-known writers of the Enlightenment, and even of later generations, in France as well as in other European countries were Buffonians, either directly or indirectly. Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste (1809). Philosophie zoologique ou exposition des considérations relatives à l'histoire naturelle des animaux. Dentu and The Author. English translation: Lamarck, Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet (2001). Zoological philosophy: an exposition with regard to the natural history of animals. Nabu Press. ISBN 978-1-178-26555-2. Darwin, Charles; Wallace, Alfred Russel (1858). "On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 3 (9): 46–50. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1858.tb02500.x. In September 1838 Charles Darwin conceived his


id: bibliography-of-biology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_biology-2.md
category: reference
title: Bibliography of biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:42.724301+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bibliography-of-biology-20260505-0
summary:
Mendel, Gregor (1866). "Versuche über Pflanzen-Hybriden". Verhandlungen des naturforschenden Vereins Brünn. Published in English as "Experiments on Plant Hybridization". Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society. 26: 1–30. 1901. (Online version) The result of years spent studying genetic traits in pea plants. Mendel compared seven discrete traits. Through experimentation, Mendel discovered that one inheritable trait would invariably be dominant to its recessive alternative. This model, later known as Mendelian inheritance or Mendelian genetics, provided an alternative to blending inheritance, which was the prevailing theory at the time. Fisher, Ronald (1918). "The Correlation Between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance". Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. 52 (2): 399–433. doi:10.1017/s0080456800012163. S2CID 181213898. Schrödinger, Erwin (1944). What is life? the physical aspects of the living cell (2001 reprint ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-521-42708-1. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) Based on a series of public lectures delivered at Trinity College, Dublin. Schrödinger's lecture focused on one important question: "how can the events in space and time which take place within the spatial boundary of a living organism be accounted for by physics and chemistry?" He introduced the idea of an "aperiodic crystal" that contained genetic information in its


id: list-of-brown-seaweeds-of-the-cape-peninsula-and-false-bay-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_brown_seaweeds_of_the_Cape_Peninsula_and_False_Bay-0.md
category: reference
title: List of brown seaweeds of the Cape Peninsula and False Bay
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_brown_seaweeds_of_the_Cape_Peninsula_and_False_Bay
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:45.220951+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-brown-seaweeds-of-the-cape-peninsula-and-false-bay-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of brown seaweeds recorded from the oceans bordering The Cape Peninsula in South Africa from Melkbosstrand on the West Coast to Cape Hangklip on the South Coast. This list comprises locally used common names, scientific names with author citation and recorded ranges. Ranges specified may not be the entire known range for the species, but should include the known range within the waters surrounding the Republic of South Africa. Brown seaweed refers to thousands of species of macroscopic, multicellular, marine algae in the taxon Phaeophyta The marine ecology is unusually varied for an area of this size, as a result of the meeting of two major oceanic water masses near Cape Point, and the park extends into two coastal marine bioregions. The ecology of the west or "Atlantic Seaboard" side of the Cape Peninsula is noticeably different in character and biodiversity to that of the east, or "False Bay" side. Both sides are classified as temperate waters, but there is a significant difference in average temperature, with the Atlantic side being noticeably colder on average. List ordering and taxonomy complies where possible with the current usage in Algaebase, and may differ from the cited source, as


id: list-of-brown-seaweeds-of-the-cape-peninsula-and-false-bay-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_brown_seaweeds_of_the_Cape_Peninsula_and_False_Bay-1.md
category: reference
title: List of brown seaweeds of the Cape Peninsula and False Bay
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_brown_seaweeds_of_the_Cape_Peninsula_and_False_Bay
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:45.220951+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-brown-seaweeds-of-the-cape-peninsula-and-false-bay-20260505-0
summary:
==== Family Sargassaceae ==== Long-leafed sargassum Anthophycus longifolius (Turner) Kützing, 1849 syn. Fucus longifolius Turner 1809, Sargassum longifolium (Turner) C.Agardh 1820, Carpophyllum longifolium (Turner) De Toni 1895, (Platboombaai eastwards as far as Uvongo in southern KwaZulu-Natal) Constricted axils Axillariella constricta (J.Agardh) P.C.Silva 1959b, syn. Fucodium constrictum J.Agardh 1848, Ascophyllum constricta (J.Agardh) Kuntze 1891, Ascophylla constricta (Kützing) Kuntze 1891, (Cape Peninsula to Cape Columbine) Hanging wrack Brassicophycus brassicaeformis (Kützing) Draisma, Ballesteros, F.Rousseau & T.Thibaut 2010, syn. Pycnophycus brassicaeformis Kützing 1860, Bifurcaria brassicaeformis (Kützing) E.S.Barton 1893, (Cape Agulhas to Sea Point) Cystophora fibrosa Simons, 1970, (De Walle to Koppie Allen, and Platboom) Sargassum elegans Suhr, 1840, (False Bay to Mozambique. Endemic to southern Africa) Different-leafed sargassum, Sargassum incisifolium (Turner) C.Agardh 1820, syn. Fucus incisifolius Turner 1811, Sargassum heterophyllum (Turner) C.Agardh, 1820, (False Bay eastward into Mozambique. Restricted to Southern Africa and Madagascar) === Order: Laminariales === ==== Family Laminariaceae ==== Split-fan kelp Laminaria pallida Greville in J. Agardh 1848, Hafgygia pallida (Greville) Areschchoug 1883, Saccharina pallida (Greville) Kuntze 1891, (Danger Point to Cape Nolloth, as the schinzii form to at least Rocky Point in northern Namibia) Bladder kelp Macrocystis pyrifera (Linnaeus) C.Agardh, 1820, also recorded as syn. Macrocystis angustifolia Bory de Saint-Vincent


id: list-of-green-seaweeds-of-the-cape-peninsula-and-false-bay-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_green_seaweeds_of_the_Cape_Peninsula_and_False_Bay-0.md
category: reference
title: List of green seaweeds of the Cape Peninsula and False Bay
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_green_seaweeds_of_the_Cape_Peninsula_and_False_Bay
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:46.623106+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-green-seaweeds-of-the-cape-peninsula-and-false-bay-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of green seaweeds recorded from the oceans bordering the Cape Peninsula in South Africa from Melkbosstrand on the West Coast to Cape Hangklip on the South Coast. This list comprises locally used common names, scientific names with author citation and recorded ranges. Ranges specified may not be the entire known range for the species, but should include the known range within the waters surrounding the Republic of South Africa. Green seaweed refers to thousands of species of macroscopic, multicellular, marine algae in the taxon Chlorophyta The marine ecology is unusually varied for an area of this size, as a result of the meeting of two major oceanic water masses near Cape Point, and the area extends into two coastal marine bioregions. The ecology of the west or "Atlantic Seaboard" side of the Cape Peninsula is noticeably different in character and biodiversity to that of the east, or "False Bay" side. Both sides are classified as temperate waters, but there is a significant difference in average temperature, with the Atlantic side being noticeably colder on average. List ordering and taxonomy complies where possible with the current usage in Algaebase, and may differ from the cited source, as


id: list-of-green-seaweeds-of-the-cape-peninsula-and-false-bay-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_green_seaweeds_of_the_Cape_Peninsula_and_False_Bay-1.md
category: reference
title: List of green seaweeds of the Cape Peninsula and False Bay
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_green_seaweeds_of_the_Cape_Peninsula_and_False_Bay
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:46.623106+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-green-seaweeds-of-the-cape-peninsula-and-false-bay-20260505-0
summary:
==== Family: Ulvaceae ==== Blidingia minima (Nägeli ex Kützing) Kylin 1947, syn. Enteromorpha minima Nägeli ex Kützing 1849, Enteromorpha compressa var. minima (Nägeli ex Hauck) Hamel 1931, Enteromorpha nana var. minima (Nägeli ex Hauck) Sjøstedt 1939, (Kraalbaai, Langebaan lagoon to False Bay, and Eastern Cape) Chloropelta caespitosa Tanner 1980, (Kalk Bay and Cape Hangklip) Enteromorpha atroviridis (Levring) M.J.Wynne 1986, syn. Ulva atroviridis Levring 1938, (Namibia to Oudekraal, Cape Peninsula) Percursaria percursa (C.Agardh) Rosenvinge 1893, syn. Zignoa percursa (C.Agardh) Trevisan, Conferva percursa C.Agardh 1817, Enteromorpha percursa (C.Agardh) J.Agardh 1842, (Cape Peninsula – Glencairn, Scarborough, Mouille Point) Tangleweed, Ulva clathrata (Roth) C.Agardh, 1811, (TMNPMPA), Ulva flexuosa Wulfen 1803, syn. Enteromorpha flexuosa (Wulfen) J.Agardh 1883, (Muizenberg and Dalebrook, False Bay and Eastern Cape) Green sea intestines, Ulva intestinalis Linnaeus 1753, syn. Conferva intestinalis (Linnaeus) Roth 1797, Tetraspora intestinalis (Linnaeus) Desvaux 1818, Scytosiphon intestinalis (Linnaeus) Lyngbye 1819, Enteromorpha intestinalis (Linnaeus) Nees 1820, Fistularia intestinalis (Linnaeus) Greville 1824, Solenia intestinalis (Linnaeus) C.Agardh 1824, Ilea intestinalis (Linnaeus) Leiblein 1827, Hydrosolen intestinalis (Linnaeus) Martius 1833, Ulva enteromorpha var. intestinalis (Linnaeus) Le Jolis 1863, Ulva bulbosa var. intestinalis (Linnaeus) Hariot 1889, Enteromorpha compressa var. intestinalis (Linnaeus) Hamel 1931, (Widespread on west and south coasts, along entire South African


id: list-of-red-seaweeds-of-the-cape-peninsula-and-false-bay-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_red_seaweeds_of_the_Cape_Peninsula_and_False_Bay-0.md
category: reference
title: List of red seaweeds of the Cape Peninsula and False Bay
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_red_seaweeds_of_the_Cape_Peninsula_and_False_Bay
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:48.020280+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-red-seaweeds-of-the-cape-peninsula-and-false-bay-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of red seaweeds recorded from the oceans bordering The Cape Peninsula in South Africa from Melkbosstrand on the West Coast to Cape Hangklip on the South Coast. This list comprises locally used common names, scientific names with author citation and recorded ranges. Ranges specified may not be the entire known range for the species, but should include the known range within the waters surrounding the Republic of South Africa. Red seaweed refers to thousands of species of macroscopic, multicellular, marine algae in the taxon Rhodophyta The marine ecology is unusually varied for an area of this size, as a result of the meeting of two major oceanic water masses near Cape Point, and the park extends into two coastal marine bioregions. The ecology of the west or "Atlantic Seaboard" side of the Cape Peninsula is noticeably different in character and biodiversity to that of the east, or "False Bay" side. Both sides are classified as temperate waters, but there is a significant difference in average temperature, with the Atlantic side being noticeably colder on average. List ordering and taxonomy complies where possible with the current usage in Algaebase, and may differ from the cited source, as


id: list-of-red-seaweeds-of-the-cape-peninsula-and-false-bay-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_red_seaweeds_of_the_Cape_Peninsula_and_False_Bay-1.md
category: reference
title: List of red seaweeds of the Cape Peninsula and False Bay
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_red_seaweeds_of_the_Cape_Peninsula_and_False_Bay
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:48.020280+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-red-seaweeds-of-the-cape-peninsula-and-false-bay-20260505-0
summary:
==== Family Ceramiaceae ==== Antithamnion diminuatum var. polyglandulum Stegenga 1986, (Olifantsbos in the southern Cape Peninsula eastward to KwaZulu-Natal) Antithamnion pseudoarmatum Stegenga 1986, (Olifantsbos and Brandfontein, endemic) Antithamnionella tasmanica Wollaston 1968, (Kalk Bay to Kowie River) Antithamnionella tormentosa Stegenga 1986, (Cape Peninsula from Three Anchor Bay to Muizenberg, endemic) Antithamnionella verticillata (Suhr) Lyle 1922, syn. Callithamnion vertillatum Suhr 1840, Antithamnion verticillatum (Suhr) De Toni 1903, (Swartklip in False Bay to Transkei) Bornetia repens Stegenga 1985, (Swartklip in False Bay to Transkei, possibly KwaZulu-Natal) Callithamniella capensis Simons 1970, (Muizenberg to East London, endemic) Callithamnion stuposum Suhr 1840, syn. Phlebothamnion stuposum (Suhr) Kützing 1843, Spongoclonium stuposum (Suhr) De Toni 1903, (Rare on weat coast, common on south coast and KwaZulu-Natal at least as far north as Mabibi) Flaccid kelp-weed, Carpoblepharis flaccida (J.V.Lamouroux) Kützing 1849, syn. Ptilota flaccida (J.V.Lamouroux) C.Agardh 1822, Delesseria flaccida J.V.Lamouroux 1813, (Namibia to the Kei river, Southern African endemic) Carpoblepharis minima E.S.Barton 1893, (Möwe Bay in Namibia to Buffels Bay on the Cape Peninsula) Centroceras clavulatum (C.Agardh) Montagne 1846, syn. Ceramium clavulatum C.Agardh 1822, Spyridia clavulata (C.Agardh) J.Agardh 1842, (Whole southern African coast) Centroceras distichum Okamura 1934, (Cape Hangklip) Curl-claw, Centroceras spp. Beaded ceramium, Ceramium arenarium Simons 1966, (Swakopmund


id: list-of-red-seaweeds-of-the-cape-peninsula-and-false-bay-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_red_seaweeds_of_the_Cape_Peninsula_and_False_Bay-2.md
category: reference
title: List of red seaweeds of the Cape Peninsula and False Bay
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_red_seaweeds_of_the_Cape_Peninsula_and_False_Bay
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:48.020280+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-red-seaweeds-of-the-cape-peninsula-and-false-bay-20260505-0
summary:
==== Family Rhodomelaceae ==== Aiolocolax pulchellus M.A.Pocock 1956, (Blaauwberg eastwards) Bostrychia intricata (Bory de Saint-Vincent) Montagne 1852, syn. Scytonema intricatum Bory de Saint-Vincent 1828, Stictosiphonia intricata (Bory de Saint-Vincent) P.C.Silva 1996, (Saldanha Bay, Kommetjie on Cape Peninsula eastward along whole of south coast) Kelp fern, Carradoriella virgata (C.Agardh) P.C.Silva, 1996, recorded as syn. Polysiphonia virgata (C.Agardh) Sprengel 1827, syn. Hutchinsia virgata C.Agardh 1824, Carradoria virgata (C.Agardh) Kylin 1956, (Namibia to Brandfontein) Cape chondria, Chondria capensis (Harvey) Askenasy 1888, syn. Laurencia capensis Harvey 1849, Chondriopsis capensis (Harvey) J.Agardh 1863, (Namibia to just east of Cape Agulhas. Southern African endemic.) Falkenbergiella capensis Kylin 1938, (St James, Muizenberg and Swartklip in False Bay. Cape south coast. Endemic) Herposiphonia didymosporangia Stegenga & Kemperman 1987, (St James, Brandfontein and coast of De Hoop nature reserve, Southern African endemic) Herposiphonia heringii (Harvey) Falkenberg 1901, syn. Polysiphonia heringii Harvey 1847, (Between Hondeklipbaai and St James, endemic) Herposiphonia secunda (C.Agardh) Ambronn 1880, syn. Hutchinsia secunda C.Agardh 1824, Polysiphonia secunda (C.Agardh) Zanardini 1840, Herposiphonia tenella f. secunda (C.Agardh) Hollenberg 1968, (Muizenberg, Cape Agulhas eastward to the tropics) Flexuose laurencia, Laurencia flexuosa Kützing 1849, (False Bay to KwaZulu-Natal at least as far north as Mabibi, endemic)) Grape laurencia, Laurencia glomerata


id: list-of-red-seaweeds-of-the-cape-peninsula-and-false-bay-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_red_seaweeds_of_the_Cape_Peninsula_and_False_Bay-3.md
category: reference
title: List of red seaweeds of the Cape Peninsula and False Bay
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_red_seaweeds_of_the_Cape_Peninsula_and_False_Bay
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:48.020280+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-red-seaweeds-of-the-cape-peninsula-and-false-bay-20260505-0
summary:
==== Family Corallinaceae ==== Amphiroa capensis Areschoug 1852, (Llandudno on Cape Peninsula to Kowie River, endemic) Amphiroa epheddraea horsetail coralline, Arthrocardia corymbosa (Lamarck) Decaisne 1842, syn. Corallina corymbosa Lamarck 1815, Amphiroa corymbosa (Lamarck) Decaisne 1842, Cheilosporum corymbosum (Lamarck) Decaisne 1842, (Southern Cape Peninsula eastward) Arthrocardia flabellata (Kützing) Manza 1940, syn. Corallina flabellata Kützing 1858, (Probably along most of the southern African coast) (Probably along the entire South African coast extending into Mozambique) Arthrocardia filicula (Lamarck) Johansen 1984, syn. Corallina filicula Lamarck 1815, Cheilosporum palmatum var. filicula (Lamarck) Yendo 1902, (Namibia and west coast) Feather coralline, Corallina officinalis Linnaeus 1758, (Oudekraal to Kowie river) (Oudekraal eastward to Mission Rocks) Hydrolithon samoënse (Foslie) Keats & Y.M.Chamberlain 1994, syn. Lithophyllum samoënse Foslie 1906, Pseudolithophyllum samoënse (Foslie) Adey 1970, (Yzerfontein, Western Cape to Sodwana Bay, KwaZulu-Natal.) Finely forked coralline, Jania adhaerens J.V.Lamouroux, 1816 (TMNPMPA) Jania crassa J.V.Lamouroux 1821, (St. James in False Bay, Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal) Arrowhead coralline, Jania cultrata (Harvey) J.H.Kim, Guiry & H.-G.Choi 2007, syn. Amphiroa cultrata Harvey 1849, Cheilosporum cultratum (Harvey) Areschoug 1852, (as Cheilosporum cultratum, Platboombaai on Cape Peninsula to Mozambique) Jania sagittata (J.V.Lamouroux) Blainville 1834, syn. Corallina sagittata J.V.Lamouroux 1824, Amphiroa sagittata (J.V.Lamouroux) Decaisne 1842, Arthrocardia sagittata (J.V.Lamouroux)


id: list-of-red-seaweeds-of-the-cape-peninsula-and-false-bay-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_red_seaweeds_of_the_Cape_Peninsula_and_False_Bay-4.md
category: reference
title: List of red seaweeds of the Cape Peninsula and False Bay
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_red_seaweeds_of_the_Cape_Peninsula_and_False_Bay
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:48.020280+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-red-seaweeds-of-the-cape-peninsula-and-false-bay-20260505-0
summary:
==== Family Gigartinaceae ==== Red tongue-weed, Gigartina bracteata (S.G.Gmelin) Setchell & N.L.Gardner 1933, syn. Fucus bracteatus S.G.Gmelin 1768, (Namibia to Cape of Good Hope, drift material from Muizenberg, Southern African endemic) Gigartina insignis (Endlicher & Diesing) F.Schmitz in E.S.Barton 1896, syn. Iridaea insignis Endlicher & Diesing 1845, (Muizenberg, Cape Hangklip to Kowie River, Southern African endemic) Gigartina pistillata (S.G.Gmelin) Stackhouse 1809, syn. Fucus pistillatus S.G.Gmelin 1768, (Smitswinkel Bay and Swartklip east to the Kowie area) Tongue-weed, Gigartina polycarpa (Kützing) Setchell & N.L.Gardner, 1933 (TMNPMPA) Gigartina tysonii Reinbold in Tyson 1912, (Three Anchor Bay to Camps Bay, drift specimens from Platboombaai and Olifantsbos, endemic) Gigartina scabiosa (Kützing) Papenfuss (date not specified) (TMNPMPA) Iridaea convoluta (Areschoug ex J Agardh) Hewitt 1960, syn. Gigartina convoluta Areschoug ex J.Agardh 1899, (Table Bay to Cape of Good Hope, endemic) Spotted mazzaella, Mazzaella capensis (J.Agardh) Fredericq in Hommersand et al. 1993, Iridaea capensis J.Agardh 1848, Iridophycus capensis (J.Agardh) Setchell & N.L.Gardner 1936, Gigartina capensis (J.Agardh) D.H.Kim 1976, (Port Nolloth to Cape Agulhas, extending into Namibia, Southern African endemic) Convoluted mazzaella Mazzaella convoluta (Areschoug ex J.Agardh) Hommersand, 1994, (TMNPMPA) Rhodoglossum alcicorne Stegenga, Bolton & R.J.Anderson 1997, (Hout Bay, endemic) Sarcothalia radula (Esper) Edyvane & Womersley 1994, syn.


id: list-of-red-seaweeds-of-the-cape-peninsula-and-false-bay-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_red_seaweeds_of_the_Cape_Peninsula_and_False_Bay-5.md
category: reference
title: List of red seaweeds of the Cape Peninsula and False Bay
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_red_seaweeds_of_the_Cape_Peninsula_and_False_Bay
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:48.020280+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-red-seaweeds-of-the-cape-peninsula-and-false-bay-20260505-0
summary:
==== Family Hapalidiaceae ==== Thin coralline crust, Phymatolithon foveatum (Y.M.Chamberlain & Keats) Maneveldt & E.Van der Merwe 2014, (TMNPMPA), syn. Leptophytum foveatum Y.M.Chamberlain & D.W.Keats, 1994. === Order Hildenbrandiales === ==== Family Hildenbrandiaceae ==== Tar crust, Hildenbrandia lecannellieri Hariot 1887, (Entire west coast and east coast as far as Port Elizabeth) Hildenbrandia rubra (Sommerfelt) Meneghini 1841, (Probably the whole of the west coast) === Order Nemaliales === ==== Family Liagoraceae ==== Helminthocladia papenfussii Kylin 1938, (Oudekraal eastward at least as far as Cape Morgan) Helminthora furcellata (Reinbold ex Tyson) M.T.Martin 1947, (Endemic, Three Anchor Bay to Cape Hangklip) ==== Family Scinaiaceae ==== Hedgehog seaweed, Nothogenia erinacea (Turner) P.G.Parkinson 1983, (Cape Fria, Namibia to East London) Balloon weed, Nothogenia ovalis (Suhr) P.G.Parkinson 1983, syn. Dumontia ovalis Suhr 1840, (Endemic, Möwe Bay, Namibia to Cape Agulhas) Scinaia capensis (Setchell) Huisman 1985, syn. Gloiophloea capensis Setchell 1914, (Endemic, Melkbosstrand to Kowie area of Eastern Cape) Ramrod weed, Scinaia salicornioides (Kützing) J.Agardh 1851, syn. Ginnania salicornioides Kützing, (Endemic, Muizenberg to east coast) === Order Nemastomatales === ==== Family Schizymeniaceae ==== Schizymenia apoda (J.Agardh) J.Agardh 1851, syn. Platymenia apoda J.Agardh 1848, Platymenia undulata var. obovata J.Agardh 1848, Schizymenia obovata (J.Agardh) J.Agardh 1851, (Port Nolloth to


id: list-of-selective-estrogen-receptor-modulators-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_selective_estrogen_receptor_modulators-0.md
category: reference
title: List of selective estrogen receptor modulators
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_selective_estrogen_receptor_modulators
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:49.247802+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-selective-estrogen-receptor-modulators-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs). == Approved == SERMs that have been approved for medical use include anordrin (+mifepristone (Zi Yun)), bazedoxifene (+conjugated estrogens (Duavee)), broparestrol (Acnestrol), clomifene (Clomid), cyclofenil (Sexovid), lasofoxifene (Fablyn), ormeloxifene (Centron, Novex, Novex-DS, Sevista), ospemifene (Osphena; deaminohydroxytoremifene), raloxifene (Evista), tamoxifen (Nolvadex), and toremifene (Fareston; 4-chlorotamoxifen). == Clinical trials == SERMs that are currently under development and in clinical trials include acolbifene, afimoxifene (4-hydroxytamoxifen; metabolite of tamoxifen), elacestrant, enclomifene ((E)-clomifene), endoxifen (4-hydroxy-N-desmethyltamoxifen; metabolite of tamoxifen), and zuclomifene ((Z)-clomifene). == Non-approved == SERMs that have not been approved for medical use include arzoxifene, brilanestrant, clomifenoxide (clomiphene N-oxide; metabolite of clomifene), droloxifene (3-hydroxytamoxifen), etacstil, fispemifene, GW-7604 (4-hydroxyetacstil; metabolite of etacstil), idoxifene (pyrrolidino-4-iodotamoxifen), levormeloxifene ((L)-ormeloxifene), miproxifene, nafoxidine, nitromifene (CI-628), NNC 45-0095, panomifene, pipendoxifene (ERA-923), trioxifene, and zindoxifene (D-16726). Sivifene (A-007) was initially thought to be a SERM due to its structural similarity to tamoxifen but it was subsequently found not to bind to the estrogen receptor (ER). Tesmilifene (DPPE; YMB-1002, BMS-217380-01) is also structurally related to tamoxifen but similarly does not bind to the ER and is not a SERM. == Structure == SERMs can be variously classified structurally as triphenylethylenes (tamoxifen, clomifene, toremifene, droloxifene,


id: list-of-sequenced-animal-genomes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_animal_genomes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of sequenced animal genomes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_animal_genomes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:50.483884+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-sequenced-animal-genomes-20260505-0
summary:
This list of sequenced animal genomes contains animal species for which complete genome sequences have been assembled, annotated and published. Substantially complete draft genomes are included, but not partial genome sequences or organelle-only sequences. For all kingdoms, see the list of sequenced genomes. For the far more abundant mitochondrial genomes, see list of sequenced animal mitochondrial genomes. == Porifera (Sponges) == Amphimedon queenslandica, a sponge (2009) Stylissa carteri (2016) Ephydatia muelleri (2020) Xestospongia testudinaria (2016) == Ctenophora == Mnemiopsis leidyi (Ctenophora), (order Lobata) (2012/2013) Hormiphora californensis (Ctenophora) (2021) Pleurobrachia bachei (Ctenophora) (2014) Bolinopsis microptera(Ctenophora) (2022) == Placozoa == == Cnidaria == Hydra vulgaris, (previously Hydra magnipapillata), a model hydrozoan (2010) Nematostella vectensis, a model sea anemone (starlet sea anemone) (2007) Aiptasia pallida, a sea anemone (2015) Renilla muelleri, an octocoral (2017, 2019) Stylophora pistillata, a coral (2017) Aurelia aurita, moon jellyfish (2019) Clytia hemisphaerica, Hydrozoan jellyfish (2019) Myxobolus honghuensis (2022) Nemopilema nomurai, Nomura jellyfish (2019) Rhopilema esculentum, Flame jellyfish (2020) Cassiopea xamachana (Scyphozoa) (2019) Alatina alata (Cubozoa) (2019) Calvadosia cruxmelitensis (Staurozoa) (2019) Dendronephthya gigantea, an octocoral (2019) Acropora acuminata (2020) Acropora awi (2020) Acropora cytherea, Table coral (2020) Acropora digitifera, a coral (2011) Acropora echinata (2020) Acropora florida, branching staghorn


id: list-of-sequenced-animal-genomes-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_animal_genomes-1.md
category: reference
title: List of sequenced animal genomes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_animal_genomes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:50.483884+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-sequenced-animal-genomes-20260505-0
summary:
==== Teleostei ==== Order Anabantiformes Betta splendens, Siamese fighting fish (2018) Helostoma temminkii, Kissing gourami (2020) Order Anguilliformes Anguilla anguilla, European Eel (2012) Anguilla japonica, Japanese Eel (2022) Order Atheriniformes Atherinopsis californiensis, Jack silverside (2023) Order Beloniformes Oryzias latipes, medaka (2007) Order Callionymiformes Callionymus lyra, common dragonet (2020) Order Carangiformes Caranx ignobilis, Giant trevally (2022) Caranx melampygus, Bluefin trevally (2021) Pseudocaranx georgianus, New Zealand trevally (2021) Order Centrarchiformes Oplegnathus fasciatus, barred knifejaw (2019) Siniperca roulei (Slender Mandarinfish) (2025) Order Characiformes Astyanax jordani, Mexican cavefish (2014) Astyanax mexicanus, Mexican tetra (2021) Colossoma macropomum, Tambaqui (2021) Hasemania nana, Silvertip tetra (2013) Hyphessobrycon heterorhabdus, Flag tetra (2023) Petitella bleheri, Firehead tetra (2015) Psalidodon paranae, (2016) Order Cichliformes Oreochromis niloticus, Nile tilapia (2019) Maylandia zebra, Lake Malawi cichlid (2019) Order Clupeiformes Clupea harengus, Atlantic herring (2020) Coilia nasus, Japanese grenadier anchovy (2020) Sardina pilchardus, European pilchard (2019) Order Cypriniformes Anabarilius grahami, Kanglang fish (2018) Danio rerio, zebrafish (2007) Leuciscus baicalensis, Siberian dace (2014) Megalobrama amblycephala, Wuchang bream (2017) Metzia formosae, (2015) Opsarius caudiocellatus, (2022) Oxygymnocypris stewartii, (2019) Pseudobrama simoni (2020) Rhodeus ocellatus, Rosy bitterling (2020) Triplophysa bleekeri, Tibetan stone loach (2020) Order Cyprinodontiformes Fundulus catenatus, Northern studfish (2020) Fundulus olivaceus, Blackspotted topminnow (2020) Fundulus


id: list-of-sequenced-animal-genomes-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_animal_genomes-2.md
category: reference
title: List of sequenced animal genomes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_animal_genomes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:50.483884+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-sequenced-animal-genomes-20260505-0
summary:
Genus Aptenodytes (Great Penguins) Aptenodytes forsteri, Emperor penguin (2014) Aptenodytes patagonicus, King penguin (2019) Genus Eudyptes (Crested Penguins) Eudyptes chrysocome, Western rockhopper penguin (2019) Eudyptes chrysolophus chrysolophus, Macaroni penguin (2019) Eudyptes chrysolophus schlegeli, Royal penguin (2019) Eudyptes filholi, Eastern rockhopper penguin (2019) Eudyptes moseleyi, Northern rockhopper penguin (2019) Eudyptes pachyrhynchus, Fiordland penguin (2019) Eudyptes robustus, Snares penguin (2019) Eudyptes sclateri, Erect-crested penguin (2019) Genus Eudyptula (Little Penguins) Eudyptula minor albosignata, White-flippered penguin (2019) Eudyptula minor minor, Little blue penguin (2019) Eudyptula novaehollandiae, Fairy penguin (2019) Genus Megadyptes (Hoiho Penguins) Megadyptes antipodes antipodes, Yellow-eyed penguin (2019) Pygoscelis (Brush-tailed Penguins) Pygoscelis adeliae, Adélie penguin (2014) Pygoscelis antarctica, Chinstrap penguin (2019) Pygoscelis papua, Gentoo penguin (2019) Genus Spheniscus (Banded Penguins) Spheniscus demersus, African penguin (2019) Spheniscus humboldti, Humboldt penguin (2019) Spheniscus magellanicus, Magellanic penguin (2019) Spheniscus mendiculus, Galápagos penguin (2019) ====== Order Ciconiiformes (Storks) ====== ====== Order Suliformes ====== ====== Order Pelecaniformes ====== ===== Afroaves ===== ====== Order Strigiformes (Owls) ====== ====== Order Accipitriformes ====== Add 87 hawk genomes found here: The Complete Genome Sequences of 87 Species of Hawks (Accipitriformes, Aves) ====== Order Coliiformes (Mousebirds) ====== ====== Order Leptosomiformes ====== ====== Order Trogoniformes (Trogons) ====== ====== Order Bucerotiformes ====== ====== Order Coraciiformes


id: list-of-sequenced-animal-genomes-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_animal_genomes-3.md
category: reference
title: List of sequenced animal genomes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_animal_genomes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:50.483884+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-sequenced-animal-genomes-20260505-0
summary:
===== Euarchontoglires ===== Order Lagomorpha Family Leporidae Oryctolagus cuniculus, European rabbit (2010) Order Primates Family Callitrichidae Callithrix jacchus, Common marmoset (2010, whole genome 2014) Family Cercopithecidae Macaca mulatta, rhesus macaque (2007 & Chinese rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta lasiota in 2011) Macaca fascicularis, Cynomolgus or crab-eating macaque (2011) Papio anubis, olive baboon (2020) Papio cynocephalus, yellow baboon (2016) Rhinopithecus roxellana, golden snub-nosed monkey (2019) Family Galagidae Otolemur garnettii, small-eared galago, or bushbaby () Family Hominidae Subfamily Ponginae Pongo pygmaeus/Pongo abelii, orangutan (Borneo/Sumatra) (2011) Subfamily Homininae Gorilla gorilla, western gorilla (2012) Homo sapiens, modern human (draft 2001, whole genome 2022) † Homo neanderthalensis, Neanderthal (draft 2010) Pan troglodytes, chimpanzee (2005) Pan paniscus, bonobo (2012) Order Rodentia Family Caviidae Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris, capybara (2018) Family Cricetidae Microtus montanus, Montane vole (2021) Microtus richardsoni, North American Water Vole (2021) Peromyscus leucopus, white-footed mouse (2019) Family Heteromyidae Perognathus longimembris pacificus, Pacific Pocket Mouse Family Muridae Mastomys coucha, Southern multimammate mouse (2019) Mus musculus Strain: C57BL/6J, House mouse (2002) Rattus norvegicus, Brown rat (2004) ===== Laurasiatheria ===== Order Artiodactyla (even-toed ungulates) Family Antilocapridae Antilocapra americana, pronghorn (2019) Family Balaenidae Balaena mysticetus, bowhead whale (2015) Eubalaena glacialis, North Atlantic right whale (2018) Family Balaenopteridae Balaenoptera acutorostrata, common minke


id: list-of-sequenced-animal-genomes-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_animal_genomes-4.md
category: reference
title: List of sequenced animal genomes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_animal_genomes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:50.483884+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-sequenced-animal-genomes-20260505-0
summary:
=== Insects === Order Blattodea Blattella germanica, German cockroach (2018) Periplaneta americana, American cockroach (2018) Zootermopsis nevadensis, a dampwood termite (2014 Cryptotermes secundus, a drywood termite(2018) Macrotermes natalensis, a higher termite (2014 Order Coleoptera Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins, beetle (mountain pine beetle) (2013) Aquatica lateralis, Japanese aquatic firefly "Heike-botaru" (firefly) (2018) Photinus pyralis, Big Dipper firefly (2018) Protaetia brevitarsis, White-spotted flower chafer (2019) Tribolium castaneum Strain:GA-2, beetle (red flour beetle) (2008) Allomyrina dichotoma, Japanese rhinoceros beetle (2022) Pachyrhynchus sulphureomaculatus, Easter Egg Weevil (2021) Order Collembola Family Isotomidae Desoria tigrina, (2021) Family Sminthurididae Sminthurides aquaticus, (2021) Order Diptera Family Calliphoridae Aldrichina grahami, Forensic blowfly (2020) Family Chironomidae Dasypogon diadema, Hunting Robber fly (2019) Parochlus steinend, Antarctic winged midge (2017) Proctacanthus coquilletti, Assassin fly (2017) Family Culicidae (mosquitoes) Aedes aegypti Strain:LVPib12, mosquito (vector of dengue fever, etc.) (2007) Aedes albopictus (2015) Anopheles darlingi Anopheles gambiae Strain: PEST, mosquito (vector of malaria) (2002) Anopheles gambiae Strain: M, mosquito (vector of malaria) (2010) Anopheles gambiae Strain: S, mosquito (vector of malaria) (2010) Anopheles sinensis, mosquito (vector of vivax malaria, lymphatic filariasis and Setaria infections), (2014) Anopheles stephensii Anopheles arabiensis (2015) Anopheles quadriannulatus (2015) Anopheles merus (2015) Anopheles melas (2015) Anopheles christyi (2015) Anopheles epiroticus (2015)


id: list-of-sequenced-animal-genomes-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_animal_genomes-5.md
category: reference
title: List of sequenced animal genomes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_animal_genomes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:50.483884+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-sequenced-animal-genomes-20260505-0
summary:
== Nematodes == Ancylostoma ceylanicum, zoonotic hookworm infecting both humans and other mammals (2015) Aplectana chamaeleonis, amphibian parasite (2023) Ascaris suum, pig-infecting giant roundworm, closely related to human-infecting giant roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides (2011) Brugia malayi (Strain:TRS), human-infecting filarial parasite (2007) Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, infects pine trees (2011) Caenorhabditis angaria (Strain:PS1010) (2010) Caenorhabditis brenneri, a gonochoristic (male-female obligate) species more closely related to C. briggsae than C. elegans Caenorhabditis briggsae (2003) Caenorhabditis elegans (Strain:Bristol N2), model organism (1998) Caenorhabditis remanei, a gonochoristic (male-female obligate) species more closely related to C. briggsae than C. elegans Dirofilaria immitis, dog-infecting filarial parasite (2012) Globodera pallida, plant pathogen (2014) Haemonchus contortus, blood-feeding parasite infecting sheep and goats (2013) Heterodera glycines, soybean cyst nematode (2019) Heterorhabditis bacteriophora, (2013) Loa loa, human-infecting filarial parasite (2013) Meloidogyne hapla, northern root-knot nematode (plant pathogen) (2008) Meloidogyne incognita, southern root-knot nematode (plant pathogen) (2008) Necator americanus, human-infecting hookworm (2014) Onchocerca volvulus, human-infecting filarial parasite Pristionchus pacificus, model invertebrate (2008) Romanomermis culicivorax, entomopathogenic nematode that invades larvae of various mosquito species (2013) Trichuris suis, pig-infecting whipworm (2014) Trichuris muris, mouse-infecting whipworm (2014) Trichuris trichiura, human-infecting whipworm (2014) Wuchereria bancrofti, human-infecting filarial parasite == Nematomorpha == == Priapulida == == Kinorhyncha == ==


id: list-of-sequenced-archaeal-genomes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_archaeal_genomes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of sequenced archaeal genomes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_archaeal_genomes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:51.865642+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-sequenced-archaeal-genomes-20260505-0
summary:
This list of sequenced archaeal genomes contains all the archaea known to have publicly available complete genome sequences that have been assembled, annotated and deposited in public databases. Methanococcus jannaschii was the first archaeon whose genome was sequenced, in 1996. Currently in this list there are 39 genomes belonging to Crenarchaeota species, 105 belonging to the Euryarchaeota, 1 genome belonging to Korarchaeota and to the Nanoarchaeota, 3 belonging to the Thaumarchaeota and 1 genome belonging to an unclassified Archaea, totalling 150 Archaeal genomes. == Crenarchaeota == === Acidilobales === === Desulforococcales === === Sulfolobales === === Thermoproteales === == Euryarchaeota == === Archaeoglobi === === Halobacteria === === Methanobacteria === === Methanococci === === Methanomicrobia === === Methanopyri === === Thermococci === === Thermoplasmata === === Unclassified Euryarchaeota === == Korarchaeota == == Nanoarchaeota == == Thaumarchaeota == === Cenarchaeales === === Nitrosopumilales === == Unclassified Archaea == == See also == Genome project Human microbiome project Lists of sequenced genomes List of sequenced bacterial genomes List of sequenced eukaryotic genomes List of sequenced mitochondrial genomes List of sequenced plastomes List of sequenced animal genomes List of sequenced animal mitochondrial genomes List of sequenced fungi genomes List of sequenced fungi


id: list-of-sequenced-fungi-genomes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_fungi_genomes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of sequenced fungi genomes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_fungi_genomes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:53.310491+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-sequenced-fungi-genomes-20260505-0
summary:
This list of sequenced fungi genomes contains all the fungal species known to have publicly available complete genome sequences that have been assembled, annotated and published; draft genomes are not included, nor are organelle only sequences. For all kingdoms, see lists of sequenced genomes. == Ascomycota == === Dothideomycetes === Aureobasidium pullulans, A. melanogenum, A. subglaciale and A. namibiae, polyextremotolerant (2014) Hortaea werneckii, extremely halotolerant (2013 2017) Leptosphaeria maculans, plant pathogen (2011) Macrophomina phaseolina, plant pathogen (2012) Mycosphaerella fijiensis, plant pathogen (2007) Mycosphaerella graminicola IPO323, wheat pathogen (2008) Phaeosphaeria nodorum SN15, wheat pathogen (2005) Pyrenophora tritici-repentis Pt-1C-BFP, wheat pathogen (2007) === Eurotiomycetes === Ajellomyces capsulata several strains, Darling's disease (2009, unpubl.) Ajellomyces dermatitidis several strains (2009, unpubl.) Arthroderma benhamiae CBS 112371, skin infection (2010, unpubl.) Arthroderma gypseum CBS 118893, athlete's foot (2008) Arthroderma otae CBS 113480, athlete's foot (2008) Aspergillus aculeatus ATCC16872, industrial use (2010) Aspergillus carbonarius ITEM 5010, food pathogen (2009) Aspergillus clavatus Strain:NRRL1 (2008) Aspergillus fumigatus Strain:A1163, human pathogen (2008) Aspergillus fumigatus Strain:Af293, human pathogen (2005) Aspergillus kawachii IFO 4308, food industry (2011) Aspergillus nidulans Strain:FGSC A4, model organism (2005) Aspergillus niger Strain:ATCC 1015 (DOE Joint Genome institute) Aspergillus niger Strain:CBS 513.88, industrial use (2007) Aspergillus oryzae Strain:RIB40,


id: list-of-sequenced-fungi-genomes-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_fungi_genomes-1.md
category: reference
title: List of sequenced fungi genomes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_fungi_genomes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:53.310491+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-sequenced-fungi-genomes-20260505-0
summary:
== Chytridiomycota == Chytridiomycota includes fungi with spores that have flagella (zoospores) and are a sister group to more advanced land fungi that lack flagella. Several chytrid species are pathogens, but have not had their genomes sequenced yet. Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis JEL423, amphibian pathogen (2006) Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis JAM81, amphibian pathogen (2006) Spizellomyces punctatus DAOM BR117 (2009) Gonapodya prolifera JEL478 (Monoblepharidomycetes) (2011) Chytriomyces sp. MP 71 Entophlycits helioformis JEL805 Gaertneriomyces semiglobifer Barr43 Globomyces pollinis-pini Rhizoclomsatium globosum == Blastocladiomycota == Allomyces macrogynus ATCC 38327 (Blastocladiomycota) (2009) Catenaria anguillulae PL171 (Blastocladiomycota) == Neocallimastigomycota == Piromyces sp. E2 (Neocallimastigomycota) (2011) Anaeromyces sp. S4 Neocallimastix sp. G1 Orpinomyces sp. C1A == Microsporidia == Encephalitozoon cuniculi, human pathogen (2001) Encephalitozoon intestinalis ATCC 50506, human pathogen (2010) Enterocytozoon bieneusi, human pathogen particularly in the context of HIV infection (~60% of genome 2009, 2010) Nosema ceranae, honey bee pathogen (2009) Octosporea bayeri OER 3-3, Daphnia pathogen (2009) == Mucoromycota == === Mucoromycotina === Absidia padenii Absidia repens Backusella circina Circinella umbellata Cokeromyces recurvatus Cunninghamella echinulata Dichotomocladium elegans Fennellomyces sp. Gilbertella persicaria var. persicaria Gongronella butleri Hesseltinella vesiculosa Lichtheimia corymbifera Lichtheimia hyalospora Mucor circinelloides Mucor cordense Mucor indicus Mucor heterogamus Mycotypha africana Parasitella parasitica Phascolomyces articulosus Phycomyces blakesleeanus Phycomyces nitens


id: lists-of-sequenced-genomes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_sequenced_genomes-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of sequenced genomes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_sequenced_genomes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:54.563940+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-sequenced-genomes-20260505-0
summary:
There are several lists of sequenced genomes: List of sequenced algae genomes List of sequenced animal genomes List of sequenced animal mitochondrial genomes List of sequenced archaeal genomes List of sequenced bacterial genomes List of sequenced eukaryotic genomes List of sequenced fungi genomes List of sequenced plant genomes List of sequenced plastomes List of sequenced protist genomes


id: list-of-sequenced-plant-genomes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_plant_genomes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of sequenced plant genomes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_plant_genomes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:56.257480+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-sequenced-plant-genomes-20260505-0
summary:
This list of sequenced plant genomes contains plant species known to have publicly available complete genome sequences that have been assembled, annotated and published. Unassembled genomes are not included, nor are organelle only sequences. For all kingdoms, see the list of sequenced genomes. For mitochondrial genomes, see list of sequenced plant mitochondrial genomes, For plastid genomes, see list of sequenced plastomes. See also List of sequenced algae genomes. == Bryophytes == == Vascular plants == === Lycophytes === === Ferns === === Gymnosperms === === Angiosperms === ==== Amborellales ==== ==== Chloranthales ==== ==== Magnoliids ==== ==== Eudicots ==== ===== Proteales ===== ===== Ranunculales ===== ===== Trochodendrales ===== ===== Caryophyllales ===== ===== Rosids ===== ===== Asterids ===== ==== Monocots ==== ===== Grasses ===== ===== Other non-grasses ===== == Press releases announcing sequencing == Not meeting criteria of the first paragraph of this article in being nearly full sequences with high quality, published, assembled and publicly available. This list includes species where sequences are announced in press releases or websites, but not in a data-rich publication in a refereed peer-review journal with DOI. Corchorus olitorius (Jute mallow), fibre plant 2017 Corchorus capsularis 2017 Fraxinus excelsior, European ash (2013 draft) == See


id: list-of-sequenced-plastomes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_plastomes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of sequenced plastomes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_plastomes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:57.675480+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-sequenced-plastomes-20260505-0
summary:
A plastome is the genome of a plastid, a type of organelle found in plants and in a variety of protists. The number of known plastid genome sequences grew rapidly in the first decade of the twenty-first century. For example, 25 chloroplast genomes were sequenced for one molecular phylogenetic study. The flowering plants are especially well represented in complete chloroplast genomes. As of January, 2017, all of their orders are represented except Commelinales, Picramniales, Huerteales, Escalloniales, Bruniales, and Paracryphiales. A compilation of most complete plastid genomes is maintained by the NCBI in a public repository. == Plants == === Bryophytes s.l. === === Ferns and lycophytes === === Gymnosperms === === Flowering plants === This sortable table is expected to compile complete plastid genomes representing the largest range of sizes, number of genes, and angiosperm families. == Green algae == == Red algae == == Glaucophytes == == Meta-algae and apicomplexans == Meta-algae are organisms with photosynthetic organelles of secondary or tertiary endosymbiotic origin, and their close non-photosynthetic, plastid-bearing, relatives. Apicomplexans are a secondarily non-photosynthetic group of chromalveoates which retain a reduced plastid organelle. === Photosynthetic chromalveolates === Dinoflagellate plastid genomes are not organised into a single circular DNA molecule


id: list-of-sequenced-protist-genomes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_protist_genomes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of sequenced protist genomes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_protist_genomes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:59.051434+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-sequenced-protist-genomes-20260505-0
summary:
This list of sequenced protist genomes contains all the protist species known to have publicly available complete genome sequences that have been assembled, annotated and published; draft genomes are not included, nor are organelle only sequences. == Alveolata == Alveolata are a group of protists which includes the Ciliophora, Apicomplexa and Dinoflagellata. Members of this group are of particular interest to science as the cause of serious human and livestock diseases. == Amoebozoa == Amoebozoa are a group of motile amoeboid protists, members of this group move or feed by means of temporary projections, called pseudopods. The best known member of this group is the slime mold, which has been studied for centuries; other members include the Archamoebae, Tubulinea and Flabellinia. Some Amoeboza cause disease. == Chromista == The Chromista are a group of protists that contains the algal phyla Heterokontophyta (stramenopiles), Haptophyta and Cryptophyta. Members of this group are mostly studied for evolutionary interest. == Excavata == Excavata is a group of related free living and symbiotic protists; it includes the Metamonada, Loukozoa, Euglenozoa and Percolozoa. They are researched for their role in human disease. == Opisthokonts, basal == Opisthokonts are a group of eukaryotes that include both animals


id: list-of-subviral-agents-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_subviral_agents-0.md
category: reference
title: List of subviral agents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_subviral_agents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:12.423484+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-subviral-agents-20260505-0
summary:
Subviral agents are pathogenic entities that can cause disease, but lack various fundamental properties of viruses. Subviral agents consist of satellites, viroids, prions, defective interfering particles, viriforms, and, most recently, obelisks. == See also == List of prions Virus classification == References ==


id: table-of-neurotransmitter-actions-in-the-ans-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_neurotransmitter_actions_in_the_ANS-0.md
category: reference
title: Table of neurotransmitter actions in the ANS
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_neurotransmitter_actions_in_the_ANS
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:13.667157+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: table-of-neurotransmitter-actions-in-the-ans-20260505-0
summary:
This is a table of neurotransmitter actions in the ANS (autonomic nervous system). It includes the circulatory system, the respiratory system, the visual system, the digestive system, the endocrine system, the urinary system, the reproductive system, and the integumentary system. Both effects of the sympathetic nervous system (adrenergic) and parasympathetic nervous system (muscarinic) are included. == Circulatory system == === Heart === === Blood vessels === === Other === == Respiratory system == ✱ The bronchioles have no sympathetic innervation, but are instead affected by circulating adrenaline == Visual system == == Digestive system == == Endocrine system == == Urinary system == == Reproductive system == == Integumentary system == == References ==


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-biology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology-0.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:14.914921+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-biology-20260505-0
summary:
This article lists notable unsolved problems in biology. == General biology == === Evolution and origins of life === Origin of life. Exactly how, where, and when did life on Earth originate? Which, if any, of the many hypotheses is correct? What were the metabolic pathways used by the earliest life forms? How did genetic code originate? What was the molecular mechanism that allows the association of the amino acids with their triplet codons? What were the biochemical paths from individual bio-building blocks like amino acids or nucleic acids to functional polymers such as proteins and DNA? Origin of sexual reproduction. What were the fundamental selective forces responsible for the origin of sexual reproduction? Maintenance of sexual reproduction. What are the fundamental selective forces maintaining sexual reproduction? Origins of viruses (Virus World). Exactly how and when did different groups of viruses originate? Morphology problem. How are neural tissues formed in specific ways in different species? The formation of neural tissues in a certain way is necessary for the formation of certain goal-directed behavior for certain species. Developmental psychobiology posed this question since the lack of knowledge about the precise coordination of all cells, even those not related anatomically, in space


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-biology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology-1.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:14.914921+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-biology-20260505-0
summary:
Biological homochirality. What is the origin of homochirality in living organisms? In biological organisms, amino acids appear almost exclusively in the left-handed form and sugars in the right-handed form. Homochirality is an obvious characteristic of life on Earth, yet extraterrestrial samples contain largely racemic compounds. It is not known whether homochirality existed before life, whether the building blocks of life must have this particular chirality, or whether life must be homochiral at all. What do all the unknown proteins do? Two decades since the first eukaryotes were sequenced, the "biological role" of around 20% of proteins are still unknown. Many of these proteins are conserved across most eukaryotic species and some are conserved in bacteria, indicating a role fundamental for life. Determinants of cell size. How do cells determine what size to grow to before dividing? Golgi apparatus. In cell theory, what is the exact transport mechanism by which proteins travel through the Golgi apparatus? Mechanism of action of drugs. The mechanisms of action of many drugs including lithium, thalidomide, and ketamine are not completely understood. Protein folding. What is the folding code? What is the folding mechanism? Can the native structure of a protein be predicted from its amino


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-biology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology-2.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:14.914921+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-biology-20260505-0
summary:
== Human biology == Handedness: It is unclear how handedness develops, what purpose it serves, why right-handedness is far more common, and why left-handedness exists. Laughter: While it is generally accepted that laughing evolved as a form of social communication, the exact neurobiological process that leads humans to laugh is not well understood. Yawning: It is yet to be established what the biological or social purpose of yawning is. Heritable components of homosexuality: How to reconcile evolution with the heritable components of human homosexuality? Homosexuality is prevalent across human societies, past and present. These facts constitute an evolutionary puzzle. Decline in average human body temperature since the 19th century: Medical data suggests that the average body temperature has declined 0.6 °C since the 19th century. The cause is unclear although it has been suggested that it has some relation with reduced inflammation from reduced exposure to microorganisms. Why are there blood types? It is unclear what the origin and purpose of having blood types is. It is thought that O blood may be an adaptation to malaria and that different blood types respond to different diseases but this hypothesis has yet to be proven. Why did these antigens develop in


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-biology-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology-3.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:14.914921+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-biology-20260505-0
summary:
Paradox of the plankton. The high diversity of phytoplankton seems to violate the competitive exclusion principle. Ediacaran biota. How should Ediacaran biota be classified? Even what kingdom they belong to is unclear. Why were they so decisively displaced by Cambrian biota? Cambrian explosion. What is the cause of the apparent rapid diversification of multicellular animal life around the beginning of the Cambrian, resulting in the emergence of almost all modern animal phyla? Darwin's abominable mystery of botany/plants. What is the exact evolutionary history of flowers and what is the cause of the apparently sudden appearance of nearly modern flowers in the fossil record? Adult form of Facetotecta. The adult form of this animal has never been encountered in the water, and it remains a mystery what it grows into. Origin of snakes. Did snakes evolve from burrowing lizards or aquatic lizards? There is evidence for both hypotheses. Origin of turtles. Did turtles evolve from anapsids or diapsids? There is evidence for both hypotheses. Paleodictyon: What is the origin of this trace fossil and its modern counterparts? Despite many theories proposed, no evidence has been found to confirm any of them. Francevillian biota: were they early multicellular organisms? Snowball Earth: what


id: list-of-biology-websites-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biology_websites-0.md
category: reference
title: List of biology websites
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biology_websites
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:16.215533+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-biology-websites-20260505-0
summary:
This is an annotated list of biological websites, including only notable websites dealing with biology generally and those with a more specific focus. == See also == List of biodiversity databases Lists of websites


id: index-of-chemistry-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_chemistry_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of chemistry articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_chemistry_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:18.164414+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-chemistry-articles-20260505-0
summary:
Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem), meaning "earth") is the physical science concerned with the composition, structure, and properties of matter, as well as the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions. Below is a list of chemistry-related articles in alphabetical order. Chemical compounds are listed separately at List of inorganic compounds, List of biomolecules, or List of organic compounds. The Outline of chemistry delineates different aspects of chemistry. == A == == B == == C == == D == == E == == F == == G == == H == == I == == J == == K == == L == == M == == N == == O == == P == == Q == == R == == S == == T == == U == == V == == W == == X == == Y == == Z == == References ==


id: outline-of-chemistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:19.295419+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline acts as an overview of and topical guide to chemistry: Chemistry is the science of atomic matter (matter that is composed of chemical elements), especially its chemical reactions, but also including its properties, structure, composition, behavior, and changes as they relate to the chemical reactions. Chemistry is centrally concerned with atoms and their interactions with other atoms, and particularly with the properties of chemical bonds. == Summary == Chemistry can be described as all of the following: An academic discipline – one with academic departments, curricula and degrees; national and international societies; and specialized journals. A scientific field (a branch of science) – widely recognized category of specialized expertise within science, and typically embodies its own terminology and nomenclature. Such a field will usually be represented by one or more scientific journals, where peer-reviewed research is published. There are several chemistry-related scientific journals. A natural science – one that seeks to elucidate the rules that govern the natural world using empirical and scientific method. A physical science – one that studies non-living systems. A biological science – one that studies the role of chemicals and chemical processes in living organisms. See Outline of biochemistry. == Branches ==


id: outline-of-chemistry-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry-1.md
category: reference
title: Outline of chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:19.295419+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
Astrochemistry – study of the abundance and reactions of chemical elements and molecules in the universe, and their interaction with radiation. Cosmochemistry – study of the chemical composition of matter in the universe and the processes that led to those compositions. Computational chemistry – is a branch of chemistry that uses computer simulations for solving chemical problems. Environmental chemistry – study of chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur diverse aspects of the environment such the air, soil, and water. It also studies the effects of human activity on the environment. Green chemistry is a philosophy of chemical research and engineering that encourages the design of products and processes that minimize the use and generation of hazardous substances. Supramolecular chemistry – refers to the domain of chemistry beyond that of molecules and focuses on the chemical systems made up of a discrete number of assembled molecular subunits or components. Theoretical chemistry – study of chemistry via fundamental theoretical reasoning (usually within mathematics or physics). In particular the application of quantum mechanics to chemistry is called quantum chemistry. Since the end of the Second World War, the development of computers has allowed a systematic development of computational chemistry, which is the art


id: outline-of-chemistry-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry-2.md
category: reference
title: Outline of chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:19.295419+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
Precursors to chemistry Alchemy (outline) History of alchemy History of the branches of chemistry History of analytical chemistry – history of the study of separation, identification, and quantification of the chemical components of natural and artificial materials. History of astrochemistry – history of the study of the abundance and reactions of chemical elements and molecules in the universe, and their interaction with radiation. History of cosmochemistry – history of the study of the chemical composition of matter in the universe and the processes that led to those compositions History of atmospheric chemistry – history of the branch of atmospheric science in which the chemistry of the Earth's atmosphere and that of other planets is studied. It is a multidisciplinary field of research and draws on environmental chemistry, physics, meteorology, computer modeling, oceanography, geology and volcanology and other disciplines History of biochemistry – history of the study of chemical processes in living organisms, including, but not limited to, living matter. Biochemistry governs all living organisms and living processes. History of agrochemistry – history of the study of both chemistry and biochemistry which are important in agricultural production, the processing of raw products into foods and beverages, and in environmental monitoring and


id: outline-of-chemistry-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry-3.md
category: reference
title: Outline of chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:19.295419+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
History of thermochemistry – history of the study of energy and heat associated with chemical reactions and/or physical transformations. History of phytochemistry – history of the study of phytochemicals. History of polymer chemistry – history of the multidisciplinary science that deals with the chemical synthesis and chemical properties of polymers or macromolecules. History of solid-state chemistry – history of the study of the synthesis, structure, and properties of solid phase materials, particularly, but not necessarily exclusively of, non-molecular solids History of multidisciplinary fields involving chemistry: History of chemical biology – history of the scientific discipline spanning the fields of chemistry and biology that involves the application of chemical techniques and tools, often compounds produced through synthetic chemistry, to the study and manipulation of biological systems. History of chemical oceanography – history of the study of the behavior of chemical elements within the Earth's oceans. History of chemical physics – history of the branch of physics that studies chemical processes from the point of view of physics and engineering. History of oenology – history of the science and study of all aspects of wine and winemaking except vine-growing and grape-harvesting, which is a subfield called viticulture. History of spectroscopy – history


id: outline-of-chemistry-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry-4.md
category: reference
title: Outline of chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:19.295419+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
== Chemicals == Dictionary of chemical formulas List of biomolecules List of inorganic compounds Periodic table == Atomic theory == Atomic theory Atomic models Atomism – natural philosophy that theorizes that the world is composed of indivisible pieces. Plum pudding model Rutherford model Bohr model == Thermochemistry == Thermochemistry === Terminology === Thermochemistry Chemical kinetics – the study of the rates of chemical reactions and investigates how different experimental conditions can influence the speed of a chemical reaction and yield information about the reaction's mechanism and transition states, as well as the construction of mathematical models that can describe the characteristics of a chemical reaction. Exothermic – a process or reaction in which the system releases energy to its surroundings in the form of heat. They are denoted by negative heat flow. Endothermic – a process or reaction in which the system absorbs energy from its surroundings in the form of heat. They are denoted by positive heat flow. Thermochemical equation Enthalpy change – internal energy of a system plus the product of pressure and volume. Its change in a system is equal to the heat brought to the system at constant pressure. Enthalpy of reaction Temperature – an objective


id: list-of-additives-used-for-fracking-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_additives_used_for_fracking-0.md
category: reference
title: List of additives used for fracking
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_additives_used_for_fracking
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:20.553565+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-additives-used-for-fracking-20260505-0
summary:
The differences between additives for fracking in different countries are the type of chemicals used (hazardous, non-hazardous), the disclosure of chemicals and the composition of fracturing fluid. In 2010, Halliburton announced the creation of food additive based hydraulic fracturing fluid in response to calls for transparency and demand for a "more environmentally friendly" unconventional hydrocarbon production. == Europe == In Europe, Poland, Norway and Germany have the largest reserves of shale gas, and drillings are underway. == United Kingdom == In the United Kingdom, the environmental regulator permits only chemical additives which are classed as non hazardous to groundwater for fracturing fluids. Operators are required to disclose the content of hydraulic fracturing fluids to the relevant environment agency while the composition must be disclosed if the regulator demands it. The permitted additives for hydraulic fracturing fluid include polycrylamide, hydrochloric acid and a biocide. == United States == In the US, about 750 compounds have been listed as additives for hydraulic fracturing, also known as ingredients of pressurized fracking fluid, in an industry report to the US Congress in 2011 The following is a partial list of the chemical constituents in additives that are used or may have been used in


id: list-of-additives-in-cigarettes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_additives_in_cigarettes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of additives in cigarettes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_additives_in_cigarettes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:21.769470+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-additives-in-cigarettes-20260505-0
summary:
This is a static list of 599 additives that could be added to tobacco cigarettes in 1994. The ABC News program Day One first released the list to the public on March 7, 1994. It was submitted to the United States Department of Health and Human Services in April 1994. They are also listed in the documents that are part of the 1998 Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement. It applies, as documented, only to American manufactured cigarettes intended for distribution within the United States by the listed companies. The five major tobacco companies that reported the information were: American Tobacco Company Brown and Williamson Liggett Group, Inc. Philip Morris Inc. R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company One significant issue is that while all these chemical compounds have been approved as additives to food, they were not tested by burning. Burning changes the properties of chemicals. Burning creates additional toxic compounds, including carcinogens. According to the U.S. National Cancer Institute: "Of the more than 7,000 chemicals in tobacco smoke, at least 250 are known to be harmful, including hydrogen cyanide, carbon monoxide, and ammonia. Among the 250 known harmful chemicals in tobacco smoke, at least 69 can cause cancer." See: Health effects of tobacco


id: list-of-additives-in-cigarettes-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_additives_in_cigarettes-1.md
category: reference
title: List of additives in cigarettes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_additives_in_cigarettes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:21.769470+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-additives-in-cigarettes-20260505-0
summary:
== M == Mace powder, extract and oil Magnesium carbonate Malic acid Malt and malt extract Maltodextrin Maltol Maltyl isobutyrate Mandarin oil Maple syrup and concentrate Mate leaf, absolute and oil para-Mentha-8-Thiol-3-One Menthol Menthone Menthyl acetate dl-Methionine Methoprene 2-Methoxy-4-methylphenol 2-Methoxy-4-vinylphenol para-Methoxybenzaldehyde 1-(para-Methoxyphenyl)-1-penten-3-one 4-(para-Methoxyphenyl)-2-butanone 1-(para-Methoxyphenyl)-2-propanone Methoxypyrazine Methyl 2-furoate Methyl 2-octynoate Methyl 2-pyrrolyl ketone Methyl anisate Methyl anthranilate Methyl benzoate Methyl cinnamate Methyl dihydrojasmonate Methyl ester of rosin, partially hydrogenated Methyl isovalerate Methyl linoleate (48%) Methyl linolenate (52%) mixture Methyl naphthyl ketone Methyl nicotinate Methyl phenylacetate Methyl salicylate Methyl sulfide 3-Methyl-1-cyclopentadecanone 4-Methyl-1-phenyl-2-pentanone 5-Methyl-2-phenyl-2-hexenal 5-Methyl-2-thiophenecarboxaldehyde 6-Methyl-3,-5-heptadien-2-one 2-Methyl-3-(para-isopropylphenyl) propionaldehyde 5-Methyl-3-hexen-2-one 1-Methyl-3-methoxy-4-isopropylbenzene 4-Methyl-3-pentene-2-one 2-Methyl-4-phenylbutyraldehyde 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one 4-Methyl-5-thiazoleethanol 4-Methyl-5-vinylthiazole Methyl-alpha-ionone Methyl-trans-2-butenoic acid 4-Methylacetophenone para-Methylanisole alpha-Methylbenzyl acetate alpha-Methylbenzyl alcohol 2-Methylbutyraldehyde 3-Methylbutyraldehyde 2-Methylbutyric acid alpha-Methylcinnamaldehyde Methylcyclopentenolone 2-Methylheptanoic acid 2-Methylhexanoic acid 3-Methylpentanoic acid 4-Methylpentanoic acid 2-Methylpyrazine 5-Methylquinoxaline 2-Methyltetrahydrofuran-3-one (Methylthio)Methylpyrazine (mixture of isomers) 3-Methylthiopropionaldehyde Methyl 3-methylthiopropionate 2-Methylvaleric acid Mimosa absolute and extract Molasses extract and tincture Mountain maple solid extract Mullein flowers Myristaldehyde Myristic acid Myrrh oil == N == beta-Napthyl ethyl ether Nerol Neroli bigarde oil Nerolidol Nona-2-trans,6-cis-dienal 2,6-Nonadien-1-ol gamma-Nonalactone Nonanal Nonanoic acid Nonanone trans-2-Nonen-1-ol 2-Nonenal Nonyl acetate Nutmeg powder and oil == O == Oak chips extract and oil Oakmoss absolute 9,12-Octadecadienoic acid (48%) and 9,12,15-octadecatrienoic acid (52%) delta-Octalactone


id: list-of-alchemical-substances-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_alchemical_substances-0.md
category: reference
title: List of alchemical substances
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_alchemical_substances
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:23.012305+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-alchemical-substances-20260505-0
summary:
Alchemy studies produced a number of substances, which were later classified as particular chemical compounds or mixture of compounds. Many of these terms were in common use into the 20th century. == Metals and metalloids == Antimony/Stibnium – Sb Bismuth (German: Wismuth) – Bi Copper/Cuprum – associated with Venus. Cu Gold/Aurum – associated with the Sun. Au Iron/Ferrum – associated with Mars. Fe Lead/Plumbum – associated with Saturn. Pb Quicksilver/Hydrargyrum – associated with Mercury. Hg Silver/Argentum – associated with the Moon. Ag Tin/Stannum – associated with Jupiter. Sn == Minerals, Stones, and Pigments == Bluestone – Mineral form of Copper(II) Sulfate Pentahydrate, also called Blue Vitriol. Borax – Sodium Borate; was also used to refer to other related minerals. Cadmia/Tuttia/Tutty – Probably Zinc Carbonate. Calamine – Zinc Carbonate. Calomel/Horn Quicksilver/Horn Mercury – Mercury(I) Chloride, a very poisonous purgative formed by subliming a mixture of Mercuric Chloride and Metallic Mercury, triturated in a mortar and heated in an Iron pot. The crust formed on the lid was ground to powder and boiled with water to remove the Calomel. Calx – Calcium Oxide; was also used to refer to other metal oxides. Chalcanthum – The residue produced by strongly roasting Blue Vitriol


id: list-of-alchemical-substances-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_alchemical_substances-1.md
category: reference
title: List of alchemical substances
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_alchemical_substances
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:23.012305+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-alchemical-substances-20260505-0
summary:
== Waters, oils and spirits == Aqua fortis/spirit of nitre – nitric acid, formed by 2 parts saltpetre in 1 part (pure) oil of vitriol (sulfuric acid). (Historically, this process could not have been used, as 98% oil of vitriol was not available.) Aqua ragia/spirit of turpentine/oil of turpentine/gum turpentine – turpentine, formed by the distillation of pine tree resin. Aqua regia (Latin: "royal water") – a mixture of aqua fortis and spirit of salt. Aqua tofani – arsenic trioxide, As2O3 (extremely poisonous) Aqua vitae/aqua vita/spirit of wine, ardent spirits – ethanol, formed by distilling wine Butter (or oil) of antimony – antimony trichloride. Formed by distilling roasted stibnite with corrosive sublimate, or dissolving stibnite in hot concentrated hydrochloric acid and distilling. SbCl3 Butter of tin – hydrated tin(IV) chloride; see also spiritus fumans, another chloride of tin. Oil of tartar – concentrated potassium carbonate, K2CO3 solution Oil of tartar per deliquium – potassium carbonate dissolved in the water which its extracts from the air. Oil of vitriol/spirit of vitriol – sulfuric acid, a weak version can be formed by heating green vitriol and blue vitriol. H2SO4 Spirit of box/pyroxylic spirit – methanol, CH3OH, distilled wood alcohol. Spiritus fumans –


id: list-of-alkanols-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_alkanols-0.md
category: reference
title: List of alkanols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_alkanols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:24.186459+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-alkanols-20260505-0
summary:
This list is ordered by the number of carbon atoms in an alcohol. == C1 == Methanol == C2 == Ethanol == C3 == 1-Propanol Isopropyl alcohol == C4 == n-Butanol Isobutanol sec-Butanol tert-Butyl alcohol == C5 == 1-Pentanol Isoamyl alcohol 2-Methyl-1-butanol Neopentyl alcohol 2-Pentanol 3-Methyl-2-butanol 3-Pentanol tert-Amyl alcohol == C6 == 1-Hexanol 2-Hexanol 3-Hexanol 2-Methyl-1-pentanol 3-Methyl-1-pentanol 4-Methyl-1-pentanol 2-Methyl-2-pentanol 3-Methyl-2-pentanol 4-Methyl-2-pentanol 2-Methyl-3-pentanol 3-Methyl-3-pentanol 2,2-Dimethyl-1-butanol 2,3-Dimethyl-1-butanol 3,3-Dimethyl-1-butanol


id: list-of-straight-chain-alkanes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_straight-chain_alkanes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of straight-chain alkanes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_straight-chain_alkanes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:25.517634+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-straight-chain-alkanes-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of straight-chain alkanes, the total number of isomers of each (including branched chains), and their common names, sorted by number of carbon atoms. == See also == Higher alkane List of compounds with carbon numbers 50+ == References ==


id: list-of-named-alloys-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_named_alloys-0.md
category: reference
title: List of named alloys
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_named_alloys
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:26.720373+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-named-alloys-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of named alloys grouped alphabetically by the metal with the highest percentage. Within these headings, the alloys are also grouped alphabetically. Some of the main alloying elements are optionally listed after the alloy names. == Alloys by base metal == === Alkali intermetallics === Sodium–potassium alloy === Aluminum === AA-8000: used for electrical building wire in the U.S. per the National Electrical Code, replacing AA-1350. Al–Li (2.45% lithium): aerospace applications, including the Space Shuttle Alnico (nickel, cobalt): used for permanent magnets Aluminium–Scandium (scandium) Birmabright (magnesium, manganese): used in car bodies, mainly used by Land Rover cars. Devarda's alloy (45% Al, 50% Cu, 5% Zn): chemical reducing agent. Duralumin (copper) Hiduminium or R.R. alloys (2% copper, iron, nickel): used in aircraft pistons Hydronalium (up to 12% magnesium, 1% manganese): used in shipbuilding, resists seawater corrosion Italma (3.5% magnesium, 0.3% manganese): formerly used to make coinage of the Italian lira Magnalium (5-50% magnesium): used in airplane bodies, ladders, pyrotechnics, etc. Ni-Ti-Al (nickel 50%, titanium 40%, aluminium 10%), also called Nitinol Y alloy (4% copper, nickel, magnesium) Aluminium also forms complex metallic alloys, like β–Al–Mg, ξ'–Al–Pd–Mn, and T–Al3Mn. === Beryllium === Lockalloy (62% beryllium, 38% aluminium) === Bismuth ===


id: list-of-ammonium-nitrate-incidents-and-disasters-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ammonium_nitrate_incidents_and_disasters-0.md
category: reference
title: List of ammonium nitrate incidents and disasters
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ammonium_nitrate_incidents_and_disasters
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:28.061063+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ammonium-nitrate-incidents-and-disasters-20260505-0
summary:
When heated, ammonium nitrate decomposes non-explosively into nitrous oxide and water vapor; however, it can be induced to decompose explosively by detonation into oxygen, nitrogen, and water vapor. Large stockpiles of the material can be a major fire risk due to their supporting oxidation, and may also detonate, as happened in the Texas City disaster of 1947 which led to major changes in the regulations for storage and handling. There are two major classes of incidents resulting in explosions: In the first case, the explosion happens by the shock induced detonation. The initiation happens by an explosive charge going off in the mass, by the detonation of a shell thrown into the mass, or by detonation of an explosive mixture in contact with the mass. Examples are Kriewald, Morgan, Oppau, Tessenderlo, and Traskwood. In the second case, the explosion results from a fire that spreads into the ammonium nitrate (AN) itself (Texas City, Brest, Tianjin, Beirut) or to a mixture of an ammonium nitrate with a combustible material during the fire. The fire must be confined at least to a degree for successful transition from a fire to an explosion (a phenomenon known as "deflagration to detonation transition", or DDT).


id: list-of-chemical-analysis-methods-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_analysis_methods-0.md
category: reference
title: List of chemical analysis methods
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_analysis_methods
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:29.278276+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemical-analysis-methods-20260505-0
summary:
A list of chemical analysis methods with acronyms. == A == Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) Atomic emission spectroscopy (AES) Atomic fluorescence spectroscopy (AFS) Alpha particle X-ray spectrometer (APXS) == C == Capillary electrophoresis (CE) Chromatography Colorimetry Computed tomography Cyclic Voltammetry (CV) == D == Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) == E == Electrodialysis Electrolysis Electron microscopy Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) also called Electron spin resonance (ESR) Electrophoresis Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS/EDX) == F == Field flow fractionation (FFF) Flow injection analysis (FIA) Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) == G == Gas chromatography (GC) Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) Gas chromatography-IR spectroscopy (GC-IR) Gel permeation chromatography-IR spectroscopy (GPC-IR) == H == High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) High performance liquid chromatography-IR spectroscopy (HPLC-IR) == I == Ion Microprobe (IM) Inductively coupled plasma (ICP) Infrared Spectroscopy (IR) Ion-mobility spectrometry (IMS) Ion selective electrode (ISE) e.g. determination of pH == L == Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) Liquid chromatography-IR spectroscopy (LC-IR) Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) == M == Mass spectrometry (MS) Mössbauer spectroscopy == N == Neutron activation analysis Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) == O == Optical microscopy Optical emission spectroscopy Optical rotation (OR) == P == Particle induced X-ray emission spectroscopy (PIXE) Pyrolysis gas chromatography


id: list-of-antioxidants-in-food-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_antioxidants_in_food-0.md
category: reference
title: List of antioxidants in food
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_antioxidants_in_food
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:30.508673+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-antioxidants-in-food-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of antioxidants naturally occurring in food. Vitamin C and vitamin E – which are ubiquitous among raw plant foods – are confirmed as dietary antioxidants, whereas vitamin A becomes an antioxidant following metabolism of provitamin A beta-carotene and cryptoxanthin. Most food compounds listed as antioxidants – such as polyphenols common in colorful, edible plants – have antioxidant activity only in vitro, as their fate in vivo is to be rapidly metabolized and excreted, and the in vivo properties of their metabolites remain poorly understood. For antioxidants added to food to preserve them, see butylated hydroxyanisole and butylated hydroxytoluene. == Regulatory guidance == In the following discussion, the term "antioxidant" refers mainly to non-nutrient compounds in foods, such as polyphenols, which have antioxidant capacity in vitro and so provide an artificial index of antioxidant strength – the oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) measurement. Other than for dietary antioxidant vitamins – vitamin A, vitamin C, and vitamin E – no food compounds have been proved to be antioxidants in vivo. Accordingly, regulatory agencies such as the Food and Drug Administration of the United States and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) have published guidance disallowing food product labels


id: list-of-antioxidants-in-food-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_antioxidants_in_food-1.md
category: reference
title: List of antioxidants in food
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_antioxidants_in_food
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:30.508673+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-antioxidants-in-food-20260505-0
summary:
Myricetin - walnuts are a rich source Isoflavone phytoestrogens - found primarily in soy, peanuts, and other members of the family Fabaceae Resveratrol - found in the skins of dark-colored grapes, and concentrated in red wine Pterostilbene - methoxylated analogue of resveratrol, abundant in Vaccinium berries === Phenolic acids and their esters === Examples: Chicoric acid - another caffeic acid derivative, is found in chicory and Echinacea Chlorogenic acid - found in high concentration in coffee (more concentrated in robusta than arabica beans), blueberries, and tomatoes - produced from esterification of caffeic acid Cinnamic acid and its derivatives, such as ferulic acid - found in seeds of plants such as in brown rice, whole wheat, and oats, as well as in coffee, apple, artichoke, peanut, orange, and pineapple. Ellagic acid - found in high concentration in raspberry and strawberry, and in ester form in barrel-aged alcohol such as red wine and whisky Ellagitannins - hydrolysable tannin polymer formed when ellagic acid, a polyphenol monomer, esterifies and binds with the hydroxyl group of a polyol carbohydrate such as glucose Gallic acid - found in gallnuts, sumac, witch hazel, tea leaves, oak bark, and many other plants Rosmarinic acid - found in


id: azeotrope-tables-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azeotrope_tables-0.md
category: reference
title: Azeotrope tables
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azeotrope_tables
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:31.740905+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: azeotrope-tables-20260505-0
summary:
This page contains tables of azeotrope data for various binary and ternary mixtures of solvents. The data include the composition of a mixture by weight (in binary azeotropes, when only one fraction is given, it is the fraction of the second component), the boiling point (b.p.) of a component, the boiling point of a mixture, and the specific gravity of the mixture. Boiling points are reported at a pressure of 760 mm Hg unless otherwise stated. Where the mixture separates into layers, values are shown for upper (U) and lower (L) layers. The data were obtained from Lange's 10th edition and CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 44th edition unless otherwise noted (see color code table). A list of 15825 binary and ternary mixtures was collated and published by the American Chemical Society. An azeotrope databank is also available online through the University of Edinburgh. == Binary azeotropes == == Ternary azeotropes == Tables of various ternary azeotropes (that is azeotropes consisting of three components). Fraction percentages are given by weight. ‡Saddle azeotrope ‡Saddle azeotrope == References ==


id: list-of-benzo-compounds-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_benzo_compounds-0.md
category: reference
title: List of benzo compounds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_benzo_compounds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:32.866001+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-benzo-compounds-20260505-0
summary:
In organic chemistry the addition of the prefix benzo to the name of a chemical compound indicates the addition of an even number of carbon atoms to an unsaturated or already aromatic compound by which a new aromatic ring is formed. Between the prefix benzo and the name of the parent compound then place of the addition of the extra carbon atoms is indicated by letters written between square brackets. Quite often the number of added carbon atoms is four, although sometimes two else will do the job as shown in the following table. The first entry also shows different routes to the name of the same molecule. == Examples == == See also == Benzodiazepine == References ==


id: list-of-lactam-antibiotics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_β-lactam_antibiotics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of β-lactam antibiotics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_β-lactam_antibiotics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:34.236379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-lactam-antibiotics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of common β-lactam antibiotics—both administered drugs and those not in clinical use—organized by structural class. Antibiotics are listed alphabetically within their class or subclass by their nonproprietary name. If an antibiotic is a combination drug, both ingredients will be listed. == Penams == === Narrow-spectrum === ==== β-lactamase-sensitive ==== ==== β-lactamase-resistant ==== === Broad spectrum === === Extended spectrum (Antipseudomonal) === ==== Carboxypenicillins ==== ==== Ureidopenicillins ==== == Cephems == === First generation (moderate spectrum) === === Second generation (moderate spectrum) === cefuroxime, cefaclor, cefprozil ==== With anti-Haemophilus activity ==== ==== With anti-anaerobic activity ==== === Third generation (broad spectrum) === === Fourth generation (broad spectrum) === (With β-lactamase stability and enhanced activity against Gram-positive bacteria and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) === Fifth generation* (broad spectrum) === (activity against MRSA and variably VRE. *Not universally accepted nomenclature. NO Antipseudomonal activity, mostly ceftriaxone coverage with additional MRSA and some VRE) == Carbapenems and penems == (Broadest spectrum of β-lactam antibiotics) == Monobactams == == β-lactamase inhibitors ==


id: index-of-biochemistry-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biochemistry_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of biochemistry articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biochemistry_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:35.638126+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-biochemistry-articles-20260505-0
summary:
Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes in living organisms. It deals with the structure and function of cellular components such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids and other biomolecules. Articles related to biochemistry include: == 0–9 == 2-amino-5-phosphonovalerate - 3' end - 5' end == A == ABC-Transporter Genes - abl gene - acetic acid - acetyl CoA - acetylcholine - acetylcysteine - acid - acidic fibroblast growth factor - acrosin - actin - action potential - activation energy - active site - active transport - adenosine - adenosine diphosphate (ADP) - adenosine monophosphate (AMP) - adenosine triphosphate (ATP) - adenovirus - adrenergic receptor - adrenodoxin - aequorin - aerobic respiration - agonist - alanine - albumin - alcohol - alcoholic fermentation - alicyclic compound - aliphatic compound - alkali - allosteric site - allostery - allotrope - allotropy - alpha adrenergic receptor - alpha helix - alpha-1 adrenergic receptor - alpha-2 adrenergic receptor - alpha-beta T-cell antigen receptor - alpha-fetoprotein - alpha-globulin - alpha-macroglobulin - alpha-MSH - Ames test - amide - amine - amino - amino acid - amino acid receptor - amino acid sequence - amino acid sequence homology - aminobutyric acid - ammonia -


id: index-of-biochemistry-articles-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biochemistry_articles-1.md
category: reference
title: Index of biochemistry articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biochemistry_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:35.638126+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-biochemistry-articles-20260505-0
summary:
== D == dactinomycin - dalton - decarboxylation reaction - delta opioid receptor - denaturation (biochemistry) - dendrite - dendritic cell - dendritic spine - deoxyribonucleoprotein - deoxyribose - desmopressin - deuterium - developmental biology - dialysis (chemical) - diffusion - dimer - dinucleotide repeat - diploid - disaccharide - dissociation constant - disulfide bond - disulfide bridge - DNA - DNA fragmentation - DNA replication - DNA sequence - DNA topology - DNA transposable element - DNA virus - DNA-binding protein - dopamine D1 receptor - dopamine D2 receptor - dopamine receptor - double helix - Drosophila - drugs - dynorphin == E == eIF-2 - eIF-2 kinase - electrochemical potential - electron - electron capture - electron configuration - electron microscopy - electron shell - electron transport chain - electron volt - electronegativity - electrophile - electrophoresis - electrophysiology - element - element symbol - ELISA - ELISPOT - embryo - embryonal development - emulsion - endergonic reaction - endodermis - endomembrane system - endoplasmic reticulum - endothelin receptor - endothelin-1 - energy decomposition cycles - energy level - enhancer - enkephalin - enthalpy - entomology - entropy - env gene product - environmental chemistry - enzyme -


id: index-of-biochemistry-articles-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biochemistry_articles-2.md
category: reference
title: Index of biochemistry articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biochemistry_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:35.638126+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-biochemistry-articles-20260505-0
summary:
== L == lactalbumin - lactic acid - lactic acid autotroph - lactic fermentation - lagging strand - laminin - LDL receptor - Le Chatelier's principle - lectin - leucine - leucine-2-alanine enkephalin - leukotriene B4 receptor - LH - LH receptor - LHRH receptor - life - life form - ligand - light reactions - Lineweaver-Burk diagram - lipase - lipid - lipid anchored protein - lipid bilayer - lipoprotein - liquid - list of compounds - list of gene families - locus - luminescent protein - lymphocyte homing receptor - lysine - lysis - lysis buffer - lysozyme - lytic cycle == M == macroevolution - macromolecular system - macromolecule - macrophage colony-stimulating factor - major histocompatibility complex - Malpighi body - Malpighi layer - marine biology - maslinic acid - mass spectrometer - maturation-promoting factor - mechanoreceptor - medicine - meiosis - melting point - membrane glycoprotein - membrane protein - membrane topology - membrane transport - memory B cell - memory T cell - Mendelian inheritance - metabolic pathway - metabolism - metabotropic glutamate receptor - metalloprotein - metaphase - metazoa - methionine - micelle - Michaelis-Menten kinetics - microbe - microbiology - microevolution - microfilament


id: index-of-biochemistry-articles-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biochemistry_articles-3.md
category: reference
title: Index of biochemistry articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biochemistry_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:35.638126+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-biochemistry-articles-20260505-0
summary:
== R == radioisotope - radioisotopic labelling - Raman spectroscopy - random coil - Ras gene - Ras protein - reading frame - receptor (biochemistry) - receptor antagonist - receptor protein-tyrosine kinase - recombinant fusion protein - recombinant interferon-gamma - recombinant protein - recombination - redox - redox reaction - redox system - reflux - replication origin - replicon - repressor - repressor protein - respiration (physiology) - restriction enzyme - retinoblastoma protein - retinoic acid receptor - retinol-binding protein - retroelement - retroviridae protein - retrovirus - Reverse transcriptase - RFLP - rho factor - rhodopsin - ribonucleoprotein - ribose - ribosomal protein - ribosomal protein S6 kinase - ribosome - RNA - RNA virus - RNA-binding protein - RNA-directed DNA polymerase - rod outer segment - rough ER == S == sarcoplasmic reticulum - satellite DNA - scientific notation - SDS-PAGE - second messenger - second messenger system - secondary structure - secretin - selectin - sensory receptor - sequence (biology) - sequence homology - sequence motif - sequencing - serine - serotonin - serotonin receptor - serpin - sexual reproduction - SH3 domain - SI - sigma factor - signal peptide - signal recognition particle - signal


id: outline-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_biochemistry-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of biochemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_biochemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:36.910699+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to biochemistry: Biochemistry, or biological chemistry (distinct from chemical biology), is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. A sub-discipline of both chemistry and biology, biochemistry may be divided into three fields: structural biology, enzymology, and metabolism. Over the last decades of the 20th century, biochemistry has become successful at explaining living processes through these three disciplines. Almost all areas of the life sciences are being uncovered and developed through biochemical methodology and research. Biochemistry focuses on understanding the chemical basis that allows biological molecules to give rise to the processes that occur within living cells and between cells, in turn relating greatly to the understanding of tissues and organs as well as organism structure and function. Biochemistry is closely related to molecular biology, the study of the molecular mechanisms of biological phenomena. == Applications of biochemistry == Testing Ames test – salmonella bacteria is exposed to a chemical under question (a food additive, for example), and changes in the way the bacteria grows are measured. This test is useful for screening chemicals to see if they mutate the structure of DNA and by


id: list-of-biomolecules-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biomolecules-0.md
category: reference
title: List of biomolecules
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biomolecules
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:38.260823+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-biomolecules-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of articles that describe particular biomolecules or types of biomolecules. == A == For substances with an A- or α- prefix such as α-amylase, please see the parent page (in this case Amylase). == B == == C == == D == == E == Endonuclease Enzyme Ephedrine Epinephrine – C9H13NO3 Erucic acid – CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)11COOH Erythritol Erythropoietin (EPO) Estradiol Estriol Estrogen Estrone Eugenol Exonuclease == F == == G == == H == == I == Indigo dye Indole Inosine Inositol Insulin Insulin-like growth factor Integral membrane protein Integrase Integrin Intein Interferon Interleukin Inulin Ionomycin Ionone Iron–sulfur cluster Isoleucine Isomerase Isoprene == J == == K == K252a K252b KT5720 KT5823 Keratin Kinase Kisspeptin == L == For substances with an l- or L- prefix such as L-alanine or DL-alanine, please see the parent page (in this case alanine). == M == == N == Natural phenols Neurotransmitters Neuropeptide Y Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) Norepinephrine Nucleic Acid Nucleosome Nucleoside Nucleotide == O == Ochratoxin A Oestrogens Oligopeptide Oligomycin Orcin Orexin Ornithine Oxalic acid Oxidase Oxytocin == P == == Q == Quinidine Quinine Quinone == R == == S == == T == == U ==


id: list-of-boiling-and-freezing-information-of-solvents-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_boiling_and_freezing_information_of_solvents-0.md
category: reference
title: List of boiling and freezing information of solvents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_boiling_and_freezing_information_of_solvents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:39.524307+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-boiling-and-freezing-information-of-solvents-20260505-0
summary:
== See also == Freezing-point depression Boiling-point elevation List of cooling baths == References ==


id: california-proposition-65-list-of-chemicals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Proposition_65_list_of_chemicals-0.md
category: reference
title: California Proposition 65 list of chemicals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Proposition_65_list_of_chemicals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:40.740853+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: california-proposition-65-list-of-chemicals-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of chemicals published as a requirement of Safe Drinking Water and Toxic Enforcement Act of 1986, commonly known as California Proposition 65, that are "known to the state to cause cancer or reproductive toxicity" as of January 3, 2020. As a result of lawsuits, the list also contains substances known only to cause cancer in animals. This list is not exhaustive, as the complete list contains over 900 chemicals. == Chemicals currently listed under California Proposition 65 == === Annotation === == Chemicals that were formerly listed under California Proposition 65 == † Numerical identifier assigned by the Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) Comments: Many substances include its strong acid salts Airborne particles of many substances are cancerogenic Bisphenol A (BPA) was removed from the list on April 19, 2013, and was relisted on May 11, 2015. == References ==


id: list-of-carboxylic-acids-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_carboxylic_acids-0.md
category: reference
title: List of carboxylic acids
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_carboxylic_acids
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:42.015494+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-carboxylic-acids-20260505-0
summary:
Carboxylic acids are organic acids characterized by a carboxyl (-COOH) functional group. The naming of these compounds is governed by IUPAC nomenclature, which ensures systematic and consistent naming of chemicals. Numerous organic compounds have other common names, often originating in historical source material thereof. The systematic IUPAC name is not always the preferred IUPAC name, for example, lactic acid is a common, and also the preferred, name for what systematic rules call 2-hydroxypropanoic acid. This list is ordered by the number of carbon atoms in a carboxylic acid. == C1 == == C2 == == C3 == == C4 == == C5 == == C6 == == C7 == == C8 == == C9 == == C10 == == C11 == == C12 == == C13 == == C14 == == C15 == == C16 == == C17 == == C18 == == C19 == == C20 == == C21 == == C22 == == C23 == == C24 == == C25 == == C26 ==


id: list-of-chemical-classifications-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_classifications-0.md
category: reference
title: List of chemical classifications
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_classifications
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:43.273627+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemical-classifications-20260505-0
summary:
Chemical classification systems attempt to classify elements or compounds according to certain chemical functional or structural properties. Whereas the structural properties are largely intrinsic, functional properties and the derived classifications depend to a certain degree on the type of chemical interaction partners on which the function is exerted. Sometimes other criteria like purely physical ones (e.g. molecular weight) or – on the other hand – functional properties above the chemical level are also used for building chemical taxonomies. Some systems mix the various levels, resulting in hierarchies where the domains are slightly confused, for example having structural and functional aspects end up on the same level. Whereas chemical function is closely dependent on chemical structure, the situation becomes more involved when e.g. pharmacological function is integrated, because the QSAR can usually not be directly computed from structural qualities. == Physico-chemical == by molecular weight by electrical charge: uncharged, positively, negatively, partially charged formal charge, oxidation state solubility pH value (or pKA value) == Functional == by functional groups by biological activity (mostly appropriate only for large biological molecules (as at least one interacting partner), in particular enzymes, depends on chemical functions of their constituent amino acids) ligand vs. receptor, coenzyme


id: glossary-of-chemical-formulae-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemical_formulae-0.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemical formulae
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemical_formulae
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:44.477706+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-chemical-formulae-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of common chemical compounds with chemical formulae and CAS numbers, indexed by formula. This complements alternative listing at list of inorganic compounds. == A == == B == == C == == Ca–Cu == == D == == E == == F == == G == == H == == I == == K == == L == == M == == N == == O == == P == == R == == S == == T == == U == == V == == W == == X == == Y == == Z == == External links == Webelements Landolt Börnstein Organic Index 2004


id: list-of-cheminformatics-toolkits-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cheminformatics_toolkits-0.md
category: reference
title: List of cheminformatics toolkits
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cheminformatics_toolkits
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:45.678134+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cheminformatics-toolkits-20260505-0
summary:
Cheminformatics toolkits are notable software development kits that allow cheminformaticians to develop custom computer applications for use in virtual screening, chemical database mining, and structure-activity studies. Toolkits are often used for experimentation with new methodologies. Their most important functions deal with the manipulation of chemical structures and comparisons between structures. Programmatic access is provided to properties of individual bonds and atoms. == Functionality == Toolkits provide the following functionality: Read and save structures in various chemistry file formats. Determine if one structure is a substructure of another (substructure matching). Determine if two structures are equal (exact matching). Identification of substructures common to structures in a set (maximal common substructure, MCS). Disassemble molecules, splitting into fragments. Assemble molecules from elements or submolecules. Apply reactions on input reactant structures, resulting in output of reaction product structures. Generate molecular fingerprints. Fingerprints are bit-vectors where individual bits correspond to the presence or absence of structural features. The most important use of fingerprints is in indexing of chemistry databases. == List of notable cheminformatics toolkits == == References ==


id: list-of-chemists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of chemists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemists-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of chemists. It should include those who have been important to the development or practice of chemistry. Their research or application has made significant contributions in the area of basic or applied chemistry. == A == === Ab–An === Richard Abegg (1869–1910), German chemist, pioneer of valence theory Frederick Abel (1827–1902), English chemist, inventor of cordite Friedrich Accum (1769–1838), German chemist, advances in the field of gas lighting Homer Burton Adkins (1892–1949), American chemist, known for work in hydrogenation of organic compounds Peter Agre (born 1949), American chemist and doctor, known for aquaporin water channels, 2003 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Georgius Agricola (1494–1555), German scholar known as "the father of mineralogy" Natalie Ahn (PhD 1985), American chemist working on mechanisms of cell signaling Arthur Aikin (1773–1855), English chemist and mineralogist, a founding member of the Chemical Society Adrien Albert (1907–1989), Australian medicinal chemist who studied the links between physico-chemical properties and biological effect of drugs John Albery (1936–2013), English physical chemist who studied electrochemistry, proton transfer and isotope effects Kurt Alder (1902–1958), German chemist known for the Diels–Alder reaction, 1950 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Jerome Alexander (1876–1959), American expert on the chemistry of colloids Ivan Alimarin


id: list-of-chemists-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-1.md
category: reference
title: List of chemists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemists-20260505-0
summary:
=== Bas–Ben === Fred Basolo (1920–2007), American chemist known for the mechanisms of inorganic reactions Esther Batchelder (1897–1987), American chemist, educator and specialist in nutrition Sir Alan Battersby (1925–2018), English organic chemist known for work on biosynthetic pathways Antoine Baumé (1728–1804), French chemist, inventor of the Baumé scale hydrometer for measuring the density of liquids Karl Bayer (1847–1904), Austrian chemist who invented the Bayer process of extracting alumina from bauxite Johann Joachim Becher (1635–1682), German who developed the phlogiston theory of combustion Friedrich Konrad Beilstein (1838–1906), German-Russian chemist, created Beilstein database Joseph Achille Le Bel (1847–1930), French chemist, early work in stereochemistry addressing the relationship between molecular structure and optical activity Angela Belcher (PhD 1997), American chemist, materials scientist, and biological engineer Irina Beletskaya (born 1933), Russian organometallic chemist known for studies on aromatic reaction mechanisms R. P. (Ronnie) Bell (1907–1996), English physical chemist known in particular for The Proton in Chemistry Andrey Belozersky (1905–1972), Soviet biologist and biochemist, pioneer of molecular biology and the chemistry of nucelic acids Ruth R. Benerito (1916–2013), American chemist known for inventions relating to textiles, including wash-and-wear cotton fabrics === Ber–Bla === Paul Berg (1926–2023), American biochemist known for research on nucleic acids, especially


id: list-of-chemists-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-2.md
category: reference
title: List of chemists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemists-20260505-0
summary:
=== Buc–But === Eduard Buchner (1860–1917), German chemist who sounded the death knell of vitalism by discovering cell-free fermentation, 1907 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Stephen L. Buchwald (born 1955), American organic chemist, co-discoverer of palladium-catalyzed C–N bond formation Buchwald–Hartwig amination Mary Van Rensselaer Buell (1893–1969), American chemist who worked on nucleic acids and nucleotides, the relation of hormones to the metabolism of carbohydrates, and other topics in biochemistry Kathryn Bullock (1945–2021), American chemist who co-developed valve-regulated lead-acid batteries Robert Wilhelm Bunsen (1811–1899), German inventor, chemist, discovered the elements caesium and rubidium with Gustav Kirchhoff and invented the Bunsen burner Jeanne Burbank (1915–2002), American chemist who developed lead-acid and silver-zinc batteries for submarines at the United States Naval Research Laboratory Stephanie Burns (born 1955), American organosilicon chemist and past honorary president of Society of Chemical Industry William Merriam Burton (1865–1954), American chemist, developed the first thermal cracking process for crude oil Adolf Butenandt (1903–1995), German biochemist, 1939 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for "work on sex hormones" Alison Butler (PhD 1982), American bioinorganic chemist and metallobiochemist Aleksandr Butlerov (1828–1886), Russian chemist, one of the creators of the theory of chemical structure, who discovered the formose reaction == C == === Ca ===


id: list-of-chemists-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-3.md
category: reference
title: List of chemists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00
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parent: list-of-chemists-20260505-0
summary:
=== Cot–Cz === Frank Albert Cotton (1930–2007), American chemist known for research on transition metals and as coauthor of Advanced Inorganic Chemistry, 2000 Wolf Prize in Chemistry Charles Coulson (1910–1974), British theoretical chemist, pioneer of the application of quantum theory to problems of molecular structure Archibald Scott Couper (1831–1892), British chemist who developed the concept of tetravalent carbon atoms linking together to form large molecules James Crafts (1839–1917), American chemist, developer of Friedel–Crafts reaction for alkylation and acylation Donald J. Cram (1919–2001), American chemist, winner of the 1987 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for development of molecules with structure-specific interactions of high selectivity William Crookes (1832–1919), British chemist who discovered thallium, and was a pioneer of vacuum tubes Alexander Crum Brown (1838–1922), Scottish organic chemist who developed the concept of tetravalent carbon atoms linking together to form large molecules Paul J. Crutzen (1933–2021), Dutch chemist, winner of the 1995 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work on atmospheric chemistry, especially in relation to ozone Ana Maria Cuervo (born 1966), Spanish-American physician, researcher, and cell biologist, best known for work on autophagy Marie Curie (1867–1934), Polish and French radiation physicist, discovered the elements radium and polonium, 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics, 1911 Nobel


id: list-of-chemists-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-4.md
category: reference
title: List of chemists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemists-20260505-0
summary:
== E == Sandra Eaton (PhD 1972), American chemist notable for work on electron paramagnetic resonance John Tileston Edsall (1902–2002), American protein chemist, and co-author of Proteins, Amino Acids and Peptides Eilaf Egap (21st century), American chemist who works on imaging techniques and biomaterials for early diagnostics and drug delivery Paul Ehrlich (1854–1915), German chemist, winner of the 1908 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for contributions to immunology Arthur Eichengrün (1867–1949), German chemist known for developing the anti-gonorrhea drug Protargol Manfred Eigen (1927–2019), German chemist, winner of the 1967 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work on measuring fast chemical reactions Mostafa El-Sayed (born 1933), Egyptian-American physical chemist known for the El-Sayed rule in spectroscopy Fausto Elhuyar (1755–1833), Spanish chemist, the first to isolate tungsten Lorne Elias (PhD 1956), Canadian chemist, inventor of the explosives vapour detector EVD-1 Gertrude B. Elion (1918–1999), American biochemist and recipient of the 1988 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for innovative methods of rational drug design Conrad Elvehjem (1901–1962), American biochemist who identified two vitamins, nicotinic acid (niacin) and nicotinamide Harry Julius Emeléus (1903–1993), British inorganic chemist known for work on fluorine chemistry Gladys Anderson Emerson (1903–1984), American chemist and early nutritionist, and the


id: list-of-chemists-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-5.md
category: reference
title: List of chemists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00
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parent: list-of-chemists-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ga–Gl === Johan Gadolin (1760–1852), Finnish chemist who discvered yttrium Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778–1850), French chemist and physicist who discovered the Gay-Lussac law, known for discovering that water is made of two parts hydrogen and one part oxygen by volume Charles Frédéric Gerhardt (1816–1856), French chemist known for reforming the notation for chemical formulas, and for synthesizing acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) Jnan Chandra Ghosh (1894–1959), Indian chemist known for research on strong electrolytes and the dissociation--ionization theory William Giauque (1895–1982), 1949 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for studies of the properties of matter at temperatures close to absolute zero Josiah Willard Gibbs (1839–1903), American chemist and physicist whose work on thermodynamics helped to transform physical chemistry into a rigorous deductive science Walter Gilbert (born 1932), 1980 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for a method of sequencing nucleic acids Cornelia Gillyard (born 1941), American organic chemist known for work with chemicals in the environment Henry Gilman (1893–1986), American chemist who developed organometallic chemistry, and discovered the Gilman reagent Judith Giordan (Thesis 1980), American chemist who worked on unsaturated hydrocarbons and became President-Elect of the American Chemical Society Johann Rudolf Glauber (1604–1670), Dutch-German alchemist and chemist who discovered sodium sulfate and wrote many books


id: list-of-chemists-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-6.md
category: reference
title: List of chemists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00
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parent: list-of-chemists-20260505-0
summary:
=== He–Hi === Clayton Heathcock (born 1936), American chemist known for his work on the synthesis of complex polycyclic natural products Alan J. Heeger (1936–2023), American chemist known for co-founding the field of conducting polymers, 2000 Nobel Prize in chemistry Jan Baptist van Helmont (1579–1644), chemist from the Spanish Netherlands known for studying the weight gain of growing plants, The founder of pneumatic chemistry Victor Henri (1872–1940), French physical chemist of Russian parents, the first to apply ideas of physical chemistry to the properties of enzymes. Dudley R. Herschbach (born 1932), American chemist, 1986 Nobel Prize in chemistry for work on the dynamics of chemical elementary processes Avram Hershko (born 1937), Hungarian-born Israeli biochemist, 2004 Nobel Prize in chemistry for the discovery of ubiquitin-mediated protein degradation Charles Herty (1867–1938), American chemist who revolutionized the turpentine industry Gerhard Herzberg (1904–1999), German-Canadian chemist, 1971 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work on electronic structure and geometry of molecules, particularly free radicals Germain Henri Hess (1802–1850), Swiss-born Russian chemist who formulated Hess's law, an early principle of thermochemistry George de Hevesy (1885–1966), Hungarian chemist who discovered hafnium, Nobel Prize in chemistry 1943 for the development of radioactive tracers to study metabolism Jaroslav Heyrovský (1890–1967),


id: list-of-chemists-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-7.md
category: reference
title: List of chemists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemists-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ka--Kj === Henri B. Kagan (born 1930) French chemist, pioneer of asymmetric catalysis, 2001 Wolf Prize in Chemistry Isabella Karle (1921–2017), American chemist instrumental for extracting plutonium chloride from a mixture containing plutonium oxide Jerome Karle (1918–2013), 1985 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the direct analysis of crystal structures by X-ray scattering Paul Karrer (1889–1971), Swiss organic chemist known for research on vitamins, 1937 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Alan R. Katritzky (1928–2014), British-American organic chemist, pioneer of heterocyclic chemistry Joyce Jacobson Kaufman (1929–2016), American chemist and inventor of conformational topology Melinda H. Keefe (PhD 2001), American chemist known for identifying solvents that can be used to remove dirt without damaging layers of paint August Kekulé (1829–1896), German organic chemist known for the theory of chemical structure, especially the structure of benzene John Kendrew (1917–1997), British biochemist and crystallographer known for solving the structure of myoglobin, 1962 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Ann Kiessling (born 1942), American chemist and reproductive biologist known for discovering reverse transcriptase activity in normal human cells Ann Kimble-Hill (21st century), American biochemist studying structure-function relationships of membrane proteins and lipids Petrus Jacobus Kipp (1808–1864), Dutch chemist, inventor of Kipp's apparatus Johan Kjeldahl (1849–1900), Danish chemist who


id: list-of-chemists-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-8.md
category: reference
title: List of chemists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00
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parent: list-of-chemists-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ma–Me === Alan MacDiarmid (1927–2007), American-New Zealand chemist who discovered conductive polymers, 2000 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Carolina Henriette Mac Gillavry (1904–1993), Dutch chemist and crystallographer known for discoveries on the use of diffraction in crystallography Roderick MacKinnon (born 1956), American biophsicist known for work on ion channels; 2003 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Pierre Macquer (1718–1784), French chemist known for Dictionnaire de chymie Rudolph A. Marcus (born 1923), Canadian chemist known for work on the theory of electron transfer reactions; 1992 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Jacob A. Marinsky (1918–2005), American chemist, co-discovered the element promethium Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac (1817–1894), Swiss chemist who discovered ytterbium and co-discovered gadolinium Vladimir Vasilevich Markovnikov (1838–1904), Russian chemist known for Markovnikov's rule describing addition reactions of hydrogen halides and alkenes Tobin J. Marks (born 1944), American inorganic chemist and materials scientist known for work in polymerization catalysts Alan G. Marshall (born 1944), American chemist, co-inventor of Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance (FT-ICR) mass spectrometry Archer John Porter Martin (1910–2002), British physical chemist, 1952 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the invention of partition chromatography Martinus van Marum (1750–1837), Dutch physician, inventor, scientist and teacher, which created the "large electricity machine" Elmer McCollum (1879–1967),


id: list-of-chemists-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-9.md
category: reference
title: List of chemists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemists-20260505-0
summary:
== N == Robert Nalbandyan (1937–2002), Armenian protein chemist known for discovery of photosynthetic protein plantacyanin Sergey Nametkin (1976–1950), Russian organic chemist known the cracking of petrochemicals, and rearrangement of camphenes Louise Natrajan (PhD 2003), British chemist who ortks on actinide chemistry and luminescence spectroscopy Giulio Natta (1903–1979), Italian chemical engineer worked on high density polymers, 1963 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Costin Nenițescu (1902–1970), Romanian chemist who studied the oxidation of open-chain and aromatic hydrocarbons with chromic acid and chromic oxychloride Antonio Neri (1576–1614), Florentine priest, author of L’Arte Vetraria (The Art of Glass), the first general treatise on the systematics of glassmaking Walther Nernst (1864–1941), German physical chemist whose heat theorem led the way to the third law of thermodynamics, 1920 Nobel Prize in Chemistry John Alexander Reina Newlands (1837–1898), British analytical chemist, precursor of the periodic order of elements William Nicholson (1753–1815), British chemist and civil engineer, the first to achieve electrolysis Kyriacos Costa Nicolaou (born 1946), Cypriot-American chemist known for total synthesis of natural products Julius Nieuwland (1878–1936), Belgian and American prirest and chemist who worked on synthetic rubber Mathias Nilsson, Swedish physical and analytical chemist concerned with liquid NMR spectroscopy Alfred Nobel (1833–1896), Swedish chemist who


id: list-of-chemists-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-10.md
category: reference
title: List of chemists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemists-20260505-0
summary:
== S == Paul Sabatier (1854–1941), French chemist, 1912 Nobel Prize in Chemistry corecipient Frederick Sanger (1918–2013), 1958 and 1980 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Carl Wilhelm Scheele (1742–1786), Swedish 18th century chemist, discovered numerous elements Christian Friedrich Schönbein (1799–1868), German-Swiss chemist, invented the fuel cell, and discovered gun cotton and ozone Stuart L. Schreiber (born 1956), American chemist, a pioneer in a field of chemical biology Richard R. Schrock (born 1945), 2005 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Peter Schultz (born 1956), American chemist Glenn T. Seaborg (1912–1999), 1951 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Nils Gabriel Sefström (1787–1845), chemist Francesco Selmi (1817–1881), Italian chemist, regarded as one of the founders of colloid chemistry Nikolay Nikolayevich Semyonov (1896–1986), physicist and chemist, 1956 Nobel Prize in Chemistry T. R. Seshadri (1900–1975), Indian chemist, pioneer in plant chemistry K. Barry Sharpless (born 1941), 2001 Wolf Prize in Chemistry, 2001 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Dan Shechtman (born 1941), 2011 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, discovered quasicrystals Patsy O. Sherman (1930–2008), 12 US patents John Sherwood (died 2020), British physical chemist Nevil Vincent Sidgwick (1873–1952), English theoretical chemist, known for work in valency Osamu Shimomura (1928–2018), 2008 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Hideki Shirakawa (born 1936), 2000 Nobel Prize in


id: list-of-chemists-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-11.md
category: reference
title: List of chemists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemists-20260505-0
summary:
== W == Johannes Diderik van der Waals (1837–1923), Dutch physicist Sir James Walker (1863–1935), Scottish physical chemist John E. Walker (born 1941), British chemist, 1997 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Otto Wallach (1847–1931), German chemist, 1910 Nobel Prize in Chemistry John Warner (born 1962), American chemist, 2014 Perkin Medal, one of the "founders" of green chemistry Alfred Werner (1866–1919), Swiss chemist, 1913 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Thomas Summers West (1927–2010), British analytical chemist Peter Jaffrey Wheatley (1921–1997), English chemist Chaim Weizmann (1874–1952), Russian chemist, developed the ABE-process George M. Whitesides (born 1939), American chemist John Rex Whinfield (1901–1966), British chemist, discovered polyester fibres Otto Wichterle (1913–1998), Czech chemist, known for inventing modern contact lenses Heinrich Otto Wieland (1877–1957), German chemist 1927 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Julius Wilbrand (1839–1906), German chemist, inventor of TNT Harvey W. Wiley (1844–1930), American chemist, pure food and drug advocate Sir Geoffrey Wilkinson (1921–1996), English chemist, 1973 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Alexander William Williamson (1824–1904), English chemist, famous for Williamson ether synthesis Thomas Willson (1860–1915), Canadian chemist, discovered an economically efficient process for creating calcium carbide Richard Willstätter (1872–1942), German chemist, 1915 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus (1876–1959), German chemist, 1928 Nobel Prize


id: list-of-chlorinated-propanes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chlorinated_propanes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of chlorinated propanes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chlorinated_propanes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:48.360196+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chlorinated-propanes-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of the 29 molecules of chlorinated propane in order of number of chlorine atoms. == Monochloro == 1-Chloropropane 2-Chloropropane == Dichloro == 1,1-Dichloropropane 1,2-Dichloropropane 1,3-Dichloropropane 2,2-Dichloropropane == Trichloro == 1,1,1-Trichloropropane 1,2,3-Trichloropropane 1,2,2-Trichloropropane 1,1,2-Trichloropropane 1,1,3-Trichloropropane == Tetrachloro == 1,1,1,2-Tetrachloropropane 1,1,1,3-Tetrachloropropane 1,1,2,2-Tetrachloropropane 1,1,2,3-Tetrachloropropane 1,1,3,3-Tetrachloropropane 1,2,2,3-tetrachloropropane == Pentachloro == 1,1,1,2,2-Pentachloropropane 1,1,1,2,3-Pentachloropropane 1,1,1,3,3-Pentachloropropane 1,1,2,2,3-Pentachloropropane 1,1,2,3,3-Pentachloropropane == Hexachloro == 1,1,1,2,2,3-Hexachloropropane 1,1,1,2,3,3-Hexachloropropane 1,1,1,3,3,3-Hexachloropropane 1,1,2,2,3,3-Hexachloropropane == Heptachloro == 1,1,1,2,2,3,3-Heptachloropropane 1,1,1,2,3,3,3-Heptachloropropane == Octachloro == Octachloropropane == References ==


id: list-of-cigarette-smoke-carcinogens-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cigarette_smoke_carcinogens-0.md
category: reference
title: List of cigarette smoke carcinogens
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cigarette_smoke_carcinogens
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:49.504661+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cigarette-smoke-carcinogens-20260505-0
summary:
Commercial tobacco smoke is a mixture of more than 5,000 chemicals. A 2011 report in the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (IJERPH) lists 65 carcinogens or possible carcinogens: "Our list of hazardous smoke components includes all nine components reported in mainstream cigarette smoke that are known human carcinogens (IARC Group I carcinogens), as well as all nine components that are probably carcinogenic to humans (IARC Group 2A carcinogens). In addition, it contains 34 of the 48 components that are possibly carcinogenic to humans (IARC Group 2B carcinogens)." == IJERPH table == "1Cancer inhalation risk values provide an excess lifetime exposure risk, in this case the human lung cancer risk at a 1 in 100,000 (E-5) level." == See also == Kent, a cigarette that contained a filter made of asbestos. Composition of electronic cigarette aerosol Health effects of tobacco smoking List of additives in cigarettes == References ==


id: list-of-compounds-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_compounds-0.md
category: reference
title: List of compounds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_compounds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:50.676864+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-compounds-20260505-0
summary:
Compounds are organized into the following lists: List of inorganic compounds, compounds without a C–H bond List of biomolecules == See also == Chemical substance – Form of matterPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets List of alchemical substances List of chemical elements List of fragrance compounds List of minerals List of named alloys List of straight-chain alkanes Polyatomic ion – Ion containing two or more atoms Exotic molecule – a compound containing one or more exotic atoms == External links == Relevant links for chemical compounds are: Chemical Abstracts Service, a division of the American Chemical Society Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) – substance databases CAS Common Chemistry ChemSpider PubChem


id: list-of-computational-chemistry-software-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computational_chemistry_software-0.md
category: reference
title: List of computational chemistry software
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computational_chemistry_software
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:51.876846+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-computational-chemistry-software-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of computational chemistry software used for electronic structure calculations, molecular property prediction, and related simulations. The programs listed below implement methods such as Hartree–Fock, Post–Hartree–Fock, density-functional theory, and relativistic formalisms for molecular, biological, and solid-state chemistry systems. == Quantum chemistry == == Molecular dynamics == == Molecular modeling software == == Cheminformatics, docking, and modeling == == Utilities and frameworks == == See also == Comparison of nucleic acid simulation software Computational Chemistry List Crystallographic database Crystallography Open Database List of chemical process simulators List of chemistry journals List of computational chemists List of computer-assisted organic synthesis software List of molecular graphics systems List of software for Monte Carlo molecular modeling List of software for nanostructures modeling == References == == External links == Software | Computational Chemical Sciences Open-Source Software Development Group Free and open source software for computational chemistry education Cheminformatics and Molecular Modeling – Translational Informatics Division Best Open Source Chemistry Software 2025 lmmentel/awesome-python-chemistry Cutting-Edge Free Tools To Unlock the Power of Computational Chemistry


id: list-of-conjugated-polymers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_conjugated_polymers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of conjugated polymers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_conjugated_polymers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:53.097778+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-conjugated-polymers-20260505-0
summary:
== See also == Light emitting polymers in OLEDs Conductive polymer Electroluminescence == References ==


id: list-of-cooling-baths-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cooling_baths-0.md
category: reference
title: List of cooling baths
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cooling_baths
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:54.317715+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cooling-baths-20260505-0
summary:
This article contains a list of cooling bath mixtures. == Table == == References == Lee, Do W.; Jensen, Craig M. (2000). "Dry-Ice Bath Based on Ethylene Glycol Mixtures". J. Chem. Educ. 77 (5): 629. doi:10.1021/ed077p629. Phipps, Alan M.; Hume, David N. (1968). "General purpose low temperature dry-ice baths". J. Chem. Educ. 45 (10): 664. Bibcode:1968JChEd..45..664P. doi:10.1021/ed045p664. Rondeau, Roger E. (1966). "Slush baths". Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data. 11: 124. doi:10.1021/je60028a037.


id: list-of-copper-salts-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_copper_salts-0.md
category: reference
title: List of copper salts
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_copper_salts
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:55.607543+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-copper-salts-20260505-0
summary:
Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (from Latin: cuprum) and the atomic number of 29. It is easily recognisable, due to its distinct red-orange color. Copper also has a range of different organic and inorganic salts, having varying oxidation states ranging from (0,I) to (III). These salts (mostly the (II) salts) are often blue to green in color, rather than the orange color copper is known for. Despite being considered a semi-noble metal, copper is one of the most common salt-forming transition metals, along with iron. == Copper(0,I) salts == == Copper(I) salts == == Copper(II) salts == == Copper(I, II) salts == == See also == List of organic salts List of inorganic compounds


id: list-of-corticosteroids-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_corticosteroids-0.md
category: reference
title: List of corticosteroids
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_corticosteroids
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:56.951676+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-corticosteroids-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of corticosteroids (glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids) or derivatives of cortisol (hydrocortisone). Most esters of these corticosteroids are not included in this list; for esters, see here instead. The most common structural modifications in synthetic corticosteroids include 1(2)-dehydrogenation, 6α-, 9α-, 16α-, and 16β-substitution (with a halogen or methyl group), 16α,17α-acetonidation, and 17α- and 21-esterification. == Natural == 11-Dehydrocorticosterone (11-oxocorticosterone, 17-deoxycortisone) = 21-hydroxypregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione 11-Deoxycorticosterone (deoxycortone, desoxycortone; 21-hydroxyprogesterone) = 21-hydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione 11-Deoxycortisol (cortodoxone, cortexolone) = 17α,21-dihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione 11-Ketoprogesterone (11-oxoprogesterone; Ketogestin) = pregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione 11β-Hydroxypregnenolone = 3β,11β-dihydroxypregn-5-en-20-one [1] 11β-Hydroxyprogesterone (21-deoxycorticosterone) = 11β-hydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione 11β,17α,21-Trihydroxypregnenolone = 3β,11β,17α,21-tetrahydroxypregn-5-en-20-one [2] 17α,21-Dihydroxypregnenolone = 3β,17α,21-trihydroxypregn-5-en-20-one [3] 17α-Hydroxypregnenolone = 3β,17α-dihydroxypregn-5-en-20-one 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone = 17α-hydroxypregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione 18-Hydroxy-11-deoxycorticosterone = 18,21-dihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione [4] 18-Hydroxycorticosterone = 11β,18,21-trihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione 18-Hydroxyprogesterone = 18-hydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione [5] 21-Deoxycortisol = 11β,17α-dihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione, 21-Deoxycortisone = 17α-hydroxypregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione 21-Hydroxypregnenolone (prebediolone) = 3β,21-dihydroxypregn-5-en-20-one Aldosterone = 11β,21-dihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,18,20-trione Corticosterone (17-deoxycortisol) = 11β,21-dihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione Cortisol (hydrocortisone) = 11β,17α,21-trihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione Cortisone = 17α,21-dihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione Pregnenolone = pregn-5-en-3β-ol-20-one Progesterone = pregn-4-ene-3,20-dione The glucocorticoid activity of progesterone and 17α-hydroxyprogesterone is very weak (>100-fold less than that of cortisol). The above list includes precursors and intermediates in corticosteroid biosynthesis. == Synthetic == === Progesterone-type === Flugestone (flurogestone) = 9α-fluoro-11β,17α-dihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione Fluorometholone = 6α-methyl-9α-fluoro-11β,17α-dihydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione Medrysone (hydroxymethylprogesterone) = 6α-methyl-11β-hydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione Prebediolone acetate (21-acetoxypregnenolone) = 3β,21-dihydroxypregn-5-en-20-one 21-acetate In addition to the above, various progesterone derivative


id: list-of-cp-cannabinoids-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_CP_cannabinoids-0.md
category: reference
title: List of CP cannabinoids
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_CP_cannabinoids
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:58.267339+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cp-cannabinoids-20260505-0
summary:
Many synthetic cannabinoids were designed by Pfizer in the 1970s and 1980s, and feature an alphanumeric code beginning with the prefix "CP" (after Charles Pfizer). Recently, several members of this class of cannabinoids have been discovered in recreational drug products. CP 47,497 — (C6)-CP 47,497 — (C7)-CP 47,497 (CP 47,497 itself) — (C8)-CP 47,497 (Cannabicyclohexanol) — (C9)-CP 47,497 — CP 50,556-1 (Levonantradol) — CP 55,244 — CP 55,940 — (±)-CP 55,940 — (±)-CP 55,940 is a widely used cannabinoid research tool. (+)-CP 55,940 — (-)-CP 55,940 — CP-945,598 (Otenabant) — == See also == List of AM cannabinoids List of HU cannabinoids List of JWH cannabinoids List of miscellaneous designer cannabinoids == References ==


id: list-of-chemical-databases-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_databases-0.md
category: reference
title: List of chemical databases
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_databases
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:59.651708+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemical-databases-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of websites that contain lists of chemicals, or databases of chemical information. There is further detail on the content of these and other resources in a Wikibook of information sources. == External links == Drugs, Herbs and Supplements informations at the MedlinePlus service of the US National Institutes of Health (NIH) The Drug Information Service at the US Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) website == References ==


id: dea-list-of-chemicals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DEA_list_of_chemicals-0.md
category: reference
title: DEA list of chemicals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DEA_list_of_chemicals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:00.892735+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dea-list-of-chemicals-20260505-0
summary:
The United States Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) maintains lists regarding the classification of illicit drugs (see DEA Schedules). It also maintains List I of chemicals and List II of chemicals, which contain chemicals that are used to manufacture the controlled substances/illicit drugs. The list is designated within the Controlled Substances Act but can be modified by the U.S. Attorney General as illegal manufacturing practices change. Although the list is controlled by the Attorney General, the list is considered a DEA list because the DEA publishes and enforces the list. Suppliers of these products are subject to regulation and control measures: == List I chemicals == These chemicals are designated as those that are used in the manufacture of the controlled substances and are important to the manufacture of the substances: == List II chemicals == These chemicals are designated as those that are used in the manufacture of controlled substances: == Special Surveillance List == === Chemicals === All listed chemicals as specified in 21 CFR 1310.02 (a) or (b). This includes supplements which contain a listed chemical, regardless of their dosage form or packaging and regardless of whether the chemical mixture, drug product or dietary supplement is exempt from


id: list-of-desiccants-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_desiccants-0.md
category: reference
title: List of desiccants
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_desiccants
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:02.174207+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-desiccants-20260505-0
summary:
List of desiccants: Activated alumina Aerogel Benzophenone (as anion) Bentonite clay Calcium chloride Calcium hydride Calcium oxide Calcium sulfate (Drierite) Cobalt(II) chloride Copper(II) sulfate Lithium chloride Lithium bromide Magnesium chloride hexahydrate Magnesium sulfate Magnesium perchlorate Molecular sieve Phosphorus pentoxide Potassium carbonate Potassium hydroxide Rice Silica gel Sodium Sodium chlorate Sodium chloride Sodium hydroxide Sodium sulfate Sucrose Sulfuric acid Triethylene glycol Zeolite (molecular sieves) == External links == Education Center == References ==


id: list-of-discredited-substances-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_discredited_substances-0.md
category: reference
title: List of discredited substances
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_discredited_substances
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:03.476066+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-discredited-substances-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of substances or materials generally considered discredited. A substance can be discredited in one of three ways: It was widely believed to exist at one time but no longer is. Such substances are often part of an obsolete scientific theory. It was once believed to have drastically different properties from those accepted now. It was widely claimed and believed to possess significant properties that are no longer attributed to it. It is currently believed to exist as part of a theory that has not met the theoretical and experimental requirements of mainstream science. In particular, such a theory must be predictive. == Substances whose existence is discredited == == Substances whose properties are discredited == This is not to be construed as implying that these items–as they are understood today–are discredited. What is listed are fire, water, metal, etc. as universal principles or fundamentals. Classical elements and Chinese elements discredited by atomic theory and nuclear physics. Fire (classical element) Water (classical element) Earth (classical element) Air (classical element) Wood (classical element) Metal (classical element) Aether (classical element): Now known not to exist (see above) The four bodily humours: Blood, Phlegm, Black Bile, and Yellow Bile. Fluids


id: list-of-dyes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_dyes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of dyes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_dyes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:04.859605+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-dyes-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of dyes with Colour Index International generic names and numbers and CAS Registry numbers. Note Synonyms should be treated with caution because they are often used inconsistently, see discussion page and external link [1] == See also == Glossary of dyeing terms == Sources == BDH laboratory chemicals & biochemicals catalogue 1983 Important Early Synthetic Dyes 1991 Smithsonian Institution == External links == Stainsfile dye index World Dye Variety Hazardous substances used in textile dyeing


id: e-number-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E_number-0.md
category: reference
title: E number
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E_number
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:06.253893+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: e-number-20260505-0
summary:
E numbers, short for Europe numbers, are codes for substances used as food additives, including those found naturally in many foods, such as vitamin C, for use within the European Union (EU) and European Free Trade Association (EFTA). Commonly found on food labels, their safety assessment and approval are the responsibility of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). The fact that an additive has an E number implies that its use was at one time permitted in products for sale in the European Single Market; some of these additives are no longer allowed today. Having a single unified list for food additives was first agreed upon in 1962 with food colouring. In 1964, the directives for preservatives were added; In 1970 antioxidants were added; In 1974 emulsifiers, stabilisers, thickeners and gelling agents were added as well. == Numbering schemes == The numbering scheme follows that of the International Numbering System (INS) as determined by the Codex Alimentarius committee, though only a subset of the INS additives are approved for use in the European Union as food additives. Outside the European continent plus Russia, E numbers are also encountered on food labelling in other jurisdictions, including the Gulf Cooperation Council, South


id: list-of-essential-oils-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_essential_oils-0.md
category: reference
title: List of essential oils
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_essential_oils
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:07.468008+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-essential-oils-20260505-0
summary:
Essential oils are volatile and liquid aroma compounds from natural sources, usually plants. They are not oils in a strict sense, but often share with oils a poor solubility in water. Essential oils often have an odor and are therefore used in food flavoring and perfumery. They are usually prepared by fragrance extraction techniques (such as distillation, cold pressing, or Solvent extraction). Essential oils are distinguished from aroma oils (essential oils and aroma compounds in an oily solvent), infusions in a vegetable oil, absolutes, and concretes. Typically, essential oils are highly complex mixtures of often hundreds of individual aroma compounds. Agar oil or oodh, distilled from agarwood (Aquilaria malaccensis). Highly prized for its fragrance. Ajwain oil, distilled from the leaves of (Carum copticum). Oil contains 35–65% thymol. Amyris oil Angelica root oil, distilled from the Angelica archangelica. Has a green musky scent. Anise oil, from the Pimpinella anisum, rich odor of licorice Armoise/Mugwort oil A green and camphorous essential oil. Asafoetida oil, used to flavor food. Attar or ittar, used in perfumes for fragrances such as rose and sandlewood. Balsam of Peru, from the Myroxylon, used in food and drink for flavoring, in perfumes and toiletries for a cheaper alternative


id: list-of-essential-oils-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_essential_oils-1.md
category: reference
title: List of essential oils
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_essential_oils
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:07.468008+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-essential-oils-20260505-0
summary:
Sandalwood oil, used primarily as a fragrance, for its pleasant, woody fragrance. Sassafras oil, from sassafras root bark. Used in aromatherapy, soap-making, perfumes, and the like. Formerly used as a spice, and as the primary flavoring of root beer, inter alia. Sassafras oil is heavily regulated in the United States due to its high safrole content. Savory oil, from Satureja species. Used in aromatherapy, cosmetic and soap-making applications. Schisandra oil Spearmint oil, often used in flavoring mouthwash and chewing gum, among other applications. Spikenard Spruce oil Star anise oil, highly fragrant oil using in cooking. Also used in perfumery and soaps, has been used in toothpastes, mouthwashes, and skin creams. 90% of the world's star anise crop is used in the manufacture of Tamiflu, a drug used to treat influenza, and is hoped to be useful for avian flu Tangerine Tarragon oil, distilled from Artemisia dracunculus Tea tree oil, extracted from Melaleuca alternifolia. Thyme oil Tsuga belongs to the pine tree family. Turmeric, used to flavor food. Valerian Warionia, used as a perfume ingredient Vetiver oil (khus oil) a thick, amber oil, primarily from India. Used as a fixative in perfumery, and in aromatherapy. Western red cedar Wintergreen Yarrow oil


id: list-of-esters-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_esters-0.md
category: reference
title: List of esters
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_esters
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:08.661866+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-esters-20260505-0
summary:
In chemistry, an ester is a compound derived from an acid (organic or inorganic) in which the hydrogen atom (H) of at least one acidic hydroxyl group (−OH) of that acid is replaced by an organyl group (−R). Analogues derived from oxygen replaced by other chalcogens belong to the ester category as well (i.e. esters of acidic −SH, −SeH, −TeH, −PoH and −LvH groups). According to some authors, organyl derivatives of acidic hydrogen of other acids are esters as well (e.g. amides), but not according to the IUPAC. An example of an ester formation is the substitution reaction between a carboxylic acid (R−C(=O)−OH) and an alcohol (R'OH), forming an ester (R−C(=O)−O−R'), where R and R′ are organyl groups, or H in the case of esters of formic acid. Glycerides, which are fatty acid esters of glycerol, are important esters in biology, being one of the main classes of lipids, and making up the bulk of animal fats and vegetable oils. Esters of carboxylic acids with low molecular weight are commonly used as fragrances and found in essential oils and pheromones. Phosphoesters form the backbone of DNA molecules. Nitrate esters, such as nitroglycerin, are known for their explosive properties, while polyesters


id: list-of-estrogens-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_estrogens-0.md
category: reference
title: List of estrogens
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_estrogens
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:09.935711+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-estrogens-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of steroidal estrogens or derivatives of estradiol, estrone, and estriol. Most esters of these estrogens are not included in this list; for esters, see here instead. == Estradiol derivatives == === 17α-Substituted estradiol derivatives === === Nitrogen mustard-coupled alkylating antineoplastic estradiol derivatives === === 17β-Aminoestrogens === == Estrone derivatives == === Nitrogen mustard-coupled alkylating antineoplastic estrone derivatives === == Estriol derivatives == === 17α-Substituted estriol derivatives === == Other estrogen derivatives == === Epimers === === Equine estrogens === == See also == List of steroids == Notes == ? = Chemical names that are unverified. == References ==


id: epa-list-of-extremely-hazardous-substances-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPA_list_of_extremely_hazardous_substances-0.md
category: reference
title: EPA list of extremely hazardous substances
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPA_list_of_extremely_hazardous_substances
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:11.175702+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: epa-list-of-extremely-hazardous-substances-20260505-0
summary:
This is the list of extremely hazardous substances defined in Section 302 of the U.S. Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (42 U.S.C. § 11002). The list can be found as an appendix to 40 CFR 355. Updates as of 2006 can be seen on the Federal Register, 71 FR 47121 (August 16, 2006). The data were provided by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). == A == Acetone cyanohydrin Acetone thiosemicarbazide Acrolein Acrylamide Acrylonitrile Acryloyl chloride Adiponitrile Aldicarb Aldrin Allyl alcohol Allylamine Aluminium phosphide Aminopterin Amiton Amiton oxalate Ammonia Amphetamine Aniline Aniline, 2,4,6-trimethyl- Antimony pentafluoride Antimycin A ANTU (Alpha-Naphthylthiourea) Arsenic pentoxide Arsenous oxide Arsenous trichloride Arsine Azinphos-ethyl Azinphos-methyl == B == Benzal chloride Benzenamine, 3-(trifluoromethyl)- Benzenearsonic acid Benzimidazole, 4,5-dichloro-2-(trifluoromethyl)- Benzotrichloride Benzyl chloride Benzyl cyanide Bicyclo(2.2.1)heptane-2-carbonitrile Bis(chloromethyl) ketone Bitoscanate Boron trichloride Boron trifluoride Boron trifluoride compound with dimethyl ether (1:1) Bromadiolone Bromine == C == Cadmium oxide Cadmium stearate Calcium arsenate Camphechlor Cantharidin Carbachol chloride Carbamic acid, Methyl-, O-(((2,4-Dimethyl-1,3-Dithiolan-2-yl)Methylene)Amino)- (Tirpate) Carbofuran Carbon disulfide Carbophenothion Chlordane Chlorfenvinfos Chlorine Chlormephos Chlormequat chloride Chloroacetic acid 2-chloroethanol Chloroethyl chloroformate Chloroform Chloromethyl ether Chloromethyl methyl ether Chlorophacinone Chloroxuron Chlorthiophos Chromic chloride Cobalt carbonyl Colchicine Coumaphos Cresol, -o Crimidine Crotonaldehyde Crotonaldehyde, (E)- Cyanogen bromide Cyanogen


id: list-of-fentanyl-analogues-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fentanyl_analogues-0.md
category: reference
title: List of fentanyl analogues
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fentanyl_analogues
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:12.457793+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fentanyl-analogues-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of fentanyl analogues (sometimes referred to as fentalogs), and includes both compounds developed by pharmaceutical companies for legitimate medical use, and those which have been sold as designer drugs. The latter have been reported to national drug control agencies such as the DEA, and some to transnational agencies such as the EMCDDA and UNODC. This is not a comprehensive or exhaustive list of fentanyl analogues, as more than 1400 compounds from this family have been described in the scientific and patent literature. However, this list does include many notable compounds that have reached late-stage human clinical trials, and compounds which have been sold as designer drugs, as well as representative examples of significant structural variations reported in the scientific and patent literature. The structural variations among fentanyl analogues can impart profound pharmacological differences between each other, especially regarding potency and efficacy. In the United States, the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) placed the class of "Fentanyl-Related Substances" on the list of Schedule I drugs in 2018, making it illegal to manufacture, distribute, or possess fentanyl analogs, with very broad terminology being used in its scheduling. Regarding the temporary control of fentanyl-related substances, Schedule I was extended


id: list-of-fentanyl-analogues-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fentanyl_analogues-1.md
category: reference
title: List of fentanyl analogues
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fentanyl_analogues
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:12.457793+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fentanyl-analogues-20260505-0
summary:
The modifications covered in this diagram have to do with carbon skeleton modifications of the original fentanyl molecular structure. These are organized into methyl acetate additions, which are most known for the fentanyl -> carfentanil conversion. Many analogues of great potency, such as ohmfentanyl and lofentanyl possess methyl acetate groups added to the 4-carbon (of the piperidine ring, in the para- position relative to the annular nitrogen). The methyl acetate is added here from the α-carbon of the acetate moiety as it is with ohm- and lofentanyl. The 4-carbon is not a chiral center in carfetnanil because of a lack of piperidinyl substituents, but this same carbon is a chiral center in both ohm- and lofentanyl because both of those analogues have piperidinyl substituents. The second group are organized into methyl additions, which are known for the fentanyl analogues such as α-methylfentanyl and cis-3-methylfentanyl. These analogues can possess a wide variety of modified pharmacological properties, including increased and decreased potency (receptor binding efficiency), increased or decreased half-life (metabolic binding efficiency) or other side effects on human physiology. Other substituents such as hydroxy, chloro, fluoro, and a wide variety of alkyl groups, are also substituted in place of these methylations to


id: list-of-fentanyl-analogues-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fentanyl_analogues-2.md
category: reference
title: List of fentanyl analogues
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fentanyl_analogues
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:12.457793+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fentanyl-analogues-20260505-0
summary:
The third case studied here is alpha-methylfentanyl. This group contains a substitution similar to the 3-methylfentanyl that was examined in the previous example on the previous image in this series (Fentanyl Synthesis p4.png), but it is on the phenethyl chain as opposed to being implanted on the piperidine ring. We then mark the two stereocenters, one on the C-4 carbon just as on fentanyl itself, and the other on the C-α (alpha carbon). To analogize these stereocenters we chose N-(1-hydroxyethyl)-4-hydroxypiperidine. When we draw out all potential stereoisomers, we see that the C-4 stereocenter is super-imposable, eliminating it as a true stereocenter. This leaves only 2 R/S assignments that follow the orientation of the stereocenter at the C-α (alpha carbon) position for the real α-methylfentanyl. These are labeled 7S and 7R, a reflection of the stereocenter in the piperidine derivative we used being at C-7 position. It is interesting that the C-4 stereocenter, which has no chiral activity in fentanyl (1st example), activiates it in 3-methylfentanyl with an on-the-ring addition, and loses it again in α-methylfentanyl with an off-the-ring addition. The fourth case studied here is ohmfentanyl. Ohmfentanyl has three potential stereocenters, which are best analogized by another piperidine derivative: N-(1-hydroxyethyl)-3-methyl-4-hydroxypiperidine.


id: list-of-fictional-elements-materials-isotopes-and-subatomic-particles-20260505-0
category: reference
title: List of fictional elements, materials, isotopes and subatomic particles
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:13.721495+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fictional-elements-materials-isotopes-and-subatomic-particles-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_elements,_materials,_isotopes_and_subatomic_particles-0.md

summary:
This list contains fictional chemical elements, materials, isotopes or subatomic particles that either a) play a major role in a notable work of fiction, b) are common to several unrelated works, or c) are discussed in detail by independent sources. == Fictional elements and materials == == Fictional isotopes and allotropes of real elements == == Fictional subatomic particles == == See also == == References == == External links == Elements from DC Comics Legion of Super-heroes Periodic Table of Comic Books – lists comic book uses of real elements Periodic table from the BBC comedy series Look Around You. Tarzan at the Earths Core

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_elements,_materials,_isotopes_and_subatomic_particles


id: list-of-food-additives-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives-0.md
category: reference
title: List of food additives
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:14.855331+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-food-additives-20260505-0
summary:
Food additives are substances added to food to preserve flavor or enhance its taste, appearance, or other qualities. == Purposes == Additives are used for many purposes but the main uses are: Acids Food acids are added to make flavors "sharper", and also act as preservatives and antioxidants. Common food acids include vinegar, citric acid, tartaric acid, malic acid, folic acid, fumaric acid, and lactic acid. Acidity regulators Acidity regulators are used to change or otherwise control the acidity and alkalinity of foods. Anticaking agents Anticaking agents keep powders such as milk powder from caking or sticking. Antifoaming agents Antifoaming agents reduce or prevent foaming in foods. Antioxidants Antioxidants such as vitamin C act as preservatives by inhibiting the effects of oxygen on food, and can be beneficial to health. Bulking agents Bulking agents such as starch are additives that increase the bulk of a food without affecting its nutritional value. Food coloring Colorings are added to food to replace colors lost during preparation, or to make food look more attractive. Color retention agents In contrast to colorings, color retention agents are used to preserve a food's existing color. Emulsifiers Emulsifiers allow water and oils to remain mixed together in


id: list-of-food-additives-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives-1.md
category: reference
title: List of food additives
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:14.855331+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-food-additives-20260505-0
summary:
== B == Babassu oil – similar to, and used as a substitute for coconut oil. Baking powder – leavening agent; includes acid and base Baking soda – food base Balm, lemon – Balm oil – Balsam of Peru – used in food and drink for flavoring Barberry – Barley flour – Basil (Ocimum basilicum) – Basil extract – Bay leaves – Beeswax – glazing agent Beet red – color (red) Beetroot red – color (red) Ben oil – extracted from the seeds of the moringa oleifera. High in behenic acid. Extremely stable edible oil. Also suitable for biofuel. Bentonite – anti-caking agent Benzoic acid – preservative Benzoyl peroxide – flour treatment agent Berebere – Bergamot – in Earl Grey tea Beta-apo-8'-carotenal (C 30) – color Beta-apo-8'-carotenic acid ethyl ester – color Betanin – color (red) Biphenyl – preservative Bison grass (Hierochloe odorata) – Bixin – color Black 7984 – color (brown and black) Black cardamom – Black cumin – Blackcurrant seed oil – used as a food supplement, because of high content of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids. Also used in cosmetics. Black limes – Pepper (black, white, and green) – Black PN – color (brown and black) Bleached


id: list-of-food-additives-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives-2.md
category: reference
title: List of food additives
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:14.855331+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-food-additives-20260505-0
summary:
== C == Cacao shell – Cachou extract – Cactus root extract – Cadinene – Caffeine – stimulant Cajeput oil – Calamus – Calcium 5'-ribonucleotides – flavor enhancer Calcium acetate – preservative, acidity regulator Calcium alginate – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent, emulsifier Calcium ascorbate – antioxidant (water-soluble) Calcium aluminosilicate (calcium aluminium silicate) – anti-caking agent Calcium ascorbate (Vitamin C) – Calcium benzoate – preservative Calcium bisulfite – preservative, antioxidant Calcium carbonates – color (white), anticaking agent, stabiliser Calcium chloride – mineral salt Calcium citrates – food acid, firming agent Calcium diglutamate – flavor enhancer Calcium disodium EDTA – preservative Calcium ferrocyanide – anti-caking agent Calcium formate – preservative Calcium fumarate – food acid Calcium gluconate – acidity regulator Calcium guanylate – flavor enhancer Calcium hydrogen sulfite – preservative, antioxidant Calcium hydroxide – mineral salt Calcium inosinate – flavor enhancer Calcium lactate – food acid Calcium lactobionate – stabilizer Calcium malates – food acid Calcium oxide – mineral salt Calcium pantothenate (Vitamin B5) – Calcium peroxide – Calcium phosphates – mineral salt, anti-caking agent, firming agent Calcium polyphosphates – anti-caking agent Calcium propionate – preservative Calcium salts of fatty acids – emulsifier, stabiliser, anti-caking agent Calcium silicate – anti-caking


id: list-of-food-additives-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives-3.md
category: reference
title: List of food additives
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:14.855331+00:00
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parent: list-of-food-additives-20260505-0
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== F == False flax oil – made of the seeds of Camelina sativa. Can be considered as a food or fuel oil. Fantesk – Farnesol – Fast green FCF – color (FDA: FD&C Green #3) Fat – Flavoxanthin – color Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) – Fenugreek – Ferric ammonium citrate – food acid Ferrous gluconate – color retention agent Ferrous lactate – Filé powder – Five-spice powder (Chinese) – Fo-ti-tieng – Formaldehyde – preservative Formic acid – preservative Fructose – Fumaric acid – acidity regulator Folic acid – fortyfying agent == G == Galangal – Galangal root – Galbanum oil – Gallic acid – Gamma-tocopherol(synthetic) – antioxidant Garam masala – Garlic extract – Garlic – Garlic oil – Gelatin/gelatine – Gelling agent, emulsifier Gellan gum – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, emulsifier Ginger – Ginger oil – Ginger root – Ginseng – Glacial Acetic acid – preservative, acidity regulator Glucitol – Gluconate – Glucono delta-lactone – acidity regulator Glucose oxidase – antioxidant Glucose syrup – sweetener Glutamate – Glutamic acid – flavor enhancer Gluten – Glycerin – humectant, sweetener Glycerol – Glycerol ester of wood rosin – emulsifier Glyceryl distearate – emulsifier Glyceryl monostearate – emulsifier Glycine – flavor enhancer Glyoxylic


id: list-of-food-additives-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives-4.md
category: reference
title: List of food additives
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:14.855331+00:00
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parent: list-of-food-additives-20260505-0
summary:
== M == Macadamia oil – used as an edible oil. Also used as a massage oil. Mace – Magnesium – Magnesium carbonate – anti-caking agent, mineral salt Magnesium chloride – mineral salt Magnesium citrate – acidity regulator Magnesium diglutamate – flavor enhancer Magnesium hydroxide – mineral salt Magnesium lactate – food acid Magnesium oxide – anti-caking agent Magnesium phosphates – mineral salt, anti-caking agent Magnesium salts of fatty acids – emulsifier, stabiliser, anti-caking agent Magnesium silicate – anti-caking agent Magnesium stearate – emulsifier, stabiliser Magnesium sulfate – mineral salt, acidity regulator, firming agent Mahleb – Malabathrum – Malic acid – acidity regulator Malt extract – flavor enhancer Maltitol – humectant, stabiliser Maltodextrin – carbohydrate sweetener Maltol – flavor enhancer Maltose – Mandarin oil – leavening agent Manganese – Mannitol – humectant, anti-caking agent, sweetener Margarine – Marjoram (Origanum majorana) – Mastic – Meadowfoam seed oil – highly stable oil, with over 98% long-chain fatty acids. Competes with rapeseed oil for industrial applications. Mega-purple – a Kosher food additive made from grapes Mentha arvensis oil/Mint oil, used in flavoring toothpastes, mouthwashes and pharmaceuticals, as well as in aromatherapy and other medicinal applications. Metatartaric acid – food acid, emulsifier Methionine –


id: list-of-food-additives-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives-5.md
category: reference
title: List of food additives
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:14.855331+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-food-additives-20260505-0
summary:
== P == Palm oil – the most widely produced tropical oil. Also used to make biofuel. Panax ginseng – Panax quinquefolius – Ponch phoran – Pandan leaf – Pantothenic acid (Vitamin B5) – Papain – A cysteine protease hydrolase enzyme present in papaya (Carica papaya) and mountain papaya (Vasconcellea cundinamarcensis). Paprika red – Paprika – Paprika extract – Paraffins – glazing agent Parsley (Petroselinum crispum) – Patent blue V – color (blue) Peanut oil/Ground nut oil – mild-flavored cooking oil. Pecan oil – valued as a food oil, but requiring fresh pecans for good quality oil. Pectin – vegetable gum, emulsifier Perilla seed oil – high in omega-3 fatty acids. Used as an edible oil, for medicinal purposes, in skin care products and as a drying oil. Phosphated distarch phosphate – thickener, vegetable gum Phosphoric acid – food acid Phytic acid – preservative Pigment Rubine – color Pimaricin – preservative Pine needle oil Pine seed oil – an expensive food oil, used in salads and as a condiment. Pistachio oil – strongly flavored oil, particularly for use in salads. Prune kernel oil – marketed as a gourmet cooking oil Poly vinyl pyrrolidone – Polydextrose – humectant Polyethylene glycol 8000


id: list-of-food-additives-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives-6.md
category: reference
title: List of food additives
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:14.855331+00:00
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parent: list-of-food-additives-20260505-0
summary:
== S == Saccharin – artificial sweetener Safflower oil – a flavorless and colorless cooking oil. Safflower – Saffron – color Saigon Cinnamon – Salad Burnet (Sanguisorba minor or Poterium sanguisorba) – Salt – Sandalwood – color Savory (Satureja hortensis, S. montana) – Scarlet GN – color Sesame oil – used as a cooking oil, and as a massage oil, particularly in India. Sesame seed – Shellac – glazing agent Sichuan pepper (Xanthoxylum piperitum) – Silicon dioxide – anti-caking agent Silver – color (silver) Luohanguo – Sodium acetate – preservative, acidity regulator Sodium adipate – food acid Sodium alginate – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent, emulsifier Sodium aluminium phosphate – acidity regulator, emulsifier Sodium aluminosilicate (sodium aluminium silicate) – anti-caking agent Sodium ascorbate – antioxidant (water-soluble) Sodium benzoate – preservative Sodium bicarbonate – mineral salt Sodium bisulfite (sodium hydrogen sulfite) – preservative, antioxidant Sodium carbonate – mineral salt Sodium carboxymethylcellulose – emulsifier Sodium citrates – food acid Sodium dehydroacetate – preservative Sodium erythorbate – antioxidant Sodium erythorbin – antioxidant Sodium ethyl para-hydroxybenzoate – preservative Sodium ferrocyanide – anti-caking agent Sodium formate – preservative Sodium fumarate – food acid Sodium gluconate – stabiliser Sodium hydrogen acetate – preservative, acidity regulator


id: international-numbering-system-for-food-additives-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Numbering_System_for_Food_Additives-0.md
category: reference
title: International Numbering System for Food Additives
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Numbering_System_for_Food_Additives
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:16.154713+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-numbering-system-for-food-additives-20260505-0
summary:
The International Numbering System for Food Additives (INS) is an international naming system for food additives, aimed at providing a short designation of what may be a lengthy actual name. It is defined by Codex Alimentarius, the international food standards organisation of the World Health Organization (WHO) and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations (UN). The information is published in the document Class Names and the International Numbering System for Food Additives, first published in 1989, with revisions in 2008 and 2011. The INS is an open list, "subject to the inclusion of additional additives or removal of existing ones on an ongoing basis". == Numbering system == INS numbers consist of three or four digits, optionally followed by an alphabetical suffix to further characterize individual additives. On packaging in the European Union (EU), approved food additives are written with a prefix of E. An additive that appears in the INS does not automatically have a corresponding E number. INS numbers are assigned by the committee to identify each food additive. INS numbers generally correspond to E numbers for the same compound, e.g. INS 102, Tartrazine, is also E102. INS numbers are not unique and, in fact,


id: list-of-gases-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gases-0.md
category: reference
title: List of gases
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gases
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:17.619086+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-gases-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of gases at standard conditions, which means substances that boil or sublime at or below 25 °C (77 °F) and 1 atm pressure and are reasonably stable. == List == This list is sorted by boiling point of gases in ascending order, but can be sorted on different values. "sub" and "triple" refer to the sublimation point and the triple point, which are given in the case of a substance that sublimes at 1 atm; "dec" refers to decomposition. "~" means approximately. Blue type items have an article available by clicking on the name. Number of entries: 550 == Known as gas == The following list has substances known to be gases, but with an unknown boiling point. Fluoroamine Trifluoromethyl trifluoroethyl trioxide CF3OOOCF2CF3 boils between 10 and 20° Bis-trifluoromethyl carbonate boils between −10 and +10° possibly +12, freezing −60° Difluoroaminosulfinyl fluoride F2NS(O)F is a gas but decomposes over several hours Trifluoromethylsulfinyl chloride CF3S(O)Cl Nitrosyl cyanide ?−20° blue-green gas 4343-68-4 Thiazyl chloride NSCl greenish yellow gas; trimerises. == Possible == This list includes substances that may be gases. However reliable references are not available. cis-1-Fluoro-1-propene trans-1-Chloropropene ? cis-1-Chloropropene ? Perfluoro-1,2-butadiene Perfluoro-1,2,3-butatriene −5 polymerizes Perfluoropent-2-ene Perfluoropent-1-ene 29-30° Trifluoromethanesulfenylfluoride


id: list-of-gasoline-additives-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gasoline_additives-0.md
category: reference
title: List of gasoline additives
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gasoline_additives
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:18.970391+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-gasoline-additives-20260505-0
summary:
Gasoline additives may increase gasoline's octane rating, thus allowing the use of higher compression ratios for greater efficiency and power, or act as corrosion inhibitors or as lubricants. Other additives include metal deactivators, oxygenates and antioxidants. Some additives are harmful and are regulated or banned in some countries. == Fictional additives == Sugar, as seen in The Passionate Stranger (1957) and popularly believed to damage the engine. == Additives == === Oxygenates === ==== Alcohols ==== Methanol (MeOH) Ethanol (EtOH); see also common ethanol fuel mixtures Isopropyl alcohol (IPA) n-butanol (BuOH) Gasoline grade t-butanol (GTBA) ==== Ethers ==== Methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), now outlawed in many states of the U.S. for road use because of water contamination. Tertiary amyl methyl ether (TAME) Tertiary hexyl methyl ether (THEME) Ethyl tertiary butyl ether (ETBE) Tertiary amyl ethyl ether (TAEE) Diisopropyl ether (DIPE) === Antioxidants, stabilizers === Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) 2-tert-Butylphenol 3-tert-Butylphenol 4-tert-Butylphenol 2,4-Dimethyl-6-tert-butylphenol 2,6-Di-tert-butylphenol (2,6-DTBP) 2,4,6-Tri-tert-butylphenol (2,4,6-TTBP) tert-Butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) p-Phenylenediamine N,N'-Di-2-butyl-1,4-phenylenediamine Ethylenediamine === Detergents === Fuel detergents combine a low molecular weight polymer "tail" with a polar "head" group such as the amine group. Polybuteneamine (PBA), also known as polybutylene amine. Polyisobuteneamine (PIBA), also known as polyisobutylene amine. Some


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-0.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
This glossary of chemistry terms is a list of terms and definitions relevant to chemistry, including chemical laws, diagrams and formulae, laboratory tools, glassware, and equipment. Chemistry is a physical science concerned with the composition, structure, and properties of matter, as well as the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions; it features an extensive vocabulary and a significant amount of jargon. Note: All periodic table references refer to the IUPAC Style of the Periodic Table. == A == absolute zero A theoretical condition concerning a system at the lowest limit of the thermodynamic temperature scale, or zero kelvins, at which the system does not emit or absorb energy (i.e. all atoms are at rest). By extrapolating the ideal gas law, the internationally agreed-upon value for absolute zero has been determined as −273.15 °C (−459.67 °F; 0.00 K). absorbance absorption 1. The physical or chemical process by which a substance in one state becomes incorporated into and retained by another substance of a different state. Absorption differs from adsorption in that the first substance permeates the entire bulk of the second substance, rather than just adhering to the surface. 2. The process by which matter (typically electrons bound in atoms) takes


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-1.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
alkane Also paraffin. Any fully saturated acyclic hydrocarbon,An acyclic saturated hydrocarbon containing only carbon and hydrogen atoms with only single carbon–carbon bonds; alkanes generally have the formula CnH2n+2. i.e. one in which all carbon–carbon bonds are single bonds. alkene Also olefin. Any unsaturated hydrocarbon containing at least one carbon–carbon double bond. alkoxy A functional group of the form R–O–, derived from an alcohol by removal of the hydrogen atom from the hydroxyl group. alkyl The substituent form of an alkane, i.e. any alkane missing a hydrogen atom. The term may be used to broadly describe many different functional groups, e.g. a methyl, ethyl, or propyl group. alkyne Also acetylene. Any unsaturated hydrocarbon containing at least one carbon–carbon triple bond. allomer A substance that differs in chemical composition but has the same crystalline structure as another substance. allotrope Any of a variety of different structural forms of the same element, as with carbon, whose allotropes include diamonds, graphite, and fullerene. alloy A mixture of metals or of a metal and another element which in combination exhibit a metallic bonding character. Common examples include bronze, brass, and pewter. amalgam Any alloy of mercury with another metal. ambident A molecule or functional group


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-2.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
atomic number (Z) Also proton number. The number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom of a given chemical element. It is identical to the charge number of the nucleus and is used in the periodic table to uniquely identify each chemical element. atomic orbital Any region in which one or more electrons may be found in an individual atom (as opposed to that within a molecule). atomic radius atomic weight See relative atomic mass. atomicity The total number of atoms present in a single molecule of a given substance; e.g. ozone (O3) has an atomicity of 3, while benzene (C6H6) has an atomicity of 12. autoignition temperature Also kindling point. The lowest temperature at which a given substance will spontaneously ignite in a normal atmosphere without an external source of ignition such as a flame or spark, i.e. when the ambient temperature is sufficiently high to provide the activation energy needed for combustion. Substances which spontaneously ignite at naturally occurring temperatures are termed pyrophoric. Compare ignition temperature. Avogadro constant (NA) The ratio of the number of discrete constituent particles (such as molecules, atoms, or ions) to the amount of a substance, defined as exactly 6.02214076×1023 mol−1. Avogadro


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-3.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
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buffered solution Also simply called a buffer. An aqueous solution consisting of a weak acid and its conjugate base or a weak base and its conjugate acid that resists changes in pH when strong acids or bases are added. bumping A phenomenon in which a homogeneous liquid raised to its boiling point becomes superheated and, upon nucleation, rapidly boils to the gas phase, resulting in a violent expulsion of the liquid from the container; in extreme cases, the container itself may shatter. Frequent stirring, the use of an appropriate container, and the use of boiling chips can help prevent bumping. bung Also stopper or cork. A cylindrical or conical plug or closure used to seal a container such as a bottle, tube, flask, or barrel. burette Also spelled buret. Glassware used to dispense specific amounts of liquid when precision is necessary (e.g. during titrations and resource-dependent reactions). butyl The alkyl functional group derived from either of the two isomers of butane, with the generic chemical formula –C4H9. It may occur as a substituent in organic compounds or exist independently as an ion or radical. In IUPAC nomenclature, the presence of a butyl substituent is indicated with the prefix butyl in


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-4.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
chemical decomposition The breakdown of a single particle or entity (such as a molecule or reactive intermediate) into two or more fragments, or a chemical reaction in which two or more products are formed from a single reactant. Contrast chemical synthesis. chemical element See element. chemical formula Any of various means of concisely displaying information about the chemical composition of a compound or molecule using letters, numbers, and/or typographical symbols. Chemical formulas, such as empirical and molecular formulas, can only indicate the identities and numerical proportions of the atoms in a compound and are therefore more limited in descriptive power than chemical names and structural formulas. chemical law A law of nature relevant to chemistry, such as the law of conservation of mass. chemical nomenclature chemical physics chemical process 1. Any method or means of changing one or more chemicals or chemical compounds in any way, either naturally or artificially, spontaneously or by the actions of external forces. 2. In chemical engineering, any method used on an industrial scale (especially in manufacturing) to change the composition of one or more chemicals or materials. chemical reaction The change of one or more substances into one or more different substances. chemical species


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-5.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
concentration The quantity or abundance of a constituent of a mixture per unit quantity of that mixture; e.g. the amount, in moles, of a dissolved solute per unit volume of a solution, a measure known as molar concentration or molarity. Several different definitions of concentration are widely used in chemistry, including molar concentration, mass concentration, and volume concentration. condensation The phase transition of a substance from a gas to a liquid. condosity A comparative measurement of the electrical conductivity of a solution defined as the molar concentration of a sodium chloride (NaCl) solution that has the same specific electrical conductance as the solution under test. It is typically expressed in units of moles per litre (or per some other unit of volume). conduction conductivity See electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity. conductor Any object or material that allows the flow of an electric current in one or more directions. Contrast insulator. conformation The spatial arrangement of atoms affording distinction between stereoisomers which can be interconverted by rotations about formally single bonds. conjugate acid conjugate base conjugated system A molecule that contains double or triple bonds separated by one single bond; e.g. the compound buta-1,3-diene, with the chemical structure H2C=CH−CH=CH2, has conjugated


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-6.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
depression of freezing point See freezing-point depression. desiccant Also drying agent. A hygroscopic substance used to induce or sustain a state of dryness or desiccation (i.e. the absence of moisture) in its vicinity by abstracting water molecules from other substances. Desiccants come in many different forms and work by many different principles, ranging from simple absorption to the chemical bonding of water molecules. desiccation deuterium Also hydrogen-2 or heavy hydrogen, and symbolized 2H or D. One of two stable isotopes of a hydrogen atom, the nucleus of which contains one proton and one neutron. Deuterium is both heavier and much less abundant in nature than the other stable isotope, known as protium (1H). deuteron The nucleus of a deuterium atom (an isotope of hydrogen), containing one proton and one neutron. Dewar flask See vacuum flask. dianion A compound or molecular entity bearing exactly two negative charges, which may be located on a single atom or on different atoms, or may be delocalized. diastereomer diatomic Composed of two atoms, of the same or different elements. Contrast monatomic and polyatomic. diatomic molecule Any molecule composed of only two atoms, of the same or different elements. diffusion The net movement of atoms or


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-7.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
electrochemical cell A device capable of either generating electrical energy from chemical reactions, in which case it is known as a galvanic or voltaic cell, or using electrical energy to cause chemical reactions, in which case it is known as an electrolytic cell. For example, a battery contains one or more galvanic cells, each of which consists of two electrodes arranged such that an oxidation–reduction reaction produces an electromotive force. electrochemistry A branch of physical chemistry concerned with the relationship between electrical potential difference and identifiable chemical change, as understood through either the chemical reactions accompanying the passage of an electric current or the potential difference that results from a particular chemical reaction. electrolyte A solution that conducts a certain amount of electric current and can be split categorically into weak and strong electrolytes. electromagnetic radiation A type of wave that can go through vacuums as well as material and is classified as a self-propagating wave. electromagnetic spectrum electromagnetism Fields with an electric charge and electrical properties that change the way that particles move and interact. electromotive force (emf) electron A type of subatomic particle with a net charge that is negative. Contrast positron. electron acceptor electron capture A type


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-8.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
environmental chemistry enzyme A biological protein catalyst that speeds up a chemical reaction. epimer Eppendorf tube A generalized and trademarked name used to refer to a microcentrifuge tube. equation of state equilibrium The condition of a system in which all competing influences are balanced. Chemical equilibrium is the state in which the concentrations of the reactants and products in a reacting system have stopped changing in time. equimolar Having an equal number of moles, or solutions of equal molar concentration. Erlenmeyer flask ester A class of organic and inorganic compounds derived from the reaction of an acid with an alcohol, in which at least one hydroxyl group (–OH) is replaced by an alkoxy group (–O–). Esters have the general formula RCO2R′, where R and R' represent any alkyl or aryl group. ether A class of organic compounds and a functional group containing an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups, which may be the same or different. Ethers have the general formula R–O–R′, where R and R′ represent the alkyl or aryl groups. ethyl The alkyl functional group derived from ethane, consisting of two carbon atoms covalently bonded to each other and fully saturated with bonds to hydrogen


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-9.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
fractional distillation The fractionation of a mixture of liquids into its component parts, or fractions, by the process of distillation, typically by using a long vertical column attached to the distillation vessel and filled with glass beads. The mixture is heated to a temperature at which one or more of the component compounds will vaporize; the vapor rises up the column until it condenses and runs back into the vessel, creating a temperature and volatility gradient and permitting various fractions to be drawn off at different points along the length of the column. Common in industrial chemistry, the technique is sensitive enough to separate compounds which have boiling points that differ by less than 25 °C (45 °F) from each other at standard pressure. fractionation A separation process in which a particular quantity of a mixture is divided during a phase transition into a number of smaller quantities, known as fractions, for which the chemical composition varies according to a gradient. Fractionation exploits subtle differences in some specific property (e.g. mass, boiling point, solubility, etc.) between the mixture's component compounds, making it possible to isolate more than two components of a mixture at the same time. There are many varieties


