# kb

id: list-of-geographical-noses-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geographical_noses-0.md
category: reference
title: List of geographical noses
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geographical_noses
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:07:12.244773+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-geographical-noses-20260505-0
summary:
Nose is used in the name of several geographical features and their associated settlements: Anthonys Nose (Victoria), a point or escarpment on the southern shore of Port Phillip Bay, in Victoria, Australia Anthony's Nose (Westchester), a peak along the Hudson River at the north end of Westchester County, New York Blake Nose, a submerged peninsula extending northeast from the North American continental shelf, about 280 miles east of Daytona Beach, Florida Bowerman's Nose, a stack of weathered granite on Dartmoor, Devon, England Brokers Nose, a point on the Illawarra Range, in the state of New South Wales, Australia Calgary Nose Hill, a federal electoral district in Alberta, Canada Calgary-Nose Creek, provincial electoral district that encompassed the Northern Central part of Calgary, Alberta Devil's Nose in Ecuador Devils Nose, Kentucky, unincorporated community in Bath County, Kentucky, United States Dolphin's Nose, Coonoor, a viewpoint and tourist spot in Coonoor, The Nilgiris District, Tamil Nadu Fawnie Nose (1,933 m or 6,342 ft), the highest summit of the Fawnie Range of the Nechako Plateau in the Central Interior of British Columbia, Canada Grey Nose Cape, a cape on the Côte d'Opale in the Pas-de-Calais département in northern France Jacob's Nose, 152 m (499 ft)


id: list-of-military-occupations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_military_occupations-0.md
category: reference
title: List of military occupations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_military_occupations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:07:13.559729+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-military-occupations-20260505-0
summary:
This article presents a list of military occupations, both historic and contemporary, but only those that have taken place since the customary laws of belligerent military occupation were first clarified and supplemented by the Hague Convention of 1907. As currently understood in international law, "military occupation" is the effective military control by a power of a territory outside of said power's recognized sovereign territory. The occupying power in question may be an individual state or a supranational organization, such as the United Nations. == Ongoing occupations == == Historical occupations == Events before the Hague Convention of 1907 are out of scope. === 1907–1914 === === World War I and immediate aftermath === === World War II: build up and immediate aftermath === === 1947–1968 === === 1970–1991 === === 1992–1999 === === 2000–2019 === === 2020–present === == See also == Russian-occupied territories Israeli-occupied territories Military occupations by the Soviet Union Territories of the United States § Former U.S. military occupations Peacekeeping – military deployments for peace-keeping purposes List of military and civilian missions of the European Union Annexation Revanchism For a list of states that have seceded unilaterally see List of states with limited recognition For a list


id: list-of-oceanographic-institutions-and-programs-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_oceanographic_institutions_and_programs-0.md
category: reference
title: List of oceanographic institutions and programs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_oceanographic_institutions_and_programs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:07:14.804559+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-oceanographic-institutions-and-programs-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of oceanography institutions and programs worldwide. Oceanographic institutions and programs are broadly defined as places where scientific research is carried out relating to oceanography. This list is organized geographically. Some oceanographic institutions are standalone programs, such as non-governmental organizations or government-funded agencies. Other oceanographic institutions are departments within colleges and universities. While oceanographic research happens at many other departments at other colleges and universities, such as Biology and Geology departments, this list focuses on larger departments and large research centers specifically devoted to oceanography and marine science. Aquaria are not listed here. == International == === International oceanographic programs === Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, UNESCO International Council for the Exploration of the Sea, (ICES) International Hydrographic Organization International Ocean Discovery Program, formerly called the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program. InterRidge, an international research collaboration on oceanic seafloor spreading zones. Mediterranean Science Commission, (CIESM) North Pacific Marine Science Organization (PICES) Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research, part of the International Science Council. === Societies and professional affiliations === American Geophysical Union Association for the Sciences of Limnology and Oceanography Coastal and Estuarine Research Federation European Geosciences Union The Oceanography Society == Institutions by country == === Australia === Australian Institute


id: list-of-oceanographic-institutions-and-programs-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_oceanographic_institutions_and_programs-1.md
category: reference
title: List of oceanographic institutions and programs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_oceanographic_institutions_and_programs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:07:14.804559+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-oceanographic-institutions-and-programs-20260505-0
summary:
=== Croatia === Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries in Split is supported by the Croatian Science Foundation. IOR Ruđer Bošković Institute, Center for Marine Research in Rovinj. CMR University of Dubrovnik, Institute for Marine and Coastal Research. IMP-DU === Cyprus === Τhe Oceanography Center of the University of Cyprus (OC-UCY) is oceanographic research focusing on the Eastern Mediterranean at University of Cyprus Nicosia, Cyprus. === Denmark === Danish Maritime Safety Administration in Copenhagen. DaMSA Technical University of Denmark in Copenhagen. Copenhagen University's Research Centre on Ocean, Climate, and Society. ROCS === Ecuador === Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral has programs in Marine Engineering, Biological Sciences, and Natural Resources. FIMCBOR Instituto Oceanográfico de la Armada, part of the Ecuadorian Navy, in Guayaquil. INOCAR === Finland === Finnish Environment Institute's Marine Research Center. SYKE Finnish Institute of Marine Research in Helsinki. Finnish Meteorological Institute's Marine Research unit. FMI === France === Académie de Marine, originally the Royal Naval Academy of France. Académie de Marine Banyuls-sur-Mer Oceanographic Observatory, also called Laboratoire Arago. OOB European University Institute of Marine Sciences in Brest. IUEM French Research Institute for Exploitation of the Sea in Brest. IFREMER Institut océanographique de Paris, associated with an organization with the


id: list-of-oceanographic-institutions-and-programs-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_oceanographic_institutions_and_programs-2.md
category: reference
title: List of oceanographic institutions and programs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_oceanographic_institutions_and_programs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:07:14.804559+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-oceanographic-institutions-and-programs-20260505-0
summary:
Academy of Maritime Education and Training in Chennai, Tamil Nadu. Andhra University, Department of Meteorology and Oceanography. Anna University, Institute of Ocean Management, Chennai, Tamil Nadu. IOM Annamalai University, Center of Advanced Study in Marine Biology, Tamil Nadu. CASMB Alagappa University, Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu. Department of Fisheries Science Department of Oceanography and Coastal Area Studies, Alagappa University, Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu. Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli. Department of Marine Science Cochin University of Science and Technology in Kerala. has several departments in its School of Marine Sciences. SMSCUSAT Indian Institute of Science ‘s Centre for Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences in Bengalaru. CAOS Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies in Kochi, Kerala. Madurai Kamaraj University, School of Energy Environment & Natural Resources, Tamil Nadu. SEENR Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Centre for Marine Science and Technology, Rajakkamangalam, Kanyakumari. CMST M.E.S. Ponnani College, Ponnani, Malappuram, Kerala. Department of Aquaculture and Fishery Microbiology Nansen Environmental Research Centre India, Kerala, established by joint Norwegian and Indian partners, now a research center of Kerala University. NERCI Pondicherry University, Department of Ocean Studies and Marine Biology, Port Blair, Andaman Islands. Center for Ocean and Island Studies St. Albert's College, Kochi, Kerala. Department of Fisheries & Aquaculture University of Hyderabad, Center


id: list-of-oceanographic-institutions-and-programs-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_oceanographic_institutions_and_programs-3.md
category: reference
title: List of oceanographic institutions and programs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_oceanographic_institutions_and_programs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:07:14.804559+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-oceanographic-institutions-and-programs-20260505-0
summary:
=== Philippines === Marine Science Institute, part of the University of the Philippines, UP Diliman, in Quezon City. MSI === Poland === Institute of Oceanology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sopok. IO PAN National Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Gdynia. MIR University of Gdańsk, Institute of Oceanography. UG Oceanography Maritime Institute in Gdańsk. IM GDA Polish Polar Station, Hornsund in Svalbard in the Arctic Ocean. === Portugal === Centre of Marine Sciences in Faro. CCMAR Hydrographic Institute in Lisbon. Instituto Hidrografico Department of Oceanography and Fisheries, University of Azores in Horta, Faial. Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research in Matosinhos. CIIMAR Marine Biology Station of Funchal on the island of Madeira. Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, a multi-university collaboration. MARE === Russia === Marine Hydrophysical Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences. MHI Nikolai M. Knipovich Polar Research Institute of Marine Fisheries and Oceanography in Murmansk Russian State Hydrometeorological University in St. Petersburg Saint Petersburg State University, Department of Oceanography Shirshov Institute of Oceanology, Russian Academy of Sciences Pacific Oceanological Institute, Far-Eastern Branch, Russian Acad. of Sciences, Vladivostok === South Africa === South African Association for Marine Biological Research in KwaZulu-Natal. SAAMBR Department of Oceanography, University of Cape Town === South Korea ===


id: list-of-oceanographic-institutions-and-programs-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_oceanographic_institutions_and_programs-4.md
category: reference
title: List of oceanographic institutions and programs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_oceanographic_institutions_and_programs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:07:14.804559+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-oceanographic-institutions-and-programs-20260505-0
summary:
Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences in Maine. Bigelow University of Maine, School of Marine Sciences based in Orono and the Downeast Institute at the Machias campus. Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory associated with Columbia University in Palisades, New York. Marine Biological Laboratory in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, associated with the University of Chicago. MBL Northeastern University, Marine Science Center, East Point, Nahant, Massachusetts. Marine Science Center Stony Brook University, School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, on Long Island, New York State. SoMAS Princeton University’s Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory, New Jersey. Rutgers University, Department of Marine and Coastal Sciences, is based in New Brunswick, New Jersey with other marine science field stations in New Jersey. University of Connecticut, Department of Marine Sciences, at the Avery Point campus near Groton, Connecticut, also host to the National Undersea Research Center for the North Atlantic and Great Lakes. DMS Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution on Cape Cod, Massachusetts. WHOI University of Delaware, College of Earth, Ocean and Environment, which has a campus in Lewes, Delaware. CEOE University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, School for Marine Science & Technology. SMAST University of New Hampshire’s School of Marine Science and Ocean Engineering, Center for Coastal & Ocean Mapping, and Shoals Marine Laboratory.


id: list-of-online-map-services-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_online_map_services-0.md
category: reference
title: List of online map services
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_online_map_services
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:07:15.984591+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-online-map-services-20260505-0
summary:
Online maps can be basically divided by the covered area (global or local) and by the representation of this area (classic drawn or orthophoto). == Global online map service provider and their map Service == These maps cover the world, but may have close up details in many areas. Apple Apple Maps Altair Guide Esri Fosm.org Alphabet Google Maps Google Earth Waze Here Here WeGo Microsoft Azure Maps Bing Maps MapsLore OpenStreetMap Mapbox MapQuest Mapcreator Maptitude Online Mapy.cz Moovit Stadia Maps Thunderforest Maps Seznam Mapy.com TomTom Bing Maps Petal Maps Windows Maps WikiMapia Yahoo! Maps (defunct) Yandex Maps == By continent == === Africa === Africomaps - Covers all 54 countries in the African continent === Europe === ViaMichelin (based on TomTom) == Local online maps == Local maps cover only part of the earth surface, and may be more detailed than the global ones. === Abkhazia === 2GIS, by 2GIS. === Australia === "The Australian National Map", by TerriaJS. "MinView", by NSW Government "Whereis", by Sensis === Azerbaijan === "GoMap.Az", by the Government of Azerbaijan. === Bangladesh === "Barikoi" - covers Bangladesh, specially Dhaka city and parts of Narayanganj in detail, more cities will be covered soon === Bahrain


id: list-of-peace-processes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_peace_processes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of peace processes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_peace_processes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:07:17.169093+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-peace-processes-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of peace processes of specific conflicts starting in the late twentieth century. == Starting in the twentieth century == 1918 Russia–Ukraine negotiations, peace negotiations between Soviet Russia and the Ukrainian State Cyprus peace process, from ca. 1974, a prolonged process to find a peaceful solution for the Cyprus problem Western Sahara peace process, efforts since ca. 1991 to resolve the Western Sahara conflict Israeli–Palestinian peace process, efforts since ca. 1991 to find a political accommodation for the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and the wider Arab–Israeli conflict Negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa, successful talks that brought about the end of the apartheid system Nagorno–Karabakh peace process coordinated by the OSCE Minsk Group (1991–2021), attempted to resolve the Nagorno–Karabakh conflict Kurdish–Turkish peace process, failed attempts to resolve the Kurdish–Turkish conflict (1978–present) 1991–2004 Kurdish–Turkish peace initiatives 1993 Kurdistan Workers' Party ceasefire 2009–2010 Kurdistan Workers' Party ceasefire 2013–2015 PKK–Turkey peace process Inter-Tajik Dialogue (1993-2000) Northern Ireland peace process, efforts from ca. 1993 to end "the Troubles" Guatemalan Peace Process 1994-1996, successful process that ended the Guatemalan Civil War Colombia 1999–2002 FARC–Government peace process, failed attempt to resolve the Colombian conflict Colombian peace process (2012–2016), ongoing process to bring an


id: list-of-physiographic-regions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physiographic_regions-0.md
category: reference
title: List of physiographic regions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physiographic_regions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:07:18.398359+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-physiographic-regions-20260505-0
summary:
The landforms of Earth are generally divided into physiographic regions, consisting of physiographic provinces, which in turn consist of physiographic sections, though some others use different terminology, such as realms, regions and subregions. Some areas have further categorized their respective areas into more detailed subsections. == References ==


id: list-of-polar-explorers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polar_explorers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of polar explorers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polar_explorers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:07:19.671449+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-polar-explorers-20260505-0
summary:
This list is for recognised pioneering explorers of the polar regions. It does not include subsequent travelers and expeditions. == Polar explorers == == See also == List of Russian explorers List of female explorers and travelers == References ==


id: list-of-political-and-geographic-borders-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_borders-0.md
category: reference
title: List of political and geographic borders
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_borders
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:07:21.001341+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-political-and-geographic-borders-20260505-0
summary:
== Boundaries == Below are separate lists of countries and dependencies with their land boundaries, and lists of which countries and dependencies border oceans and major seas. The first short section describes the borders or edges of continents and oceans/major seas. Disputed areas are not considered. === Continents === (Notes: Dependencies and islands remote from continental land masses are not considered and are excluded from this list section; thus only continental land borders are considered. The only countries listed either straddle continents or are on a continent border.) Section Key: ( * ) = represents a country that crosses a continental land border === Countries === (Notes: Dependencies are excluded from this section. See below. Only land boundaries are considered; maritime boundaries are excluded; see the List of countries and territories by maritime boundaries. Disputed territories are not considered, other than the inclusion by necessity, in a neutral fashion, of Western Sahara.) Section Key: ( * ) = represents a sea (or other body of water)'s parent ocean; also it may represent a dependency's parent country (Note: All official and unofficial claims by countries and/or governments on the continent of Antarctica are excluded from this section list.) === Dependencies ===


id: list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-all-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_(all)-0.md
category: reference
title: List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area (all)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_(all)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:07:22.151564+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-all-20260505-0
summary:
This is one of a series of comprehensive lists of continents, countries, and first level administrative country subdivisions such as states, provinces, and territories, as well as certain political and geographic features of substantial area. References for the information provided in this table may be found in the individual articles on each body listed herein. Some divisions are listed twice, with one listing including territory that is excluded in the other for various reasons, including territorial disputes. There is intentional overlap among the lists in order to maximize ease of use. == See also == Other divisions 0.1 to 1,000,000+ square kilometers 1,000,000+ square kilometers Smaller divisions 200,000+ square kilometers • 100,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 50,000 to 200,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 50,000 square kilometers 5,000 to 20,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 0.1 to 1,000 square kilometers 500,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 200,000 to 500,000 square kilometers • 100,000 to 200,000 square kilometers 50,000 to 100,000 square kilometers • 30,000 to 50,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 30,000 square kilometers • 10,000 to 20,000 square kilometers 7,000 to 10,000 square kilometers • 5,000 to 7,000 square kilometers • 3,000 to 5,000


category: reference
title: List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 0.1 to 1,000 square kilometers
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:07:23.775589+00:00
instance: kb-cron
id:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-from-0-1-to-1-000-square-kilometers-20260505-0

file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_0.1_to_1,000_square_kilometers-0.md

summary:
This is one of a series of comprehensive lists of continents, countries, and first level administrative country subdivisions such as states, provinces, and territories, as well as certain political and geographic features of substantial area. References for the information provided in this table may be found in the individual articles on each body listed herein. Some divisions are listed twice, with one listing including territory that is excluded in the other for various reasons, including territorial disputes. There is intentional overlap among the lists in order to maximize ease of use. == See also == Other divisions 0.1 to 1,000,000+ square kilometers 1,000,000+ square kilometers Smaller divisions 200,000+ square kilometers • 100,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 50,000 to 200,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 50,000 square kilometers 5,000 to 20,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 0.1 to 1,000 square kilometers 500,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 200,000 to 500,000 square kilometers • 100,000 to 200,000 square kilometers 50,000 to 100,000 square kilometers • 30,000 to 50,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 30,000 square kilometers • 10,000 to 20,000 square kilometers 7,000 to 10,000 square kilometers • 5,000 to 7,000 square kilometers • 3,000 to 5,000

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_0.1_to_1,000_square_kilometers

parent:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-from-0-1-to-1-000-square-kilometers-20260505-0


category: reference
title: List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 1,000 to 3,000 square kilometers
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:07:25.180787+00:00
instance: kb-cron
id:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-from-1-000-to-3-000-square-kilometers-20260505-0

file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_1,000_to_3,000_square_kilometers-0.md

summary:
This is one of a series of comprehensive lists of continents, countries, and first level administrative country subdivisions such as states, provinces, and territories, as well as certain political and geographic features of substantial area. References for the information provided in this table may be found in the individual articles on each body listed herein. Some divisions are listed twice, with one listing including territory that is excluded in the other for various reasons, including territorial disputes. There is intentional overlap among the lists in order to maximize ease of use. == See also == Other divisions 0.1 to 1,000,000+ square kilometers 1,000,000+ square kilometers Smaller divisions 200,000+ square kilometers • 100,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 50,000 to 200,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 50,000 square kilometers 5,000 to 20,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 0.1 to 1,000 square kilometers 500,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 200,000 to 500,000 square kilometers • 100,000 to 200,000 square kilometers 50,000 to 100,000 square kilometers • 30,000 to 50,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 30,000 square kilometers • 10,000 to 20,000 square kilometers 7,000 to 10,000 square kilometers • 5,000 to 7,000 square kilometers • 3,000 to 5,000

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_1,000_to_3,000_square_kilometers

parent:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-from-1-000-to-3-000-square-kilometers-20260505-0


category: reference
title: List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 1,000 to 5,000 square kilometers
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:07:39.146057+00:00
instance: kb-cron
id:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-from-1-000-to-5-000-square-kilometers-20260505-0

file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_1,000_to_5,000_square_kilometers-0.md

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_1,000_to_5,000_square_kilometers

parent:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-from-1-000-to-5-000-square-kilometers-20260505-0


category: reference
title: List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 3,000 to 5,000 square kilometers
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:07:40.633613+00:00
instance: kb-cron
id:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-from-3-000-to-5-000-square-kilometers-20260505-0

file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_3,000_to_5,000_square_kilometers-0.md

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_3,000_to_5,000_square_kilometers

parent:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-from-3-000-to-5-000-square-kilometers-20260505-0


category: reference
title: List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 5,000 to 7,000 square kilometers
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:07:41.888691+00:00
instance: kb-cron
id:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-from-5-000-to-7-000-square-kilometers-20260505-0

file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_5,000_to_7,000_square_kilometers-0.md

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_5,000_to_7,000_square_kilometers

parent:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-from-5-000-to-7-000-square-kilometers-20260505-0


category: reference
title: List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 5,000 to 20,000 square kilometers
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:07:43.314762+00:00
instance: kb-cron
id:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-from-5-000-to-20-000-square-kilometers-20260505-0

file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_5,000_to_20,000_square_kilometers-0.md

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_5,000_to_20,000_square_kilometers

parent:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-from-5-000-to-20-000-square-kilometers-20260505-0


category: reference
title: List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 7,000 to 10,000 square kilometers
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:07:47.145830+00:00
instance: kb-cron
id:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-from-7-000-to-10-000-square-kilometers-20260505-0

file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_7,000_to_10,000_square_kilometers-0.md

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_7,000_to_10,000_square_kilometers

parent:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-from-7-000-to-10-000-square-kilometers-20260505-0


category: reference
title: List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 10,000 to 20,000 square kilometers
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:07:48.362946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
id:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-from-10-000-to-20-000-square-kilometers-20260505-0

file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_10,000_to_20,000_square_kilometers-0.md

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_10,000_to_20,000_square_kilometers

parent:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-from-10-000-to-20-000-square-kilometers-20260505-0


category: reference
title: List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 20,000 to 30,000 square kilometers
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:07:49.581442+00:00
instance: kb-cron
id:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-from-20-000-to-30-000-square-kilometers-20260505-0

file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_20,000_to_30,000_square_kilometers-0.md

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_20,000_to_30,000_square_kilometers

parent:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-from-20-000-to-30-000-square-kilometers-20260505-0


category: reference
title: List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 20,000 to 50,000 square kilometers
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:07:50.979411+00:00
instance: kb-cron
id:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-from-20-000-to-50-000-square-kilometers-20260505-0

file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_20,000_to_50,000_square_kilometers-0.md

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_20,000_to_50,000_square_kilometers

parent:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-from-20-000-to-50-000-square-kilometers-20260505-0


category: reference
title: List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 30,000 to 50,000 square kilometers
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:07:52.210913+00:00
instance: kb-cron
id:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-from-30-000-to-50-000-square-kilometers-20260505-0

file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_30,000_to_50,000_square_kilometers-0.md

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_30,000_to_50,000_square_kilometers

parent:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-from-30-000-to-50-000-square-kilometers-20260505-0


category: reference
title: List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 50 to 250 square kilometers
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:07:53.538738+00:00
instance: kb-cron
id:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-from-50-to-250-square-kilometers-20260505-0

file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_50_to_250_square_kilometers-0.md

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_50_to_250_square_kilometers

parent:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-from-50-to-250-square-kilometers-20260505-0


category: reference
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:07:54.919479+00:00
instance: kb-cron
id:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-from-50-000-to-100-000-square-kilometers-20260505-0

file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_50,000_to_100,000_square_kilometers-0.md

title:
List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 50,000 to 100,000 square kilometers

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_50,000_to_100,000_square_kilometers

parent:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-from-50-000-to-100-000-square-kilometers-20260505-0


category: reference
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:07:56.219207+00:00
instance: kb-cron
id:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-from-50-000-to-200-000-square-kilometers-20260505-0

file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_50,000_to_200,000_square_kilometers-0.md

title:
List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 50,000 to 200,000 square kilometers

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_50,000_to_200,000_square_kilometers

parent:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-from-50-000-to-200-000-square-kilometers-20260505-0


category: reference
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:07:57.559598+00:00
instance: kb-cron
id:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-from-100-000-to-1-000-000-square-kilometers-20260505-0

file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_100,000_to_1,000,000_square_kilometers-0.md

title:
List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 100,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_100,000_to_1,000,000_square_kilometers

parent:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-from-100-000-to-1-000-000-square-kilometers-20260505-0


category: reference
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:07:58.902103+00:00
instance: kb-cron
id:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-from-100-000-to-200-000-square-kilometers-20260505-0

file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_100,000_to_200,000_square_kilometers-0.md

title:
List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 100,000 to 200,000 square kilometers

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_100,000_to_200,000_square_kilometers

parent:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-from-100-000-to-200-000-square-kilometers-20260505-0


category: reference
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:00.195437+00:00
instance: kb-cron
id:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-from-200-000-to-500-000-square-kilometers-20260505-0

file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_200,000_to_500,000_square_kilometers-0.md

title:
List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 200,000 to 500,000 square kilometers

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_200,000_to_500,000_square_kilometers

parent:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-from-200-000-to-500-000-square-kilometers-20260505-0


category: reference
title: List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 250 to 1,000 square kilometers
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:01.464523+00:00
instance: kb-cron
id:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-from-250-to-1-000-square-kilometers-20260505-0

file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_250_to_1,000_square_kilometers-0.md

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_250_to_1,000_square_kilometers

parent:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-from-250-to-1-000-square-kilometers-20260505-0


category: reference
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:02.785625+00:00
instance: kb-cron
id:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-from-500-000-to-1-000-000-square-kilometers-20260505-0

file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_500,000_to_1,000,000_square_kilometers-0.md

title:
List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 500,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_from_500,000_to_1,000,000_square_kilometers

parent:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-from-500-000-to-1-000-000-square-kilometers-20260505-0


category: reference
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:04.123583+00:00
instance: kb-cron
id:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-in-excess-of-1-000-000-square-kilometers-20260505-0

file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_in_excess_of_1,000,000_square_kilometers-0.md

title:
List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area in excess of 1,000,000 square kilometers

summary:
This is one of a series of comprehensive lists of continents, countries, and first level administrative country subdivisions such as states, provinces, and territories, as well as certain political and geographic features of substantial area. References for the information provided in this table may be found in the individual articles on each body listed herein. Some divisions are listed twice, with one listing including territory that is excluded in the other for various reasons, including territorial disputes. There is intentional overlap among the lists in order to maximize ease of use. == References == == See also == Other divisions 0.1 to 1,000,000+ square kilometers 1,000,000+ square kilometers Smaller divisions 200,000+ square kilometers • 100,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 50,000 to 200,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 50,000 square kilometers 5,000 to 20,000 square kilometers • 1,000 to 5,000 square kilometers • 0.1 to 1,000 square kilometers 500,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers • 200,000 to 500,000 square kilometers • 100,000 to 200,000 square kilometers 50,000 to 100,000 square kilometers • 30,000 to 50,000 square kilometers • 20,000 to 30,000 square kilometers • 10,000 to 20,000 square kilometers 7,000 to 10,000 square kilometers • 5,000 to 7,000 square kilometers •

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_in_excess_of_1,000,000_square_kilometers

parent:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-in-excess-of-1-000-000-square-kilometers-20260505-0


category: reference
title: List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area in excess of 200,000 square kilometers
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:05.412776+00:00
instance: kb-cron
id:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-in-excess-of-200-000-square-kilometers-20260505-0

file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_in_excess_of_200,000_square_kilometers-0.md

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_in_excess_of_200,000_square_kilometers

parent:
list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-in-excess-of-200-000-square-kilometers-20260505-0


id: list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-under-50-square-kilometers-20260505-0
category: reference
title: List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area under 50 square kilometers
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:06.631450+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-under-50-square-kilometers-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_under_50_square_kilometers-0.md

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area_under_50_square_kilometers


id: lists-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of political and geographic subdivisions by total area
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_political_and_geographic_subdivisions_by_total_area
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:07.888220+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-political-and-geographic-subdivisions-by-total-area-20260505-0
summary:
This is an index of a series of comprehensive lists of continents, countries, and first level administrative country subdivisions such as states, provinces, and territories, as well as certain political and geographic features of substantial area. Due to the substantial size of these lists, references for the information provided in this table may generally be found in the individual articles on each of the bodies listed therein. Some divisions are listed twice, with one listing including territory that is excluded in the other for various reasons, including territorial disputes. There is intentional overlap between the lists in order to maximize ease of use. == Longer lists == List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area (all) List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area in excess of 200,000 square kilometers List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 100,000 to 1,000,000 square kilometers List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 50,000 to 200,000 square kilometers List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 20,000 to 50,000 square kilometers List of political and geographic subdivisions by total area from 5,000 to 20,000 square kilometers List of political and geographic subdivisions by total


id: pond-creek-little-wapwallopen-creek-tributary-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pond_Creek_(Little_Wapwallopen_Creek_tributary)-0.md
category: reference
title: Pond Creek (Little Wapwallopen Creek tributary)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pond_Creek_(Little_Wapwallopen_Creek_tributary)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:09.173396+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pond-creek-little-wapwallopen-creek-tributary-20260505-0
summary:
Pond Creek (also known as Long Pond Creek) is a tributary of Little Wapwallopen Creek in Luzerne County, Pennsylvania, in the United States. It is approximately 6.4 miles (10.3 km) long and flows through Slocum Township and Conyngham Township. The watershed of the creek has an area of 9.69 square miles (25.1 km2) and is part of the Lower North Branch Susquehanna drainage basin. A bridge was built over the creek in 1956. In the early 1900s, the Glen Brook Water Company planned to construct a dam on the creek. The surficial geology in the vicinity of Pond Creek includes Wisconsinan Till, alluvium, boulder alluvium, alluvial fan, and bedrock consisting of sandstone and shale, as well as some patches of wetland. == Course == Pond Creek begins on the southern side of Penobscot Mountain, a few hundred feet from the border between Slocum Township and Newport Township. It flows west-southwest for several tenths of a mile before passing through Cranberry Pond and turning northwest. The creek then turns west-southwest and passes through Lily Lake, where it exits Slocum Township and enters Conyngham Township. At the southern edge of the lake, it turns south for a short distance before turning southwest


id: primate-city-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate_city-0.md
category: reference
title: Primate city
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate_city
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:10.506810+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: primate-city-20260505-0
summary:
A primate city is a city that is the largest in its country, province, state, or region, and disproportionately larger than any others in the urban hierarchy. A primate city distribution is a rank-size distribution that has one very large city with many much smaller cities and towns and no intermediate-sized urban centers, creating a statistical king effect. The law of the primate city was first proposed by the geographer Mark Jefferson in 1939. He defines a primate city as being "at least twice as large as the next largest city and more than twice as significant." Aside from size and population, a primate city will usually have precedence in all other aspects of its country's society such as economics, politics, culture, and education. Primate cities also serve as targets for the majority of a country or region's internal migration. In geography, the phenomenon of excessive concentration of population and development of the main city of a country or a region (often to the detriment of other areas) is called urban primacy or urban macrocephaly. == Measurement == Urban primacy can be measured as the share of a country's population that lives in the primate city. Relative primacy indicates the


id: primate-city-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate_city-1.md
category: reference
title: Primate city
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate_city
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:10.506810+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: primate-city-20260505-0
summary:
== Examples == Some global cities are considered national or regional primate cities. An example of a global city that is also a primate city is Istanbul in Turkey. Istanbul serves as the primate city of Turkey due to the unmatched economic, political, cultural, and educational influence that the city possesses in comparison to other Turkish cities such as the capital Ankara, İzmir, or Bursa. Likewise, Mexico City, Paris, Cairo, Jakarta, and Seoul have also been described as primate cities of their respective countries. However, not all regions and countries possess a primate city. The United States has never had a primate city on a national level due to the decentralized nature of the country and because the country's second-largest city, Los Angeles, is not far behind the country's largest city, New York City, in either population or GDP. The metropolitan area of New York City has over 19 million residents, while Los Angeles's has roughly 13 million residents, as of 2022. Sub-national divisions can also have primate cities. For instance, New York City is the State of New York's primate city, because its population is 32 times bigger than the state's second-largest city of Buffalo. New York City has


id: primate-city-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate_city-2.md
category: reference
title: Primate city
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate_city
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:10.506810+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: primate-city-20260505-0
summary:
In Germany, Munich (city proper population ca 1.5 million, with surrounding Landkreise ~3 million) is the primate city of the state of Bavaria, having nearly three times the population than the state's second largest, Nuremberg (ca 500,000 people, metro area ~1.35 million). Likewise, in Hesse, Frankfurt (~750,000 people) is nearly three times larger than the state's second largest, Wiesbaden (~275,000) and they are both part of the Rhine-Main metropolitan area, the largest city outside of the area, Kassel, has a population of ca. 200,000 people. In Italy, primate cities exist at regional level: capital Rome (~2.7 million) alone has nearly half of the population of the Lazio region and is about 21 times larger than the second largest city Latina, and nearly three quarters of the region's population live in the Metropolitan City of Rome Capital. In Lombardy, Milan at ~1.35 million is seven times larger than second largest Brescia (ca 200,000); in Piedmont, Turin has eight-nine times the population of Novara and Alessandria; in Campania, Naples has 7 times the population of second-largest Salerno and in Liguria, Genoa at ~550,000 has six times the population of second largest La Spezia and the Metropolitan City of Genoa has three times


id: list-of-industrial-regions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_industrial_regions-0.md
category: reference
title: List of industrial regions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_industrial_regions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:11.731827+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-industrial-regions-20260505-0
summary:
An industrial region or industrial area is a geographical region with extremely dense industry. It is usually heavily urbanized. == Brazil == ABCD Region, sometimes called ABC (ABC paulista or Região do Grande ABC in Portuguese), is an industrial region made up of seven municipalities with the greater metropolitan area of São Paulo, Brazil. == Bulgaria == Industrial region Thracia is an industrial zone made up of several municipalities within the area of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. == China == Pearl River Delta == Germany == Ruhr == Japan == Keiyō Industrial Zone Keihin Industrial Area Chūkyō Industrial Area Hanshin Industrial Region == Kazakhstan == Karagandy Region == Korea == Kaesŏng Industrial Region, North Korea Southeastern Maritime Industrial Region, South Korea == Poland == Białystok Industrial Region Bielsko Industrial Region Bydgoszcz-Toruń Industrial Region Carpathian Industrial Region Central Industrial Region Częstochowa Industrial Region Gdańsk Industrial Region Upper Silesian Industrial Region Jaworzno-Chrzanów Industrial Region Kalisz-Ostrów Industrial Region Kraków Industrial Region Legnica-Głogów Copper Area Lublin Industrial Region Łódź Industrial Region Olsztyn Industrial Region Opole Industrial Region Piotrków-Bełchatów Industrial Region Poznań Industrial Region Rybnik Coal Area Old-Polish Industrial Region Sudeten Industrial Region Szczecin Industrial Region Tarnobrzeg Industrial Region Tarnów-Rzeszów Industrial Region Warsaw Industrial Region Wrocław Industrial


id: lists-of-renamed-places-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_renamed_places-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of renamed places
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_renamed_places
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:12.916684+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-renamed-places-20260505-0
summary:
These are lists of renamed places by country, sorted by continent. == Africa == Angola — List of renamed places in Angola Chad — List of renamed places in Chad DR Congo — List of renamed places in the Democratic Republic of the Congo Republic of the Congo — List of renamed places in the Republic of the Congo Eswatini — List of renamed places in Eswatini Gambia — List of renamed places in the Gambia Madagascar — List of renamed places in Madagascar Malawi — List of renamed places in Malawi Mozambique — List of renamed places in Mozambique Namibia — List of renamed places in Namibia South Africa — List of renamed places in South Africa Zambia — List of renamed places in Zambia Zimbabwe — List of renamed places in Zimbabwe == Asia == Armenia — List of renamed cities in Armenia Azerbaijan — List of cities renamed by Azerbaijan Bangladesh — List of renamed places in Bangladesh India — List of renamed places in India Renaming of cities in India Iran — List of renamed cities in Iran Kazakhstan — List of renamed cities in Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan — List of renamed cities in Kyrgyzstan Myanmar —


id: lists-of-rivers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_rivers-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of rivers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_rivers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:14.227341+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-rivers-20260505-0
summary:
This is a comprehensive list of rivers, organized primarily by continent and country. == General lists == == Rivers of Africa == === Rivers of East Africa === === Rivers of Middle Africa === === Rivers of Northern Africa === === Rivers of Southern Africa === === Rivers of Western Africa === == Rivers of Antarctica == List of rivers of Antarctica == Rivers of Asia == === Rivers of Central Asia === === Rivers of Eastern Asia === === Rivers of Northern Asia === List of rivers of Russia === Rivers of South-eastern Asia === === Rivers of Southern Asia === ==== Rivers of India by state ==== === Rivers of Western Asia === == Rivers of Europe == === General lists === === Rivers of Eastern Europe === === Rivers of Northern Europe === === Rivers of Southern Europe === === Rivers of Western Europe === == Rivers of North America == === Rivers of the Caribbean === === Rivers of Central America === === Rivers of Northern America === ==== Rivers of Canada ==== ==== Rivers of Greenland ==== List of rivers of Greenland ==== Rivers of the United States ==== ===== General lists ===== ===== Rivers


id: list-of-geographical-spits-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geographical_spits-0.md
category: reference
title: List of geographical spits
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geographical_spits
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:15.531227+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-geographical-spits-20260505-0
summary:
There are many examples of spits around the world. Some of which include: == By sea == === Azov Sea === Russia Achuevsk Spit Beglitsk Spit Chushka Spit Dolgaya Spit Glafirovsk Spit Kamyshevatsk Spit Petrushino Spit Sazalniksk Spit Yasensk Spit Yeysk Spit Ukraine Belosaraysk Spit Berdyansk Spit Fedotova Spit Krivaya Spit Obytichna Spit Arabat Spit Tuzla Spit === Baltic Sea === Curonian Spit, Russia/Lithuania Hel Spit, Poland Priwall, Germany Vistula Spit, Poland/Russia === Skagerrak === Grenen, Denmark == By country == === Australia === Lefevre Peninsula, Adelaide, South Australia Letitia Spit, Fingal Head, New South Wales Sir Richard Peninsula, Goolwa, South Australia Southport Spit, Gold Coast, Queensland Tobias Spit, 1 km northeast of High Island, Frankland Islands, Queensland Younghusband Peninsula, Coorong, South Australia === Brunei === Seri Kenangan Beach, Pekan Tutong, Tutong Pelumpong Spit, Serasa, Brunei-Muara Serasa Beach, Serasa, Brunei-Muara === Canada === Toronto Islands (former spit, now detached), Toronto, Ontario Leslie Street Spit, man-made spit created as part of new harbour project Long Point, Ontario Point Pelee, Ontario on Lake Erie Rondeau Provincial Park - a crescentric sand spit on Lake Erie Blackie Spit (east section of the Crescent Beach), South Surrey, British Columbia [1] Sidney Spit, Sidney Island,


id: list-of-territories-administered-by-the-united-nations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_territories_administered_by_the_United_Nations-0.md
category: reference
title: List of territories administered by the United Nations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_territories_administered_by_the_United_Nations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:16.915890+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-territories-administered-by-the-united-nations-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of territories which are directly administered, or once were, by the United Nations (UN). These are not to be confused with UN trust territories, which were run by a single country under a UN mandate. == List == === Current === === Authorised by a United Nations mandate === === Former === === Proposed === Corpus separatum (Jerusalem) – 1947 UN internationalization proposal == See also == United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon Extraterritoriality Extraterritorial jurisdiction Extraterritorial operation Allied administration of Libya Free City of Danzig Free Territory of Trieste International city International waters International zone Klaipėda Region (Memel Territory) League of Nations mandate Outer Space Treaty Territory of the Saar Basin United Nations list of non-self-governing territories United Nations Transition Assistance Group United Nations trust territories


id: lists-of-things-named-after-places-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_things_named_after_places-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of things named after places
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_things_named_after_places
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:18.071059+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-things-named-after-places-20260505-0
summary:
List of chess openings named after places List of foods and drinks named after places List of inventions named after places List of minor planets named after places List of places named after places in the United States List of places named after places in the Philippines Locations in the United States with an English name


id: list-of-tickles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tickles-0.md
category: reference
title: List of tickles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tickles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:19.298156+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-tickles-20260505-0
summary:
Tickle is used in the name of several geographical features in Canada; in Newfoundland English it means a short narrow strait: Baccalieu Tickle, navigation channel just off the coast of Baccalieu Island, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada Baker's Tickle, Canadian fishing settlement in the Burgeo, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada Black Tickle, settlement in Newfoundland and Labrador on the Island of Ponds, Canada Boatswain Tickle within Little Bay Islands, town in Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada Chimney Tickle, settlement in Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada Greenspond Tickle, on the northeast coast of the Island of Newfoundland, Canada, called Bonavista North Gull Tickle, channel located in Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada Indian Tickle, located north of Comfort Bight Moore's Island Tickle, south of Moore's Harbor in the Okak Islands, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada Thimble Tickle, former name of Glovers Harbour, settlement in Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada Tickle Bay, natural bay off the island of Newfoundland in the province of Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada Tickle Channel, narrow channel in the south part of Hanusse Bay, separating Hansen Island from the east extremity of Adelaide Island, Canada Tickle Cock Bridge, pedestrian underpass in Castleford, England, under a railway line originally built by the York and North Midland Railway


id: list-of-time-zones-by-country-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_time_zones_by_country-0.md
category: reference
title: List of time zones by country
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_time_zones_by_country
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:20.591096+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-time-zones-by-country-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list representing time zones by country. Countries are ranked by total number of time zones on their territory. Time zones of a country include that of dependent territories (except Antarctica). France, including its overseas territories, has the most time zones with 12 (13 including its claim in Antarctica). Many countries have daylight saving time, one added hour during the local summer, but this list does not include that information. The UTC offset in the list below is not valid in practice during daylight saving time. == See also == Lists of time zones List of UTC time offsets Time zone abolition == References ==


id: timeline-of-geopolitical-changes-1500-1899-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geopolitical_changes_(1500–1899)-0.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of geopolitical changes (1500–1899)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geopolitical_changes_(1500–1899)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:22.182605+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-geopolitical-changes-1500-1899-20260505-0
summary:
This is a timeline of geopolitical changes around the world between 1500 and 1899. It includes dates of declarations of independence, changes in country name, changes of capital city or name, and changes in territorial ownership such as the annexation, occupation, cession, concession, or secession of land. Territorial conquests as a result of war are included on the timeline at the conclusion of major military campaigns, but changes in the course of specific battles and day-to-day operations are generally not included. == 16th century == == 17th century == === 1600s === === 1610s === === 1620s === === 1630s === === 1640s === === 1650s === === 1660s === === 1670s === === 1680s === === 1690s === == 18th century == === 1700s === === 1710s === === 1720s === === 1730s === === 1740s === === 1750s === === 1760s === === 1770s === === 1780s === === 1790s === == 19th century == === 1800s === === 1810s === === 1820s === === 1830s === === 1840s === === 1850s === === 1860s === === 1870s === === 1880s === === 1890s === == Maps == == See also == Timeline of national independence Geopolitics –


id: timeline-of-geopolitical-changes-1900-1999-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geopolitical_changes_(1900–1999)-0.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of geopolitical changes (1900–1999)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geopolitical_changes_(1900–1999)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:23.823551+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-geopolitical-changes-1900-1999-20260505-0
summary:
This is a timeline of geopolitical changes around the world between 1900 and 1999. It includes dates of declarations of independence, changes in country name, changes of capital city or name, and changes in territory such as the annexation, cession, concession, occupation, or secession of land. Territorial conquests as a result of war are included on the timeline at the conclusion of military campaigns, but changes in the course of specific battles and day-to-day operations are generally not included. Changes in airspace and maritime territory are included only when they are subject to a dispute. Over 50% of the world's borders today were drawn as a result of British and French imperialism. The British and French drew the modern borders of the Middle East, 80% of the borders of Africa, in Asia after the independence of the British Raj and French Indochina and the borders of Europe after World War I as victors, as a result of the Paris treaties. == 1900s == == 1910s == == 1920s == == 1930s == == 1940s == == 1950s == == 1960s == == 1970s == == 1980s == == 1990s == == See also == Timeline of national independence Geopolitics –


id: timeline-of-geopolitical-changes-2000-present-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geopolitical_changes_(2000–present)-0.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of geopolitical changes (2000–present)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geopolitical_changes_(2000–present)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:25.146063+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-geopolitical-changes-2000-present-20260505-0
summary:
This is a timeline of geopolitical changes around the world since 2000. It includes dates of declarations of independence, changes in country name, changes of capital city or name, and changes in territory such as the annexation, cession, concession, occupation, or secession of land. Territorial conquests as a result of war are included on the timeline at the conclusion of military campaigns. However, those changes in the course of specific battles and day-to-day operations are generally not included in this list. Changes in airspace and maritime territory are included only when they are subject to a dispute. == 2000s == == 2010s == == 2020s == == See also == Timeline of national independence Geopolitics – Study of geography's effects on politics List of administrative division name changes List of city name changes List of national border changes (1914–present) Lists of political entities by century Sovereign state – State having the highest authority over a territory List of former sovereign states List of sovereign states List of modern sovereign states by date of formation List of sovereign states and dependent territories by continent Political history of the world Timeline of the Russian invasion of Ukraine == Notes == == References


id: timeline-of-geopolitical-changes-before-1500-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geopolitical_changes_(before_1500)-0.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of geopolitical changes (before 1500)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_geopolitical_changes_(before_1500)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:26.429639+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-geopolitical-changes-before-1500-20260505-0
summary:
This is a timeline of geopolitical changes around the world prior to 1500. It includes dates of declarations of independence, changes in country name, changes of capital city or name, and changes in territorial ownership such as the annexation, occupation, cession, concession, or secession of land. Territorial conquests as a result of war are included on the timeline at the conclusion of major military campaigns, but changes in the course of specific battles and day-to-day operations are generally not included. == Before the Common Era (BCE) == === Fourth Millennium BCE === From the 4th Millennium BCE to the 2nd Millennium BCE, hundreds of proto-cities in the Near East, Egypt, and the Indus Valley transition into city-states. Records of those geopolitical changes are complicated by mythologization, historical revisionism, missing information, lack of corroborating primary sources, and lack of archeological evidence. Consequently, the tables in that range are not comprehensive. === Third Millennium BCE === === Second Millennium BCE === === First Millennium BCE === == Common Era (CE) == === First Millennium CE === ==== 1st century ==== ==== 2nd century ==== ==== 3rd century ==== ==== 4th century ==== ==== 5th century ==== ==== 6th century ==== ==== 7th


id: list-of-words-derived-from-toponyms-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_words_derived_from_toponyms-0.md
category: reference
title: List of words derived from toponyms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_words_derived_from_toponyms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:27.593747+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-words-derived-from-toponyms-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of English language words derived from toponyms, followed by the place name it derives from.


id: list-of-words-derived-from-toponyms-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_words_derived_from_toponyms-1.md
category: reference
title: List of words derived from toponyms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_words_derived_from_toponyms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:27.593747+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-words-derived-from-toponyms-20260505-0
summary:
== General == agate — after Achates, ancient Greek name for the river Dirillo on the Italian island of Sicily Alberta clipper — a weather phenomenon named after the Canadian province of Alberta, where it originates Angora goat, Angora rabbit, Angora wool (obtained from the previous two), Angora cat — named after Angora, variant or former name of Ankara, their place of origin Antimacassar — after Makassar, Indonesia, which was the source of hair oil Armageddon — after "mount of Megiddo", where the battle was to be fought according to myth badminton — after Badminton in Gloucestershire, England balkanization — after the Balkans, region in southeastern Europe similarly divided into small nations in the twentieth century bangalored — after Bangalore, India; used often in the US when jobs are lost because of outsourcing; first time use by the magazine The Economist; usage: "He is sulking today because he got bangalored." Bedford cord, a heavy fabric with a ribbed weave similar to corduroy; named after either Bedford, England or possibly New Bedford, Massachusetts[1] Bedlam — meaning pandemonium, after popular name/pronunciation of St Mary of Bethlehem, London's first psychiatric hospital [2][3] Bedlington Terrier, a breed of dog, after Bedlington, UK bezant —


id: list-of-words-derived-from-toponyms-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_words_derived_from_toponyms-2.md
category: reference
title: List of words derived from toponyms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_words_derived_from_toponyms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:27.593747+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-words-derived-from-toponyms-20260505-0
summary:
From Laconia Ancient Sparta (Greece) Left Bank, style of life, fashion, or "look" — "Left Bank", left bank of the Seine (facing downstream) in Paris Leghorn chicken — after Leghorn, historical name for Livorno, Italy Lesbian, female homosexual — Lesbos, island in Greece Lipizzaner, a breed of horse — Lipica, town in Slovenia Magenta, colour — named after Magenta, Lombardy, Italy Marathon, long race — Marathon, Greece, town Madras, lightweight cotton fabric — Madras, old name for Chennai, coastal city in southeastern India Manila envelopes, Manila fiber — Manila, city in Philippines Marseillaise, national anthem of France — Marseille, city in France Masada, a mass suicide when conditions are hopeless, after Masada, Israel Mausoleum, a large and impressive tomb — Mausoleum at Halicarnassus in Turkey meander, a bend in a river — Meander, a river in Turkey Mecca, ultimate destination or activity center — Mecca, holy city in Saudi Arabia Mongoloid race — Mongolia, country in central Asia Morocco leather — Morocco, country in north Africa Muslin, a lightweight fabric — Mosul, Iraq Neanderthal man, known by his fossils — Neanderthal, Germany, valley where the fossils were found Nicene Creed, Christian doctrine — Nicaea, old name for İznik in Turkey


id: list-of-words-derived-from-toponyms-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_words_derived_from_toponyms-3.md
category: reference
title: List of words derived from toponyms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_words_derived_from_toponyms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:27.593747+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-words-derived-from-toponyms-20260505-0
summary:
== Events and agreements == Abu Ghraib (Iraq) – the Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse scandal in 2003 Arraiolos — Arraiolos Group Attica (New York) – the Attica Prison riots in 1971 Beijing (China) – the Fourth World Conference on Women in 1994 Brest (Belarus) – the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in 1918 Bretton Woods (New Hampshire) – The Bretton Woods system from 1944 Cairo (Egypt) – the International Conference on Population and Development of 1994 Camp David (U.S. presidential retreat in Maryland) – the Camp David Accords of 1978 and the Camp David 2000 Summit Copenhagen (Denmark) – the World Summit for Social Development in 1995 Dayton (Ohio) – the Dayton Peace Agreement in 1995 Doha (Qatar) – the Doha round of World Trade Organization negotiations that began in 2001 Durban (South Africa) – the World Conference against Racism in 2001 Geneva (Switzerland) – the Geneva Conventions, and the unofficial Geneva Accord negotiations of 2003 Gleneagles (Scotland) – the 31st G8 summit in Gleneagles, Scotland Grand Trianon (a château in France) – the Treaty of Trianon in 1919 Hillsborough (Sheffield, England) – the Hillsborough disaster of 1989 Hiroshima (Japan) – the atomic bombing of Hiroshima in 1945 Jackson State


id: list-of-words-derived-from-toponyms-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_words_derived_from_toponyms-4.md
category: reference
title: List of words derived from toponyms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_words_derived_from_toponyms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:27.593747+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-words-derived-from-toponyms-20260505-0
summary:
Anjou pear — Anjou Arbroath smokie (a kind of smoked haddock) — Arbroath in Scotland Bakewell Pudding — Bakewell, in Derbyshire, England Bath bun — Bath, England Bath Oliver (biscuit) — Bath, England Berliner (pastry), named after Berlin Black Forest gateau, Black Forest cake, Schwarzwälder Kirschtorte — Black Forest (Schwarzwald), Germany Bolognese sauce — from Bologna, Italy Bombay duck, a kind of fish — Bombay, old name for Mumbai, coastal city in western India Brazil nut Brussels sprout — after the capital of Belgium Buffalo wings, named for Buffalo, New York, where they originated Cantaloupe (also called rockmelon), a variety of melon — Cantalupo, multiple communes in Italy Ceylon tea — from Ceylon, old name for Sri Lanka Chelsea bun — Chelsea in London, England Cognac Coney Island hot dog — named after Coney Island, New York, but apparently invented in the Midwest of the United States Cuban, sub sandwich in Florida — Cuba, country in the Caribbean Curaçao liqueur — Curaçao Currant, a dried raisin — Corinth in Greece Danish, a sweet pastry — (in Denmark it is called wienerbrød, "bread from Vienna") Darjeeling tea — Darjeeling in India Dijon mustard — named after the French city Dijon Dover


id: list-of-words-derived-from-toponyms-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_words_derived_from_toponyms-5.md
category: reference
title: List of words derived from toponyms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_words_derived_from_toponyms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:27.593747+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-words-derived-from-toponyms-20260505-0
summary:
== Musical genres == Britpop — British popular music Canterbury scene — after Canterbury, Kent, England Chicago soul — after Chicago Dixieland jazz — after Dixie, nickname for the southern United States Dunedin sound — after the New Zealand city of Dunedin Madchester — after Manchester, England Memphis soul — after Memphis, Tennessee Northern soul — after Northern England Merseybeat — after the River Mersey Philly soul — after Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Urban Pasifika — after the Pacific Ocean Goa trance – after Goa == Derivations from literary or mythical places == Brobdingnagian, meaning very large in size — Brobdingnag, fictional land in the book Gulliver's Travels Cloud cuckoo land, an unrealistically idealistic state where everything is perfect, from The Birds by Aristophanes Eden, any paradisaical area, named after the religious Garden of Eden El Dorado, any area of great wealth, after the mythical city of gold hell, any horrible place, after the religious Hell Lilliputian, meaning very small in size — Lilliput, fictional island in the book Gulliver's Travels Munchkin, small children, dwarfs, or anything of diminutive stature — from the Munchkin country in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz Never Never Land, a metaphor for eternal childhood, immortality, and escapism,


id: list-of-place-names-of-dutch-origin-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_place_names_of_Dutch_origin-0.md
category: reference
title: List of place names of Dutch origin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_place_names_of_Dutch_origin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:28.869771+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-place-names-of-dutch-origin-20260505-0
summary:
To be included in this list, the place must have an article on Wikipedia or must have inline references showing the name is or was indeed Dutch. == Populated places == === Countries === New Holland, AUS New Holland, BRA Mauritius New Zealand Oranje-Vrijstaat Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek Zoutpansbergsche Republiek Republiek Zwellendam Republic of Lydenburg Republic of Utrecht Republiek Graaff-Reinet Kaap de Goede Hoop === Provinces and regions === Arnhem Land, AUS Baviaanskloof Mega Reserve, Eastern Cape, ZA Bergen County, New Jersey, USA Nassau County, New York, USA Mount Wilhelmina, former name of Puncak Trikora, Indonesia New Netherland, USA Nuytsland, Western Australia, AUS Oranje-Vrijstaat Province, ZA Overberg (Over 't Berg), Western Cape, ZA Schuyler County, New York, USA Schuylkill County, Pennsylvania, USA Tasman Peninsula, AUS Tasman Region, NZ Transvaal Province, ZA === Islands === Amsterdam Island, Spitsbergen Amsterdam Island, Southern Indian Ocean Bear Island, Norway Bedloe's Island, now Liberty Island, New York-NJ, USA Block Island, Rhode Island, USA Coney Island, New York, USA Crocodile Islands, Northern Territory, AUS Dirk Hartog Island, Western Australia, AUS Delft, Sri Lanka Dwars-in-den-weg Island, now Sangiang Island, Banten, ID Easter Island, CHL Fishers Island, New York, USA Gorée, SEN Groote Eyland, Northern Territory, AUS Hermite Islands, CHL


id: list-of-place-names-of-dutch-origin-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_place_names_of_Dutch_origin-1.md
category: reference
title: List of place names of Dutch origin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_place_names_of_Dutch_origin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:28.869771+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-place-names-of-dutch-origin-20260505-0
summary:
=== Towns === Alkmaar, Mpumalanga, South Africa Alkmaar, Suriname Amersfoort, Mpumalanga, South Africa Amsterdam, California, USA Amsterdam, New York, USA Amsterdam, Jefferson County, Ohio, USA Amsterdam, Licking County, Ohio, USA Amsterdam, Pennsylvania, USA Amsterdam, Texas, USA Amsterdam, Virginia, USA Amsterdam, Montana, USA Amsterdam, Mpumalanga, South Africa Amsterdam, Saskatchewan, Canada Ansnorveldt, Ontario, Canada Antwerp Township, Michigan, USA Baardscheerders Bosch, Western Cape, South Africa Barentsburg, Svalbard, Norway Batavia Township, Michigan, USA Batavia, New York, USA Batavia, Ohio, USA Batavia, Wisconsin, USA Beterverwagting, Guyana Beukendaal, New York, USA Bloubergstrand, Western Cape, South Africa Bluefields, Jamaica The Bottom, Saba Bredasdorp, Western Cape, South Africa Calitzdorp, Western Cape, South Africa Claverack, New York, USA Coeymans, New York, USA De Doorns, Western Cape, South Africa De Hollandsche Molen, Western Cape, South Africa Delft, Minnesota, USA De Rust, Western Cape, South Africa Town of DeRuyter, New York, USA Village of DeRuyter, New York, USA Deventer, Missouri, USA De Vlugt, Western Cape, South Africa Domburg, Suriname Dordrecht, Eastern Cape, South Africa Drakenstein, Western Cape, South Africa Edam, Saskatchewan, Canada Ermelo, Mpumalanga, South Africa Esau and Jacob, Guyana Flushing, Cornwall, UK Franschhoek, Western Cape, South Africa Genadendal, Western Cape, South Africa Goedverwacht, Western Cape, South Africa Gouda, Western Cape,


id: list-of-place-names-of-dutch-origin-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_place_names_of_Dutch_origin-2.md
category: reference
title: List of place names of Dutch origin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_place_names_of_Dutch_origin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:28.869771+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-place-names-of-dutch-origin-20260505-0
summary:
=== Bays === Barnegat Bay, New Jersey, USA Valsbaai, Western Cape, ZA Gansbaai, Western Cape, ZA Storm Bay, Tasmania, AUS Tafelbaai, Western Cape, ZA Tasman Bay, New Zealand Vansittart Bay, Western Australia, AUS Wijnkoopsbaai, now Palabuhanratu bay, West Java, ID Wilhelmina Bay, Antarctica === Beaches === Wingaersheek Beach === Capes === Cape of Good Hope, Western Cape, ZA Cape Henlopen, Delaware, USA Cape Horn, CHL Cape Keerweer, Queensland, AUS Cape Leeuwin, Western Australia, AUS Cape Maria van Diemen, NZ Cape May, New Jersey, USA Cape Patience, Sakhalin, RUS Sandy Hook, New Jersey, USA Sint Nicolaaspunt, now Tanjung Pujut, West Java, ID Verlegenhuken, Spitsbergen === Gulfs === Frederick Henry Bay, Tasmania, AUS Geelvink Channel, Western Australia, AUS Gulf of Carpentaria, AUS Gulf of Patience, RUS Liefdefjorden, Spitsbergen Storm Bay, Tasmania, AUS Van Diemen Gulf, AUS Wijdefjorden, Spitsbergen === Lakes === Beira Lake, Sri Lanka (see Sri Lankan place name etymology#Dutch) Harlem Meer, New York, USA === Mountains === Bakhuis Mountains, Suriname Carstensz Pyramid, Papua, Indonesia Carstensz Glacier, Puncak Jaya, Papua, Indonesia Drakensberg, South Africa Eilerts de Haan Mountains, Suriname Groenland Mountains, Western Cape, South Africa Grootvadersbosch, South Africa Hottentots-Holland Mountain Range, Western Cape, South Africa Helderberg, South Africa Juliana Peak, now


id: list-of-geographical-tors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geographical_tors-0.md
category: reference
title: List of geographical tors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geographical_tors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:30.106281+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-geographical-tors-20260505-0
summary:
The following list enumerate and expand on notable tors. == Tors in Great Britain == === Dartmoor === Dartmoor represents one of the largest areas of exposed granite in the United Kingdom, covering an area of 368 square miles (950 km2). It is part of a chain of granite stretching through Cornwall, as far as the Isles of Scilly. Some of the more durable granite survived to form the rocky crowns of Dartmoor tors. One of the best known is at Haytor (50.5802°N 3.7552°W﻿ / 50.5802; -3.7552) on the eastern part of the moor, whose granite is of unusually fine quality and was quarried from the hillside below the tor during the 19th and early 20th centuries. Its stone was used to construct the pillars outside the British Museum in London, and to build London Bridge. The last granite to be quarried there was used to build Exeter War Memorial in 1919. Ten Tors is an annual weekend hike on Dartmoor. === Cornwall === Alex Tor, Bodmin Moor Hawk's Tor, Bodmin Moor. There are two on the moor: One near Lewannick One near Temple Helman Tor, mid–Cornwall Rough Tor, Bodmin Moor Trewortha Tor, Bodmin Moor Showery Tor, Bodmin Moor Cheesewring,


id: list-of-towns-and-cities-with-100-000-or-more-inhabitants-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_towns_and_cities_with_100,000_or_more_inhabitants-0.md
category: reference
title: List of towns and cities with 100,000 or more inhabitants
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_towns_and_cities_with_100,000_or_more_inhabitants
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:31.477776+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-towns-and-cities-with-100-000-or-more-inhabitants-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of towns and cities in the world believed to have 100,000 or more inhabitants, sorted by countries. Unless otherwise noted, populations are based on United Nations estimates from 2022. == By country name == A-B • C-D-E-F • G-H-I-J-K • L-M-N-O • P-Q-R-S • T-U-V-W-Y-Z == See also == List of largest cities List of cities with over one million inhabitants == References ==


id: list-of-towns-and-cities-with-100-000-or-more-inhabitants-country-a-b-20260505-0
category: reference
title: List of towns and cities with 100,000 or more inhabitants/country: A-B
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:32.817547+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-towns-and-cities-with-100-000-or-more-inhabitants-country-a-b-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_towns_and_cities_with_100,000_or_more_inhabitants/country:_A-B-0.md

summary:
This is a list of towns and cities in the world believed to have 100,000 or more inhabitants, sorted by countries beginning with letters between A and B. Unless otherwise noted, populations are based on United Nations estimates from 2022. Index == Afghanistan == == Albania == == Algeria == == Angola == == Argentina == == Armenia == == Australia == == Austria == == Azerbaijan == == Bahamas == == Bahrain == == Bangladesh == == Barbados == == Belarus == == Belgium == == Benin == == Bhutan == == Bolivia == == Bosnia and Herzegovina == == Botswana == == Brazil == == Brunei == == Bulgaria == == Burkina Faso == == Burundi == == See also == World largest cities == References ==

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_towns_and_cities_with_100,000_or_more_inhabitants/country:_A-B


id: list-of-towns-and-cities-with-100-000-or-more-inhabitants-country-c-d-e-f-20260505-0
category: reference
title: List of towns and cities with 100,000 or more inhabitants/country: C-D-E-F
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:34.061330+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-towns-and-cities-with-100-000-or-more-inhabitants-country-c-d-e-f-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_towns_and_cities_with_100,000_or_more_inhabitants/country:_C-D-E-F-0.md

summary:
This is a list of towns and cities in the world believed to have 100,000 or more inhabitants, sorted by countries beginning with letters between C and F. Unless otherwise noted, populations are based on United Nations estimates from 2022. Index == Cambodia == == Cameroon == == Canada == == Cape Verde == == Central African Republic == == Chad == == Chile == == China == == Colombia == == Congo, Democratic Republic == == Congo, Republic == == Costa Rica == == Croatia == == Cuba == == Curaçao == == Cyprus == == Czech Republic == == Denmark == == Djibouti == == Dominican Republic == == East Timor == == Ecuador == == Egypt == == El Salvador == == Equatorial Guinea == == Eritrea == == Estonia == == Ethiopia == == Fiji == == Finland == == France == == See also == World largest cities == References ==

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_towns_and_cities_with_100,000_or_more_inhabitants/country:_C-D-E-F


id: list-of-towns-and-cities-with-100-000-or-more-inhabitants-country-g-h-i-j-k-20260505-0
category: reference
title: List of towns and cities with 100,000 or more inhabitants/country: G-H-I-J-K
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:35.375415+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-towns-and-cities-with-100-000-or-more-inhabitants-country-g-h-i-j-k-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_towns_and_cities_with_100,000_or_more_inhabitants/country:_G-H-I-J-K-0.md

summary:
This is a list of towns and cities in the world believed to have 100,000 or more inhabitants, sorted by countries beginning with letters between G and K. Unless otherwise noted, populations are based on United Nations estimates from 2022. Index == Gabon == == Georgia == == Germany == == Ghana == == Greece == == Guatemala == == Guinea == == Guinea-Bissau == == Guyana == == Haiti == == Honduras == == Hungary == == Iceland == == India == == Indonesia == == Iran == == Iraq == == Ireland == == Israel == == Italy == == Ivory Coast == == Jamaica == == Japan == == Jordan == == Kazakhstan == == Kenya == == Kosovo == == Kuwait == == Kyrgyzstan == == See also == World largest cities == References ==

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_towns_and_cities_with_100,000_or_more_inhabitants/country:_G-H-I-J-K


id: list-of-towns-and-cities-with-100-000-or-more-inhabitants-country-l-m-n-o-20260505-0
category: reference
title: List of towns and cities with 100,000 or more inhabitants/country: L-M-N-O
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:36.679083+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-towns-and-cities-with-100-000-or-more-inhabitants-country-l-m-n-o-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_towns_and_cities_with_100,000_or_more_inhabitants/country:_L-M-N-O-0.md

summary:
This is a list of towns and cities in the world believed to have 100,000 or more inhabitants, sorted by countries beginning with letters between L and O. Unless otherwise noted, populations are based on United Nations estimates from 2022. Index == Laos == == Latvia == == Lebanon == == Lesotho == == Liberia == == Libya == == Lithuania == == Luxembourg == == Madagascar == == Malawi == == Malaysia == == Maldives == == Mali == == Mauritania == == Mauritius == == Mexico == == Moldova == == Mongolia == == Montenegro == == Morocco == == Mozambique == == Myanmar == == Namibia == == Nepal == == Netherlands == == New Zealand == == Nicaragua == == Niger == == Nigeria == The following table lists fully defined incorporated cities in Nigeria, with a population of at least 100,000, as declared by the Nigerian National Population Commission in the 2006 National census. == North Korea == == North Macedonia == == Norway == == Oman == == See also == World largest cities == References ==

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_towns_and_cities_with_100,000_or_more_inhabitants/country:_L-M-N-O


id: list-of-towns-and-cities-with-100-000-or-more-inhabitants-country-p-q-r-s-20260505-0
category: reference
title: List of towns and cities with 100,000 or more inhabitants/country: P-Q-R-S
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:38.127699+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-towns-and-cities-with-100-000-or-more-inhabitants-country-p-q-r-s-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_towns_and_cities_with_100,000_or_more_inhabitants/country:_P-Q-R-S-0.md

summary:
This is a list of towns and cities in the world believed to have 100,000 or more inhabitants, sorted by countries beginning with letters between P and S. Unless otherwise noted, populations are based on United Nations estimates from 2022. Index == Pakistan == Divisional capital == Palestine == == Panama == == Papua New Guinea == == Paraguay == == Peru == == Philippines == == Poland == == Portugal == == Puerto Rico == == Qatar == == Réunion == == Romania == == Russia == == Rwanda == == Saudi Arabia == == Senegal == == Serbia == == Sierra Leone == == Singapore == == Slovakia == == Slovenia == == Solomon Islands == == Somalia == == South Africa == == South Korea == == South Sudan == == Spain == == Sri Lanka == == Sudan == == Suriname == == Sweden == == Switzerland == == Syria == == See also == World’s largest cities == References ==

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_towns_and_cities_with_100,000_or_more_inhabitants/country:_P-Q-R-S


id: list-of-towns-and-cities-with-100-000-or-more-inhabitants-country-t-u-v-w-y-z-20260505-0
category: reference
title: List of towns and cities with 100,000 or more inhabitants/country: T-U-V-W-Y-Z
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:39.451790+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-towns-and-cities-with-100-000-or-more-inhabitants-country-t-u-v-w-y-z-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_towns_and_cities_with_100,000_or_more_inhabitants/country:_T-U-V-W-Y-Z-0.md

summary:
This is a list of towns and cities in the world believed to have 100,000 or more inhabitants, sorted by countries beginning with letters between T and Z. Unless otherwise noted, populations are based on United Nations estimates from 2022. Index == Taiwan == == Tajikistan == == Tanzania == == Thailand == == Togo == == Tunisia == == Turkey == == Turkmenistan == == Uganda == == Ukraine == == United Arab Emirates == == United Kingdom == == United States == == Uruguay == == Uzbekistan == == Venezuela == == Vietnam == == Yemen == == Zambia == == Zimbabwe == == See also == World largest cities == References ==

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_towns_and_cities_with_100,000_or_more_inhabitants/country:_T-U-V-W-Y-Z


id: list-of-cities-with-over-1-million-inhabitants-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_with_over_1_million_inhabitants-0.md
category: reference
title: List of cities with over 1 million inhabitants
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_with_over_1_million_inhabitants
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:40.618119+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cities-with-over-1-million-inhabitants-20260505-0
summary:
This list contains all cities with one million or more inhabitants. Cities are defined in the political-geographic sense (city proper). The population figures given therefore refer to the city or municipality in the political-administrative sense. In some cases, the population figures refer to capital districts or Metropolises and, in the case of the People's Republic of China, to the urban population of the city in question. In many cases, the city boundaries do not correspond to the settlement structure and the boundaries of metropolitan regions and agglomerations often extend far beyond the administrative city boundaries. In some cases, metropolitan regions and political municipalities cannot be separated, as in the case of metropolitan municipalities or city regions, which exist in some countries. There is no globally standardized definition of what constitutes a city, and municipal divisions differ from country to country. If only the administrative boundaries of a city were taken into account, Chongqing would be the largest city in the world, with 32 million inhabitants. However, the urban population is significantly smaller at just under 14 million (2020) and is spread across various urban settlements. The city's administrative area is almost as large as Austria and larger than the Czech


id: list-of-tumps-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tumps-0.md
category: reference
title: List of tumps
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tumps
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:41.845651+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-tumps-20260505-0
summary:
Tump means a hillock, mound, barrow or tumulus. The Welsh words twmp and Twmpath may be related. Although some may appear similar to glacial drumlins, for the most part they are man-made, e.g. remains from mineral extraction, burial mounds (tumuli and especially bowl barrows) or motte-and-bailey castle mounds. The following geographical features in the UK are referred to using the word: Almondsbury Tump: a slight prominence near the top of the scarp, in open space near the Swan, Almondsbury, South Gloucestershire Barry's Hill Tump: a barrow in the civil parish of Leafield, Oxfordshire Battle Tump: a castle motte, Scheduled Ancient Monument, Lower Common, Gilwern, Monmouthshire Bettws Newydd tump: an early Norman motte-and-bailey tump in Monmouthshire Bledisloe Tump: a castle in Awre, Gloucestershire Brinklow Castle known locally as 'the Tump': a medieval castle in the village of Brinklow, Warwickshire Caple Tump: an earthwork reputed to be the remains of a castle motte in King's Caple, Herefordshire Castle Tump: an early 11th-century motte-and-bailey castle in Trecastle, Powys Castle Tump, Caerwent: site of a Roman villa in Monmouthshire Castle Tump, Dymock: a castle in Dymock, Gloucestershire Castle Tump Motte (see Glasbury Castle), Glasbury, Powys Castle Tump, Tenbury Wells: believed to be the remains


id: list-of-warehouse-districts-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_warehouse_districts-0.md
category: reference
title: List of warehouse districts
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_warehouse_districts
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:43.134840+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-warehouse-districts-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of notable warehouse districts. A warehouse district or warehouse row is an area found in many urban settings known for being the current or former location of numerous warehouses. Logistically, warehouses are often located in industrial parks, with access to bulk transportation outlets such as highways, railroads, and airports. The areas where warehouses are typically built are often designated as special zones for urban planning purposes, and "can have their own substantial infrastructures, comprising roads, utilities, and energy systems". In many instances, where changing social and economic conditions have made it unfeasible to maintain an existing warehouse district, cities or communities will invest in converting the district to other purposes for which this infrastructure can still be used, such as an art district. Such a converted area may continue to be known as a warehouse district. Notable areas known as warehouse districts include: == Canada == Distillery District is located in Toronto, Ontario and is the largest collection of Victorian-era industrial architecture in North America. Warehouse District, Edmonton == Germany == Speicherstadt in Hamburg, Germany == Poland == Karolin in Warsaw, Poland Służewiec in Warsaw, Poland Służewiec Przemysłowy Wyczółki in Warsaw, Poland == United Kingdom ==


id: list-of-watershed-topics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_watershed_topics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of watershed topics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_watershed_topics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:44.445452+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-watershed-topics-20260505-0
summary:
This list embraces topographical watersheds and drainage basins and other topics focused on them. == Terms – different uses == The source of a river or stream is the furthest place from its estuary or confluence with another river, and is alternatively known as a "watershed" and/or "headwaters" in some countries. The confluence is the meeting of two rivers or streams, and may sometimes be known as "headwaters". A drainage basin is an area of land where all surface water converges to a single point at a lower elevation. In North America, "watershed" is used for this sense, while elsewhere terms like "catchment" or "drainage area" are used. A drainage divide is the line that separates neighboring drainage basins. In English-speaking countries outside of North America, this is normally known as a "watershed". == Drainage divides == Drainage divides category The European Watershed, the line dividing the drainage basins of the major rivers of Europe The Drainage divides, the lines dividing drainage basins in North America (i.e.: Great Basin Divide and Great Basin hydrologic region) == Watersheds and drainage basins == Basins category Drainage basins category List of drainage basins by area: A worldwide list of watersheds Drainage basins of


id: outline-of-geology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_geology-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of geology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_geology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:46.216185+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-geology-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to geology: Geology is a branch of natural science concerned with the Earth and other astronomical bodies, the rocks of which they are composed, and the processes by which they change over time. The name comes from Ancient Greek γῆ (gê) 'earth' and λoγία (-logía) 'study of, discourse'. Modern geology significantly overlaps all other Earth sciences, including hydrology. It is integrated with Earth system science and planetary science. == Branches of geology == Geology applies primarily to Earth, but can be applied to any planet or extraterrestrial body. === Geology of Earth === Subdisciplines of geology: Biogeology – Study of the interactions between the Earth's biosphere and the lithosphere Economic geology – Science concerned with earth materials of economic value Engineering geology – Application of geology to engineering practice Environmental geology – Application of geology to environmental problems Geochemistry – Science that applies chemistry to analyze geological systems Geologic modelling – Applied science of creating computerized representations of portions of the Earth's crustPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Geomorphology – Scientific study of landforms Geophysics – Physics of the Earth and its vicinity Historical geology – Study


id: index-of-geology-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_geology_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of geology articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_geology_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:47.439007+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-geology-articles-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of all articles related to geology – Scientific study of Earth's physical composition that cannot be readily placed on the following subtopic pages: == A == Asthenosphere – Highly viscous, ductile, and mechanically weak region of Earth's mantle Astrogeology – Geology of astronomical objects apparently in orbit around stellar objects Aulacogen – Failed arm of a triple junction, an inactive rift zone == B == Batholith – Large igneous rock intrusion Beach – Area of loose particles at the edge of a body of water Bolide – Extremely bright meteor == C == Calcium Canyon – Deep chasm between cliffs Cave – Natural void under a planetary surface Cement – Hydraulic binder used in the composition of mortar and concrete Cementation – Process of chemical precipitation bonding sedimentary grains Cenozoic – Third and current era of the Phanerozoic Eon Coast – Area where land meets the sea or ocean Concretion – In geology, a type of compact mass Conglomerate – Sedimentary rock composed of smaller rock fragments Continent – Large geographical region identified by convention Convergent boundary – Region of active deformation between colliding tectonic plates Crag and tail – Geographic feature created by glaciation Crust


id: list-of-types-of-amber-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_amber-0.md
category: reference
title: List of types of amber
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_amber
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:49.703180+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-types-of-amber-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of types of amber. == True ambers == Baltic amber - the most common amber variety, found along the shores of a large part of the Baltic Sea, Eocene age amber. Bitterfeld amber, amber from Bitterfeld, Germany, equivalent in age to Baltic amber and has historically been suggested to be synonymous with it Burmese amber - also known as burmite, is a Cretaceous (Cenomanian) age amber about 99 million years old found mainly in the Hukawng Valley, Kachin State, Myanmar (Burma). The most common amber containing insect inclusions of the Cenomanian, mined in a very large amount since late 2010s and became one of the most available types of amber. Canadian amber - also known as chemawinite or cedarit, found near Cedar Lake (Manitoba), Cretaceous (Campanian) age amber. Charentese amber - opaque amber found in the Aquitaine Basin, France. Cretaceous (Cenomanian) age. Cambay amber - amber from Gujarat, India, unlike most ambers readily dissolves in solvents, Eocene age. Dominican amber - nearly always transparent, and having a higher number of fossil inclusions than Baltic amber, Miocene age amber. Blue amber - a rare color variation, most commonly is found in the Dominican Republic. Ethiopian amber -


id: list-of-apollo-lunar-sample-displays-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Apollo_lunar_sample_displays-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Apollo lunar sample displays
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Apollo_lunar_sample_displays
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:50.949425+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-apollo-lunar-sample-displays-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of lunar sample displays from the Apollo program that were distributed through the United States and around the world. They include samples from the Apollo 11 and Apollo 17 missions conducted by NASA in 1969 and 1972. The Apollo 11 mission to the surface of the Moon returned a few dozen pounds/kilos of lunar material (mainly rock and dust), and the US put about 0.05 grams in small display cases and gave one apiece to the 50 U.S. states, to the nations of the world, and to political entities like the U.S. territories under administration. This was done again with an Apollo 17 sample (Lunar basalt 70017). There are a few samples from Apollo 15 on display. == United States == == International == The display cases included a lunar sample and small flag of the respective political entity that had been to the Moon and back. Approximately 135 displays were gifted to nations of the world at that time, so nations created since then are not included and some displays have been inherited from past nations == Footnotes == == See also == Apollo 11 goodwill messages (Messages by nations left on the Moon) Stolen


id: list-of-geological-features-on-charon-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geological_features_on_Charon-0.md
category: reference
title: List of geological features on Charon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geological_features_on_Charon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:52.301347+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-geological-features-on-charon-20260505-0
summary:
The geological features of Charon, the largest moon of Pluto, are being mapped by scientists using data from the New Horizons spacecraft. The team has given provisional names to the most prominent. As of April 2020, only some of the names have been officially recognized by the International Astronomical Union, which has agreed that names for features on Charon should come from the following: Destinations and milestones of fictional space and other exploration. Fictional and mythological vessels of space and other exploration. Fictional and mythological voyagers, travellers and explorers. Authors and artists associated with space exploration, especially Pluto and the Kuiper Belt. Some features discovered by the New Horizons mission have been given provisional names based on various science fiction and fantasy franchises, including Star Wars, Star Trek, Doctor Who, Alien, Firefly, and Macross. These names remain unofficial until accepted by the IAU. On 11 April 2018, the IAU announced that several of the feature names had been officially recognized. As of December 2025, this list contains 55 geological features, 14 of which are official. == Chasmata == A chasma (plural chasmata) is a deep, elongated, steep-sided depression. Charonian chasmata are named after vessels in fiction. The following is a


id: list-of-places-with-columnar-jointed-volcanics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_places_with_columnar_jointed_volcanics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of places with columnar jointed volcanics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_places_with_columnar_jointed_volcanics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:53.572393+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-places-with-columnar-jointed-volcanics-20260505-0
summary:
Columnar jointing of volcanic rocks exists in many places on Earth. Perhaps the most famous basalt lava flow in the world is the Giant's Causeway in Northern Ireland, in which the vertical joints form polygonal columns and give the impression of having been artificially constructed. == Notable columnar jointed volcanics == === Africa === Bugarama in Rusizi, Rwanda Columnar jointing in Rusizi district, Nzahaha Sector. This may have formed from contractional cooling of basaltic lavas. Foreke Quarry, Foreke Dachang, Cameroon Ikom Columnar Basalt in Cross River State, Nigeria Numan, Nigeria "Organ Pipes" near Twyfelfontein, Namibia Rochester Falls, Mauritius Seliana, Tunisia Isle de la Madeleine, Dakar, Senegal Lalibela, Ethiopia === Asia === ==== Armenia ==== Garni Gorge, Armenia Near Saint Sarkis Cathedral, Yerevan, Armenia ==== China (mainland) ==== Heiyuhe Columnar Joints (黑鱼河柱状节理) [Xianrenqiao (仙人桥)], Longchuan River (龙川江) & Black Fish River, Tengchong ==== Hong Kong ==== Basalt Island area, Hong Kong; including High Island Reservoir area, Hong Kong; although the High Island Reservoir is not basalt but rhyolitic tuff, rich in potash feldspar and quartz phenocrysts. ==== India ==== In India, columnars are found in several places across the volcanic traps such as 6.5 crore or 65 million years ago (Mya)


id: list-of-places-with-columnar-jointed-volcanics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_places_with_columnar_jointed_volcanics-1.md
category: reference
title: List of places with columnar jointed volcanics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_places_with_columnar_jointed_volcanics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:53.572393+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-places-with-columnar-jointed-volcanics-20260505-0
summary:
==== Romania ==== Coloanele de bazalt de la Racoș, Romania Thunderstruck Rocks (Detunatele), Romania ==== Slovakia ==== Šomoška rock waterfall ==== Spain ==== Punta Baja, Cabo de Gata-Níjar Natural Park, Andalusia Castellfollit de la Roca, Girona Fruiz, Biscay Pitón volcánico de Cancarix, Albacete Los Órganos, La Gomera, Canary Islands ==== Sweden ==== Central Skåne Volcanic Province, Sweden ==== Ukraine ==== Bazaltove, Ukraine === North and Central America === ==== Canada ==== North Mountain, Nova Scotia Grand Manan Island (western shorelines), New Brunswick Brandywine Falls Provincial Park, British Columbia Cardiff Mountain, Chilcotin Plateau, British Columbia Keremeos Columns, Keremeos, British Columbia Aberdeen Columns, Lavington, British Columbia Wells Gray Provincial Park, British Columbia (Moul Falls, Dragon's Tongue, Helmcken Falls) Mount Edziza volcanic complex, British Columbia Level Mountain, British Columbia Teapot Mountain, Prince George, British Columbia Kelowna, British Columbia (Mount Boucherie, Spion Kopje) Devils Woodpile, British Columbia (Cathedral Provincial Park) Tow Hill, British Columbia Rouyn-Noranda, Quebec Simpson Island, Lake Superior National Marine Conservation Area, Rossport, Ontario Miles Canyon, Whitehorse, Yukon ==== Costa Rica ==== Bajo Rodriguez, San Lorenzo de San Ramon ==== El Salvador ==== Cascada Los Tercios, Suchitoto Concepción waterfall, Aculco ==== Greenland ==== Qeqertarsuaq, Disko Island ==== Guadeloupe ==== Pain de sucre


id: list-of-deserts-by-area-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_deserts_by_area-0.md
category: reference
title: List of deserts by area
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_deserts_by_area
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:56.047957+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-deserts-by-area-20260505-0
summary:
This article provides a list of deserts ranked by the total area that they cover on Earth. Only deserts greater than 50,000 km2 (19,300 sq mi) are included in this ranking. == See also == List of deserts (all deserts and pseudo-deserts by continent) Desertification Polar desert United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification Desert greening == Notes == == References ==


id: list-of-places-on-land-with-elevations-below-sea-level-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_places_on_land_with_elevations_below_sea_level-0.md
category: reference
title: List of places on land with elevations below sea level
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_places_on_land_with_elevations_below_sea_level
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:57.235609+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-places-on-land-with-elevations-below-sea-level-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of places on land below mean sea level. Places artificially created such as tunnels, mines, basements, and dug holes, or places under water, or existing temporarily as a result of ebbing of sea tide etc., are not included. Places where seawater and rainwater is pumped away are included. Fully natural places below sea level require a dry climate; otherwise, rain would exceed evaporation and fill the area. All figures are in meters below mean sea level (as locally defined), arranged by depth, lowest first: == Africa == == Antarctica == == Asia == == Europe == == North America == == Oceania == == South America == == Historic and ice-covered areas == Deeper and larger than any of the trenches in the list above is the Bentley Subglacial Trench in Antarctica, at a depth of 2,540 m (8,330 ft). It is subglacial, covered permanently by the largest glacier in the world. Therefore, it is not included in any list on the page. If the ice melted it would be covered by sea. The biggest dry land area below sea level that has been known to exist during the geological past, as measured by continuous volume


id: list-of-fault-zones-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fault_zones-0.md
category: reference
title: List of fault zones
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fault_zones
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:58.457969+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fault-zones-20260505-0
summary:
This list covers all faults and fault-systems that are either geologically important or connected to prominent seismic activity. It is not intended to list every notable fault, but only major fault zones. == See also == Lists of earthquakes Tectonics == References ==


id: list-of-faults-in-indonesia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_faults_in_Indonesia-0.md
category: reference
title: List of faults in Indonesia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_faults_in_Indonesia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:08:59.763364+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-faults-in-indonesia-20260505-0
summary:
Indonesia is a country located close to tectonic plate boundaries which causes it to have many active faults and is prone to earthquakes, == Sumatra == Great Sumatran fault Samalanga-Sipopok Fault Mentawai Fault == Java == Citarik Fault Cimandiri Fault Baribis Fault Cirata Fault Cugenang Fault Lembang Fault Cileunyi-Tanjungsari Fault Southern Garut Fault Citanduy Fault Kendeng Fault Ajibarang Fault Merapi-Merbabu Fault Opak Fault Pati Fault Muria Fault Rawapening Fault Kaligarang Fault Rembang-Madura-Kangean-Sakala Fault Grindulu Fault == Borneo == Tarakan Fault Meratus Fault Adang-Partenoster Fault == Sulawesi == Palu-Koro Fault Matano Fault Lawanopo Fault Gorontalo Fault Kolaka Fault Walanae Fault Balantak Fault Mamuju Thrust Fault Saddang Fault == Lesser Sunda Islands == Flores back-arc thrust fault Bondowatu Fault == Maluku Islands == Banda Detachment Sorong Fault Kawa Fault == Papua == Mamberamo Fault Main Jayawijaya Thrust Fault Lengguru Fault Tarera-Aiduna Fault Yapen Fault Ransiki Fault == Subduction Zone == Sunda megathrust North Sulawesi Trench Philippine Trench Timor Trough Seram Trough New Guinea Trench == See also == List of earthquakes in Indonesia Geology of Indonesia Indo-Australian plate Eurasian plate Pacific plate Seismicity of the Sumatra coast == References ==


id: list-of-flood-basalt-provinces-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flood_basalt_provinces-0.md
category: reference
title: List of flood basalt provinces
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flood_basalt_provinces
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:01.047732+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-flood-basalt-provinces-20260505-0
summary:
Representative continental flood basalts (also known as traps) and oceanic plateaus, together forming a listing of large igneous provinces: == See also == List of Oceanic Landforms World's largest eruptions == Footnotes == == References ==


id: list-of-fossiliferous-stratigraphic-units-in-antarctica-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossiliferous_stratigraphic_units_in_Antarctica-0.md
category: reference
title: List of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in Antarctica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossiliferous_stratigraphic_units_in_Antarctica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:03.762389+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fossiliferous-stratigraphic-units-in-antarctica-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in Antarctica. == List of fossiliferous stratigraphic units == == See also == Geology of Antarctica List of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in Namibia List of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in South Africa List of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in the Falkland Islands == References ==


id: list-of-fossiliferous-stratigraphic-units-in-antarctica-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossiliferous_stratigraphic_units_in_Antarctica-1.md
category: reference
title: List of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in Antarctica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossiliferous_stratigraphic_units_in_Antarctica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:03.762389+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fossiliferous-stratigraphic-units-in-antarctica-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == G. Arratia, R. Scasso, and W. Kiessling. 2004. Late Jurassic fishes from Longing Gap, Antarctic Peninsula. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 24(1):41-55 A. C. Ashworth and G. Kuschel. 2003. Fossil weevils (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) from latitude 85 ˚S Antarctica. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 191:191-202 R. A. Askin. 1990. Cryptogam spores from the upper Campanian and Maastrichtian of Seymour Island, Antarctica. Micropaleontology (36)141-156 R. A. Askin. 1989. Endemism and heterochrony in the Late Cretaceous (Campanian) to Paleocene palynofloras of Seymour Island, Antarctica: implications for origins, dispersal and palaeoclimates of southern floras. Geological Society of America Special Paper (147)107-119 V. D. Barreda, S. Palamarczuk, and F. Medina. 1999. Palinología de la Formación Hidden Lake (Coniaciano-Santoniano), Isla James Ross, Antártida. Revista Española de Micropaleontología (31)53-72 M. A. Bitner and J. A. Crame. 2002. Brachiopods from the Lower Miocene of King George Island, West Antarctica. Polish Polar Research 23(1):75-84 J. Blaszyk. 1987. Ostracods from the Oligocene Polonez Cove Formation of King George Island, West Antarctica. Palaeontologia Polonica 49:63-81 M. A. Bradshaw and L. McCartan. 1991. Palaeoecology and systematics of Early Devonian bivalves from the Horlick Formation, Ohio Range, Antarctica. Alcheringa 15(1):1-42 P. J. Butterworth, J. A. Crame, P. J. Howlett and D. I.


id: list-of-fossiliferous-stratigraphic-units-in-antarctica-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossiliferous_stratigraphic_units_in_Antarctica-2.md
category: reference
title: List of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in Antarctica
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossiliferous_stratigraphic_units_in_Antarctica
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:03.762389+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fossiliferous-stratigraphic-units-in-antarctica-20260505-0
summary:
Bibcode:2005Geobi..38..667T. doi:10.1016/j.geobios.2004.02.003. P. Tasch. 1973. Jurassic beetle from southern Victoria Land, Antarctica. Journal of Paleontology 47:590-592 P. Tasch and E. F. Riek. 1969. Permian Insect Wing from Antarctic Sentinel Mountains. Science 164(3887):1529-1530 T. N. Taylor and E. L. Taylor. 1992. Permian plants from the Ellsworth Mountains, West Antarctica. Geological Society of America Memoir 170:285-294 E. L. Taylor, T.N. Taylor, J.L. Isbell and R. Cuneo. 1989. Fossil floras of southern Victoria Land. 2. Kennar Valley. Antarctic Journal U.S. 24:26-28 E. I. Vera. 2010. Estudios anatómicos en paleofloras del Aptiano de Antártida y Patagonia, y su comparación. Universidad de Buenos Aires. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales 294 R. Vodrazka and L. A. Crame. 2011. First fossil sponge from Antarctica and its paleobiogeographical significance. Journal of Paleontology 85(1):48-57 G. F. Webers, J. Pojeta, and E.L. Yochelson. 1992. Cambrian Mollusca from the Minaret Formation, Ellsworth Mountains, West Antarctica. Geological Society of America Memoir 170:181-248 G. F. Webers, B. Glenister, J. Pojeta, Jr. and G. Young. 1992. Devonian fossils from the Ellsworth Mountains, West Antarctica. Geological Society of America Memoir 170:269-278 R. Wolfart. 1994. Middle Cambrian Faunas (Brachiopoda, Mollusca, Trilobita) from Exotic Limestone Blocks, Reilly Ridge, North Victoria Land, Antarctica; their Biostratigraphic and Paleogeographic


id: list-of-fossiliferous-stratigraphic-units-in-central-america-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossiliferous_stratigraphic_units_in_Central_America-0.md
category: reference
title: List of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in Central America
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossiliferous_stratigraphic_units_in_Central_America
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:05.023801+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fossiliferous-stratigraphic-units-in-central-america-20260505-0
summary:
This page lists the fossiliferous stratigraphic units in Central America. == Belize == == El Salvador == == Guatemala == == Honduras == == Nicaragua == == Costa Rica == == Panama == == See also == Lists of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in North America List of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in Mexico List of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in Colombia List of fossiliferous stratigraphic units in the Caribbean == References == === Bibliography === Honduras Silva Romo, Gilberto (2008), Origen tectónico y evolución de la Cuenca Tehuitzingo-Tepexi, Estado de Puebla (PhD thesis) (PDF), UNAM, pp. 1–209, retrieved 2019-02-19


id: list-of-fracture-zones-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fracture_zones-0.md
category: reference
title: List of fracture zones
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fracture_zones
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:06.180362+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fracture-zones-20260505-0
summary:
Fracture zones are common features in the geology of oceanic basins. Globally most fault zones are located on divergent plate boundaries on oceanic crust. This means that they are located around mid-ocean ridges and trend perpendicular to them. The term fracture zone is used almost exclusively for features on oceanic crust; similar structures on continental crust are instead termed transform or strike slip faults. Some use the term "transform fault" to describe the seismically and tectonically active portion of a fracture zone after John Tuzo Wilson's concepts first developed with respect to the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The term fracture zone has a distinct geological meaning, but it is also used more loosely in the naming of some oceanic features. Fracture zones are much longer than wide, but may have feature complexity within their width. Not all named fracture zones are active, indeed only the central portion of those still forming usually is, in an area of active transform faulting associated with a mid-ocean ridge. Classic fracture zones remain significant ocean floor features with usually different aged rocks on either side of the fracture zone due to past tectonic processes. Some fracture zones have been created by mid-ocean ridge segments that have


id: list-of-free-geology-software-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_free_geology_software-0.md
category: reference
title: List of free geology software
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_free_geology_software
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:07.478300+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-free-geology-software-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of free and open-source software for geological data handling and interpretation. The list is split into broad categories, depending on the intended use of the software and its scope of functionality. Notice that 'free and open-source' requires that the source code is available and users are given a free software license. Simple being 'free of charge' is not sufficient—see gratis versus libre. == Well logging & Borehole visualisation == == Geosciences software platforms == == Geostatistics == == Forward modeling == == Geomodeling == == Visualization, interpretation & analysis packages == == Geographic information systems (GIS) == This important class of tools is already listed in the article List of GIS software. == Not true free and open-source projects == The following projects have unknown licensing, licenses or other conditions which place some restriction on use or redistribution, or which depend on non-open-source software like MATLAB or XVT (and therefore do not meet the Open Source Definition from the Open Source Initiative). == References ==


id: list-of-geochronologic-names-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geochronologic_names-0.md
category: reference
title: List of geochronologic names
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geochronologic_names
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:08.824577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-geochronologic-names-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of official and unofficial names for time spans in the geologic timescale and units of chronostratigraphy. Since many of the smallest subdivisions of the geologic timescale were in the past defined on regional lithostratigraphic units, there are many alternative names that overlap. The body concerned with standardizing the names of geochronologic units is the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS). In 2008 however, even though the Phanerozoic eon is almost completely divided into internationally recognizable units, local subdivisions are often still preferred over the international ones. == List == == See also == Astronomical chronology Age of the Earth Age of the universe Chronological dating, archaeological chronology Absolute dating Relative dating Phase (archaeology) Archaeological association Geochronology Chronostratigraphy Future of the Earth Geologic time scale Geological history of Earth Plate reconstruction Plate tectonics Thermochronology Timeline of natural history General Consilience, evidence from independent, unrelated sources can "converge" on strong conclusions == References == == Literature == Basset, M. G.; Cocks, L. R. M.; Holland, C. H.; Rickards, R. B.; and Warren, P. T.; 1975: The type Wenlock series, Report of the Institute of Geological Sciences, 75(13), pp. 1–19. Cocks, L. R. M.; Holland, C. H.; Rickards, R. B.;


id: list-of-geologists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geologists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of geologists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geologists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:09.988703+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-geologists-20260505-0
summary:
A geologist is a contributor to the science of geology. Geologists are also known as earth scientists or geoscientists. The following is a list of notable geologists. Many have received such awards as the Penrose Medal or the Wollaston Medal, or have been inducted into the National Academy of Sciences or the Royal Society. Geoscience specialties represented include geochemistry, geophysics, structural geology, tectonics, geomorphology, glaciology, hydrology, hydrogeology, oceanography, mineralogy, petrology, crystallography, paleontology, paleobotany, paleoclimatology, palynology, petroleum geology, planetary geology, sedimentology, soil science, stratigraphy, and volcanology. In this list, the person listed is a geologist unless another specialty is noted. Only geologists with biographical articles in Wikipedia are listed here. == A == Vladimir Abazarov (1930–2003), Soviet geologist, discoverer of Samotlor oil field Aziz Ab'Saber (1924–2012), Brazilian geomorphologist, member Brazilian Academy of Sciences Otto Wilhelm Hermann von Abich (1806–1886), German mineralogist Louis Agassiz (1807–1873), Swiss-American geologist, work on ice ages, glaciers, Lake Agassiz Georgius Agricola (Georg Bauer) (1494–1555), German naturalist and 'Father of Mineralogy', author of De re metallica Ulisse Aldrovandi (1522–1605), Italian, Renaissance naturalist Claude Allègre (1937–2025), French geochemist, member of the French Academy of Sciences Fernando Flávio Marques de Almeida (1916–2013), Brazilian geologist, member Brazilian Academy of Sciences Walter


id: list-of-geologists-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geologists-1.md
category: reference
title: List of geologists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geologists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:09.988703+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-geologists-20260505-0
summary:
Louis J. Cabri (born 1934), Canadian, geologist and mineralogist, Fellow, Royal Society of Canada Stephen E. Calvert (born 1935), Canadian professor, geologist, oceanographer; awarded Logan Medal Colin Campbell (1931–2022), British petroleum geologist and Peak Oil theorist Neil Campbell (1914–1978), Canadian, Northwest Territories mineral exploration; Fellow, Royal Society of Canada Samuel Warren Carey (1911–2002), Australian, continental drift proponent and later developed Expanding Earth hypothesis María Casanova de Chaudet (1899–1947), Italian-born Argentine geologist, director of Argentina's first petrographic laboratory Petr Černý (1934–2018), Czech/Canadian mineralogist, won Logan Medal; Fellow, Royal Society of Canada Alexandre-Emile Béguyer de Chancourtois (1820–1886), French, geologist and mineralogist George V. Chilingar (1929–2023), American, distinguished international petroleum geologist Václav Cílek (born 1955), Czech geologist and science popularizer John J. Clague (born 1946), Canadian, Quaternary and geological hazards expert Thomas H. Clark (1893–1996), Canadian, co-author of The Geological Evolution of North America (1960) William Branwhite Clarke (1798–1878), Australian (born England), discovered gold in New South Wales, 1841 Peter Clift (born 1966), British marine geologist and monsoon researcher, best known for work in Asia Hans Cloos (1885–1951), prominent German structural geologist Lorence G. Collins, (born 1931), American, petrologist, discoveries on metasomatism Simon Conway Morris (born 1951), palaeontologist and writer, best known for


id: list-of-geologists-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geologists-2.md
category: reference
title: List of geologists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geologists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:09.988703+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-geologists-20260505-0
summary:
Julius von Haast (1824–1887), New Zealand (born Germany), founded Canterbury Museum Sir James Hall, 4th Baronet (1761–1832), Scottish geologist, president of the Royal Society of Edinburgh James Hall (1811–1898), American geologist and paleontologist William Hamilton (1731–1803), Scottish, volcanologist, Copley Medal Alfred Harker (1859–1939), English, igneous petrologist and petrographer W. Brian Harland (1917–2003), English, polar geologist Geoffrey Hattersley-Smith (1923–2012), English and Canadian, polar geologist Donald E. Hattin (1928–2016), American geologist and paleontologist Thomas Hawkins (1810–1889), English fossil collector James Edwin Hawley (1897–1965), Canadian, studied mineralogy of ore deposits Erasmus Haworth (1855–1932), founder of the Kansas Geological Survey and the first state geologist of Kansas Frank Hawthorne (born 1946), Canadian mineralogist and crystallographer Richard L. Hay (1929–2006), American geologist Ferdinand Vandeveer Hayden (1829–1887), American, pioneer Western geologist Robert Hazen (born 1948), American, mineralogist and astrobiologist Hollis Dow Hedberg (1903–1988), American geologist Bruce Heezen (1924–1977), American geologist who first mapped the Mid-Atlantic Ridge Sue Hendrickson (born 1949), American paleontologist; discoverer of "Sue", the largest Tyrannosaurus rex ever found Harry Hammond Hess (1906–1969), American geologist and oceanographer Henry Hicks (1837–1899), FRS, President of the Geological Society Pattillo Higgins (1863–1955), American, known as the "Prophet of Spindletop" Wes Hildreth (born 1938), American, volcanologist and petrologist


id: list-of-geologists-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geologists-3.md
category: reference
title: List of geologists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geologists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:09.988703+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-geologists-20260505-0
summary:
William Maclure (1763–1840), published first geological map of United States (1809) J. Ross Mackay (1915–2014), Canadian permafrost geologist Robert Mallet (1810–1881), Irish, "father of seismology" Vera Malycheff (1886–1964), Russian-born French geologist Joseph A. Mandarino (1929–2007), American mineralogist Othniel Charles Marsh (1831–1899), American, pioneer dinosaur paleontologist; Bone Wars competitor Teresa Maryańska (1937–2019), Polish, paleontologist specializing in dinosaurs Kirtley F. Mather (1888–1978), Harvard professor, Scopes Monkey Trial William Williams Mather (1804–1859), professor, de facto state geologist of Ohio Drummond Matthews (1931–1997), British marine geologist, geophysicist, plate tectonics pioneer Sir Douglas Mawson (1882–1958), Australian Antarctic explorer Sir Frederick McCoy (c. 1817–1899), British and Australian palaeontologist and museum director Edith Merritt McKee (1918–2006), American geologist Dan McKenzie (born 1942), British geophysicist, plate tectonics pioneer Digby McLaren (1919–2004), Canadian paleontologist, Fellow of the Royal Society Marcia McNutt (born 1952), American geophysicist and the 22nd president of the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) of the United States, 15th director of the United States Geological Survey (USGS) (and first woman to hold the post) Oscar Edward Meinzer (1876–1948), American hydrologist, "father of groundwater geology" Luiz Alberto Dias Menezes (1950–2014), Brazilian geologist and mineralogist Giuseppe Mercalli (1850–1914), Italian seismologist and volcanologist, developed the Mercalli intensity scale for measuring


id: list-of-geologists-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geologists-4.md
category: reference
title: List of geologists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geologists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:09.988703+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-geologists-20260505-0
summary:
Donald F. Sangster, Canadian, lead-zinc economic geologist Emilia Săulea (1904–1998), Romanian geologist and paleontologist Celâl Şengör (born 1955), Turkish, member of The United States National Academy of Sciences and The Russian Academy of Sciences, Bigsby Medal, Gustav-Steinmann-Medaille and Arthur Holmes Medal winner Harrison Schmitt (born 1935), American, Apollo 17 astronaut, walked on the Moon Kevin M. Scott (born 1935), American, volcanology research in United States and China, Kirk Bryan Award George Julius Poulett Scrope (1797–1876), English, volcanology, Wollaston Medal Adam Sedgwick (1785–1873), English, proposed Devonian and Cambrian periods Karl von Seebach (1839–1880), German volcanologist Adolf Seilacher (1925-2014), German paleontologist, invented the concept and study of ichnofacies, coined the term "Lagerstätten", and championed the photoautotrophic view of the Ediacaran biota. Craaford Prize, Paleontological Society Award, Gustav-Steinmann-Medaille, and Lapworth Award winner, among others. Seikei Sekiya (1855–1896), Japanese seismologist, created the model showing the motion of an earth-particle during an earthquake Nicholas Shackleton (1937–2006), British geologist and climatologist Shen Kuo (1031–1095), Chinese scientist, magnetic compass pioneer, geomorphology theory Richard H. Sibson (born 1945), New Zealand geologist, defined the relationship between seismogenic processes and fault zone rheology. Eugene Merle Shoemaker (1928–1997), American, meteoriticist, co-discovered Comet Shoemaker-Levy Haraldur Sigurdsson, (born 1939), Icelandic, provided proof for


id: list-of-global-boundary-stratotype-sections-and-points-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Global_Boundary_Stratotype_Sections_and_Points-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Global_Boundary_Stratotype_Sections_and_Points
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:11.436803+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-global-boundary-stratotype-sections-and-points-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points. Since 1977, Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (abbreviated GSSPs) are internationally agreed upon reference points on stratigraphic sections of rock which define the lower boundaries of stages on the geologic time scale. They are selected by the International Commission on Stratigraphy based on multiple factors, but their accessibility and the degree to which they are representative of the same boundary on sections worldwide are among the most important. Since GSSPs require well-preserved sections of rock without interruptions in sedimentation, and since most are defined by different stages of animal life, defining them becomes progressively more difficult as one goes farther back in time. == Organization of this list == This list is divided first into the geologic eras of the Phanerozoic (the Cenozoic, the Mesozoic, and the Paleozoic) and then into the geologic periods of each era. Each period is marked below the era bar on top of its subdivided epochs and stages. Each stage is assigned an age in mya, an acronym for million years ago, which is the age at which it began. Most of these ages are derived from astronomical cycles in sediments, magnetic data,


id: list-of-greenstone-belts-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_greenstone_belts-0.md
category: reference
title: List of greenstone belts
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_greenstone_belts
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:12.909282+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-greenstone-belts-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of greenstone belts == Africa == === Burkina Faso === Hounde greenstone belt Boromo greenstone belt === Democratic Republic of the Congo === Kilo-Moto === Angola === Lufico - Cabinda Cassinga === South Africa === Barberton greenstone belt Pietersberg greenstone belt === Tanzania === Kilimafedha greenstone belt Lake Victoria Greenstone Belt Nzega Greenstone Belt === Zimbabwe === Belingwe Greenstone Belt Gweru-Shurugwi Greenstone Belt Harare greenstone belt Bindura-Shamva greenstone belt Wedza Greenstone belt Bulawayo-Bubi Greenstone belt Makaha Greenstone Belt Beatrice Greenstone Belt Dindi Greenstone Belt Mt Darwin Greenstone Belt == Eurasia == === Russia === Kostomuksha greenstone belt === Finland === Central Lapland Greenstone Belt (Lapland) Tipasjärvi-Kuhmo-Suomussalmi greenstone belt === Norway === Mauken greenstone belt == Oceania == Harris greenstone belt (Australia) Jack Hills greenstone belt (Australia) Norseman-Wiluna greenstone belt (Australia) Saddleback greenstone belt (Australia) Southern Cross greenstone belt (Australia) Yandal greenstone belt (Australia) Yalgoo-Singleton greenstone belt (Australia) == North America == === Canada === Abitibi greenstone belt (Quebec/Ontario) Bird River greenstone belt (Manitoba) Ecstall Greenstone Belt (British Columbia) Ennadai greenstone belt (Saskatchewan) Flin Flon greenstone belt (Manitoba/Saskatchewan) Hope Bay greenstone belt (Nunavut) Hunt River greenstone belt (Newfoundland and Labrador) Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt (Quebec) Red Lake greenstone


id: university-of-ibadan-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Ibadan-0.md
category: reference
title: University of Ibadan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Ibadan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:14.194723+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: university-of-ibadan-20260505-0
summary:
The University of Ibadan (UI) is a federal university located in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. Initially founded as the University College Ibadan in 1948, it maintained its affiliation with the University of London. In 1962, it became an independent institution, making it the oldest degree-awarding institution in Nigeria. The University of Ibadan has significantly contributed to Nigeria's political, industrial, economic, and cultural development through its extensive network of graduates. UI enrolls about 33,000 students, is internationally recognized, and has a number of accomplished alumni. == History == The university was established in 1948 as University College Ibadan, a branch of the University of London, which supervised its academic programs and awarded degrees until 1967. The establishment came as a result of a recommendation from the Asquith and the Elliot Commissions on Higher Education in the then-British colonies, that two Universities stemming from the University of London should be set up in Ghana and Nigeria. Before 1948, Yaba College had been founded in 1932 in Yaba, Lagos, as the first tertiary educational institute in Nigeria, focused primarily on providing post-secondary vocational education and teacher training to Africans. However, the limited aims of Yaba College and clamor by Nigerian nationalists for self-improvement


id: university-of-ibadan-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Ibadan-1.md
category: reference
title: University of Ibadan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Ibadan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:14.194723+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: university-of-ibadan-20260505-0
summary:
== Library == Among the notable structures in the university is the central Kenneth Dike Library (popularly called "KDL" by the students), located just beside the Faculty of Arts. The library, which has a large capacity for students, contains books relating to virtually all fields of knowledge both in and outside the university community. The library is named after Professor Kenneth Dike, who was the first indigenous Principal and former Vice-Chancellor of the university. It was established out of the desires of the founding fathers and matriarch of the institution to cut a niche for research and sound teaching. The library contains 700,000 volumes of information and more than 1,250 seats for readers. It is open to all senior staff, students of the institution, senior staff of the University College Hospital, (UCH) Ibadan as well as alumni of the university. == Notable alumni == The university has educated many notable alumni, including a Nobel Laureate in Literature, eminent mathematicians, scientists, politicians, lawyers, business icons, philosophers, writers, monarchs, countless technocrats, recipients of the Nigerian National Order of Merit and fellows of the various learned academies. Abdulganiyu Abdulrasaq, lawyer, former President of the Nigerian Stock Exchange Mufutau Oloyede Abdul-Rahmon, Professor of Arabic


id: list-of-ice-cores-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores-0.md
category: reference
title: List of ice cores
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:15.562026+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ice-cores-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of ice cores drilled for scientific purposes. Note that many of these locations are on moving ice sheets, and the latitude and longitude given is as of the date of drilling. == Africa == == Antarctica == == Asia == === Mainland and arctic islands === === Southeast Asia === == Europe == === Alps === === Iceland === === Scandinavia === === Spitzbergen === == North America == === Canada === === Greenland === === United States === == Oceania == === New Zealand === == South America == === Bolivia === === Peru === == See also == List of Arctic research programs List of research stations in the Arctic Research stations in Antarctica == Notes == == References ==


id: list-of-ice-cores-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores-1.md
category: reference
title: List of ice cores
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:15.562026+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ice-cores-20260505-0
summary:
== Sources == Abram, Nerilie J.; Mulvaney, Robert; Wolff, Eric W.; Mudelsee, Manfred (2007). "Ice core records as sea ice proxies: An evaluation from the Weddell Sea region of Antarctica" (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research. 112 (D15): 1–13. Bibcode:2007JGRD..11215101A. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.473.4635. doi:10.1029/2006JD008139. Alley, R.B.; Koci, B.R. (1988). "Ice-core analysis at Site A, Greenland: preliminary results". Annals of Glaciology. 10: 1–4. Bibcode:1988AnGla..10....1A. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.476.6746. doi:10.1017/S0260305500004067. Aristarain, A.J. (1981). "First glaciological studies on the James Ross Island ice cap, Antarctic peninsula". Journal of Glaciology. 27 (97): 371–379. Bibcode:1981JGlac..27..371A. doi:10.1017/S0022143000011412. Benson, Carl S. (1984). "Ice core drilling on Mt. Wrangell, Alaska 1982". In Holdsworth, G.; et al. (eds.). Ice Drilling Technology. Hanover, New Hampshire: Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory. pp. 61–68. Bentley, Charles R.; Koci, Bruce R. (2007). "Drilling to the beds of the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets: a review". Annals of Glaciology. 47 (1): 1–9. Bibcode:2007AnGla..47....1B. doi:10.3189/172756407786857695. Bird, I.G. (1976). "Thermal ice drilling: Australian developments and experience". In Splettstoesser, John F. (ed.). Ice-Core Drilling. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press. pp. 1–18. ISBN 978-0-8032-5843-3. Bory, A.J.; Biscaye, P.E.; Piotrowski, A.M.; Steffensen, J.P. (2003). "Regional variability of ice core dust composition and provenance in Greenland". Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 4 (12): 1107.


id: list-of-ice-cores-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores-2.md
category: reference
title: List of ice cores
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:15.562026+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ice-cores-20260505-0
summary:
Rapp, Donald (2012). Ice Ages and Interglacials: Measurements, Interpretation, and Models (2nd ed.). Chichester, UK: Springer. ISBN 978-3-642-30028-8. Rasmussen, S.O.; et al. (2013). "A first chronology for the North Greenland Eemian Ice Drilling (NEEM) ice core". Climate of the Past. 9 (6): 2713–2730. Bibcode:2013CliPa...9.2713R. doi:10.5194/cp-9-2713-2013. Thompson, L.G.; et al. (1994). "Climate since AD 1510 on Dyer Plateau, Antarctic Peninsula: evidence for recent climate change" (PDF). Annals of Glaciology. 20: 420–426. Bibcode:1994AnGla..20..420T. doi:10.3189/1994aog20-1-420-426. Thwaites, Richard J.; Wilson, Christopher; McCray, Anthony P. (1984). "Relationship between bore-hole closure and crystal fabrics in Antarctic ice core from Cape Folger" (PDF). Journal of Glaciology. 30 (105): 171–179. Bibcode:1984JGlac..30..171T. doi:10.1017/S0022143000005906. Ueda, Herbert T.; Talalay, Pavel G. (October 2007). "Fifty Years of Soviet and Russian Drilling Activity in Polar and Non-Polar Ice". Erdc/Crrel Tr-07-20. Archived from the original on April 20, 2017. Vasiliev, N.I.; et al. (2007). "Deep drilling at Vostok station, Antarctica: history and recent events". Annals of Glaciology. 47 (1): 10–23. Bibcode:2007AnGla..47...10V. doi:10.3189/172756407786857776. Weidick, Anker (1995). "Satellite Image Atlas of Glaciers of the World: Greenland" (PDF). United States Geological Survey Professional Papers. 1386-C: 1–153. Zagorodnov, V.; et al. (1998). "Antifreeze thermal ice core drilling: an effective approach to the acquisition of ice cores" (PDF). Cold


id: list-of-islands-created-since-the-20th-century-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_islands_created_since_the_20th_century-0.md
category: reference
title: List of islands created since the 20th century
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_islands_created_since_the_20th_century
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:19.232252+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-islands-created-since-the-20th-century-20260505-0
summary:
Below is a list of new islands created since the beginning of the 20th century by volcanism, erosion, glacial retreat, or other mechanisms, excluding artificial islands. One of the most famous new volcanic islands is the small island of Surtsey, located in the Atlantic Ocean south of Iceland. It first emerged from the ocean surface in 1963. Two years later, Surtsey was declared a nature reserve for the study of ecological succession; plants, insects, birds, seals, and other forms of life have since established themselves on the island. Another noted new island is Anak Krakatau (lit. 'child of Krakatoa'), which formed in the flooded caldera of the Krakatoa volcano in Indonesia), which emerged only in 1930. Ample rainforests have grown there, although they are often destroyed by frequent eruptions. A population of many wild animals, including insects, birds, humanborne rats, and even monitor lizards, have also settled there. Didicas Volcano off the northern coast of Luzon Island in the Philippines, was first created during a four-year eruption from 1856 to 1860 but eventually got washed away. In 1900, three tall rock masses were left by another eruption. During the 1952 eruption, the island finally became permanent which was further bolstered


id: list-of-karst-areas-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_karst_areas-0.md
category: reference
title: List of karst areas
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_karst_areas
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:20.547507+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-karst-areas-20260505-0
summary:
Karst topography is a geological formation shaped by the dissolution of a layer or layers of soluble bedrock, usually carbonate rock such as limestone or dolomite, but also in gypsum. It has also been documented for weathering-resistant rocks, such as quartzite, given the right conditions. This is an incomplete list of the major karst landscape areas of the world. == Africa == === Madagascar === Anjajavy Forest, western Madagascar Ankarana Reserve, Madagascar Madagascar dry deciduous forests, western Madagascar Tsingy de Bemaraha Strict Nature Reserve, Madagascar === South Africa === Oudtshoorn, Western Cape Province, KwaZulu Natal. West Rand, Gauteng and North West Province, KwaZulu Natal. == Asia == === China === Area around Guilin and Yangshuo Zhijin Cave, Guizhou (UNESCO World Heritage Site) Jiuzhaigou Valley and Huanglong Scenic and Historic Interest Area, (UNESCO World Heritage Site) Shaanxi tiankeng cluster, discovered in 2016, it is one of the largest in the world comprising forty-nine sinkholes and more than fifty funnels ranging from 50 to 100 metres in diameter. South China Karst, World Heritage Site Stone Forest Xiaozhai Tiankeng, also known as the Heavenly Pit, is the world's largest sinkhole. Zhangjiajie National Forest park, forming part of the Wulingyuan scenic area, World Heritage


id: list-of-karst-areas-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_karst_areas-1.md
category: reference
title: List of karst areas
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_karst_areas
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:20.547507+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-karst-areas-20260505-0
summary:
=== Poland === Kraków-Częstochowa Upland (Jura Krakowsko-Częstochowska) Holy Cross Mountains (Góry Świętokrzyskie) with the Jaskinia Raj (Raj Cave) Tatra Mountains including the Jaskinia Wielka Śnieżna (Great Snowy Cave) – the longest and the deepest cave in Poland Králický Sněžník Mountains with the largest cave outside Tatra Mountains, Jaskinia Niedźwiedzia Kaczawskie Mountains small region near the town Wojcieszów === Portugal === Natural Park Serras d'Aire and Candeeiros === Romania === Apuseni Mountains, Romania Bucegi Mountains, Romania === Serbia === Dinaric Alps region merokarst of eastern Serbia === Slovakia === Slovak Paradise, Slovakia Slovak Karst, Slovakia Tatry, Slovakia Nízke Tatry, Slovakia Muránska planina, Slovakia === Slovenia === Region of Inner Carniola, Goriška, Upper Carniola and Lower Carniola Karst Plateau (Slovene: Kras)(German: Karst), a plateau in southwestern Slovenia and northeastern Italy, which gave the name to karst topography. === Spain === Picos de Europa and Basque Mountains, northern Spain Larra-Belagua, Navarre, northern Spain Serra del Cadí mountain range, Spain Garraf Massif Natural Park area, Spain Ciudad Encantada in the province of Cuenca, Castilla-La Mancha, Spain El Torcal de Antequera nature preserve, southern Spain El Cerro del Hierro, in Sevilla, southern Spain === Sweden === Various places in the limestone and marl island of


id: glossary-of-landforms-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_landforms-0.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of landforms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_landforms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:22.021010+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-landforms-20260505-0
summary:
Landforms are categorized by characteristic physical attributes such as their creating process, shape, elevation, slope, orientation, rock exposure, and soil type. == Landforms by process == Landforms organized by the processes that create them. === Aeolian landforms === Aeolian landform – Landforms produced by action of the winds include: === Coastal and oceanic landforms === Coastal and oceanic landforms include: === Cryogenic landforms === Landforms produced by or in low-temperatures include: === Erosion landforms === Landforms produced by erosion and weathering usually occur in rocky or fluvial environments, and many also appear under those headings. === Fluvial landforms === Fluvial – Natural flowing freshwater streamPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets landforms include: === Impact landforms === Landforms created by extraterrestrial impacts – Collision of two astronomical objects – include: === Lacustrine landforms === Lacustrine – associated with lakes – landforms include: === Mountain and glacial landforms === Mountain and glacial landform – Landform created by the action of glaciers – include: === Slope landforms === Slope landforms include: === Tectonic landforms === Landforms created by tectonic activity include: === Volcanic landforms === Volcanic landforms include: === Weathering landforms === Weathering landforms include: == Landforms by shape == === Positive


id: list-of-landslides-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_landslides-0.md
category: reference
title: List of landslides
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_landslides
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:23.570314+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-landslides-20260505-0
summary:
This list of landslides is a list of notable landslides and mudflows divided into sections by date and type. This list may be incomplete as there is no central catalogue for landslides, although it does exist for some for individual countries or areas. Volumes of landslides are recorded in the scientific literature using cubic kilometres (km3) for the largest and millions of cubic metres (MCM) for most events. == Prehistoric landslides == Note: km3 = cubic kilometre(s) == Submarine landslides == Note: MCM = million cubic metres; km3 = cubic kilometre(s) == Pre-20th-century historic landslides == Note: km3 = cubic kilometre(s); MCM = million cubic metres == 20th-century landslides == === 1901–1950 === Note: km3 = cubic kilometre(s); MCM = million cubic metres === 1951–1975 === Note: km3 = cubic kilometre(s); MCM = million cubic metres === 1976–2000 === Note: MCM = million cubic metres == 21st-century landslides == === 2001–2010 === Note: m3 = cubic metre(s); MCM = million cubic metres === 2011–2020 === Note: MCM = million cubic metres === 2021–present === Note: MCM = million cubic metres == Ongoing landslides == Note: MCM = million cubic metres == See also == List of avalanches by death toll


id: list-of-types-of-limestone-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_limestone-0.md
category: reference
title: List of types of limestone
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_limestone
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:24.935628+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-types-of-limestone-20260505-0
summary:
This article lists types of limestone arranged according to generic type and location. == Generic limestone categories == This section is a list of generic types of limestone. Bituminous limestone Carboniferous Limestone – Limestone deposited during the Dinantian Epoch of the Carboniferous Period Coquina – Sedimentary rock that is composed mostly of fragments of shells Coral rag – Limestone composed of ancient coral reef material Chalk – Soft carbonate rock Fossiliferous limestone – Limestone containing fossils Lithographic limestone – Type of limestone with hard fine grain Marble – Metamorphic limestone Oolite – Sedimentary rock formed from ooids Rag-stone – Work done with stones that are quarried in thin pieces Shelly limestone – Limestone containing many fossils Travertine – Form of limestone deposited by mineral springs Tufa – Porous variety of limestone rock The following sections include both formal stratigraphic unit names and less formal designations, although are these are not differentiated. == Africa == === Egypt === Tura limestone, used for the Great Pyramid casing stones Mokattam limestone; Great Pyramid core stones and head of the Great Sphinx are of the "Member III" stratum Galala marble (a type of limestone, not a true marble) == Asia == === India ===


id: list-of-types-of-marble-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_marble-0.md
category: reference
title: List of types of marble
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_marble
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:26.239823+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-types-of-marble-20260505-0
summary:
Here is a list of various types of marble according to location. (NB: Marble-like stone which is not true marble according to geologists is included and indicated by italics with geologic classification given as a footnote. == Africa == === Algeria === Greco Scritto === Egypt === Galala Marble Sinai Pearl Marble Milly Grey Marble Sunny Marble Alabaster Marble Shanghi Marble Eleuigion Marble Lepuretya Marble === Ethiopia === Daleti marble, Western Welega: white, white with grey veins and other colours Enda Tikurir marble, Western Tigray Newi marble, Central Tigray Akmara marble, Central Tigray Dichinamo marble, Western Tigray === Tunisia === Giallo antico, also known as Numidian marble (marmor numidicum in Latin), was a yellow marble quarried in Roman times from the area of Chemtou, ancient Simmithu == Asia == === China === Hàn Bái Yǜ Marble (Chinese: 汉白玉) A type of white marble used in China for building and sculpting. === India === Indian Onyx Marble Jaisalmer Yellow Marble Jhiri Marble (white) Katni Marble Makrana Marble Morwad White Marble Udaipur Green Marble == Europe == === Belgium === Griotte Rouge de Rance Noir Belge Noir de Golzinne === Czech Republic === Český Šternberk marble (šternberský mramor) from Český Šternberk, Benešov


id: list-of-meteorite-minerals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_meteorite_minerals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of meteorite minerals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_meteorite_minerals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:27.603210+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-meteorite-minerals-20260505-0
summary:
A meteorite mineral is a mineral found chiefly or exclusively within meteorites or meteorite-derived material. This is a list of those minerals, excluding minerals also commonly found in terrestrial rocks. As of 1997 there were approximately 295 mineral species which have been identified in meteorites. == List of meteorite minerals == [] indicates repeating units == See also == Glossary of meteoritics List of minerals == References ==


id: list-of-mineral-symbols-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mineral_symbols-0.md
category: reference
title: List of mineral symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mineral_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:29.367861+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mineral-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
Mineral symbols (text abbreviations) are used to abbreviate mineral groups, subgroups, and species, just as lettered symbols are used for the chemical elements. The first set of commonly used mineral symbols was published in 1983 and covered the common rock-forming minerals using 192 two- or three-lettered symbols. These types of symbols are referred to as Kretz symbols. More extensive lists were subsequently made available in the form of publications or posted on journal webpages. A comprehensive list of more than 5,700 IMA-CNMNC approved symbols (referred to as IMA symbols) compiled by L.N. Warr was published in volume 85 (issue 3) of the Mineralogical Magazine (2021). These symbols are listed alphabetically in the tables below. The approved listings are compatible with the system used to symbolize the elements, 30 of which occur as minerals. Mineral symbols are most commonly represented by three-lettered text symbols, although one-, two- and four-lettered symbols also exist. Four methods of nomenclature are used: The initial letters of a name, for example: cyanotrichite: Cya and mitscherlichite: Mits. A combination considered characteristic of the mineral name, for example: ewingite: Ewg and neighborite: Nbo. A selection of letters expressing components of the name, for example: adranosite = Arn and


id: list-of-mineralogists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mineralogists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of mineralogists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mineralogists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:30.651601+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mineralogists-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of notable mineralogists and other people who made notable contributions to mineralogy. Included are winners of major mineralogy awards such as the Dana Medal and the Roebling Medal. Mineralogy is a subject of geology specializing in the scientific study of chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of minerals and mineralized artifacts. == A == Joan Abella (born 1968) Otto Wilhelm Hermann von Abich (1806–1886) Johan Afzelius (1753–1837) Stuart Olof Agrell (1913–1996) Georgius Agricola (1494–1555) – author of De re metallica Arthur Aikin (1773–1854) Thomas Allan (1777–1833) François Alluaud (1778–1866) Gregori Aminoff (1883–1947) Charles Anderson (1876–1944) José Bonifácio de Andrade e Silva (1763–1838) Matthias Joseph Anker (1771–1843) == B == William Babington (1756–1833) Giuseppe Gabriel Balsamo-Crivelli (1800–1874) Andrew Ketcham Barnett (1852–1914) Hilary Bauerman (1835–1909) Lewis Caleb Beck (1798–1853) Friedrich Johann Karl Becke (1855–1931) Nikolay Belov (1891–1982) Torbern Bergman (1735–1784) – Related forms of calcite to cleavage Martine Bertereau (1600–1642) Émile Bertrand (1844–1909) Marcel Alexandre Bertrand (1847–1907) Friedrich Martin Berwerth (1850–1918) Jöns Jacob Berzelius (1779–1848) François Sulpice Beudant (1787–1850) Johannes Martin Bijvoet (1892–1980) Luca Bindi (born 1971) Maynard Bixby (1853–1935) Harald Bjørlykke (1901–1968) William Phipps Blake (1826–1910) Johann Reinhard Blum (1802–1883) Hendrik Enno Boeke (1881–1918)


id: list-of-mineralogists-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mineralogists-1.md
category: reference
title: List of mineralogists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mineralogists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:30.651601+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mineralogists-20260505-0
summary:
Felix Karl Ludwig Machatschki (1895–1970) George Mackenzie (1780–1848) Ernest-François Mallard (1833–1894) Joseph A. Mandarino (1929–2007) Ho-Kwang Mao (born 1941) Brian Harold Mason (1917–2009) Johannes Mathesius (1504–1565) Charles-Victor Mauguin (1878–1958) John Mawe (1764–1829) Sarah Mawe (1767–1846) Marshall McDonald (1835–1895) Helen Megaw (1907–2002) – first woman to receive the Roebling Medal of the Mineralogical Society of America Giuseppe Giovanni Antonio Meneghini (1811–1889) Luiz Alberto Dias Menezes (1950–2014) Ludwig Meyn (1820–1878) Auguste Michel-Lévy (1844–1911) Henry Alexander Miers (1858–1942) William Hallowes Miller (1801–1880) Stanley Robert Mitchell (1881–1963) Eilhard Mitscherlich (1794–1863) Friedrich Mohs (1773–1839) Jean-André Mongez (1750–1788) Otto Mügge (1858–1932) == N == Alexandra Navrotsky (born 1943) Franz Ernst Neumann (1798–1895) Ernest Henry Nickel (1925–2009) James Nicol (1810–1879) Paul Niggli (1888–1953) William Niven (1850–1937) Johann Jakob Nöggerath (1788–1877) Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld (1832–1901) Nils Gustaf Nordenskiöld (1792–1866) George Lorenzo Noyes (1863–1945) == O == Konrad Oebbeke (1853–1932) == P == Adolf Pabst (1899–1990) Charles Palache (1869–1954) Pierre Bernard Palassou (1745–1830) Eugène Louis Melchior Patrin (1742–1815) Linus Carl Pauling (1901–1994) Lev Perovski (1792–1856) Carlo Perrier (1886–1948) Ours-Pierre-Armand Petit-Dufrénoy (1792–1857) William Phillips (1775–1829) William Pinch (1940–2017) Félix Pisani (1831–1920) Pliny (23–79) Erika Pohl-Ströher (1919–2016) Petru Poni (1841–1925) Alexander Postels (1801–1871) Charles T. Prewitt (1933–2022) George Thurland Prior (1862–1936)


id: classification-of-non-silicate-minerals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_non-silicate_minerals-0.md
category: reference
title: Classification of non-silicate minerals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_non-silicate_minerals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:31.933550+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-non-silicate-minerals-20260505-0
summary:
This list gives an overview of the classification of non-silicate minerals and includes mostly International Mineralogical Association (IMA) recognized minerals and its groupings. This list complements the List of minerals recognized by the International Mineralogical Association series of articles and List of minerals. Rocks, ores, mineral mixtures, not IMA approved minerals, not named minerals are mostly excluded. Mostly major groups only, or groupings used by New Dana Classification and Mindat. == Classification of minerals == === Introduction === The grouping of the New Dana Classification and of the mindat.org is similar only, and so this classification is an overview only. Consistency is missing too on the group name endings (group, subgroup, series) between New Dana Classification and mindat.org. Category, class and supergroup name endings are used as layout tools in the list as well. Abbreviations "*" – Mineral not IMA-approved. "?" – IMA discredited mineral name. "REE" – Rare-earth element (Sc, Y, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu) "PGE" – Platinum-group element (Ru, Rh, Pd, Os, Ir, Pt) === Category 01 === Elements: Metals and Alloys, Carbides, Silicides, Nitrides, Phosphides Category:Diamond Category:Gold ==== Class: Native elements ==== Category:Carbide minerals Osbornite group


id: classification-of-non-silicate-minerals-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_non-silicate_minerals-1.md
category: reference
title: Classification of non-silicate minerals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_non-silicate_minerals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:31.933550+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-non-silicate-minerals-20260505-0
summary:
=== Category 03 === Halogenides, Oxyhalides, Hydroxyhalides Atacamite group Polymorths of Cu2[(OH)3|Cl]: Atacamite, Botallackite, Clinoatacamite, Paratacamite Gillardite Cu3Ni(OH)6Cl2, Haydeeite Cu3Mg(OH)6Cl2, Herbertsmithite Cu3Zn[(OH)3|Cl]2, Kapellasite Cu3Zn[(OH)3|Cl]2 Fluorite group Fluorite CaF2, Fluorocronite PbF2, Frankdicksonite BaF2, Tveitite-(Y) Ca1−xYxF2+x (x~0.3), IMA2009-014 SrF2 Halite group (IMA-CNMNC discourages the use of this grouping, Mills et al. (2009)) Halite NaCl, Sylvite KCl, Villiaumite NaF, Carobbiite KF, Griceite LiF Chlorargyrite group Bromargyrite AgBr, Chlorargyrite AgCl, Marshite CuI, Miersite (Ag,Cu)I, Nantokite CuCl Lawrencite group Chloromagnesite MgCl2, Lawrencite (Fe2+,Ni)Cl2, Scacchite MnCl2, Tolbachite CuCl2 Matlockite group Bismoclite (BiO)Cl, Daubréeite (BiO)(OH,Cl), Laurionite PbCl(OH), Paralaurionite PbCl(OH), Rorisite CaFCl, Zavaritskite (BiO)F, Matlockite PbFCl Challacolloite group Challacolloite KPb2Cl5, Hephaistosite TlPb2Cl5, Steropesite Tl3BiCl6, Panichiite (NH4)2SnCl6 Chukhrovite group Chukhrovite-(Y) Ca3(Y,Ce)Al2(SO4)F13•10H2O, Chukhrovite-(Ce) Ca3(Ce,Y)Al2(SO4)F13•10H2O, Meniaylovite Ca4AlSi(SO4)F13•12H2O, Chukhrovite-(Nd) Ca3(Nd,Y)Al2(SO4)F13•12H2O === Category 04 === Oxides and Hydroxides, Vanadates, Arsenites, Antimonites, Bismuthites, Sulfites, Iodates Category:Vanadate minerals Periclase group (Isometric: Fm3m, IMA-CNMNC discourages the use of this grouping, Mills et al. (2009)) Periclase MgO, Bunsenite NiO, Manganosite MnO, Monteponite CdO, Lime CaO, Wustite FeO, Hongquiite* TiO Hematite group/ Corundum group (Rhombohedral: R-3c) Corundum Al2O3 (Sapphire, Ruby), Eskolaite Cr2O3, Hematite Fe2O3, Karelianite V2O3, Tistarite Ti2O3 Perovskite group Perovskite CaTiO3, Latrappite (Ca,Na)(Nb,Ti,Fe)O3, Loparite-(Ce) (Ce,Na,Ca)2(Ti,Nb)2O6, Lueshite NaNbO3, Tausonite SrTiO3, Isolueshite (Na,La,Ca)(Nb,Ti)O3, Barioperovskite BaTiO3, Lakargiite CaZrO3 Ilmenite group


id: classification-of-non-silicate-minerals-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_non-silicate_minerals-2.md
category: reference
title: Classification of non-silicate minerals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_non-silicate_minerals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:31.933550+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-non-silicate-minerals-20260505-0
summary:
=== Category 07 === Sulfates, Selenates, Chromates, Molybdates, Wolframates, Niobates Barite group Barite BaSO4, Celestine SrSO4, Anglesite PbSO4 Blodite group Blodite Na2Mg(SO4)2•4H2O, Nickelblodite Na2(Ni,Mg)(SO4)2•4H2O, Leonite K2Mg(SO4)2•4H2O, Mereiterite K2Fe2+(SO4)2•4H2O, Changoite Na2Zn(SO4)2•4H2O Alum group, XAl(SO4)2·12H2O Alum-(K) KAl[SO4]2·12H2O, Alum-(Na) NaAl[SO4]2·12H2O, Tschermigite (NH4)Al(SO4)2•12H2O, Lonecreekite (NH4)(Fe3+,Al)(SO4)2•12H2O, Lanmuchangite TlAl(SO4)2•12H2O Voltaite group Voltaite K2(Fe2+)5(Fe3+)3Al(SO4)12•18H2O, Zincovoltaite K2Zn5(Fe3+)3Al(SO4)12•18H2O, Pertlikite K2(Fe2+,Mg)2(Mg,Fe3+)4(Fe3+)2Al(SO4)12•18H2O Aluminite group Aluminite Al2(SO4)(OH)4•7(H2O), Mangazeite Al2(SO4)(OH)4•3H2O Zippeite group Zippeite K4(UO2)6(SO4)3(OH)10•4H2O, Natrozippeite Na4(UO2)6(SO4)3(OH)10•4H2O, Magnesiozippeite Mg(H2O)3.5(UO2)2(SO4)O2, Nickelzippeite (Ni2+)2(UO2)6(SO4)3(OH)10•16H2O, Zinc-zippeite (Zn2+)2(UO2)6(SO4)3(OH)10•16H2O, Cobaltzippeite (Co2+)2(UO2)6(SO4)3(OH)10•16H2O, Marecottite Mg3(H2O)18[(UO2)4O3(SO4)2]2•10H2O, Pseudojohannite Cu6.5[(UO2)4O4(SO4)2]2(OH)5•25H2O, IMA2009-008 Y2[(UO2)8O6(SO4)4(OH)2]•26H2O Copiapite group Copiapite Fe2+(Fe3+)4(SO4)6(OH)2•20H2O, Magnesiocopiapite Mg(Fe3+)4(SO4)6(OH)2•20H2O, Cuprocopiapite Cu(Fe3+)4(SO4)6(OH)2•20H2O, Ferricopiapite (Fe3+)2/3(Fe3+)4(SO4)6(OH)2•20H2O, Calciocopiapite Ca(Fe3+)4(SO4)6(OH)2•19H2O, Zincocopiapite Zn(Fe3+)4(SO4)6(OH)2•18H2O, Aluminocopiapite Al2/3(Fe3+)4(SO4)6O(OH)2•20H2O Pb, Zn tellurates Cheremnykhite Zn3Pb3Te4+O6(VO4)2, Kuksite Pb3Zn3Te6+O6(PO4)2, Dugganite Pb3Zn3Te(As,V,Si)2(O,OH)14, Joelbruggerite Pb3Zn3Sb5+As2O13(OH) "Halotrichite" supergroup Hydrated acid and sulfates where A(B)2(XO4)4·xH2O Halotrichite group Pickeringite MgAl2(SO4)4•22H2O, Halotrichite Fe2+Al2(SO4)4•22H2O, Apjohnite MnAl2(SO4)4•22H2O, Dietrichite (Zn,Fe2+,Mn)Al2(SO4)4•22H2O, Bilinite Fe2+(Fe3+)2(SO4)4•22H2O, Redingtonite (Fe2+,Mg,Ni)(Cr,Al)2(SO4)4•22H2O, Wupatkiite (Co,Mg,Ni)Al2(SO4)4•22H2O Ransomite Cu(Fe3+)2(SO4)4•6H2O, Romerite Fe2+(Fe3+)2(SO4)4•14H2O, Lishizhenite Zn(Fe3+)2(SO4)4•14H2O ==== "Kieserite" supergroup ==== Hydrated acid and sulfates where AXO4·xH2O Kieserite group Kieserite MgSO4•H2O, Szomolnokite Fe2+SO4•H2O, Szmikite MnSO4•H2O, Poitevinite (Cu,Fe2+,Zn)SO4•H2O, Gunningite (Zn,Mn)SO4•H2O, Dwornikite (Ni,Fe2+)SO4•H2O, Cobaltkieserite CoSO4•H2O Rozenite group (Monoclinic) Rozenite Fe2+SO4•4H2O, Starkeyite MgSO4•4H2O, Ilesite (Mn,Zn,Fe2+)SO4•4H2O, Aplowite (Co,Mn,Ni)SO4•4H2O, Boyleite (Zn,Mg)SO4•4H2O, IMA2002-034 CdSO4•4H2O Chalchanthite group (Triclinic: P-1) Chalcanthite CuSO4•5H2O, Siderotil Fe2+SO4•5H2O, Pentahydrite MgSO4•5H2O, Jokokuite MnSO4•5H2O Hexahydrite group (Space group: C2/c) Hexahydrite MgSO4•6H2O, Bianchite (Zn,Fe2+)(SO4)•6H2O, Ferrohexahydrite Fe2+SO4•6H2O, Nickelhexahydrite (Ni,Mg,Fe2+)(SO4)•6H2O,


id: classification-of-non-silicate-minerals-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_non-silicate_minerals-3.md
category: reference
title: Classification of non-silicate minerals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_non-silicate_minerals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:31.933550+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-non-silicate-minerals-20260505-0
summary:
===== "Rockbridgeite" supergroup ===== Anhydrous phosphates, etc. containing hydroxyl or halogen where (A B)5 (XO4)3 Zq Kulanite group Kulanite Ba(Fe2+,Mn,Mg)2Al2(PO4)3(OH)3, Penikisite BaMg2Al2(PO4)3(OH)3, Bjarebyite (Ba,Sr)(Mn2+,Fe2+,Mg)2Al2(PO4)3(OH)3, Perloffite Ba(Mn,Fe2+)2(Fe3+)2(PO4)3(OH)3, Johntomaite Ba(Fe2+,Ca,Mn2+)2(Fe3+)2(PO4)3(OH)3 Rockbridgeite group Rockbridgeite (Fe2+,Mn)(Fe3+)4(PO4)3(OH)5, Frondelite Mn2+(Fe3+)4(PO4)3(OH)5, Plimerite Zn(Fe3+)4(PO4)3(OH)5 Griphite Ca(Mn,Na,Li)6Fe2+Al2(PO4)6(F,OH)2 ===== "Lazulite" supergroup ===== Anhydrous phosphates, etc. containing hydroxyl or halogen where (A2+ B2+)3 (XO4)2 Zq Lazulite group Lazulite MgAl2(PO4)2(OH)2, Scorzalite (Fe2+,Mg)Al2(PO4)2(OH)2, Hentschelite Cu2+(Fe3+)2(PO4)2(OH)2, Barbosalite Fe2+(Fe3+)2(PO4)2(OH)2 Lipscombite group Lipscombite (Fe2+,Mn2+)(Fe3+)2(PO4)2(OH)2, Zinclipscombite Zn(Fe3+)2(PO4)2(OH)2 Goedkenite group Goedkenite (Sr,Ca)2Al(PO4)2(OH), Bearthite Ca2Al(PO4)2(OH), Gamagarite Ba2(Fe3+,Mn3+)(VO4)2(OH), Tokyoite Ba2Mn(VO4)2(OH) Carminite group Carminite Pb(Fe3+)2(AsO4)2(OH)2, Sewardite Ca(Fe3+)2(AsO4)2(OH)2 Mounanaite group Mounanaite Pb(Fe3+)2(VO4)2(OH)2, Krettnichite Pb(Mn3+)2(VO4)2(OH)2 Preisingerite group Preisingerite Bi3(AsO4)2O(OH), Schumacherite Bi3[(V,As,P)O4]2O(OH) Jagowerite BaAl2(PO4)2(OH)2, Melonjosephite CaFe2+Fe3+(PO4)2(OH), Samuelsonite (Ca,Ba)Ca8(Fe2+,Mn)4Al2(PO4)10(OH)2, Petitjeanite (Bi3+)3(PO4)2O(OH), Drugmanite Pb2(Fe3+,Al)H(PO4)2(OH)2 ==== Class: Hydrated phosphates ==== Hureaulite group Hureaulite Mn5(PO3OH)2(PO4)2•4H2O, Sainfeldite Ca5(AsO3OH)2(AsO4)2•4H2O, Villyaellenite (Mn2+)5(AsO3OH)2(AsO4)2•4H2O, IMA2008-047 Cd3Zn2(AsO3OH)2(AsO4)2•4H2O, IMA2008-066 Mn5(H2O)4(AsO3OH)2(AsO4)2 Lindackerite group Lindackerite CuCu4(AsO4)2(AsO3OH)2•~9H2O, Braithwaiteite NaCu5(Ti,Sb)2O2(AsO4)4[AsO3(OH)]2•8H2O, Veselovskyite (Zn,Cu,Co)Cu4(AsO4)2(AsO3OH)2•9H2O, IMA2008-010 CaCu4(AsO4)2(AsO3OH)2•10H2O Struvite group Struvite (NH4)MgPO4•6H2O, Struvite-(K) KMg(PO4)•6H2O, Hazenite KNaMg2(PO4)2•14H2O Autunite group Formula: A(UO2)2(XO4)2·(10-12)H2O A = Cu, Ca, Ba, or Mg; X = P or As. Autunite Ca(UO2)2(PO4)2•(10-12)H2O, Heinrichite Ba(UO2)2(AsO4)2•(10-12)H2O, Kahlerite Fe2+(UO2)2(AsO4)2•(10-12)H2O, Novacekite-I Mg(UO2)2(AsO4)2•12H2O, Sabugalite HAl(UO2)4(PO4)4•16H2O, Saleeite Mg(UO2)2(PO4)2•10H2O, Torbernite Cu(UO2)2(PO4)2•(8-12)H2O, Uranocircite Ba(UO2)2(PO4)2•12H2O, Uranospinite Ca(UO2)2(AsO4)2•10H2O, Zeunerite Cu(UO2)2(AsO4)2•(10-16)H2O Meta-autunite group Formula: A(UO2)2(XO4)2·nH2O (n = 6, 7 or 8) A = Cu, Ca, Ba, or Mg and X = P


id: classification-of-silicate-minerals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_silicate_minerals-0.md
category: reference
title: Classification of silicate minerals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_silicate_minerals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:33.280850+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-silicate-minerals-20260505-0
summary:
This list gives an overview of the classification of minerals (silicates) and includes mostly International Mineralogical Association (IMA) recognized minerals and its groupings. This list complements the List of minerals recognized by the International Mineralogical Association series of articles and List of minerals. Rocks, ores, mineral mixtures, non-IMA approved minerals and non-named minerals are mostly excluded. == Classification of minerals == === Introduction === The grouping of the New Dana Classification and of the mindat.org is similar only, and so this classification is an overview only. Consistency is missing too on the group name endings (group, subgroup, series) between New Dana Classification and mindat.org. Category, class and supergroup name endings are used as layout tools in the list as well. ==== Abbreviations ==== "*" – mineral not IMA-approved. "Q" – doubtful/questionable. Rn – renaming. Rd – redefinition. "REE" – rare-earth element (Sc, Y, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu). "PGE" – platinum-group element (Ru, Rh, Pd, Os, Ir, Pt). "s.p." – special procedure. === Category '9': silicate minerals === Unclassified silicates ==== Subclass '9.A': nesosilicates ==== Zircon group: MSiO4 (a group of simple tetragonal silicates where M = tetravalent Zr, Th,


id: classification-of-silicate-minerals-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_silicate_minerals-1.md
category: reference
title: Classification of silicate minerals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_silicate_minerals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:33.280850+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-silicate-minerals-20260505-0
summary:
====== Amphibole supergroup ====== w(OH, F, Cl)-dominant amphibole: calcic subgroup Cannilloite root name: fluoro-cannilloite CaCa2Mg4Al(Si5Al3)O22(OH)2 (1993-033, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from cannilloite) Edenite root name: edenite Na[Ca2][Mg5][(OH)2|AlSi7O22] (1839, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), ferro-edenite [Na][Ca2][(Fe2+)5][(OH)2|AlSi7O22] (1946, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), fluoro-edenite Na[Ca2][Mg5][(F,OH)2|AlSi7O22] (IMA 1994-059, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd) Hastingsite root name: hastingsite [Na][Ca2][(Fe2+)4Fe3+][(OH)2|Al2Si6O22] (1896, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), magnesio-fluoro-hastingsite (Na,K)Ca2(Mg,Fe3+,Ti)5(Si,Al)8O22F2 (IMA 2005-002, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from fluoro-magnesiohastingsite), magnesio-hastingsite Na[Ca2][Mg4Fe3+][(OH)2|Al2Si6O22] (1928, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from magnesiohastingsite), potassic-fluoro-hastingsite KCa2((Fe2+)2,Mg2,Fe3+)S5(Si6Al2)8O22F2 (IMA 2005-006, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from fluoro-potassichastingsite), potassic-chloro-hastingsite KCa2(Mg4Al)(Si6Al2)O22Cl2 (IMA 2005-007, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from chloro-potassicpargasite, syn. dashkesanite), potassic-magnesio-hastingsite (K,Na)Ca2(Mg,Fe2+,Fe3+,Al)5(Si,Al)8O22(OH,Cl)2 (IMA 2004-027b, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from potassic-magnesiohastingsite) Joesmithite PbCa2(Mg,Fe2+,Fe3+)5Si6Be2O22(OH)2 (1968, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd) Magnesio-hornblende root name: ferro-hornblende [Ca2][(Fe2+)4Al][(OH)2|AlSi7O22] (1930, IMA 1978 s.p., IMA 1997 s.p. Rn from ferro-hornblende, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from ferrohornblende), magnesio-hornblende [Ca2][Mg4Al][(OH)2|AlSi7O22] (1965, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from magnesiohornblende) Pargasite root name: chromio-pargasite (IMA 2011-023, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from ehimeite), ferro-pargasite [Na][Ca2][(Fe2+)4Al][(OH)2|Al2Si6O22] (1961, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from ferropargasite), fluoro-pargasite NaCa2(Mg3Fe2+Al)5(Si6Al2O22)F2 (IMA 2003-050,


id: classification-of-silicate-minerals-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_silicate_minerals-2.md
category: reference
title: Classification of silicate minerals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_silicate_minerals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:33.280850+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-silicate-minerals-20260505-0
summary:
==== Subclass '9.E': phyllosilicates ==== Category:Clay minerals group Category:Medicinal clay Category:Mica group Category:Serpentine group/ Kaolinite-Serpentine group Category:Smectite group/ Montmorillonite group Pyrophyllite-Talc group Chlorite group: Clinochlore, Nimite, Pennantite, Baileychlore, Cookeite, Donbassite, Gonyerite, Odinite, Sudoite, Orthochamosite ==== Subclass '9.F': tectosilicates ==== ===== Tectosilicates without zeolitic H2O ===== Category:Quartz varieties Feldspar family Feldspathoid family Sodalite group Helvine group Category:Cancrinite group ===== Tectosilicates with zeolitic H2O ===== Category:Zeolite group Alflarsenite NaCa2Be3Si4O13(OH)•2H2O Zeolites with T5O10 Units – fibrous zeolites Natrolite subgroup Gonnardite (Na,Ca)2(Si,Al)5O10·3H2O, Mesolite Na2Ca2Si9Al6O30·8H2O, Natrolite Na2Al2Si3O10·2H2O, Paranatrolite Na2Al2Si3O10·3H2O, Scolecite CaAl2Si3O10·3H2O Tetranatrolite? Na2[Al2Si3O10]•2H2O, Thomsonite-Sr (Sr,Ca)2Na[Al5Si5O20]•7H2O, Thomsonite-Ca NaCa2Al5Si5O20•6H2O, Kalborsite K6Al4Si6BO20(OH)4Cl, Edingtonite BaAl2Si3O10•4H2O Chains of single connected 4-membered rings Ammonioleucite (NH4,K)AlSi2O6, Leucite KAlSi2O6, Analcime NaAlSi2O6•H2O, Hsianghualite Ca3Li2Be3(SiO4)3F2, Lithosite K6Al4Si8O25•H2O, Pollucite (Cs,Na)2Al2Si4O12•H2O, Wairakite CaAl2Si4O12•2H2O, Laumontite CaAl2Si4O12•4H2O, Yugawaralite CaAl2Si6O16•4H2O, Roggianite Ca2[Be(OH)2Al2Si4O13]•2.5H2O, Goosecreekite CaAl2Si6O16•5H2O, Montesommaite (K,Na)9Al9Si23O64•10H2O, Partheite Ca2Al4Si4O15(OH)2•4H2O Chains of doubly connected 4-membered rings Amicite K2Na2Al4Si4O16•5H2O, Garronite Na2Ca5Al12Si20O64•27H2O, Gobbinsite (Na2,Ca)2K2Al6Si10O32•12H2O, Gismondine Ca2Al4Si4O16•9H2O, Harmotome (Ba,Na,K)(1-2)(Si,Al)8O16•6H2O, Phillipsite-Na (Na,K,Ca)(1-2)(Si,Al)8O16•6H2O, Phillipsite-Ca (Ca,K,Na)(1-2)(Si,Al)8O16•6H2O, Phillipsite-K (K,Na,Ca)(1-2)(Si,Al)8O16•6H2O, Merlinoite (K,Ca,Na,Ba)7Si23Al9O64•23H2O, Mazzite-Mg K2CaMg2(Al,Si)36O72•28H2O, Mazzite-Na Na8Al8Si28O72•30H2O, Perlialite K8Tl4Al12Si24O72•20H2O, Boggsite NaCa2(Al5Si19O48)•17H2O, Paulingite-Ca (Ca,K,Na,Ba)5[Al10Si35O84]•34H2O, Paulingite-K (K2,Ca,Na2,Ba)5Al10Si35O90•45H2O, Paulingite-Na (Na2,K2,Ca,Ba)5Al10Si35O90•45H2O Chains of 6-membered rings – tabular zeolites Gmelinite-Ca (Ca,Na2)Al2Si4O12•6H2O, Gmelinite-K (K,Na,Ca)6(Al7Si17O48)•22H2O, Gmelinite-Na (Na2,Ca)Al2Si4O12•6H2O, Chabazite-K (K2,Ca,Na2,Mg)[Al2Si4O12]•6H2O, Chabazite-Ca (Ca0.5,Na,K)4[Al4Si8O24]•12H2O, Chabazite-Na (Na2,K2,Ca,Mg)[Al2Si4O12]•6H2O, Chabazite-Sr (Sr,Ca,K2,Na2)[Al2Si4O12]•6H2O, Herschelite? (Na,Ca,K)AlSi2O6•3H2O, Willhendersonite KCaAl3Si3O12•5H2O, Levyne-Ca (Ca,Na2,K2)Al2Si4O12•6H2O, Levyne-Na (Na2,Ca,K2)Al2Si4O12•6H2O, Bellbergite (K,Ba,Sr)2Sr2Ca2(Ca,Na)4Al18Si18O72•30H2O, Erionite-Ca (Ca,K2,Na2)2[Al4Si14O36]•15H2O, Erionite-K


id: list-of-minerals-named-after-people-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_named_after_people-0.md
category: reference
title: List of minerals named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:35.881129+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-minerals-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of minerals named after people. The chemical composition of the mineral follows the name. == A == Abelsonite: C31H32N4Ni – American physicist Philip Hauge Abelson (1913–2004) Abswurmbachite: Cu2+Mn3+6O8SiO4 – German mineralogist Irmgard Abs-Wurmbach (1938–2020) Adamite: Zn2AsO4OH – French mineralogist Gilbert Joseph Adam (1795–1881) Agrellite: NaCa2Si4O10F – English optical mineralogist Stuart Olof Agrell (1913–1996) Agricolaite: K4(UO2)(CO3)3 – German scholar Georgius Agricola (1494–1555) Aheylite: Fe2+Al6(PO4)4(OH)8·4H2O – American geologist Allen V. Heyl (1918–2008) Albrechtschraufite: Ca4Mg(UO2)2(CO3)6F2·17H2O – Albrecht Schrauf (1837–1897), professor of mineralogy, University of Vienna Alexandrite: Variety of chrysoberyl (BeAl2O4): – Russian monarch, Tsar Alexander II of Russia (1818–1881) Alforsite: Ba5Cl(PO4)3 – American geologist John T. Alfors (1930–2005) Allabogdanite: (Fe,Ni)2P – Alla Bogdanova (1947–2004), Geological Institute, Kola Science Centre of Russian Academy of Sciences Allanite series: sorosilicate – Scottish mineralogist, Thomas Allan (1777–1833) Alloriite: Na5K1.5(Al6Si6O24)(SO4)(OH)0.5·H2O – Italian mineralogist Roberto Allori (born 1933) Almeidaite: crichtonite group (metal titanates); Brazilian geologist Fernando Flávio Marques de Almeida (1916–2013) Anandite: (Ba,K)(Fe2+,Mg)3(Si,Al,Fe)4O10(S,OH)2 – Ceylonese metaphysician, historian and philosopher Ananda Coomaraswamy (1877–1947), first director of the Mineral Survey of Ceylon Andersonite: Na2Ca(UO2)(CO3)3·6H2O – Charles Alfred Anderson (1902–1990), United States Geological Survey Andradite: Ca3Fe2Si3O12 – Brazilian statesman, naturalist, professor and poet José Bonifácio de Andrade e


id: list-of-minerals-named-after-people-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_named_after_people-1.md
category: reference
title: List of minerals named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:35.881129+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-minerals-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
== C == Cabriite: Pd2SnCu – Canadian mineralogist Louis J. Cabri (born 1934) Cámaraite: sorosilicate – Fernando Cámara (born 1967), mineralogist of Melilla, Spain Cancrinite: Na6Ca2[(CO3)2 – Georg von Cancrin (1774–1845) Canfieldite: Ag8SnS6 – American mining engineer Frederick Alexander Canfield (1849–1926) Cannonite: Bi2(OH)2SO4 – American mineralogist and electron microprobe analyst Benjamin Bartlett (Bart) Cannon Carlfriesite: CaTe4+2Te6+O8 – American researcher at the Institute of Geology of the National university of Mexico Carl Fries, Jr (1910–1965). Carlhintzeite: Ca2AlF7 · H2O – German mineralogist Carl Hintze (1851–1916), University of Breslau Carlosruizite: K6(Na,K)4Na6Mg10(SeO4)12(IO3)12 · 12 H2O – Chilean geologist Carlos Ruiz Fuller (1916–1997), founder of the Chilean Geological Survey Carnallite: KMgCl3 · 6 H2O – Prussian mining engineer, Rudolf von Carnall (1804–1874) Carnotite: K2(UO2)2(VO4)2 – French mining engineer and chemist Marie Adolphe Carnot (1839–1920) Cassidyite: Ca2Ni0.75Mg0.25(PO4)2 · 2 H2O – American geologist William A. Cassidy Castaingite (discredited 1967: a mixture of cuprian molybdenite and gerhardtite) Caswellsilverite: NaCrS2 – American geologist, entrepreneur, and oilman Caswell Silver (1916–1988) Cattiite: Mg3(PO4)2 · 22H2O – Michele Catti (b. 1945), Professor of Physical Chemistry, University of Milano-Bicocca, Italy Celsian: BaAl2Si2O8 – Swedish astronomer and naturalist Anders Celsius (1701–1744) And paracelsian Cernyite: Cu2CdSnS4 – Canadian mineralogist Petr Cerny Cesbronite: Cu6(TeO3)2(OH)6


id: list-of-minerals-named-after-people-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_named_after_people-2.md
category: reference
title: List of minerals named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:35.881129+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-minerals-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
== G == Gadolinite: (Ce,La,Nd,Y)2FeBe2Si2O10 – Finnish mineralogist and chemist Johan Gadolin (1760–1852) Gagarinite series: Na(REExCa(1-x))(REEyCa(1-y))F6 – Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin (1934–1968) Gahnite: ZnAl2O4 – Swedish chemist Johan Gottlieb Gahn (1745–1818) Gatehouseite: Mn2+5(PO4)2(OH)4 – crystal chemist Bryan M. K. C. Gatehouse (born 1932), Monash University, Melbourne Gaylussite: Na2Ca(CO3)2·5H2O – French chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778–1850) Geikielite: MgTiO3 – Scottish geologist Archibald Geikie (1835–1924) Genkinite: (Pt,Pd)4Sb3 – Soviet mineralogist A. D. Genkin Georgerobinsonite: Pb4(CrO4)2(OH)2FCl – George Willard Robinson Gerhardtite: Cu2(NO3)(OH)3 – Alsatian chemist Charles Frédéric Gerhardt Gibbsite: Al(OH)3 – American mineralogist George Gibbs (1777–1834) Uintaite (syn. gilsonite, asphalt) – American Samuel H. Gilson Ferri-ghoseite: ☐[Mn2+Na][Mg4Fe3+]Si8O22(OH)2 – Subrata Ghose (born 1932), emeritus professor at the University of Washington, Seattle Goethite: FeOOH – German polymath Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832) Julgoldite: sorosilicate – American mineralogist and geochemist Julian Royce Goldsmith (1918–1999) Gormanite: Fe2+3Al4(PO4)4(OH)6·2H2O – mineralogist Donald Herbert Gorman, University of Toronto Grandidierite: (Mg,Fe2+)Al3(BO3)(SiO4)O2 – French explorer Alfred Grandidier (1836–1912). Gregoryite: (Na2,K2,Ca)CO3 – British geologist and author John Walter Gregory (1864–1932) Greigite: Fe2+Fe3+2S4 – mineralogist and physical chemist Joseph W. Greig (1895–1977) Grossite: CaAl4O7 – Israeli mineralogist and geologist Shulamit Gross (1923–2012) Grothite (titanite var., 9.AG.15) Grunerite: Fe7Si8O22(OH)2 – Swiss-French chemist Emmanuel-Louis Gruner (1809–1883)


id: list-of-minerals-named-after-people-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_named_after_people-3.md
category: reference
title: List of minerals named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:35.881129+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-minerals-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
== M == Macdonaldite: BaCa4Si16O36(OH)2 · 10 H2O – American volcanologist, Gordon Andrew Macdonald (1911–1978, redirect) Malhmoodite: FeZr(PO4)2 · 4H2O – Bertha K. Malhmood, for many years Administrative Assistant of the Branch of Analytical Laboratories, U.S. Geological Survey Mandarinoite: Fe2(SeO3)3 · 4H2O – American-Canadian mineralogist Joseph (Joe) A. Mandarino (1929–2007) And telluromandarinoite Maricite: NaFePO4 – Croatian mineralogist Luka Marić (1899–1979), University of Zagreb Marthozite: Cu(UO2)3(SeO3)3(OH)2·7H2O – Belgian mineralogist Aimé Marthoz (1894–1962) Machatschkiite (8.CJ.35) Mascagnite: (NH4)2SO4 – Italian anatomist Paolo Mascagni (1752–1815) Mathesiusite: K5(UO2)4(SO4)4(VO5) · 4(H2O) – German minister Johannes Mathesius (1504–1565) Mawbyite: Pb(Fe3+,Zn)2(AsO4)2(OH)2 – Australian metallurgist and mining executive Sir Maurice Alan Edgar Mawby (1904–1977) Mckelveyite-(Y): Ba3NaCa0.75U0.25Y(CO3)6 · 3 H2O – American geologist Vincent E. McKelvey (1916–1985) Meyerhofferite: CaB3O3(OH)5 · H2O – German chemist, Wilhelm Meyerhoffer (1864–1906) Meyrowitzite: Ca(UO2)(CO3)2 · 5H2O – after Robert Meyrowitz (1916–2013), an American analytical chemist Mendeleevite-(Ce): Cs6(Ce22Ca6)(Si70O175)(OH,F)14(H2O)21 – Russian chemist Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev (1834–1907) Menzerite-(Y) (IMA2009-050) Millerite: NiS – British mineralogist William Hallowes Miller (1801–1880) Millosevichite: Al2(SO4)3 – Italian mineralogist Federico Millosevich (1875–1942) Moëloite (2.HC.25) Mohsite (crichtonite var., 4.CC.40) Moissanite: SiC (naturally occurring) – discoverer Henri Moissan (1852–1907) Monticellite: Ca(Mg,Fe)SiO4 – Italian mineralogist Teodoro Monticelli (1759–1845) Morganite (variety of Beryl): – American financier J. P.


id: list-of-minerals-named-after-people-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_named_after_people-4.md
category: reference
title: List of minerals named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:35.881129+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-minerals-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
== T == Tarbuttite: Zn2(PO4)(OH) Percy Coventry Tarbutt (died 1943), a Director of the Broken Hill Exploration Company Teallite: PbSnS2 – British geologist Jethro Justinian Harris Teall (1849–1924) Tennantite: Cu12As4S13 – English chemist Smithson Tennant (1761–1815) Tenorite: CuO – Italian botanist Michele Tenore (1780–1861) Theophrastite: Ni(OH)2 – Greek philosopher and writer Theophrastus (c. 371 – c. 287 BC) Thomasclarkite: Na0.8Ce0.2Y0.5REE0.7(HCO3)(OH)3·4H2O – Canadian geologist Thomas Clark (1893–1996) Thortveitite: (Sc,Y)2Si2O7 – Norwegian engineer Olaus Thortveit Tiemannite: HgSe – Johann Carl Wilhelm Tiemann (1848–1899) Torbernite: CuAl(UO2)2(PO4)2·8-12H2O – Swedish chemist Torbern Bergman (1735–1784) Trevorite: NiFe2O4 – Major Tudor Gruffydd Trevor, mining inspector for the Pretoria District, Transvaal, South Africa Tschernichite: CaAl2Si6O16·8H2O – Rudy W. Tschernich (born 1945), expert on zeolites Tschermakite: Ca2(Mg3AlFe3+)Si6Al2O22(OH)2 – Austrian mineralogist Gustav Tschermak von Seysenegg (1836–1927) == U == Ulexite: NaCaB5O9·8H2O – German chemist Georg Ludwig Ulex (1811–1883) Ullmannite: NiSbS – German chemist and mineralogist Johann Christoph Ullmann (1771–1821, redirect) Uytenbogaardtite: Ag3AuS2 – Dutch mineralogist Willem Uytenbogaardt (1918–2012) Uvarovite: Ca3Cr2(SiO4)3 – Russian Count Sergei Semenovitch Uvarov (1765–1855) == V == Vaesite: NiS2 – Belgian mineralogist Johannes F. Vaes (1902–1978) Valentinite: Sb2O3 – German alchemist Basilius Valentinus (might be Johann Thölde? 1565–1614) Vanthoffite: Na6Mg(SO4)4 – Jacobus Henricus van't Hoff (1852–1911), professor


id: list-of-minerals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of minerals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:37.075024+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-minerals-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of minerals which have Wikipedia articles. Minerals are distinguished by various chemical and physical properties. Differences in chemical composition and crystal structure distinguish the various species. Within a mineral species there may be variation in physical properties or minor amounts of impurities that are recognized by mineralogists or wider society as a mineral variety. Mineral variety names are listed after the valid minerals for each letter. For a more complete listing of all mineral names, see List of minerals recognized by the International Mineralogical Association. == A == Varieties that are not valid species: Adamantine spar (variety of corundum) Agate (variety of chalcedony and quartz) Alabaster (variety of gypsum) Alexandrite (variety of chrysoberyl) Allingite (synonym of amber) Alum Amazonite (variety of microcline) Amethyst (purple variety of quartz) Ametrine (variety of quartz) Ammolite (organic; also a gemstone) Amosite (asbestiform grunerite) Antozonite (variety of fluorite) Anyolite (metamorphic rock - zoisite, ruby, and hornblende) Aquamarine (light blue variety of beryl) Argentite (high temperature form of acanthite) Asbestos (fibrous serpentine- or amphibole minerals) Auerlite (variety of thorite) Avalite (chromian variety of illite) Aventurine (variety of quartz) == B == Varieties that are not valid species: Barbertonite (polytype of stichtite) Bauxite


id: list-of-minerals-recognized-by-the-international-mineralogical-association-20260505-0
category: reference
title: List of minerals recognized by the International Mineralogical Association
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:38.374024+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-minerals-recognized-by-the-international-mineralogical-association-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_recognized_by_the_International_Mineralogical_Association-0.md

summary:
Mineralogy is an active science in which minerals are discovered or recognised on a regular basis. Use of old mineral names is also discontinued, for example when a name is no longer considered valid. Therefore, a list of recognised mineral species is never complete. Minerals are distinguished by various chemical and physical properties. Differences in chemical composition and crystal structure distinguish the various species. Within a mineral species there may be variation in physical properties or minor amounts of impurities that are recognized by mineralogists or wider society as a mineral variety. The International Mineralogical Association (IMA) is the international scientific group that recognises new minerals and new mineral names. However, minerals discovered before 1959 did not go through the official naming procedure. Some minerals published previously have been either confirmed or discredited since that date. This list contains a mixture of mineral names that have been approved since 1959 and those mineral names believed to still refer to valid mineral species (these are called "grandfathered" species). Presently, each year about 90–110 new mineral species (the sum of all mutations c. 120 per year) are officially approved by the Commission on New Minerals, Nomenclature and Classification (CNMNC) of the International

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_recognized_by_the_International_Mineralogical_Association


id: list-of-minerals-recognized-by-the-international-mineralogical-association-20260505-1
category: reference
title: List of minerals recognized by the International Mineralogical Association
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:38.374024+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-minerals-recognized-by-the-international-mineralogical-association-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_recognized_by_the_International_Mineralogical_Association-1.md

summary:
== Working practices == The name of a new mineral is kept confidential by the IMA until it is approved or until its full description is published, its authors' option (approved decision: 'IMA2009-D'). The IMA uses a code for its own procedures for the supposed new mineral (and so it is a synonym). Ferri-ottoliniite's proposal was assigned code 'IMA2001-067', it was redefined and approved as 'IMA2001-067a' in 2003, for instance (the ottoliniite root name is discredited since 2012). Current IMA regulations do not allow substances of anthropogenic origin (burning coal mine dumps, coal mine fires, slag, etc.) to be validated as a mineral species. Since 1998, the majority of polymorphs (especially polytypes and polytypoids) are not regarded as separate mineral species anymore. IMA/CNMNC identifiers are usually written without space, as years don't get meaningful hits on Google search. "The System of Mineralogy of James Dwight Dana and Edward Salisbury Dana" (8 ed.) was the reference of CNMNC/CNMMN's (IMA) initial work. At the Kobe 2006 general meeting, the IMA council endorsed the creation of an Internet site on minerals ('rruff.info/ima'). So a Master List was needed and the older minerals were reviewed in a document of 130 pages. The final GQN

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_recognized_by_the_International_Mineralogical_Association


id: list-of-minerals-recognized-by-the-international-mineralogical-association-20260505-2
category: reference
title: List of minerals recognized by the International Mineralogical Association
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:38.374024+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-minerals-recognized-by-the-international-mineralogical-association-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_recognized_by_the_International_Mineralogical_Association-2.md

summary:
== Miscellany == Current regulations do not allow a new mineral name to honour a person a second time. But there are exceptions: Jöns Jakob Berzelius (1779–1848) (berzelianite, berzeliite and berzeline (now haüyne)); Pierre Berthier (1782–1861) (berthierine and berthierite); Andor von Semsey (1833–1923) (andorite IV, andorite VI and semseyite); Brian Harold Mason (1917–2009) (brianite and stenhuggarite); Caleb Wroe Wolfe (1908–1980) (wolfeite and wroewolfeite) and Leo Neal Yedlin (1908–1977) (yedlinite and nealite). The regulation does not affect mineral series and other variations (prefix iso, hexa, ortho, tetra, clino, meta, para, pseudo etc.). For instance: Karl Hugo Strunz (1910–2006) (strunzite group); George P. Merrill (1854–1929) (merrillite series, whitlockite group); Edward S. Grew (Ph.D. 1971) (edgrewite series, humite group). Standard temperature and pressure (STP). Silicate perovskites, argentite and β-quartz are not valid minerals, as they do not occur on Earth's surface (STP). The type material of bridgmanite is from a meteorite. Some minerals are unstable on Earth's surface (metastability): diamonds, cohenite and haxonite, for instance. Acanthite var. argentite (a pseudomorph after argentite) and β-quartz pseudomorphs are sometimes sold. Ramdohr (1936) discovered that the type material of schapbachite (Ag0.4Pb0.2Bi0.4S) was a mixture of galena (PbS) and matildite (AgBiS2). It was discredited (1982) as it

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_recognized_by_the_International_Mineralogical_Association


id: list-of-minerals-recognized-by-the-international-mineralogical-association-20260505-3
category: reference
title: List of minerals recognized by the International Mineralogical Association
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:38.374024+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-minerals-recognized-by-the-international-mineralogical-association-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_recognized_by_the_International_Mineralogical_Association-3.md

summary:
Attention with the amphiboles: some mineral names have been redefined (IMA2012 s.p. was the last revision), some even more than once; i.e. their chemical formula range changed. For example, aluminotaramite ('IMA2006-023', 9.DE.20) is a synonym of ferro-taramite, sodic-ferri-ferropedrizite (IMA2003 s.p., 9.DE.25) was renamed to ferro-ferri-pedrizite, ehimeite is a synonym of chromio-pargasite ('IMA2011-023', 9.DE.15), kôzulite is a synonym of mangano-arfvedsonite ('IMA1968-028', 9.DE.25) and kornite is a synonym of potassic-mangani-leakeite ('IMA1992-032', 9.DE.25). Some IMA-CNMNC approved minerals have a questionable status on mineralienatlas.de, but their unit cell parameters are given on mindat.org (or vice versa). Their status here doesn't change, it remains 'approved mineral'. The mineral systematic given on Nickel-Strunz (9 and 10 ed) is not controversial. Dmisteinbergite (feldspar, 9.EG.15), uranyl sorovanadates (4.HD. ids) and silica family (4.DA. ids) are some exceptions, for instance. Great care must be taken with definitions and their redefinitions. There is a difference between rocks, natural minerals and chemical compounds. Some examples: rocksalt (a redirect), halite and sodium chloride; kaolin earth (a redirect) and kaolinite; apatite, strict sense (chlorapatite, fluorapatite and hydroxylapatite), apatite group and apatite supergroup; kaolinite-serpentine group (alias serpentine), serpentine subgroup, serpentinization and serpentinite; olivine structural group (after rruff.nfo/ima); olivine group and olivine (a fosterite var.);


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category: reference
title: List of minerals recognized by the International Mineralogical Association
tags: science, encyclopedia
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parent: list-of-minerals-recognized-by-the-international-mineralogical-association-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_recognized_by_the_International_Mineralogical_Association-4.md

summary:
== Nomenclature dictionary == Special minerals (relaxed sense) Native elements (class 1): carbides, silicides, nitrides, phosphides, elements, alloys, amalgams Special minerals (strict sense): tellurium(VI) oxysalts ([Te6+Ox], trioxotellurate(IV) tetraoxotellurate(VI) [Te4+O3][Te6+O4]) "Ore" minerals (sulfides and oxides) Sulfide class (class 2): sulfides [S], selenides [Se], tellurides [Te], arsenides [As], antimonides [Sb], bismuthides [Bi], sulfantimonides [SbxSy], sulfarsenides [AsxSy], sulfbismuthides [BixSy], sulfastannides [SnxSy], plumboarsenide [As,Pb], plumbobismuthide [Bi,Pb] Oxide class (class 4): sulfites(IV) [SO3]2−, selenites(IV) [SeO3]2−, iodates [IO3], trioxotellurate(IV) [Te4+O3]2−, dihydroxotellurate(IV) [Te4+O(OH)2], pentaoxoditellurate(IV) [(Te4+)2O5]2−, vanadyl anion [V4+O2]2- Evaporite and similar minerals Halide class (class 3): fluoride [F], chloride [Cl], bromide [Br], iodide [I], tetrafluoroborates [BF4], hexafluorosilicates [SiF6], hexachlorothallate(III) [Tl3+Cl6] Carbonate and nitrate class (class 5): carbonates [CO3], bicarbonate [HCO3] Nitrates (subclass 5.N): nitrates [NO3] Borate class (class 6): metaborates [B2O4], trioxoborate [BO3], tetrahydroborate [B(OH)4] Mineral structures with a tetrahedral unit, monomeric minerals Sulfate class (class 7), monomeric minerals: sulfates [SO4]2−, tungstates [WO4]2−, niobates [NbO4]2−, molybdates [MoO4]2−, chromates [CrO4]2−, tetraoxotantalate [TaO4], thiosulphates [SO3S]2− Phosphate class (class 8), monomeric minerals: phosphates(V) [PO4]3−, arsenates(V) [AsO4]3−, vanadates(V) [VO4]3−, hydroxophosphates(V) [PO3OH]2−, dihydroxophosphates(V) [PO2(OH)2], hydroxoarsenates(V) [AsO3OH]2−, dihydroxoarsenates(V) [AsO2(OH)2] Nesosilicates (subclass 9.A), monomeric minerals: tetraoxosilicate [SiO4], hydrotrioxosilicate [SiO3OH] Mineral structures with a tetrahedral unit, di- and chain silicates Sorosilicates (subclass 9.B): heptaoxodisilicate [Si2O7],


id: list-of-longest-mountain-chains-on-earth-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_longest_mountain_chains_on_Earth-0.md
category: reference
title: List of longest mountain chains on Earth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_longest_mountain_chains_on_Earth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:39.595293+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-longest-mountain-chains-on-earth-20260505-0
summary:
The world's longest above-water mountain range is the Andes, about 7,000 km (4,300 mi) long. The range stretches from north to south through seven countries in South America, along the west coast of the continent: Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina. Aconcagua is the highest peak, at about 6,962 m (22,841 ft), as well as the highest mountain outside of Asia. This list does not include submarine mountain ranges. If submarine mountains are included, the longest is the global mid-ocean ridge system which extends for about 65,000 km (40,000 mi). == Formation == Mountain chains are typically formed by the process of plate tectonics. Tectonic plates slide very slowly over the Earth's mantle, a lower place of rock that is heated from the Earth's interior. Several huge sections of the Earth's crust are impelled by heat currents in the mantle, producing tremendous forces that can buckle the material at the edges of the plates to form mountains. Usually one plate is forced underneath the other, and the lower plate is slowly absorbed by the mantle. Where the two plates pass one another, heated rock from the mantle can burst through the crust to form volcanoes. The movement of


id: list-of-oil-fields-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_oil_fields-0.md
category: reference
title: List of oil fields
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_oil_fields
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:40.944254+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-oil-fields-20260505-0
summary:
This list of oil fields includes some major oil fields of the past and present. The list is incomplete; there are more than 25,000 oil and gas fields of all sizes in the world. However, 94% of known oil is concentrated in fewer than 1,500 giant and major fields. Most of the world's largest oilfields are located in the Middle East, but there are also super giant (5 billion bbls) oilfields in Brazil, Mexico, Venezuela, Kazakhstan, and Russia. A field containing 500 million barrels or more ultimately recoverable reserves is a giant field, while a super giant contains 5 billion barrels or more recoverable reserves. Amounts listed below, in billions of barrels, are the estimated ultimate recoverable petroleum resources (proved reserves plus cumulative production also abbreviated as URR), given historical production and current extraction technology. Oil shale reserves (perhaps 3 trillion barrels (4.8×1011 m3)) and coal reserves, both of which can be converted to liquid petroleum, are not included in this chart. Other non-conventional liquid fuel sources are similarly excluded from this list. Scientific assessments indicate the existence of substantial undiscovered, technically recoverable oil and natural gas resources in Arctic and other regions, but commercial exploration has either failed or


id: list-of-ophiolites-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ophiolites-0.md
category: reference
title: List of ophiolites
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ophiolites
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:42.156877+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ophiolites-20260505-0
summary:
Ophiolites are sequences of mafic to ultramafic rock generally believed to represent ancient oceanic lithosphere. They are distributed all across the world being all of them located at present or past orogenic belts, sites of mountain building processes. Ophiolites are common in orogenic belts of Mesozoic age, like those formed by the closure of the Tethys Ocean. Ophiolites in Archean and Paleoproterozoic domains are rare. == Mediterranean and Peri-Arabic == Morais ophiolite complex, Portugal Internal Ligurian Ophiolites in Northern Apennines, Italy Troodos Ophiolite in the Troodos Mountains of Cyprus Kizildag ophiolite, southern Turkey Mirdita Ophiolite, middle Jurassic ophiolite in northern Albania between the Apulian and Pelagonian subcontinents in the Balkan Peninsula Cap Corse ophiolite, Corsica, France Vourinos and Pindos Ophiolites in Northern Greece and their northern extensions (numerous ophiolite bodies) in Albania, Serbia and Bosnia Ronda peridotite, Southern Spain Lherz Massif, France Beni Bousera ophiolite, Morocco Golyamo Kamenyane Complex, Bulgaria Semail Ophiolite in Oman and the United Arab Emirates Makran Ophiolite, Makran, Iran and Pakistan Zagros ophiolite, Zagros Mountains, Iran Iraq Zagros ophiolites, Zagros Mountains, Iraq, includes; Cretaceous ophiolites (Mawat, Penjwen, Pushtashan, Hassanbig and Bulfat) and Eocene ophiolites (Rayat and Qalander). == Tibetan == Dongbo ophiolite Loubusa ophiolite Purang ophiolite


id: list-of-orogenies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_orogenies-0.md
category: reference
title: List of orogenies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_orogenies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:43.448659+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-orogenies-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of known orogenies organised by continent, starting with the oldest in each. The headings are present-day continents, which may differ from the geography contemporary to the orogenies. Some orogenies encompass more than one continent and may have different names in each, and some very large orogenies include sub-orogenies. As with other geological phenomena, orogenies are often subject to revised interpretations of their age, type and associated paleogeography. In some (especially older) literature, the term orogeny refers to a long episode of basin formation and deposition of sediments over hundreds of millions of years, ending with deformation (sometimes including metamorphism) of these deposits. However, some workers use the term only for the final mountain-building deformation event over tens of millions of years or shorter. == African orogenies == Pan-African orogeny – Series of major mountain-forming events in the Neoproterozoic, Neoproterozoic Era (550 Ma) Damara orogeny – Mountain-building event at the intersection of the Congo and Kalahari cratons Kibaran orogeny – Mountain building event in what is now Africa Eburnean orogeny – Mountain building event in what is now West Africa East African Orogeny – Main stage in the Neoproterozoic assembly of East and West Gondwana Mauritanide


id: list-of-orogenies-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_orogenies-1.md
category: reference
title: List of orogenies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_orogenies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:43.448659+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-orogenies-20260505-0
summary:
Algoman orogeny, also known as Kenoran orogeny – Late Archaean episode of mountain building in what is now North America – Superior province, South Dakota to Lake Huron, late Archean Eon (2700–2500 Ma) Wopmay orogeny – Mountain-building event in northern Canada – Along western edge of Canadian Shield, (2100–1900 Ma) Trans-Hudson orogeny, also known as Hudsonian orogeny – Mountain-building event in North America – Extends from Hudson Bay west into Saskatchewan then south through the western Dakotas and Nebraska. Result of the collision of the Superior craton with the Hearne craton and the Wyoming craton, during the Proterozoic Eon (2000–1800 Ma) Nagssugtoqidian orogeny – Late Paleoproterozoic mountain-building event in Greenland – (1910–1770 Ma) Ketilidian orogeny – Collision at the southern margin of the North Atlantic Craton, late Paleoproterozoic Era (1850–1720 Ma) Penokean orogeny – Wisconsin, Minnesota, Michigan, and southern Ontario, (1850–1840 Ma) Great Falls orogeny, also known as the Big Sky orogeny – Proterozoic collision between the Hearne craton and the Wyoming craton in southwest Montana, (1770 Ma) Ivanpah orogeny – Mountain building event in the Proterozoic – Mojave Desert region, southwestern U.S. Yavapai orogeny – Mountain building event 1.7 billion years ago in the southwestern United States, (1710–1700 Ma)


id: list-of-penrose-medal-winners-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Penrose_Medal_winners-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Penrose Medal winners
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Penrose_Medal_winners
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:46.009817+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-penrose-medal-winners-20260505-0
summary:
The Penrose Medal was created in 1925 by R.A.F. Penrose, Jr., as the top prize awarded by the Geological Society of America. Originally created as the Geological Society of America Medal it was soon renamed the Penrose Medal by popular assent of the society's membership, and was first awarded in 1927. It is awarded only at the discretion of the GSA council, "in recognition of eminent research in pure geology, for outstanding original contributions or achievements that mark a major advance in the science of geology." == Award winners == Source: GSA == See also == Category:Penrose Medal winners List of geology awards Prizes named after people == References ==


id: list-of-geological-phenomena-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geological_phenomena-0.md
category: reference
title: List of geological phenomena
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geological_phenomena
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:47.176867+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-geological-phenomena-20260505-0
summary:
A geological phenomenon is a phenomenon which is explained by or sheds light on the science of geology. Examples of geological phenomena are: Mineralogic phenomena Lithologic phenomena Rock types Igneous rock Igneous formation processes Sedimentary rock Sedimentary formation processes (sedimentation) Quicksand Metamorphic rock Endogenic phenomena Plate tectonics Continental drift Earthquake Oceanic trench Phenomena associated with igneous activity Geysers and hot springs Bradyseism Volcanic eruption Earth's magnetic field Exogenic phenomena Slope phenomena Slump Landslide Weathering phenomena Erosion Glacial and peri-glacial phenomena Glaciation Moraines Hanging valleys Atmospheric phenomena Impact phenomena Impact crater Coupled endogenic-exogenic phenomena Orogeny Drainage development Stream capture


id: outline-of-plate-tectonics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_plate_tectonics-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of plate tectonics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_plate_tectonics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:48.521311+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-plate-tectonics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of articles related to plate tectonics and tectonic plates. == What is plate tectonics? == Plate tectonics (from Latin tectonicus, from Ancient Greek τεκτονικός (tektonikós) 'pertaining to building') is the scientific theory that Earth's lithosphere comprises a number of large tectonic plates, which have been slowly moving since 3–4 billion years ago. The model builds on the concept of continental drift, an idea developed during the first decades of the 20th century. Plate tectonics came to be accepted by geoscientists after seafloor spreading was validated in the mid- to late 1960s. The processes that result in plates and shape Earth's crust are called tectonics. Earth's lithosphere, the rigid outer shell of the planet including the crust and upper mantle, is fractured into seven or eight major plates (depending on how they are defined) and many minor plates or "platelets". Where the plates meet, their relative motion determines the type of plate boundary (or fault): convergent, divergent, or transform. The relative movement of the plates typically ranges from zero to 10 cm annually. Faults tend to be geologically active, with earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation. Tectonic plates are composed of the oceanic lithosphere and


id: outline-of-plate-tectonics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_plate_tectonics-1.md
category: reference
title: Outline of plate tectonics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_plate_tectonics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:48.521311+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-plate-tectonics-20260505-0
summary:
== Continents == Continent – Large geographical region identified by convention Africa – ContinentPages displaying short descriptions with no spaces Antarctica – Earth's southernmost continent Asia – ContinentPages displaying short descriptions with no spaces Australia (continent) – One of Earth's seven main divisions of land Europe – ContinentPages displaying short descriptions with no spaces North America – ContinentPages displaying short descriptions with no spaces South America – ContinentPages displaying short descriptions with no spaces Supercontinent – Landmass comprising more than one continental core, or craton Eurasia – Combined landmasses of Europe and Asia === Paleocontinents === Paleocontinent – Major landmass in the geological past Amazonian Craton – Geologic province in South America Appalachia (Mesozoic) – Mesozoic land mass separated from Laramidia to the west by the Western Interior SeawayPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Arctica – Ancient continent in the Neoarchean era Armorican terrane – Microcontinent or group of continental fragments rifted away from Gondwana Asiamerica – Northern landmass that formed part of the Pangaea supercontinentPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Atlantica – Ancient continent formed during the Proterozoic about 2 billion years ago Australia (continent) – One of Earth's seven main divisions of land (Also known as


id: outline-of-plate-tectonics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_plate_tectonics-2.md
category: reference
title: Outline of plate tectonics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_plate_tectonics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:48.521311+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-plate-tectonics-20260505-0
summary:
Adamastor Ocean – Precambrian "proto-Atlantic" ocean in the Southern Hemisphere Boreal Sea – Mesozoic-era seaway that lay along the northern border of Laurasia Bridge River Ocean – Ancient ocean between North America and the Insular Islands during the Mesozoic Central American Seaway – Body of water Goianides Ocean – Ocean in South America in Neoproterozoic Goiás Ocean – Major shear zone that developed in the PrecambrianPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Hudson Seaway – Major seaway of North America during the Cretaceous Period Iapetus Ocean – Ocean that existed in the late Neoproterozoic and early Paleozoic eras Khanty Ocean – Small Precambrian ocean between Baltica and the Siberian continent Lapland-Kola Ocean – Geology of Norway, Finland and RussiaPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Mirovia – Hypothesized superocean surrounding the supercontinent Rodinia in the Neoproterozoic Era Paleo-Tethys Ocean – Ocean on the margin of Gondwana between the Middle Cambrian and Late Triassic Pan-African Ocean – Hypothesized paleo-ocean whose closure created the supercontinent of Pannotia Pannonian Sea – Shallow ancient sea where the Pannonian Basin in Central Europe is today Panthalassa – Prehistoric superocean that surrounded Pangaea Paratethys – Prehistoric shallow inland sea in Eurasia Pharusian Ocean – Ancient ocean


id: outline-of-plate-tectonics-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_plate_tectonics-3.md
category: reference
title: Outline of plate tectonics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_plate_tectonics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:48.521311+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-plate-tectonics-20260505-0
summary:
Adelaide Rift Complex – Major geological province in AustraliaPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Alpha Ridge – Major volcanic ridge under the Arctic Ocean Aegir Ridge – Extinct mid-ocean ridge in the far-northern Atlantic Ocean Anza trough – Rift in Kenya that was formed in the Jurassic Period Bahr el Arab rift – Major geological feature in the southwest Sudan Benue Trough – Major geological structure underlying a large part of Nigeria Central Lowlands – Geologically defined area of relatively low-lying land in southern Scotland Eastern North America Rift Basins – Assemblage of Upper Triassic and Lower Jurassic sedimentary rocksPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Fundy Basin – Sediment-filled rift basin on the Atlantic coast of southeastern Canada Gulf of Suez Rift – Ancient geological rift Gulf St Vincent – Inlet in South Australia Kula-Farallon Ridge – Ancient mid-ocean ridgePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Melut Basin – Rift basin in South Sudan Midcontinent Rift System – Geological rift in the center of the North American continent Mississippi embayment – Low-lying basin filled with Cretaceous to recent sediments Muglad Basin – Large rift basin in southern Sudan and South Sudan Narmada River – River in central India


id: outline-of-plate-tectonics-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_plate_tectonics-4.md
category: reference
title: Outline of plate tectonics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_plate_tectonics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:48.521311+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-plate-tectonics-20260505-0
summary:
Arctic Alaska-Chukotka terrane – Terrane that includes parts of Alaska, Siberia and the continental shelf between them Arequipa-Antofalla – South American geology Armorican Massif – Geologic massif that covers a large area in the northwest of France Armorican terrane – Microcontinent or group of continental fragments rifted away from Gondwana Avalonia – Microcontinent in the Paleozoic era Briançonnais zone – Piece of continental crust in the Penninic nappes of the Alps Bronson Hill Arc – Bimodal volcanic arc and associated Ordovician sediments Buffalo Head terrane – Terrane in the western Canadian Shield in northern Alberta Cache Creek terrane – Geologic terrane in British Columbia and southern Yukon, Canada Carolina terrane – Exotic terrane from central Georgia to central Virginia in the United States Cassiar terrane – Cretaceous terrane in Canada Chilenia – Ancient microcontinent, containing central Chile and western Argentina Chiloé Block – Tectonic unit under Chile Cuyania – Ancient microcontinent now part of Argentina Cymru terrane – Inferred fault bounded terrane of the basement rocks of the southern United Kingdom Florida Platform – Geological feature Franciscan Assemblage – Late Mesozoic terrane of heterogeneous rocks in the California Coast RangesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Ganderia – Terrane in


id: list-of-geological-features-on-pluto-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geological_features_on_Pluto-0.md
category: reference
title: List of geological features on Pluto
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geological_features_on_Pluto
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:49.802424+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-geological-features-on-pluto-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of named geological features on Pluto, identified by scientists working with data from the New Horizons spacecraft. The International Astronomical Union (IAU) officially approved the first 14 names on 8 August 2017 (announced 7 September 2017), with additional names following in each subsequent year, but many of the names listed on this page are still informal. The IAU has determined that names will be chosen from the following themes: Names for the underworld from the world's mythologies Gods, goddesses, and dwarfs associated with the underworld Heroes and other explorers of the underworld Writers associated with Pluto and the Kuiper belt Pioneering space missions and spacecraft Scientists and engineers associated with Pluto and the Kuiper belt == Cavi == A cavus is a hollow or steep-sided depression. Plutonian cavi are named after underworlds from fiction and mythology. The following is a list of official and unofficial names chosen by the New Horizons team. Names that have been officially approved are labeled as such. == Colles == A collis is a low hill. Plutonian colles are named after spacecraft that operated in Earth orbit. The following is a list of official and unofficial names chosen by the New


id: list-of-rock-textures-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rock_textures-0.md
category: reference
title: List of rock textures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rock_textures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:51.171294+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-rock-textures-20260505-0
summary:
This page is intended to be a list of rock textural and morphological terms. == A == Adcumulate Agglomeritic Adamantine a type of lustre Amygdaloidal Anhedral Antitaxial veins Aphanitic Aplitic; aplite Augen textured gneiss Axiolitic texture == B == Botryoidal Brecciated Bedding fissile; bedding fissility Boudinage; boudins == C == Cataclastic Chilled margin Clastic; see also breccia Cleaved Crenulated Cross-bedding Cross-stratification; also trough-cross stratification. Cumulate; see also layered intrusion == D == Decussate Devitirification; devitrified Dendritic texture; dendrites Diatextite; see also schlieren and migmatite == E == Embayed minerals; see igneous texture Equigranular Euhedral Eutaxitic Epiclastic == F == Fiamme Foliation Fissile; see also Bedding fissility. Fossiliferous == G == Glomeroporphyritic Gneissose; gneissic Granoblastic Granophyric Granulitic Graphic == H == Holocrystalline Hyaline texture Hyalopilitic == I == Imbricate Intergrowth texture == J == Jointed == K == Kelyphitic == L == Lepidoblastic Leucocratic Lineation, lineated L-tectonite == M == Melanocratic Mesocratic Mesocumulate Mylonitic == N == Nematoblastic == O == Ocelli Oolitic; see also limestone Ophitic texture Orbicular texture Orthocumulate == P == Panidiomorphic Pegmatitic Peloidal Perthitic Phaneritic Phyllitic Pisolitic Poikilitic Poikiloblastic Porphyroclastic Porphyroblastic Porphyritic texture; see also porphyry Ptygmatic (folding); see migmatite == Q == Quench textures; see obsidian,


id: list-of-rock-types-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rock_types-0.md
category: reference
title: List of rock types
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rock_types
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:52.347925+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-rock-types-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of rock types recognized by geologists. There is no agreed number of specific types of rock. Any unique combination of chemical composition, mineralogy, grain size, texture, or other distinguishing characteristics can describe a rock type. Additionally, different classification systems exist for each major type of rock. There are three major types of rock: igneous rock, metamorphic rock, and sedimentary rock. == Igneous rocks == Adakite – Volcanic rock type Agpaitic rock – Peralkaline igneous rock Andesite – Type of volcanic rock Alkali feldspar granite – Type of igneous rock rich in alkali feldspar Ankaramite – Type of volcanic rock - Igneous rock belonging to basalt family Anorthosite – Mafic intrusive igneous rock composed predominantly of plagioclase Aplite – Fine-grained intrusive igneous rock type similar to granite Basalt – Magnesium- and iron-rich extrusive igneous rock ʻAʻā – Molten rock expelled by a volcano during an eruptionPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – Basaltic lava with a crumpled appearance Pāhoehoe – Molten rock expelled by a volcano during an eruptionPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – Basaltic lava with a flowing, often ropy appearance Basaltic andesite – Volcanic rock that is intermediate in composition between


id: list-of-rock-types-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rock_types-1.md
category: reference
title: List of rock types
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rock_types
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:52.347925+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-rock-types-20260505-0
summary:
== Sedimentary rocks == Argillite – Sedimentary rock, mostly of indurated clay particles Arkose – Type of sandstone containing at least 25% feldspar Banded iron formation – Layered iron-rich sedimentary rock Breccia – Rock composed of angular fragments Calcarenite – Type of limestone that is composed predominantly of sand-size grains Chalk – Soft carbonate rock Chert – Hard, fine-grained sedimentary rock composed of cryptocrystalline silica Claystone – Clastic sedimentary rock composed primarily of clay-sized particles Coal – Combustible sedimentary rock composed primarily of carbon Conglomerate – Sedimentary rock composed of smaller rock fragments Coquina – Sedimentary rock that is composed mostly of fragments of shells Diamictite – Type of sedimentary rock Diatomite – Soft, siliceous sedimentary rock that is easily crumbled Dolomite (rock), also known as Dolostone – Sedimentary carbonate rock containing a high percentage of the mineral dolomite Evaporite – Water-soluble mineral deposit formed by evaporation from an aqueous solution Flint – Cryptocrystalline form of the mineral quartz Geyserite – Form of opaline silica often found around hot springs and geysers Greywacke – Sandstone with angular grains in a clay-fine matrix Gritstone – Hard, coarse-grained, siliceous sandstone Ironstone – Sedimentary rock that contains a substantial proportion of iron ore


id: list-of-rock-types-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rock_types-2.md
category: reference
title: List of rock types
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rock_types
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:52.347925+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-rock-types-20260505-0
summary:
Adamellite – Type of igneous rockPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – A variety of quartz monzonite Appinite – Type of igneous rock – A group of varieties of lamprophyre, mostly rich in hornblende Aphanite – Igneous rock composed of very small crystals invisible to the naked eye Borolanite – Variety of nepheline syenite from Loch Borralan, Scotland – A variety of nepheline syenite from Loch Borralan, Scotland Blue Granite – Variety of monzonite, an igneous rock Epidosite – Hydrothermally altered epidote- and quartz-bearing rock Felsite – Very fine-grained volcanic rock that sometimes contains larger crystals Flint – Cryptocrystalline form of the mineral quartz Ganister – Hard, fine-grained quartzose sandstone, or orthoquartzite Gossan – Intensely oxidized, weathered or decomposed rock Hyaloclastite – Volcanic rock consisting of glass fragments Ijolite – Igneous rock consisting essentially of nepheline and augite Jadeitite – Metamorphic rock found in blueschist-grade metamorphic terranes Jasperoid – Type of rock – A hematite-silica metasomatite analogous to a skarn Kenyte – Type of igneous rock - A variety of phonolite, first found on Mount Kenya Lapis lazuli – Metamorphic rock containing lazurite, prized for its intense blue color - A rock composed of lazurite and other minerals Larvikite


id: list-of-sandstones-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sandstones-0.md
category: reference
title: List of sandstones
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sandstones
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:53.515145+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-sandstones-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of types of sandstone that have been or are used economically as natural stone for building and other commercial or artistic purposes. == Trans-regional == (across state borders) Cornbrash Sandstone: North Rhine-Westphalia, Lower Saxony Elbe Sandstone: Germany (Saxony) and the Czech Republic Red Main Sandstone: Hesse, Baden-Württemberg, Bavaria Wealden Sandstone: Lower Saxony, North Rhine-Westphalia == Australia == Hawkesbury Sandstone: Sydney Basin, Gosford Helidon Sandstone: Helidon and Murphys Creek == Belgium == Balegem Sandstone: Balegem in Oosterzele Ledian Sandstone: Lede Gobertange Sandstone: Gobertange in Jodoigne == Canada == Nepean Sandstone: Ottawa, Ontario Paskapoo Sandstone: Calgary, Alberta == Czech Republic == Božanov Sandstone: near Božanov Niedergrund Sandstone: near Dolní Žleb Libná Sandstone: near Libná Zdoňov Sandstone: near Zdoňov Mšené Sandstone; near Mšené-lázně Podhorní Sandstone: near Podhorní Újezd Těšínský Sandstone: near Řeka == Denmark == Nexø Sandstone (also Neksø Sandstone): near Nexø on Bornholm == Estonia == Devonian Sandstone at Suur Taevaskoda, Põlva County == France == Avessac: near Redon Belleau: near Château-Thierry Bigarré des Vosges: in the Vosges Blavozy: near Puy-en-Velay Champenay: near Saint-Dié Erquy: near Saint-Brieuc Fontainebleau: near Fontainebleau Frain: in the Vosges La Rhune: near Bayonne Moliere: near Rodez Najac: near Villefranche-de-Rouergue Omonville: near Omonville-la-Rogue Rothbach:


id: list-of-sea-stacks-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sea_stacks-0.md
category: reference
title: List of sea stacks
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sea_stacks
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:54.768776+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-sea-stacks-20260505-0
summary:
The following list enumerates and expands on notable sea stacks, including former sea stacks that no longer exist. == Antarctica == Denais Stack, King George Island Cutler Stack, Livingston Island Neptune's Bellow, Deception Island The Monolith, Buckle Island Shag Rocks (South Georgia) Black Rock, South Georgia == Asia == Po Pin Chau, High Island, Hong Kong Tri Brata, Kamchatka, Russia Ko Tapu, Phang Nga Bay, Thailand Bako National Park, Sarawak, Borneo, Malaysia Lot's Wife or Sofugan, Japan (isolated volcanic stack, not a coastal stack) Pigeon's Rock, Raouché Lebanon == Australia == Ball's Pyramid, Lord Howe Island Group (isolated volcanic stack, not a coastal stack) Nobby Islet, Kangaroo Island, South Australia The Twelve Apostles on the Great Ocean Road, Victoria The Nobbies on Phillip Island, Victoria The Totem Pole in Tasmania London Bridge (Victoria) Gibson Steps Loch Ard Gorge The Grotto, Victoria == Europe == (coastal countries only) === Croatia === Cape Kamenjak === Faroe Islands === Drangarnir Risin og Kellingin Stakkurin === France === Les Aiguilles de Port-Coton, Belle-Île L'Aiguille, Étretat, Seine-Maritime Les Jumeaux, Hendaye === Germany === Lange Anna on Heligoland === Greece === Megalos Kalogeros Mikros Kalogeros === Iceland === Hvítserkur, Vatnsnes Reynisdrangar, Vík í Mýrdal === Ireland


id: list-of-shields-and-cratons-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_shields_and_cratons-0.md
category: reference
title: List of shields and cratons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_shields_and_cratons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:56.794263+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-shields-and-cratons-20260505-0
summary:
A craton is an ancient part of the Earth's continental crust which has been more or less stable since Precambrian times. Cratons whose ancient rocks are widely exposed at the surface, often with relatively subdued relief, are known as shields. If the ancient rocks are largely overlain by a cover of younger rocks then the 'hidden' craton may be referred to as a platform. == List of shields == Western Ethiopian Shield Amazonian Shield of central South America Guiana Shield Guaporé or Central Brazilian Shield The Angaran Shield of West Siberia Arabian-Nubian Shield (Western) Australian Shield Baltic Shield of Fennoscandia Canadian Shield a.k.a. Laurentian Shield The China-Korean Shield containing the North China Craton The East Antarctic Shield containing the East Antarctic Craton Indian Shield Man Shield == List of named cratons == Listed by modern continent and Gondwana, include: === West Gondwana === ==== South America ==== Amazonian Craton Guiana Shield Amazonian Shield São Francisco Craton (Congo Craton) Rio Apa Craton Río de la Plata Craton Arequipa–Antofalla Craton São Luís cratonic fragment Luís Alves cratonic fragment ==== Africa ==== West African Craton East Saharan Meta-craton Congo Craton, central southern Africa Bangweulu Block, Zambia Tanzanian Craton Kalahari Craton Kaapvaal craton, South


id: list-of-sinkholes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sinkholes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of sinkholes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sinkholes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:58.025837+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-sinkholes-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of sinkholes, blue holes, dolines, crown holes, cenotes, and pit caves. A sinkhole is a depression or hole in the ground caused by some form of collapse of the surface layer. Some are caused by karst processes—for example, the chemical dissolution of carbonate rocks or suffosion processes. Sinkholes can vary in size from 1 to 600 m (3 to 2,000 ft) both in diameter and depth, and vary in form from soil-lined bowls to bedrock-edged chasms. Sinkholes may form gradually or suddenly, and are found worldwide. == Australia == Ewens Ponds – series of three water-filled limestone sinkholes on Eight Mile Creek 25 kilometres (16 mi) south of Mount Gambier and 8.4 km (5+1⁄4 mi) east of Port MacDonnell, South Australia. Fossil Cave – The cave is a karst sinkhole and is largely filled with water. Kilsby sinkhole – in Mount Gambier, Southern Australia. Koonalda Cave – a cave located in the Nullarbor Plain in South Australia. Little Blue Lake – water-filled doline located near Mount Schank in South Australia. Numby Numby – a sinkhole located 25 to 30 kilometres (16 to 19 mi) west-northwest of Borroloola in the Northern Territory. Piccaninnie Ponds Conservation Park


id: list-of-sinkholes-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sinkholes-1.md
category: reference
title: List of sinkholes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sinkholes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:58.025837+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-sinkholes-20260505-0
summary:
Akhayat sinkhole – sinkhole in Mersin Province Cennet and Cehennem – two large sinkholes in the Taurus Mountains, in Mersin Province Egma Sinkhole – sinkhole and the deepest cave in Turkey Kanlıdivane – ancient city situated around a big sinkhole in Mersin Province Kızören Sinkhole – sinkhole in Konya Province == United States == 2014 National Corvette Museum sinkhole – a sinkhole at 350 Corvette Drive, Bowling Green, Kentucky Amberjack Hole – a blue hole located 48 km (30 mi) off the coast of Sarasota, Florida. Bayou Corne sinkhole – created from a collapsed underground salt dome cavern operated by Texas Brine Company and owned by Occidental Petroleum, discovered on August 3, 2012, and 350 nearby residents were advised to evacuate Bering Sinkhole – natural limestone sinkhole in Texas used for prehistoric burials Big Basin Prairie Preserve – St. Jacob's Well, Kansas, a water-filled sinkhole which lies in the Little Basin, and the Big Basin, a 1.5-kilometre-wide (1 mi) crater-like depression Blue Hole (Castalia) – a fresh water pond located in Castalia, Erie County, Ohio Blue Hole (New Mexico) – circular, bell-shaped pool east of Santa Rosa, New Mexico Bottomless Lakes State Park – Lazy Lagoon Lake, New Mexico, made


id: list-of-tectonic-plates-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates-0.md
category: reference
title: List of tectonic plates
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:59.252490+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-tectonic-plates-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of tectonic plates on Earth's surface. Tectonic plates are pieces of Earth's crust and uppermost mantle, together referred to as the lithosphere. The plates are around 100 km (62 mi) thick and consist of two principal types of material: oceanic crust (also called sima from silicon and magnesium) and continental crust (sial from silicon and aluminium). The composition of the two types of crust differs markedly, with mafic basaltic rocks dominating oceanic crust, while continental crust consists principally of lower-density felsic granitic rocks. == Current plates == Geologists generally agree that the following tectonic plates currently exist on Earth's surface with roughly definable boundaries. Tectonic plates are sometimes subdivided into three fairly arbitrary categories: major (or primary) plates, minor (or secondary) plates, and microplates (or tertiary plates). === Major plates === These plates comprise the bulk of the continents and the Pacific Ocean. For purposes of this list, a major plate is any plate with an area greater than 20 million km2 (7.7 million sq mi). African plate – Tectonic plate underlying Africa – 61,300,000 km2 (23,700,000 sq mi) Antarctic plate – Major tectonic plate containing Antarctica and the surrounding ocean floor – 60,900,000 km2 (23,500,000


id: list-of-tectonic-plates-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates-1.md
category: reference
title: List of tectonic plates
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:59.252490+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-tectonic-plates-20260505-0
summary:
African plate Lwandle plate – Mainly oceanic tectonic microplate off the southeast coast of Africa Rovuma plate – Tectonic microplate in Africa Victoria microplate – Tectonic plate in East Africa Danakil microplate - a microplate at the Afar triple junction Antarctic plate East Antarctic plate Shetland plate – Tectonic microplate off the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula West Antarctic plate Australian plate Capricorn plate – Proposed minor tectonic plate under the Indian Ocean Futuna plate – Very small tectonic plate near the south Pacific island of Futuna Kermadec plate – Tectonic plate in the south Pacific Ocean Macquarie plate Maoke plate – Small tectonic plate in western New Guinea Niuafo'ou plate – Small tectonic plate west of Tonga Tonga plate – Small tectonic plate in the southwest Pacific Ocean Woodlark plate – Small tectonic plate located to the east of the island of New Guinea Caribbean plate Gonâve microplate – Part of the boundary between the North American plate and the Caribbean plate Hispaniola microplate North Hispaniola microplate Panama plate – Small tectonic plate in Central America Puerto Rico-Virgin Islands microplate – Part of the boundary between the North American Plate and the Caribbean PlatePages displaying short descriptions of redirect


id: list-of-tectonic-plates-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates-2.md
category: reference
title: List of tectonic plates
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:59.252490+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-tectonic-plates-20260505-0
summary:
=== African plate === Atlantica – Ancient continent formed during the Proterozoic about 2 billion years ago Bangweulu Block – Part of the Congo craton of central Africa (Zambia) Congo Craton – Precambrian craton that with four others makes up the modern continent of Africa (Angola, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Sudan, and Zambia) Kaapvaal Craton – Archaean craton, possibly part of the Vaalbara supercontinent (South Africa) Kalahari Craton – African geological area (South Africa) Saharan Metacraton – Large area of continental crust in the north-central part of Africa (Algeria) Sebakwe proto-Craton – Old and stable part of the continental lithospherePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets (Zimbabwe) Tanzania Craton – Old and stable part of the continental lithosphere in central Tanzania (Tanzania) West African Craton – One of the five Precambrian cratons that make up the African Plate (Algeria, Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo) Zaire Craton (Congo) Zimbabwe Craton – Area in Southern Africa of ancient continental crust (Zimbabwe) === Antarctic plate === Bellingshausen plate – Ancient tectonic plate that fused onto the Antarctic plate Charcot plate – Fragment of


id: list-of-tectonic-plates-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates-3.md
category: reference
title: List of tectonic plates
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:59.252490+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-tectonic-plates-20260505-0
summary:
=== South American plate === Amazonian Craton – Geologic province in South America (Brazil) Guiana Shield – Precambrian geological formation in northeast South America (Brazil, Colombia, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname and Venezuela) Río de la Plata Craton – Medium-sized continental block in Uruguay, eastern Argentina and southern Brazil (Argentina and Uruguay) São Francisco Craton – Ancient craton in eastern South America (Brazil) Arequipa–Antofalla Craton – South American geology (Argentina, Bolivia, Chile and Peru) == See also == Asthenosphere – Highly viscous, ductile, and mechanically weak region of Earth's mantle Continent – Large geographical region identified by convention Craton – Old and stable part of the continental lithosphere Platform – Continental area covered by relatively flat or gently tilted, mainly sedimentary strata Shield – Large stable area of exposed Precambrian crystalline rock Earth's crust – Earth's outer shell of rock Continental crust – Layer of rock that forms the continents and continental shelves Oceanic crust – Uppermost layer of the oceanic portion of a tectonic plate Earth's mantle – Layer of silicate rock Lower mantle – Region from 660 to 2900 km below Earth's surfacePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Upper mantle – Very thick layer of rock inside EarthPages


id: timeline-of-volcanism-on-earth-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth-0.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of volcanism on Earth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:00.993723+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-volcanism-on-earth-20260505-0
summary:
This timeline of volcanism on Earth includes a list of major volcanic eruptions of approximately at least magnitude 6 on the Volcanic explosivity index (VEI) or equivalent sulfur dioxide emission during the Quaternary period (from 2.58 Mya to the present). Other volcanic eruptions are also listed. Some eruptions cooled the global climate—inducing a volcanic winter—depending on the amount of sulfur dioxide emitted and the magnitude of the eruption. Before the present Holocene epoch, the criteria are less strict because of scarce data availability, partly since later eruptions have destroyed the evidence. Only some eruptions before the Neogene period (from 23 Mya to 2.58 Mya) are listed. Known large eruptions after the Paleogene period (from 66 Mya to 23 Mya) are listed, especially those relating to the Yellowstone hotspot, Santorini caldera, and the Taupō Volcanic Zone. Active volcanoes such as Stromboli, Mount Etna and Kīlauea do not appear on this list, but some back-arc basin volcanoes that generated calderas do appear. Some dangerous volcanoes in "populated areas" appear many times: Santorini six times, and Yellowstone hotspot 21 times. The Bismarck volcanic arc, New Britain, and the Taupō Volcanic Zone, New Zealand, appear often too. In addition to the events listed below,


id: timeline-of-volcanism-on-earth-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth-1.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of volcanism on Earth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:00.993723+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-volcanism-on-earth-20260505-0
summary:
Eifel hotspot, Laacher See, Vulkan Eifel, Germany; 12.9 ka; VEI 6; 6 cubic kilometers (1.4 cu mi) of tephra. Emmons Lake Caldera (size: 11 x 18 km), Aleutian Range, 17 ka ±5; more than 50 km3 (12 cu mi) of tephra. Lake Barrine, Atherton Tableland, North Queensland, Australia; was formed over 17 ka. Menengai, East African Rift, Kenya; 29 ka Morne Diablotins, Commonwealth of Dominica; VEI 6; 30 ka (Grand Savanne Ignimbrite). Phlegraean Fields, Italy; VEI 7; 40 ka (Campanian Ignimbrite eruption). Kurile Lake, Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia; Golygin eruption; about 41.5 ka; VEI 7 Maninjau Caldera (size: 20 x 8 km), West Sumatra; VEI 7; around 52 ka; 220 to 250 cubic kilometers (52.8 to 60.0 cu mi) of tephra. Lake Toba (size: 100 x 30 km), Sumatra, Indonesia; VEI 8; 73 ka ±4; 2,500 to 3,000 cubic kilometers (599.8 to 719.7 cu mi) of tephra; probably six gigatons of sulfur dioxide were emitted (Youngest Toba Tuff). Atitlán Caldera (size: 17 x 20 km), Guatemalan Highlands; Los Chocoyos eruption; formed in an eruption 84 ka; VEI 7; 300 km3 (72 cu mi) of tephra. Mount Aso (size: 24 km wide), island of Kyūshū, Japan; 90 ka; last eruption was more


id: timeline-of-volcanism-on-earth-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth-2.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of volcanism on Earth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:00.993723+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-volcanism-on-earth-20260505-0
summary:
Cerro Guacha, Bolivia; 5.6–5.8 Ma (Guacha ignimbrite). Lord Howe Island, Australia; Mount Lidgbird and Mount Gower are both made of basalt rock, remnants of lava flows that once filled a large volcanic caldera 6.4 Ma. Yellowstone hotspot, Heise volcanic field, Idaho; 5.51 Ma ±0.13 (Conant Creek Tuff). Yellowstone hotspot, Heise volcanic field, Idaho; 5.6 Ma; 500 cubic kilometers (120 cu mi) of Blue Creek Tuff. Cerro Panizos (size: 18 km wide), Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex, Bolivia; 6.1 Ma; 652 cubic kilometers (156 cu mi) of Panizos Ignimbrite. Yellowstone hotspot, Heise volcanic field, Idaho; 6.27 Ma ±0.04 (Walcott Tuff). Yellowstone hotspot, Heise volcanic field, Idaho; Blacktail Caldera (size: 100 x 60 km), Idaho; 6.62 Ma ±0.03; 1,500 cubic kilometers (360 cu mi) of Blacktail Tuff. Pastos Grandes Caldera (size: 40 x 50 km), Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex, Bolivia; 8.3 Ma; 652 cubic kilometers (156 cu mi) of Sifon Ignimbrite. Manus Island, Admiralty Islands, northern Papua New Guinea; 8–10 Ma Banks Peninsula, New Zealand; Akaroa erupted 9 Ma, Lyttelton erupted 12 Ma. Mascarene Islands were formed in a series of undersea volcanic eruptions 8–10 Ma, as the African plate drifted over the Réunion hotspot. Yellowstone hotspot, Twin Fall volcanic field, Idaho; 8.6 to 10


id: timeline-of-volcanism-on-earth-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth-3.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of volcanism on Earth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:00.993723+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-volcanism-on-earth-20260505-0
summary:
Paleogene ends 23 million years ago. The formation of the Chilcotin Group basalts occurs between 10–6 million years ago. The formation of the Columbia River Basalt Group occurs between 17 and 6 million years ago. La Garita Caldera erupts in the Wheeler Geologic Area, Central Colorado volcanic field, Colorado, USA, eruption several VEI 8 events (Possibly as high as a VEI 9), 5,000 cubic kilometers (1,200 cu mi) of Fish Canyon Tuff was blasted out in a single, major eruption about 27.8 million years ago. Unknown source in Ethiopia erupts 29 million years ago with at least 3,000 cubic kilometers (720 cu mi) of Green Tuff and SAM. Sam Ignimbrite in Yemen forms 29.5 million years ago, at least 5,550 cubic kilometers (1,332 cu mi) of distal tuffs associated with the ignimbrites. Jabal Kura’a Ignimbrite in Yemen forms 29.6million years ago, at least 3,700 cubic kilometers (888 cu mi) of distal tuffs associated with the ignimbrites. The Ethiopian Highlands flood basalt begins 30 million years ago About 33.9 million ago, the Oligocene epoch of the Paleogene period begins The Mid-Tertiary ignimbrite flare-up begins 40 million years ago and lasts until 25 million years ago. Bennett Lake Volcanic Complex erupts 50


id: timeline-of-volcanism-on-earth-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth-4.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of volcanism on Earth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:00.993723+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-volcanism-on-earth-20260505-0
summary:
== Notes == The Mackenzie Large Igneous Province contains the largest and best-preserved continental flood basalt terrain on Earth. The Mackenzie dike swarm throughout the Mackenzie Large Igneous Province is also the largest dike swarm on Earth, covering an area of 2,700,000 km2 (1,000,000 mi2). The Bachelor (27.4 Ma), San Luis (27–26.8 Ma), and Creede (26 Ma) calderas partially overlap each other and are nested within the large La Garita (27.6 Ma) caldera, forming the central caldera cluster of the San Juan volcanic field, Wheeler Geologic Area, La Garita Wilderness. Creede, Colorado and San Luis Peak (Continental Divide of the Americas) are nearby. North Pass Caldera is northeastern the San Juan Mountains, North Pass. The Platoro volcanic complex lies southeastern of the central caldera cluster. The center of the western San Juan caldera cluster lies just west of Lake City, Colorado. The Rio Grande rift includes the San Juan volcanic field, the Valles Caldera, the Potrillo volcanic field, and the Socorro-Magdalena magmatic system. The Socorro Magma Body is uplifting the surface at approximately 2 mm/year. The southwestern Nevada volcanic field, or Yucca Mountain volcanic field, includes: Stonewall Mountain caldera complex, Black Mountain Caldera, Silent Canyon Caldera, Timber Mountain – Oasis


id: timeline-of-volcanism-on-earth-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth-5.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of volcanism on Earth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:00.993723+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-volcanism-on-earth-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Ammann, Caspar M.; Philippe Naveau (6 March 2003). "Statistical analysis of tropical explosive volcanism occurrences over the last 6 centuries" (PDF). Geophysical Research Letters. 30 (5): 1210. Bibcode:2003GeoRL..30.1210A. doi:10.1029/2002GL016388. S2CID 135288077. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 19 March 2010. Froggatt, P.C.; Lowe, D.J. (1990). "A review of late Quaternary silicic and some other tephra formations from New Zealand: their stratigraphy, nomenclature, distribution, volume, and age". New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics. 33 (1): 89–109. Bibcode:1990NZJGG..33...89F. doi:10.1080/00288306.1990.10427576. hdl:10289/176. Lipman, P.W. (September 30, 1984). "The Roots of Ash Flow Calderas in Western North America: Windows Into the Tops of Granitic Batholiths". Journal of Geophysical Research. 89 (B10): 8801–8841. Bibcode:1984JGR....89.8801L. doi:10.1029/JB089iB10p08801. Mason, Ben G.; Pyle, David M.; Oppenheimer, Clive (2004). "The size and frequency of the largest explosive eruptions on Earth". Bulletin of Volcanology. 66 (8): 735–748. Bibcode:2004BVol...66..735M. doi:10.1007/s00445-004-0355-9. S2CID 129680497. Newhall, Christopher G.; Dzurisin, Daniel (1988). "Historical unrest at large calderas of the world". USGS Bulletin 1855. p. 1108. Archived from the original on 2009-05-12. Siebert L.; Simkin T. (2002). "Volcanoes of the World: an Illustrated Catalog of Holocene Volcanoes and their Eruptions". Digital Information Series (GVP-3). Smithsonian Institution, Global Volcanism Program.


id: list-of-large-volcanic-eruptions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_large_volcanic_eruptions-0.md
category: reference
title: List of large volcanic eruptions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_large_volcanic_eruptions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:02.296171+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-large-volcanic-eruptions-20260505-0
summary:
This is a sortable list of large eruptions that occurred between 11.7 Ka and 450+ Ma. Uncertainties as to dates and tephra volumes are not restated, and references are not repeated. The inclusion criteria here only covers entries with a Volcanic explosivity index (VEI) of 5 or greater. The given values for events in the Miocene epoch sometimes lack references, and are given as VEI-equivalent, as an estimate of the erupted tephra volume. == <11.7KA (Holocene) == == 11.7 to 49KA == == 50 to 99KA == == 100 to 299KA == == 300 to 999KA == == 1 to 9.9MA == == 10MA and older == == Notes == == See also == Geologic time scale Timeline of volcanism on Earth List of large volume volcanic eruptions in the Basin and Range Province == References == === Bibliography === Ward, Peter L. (2 April 2009). "Sulfur Dioxide Initiates Global Climate Change in Four Ways" (PDF). Thin Solid Films. 517 (11): 3188–3203. Bibcode:2009TSF...517.3188W. doi:10.1016/j.tsf.2009.01.005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 January 2010. Retrieved 2010-03-19. Supplementary Table I: "Supplementary Table to P.L. Ward, Thin Solid Films (2009) Major volcanic eruptions and provinces" (PDF). Teton Tectonics. Archived from the original (PDF)


id: outline-of-geophysics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_geophysics-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of geophysics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_geophysics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:04.019806+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-geophysics-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to geophysics: Geophysics – the physics of the Earth and its environment in space; also the study of the Earth using quantitative physical methods. The term geophysics sometimes refers only to the geological applications: Earth's shape; its gravitational and magnetic fields; its internal structure and composition; its dynamics and their surface expression in plate tectonics, the generation of magmas, volcanism and rock formation. However, modern geophysics organizations have a broader definition that includes the hydrological cycle including snow and ice; fluid dynamics of the oceans and the atmosphere; electricity and magnetism in the ionosphere and magnetosphere and solar-terrestrial relations; and analogous problems associated with the Moon and other planets. == Nature of geophysics == Geophysics can be described as all of the following: An academic discipline – branch of knowledge that is taught and researched at the college or university level. Disciplines are defined (in part), and recognized by the academic journals in which research is published, and the learned societies and academic departments or faculties to which their practitioners belong. A scientific field (a branch of science) – widely recognized category of specialized expertise within science, and


id: list-of-earth-and-atmospheric-sciences-journals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_earth_and_atmospheric_sciences_journals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of earth and atmospheric sciences journals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_earth_and_atmospheric_sciences_journals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:05.325969+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-earth-and-atmospheric-sciences-journals-20260505-0
summary:
This list presents notable scientific journals in earth and atmospheric sciences and its various subfields. == Multi-disciplinary == == Atmospheric science == == Geochemistry == Chemical Geology Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta Geostandards and Geoanalytical Research Geostandards Newsletter Organic Geochemistry Quaternary Geochronology == Geology == === Mineralogy and petrology === American Mineralogist Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology European Journal of Mineralogy Journal of Petrology Mineralium Deposita Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry == Geophysics == == Hydrology == Journal of Hydrology Water Research Water Resources Research == Oceanography == Annual Review of Marine Science Deep Sea Research Journal of Geophysical Research: section C (Oceans) Journal of Marine Research Journal of Physical Oceanography Ocean Science Paleoceanography == Unsorted == Episodes Journal of Glaciology Australian Meteorological Magazine == See also == List of scientific journals == External links == List of geoscience journals and rankings at eigenfactor.org


id: list-of-geodesists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geodesists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of geodesists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geodesists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:06.555921+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-geodesists-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of geodesists, people who made notable contributions to geodesy, whether or not geodesy was their primary field. These include historical figures who laid the foundations for the field of geodesy. == Geodesists before 1900 (arranged by date) == == 20th century geodesists (alphabetically arranged) == == See also == Earth system science – Scientific study of the Earth's spheres and their natural integrated systems Geodesy – Science of measuring the shape, orientation, and gravity of Earth Geodynamics – Study of dynamics of the Earth History of geodesy List of geodesists Planetary science – Science of planets and planetary systems == References ==


id: list-of-geophysicists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysicists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of geophysicists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysicists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:07.775175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-geophysicists-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of geophysicists, people who made notable contributions to geophysics, whether or not geophysics was their primary field. These include historical figures who laid the foundations for the field of geophysics. More recently, some of the top awards for geophysicists are the Vetlesen Prize (intended to be the equivalent of a Nobel Prize for geology or geophysics); the William Bowie Medal (the top award of the American Geophysical Union); the Maurice Ewing Medal (the top award of the Society of Exploration Geophysicists); and the Crafoord Prize for geosciences. Some geophysicists have also won more general prizes such as the Nobel Prize and the Kyoto Prize. == A == Leason Adams (American, 1887–1969) – high pressure mineral physics Thomas J Ahrens (American, 1936–2010) – experimental methods for modeling hypervelocity impacts and materials in the Earth's core and mantle Hannes Alfvén (Swedish, 1908–1995) – Alfvén waves, magnetohydrodynamics of magnetosphere; Nobel Prize in Physics Giuseppina Aliverti (Italian, 1894–1982) – geophysicist remembered for developing the Aliverti-Lovera method of measuring the radioactivity of water Keiiti Aki (Japanese-American, 1930–2005) – seismology; William Bowie Medal Claude Allègre (French, 1937– ) Crafoord Prize Don L. Anderson (American, 1933–2014) – seismology and Earth's interior (including the


id: list-of-geophysicists-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysicists-1.md
category: reference
title: List of geophysicists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysicists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:07.775175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-geophysicists-20260505-0
summary:
Gerhard Fanselau (German, 1904–1982) – geomagnetic observations Joseph Charles Farman (British, 1930–2013) – co-discoverer of the ozone hole Yevgeny Konstantinovich Fyodorov (Russian, 1910–1981) – pioneer in Arctic geophysical survey Osmond Fisher (British, 1817–1914) – continental drift John Adam Fleming (American, 1877–1956) – magnetosphere and atmospheric electricity James David Forbes (British, 1809–1868) – built the first seismometer Scott Forbush (American, 1904–1984) – solar-terrestrial interactions and the Forbush decrease Efi Foufoula-Georgiou (Greek, 1957–) – wavelet analysis Gillian Foulger (English, 1952– ) – plate theory Robert Were Fox the Younger (British, 1789–1877) – discovered the geothermal gradient; constructed a dip circle for use at sea Benjamin Franklin (American, 1706–1790) – established that lightning is electrical == G == Carl Friedrich Gauss (German, 1777–1855) – first mathematical representation of Earth's magnetic field; geodetic surveys Henry Gellibrand (English, 1597–1637) – discovered that magnetic declination varies with time James Freeman Gilbert (American, 1931–2014) – development of geophysical inverse theory; network of seismometers to study Earth's free oscillation William Gilbert (English, 1544–1603) – early magnetic experiments; first to argue that the Earth itself is magnetic George Graham (English 1673 – November 1751) – discovery of the diurnal variation of the Earth's magnetic field; related Aurora borealis to


id: list-of-geophysicists-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysicists-2.md
category: reference
title: List of geophysicists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysicists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:07.775175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-geophysicists-20260505-0
summary:
Gordon J. F. MacDonald (American, 1929–2002) – investigated rotation of the Earth and true polar wander James B. Macelwane (American, 1883–1956) – seismologist; awarded William Bowie Medal Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan (French, 1678 –1771) – shape of the Earth and aurora Robert Mallet (Irish, 1810–1881) – developed controlled source seismology; coined terms seismology and epicenter Syukuro Manabe (Japanese, 1931– ) – climate models; awarded William Bowie Medal Pierre de Maricourt (Petrus Peregrinus) (French, fl. 1269) – first extant treatise on properties of magnets; detailed study of the compass Edme Mariotte (French, 1620–1684) – one of the pioneers of modern hydrology; used floats to measure river flow Drummond Matthews (British, 1931–1997) – used ocean magnetic anomalies to confirm theory of seafloor spreading Motonori Matuyama (Japanese, 1884–1958) – first to show that a geomagnetic reversal had occurred in the past Dan McKenzie (British, 1942– ) – mathematical framework for plate tectonics; mantle convection; sedimentary basin formation; Crafoord Prize Harry Mayne (American, 1913–1990) – exploration geophysicist, invented CRP stacking for noise reduction; Maurice Ewing Medal (SEG) Marcia McNutt (American, 1952– ) – elastic strength of lithosphere; identified the South Pacific superswell Felix Andries Vening Meinesz (Dutch, 1887–1966) – developed a precise gravimeter and


id: list-of-geophysicists-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysicists-3.md
category: reference
title: List of geophysicists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysicists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:07.775175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-geophysicists-20260505-0
summary:
Edward Sabine (Irish, 1788–1883) – measured oblateness of the Earth; established system of magnetic observatories Benjamin D. Santer (American, 1955– ) – climatologist Conrad Schlumberger (French, 1878–1936) – and Marcel Schlumberger (French, 1884–1953) – invented electric well logging Michael Schoenberg (American, 1939–2008) – contributions to seismic anisotropy Alessandro Serpieri (Italian, 1823–1885) – seismologist Nicholas Shackleton (British, 1937–2006) – paleoceanography, climate, Crafoord Prize, Vetlesen Prize Irwin I. Shapiro (American, 1929– ) – awarded William Bowie Medal Otto Schmidt (Russian, 1891–1956) Shen Kuo (Chinese, 1031–1095) – discovered magnetic declination Robert E. Sheriff (American, 1922–2014) – exploration geophysics; Maurice Ewing Medal (SEG) John Sherwood (British) – exploration geophysics; Maurice Ewing Medal (SEG) Eugene Merle Shoemaker (American, 1928–1997) – planetary science; awarded William Bowie Medal Paul G. Silver (American, 1948–2009) – seismic anisotropy and splitting of shear waves Fred Singer (Austrian-American, 1924–2020) – atmospheric physicist, global warming denier Susan Solomon (American, 1956– ) – proposed chlorofluorocarbons as the cause of the Antarctic ozone hole; awarded Nobel Peace Prize and William Bowie Medal David J. Stevenson (New Zealander/American, 1948– ) – theories of internal structure and evolution of planets Balfour Stewart (Scottish, 1828–1887) – observations of solar flares and geomagnetic storms Henry Stommel (American, 1920–1992)


id: outline-of-hydrology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_hydrology-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of hydrology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_hydrology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:09.297016+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-hydrology-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to hydrology: Hydrology – study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth and other planets, including the hydrologic cycle, water resources and environmental watershed sustainability. == What type of thing is hydrology? == Hydrology can be described as all of the following: a branch of science a branch of natural science a branch of physical science a branch of Earth science a branch of geography a branch of physical geography === Essence of hydrology === Water Hydrologic cycle Cryosphere Origin of water on Earth Water distribution on Earth == Branches of hydrology == Hydrometry – the measurement of the different components of the hydrologic cycle Chemical hydrology – the study of the chemical characteristics of water Ecohydrology – the study of interactions between organisms and the hydrologic cycle Hydrogeology – the study of the presence and movement of water in aquifers Hydroinformatics – the adaptation of information technology to hydrology and water resources applications Hydrometeorology – the study of the transfer of water and energy between land and water body surfaces and the lower atmosphere Isotope hydrology – the study of the isotopic signatures of


id: outline-of-hydrology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_hydrology-1.md
category: reference
title: Outline of hydrology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_hydrology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:09.297016+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-hydrology-20260505-0
summary:
Analyzing the impacts of antecedent moisture on sanitary sewer systems Assessing contaminant transport risk and establishing environmental policy guidelines Assessing the impacts of natural and anthropogenic environmental change on water resources Designing bridges Designing dams for water supply or hydroelectric power generation Designing irrigation schemes and managing agricultural productivity Designing riparian restoration projects Designing sewers and urban drainage system Determining the agricultural water balance Determining the water balance of a region Fog collection Part of the hazard module in catastrophe modeling Predicting and mitigating flood, landslide and drought risk Predicting geomorphologic changes, such as erosion or sedimentation Providing drinking water Real-time flood forecasting and flood warning == Hydrology organizations == === Intergovernmental organizations === International Hydrological Programme (IHP) === International research bodies === International Water Management Institute (IWMI) UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education === National research bodies === Centre for Ecology and Hydrology – UK Centre for Water Science, Cranfield University, UK eawag – aquatic research, ETH Zürich, Switzerland Institute of Hydrology, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg, Germany United States Geological Survey – Water Resources of the United States NOAA's National Weather Service – Office of Hydrologic Development, USA US Army Corps of Engineers Hydrologic Engineering Center, USA Hydrologic Research Center, USA


id: list-of-drainage-basins-by-area-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_drainage_basins_by_area-0.md
category: reference
title: List of drainage basins by area
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_drainage_basins_by_area
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:10.573496+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-drainage-basins-by-area-20260505-0
summary:
The list of drainage basins by area identifies basins (also known as "catchments" or, in North American usage, "watersheds"), sorted by area, which drain to oceans, mediterranean seas, rivers, lakes and other water bodies. All basins larger than 400,000 km2 (150,000 sq mi) are included as well as selected smaller basins. It includes drainage basins which do not flow to the ocean (endorheic basins). It includes oceanic sea drainage basins which have hydrologically coherent areas (oceanic seas are set by IHO convention). The oceans drain approximately 83% of the land in the world. The other 17% – an area larger than the basin of the Arctic Ocean – drains to internal endorheic basins. There are also substantial areas of the world that do not "drain" in the commonly understood sense. In polar deserts, much of the snowfall sublimates directly into the air and does not melt into flowing water, while in tropical deserts precipitation may evaporate before joining any substantial water course. These areas can still be included in topographically defined basins if the hypothetical flow of water (or ice) over the surface of the ground (or ice sheet) is considered. For example, the Antarctic ice sheet can be divided


id: list-of-fluvial-landforms-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fluvial_landforms-0.md
category: reference
title: List of fluvial landforms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fluvial_landforms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:11.781005+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fluvial-landforms-20260505-0
summary:
Landforms related to rivers and other watercourses include: Channel (geography) – Narrow body of water Confluence – Meeting of two or more bodies of flowing water Cut bank – Outside bank of a water channel, which is continually undergoing erosion Crevasse splay – Sediment deposited on a floodplain by a stream which breaks its levees Drainage basin – Land area where water converges to a common outlet (watershed) Esker – Long, winding ridge of stratified sand and gravel associated with former glaciers Floodplain – Land adjacent to a water body which is flooded during periods of high water Fluvial landforms of streams Fluvial terrace – Elongated terraces that flank the sides of floodplains and river valleys Canyon – Deep chasm between cliffs (Gorge) Gully – Landform created by running water and/or mass movement eroding sharply into soil Island – Piece of subcontinental land surrounded by water Levee § Natural levees Meander – One of a series of curves in a channel of a matured stream Oxbow lake – U-shaped lake or pool left by an ancient river meander Pendant bar – Streamlined gravel bar below an obstruction Plunge pool – Depression at the base of a waterfall Point bar –


id: list-of-water-games-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_water_games-0.md
category: reference
title: List of water games
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_water_games
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:13.036654+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-water-games-20260505-0
summary:
Water games are games played in a body of water, such as a swimming pool, pond, lake, or river. Chicken fight Two person teams: one team member sitting on the shoulders of his or her teammate or riding piggy-back. The object of the game is to knock-down or separate an opposing team through a team effort. Gator One person is chosen to be the first Gator, and treads water on one side of the playing area. The remaining players stand on the pool deck on the side opposite the Gator. These players are prohibited to enter the water until the Gator says the word "gator". Once the word has been said, the players are free to enter the water whenever they wish. Once they enter the water, they must swim to the other side. If the Gator touches (more commonly "tags") any part of the player's body before he touches the other side, he is caught. After all players have crossed to the other side safely or have been caught by the Gator, the round is over. The free players get out of the water and the Gator and whomever he caught swim to the opposite side of the playing


id: list-of-chesapeake-bay-rivers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Chesapeake_Bay_rivers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Chesapeake Bay rivers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Chesapeake_Bay_rivers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:14.318816+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chesapeake-bay-rivers-20260505-0
summary:
This list of Chesapeake Bay rivers includes the main rivers draining into the Chesapeake Bay estuarine complex on the mid-Atlantic eastern coast of the United States, North America. The three largest rivers in order of both discharge and watershed area are the Susquehanna River, the Potomac River, and the James River. Other major rivers include the Rappahannock River, the Appomattox River (which flows into the lower James River), the York River (a combination of the Pamunkey and Mattaponi tributary rivers), the Patuxent River, and the Choptank River. The entire Chesapeake Bay watershed includes portions of six states (New York, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Maryland, Virginia, and Delaware) and the District of Columbia. The watershed of the entire Chesapeake Bay covers 165,760 km2 (approximately 64,000 mi2 or 41 million acres ). With an estuary water body area of only 11,600 km2 (4,479 mi2), the land-to-water ratio is about 14:1. Therefore, the rivers flowing into the Chesapeake Bay have a large influence on water quality in the estuary. The rivers flowing into the Chesapeake Bay act as sources of nutrients and sediments from land, which affect the health of the downstream estuary. The larger rivers cross the Atlantic seaboard fall line. Over time,


id: list-of-ocean-circulation-models-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ocean_circulation_models-0.md
category: reference
title: List of ocean circulation models
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ocean_circulation_models
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:15.653274+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ocean-circulation-models-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of ocean circulation models, as used in physical oceanography. Ocean circulation models can also be used to study chemical oceanography, biological oceanography, geological oceanography, and climate science. == Integrated ocean modeling systems == Integrated ocean modeling systems use multiple coupled models. This coupling allows researchers to understand processes that happen among multiple systems that are usually modeled independently, such as the ocean, atmosphere, waves, and sediments. Integrated ocean modeling systems is helpful for specific regions: for example, the ESPreSSO model is used to study the Mid-Atlantic Bight region. Integrated ocean modeling systems often use data from buoys and weather stations for atmospheric forcing and boundary conditions. Two examples of integrated ocean modeling systems are: COAWST: Coupled Ocean Atmosphere Wave Sediment Transport Modeling System (uses ROMS as its ocean circulation component). ESPreSSO: Experimental System for Predicting Shelf and Slope Optics (uses ROMS as its ocean circulation component). == References ==


id: list-of-pseudoscientific-water-fuel-inventions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_pseudoscientific_water_fuel_inventions-0.md
category: reference
title: List of pseudoscientific water fuel inventions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_pseudoscientific_water_fuel_inventions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:16.865558+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-pseudoscientific-water-fuel-inventions-20260505-0
summary:
This article attempts to list pseudoscientific inventions wherein common water is used to either augment or generate a fuel to power an engine, boiler or other source of power. This is not to be confused with legitimate inventions (such as hydroelectricity) in which the kinetic energy of flowing water is used for power. == Electrolysis == The electrolysis of water splits water into hydrogen and oxygen, producing a usable fuel, which, when burned, turns back into water. However, the energy required for electrolysis is greater than the energy released by burning this fuel, so this is not a viable way to manufacture energy. Nonetheless, several people have claimed to create devices that do exactly this. Stanley Meyer, who claimed to run a car on water in 1984. Charles Frazer, an inventor from Ohio who, in 1918 patented a hydrogen booster which claimed to use electrolysis to increase vehicle power and fuel efficiency while greatly reducing exhaust emissions. Daniel Dingel, a Filipino engineer who was involved in water fuel research since 1968. A video interview showed Dingel's Toyota Corolla with an on-board hydrogen water fuel generator. In 2008 he was given a 20-year sentence for fraud. == Submerged gasification == Ruggero


id: 1974-in-spaceflight-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1974_in_spaceflight-0.md
category: reference
title: 1974 in spaceflight
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1974_in_spaceflight
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:18.451135+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 1974-in-spaceflight-20260505-0
summary:
On 29 March 1974 Mariner 10 became the first spacecraft to fly by Mercury, that saw a spacecraft for the first and last time in the 20th century. == Orbital launches == == Suborbital launches == == Deep Space Rendezvous == == EVAs == == References == === Footnotes ===


id: 1975-in-spaceflight-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1975_in_spaceflight-0.md
category: reference
title: 1975 in spaceflight
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1975_in_spaceflight
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:19.749420+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 1975-in-spaceflight-20260505-0
summary:
In 1975, several notable events occurred in spaceflight, including the launches of Venera 9 and 10 and their Venus arrivals, the launches of the Viking Mars missions, the joint American-Soviet Apollo–Soyuz Test Project (ASTP), the failure of Soyuz 7K-T 39, and the launch of Aryabhatta, India's first satellite. The Venera 9 mission was launched 8 June 1975 and on 20 October 1975 became the first spacecraft to orbit Venus; two days later its lander returned the first images from the surface of any planet (other than Earth). Venera 10 was launched on 14 June 1975; it entered orbit of Venus on 23 October 1975 and its lander arrived on the surface of Venus on 25 October 1975. Both Venera 9 and Venera 10 returned various scientific observations of Venus and black-and-white television pictures from the planet's surface. Viking 1 was launched on 20 August 1975 and Viking 2 was launched 9 September 1975. This orbiter/lander mission was to photograph the surface of Mars in 1976. The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project was a collaboration between the United States and the Soviet Union that saw an end to the space race. The mission was launched on 15 July 1975, with the Soyuz returning


id: aitym-formation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aitym_Formation-0.md
category: reference
title: Aitym Formation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aitym_Formation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:20.938311+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aitym-formation-20260505-0
summary:
The Aitym Formation is a geological formation in Uzbekistan which possibly dates to the Santonian stage of the Late Cretaceous period. The formation has not been precisely dated. However, certain fossils suggest the formation was deposited during the Santonian stage of the Late Cretaceous period. == Fossil content == A diverse fauna has been unearthed from the Aitym Formation including oysters, ammonites and many marine vertebrates, including an abundant assemblage of chondrichthyans (cartilaginous fish), a rarer assemblage of osteichthyans (bony fish), and rather infrequent finds of plesiosaurs, and sea turtles. Terrestrial vertebrate remains are extremely rare in the formation. A few bones of salamanders, lizards, crocodiles, possibly terrestrial turtle remains, dinosaurs (including birds), and mammals have been found in the formation. === Mammals === === Molluscs === === Amphibians === == References ==


id: list-of-am-cannabinoids-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_AM_cannabinoids-0.md
category: reference
title: List of AM cannabinoids
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_AM_cannabinoids
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:22.307748+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-am-cannabinoids-20260505-0
summary:
Alexandros Makriyannis is a professor in the Department of Medicinal Chemistry at Northeastern University, where his research group has synthesized many new compounds with cannabinoid activity. Some of those are: == See also == List of CP cannabinoids List of JWH cannabinoids List of HU cannabinoids List of miscellaneous designer cannabinoids == References ==


id: janice-c-beatley-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janice_C._Beatley-0.md
category: reference
title: Janice C. Beatley
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janice_C._Beatley
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:24.135015+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: janice-c-beatley-20260505-0
summary:
Janice Carson Beatley (March 18, 1919 – November 14, 1987) was an American botanist, known for her fieldwork on the forests of Ohio and the flora of the Nevada Atomic Test Site. Beatley was Professor of Biological Sciences at the University of Cincinnati. She has three plant species named in her honour including Astragalus beatleyae. == Early life and education == Janice Carson Beatley was born in Columbus, Ohio to Earle Beatley and Alice Elizabeth (Carson) Beatley. In 1935, she graduated from North High School in Columbus, then went on to obtain three degrees from Ohio State University, a B.A. in zoology (1940), and a M.S. (1948) and a PhD (1953), both in botany with research in plant ecology. == Career == During her early career, Beatley conducted extensive studies of the forests of central and southern Ohio, including a survey of more than 1000 species of wintergreen herbaceous flora. This work, published as "The winter-green herbaceous flowering plants of Ohio" (1956), is believed to be the first comprehensive study of its kind in North America. Other extensive studies of Ohio vegetation followed, but in 1960, Beatley's focus shifted to the Atomic Test Site of south-central Nevada, where she would


id: list-of-esters-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_esters-0.md
category: reference
title: List of esters
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_esters
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:25.402555+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-esters-20260505-0
summary:
In chemistry, an ester is a compound derived from an acid (organic or inorganic) in which the hydrogen atom (H) of at least one acidic hydroxyl group (−OH) of that acid is replaced by an organyl group (−R). Analogues derived from oxygen replaced by other chalcogens belong to the ester category as well (i.e. esters of acidic −SH, −SeH, −TeH, −PoH and −LvH groups). According to some authors, organyl derivatives of acidic hydrogen of other acids are esters as well (e.g. amides), but not according to the IUPAC. An example of an ester formation is the substitution reaction between a carboxylic acid (R−C(=O)−OH) and an alcohol (R'OH), forming an ester (R−C(=O)−O−R'), where R and R′ are organyl groups, or H in the case of esters of formic acid. Glycerides, which are fatty acid esters of glycerol, are important esters in biology, being one of the main classes of lipids, and making up the bulk of animal fats and vegetable oils. Esters of carboxylic acids with low molecular weight are commonly used as fragrances and found in essential oils and pheromones. Phosphoesters form the backbone of DNA molecules. Nitrate esters, such as nitroglycerin, are known for their explosive properties, while polyesters


id: allan-hamilton-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan_Hamilton-0.md
category: reference
title: Allan Hamilton
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan_Hamilton
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:26.684923+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: allan-hamilton-20260505-0
summary:
Allan J. Hamilton (born November 16, 1950) is an American physician and medical consultant to ABC's medical drama Grey's Anatomy based in Tucson, Arizona. A professor of Neurosurgery at the University of Arizona College of Medicine – Tucson, Dr. Hamilton was elected a Fellow of the American College of Surgeons in 1994. In 1995, Dr. Hamilton was promoted to Chief of Neurosurgery and became Chairman of the Department of Surgery in 1998. He currently holds a tenured professorship in Neurosurgery, as well as additional professorships in the Departments of Psychology, Radiation Oncology, and the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering. His book The Scalpel and the Soul: Encounters with Surgery, the Supernatural, and the Healing Power of Hope was released in March 2008. It has been translated into several languages. He is currently at work on a second book on spirituality and horsemanship, specifically on the sexual impulses of mature mares. == Background == Hamilton grew up in Queens, New York, in the neighborhood of Kew Gardens, and received his undergraduate degree at Ithaca College. After graduation, Hamilton worked as a janitor at a church and veterinary hospital in Utica, New York before getting a job teaching English at Whitesboro


id: allan-hamilton-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan_Hamilton-1.md
category: reference
title: Allan Hamilton
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan_Hamilton
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:26.684923+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: allan-hamilton-20260505-0
summary:
Molzahn, Allyson G.; Lovett, Marissa K.; Biffar, David; de Oliveira Almeida, Gustavo; Hamilton, Allan J. (October 2024) [First published online August 4, 2024]. "The Effect of Time Pressure on Surgical Skill Retention in Novices: A Randomized Controlled Trial". Surgical Innovation. 31 (5): 541–549. doi:10.1177/15533506241273359. ISSN 1553-3514. PMID 39097818. Zhu, Xi; Suarez-Jimenez, Benjamin; Zilcha-Mano, Sigal; Lazarov, Amit; Arnon, Shay; Lowell, Ari L.; Bergman, Maja; Ryba, Matthew; Hamilton, Allan J.; Hamilton, Jane F.; Turner, J. Blake; Markowitz, John C.; Fisher, Prudence W.; Neria, Yuval (April 15, 2021). "Neural changes following equine-assisted therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder: A longitudinal multimodal imaging study". Human Brain Mapping. 42 (6): 1930–1939. doi:10.1002/hbm.25360. ISSN 1097-0193. PMC 7978114. PMID 33547694. Clinical trial number NCT03068325 at ClinicalTrials.gov. Lee, Sangyoon; Hua, Hong; Nguyen, Mike; Hamilton, Allan J. (February 2021) [First published online September 7, 2020]. "Further Comparison of 4 Display Modes for a Multi-Resolution Foveated Laparoscope". Surgical Innovation. 28 (1): 85–93. doi:10.1177/1553350620957799. ISSN 1553-3514. PMC 7936989. PMID 32895010. Lee, Sangyoon; Hua, Hong; Nguyen, Mike; Hamilton, Allan J. (January 2019) [Received: 1 May 2018 / Accepted: 5 September 2018 / Published online: 11 September 2018]. "Comparison of six display modes for a multi-resolution foveated laparoscope". Surgical Endoscopy. 33 (1): 341–351. doi:10.1007/s00464-018-6445-0.


id: methocha-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methocha-0.md
category: reference
title: Methocha
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methocha
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:29.253247+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: methocha-20260505-0
summary:
Methocha is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Thynnidae. The species of this genus are found worldwide except in Australia, and attack the larvae of tiger beetles. Females are wingless, and can be mistaken for ants, while males are winged. == Biology == Female Methocha actively hunt over the ground for burrows containing tiger beetle larvae, which are ambush predators; the wasp entices the beetle larva into attacking, evades being bitten, and quickly moves in and stings the larva in its vulnerable underside, paralyzing it. It then lays an egg on the immobile beetle larva, and the wasp larva consumes it. == Species == Methocha alutacea Linnaeus Methocha anomala Krombein Methocha californica Westwood, 1881 Methocha formosa Krombein, 1954 Methocha ichneumonides Latreille, 1804 Methocha impolita Krombein, 1958 Methocha krombeini Raveendram, Kumar, Binoy, & Sureshan, 2021 Methocha paraceylonica Raveendram, Kumar, Binoy, & Sureshan, 2021 Methocha shyamagatra Raveendram, Kumar, Binoy, & Sureshan, 2021 Methocha stygia (Say, 1836) Methocha uchinanensis Terayamma & Mita, 2015 Methocha yaeyamensis Terayamma & Mita, 2015 == References ==


id: neisseria-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neisseria-0.md
category: reference
title: Neisseria
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neisseria
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:30.648186+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neisseria-20260505-0
summary:
Neisseria is a large genus of bacteria that colonize the mucous membranes of many animals. Of the 11 species that colonize humans, only two are pathogens: N. meningitidis and N. gonorrhoeae. Neisseria species are Gram-negative bacteria included among the Pseudomonadota, a large group of Gram-negative forms. Neisseria diplococci resemble coffee beans when viewed microscopically. == Pathogenesis and classification == === Pathogens === Species of this genus (family Neisseriaceae) of parasitic bacteria grow in pairs and occasionally fours, and thrive best at 98.6 °F (37 °C) in the animal body or serum media. The genus includes: N. gonorrhoeae (also called the gonococcus) causes gonorrhea. N. meningitidis (also called the meningococcus) is one of the most common causes of bacterial meningitis and the causative agent of meningococcal septicaemia. The immune system's neutrophils are restricted in function due to the ability of Neisseria to evade opsonization by antibodies, and to replicate within neutrophils despite phagocytosis. Neisseria species are also able to alter their antigens to avoid being engulfed by a process called antigenic variation, which is observed primarily in surface-located molecules. The pathogenic species along with some commensal species, have type IV pili which serve multiple functions for this organism. Some functions of


id: nickel-double-salts-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel_double_salts-0.md
category: reference
title: Nickel double salts
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel_double_salts
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:31.913544+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nickel-double-salts-20260505-0
summary:
Nickel can form various double salts. == Tutton's salts == Nickel is one of the metals that can form Tutton's salts. The singly charged ion can be any of the full range of potassium, rubidium, cesium, ammonium (NH4), or thallium. === Mineral forms === As a mineral the ammonium nickel salt, (NH4)2Ni(SO4)2 · 6 H2O, can be called nickelboussingaultite. With sodium, the double sulfate is nickelblödite Na2Ni(SO4)2 · 4 H2O from the blödite family. Nickel can be substituted by other divalent metals of similar sized to make mixtures that crystallise in the same form. == Langbeinites == Anhydrous salts of the formula M2Ni2(SO4)3, which can be termed metal nickel trisulfates, belong to the family of langbeinites. The known salts include (NH4)2Ni2(SO4)3, K2Ni2(SO4)3 and Rb2Ni2(SO4)3, and those of Tl and Cs are predicted to exist. == Double halides == === Fluorides === Double fluorides include the fluoroanion salts, and those fluoronickelates such as NiF4 and NiF6: KNiF3·H2O and NaNiF3·H2O – apple green coloured aluminium nickel pentafluoride (AlNiF5·7H2O) ceric nickelous decafluoride (Ce2NiF10·7H2O) niobium nickel fluoride (Ni3H4Nb2F20·19H2O) vanadium nickel pentafluoride (VNiF5·7H2O) vanadyl nickel tetrafluoride (VONiF4·7H2O) chromic nickelous pentafluoride (CrNiF5·7H2O) molybdenum nickel dioxytetrafluoride (NiMoO2F4·6H2O) tungsten nickel dioxytetrafluoride hexahydrate (NiWO2F4·6H2O) and decahydrate (NiWO2F4·10H2O) manganic nickel


id: p-microphylla-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P._microphylla-0.md
category: reference
title: P. microphylla
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P._microphylla
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:33.148769+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: p-microphylla-20260505-0
summary:
P. microphylla may refer to different species of plants, algae, fungi, and even animals. The specific epithet microphylla derives from Greek μικροϛ (micros) and φυλλον (phyllon) and means 'small leaves'. Pannaria microphylla, a lichen in the family Pannariaceae Paraerva microphylla, a plant in the family Amaranthaceae Paraquilegia microphylla, a plant in the family Ranunculaceae Paratrophis microphylla, a tree in the family Moraceae Paravallaris microphylla, a plant in the family Apocynaceae Parietaria microphylla, a plant in the family Parietarieae Parkinsonia microphylla, a palo verde tree in the family Fabaceae Parmelia microphylla, a lichen in the family Parmeliaceae Parmeliella microphylla, a lichen in the family Pannariaceae Paronychia microphylla, a plant in the family Paronychieae Parosela microphylla, a plant in the family Fabaceae Passerina microphylla, a plant in the family Thymelaeaceae Patellaria microphylla, a fungus in the family Patellariaceae Pauridiantha microphylla, a plant in the family Rubiaceae Pavetta microphylla, a plant in the family Rubiaceae Payena microphylla, a tree in the family Sapotaceae Pedicularis microphylla, a plant in the family Orobanchaceae Peixotoa microphylla, a plant in the family Malpighiaceae Pellaea microphylla, currently called Argyrochosma microphylla, a fern in the family Pteridaceae Pellegrinia microphylla, a plant in the family Ericaceae Peltigera microphylla, a lichen


id: sativum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sativum-0.md
category: reference
title: Sativum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sativum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:34.332549+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sativum-20260505-0
summary:
Sativa, sativus, and sativum are Latin botanical adjectives meaning cultivated. It is often associated botanically with plants that promote good health and used to designate certain seed-grown domestic crops. == Usage == Sativa (ending in -a) is the feminine form of the adjective, but masculine (-us) and neuter (-um) endings are also used to agree with the gender of the nouns they modify; for example, the masculine Crocus sativus and neuter Pisum sativum. == List of plant names containing sativum == Examples of crops incorporating this word and its variations into their Latin name include: Allium sativum, garlic. Avena sativa, the common oat. Cannabis sativa, one of three forms of cannabis. Castanea sativa, sweet chestnut. Coriandrum sativum, coriander, also known as cilantro, an annual herb. Crocus sativus, the saffron crocus. Cucumis sativus, the cucumber. Daucus carota subsp. sativus, the carrot. Eruca sativa, the rocket or arugula, a leaf vegetable. Hordeum sativum, barley. Lactuca sativa, lettuce. Lathyrus sativus, grass pea Lepidium sativum, garden cress. Madia sativa, Chilean tarweed. Medicago sativa, alfalfa. Nigella sativa, a flower whose edible seeds are sometimes known as "black cumin" or "black caraway". Oryza sativa, rice. Pastinaca sativa., parsnip, a root vegetable closely related to the carrot


id: spiroplasma-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiroplasma-0.md
category: reference
title: Spiroplasma
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiroplasma
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:35.702836+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: spiroplasma-20260505-0
summary:
Spiroplasma is a genus of Mollicutes, a group of small bacteria without cell walls. Spiroplasma shares the simple metabolism, parasitic lifestyle, fried-egg colony morphology and small genome of other Mollicutes, but has a distinctive helical morphology, unlike Mycoplasma. It has a spiral shape and moves in a corkscrew motion. Many Spiroplasma are found either in the gut or haemolymph of insects where they can act to manipulate host reproduction, or defend the host as endosymbionts. Spiroplasma are also disease-causing agents in the phloem of plants. Spiroplasmas are fastidious organisms, which require a rich culture medium. Typically they grow well at 30 °C, but not at 37 °C. A few species, notably Spiroplasma mirum, grow well at 37 °C (human body temperature), and cause cataracts and neurological damage in suckling mice. The best studied species of spiroplasmas are Spiroplasma poulsonii, a reproductive manipulator and defensive insect symbiont, Spiroplasma citri, the causative agent of citrus stubborn disease, and Spiroplasma kunkelii, the causative agent of corn stunt disease. == Genus structure == Spiroplasma as currently circumscribeed is not monophyletic and consists of four separate clades: Spiroplasma sensu stricto consists of the large clade around S. citri. This clade has been subdivided into mirum,


id: spiroplasma-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiroplasma-1.md
category: reference
title: Spiroplasma
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiroplasma
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:35.702836+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: spiroplasma-20260505-0
summary:
=== In humans === In 1997, an unnamed species closest to S. taiwanense was found in a newborn with unilateral cataract and anterior uveitis. This is the first known human infection. In 2014, S. turonicum caused a systemic infection in an immunocompromised individual with hypogammaglobulinemia and rheumatoid arthritis, the latter being treated with biologics. This was the first human systemic infection reported. In 2022, an unnamed species closest to S. eriocheiris caused a bloodstream and lung infection in a man who underwent surgery for aortic dissection. The genome has been sequenced. GTDB calls this species Spiroplasma sp040940205, a placeholder name based on the GenBank/RefSeq genome assembly identifier. === Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy theory === There is some disputed evidence for the role of spiroplasmas in the etiology of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs), due primarily to the work of Frank Bastian, summarized below. Other researchers have failed to replicate this work, while the prion model for TSEs has gained very wide acceptance. A 2006 study appears to refute the role of spiroplasmas in the best small animal scrapie model (hamsters). Bastian et al. (2007) have responded to this challenge with the isolation of a spiroplasma species from scrapie-infected tissue, grown it in


id: list-of-steroids-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroids-0.md
category: reference
title: List of steroids
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroids
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:36.862843+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-steroids-20260505-0
summary:
List of steroids may refer to: List of androgens/anabolic steroids – steroidal androgens/anabolic steroids List of androgens/anabolic steroids (alternate) – steroidal androgens/anabolic steroids List of steroidal antiandrogens – steroidal antiandrogens List of estrogens – estrogens List of progestogens – progestogens List of corticosteroids – corticosteroids, including both glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids List of neurosteroids – excitatory, inhibitory, mixed, neurotrophic, antineurotrophic, and other neurosteroids, as well as pheromones and pherines List of steroidogenesis inhibitors – steroidogenesis inhibitors, or inhibitors of steroid biosynthesis and metabolism As well as lists of steroid esters, including: List of androgen esters – androgen esters List of estrogen esters – estrogen esters List of progestogen esters – progestogen esters List of corticosteroid esters – corticosteroid esters == See also == List of steroid esters List of steroid medications available in the United States


id: felix-ucko-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felix_Ucko-0.md
category: reference
title: Felix Ucko
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felix_Ucko
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:38.126821+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: felix-ucko-20260505-0
summary:
Felix Alfred Ucko (January 4, 1919 – October 27, 1996) was an American field hockey player. He competed at the 1948 Summer Olympics and the 1956 Summer Olympics. In the 1956 games, he played alongside his brother, Kurt Ucko. Additionally, he was a psychiatrist. He was a member of the American Psychiatric Association, the American Association of Community Psychiatrists, and other professional organizations. == Publications == Ucko, Felix A. (1948). Stand der Herzchirurgie in den Vereinigten Staaten von Nordamerika (Hochschulschrift/Dissertation thesis). Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main. OCLC 720559781. ⁣DNB, Katalog der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek 481675914. Katalog der Bibliotheken der Goethe-Universität PPN 272224251. Ucko, Felix A. (December 1955). "Shock therapy can be safe". Diseases of the Nervous System. 16 (12): 373–4. ISSN 0012-3714. PMID 13270682. Google Books V5sBh2-Zz50C. Ucko, Felix (October 12, 1956). "Zur Witzelsucht in Deutsche Frauen". Arbeiten aus dem Staatinstitut für Experimentelle Therapie und dem Georg Spyer Hause zu Frankfurt. 14. Jena, Germany: 92. Ucko, F.A. (August 1962). "Clinical experience with chlorprothixene, a new psychotherapeutic agent". Diseases of the Nervous System. 23: 453–5. ISSN 0012-3714. PMID 13923425. Gehl, Raymond H.; Welkind, Allen; Ucko, Felix A. (January 1966). "Providing a therapeutic climate by pairing patients. A preliminary report". Mental Hygiene. 50 (1):


id: list-of-inventors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-0.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
This is a of people who are described as being inventors or are credited with an invention. == Alphabetical list == === A === Vitaly Abalakov (1906–1986), Russia – camming devices, Abalakov thread (or V-thread), gearless ice climbing anchor Ernst Karl Abbe (1840–1905), Germany – Condenser (microscope), apochromatic lens, refractometer Hovannes Adamian (1879–1932), USSR/Russia/Armenia – tricolor principle of the color television Samuel W. Alderson (1914–2005), U.S. – crash test dummy Alexandre Alexeieff (1901–1982), Russia/France – Pinscreen animation (with his wife Claire Parker) Rostislav Alexeyev (1916–1980), Russia/USSR – Ekranoplan Randi Altschul (born 1960), U.S. – Disposable cellphone Abram Alikhanov (1904–1970), Armenia/USSR – Soviet atomic bomb, nuclear reactor Bruce Ames (1928–2024), U.S. – Ames test (Cell biology) Giovanni Battista Amici (1786–1863), Italy – Dipleidoscope, Amici prism Ruth Amos (born 1989), UK – StairSteady Mary Anderson (1866–1953), U.S. – windshield wiper blade Momofuku Ando (1910–2007), Japan – Instant noodles Hal Anger (1920–2005), U.S. – Well counter (radioactivity measurements), gamma camera Anders Knutsson Ångström (1888–1981), Sweden – Pyranometer Ottomar Anschütz (1846–1907), Germany – single-curtain focal-plane shutter, electrotachyscope Hermann Anschütz-Kaempfe (1872–1931), Germany – Gyrocompass Virginia Apgar (1909–1974), U.S. – Apgar score (for newborn babies) Nicolas Appert (1749–1841), France – canning (food preservation) using glass bottles,


id: list-of-inventors-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-1.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
=== B === Boris Babayan (born 1933), Armenia/USSR/Russia – Soviet computers, Superscalar processor Charles Babbage (1791–1871), UK – Analytical engine (semi-automatic) Tabitha Babbit (1779–1853), U.S. – Saw mill circular saw Victor Babeș (1854–1926), Romania – Babesia, the founder of serum therapy Leo Baekeland (1863–1944), Belgian–American – Velox photographic paper and Bakelite Ralph H. Baer (1922–2014), German born American – video game console Adolf von Baeyer (1835–1917), Germany – Fluorescein, synthetic Indigo dye, Phenolphthalein John Logie Baird (1888–1946), Scotland – World's first working television, 26 January 1926 and electronic colour television Abi Bakr of Isfahan (c. 1235), Persia/Iran – mechanical geared astrolabe with lunisolar calendar George Ballas (1925–2011), U.S. – String trimmer Oscar H. Banker (1895–1979), Armenia/U.S. – automatic transmission for automobiles Frederick Banting (1891–1941), Canada – technique to isolate Insulin Vladimir Baranov-Rossine (1888–1944), Russia/France – Optophonic Piano John Barber (1734–1801), UK – gas turbine John Bardeen (1908–1991), U.S. – co-inventor of the transistor, with Brattain and Schockley Vladimir Barmin (1909–1993), Russia – first rocket launch complex (spaceport) Anthony R. Barringer (1925–2009), Canada/U.S. – INPUT (Induced Pulse Transient) airborne electromagnetic system Earl W. Bascom (1906–1995), Canada/U.S. – rodeo bucking chute (1916 and 1919), rodeo bronc saddle (1922), rodeo bareback rigging (1924),


id: list-of-inventors-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-2.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
=== C === Ve Elizabeth Cadie (1893–1956), U.S. – heat insulating handle for small home appliances Herminie Cadolle (1845–1926), France – modern brassiere Robert Cailliau (born 1947), Belgium – with Tim Berners-Lee, the World Wide Web Edward A. Calahan (1838–1912), U.S. – Stock ticker tape Nicholas Callan (1799–1864), Ireland – Induction coil Spéranza Calo-Séailles (1885–1949), Greece – "Lap" decorative concrete Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton (1863–1930), Scotland – Television Tullio Campagnolo (1901–1983), Italy – Quick release skewer Charles Cantor (born 1942), U.S. – Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (molecular biology) Mario Ramberg Capecchi (born 1937), together with Sir Martin John Evans (born 1941), and Oliver Smithies (1925–2017), U.S. – Gene targeting Roxey Ann Caplin (1793–1888), UK – Victorian-style corset Arturo Caprotti (1881–1938), Italy – Caprotti valve gear Gerolamo Cardano (1501–1576), Italy – Cardan grille (cryptography) Philip Cardew (1851–1910), UK – Hot-wire galvanometer Chester Carlson (1906–1968), U.S. – Xerographic copier Wallace Carothers (1896–1937), U.S. – Nylon and Neoprene (together with Arnold Collins) Antonio Benedetto Carpano (1764–1815), Italy – Vermouth Mary P. Carpenter (1840–1900), U.S. – mosquito nets, mosquito traps Giovanni Caselli (1815–1891), Italy/France – Pantelegraph George Cayley (1773–1857), UK – tension-spoke wheels Anders Celsius (1701–1744), Sweden – Celsius temperature scale Vint Cerf (born 1943), together


id: list-of-inventors-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-3.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
=== D === Nils Gustaf Dalén (1869–1937), Sweden – AGA cooker, Dalén light, Agamassan, Sun valve for lighthouses and buoys John Frederic Daniell (1790–1845), UK – Daniell cell Corradino D'Ascanio (1891–1981), Italy – Vespa scooter Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519), Italy – helicopter, tanks, and parachutes for safety Raymond Damadian (1936–2022), Armenia/U.S. – Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) Robert Davidson (1804–1894), Scotland – electric locomotive Jacob Davis (1868–1908), U.S. – Riveted jeans Humphry Davy (1778–1829), UK – Davy miners lamp Joseph Day (1855–1946), UK – the crankcase-compression two-stroke engine Lee de Forest (1873–1961), U.S. – Phonofilm, triode Yuri Nikolaevich Denisyuk (1927–2006), Russia – 3D holography Robert H. Dennard (1932–2024), U.S. – Dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) Miksa Déri (1854–1938), Hungary – co-inventor of an improved closed-core transformer Robert DeStefano (born 1962), U.S. – exercise equipment James Dewar (1842–1923), UK – Thermos flask Aleksandr Dianin (1851–1918), Russia – Bisphenol A, Dianin's compound William Kennedy Laurie Dickson (1860–1935), UK – motion picture camera Philip Diehl (1847–1913), U.S. – Ceiling fan Rudolf Diesel (1858–1913), Germany – Diesel engine William H. Dobelle (1943–2004), U.S. – Dobelle Eye Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner (1780–1849), Germany – Döbereiner's lamp (chemistry) Toshitada Doi (born 1943), Japan, together with Joop Sinjou, Netherlands –


id: list-of-inventors-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-4.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
=== F === Charles Fabry (1867–1945), together with Alfred Perot (1863–1925), France – Fabry–Pérot interferometer (physics) Samuel Face (1923–2001), U.S. – concrete flatness/levelness technology; Lightning Switch Federico Faggin (born 1941), Italy – microprocessor Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686–1736), The Netherlands – Fahrenheit temperature scale, Mercury-in-glass thermometer Michael Faraday (1791–1867), UK – electric transformer, electric motor Johann Maria Farina (1685–1766), Germany – Eau de Cologne Myra Juliet Farrell (1878–1957), Australia – stitchless button, Press stud Philo Farnsworth (1906–1971), U.S. – electronic television Marga Faulstich (1915–1998), Germany – optical glass, lightweight lens SF 64 Muhammad al-Fazari (died 796/806), Persia – astrolabe Benedetto Fedeli (1944–), Italy – Security and Armoured doors for domestic use John Bennett Fenn (1917–2010), U.S. – Electrospray ionization Henry John Horstman Fenton (1854–1929), UK – Fenton's reagent (chemistry) James Fergason (1934–2008), U.S. – improved liquid-crystal display Enrico Fermi (1901–1954), Italy – nuclear reactor Humberto Fernández-Morán (1924–1999), Venezuela – Diamond scalpel, Ultra microtome Michele Ferrero (1925–2015), Italy – Kinder Surprise = Kinder Eggs, Nutella Bran Ferren (born 1953), U.S. – Pinch-to-zoom (multi-touch), together with Daniel Hillis Reginald Fessenden (1866–1932), Canada – two-way radio Robert Feulgen (1884–1955), Germany – Feulgen stain (histology) Adolf Gaston Eugen Fick (1829–1901), Germany – contact lens Ethel


id: list-of-inventors-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-5.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
=== G === Dennis Gabor (1900–1979), Hungarian-British – holography Boris Borisovich Galitzine (1862–1916), Russia – electromagnetic seismograph Joseph G. Gall (1928–2024), U.S. – In situ hybridization (cell biology) Alfred William Gallagher (1911–1990), New Zealand – Electric fence for farmers Dmitri Garbuzov (1940–2006), Russia/U.S. – continuous-wave-operating diode lasers (together with Zhores Alferov), high-power diode lasers Elmer R. Gates (1859–1923), U.S. – foam fire extinguisher, electric loom mechanisms, magnetic & diamagnetic separators, educational toy ("box & blocks")* Richard J. Gatling (1818–1903), U.S. – wheat drill, first successful machine gun Georgy Gause (1910–1986), Russia – gramicidin S, neomycin, lincomycin and other antibiotics E. K. Gauzen, Russia – three bolt equipment (early diving costume) Norman Gaylord (1923–2007), U.S. – rigid gas-permeable contact lens Karl-Hermann Geib (1908–1949), Germany / USSR – Girdler sulfide process King Camp Gillette (1855–1932), U.S. – Double-edge safety razor and blade Hans Wilhelm Geiger (1882–1945), Germany – Geiger counter Andrey Geim (born 1958), Russia/United Kingdom – graphene Nestor Genko (1839–1904), Russia – Genko's Forest Belt (the first large-scale windbreak system) Christoph Gerber (born 1942), with Calvin Quate (1923–2019), and with Gerd Binnig (1947–), Germany/U.S./Switzerland – Atomic force microscope Friedrich Clemens Gerke (1801–1888), Germany – current international Morse code David Gestetner (1854–1939),


id: list-of-inventors-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-6.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
=== H === Fritz Haber (1868–1934), Germany – Haber process (ammonia synthesis) John Hadley (1682–1744), UK – octant Waldemar Haffkine (1860–1930), Russia/Switzerland – first anti-cholera and anti-plague vaccines Gunther von Hagens (born 1945), Germany – whole body Plastination Charles Hall (1863–1914), U.S. – aluminum production Robert N. Hall (1919–2016), U.S. – Semiconductor laser Samuel Hall (1782–1863), UK – condenser to enable recycling of water in a ship's steam engine Tracy Hall (1919–2008), U.S. – synthetic diamond Nicholas Halse (died 1636), England – malt kiln Richard Hamming (1915–1998), U.S. – Hamming code John Hays Hammond Jr. (1888–1965), U.S. – radio control Ruth Handler (1916–2002), U.S. – Barbie doll James Hargreaves (1720–1778), UK – spinning jenny John Harington (1561–1612), UK – the flush toilet William Snow Harris (1791–1867), UK – much improved naval Lightning rods John Harrison (1693–1776), UK – marine chronometer Ross Granville Harrison (1870–1959), U.S. – first successful animal Tissue culture, Cell culture Kazuo Hashimoto (died 1995), Japan – Caller-ID, answering machine Victor Hasselblad (1906–1978), Sweden – the 6 x 6 cm single-lens reflex camera Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) (965–1039), Iraq – camera obscura, pinhole camera, magnifying glass George H. Heilmeier (1936–2014), U.S. – liquid-crystal display (LCD) Henry Heimlich (1920–2016), U.S.


id: list-of-inventors-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-7.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
=== K === Mikhail Kalashnikov (1919–2013), Russia – AK-47 and AK-74 assault rifles (the most produced ever) Bob Kahn (born 1938), together with Vint Cerf (born 1943), U.S. – Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) Dawon Kahng (1931–1992), South Korea, together with Simon Sze (1936–2023), Taiwan/U.S. – Floating-gate MOSFET Dean Kamen (born 1951), U.S. – Invented the Segway HT scooter and the IBOT Mobility Device Heike Kamerlingh Onnes (1853–1926), Netherlands – liquid helium Nikolay Kamov (1902–1973), Russia – armored battle autogyro, Ka-series coaxial rotor helicopters Pyotr Kapitsa (1894–1984), Russia – first ultrastrong magnetic field creating techniques, basic low-temperature physics inventions Georgii Karpechenko (1899–1941), Russia – rabbage (the first ever non-sterile hybrid obtained through the crossbreeding) Mihran Kassabian (1870–1910), Armenia/U.S. – Medical use of X-Rays Jamshīd al-Kāshī (c. 1380–1429), Persia/Iran – plate of conjunctions, analog planetary computer Andrew Kay (1919–2014), U.S. – Digital voltmeter Adolphe Kégresse (1879–1943), France/Russia – Kégresse track (first half-track and first off-road vehicle with continuous track), dual-clutch transmission Carl D. Keith (1920–2008), together with John J. Mooney (1930–2020), U.S. – three way catalytic converter Mstislav Keldysh (1911–1978), Latvia/Russia – co-developer of Sputnik 1 (the first artificial satellite) together with Korolyov and Tikhonravov John Harvey Kellogg (1852–1943), cornflake breakfasts John G.


id: list-of-inventors-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-8.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
=== L === Dmitry Lachinov (1842–1902), Russia – mercury pump, economizer for electricity consumption, electrical insulation tester, optical dynamometer, photometer, electrolyser René Laennec (1781–1826), France – stethoscope Georges Lakhovsky (1869–1942), Russia/U.S. – multiple wave oscillator Simon S. Lam (born 1947) U.S. – Secure Sockets invented in 1991 for securing Internet applications (World Wide Web, email, etc.) Hedy Lamarr (1914–2000), Austria and U.S. – Spread spectrum radio Edwin H. Land (1909–1991), U.S. – Polaroid polarizing filters and the Land Camera Samuel P. Langley (1834–1906), U.S. – bolometer Irving Langmuir (1851–1957), U.S. – gas filled incandescent light bulb, hydrogen welding Norm Larsen (1923–1970), U.S. – WD-40 Lewis Latimer (1848–1928), U.S. – improved carbon-filament light bulb Gustav de Laval (1845–1913), Sweden – invented the milk separator and the milking machine Semyon Lavochkin (1900–1960), Russia – La-series aircraft, first operational surface-to-air missile S-25 Berkut John Bennet Lawes (1814–1900), UK – superphosphate or chemical fertilizer Ernest Orlando Lawrence (1901–1958), U.S. – Cyclotron Nikolai Lebedenko, Russia – Tsar Tank, largest armored vehicle in history Sergei Lebedev (1874–1934), Russia – commercially viable synthetic rubber William Lee (1563–1614), UK – Stocking frame knitting machine Edward Leedskalnin (1887–1951), U.S. – construction techniques used to single-handedly lift massive coral blocks


id: list-of-inventors-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-9.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00
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parent: list-of-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
=== M === Charles Macintosh (1766–1843), Scotland – waterproof raincoat, life vest Theodore Maiman (1927–2007), U.S. – Laser, see also Gordon Gould Ahmed Majan (born 1963), UAE – instrumented racehorse saddle and others Aleksandr Makarov (born 1966), Russia/Germany – Orbitrap mass spectrometer Stepan Makarov (1849–1904), Russia – Icebreaker Yermak, first true icebreaker able to ride over and crush pack ice Victor Makeev (1924–1985), Russia – first submarine-launched ballistic missile Nestor Makhno (1888–1934), Ukraine/Russia – tachanka Dmitri Dmitrievich Maksutov (1896–1964), Russia – Maksutov telescope Annie Malone (1869–1957), U.S. – Cosmetics for African American women Sergey Malyutin (1859–1937), Russia – designed the first matryoshka doll (together with Vasily Zvyozdochkin) Boris Mamyrin (1919–2007), Russia – reflectron (ion mirror) George William Manby (1765–1854), UK – Fire extinguisher Harry Mendell, U.S. – invented the first digital sampling synthesizer Joy Mangano (born 1956), U.S. – household appliances Anna Mangin (1844–1931) – American inventor, educator, caterer and women's rights campaigner Charles Mantoux (1877–1947), France – Mantoux test (tuberculosis) Guglielmo Marconi (1874–1937), Italy – radio telegraphy Gheorghe Marinescu (1863–1938), Romania – first science films in the world in the neurology clinic in Bucharest (1898–1901) Sylvester Marsh (1803–1884), U.S. – Marsh rack railway system Konosuke Matsushita (1894–1989), Japan –


id: list-of-inventors-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-10.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00
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parent: list-of-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
=== N === Georgi Nadjakov (1896–1981), Bulgaria – wikt:photoelectret Alexander Nadiradze (1914–1987), Georgia/Russia – first mobile ICBM (RT-21 Temp 2S), first reliable mobile ICBM (RT-2PM Topol) Nagai Nagayoshi (1844–1929), Japan – Methamphetamine James Naismith (1861–1939), Canadian born, U.S. – invented basketball and American football helmet Yoshiro Nakamatsu (born 1928), Japan – "PyonPyon" spring shoes, digital watch, CinemaScope, armchair "Cerebrex", sauce pump, taxicab meter Shuji Nakamura (born 1954), Japan – Blue laser John Napier (1550–1617), Scotland – logarithms Andrey Nartov (1683–1756), Russia – first lathe with a mechanic cutting tool-supporting carriage and a set of gears, fast-fire battery on a rotating disc, screw mechanism for changing the artillery fire angle, gauge–boring lathe for cannon-making, early telescopic sight James Nasmyth (1808–1890), Scotland – steam hammer Giulio Natta (1903–1979), together with Karl Ziegler (1898–1973), Italy/Germany – Ziegler–Natta catalyst William Neade (fl.1624–1637), England – weapon combining a longbow and a pike Erwin Neher (born 1944), together with Bert Sakmann (1942–), Germany – Patch clamp technique Ted Nelson (born 1937), U.S. – Hypertext, Hypermedia Sergey Nepobedimiy (1921–2014), Russia – first supersonic anti-tank guided missile Sturm, other Soviet rocket weaponry Karl Nessler (1872–1951), Germany/U.S. – Permanent wave machine, artificial eyebrows Bernard de Neumann (1943–2018), UK –


id: list-of-inventors-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-11.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
=== P === Arogyaswami Paulraj (born 1944), India/U.S. – MIMO Antonio Pacinotti (1841–1912), Italy – Pacinotti dynamo Hilary Page (1904–1957), UK – Self-Locking Building Bricks, the predecessor of Lego Larry Page (born 1973), U.S. – with Sergey Brin invented Google web search engine William Painter (1838–1906), UK/U.S. – Crown cork, Bottle opener Salvatore Pais (born 1967), Romania/U.S. – electromagnetic field generator to deflect asteroids away from the Earth, an inertial mass reduction device, a room-temperature superconductor, a gravitational wave generator, and a compact fusion reactor Alexey Pajitnov (born 1956), Russia/U.S. – Tetris Julio Palmaz (born 1945), Argentina – balloon-expandable, stent Helge Palmcrantz (1842–1880), Sweden – multi-barrel, lever-actuated, machine gun Daniel David Palmer (1845–1913), Canada – chiropractic Luigi Palmieri (1807–1896), Italy – seismometer Frank Pantridge (1916–2004), Ireland – Portable defibrillator Georgios Papanikolaou (1883–1962), Greece / U.S. – Papanicolaou stain, Pap test = Pap smear Alice H. Parker (1895–1920), U.S. – central heating using natural gas furnace Philip M. Parker (born 1960), U.S. – computer automated book authoring Thomas Parker (1843–1915), England – electric car Alexander Parkes (1831–1890), UK – celluloid Florence Parpart (c. 1856–?), U.S. – industrial sweeping machine, electrical refrigerator Forrest Parry (1921–2005), U.S. – Magnetic stripe card Charles Algernon


id: list-of-inventors-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-12.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
=== R === Jacob Rabinow (1910–1999), U.S. – Magnetic particle clutch, various Phonograph-related patents John Goffe Rand (1801–1873), U.S. – Tube (container) Robert Ransome (1753–1830), England – improvement to the plough Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes) (865–965), Persia/Iran – distillation and extraction methods,hydrochloric acid, soap kerosene, kerosene lamp, chemotherapy, sodium hydroxide Alec Reeves (1902–1971), UK – Pulse-code modulation Karl von Reichenbach (1788–1869), Germany – paraffin, creosote oil, phenol Tadeus Reichstein (1897–1996), Poland/Switzerland – Reichstein process (industrial vitamin C synthesis) Ira Remsen (1846–1927), U.S. – saccharin Ralf Reski (born 1958), Germany – Moss bioreactor 1998 Josef Ressel (1793–1857), Czechoslovakia – ship propeller William Reynolds (1758–1803), England – canal inclined plane Ri Sung-gi (1905–1996), North Korea – Vinylon Charles Francis Richter (1900–1985), U.S. – Richter magnitude scale Adolph Rickenbacker (1886–1976), Switzerland – Electric guitar Hyman George Rickover (1900–1986), U.S. – Nuclear submarine Niklaus Riggenbach (1817–1899), Switzerland – Riggenbach rack railway system, Counter-pressure brake Dennis Ritchie (1941–2011), U.S. – C (programming language) Gilles de Roberval (1602–1675), France – Roberval balance John Roebuck (1718–1794) UK – lead chamber process for sulfuric acid synthesis Francis Rogallo (1912–2009), U.S. – Rogallo wing Heinrich Rohrer (1933–2013), together with Gerd Binnig (1947–), Switzerland/Germany – Scanning tunneling microscope Peter


id: list-of-inventors-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-13.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
=== S === Albert Bruce Sabin (1906–1993), U.S. – oral Polio vaccine Alexander Sablukov (1783–1857), Russia – centrifugal fan Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu (1385–1468), Turkey – illustrated surgical atlas Andrei Sakharov (1921–1989), Russia – invented explosively pumped flux compression generator, co-developed the Tsar Bomba and tokamak Jonas Edward Salk (1914–1995), U.S. – injection Polio vaccine Robert Salmon (1763–1821), England – agricultural implements Franz San Galli (1824–1908), Poland/Russia (Italian and German descent) – radiator, central heating Frederick Sanger (1918–2013), U.S. – Sanger sequencing (= DNA sequencing) Yoshiyuki Sankai (born c. 1957), Japan – Robotic exoskeleton for motion support (medicine) Alberto Santos-Dumont (1873–1932), Brazil – non-rigid airship and airplane Arthur William Savage (1857–1938) – radial tires, gun magazines, Savage Model 99 lever action rifle Thomas Savery (1650–1715), UK – steam engine Adolphe Sax (1814–1894), Belgium – saxophone Vincent Joseph Schaefer (1906–1993), U.S. – Cloud seeding by dry ice Bela Schick (1877–1967), Hungary – diphtheria test Wilhelm Schickard (1592–1635), Germany – mechanical calculator Hugo Schiff (1834–1915), Germany – Schiff test (histology) Pavel Schilling (1786–1837), Estonia/Russia – first electromagnetic telegraph, mine with an electric fuse Gilmore Schjeldahl (1912–2002), U.S. – Airsickness bag Hubert Schlafly (1919–2011), U.S. – Teleprompter = Autocue Wilhelm Schlenk (1879–1943), Germany – Schlenk


id: list-of-inventors-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-14.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
=== T === Gyula Takátsy (1914–1980), Hungary – first Microtiter plate Esther Takeuchi (born 1953) – holds more than 150 US-patents, the largest number for any woman in the United States Igor Tamm (1895–1971), Russia – co-developer of tokamak Ching W. Tang (born 1947), Hong Kong/U.S., together with Steven Van Slyke, U.S. – OLED Mardi bin Ali al-Tarsusi (c. 1187), Middle East – counterweight trebuchet, mangonel Gustav Tauschek (1899–1945), Austria – Drum memory Kenyon Taylor (1908–1986), U.S. – Flip-disc display Bernard Tellegen (1900–1990), Netherlands – pentode Edward Teller (1908–2003), Hungary – hydrogen bomb Eli Terry (1772–1852) Michel Ter-Pogossian (1925–1996), Armenia/U.S. – Positron emission tomography (PET) Nikola Tesla (1856–1943), Serbia – induction motor, high-voltage / high-frequency power experiments, the transmission of electrical power Avie Tevanian (born 1961), Armenia/U.S. – Mach kernel, NeXTSTEP, macOS Léon Theremin (1896–1993), Russia – theremin, interlace, burglar alarm, terpsitone, Rhythmicon (first drum machine), The Thing (listening device) Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar (1785–1870), France – Arithmometer Valerie Thomas (born 1943), U.S. – illusion transmitter Elihu Thomson (1853–1937), UK, U.S. – Prolific inventor, Arc lamp and many others William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin (1824–1907), UK – Kelvin absolute temperature scale Eric Tigerstedt (1887–1925), Finland – Sound-on-film, triode vacuum


id: list-of-inventors-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-15.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
=== Y === Pavel Yablochkov (1847–1894), Russia – Yablochkov candle (first commercially viable electric carbon arc lamp) Hidetsugu Yagi (1886–1976), together with Shintaro Uda (1896–1976), Japan – Yagi–Uda antenna Alexander Yakovlev (1906–1989), Russia – Yak-series aircraft, including Yakovlev Yak-40 (the first regional jet) Linus Yale Jr. (1821–1868), U.S. – cylinder lock Linus Yale Sr. (1797–1858), U.S. – pin tumbler lock Shunpei Yamazaki (born 1942), Japan – patents in computer science and solid-state physics, see List of prolific inventors Gazi Yaşargil (1925–2025), Turkey – Microneurosurgery Ryōichi Yazu (1878–1908), Japan – Yazu Arithmometer Gunpei Yokoi (1941–1997), Japan – Game Boy Arthur M. Young (1905–1995), U.S. – Bell Helicopter Vladimir Yourkevich (1885–1964), Russia/France/U.S. – ship hull design Tu Youyou (born 1930), China – Artemisinin Sergei Yudin (1891–1954), Russia – cadaveric blood transfusion and other medical operations Muhammad Yunus (born 1940), Bangladesh – microcredit, microfinance Abraham Albert Yuzpe (born 1938), U.S. – Yuzpe regimen (= form of Emergency contraception) === Z === Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis) (936–1013), Islamic Spain – catgut surgical suture, various surgical instruments and dental devices Frank Zamboni (1901–1988), U.S. – Ice resurfacer Giuseppe Zamboni (1776–1846), Italy – Zamboni pile (early battery) Ludwik Łazarz Zamenhof (1859–1917), Russia/Poland – Esperanto Walter Zapp


id: list-of-african-american-inventors-and-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_African-American_inventors_and_scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of African-American inventors and scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_African-American_inventors_and_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:41.417249+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-african-american-inventors-and-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
This list of African-American inventors and scientists documents many of the African-Americans who have invented a multitude of items or made discoveries in the course of their lives. These have ranged from practical everyday devices to applications and scientific discoveries in diverse fields, including physics, biology, math, and medicine. == History == African-Americans have been the victims of oppression, discrimination and persecution throughout American history, with an impact on African-American innovation according to a 2014 study by economist Lisa D. Cook, which linked violence towards African-Americans and lack of legal protections over the period from 1870 to 1940 with lowered innovation. Despite this, many black innovators have been responsible for a large number of major inventions. Among the earliest was George Washington Carver, whose reputation was based on his research into and promotion of alternative crops to cotton, which aided in nutrition for farm families. He wanted poor farmers to grow alternative crops both as a source of their own food and as a source of other products to improve their way of life. The most popular of his 44 practical bulletins for farmers contained 105 food recipes using peanuts. He also developed and promoted about 100 products made from


id: list-of-albanian-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Albanian_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Albanian inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Albanian_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:42.572843+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-albanian-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of Albanian inventors and discoverers. The following incomplete list comprises individuals from Albania, the Albanian diaspora, and those of Albanian heritage who have contributed to the invention, innovation, or discovery of objects, processes, or techniques, either wholly or in part while working locally or abroad. The list is arranged in alphabetical order by surname. == A == Grigor Andoni: Designed and developed Albania's first armored military vehicle, Shota MRAP. == B == Veso Bey: Invented the Gjirokastër alphabet. == C == == D == == E == == F == Carol Folt: Pioneering research on the effects of dietary mercury and arsenic on human and ecosystem health. Her pioneering scientific research profoundly influenced national and global policies, leading to important recommendations on consumption, particularly regarding human health and ecosystem well-being, shaped by dietary factors. == G == Karl Ritter von Ghega: Designed the Semmering railway, the first standard-gauge mountain railway in Europe, commonly known as the world's first true mountain railway. Ghega was awarded the title of (Ritter) in recognition of his exceptional contributions to the country and was appointed as the chief planner for the entire railway network of the Austrian Empire. Savo Gjirja: Innovated


id: list-of-armenian-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Armenian_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Armenian inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Armenian_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:43.942176+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-armenian-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
The following list contains notable inventions and discoveries made by ethnic Armenians, including those not born or living in modern-day Armenia and those of partial Armenian ancestry. == List == Default sorted chronologically == See also == List of Armenians List of Armenian scientists List of Armenian Nobel laureates == References ==


id: list-of-austrian-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Austrian_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Austrian inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Austrian_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:45.136440+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-austrian-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of Austrian inventors and discoverers. The following list comprises people from Austria, and also people of predominantly Austrian heritage, in alphabetical order of the surname. == B == Georg Joseph Beer, introducing a flap operation for treatment of cataracts (Beer's operation), as well as popularizing the instrument used to perform the surgery (Beer's knife). Günther Burstyn, co-inventor of the tank (independent from him William Tritton and Walter Gordon Wilson) == C == Carl Cori (Nobel Prize), co-discovered Cori cycle. Gerty Cori (Nobel Prize), co-discovered Cori cycle. == D == Carl Djerassi, inventor of birth control pills Christian Doppler, discoverer of the Doppler effect == E == Paul Eisler, inventor of the printed circuit board. == F == Otto Frenzl: aeronautical pioneer, developed the area rule in 1943, a design technique for airfoils used to reduce an aircraft's drag at transonic and supersonic speeds. Later it was independently developed again by Richard T. Whitcomb in 1952. Sigmund Freud: neurologist who became known as the founding father of psychoanalysis Karl von Frisch: (Nobel Prize), one of the founders of modern ethology, studies on waggle dance Paul Fürst: inventor of the Mozartkugel == G == David Gestetner, inventor of


id: list-of-bulgarian-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Bulgarian_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Bulgarian inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Bulgarian_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:46.262406+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-bulgarian-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of Bulgarian inventors and discoverers, working locally or overseas, and also a list of Bulgarian inventions and creations. The list comprises people from Bulgaria and also people of predominantly Bulgarian heritage. == Art and architecture == Early Renaissance of the Tărnovo Artistic School – the world famous frescos in the Boyana Church from 1239 AD have been described by Andre Grabar and many scholars, as Early Renaissance or precursors of Renaissance Art well before this period started in Italy. The murals are work of the unknown Boyana Master and his disciples who are believed to have been representatives of the Tarnovo Artistic School of the Second Bulgarian Empire (1185–1396 AD). The frescos have been compared to the work of Giotto who is generally considered the first in a line of great artists who contributed to the Italian Renaissance. The Boyana Church has been declared by UNESCO a World Heritage Site. Architecture of the Tarnovo Artistic School – characteristic for the Second Bulgarian Empire, influenced the architecture in many countries of Southeast Europe and parts of Central Europe. == Medicine and pharmacology == Stamen Grigorov – discovered Lactobacillus bulgaricus, patented bacteria used for the production of yogurt


id: list-of-celebrity-inventors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_celebrity_inventors-0.md
category: reference
title: List of celebrity inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_celebrity_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:47.528733+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-celebrity-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of celebrity inventors and their patents. (For the purposes of this article, an inventor is a person who has been granted a patent.) After Google released a patent search online in December 2006, a website called Ironic Sans, made the public aware of a number of celebrity patents found through the new patent search engine. Additional lists of inventors can be found at List of inventors. See also Category:Inventors. == A == George Antheil, U.S. patent 2,292,387 — with co-inventor Hedy Lamarr, used a code (stored on punched paper tape) to synchronize random frequencies later known as frequency hopping spread spectrum radio for jam-proof remote control of torpedoes. This work led to their posthumous induction into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2014. == B == Marlon Brando, U.S. patent 6,812,392 — Drumhead tensioning device and method. An invention which makes it possible to tune a drum. Gary Burghoff, U.S. patent 5,235,774 — Enhanced fish attractor device. A way of luring fish up closer, to attract them, so they are easier to fish. == C == Harry Connick, Jr., U.S. patent 6,348,648 — System and method for coordinating music display among players in an


id: list-of-cornish-engineers-and-inventors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Cornish_engineers_and_inventors-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Cornish engineers and inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Cornish_engineers_and_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:48.759095+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cornish-engineers-and-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of engineers and inventors from Cornwall, England, United Kingdom. John Arnold, watchmaker and pioneer of the marine chronometer William Bickford, inventor of the safety fuse Joseph Henry Collins, mining engineer, mineralogist and geologist Sir John Coode, civil engineer William Cookworthy, discoverer of china clay (kaolinite) in Cornwall Sir Humphry Davy, scientist, inventor and President of the Royal Society Sir Goldsworthy Gurney, inventor of limelight Jonathan Hornblower, inventor of the compound engine and the steam valve William Husband, civil and mechanical engineer Thomas Brown Jordan, engineer Michael Loam, inventor of the man engine Sir Thomas Matthews, civil engineer and builder of lighthouses William Murdoch, engineer, inventor and sometime Cornish resident Andrew Pears, inventor of transparent soap William Westcott Rundell, inventor and engineer from Falmouth Adrian Stephens, inventor of the steam whistle Richard Tangye, engineer John Taylor, inventor of the Cornish rolls Joseph Thomas, architect and civil engineer Joseph Treffry, engineer and industrialist Henry Trengrouse, inventor of a rocket-powered maritime rescue system Richard Trevithick, inventor, engineer and builder of the first steam locomotive Robert Trewhella (1830-1909; it:Robert Trewhella), railway engineer and contractor Andrew Vivian, Trevithick's cousin and collaborator, and captain of Dolcoath Mine Arthur Woolf, inventor of the


id: list-of-cornish-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Cornish_scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Cornish scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Cornish_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:50.006173+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cornish-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of scientists from Cornwall, a county of England, in the United Kingdom. == Biologists == Henry Charlton Bastian, physiologist and neurologist Lieutenant-Colonel Frederick Nicholson Betts, Indian Army officer and ornithologist George Carter Bignell, entomologist William Borlase, naturalist, geologist and antiquary, Rector of Ludgvan William Clift, naturalist and Fellow of the Royal Society Jonathan Couch, naturalist and physician Richard Quiller Couch, naturalist Frederick Hamilton Davey, botanist Jean Golding, epidemiologist Henry Brougham Guppy, naturalist and botanist Charles Alexander Johns, botanist and clergyman Oscar Kempthorne, statistician and geneticist William Lobb, plant collector John Keast Lord, veterinarian and naturalist Richard Lower, blood transfusion pioneer John Mayow, physiologist William Noye of Paul, entomologist Francis Polkinghorne Pascoe, entomologist John Ralfs, botanist Edward Hearle Rodd, ornithologist John Coulson Tregarthen, naturalist Ethelwynn Trewavas, ichthyologist Sir Richard Vyvyan, Bart, MP for Cornwall and scientist William Wagstaff, ornithologist and naturalist Elizabeth Andrew Warren, botanist == Earth scientists == William Borlase, naturalist, geologist and antiquary, Rector of Ludgvan Edward Budge, geologist and clergyman Elizabeth Carne, geologist and philanthropist Joseph Carne, geologist, industrialist and Fellow of the Royal Society Richard Edmonds, geologist and antiquary Robert Were Fox, geologist William Gregor, discoverer of titanium and clergyman John Hawkins, geologist,


id: list-of-croatian-inventors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Croatian_inventors-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Croatian inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Croatian_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:51.323213+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-croatian-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of Croatian inventors. == B == Zlata Bartl Josip Belušić Ruđer Bošković == D == Ivan Đikić Igor Dvornik == F == Vilim Srećko Feller == G == Marin Getaldić == H == Franjo Hanaman == J == Aleksandar Just == K == Franjo Kajfež Marcel pl. Kiepach Ivo Kolin Benedikt Kotruljević Ferdinand Kovačević == L == Antun Lučić Ivan Lupis-Vukić == M == Ante Maglica Peter Miscovich Andrija Mohorovičić == P == Slavoljub Penkala Herman Potočnik Vladimir Prelog Mario Puratić == R == Mate Rimac Lavoslav Ružička == S == David Schwarz Pavao Skalić Marin Soljačić == U == Tomislav Uzelac == V == Faust Vrančić Ivan Vučetić == External links == Hrvati koji su mijenjali svijet ima ih više nego slutite, Politika plus


id: list-of-english-inventors-and-designers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_English_inventors_and_designers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of English inventors and designers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_English_inventors_and_designers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:52.532703+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-english-inventors-and-designers-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of English inventors and designers. == A == Roma Agrawal, structural engineer who contributed to the design of The Shard building in London Sir Richard Arkwright (1732–1792) invented the spinning frame (also known as the water frame) Joseph Aspdin (1788–1855), Portland cement == B == Roger Bacon (1214–1292), magnifying glass Edward Barber (1969– ), London 2012 Olympic Torch Julia Barfield (1952– ), architect who contributed to the design of the London Eye and the i360 observation tower in Brighton, England Trevor Baylis (1937–2018), wind-up radio Tim Berners-Lee (1955– ), World Wide Web == C == Margaret Calvert (1936– ), graphic designer who designed many of the road signs used throughout the United Kingdom Edmund Cartwright (1743–1823) invented the power loom George Cayley (1773–1854), man-carrying glider, tension spoke wheels, hot air engine, continuous track "universal railway" vehicle propulsion system Imran Chaudhri (1973– ) invented the user interface and interactions of the iPhone, also worked on the Mac, iPod, iPad, Apple TV and Apple Watch John Clark (1785-1853) invented the first automated poetry generator, The Eureka, and patented a method to waterproof fabric for air beds and air cushions in 1813. Terence Conran (1931–2020), Design Museum founder Ilse


id: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of German inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:53.767080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of German inventors and discoverers. The following list comprises people from Germany or German-speaking Europe, and also people of predominantly German heritage, in alphabetical order of the surname. For the list containing items and ideas invented and/or discovered by Germans, see list of German inventions and discoveries. == A == Ernst Abbe: Invented the first refractometer, and many other devices. Donated his shares in the company Carl Zeiss to form Carl-Zeiss-Stiftung, still in existence today. Franz Carl Achard: Developed a process to produce sugar from sugar beet. Built the first factory for the process in 1802. Robert Adler: Invented a better television remote control. Konrad Adenauer: Invented soya sausage (1916; "Kölner Wurst") and, together with Jean and Josef Oebel, [coarse] wholemeal bread (1917; Kölner Brot). Georgius Agricola: Named "the father of mineralogy". Wilhelm Albert: Invented the wire rope 1834. Kurt Alder: Discovery of the Diels–Alder reaction, Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1950. Richard Altmann: Discovery of the Mitochondrion Alois Alzheimer: Psychiatrist who discovered Alzheimer's disease, a degeneration of the brain in old age. Momme Andresen (1857-1951): industrial research chemist who made inventions relating to photography Ottomar Anschütz: in 1883 he patented a camera with an internal roller


id: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-1.md
category: reference
title: List of German inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:53.767080+00:00
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parent: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
Walter Baade: astronomer. With Fritz Zwicky, he identified supernovae as a new category of astronomical objects Karl Ernst von Baer: discovered mammal ovum. Ralph Baer: Inventor of the first home video game console. Adolf von Baeyer: Chemist. Synthesized indigo, discovered the phthalein dyes, and investigated polyacetylenes, oxonium salts, nitroso compounds (1869) and uric acid derivatives (1860 and onwards) including the discovery of barbituric acid (1864). Nobel laureate 1905. Otto Bayer: Chemist. Invented polyurethane. Albert Ballin: Father of modern cruise ship travel Heinrich Band: Developed a musical instrument and called it bandoneón in 1846. It is still used in most tango orchestras. Heinrich Barkhausen: Discovered what is now called the Barkhausen effect, to describe the phenomenon, which is caused by rapid changes of size of magnetic domains in 1919, and Barkhausen stability criterion. Oskar Barnack: The father of the first mass marketed 35mm camera and Leica. Heinrich Anton de Bary: Father of Phytopathology, the science of plant diseases and modern Mycology. Coined the word symbiosis in 1879. Karl Adolph von Basedow: Discovery and description of Graves-Basedow disease Andreas Friedrich Bauer: first functional steam-powered printing press with his colleague Friedrich Koenig Wilhelm Bauer: Inventor and engineer, who built several hand-powered submarines. Eugen


id: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-2.md
category: reference
title: List of German inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:53.767080+00:00
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parent: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
== C == Georg Cantor: Mathematician, discoverer of the set theory (1870s), which has become a fundamental theory in mathematics. Ernst Boris Chain: biochemist, co-recipient of the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for his work on penicillin (together with Fleming). Carl von Clausewitz: The father of modern military theory. Rudolf Clausius: Mathematician and physicist known for the Second law of thermodynamics. Justus Claproth: Jurist and inventor of recyclable paper and deinking. Nicolaus Copernicus: Astronomer, formulated a heliocentric model of the universe which placed the Sun, rather than the Earth, at the centre. Manfred Curry: German American yachtsman, developed the cam cleat used on sailboats to easily and quickly secure a rope, discoverer of the pseudoscientific phenomenon of "geomagnetic lines" called the Curry Grid. == D == Gottlieb Daimler: Invented the first high-speed internal combustion petrol engine and the first four-wheel automobile, also the first internal combustion motorcycle, the Reitwagen. Adolf "Adi" Dassler: Sports shoes with and without spikes; founder of Adidas. Rudolf Dassler: First sport shoes with screw-in shoe spikes, 1949; founder of Puma. Hans Georg Dehmelt: Physicist. Co-developed the non-magnetic quadrupole mass filter which laid the foundation for what we now call an ion trap. Shared the Nobel


id: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-3.md
category: reference
title: List of German inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:53.767080+00:00
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parent: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit: Fahrenheit, temperature scale, Fahrenheit hydrometer Gerd Faltings: Mathematician known for his work in arithmetic algebraic geometry, Fields Medal in 1986 for proving the Mordell conjecture. Otto Feick: Wheel gymnastics in 1925. Wilhelm Emil Fein: Invented the electrically driven hand drill in 1895. Adolf Gaston Eugen Fick: Glass Contact lenses Richard Fiedler: Invented the modern flamethrower in 1901. Artur Fischer: Invented the (split) wallplug made of plastic in 1958. He invented flash light photography. Fischer held over 1100 patents and currently holds the records for most patents for any single human, even more than Thomas Alva Edison. Further inventions are (bone-)plugs for fixing bone fractures and one of Fischer's most recent inventions is a gadget that makes it possible to hold and cut the top off an egg of any size. Hermann Emil Fischer: German chemist and 1902 recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. He discovered the Fischer esterification. He developed the Fischer projection, a symbolic way of drawing asymmetric carbon atoms. He is known for study of sugars & purines. Franz Fischer and Hans Tropsch: Invented a process in 1925 to turn coal into synthesis gas, and still further into liquid hydrocarbons. The process is a


id: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-4.md
category: reference
title: List of German inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:53.767080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
Fritz Haber: German chemist and Nobel laureate who pioneered synthetic ammonia and chemical warfare. Theodor W. Hänsch: Physicist, developed laser-based precision spectroscopy further to determine optical frequency extremely accurately. Nobel laureate in 2005. Otto Hahn: German chemist and Nobel laureate who pioneered the fields of radioactivity and radiochemistry. Considered to be "the father of nuclear chemistry" and the "founder of the atomic age". Discovered many isotopes, Protactinium and nuclear fission. Samuel Hahnemann: Physician, best known for creating a system of alternative medicine called homeopathy. Harald zur Hausen: Virologist, discovered the role of papilloma viruses in the development of cervical cancer. His research made the development of a vaccine against papilloma possible, which will drastically reduce cervical cancer in future. Nobel laureate as of 2008. Werner Heisenberg: Theoretical physicist who made fundamental contributions to quantum mechanics. Discovered a particle's position and velocity cannot be known at the same time. Discovered atomic nuclei are made of protons and neutrons. Wolfgang Helfrich: Co-inventor of Twisted nematic field effect. Rudolf Hell: Inventor of an early printer and fax machine (Hellschreiber). Richard Hellmann: Hellmann's (Blue Ribbon) Mayonnaise, 1905. Hermann von Helmholtz: Discovered the principle of conservation of energy. Peter Henlein: Inventor of the portable watch.


id: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-5.md
category: reference
title: List of German inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:53.767080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
Ferdinand Adolf Kehrer : Introduction of the transverse incision technique to minimize bleeding by modern Caesarean section Donald J. Kessler: Astrophysicist, known for developing the Kessler syndrome. Hermann Kemper: Invented the magnetic levitation train. Patent granted in 1934. Johannes Kepler: Discovered the laws of planetary motion. Wolfgang Ketterle: German-American physicist who developed an "atom laser", amongst other breakthroughs. Nobel laureate 2001. Erhard Kietz: Pioneer discoverer of video technology. Gustav Kirchhoff: Discovery of the principles upon which spectroscopy is founded. He contributed to the fundamental understanding of electrical circuits, spectroscopy, and the emission of black-body radiation by heated objects. He coined the term "black body" radiation in 1862, and two different sets of concepts (one in circuit theory, and one in spectroscopy) are named "Kirchhoff's laws" after him; there is also a Kirchhoff's Law in thermochemistry. The Bunsen–Kirchhoff Award for spectroscopy is named after him and his colleague, Robert Bunsen, who both invented the spectrometer in 1859. Martin Heinrich Klaproth: Discovered the element Uranium. Klaus von Klitzing: Physicist, known for discovery of the integer quantum Hall effect, 1985 Nobel Prize in Physics. Ludwig Knorr: Chemist, who together with Carl Paal, discovered the Paal-Knorr synthesis, and the Knorr quinoline synthesis and Knorr


id: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-6.md
category: reference
title: List of German inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:53.767080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
Maria Goeppert-Mayer: Maria Goeppert Mayer was a German-born American theoretical physicist, and Nobel laureate in Physics for proposing the nuclear shell model of the atomic nucleus. She was the second woman to win a Nobel Prize in physics, after Marie Curie Georg Hans Madelung: Academic and aeronautical engineer; a participant in the development of the Junkers F.13. Karl Marx: Political economist and philosopher, who defined the political/economical background of capitalism and discovered the mechanics of Marxism. J. Heinrich Matthaei: Together with Marshall Nirenberg, they show that a sequence of nucleotide can encode particular amino acid, laying the foundations for deciphering the genetic code. Wilhelm Maybach: Together with Gottlieb Daimler the first gasoline-powered motorcycle, power-engine boat and later, 1902, the Mercedes car model. Ottomar von Mayenburg: Inventor of "Chlorodont", the first commercial brand of toothpaste. Georg Meissner: Discovered Meissner's plexus. Lise Meitner: Nuclear physicist, who, together with Otto Frisch, provided a theoretical account of nuclear fission. Julius Lothar Meyer: With Mendeleev he developed the periodic classification of the elements in order of their atomic weight. Christian Erich Hermann von Meyer: He discovered the Triassic predator Teratosaurus, the earliest bird Archaeopteryx lithographica (1861), the pterosaur Rhamphorhynchus, and the prosauropod dinosaur Plateosaurus Gregor


id: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-7.md
category: reference
title: List of German inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:53.767080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
Wolfgang Paul: Physicist. Co-developed the non-magnetic quadrupole mass filter which laid the foundation for what we now call an ion trap. Shared the Nobel Prize in 1989. Hans von Pechmann: Chemist, renowned for his discovery of diazomethane in 1894. Pechmann condensation and Pechmann pyrazole synthesis. Rudolf Peierls: nuclear physicist. Julius Richard Petri: Bacteriologist who is generally credited with inventing the Petri dish while working as assistant to Robert Koch. Emil Pfeiffer: Discovery of Infectious mononucleosis Fritz Pfleumer: Inventor of magnetic tape for recording sound. He built the world's first practical tape recorder, called Magnetophon K1. Joseph Pilates: inventor of the physical fitness system named after him: Pilates Max Planck: Physicist, Scientist. He is considered to be the founder of the quantum theory, and one of the most important physicists of the twentieth century. Robert Wichard Pohl: In 1938, together with Rudolf Hilsch, built first functioning solid-state amplifier using salt as the semiconductor. Ludwig Prandtl: First to explain the boundary layer and its importance for drag and streamlining in aircraft in 1904. He established and headed the Aerodynamische Versuchsanstalt in Göttingen, now Max Planck Institute for Dynamics and Self-Organization. During his tenure the first wind tunnel in Germany was built here,


id: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-8.md
category: reference
title: List of German inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:53.767080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
Otto Schoetensack: Named the Homo heidelbergensis. Otto Schott: Inventor of borosilicate glass. Donated his shares in the company Carl Zeiss to form Carl-Zeiss-Stiftung, still in existence today. Walter H. Schottky: Played a major early role in developing the theory of electron and ion emission phenomena, invented the screen-grid vacuum tube and the pentode. Johannes Heinrich Schultz: developed the desensitization-relaxation technique called Autogenic training. Marx Schwab: Silversmith, invented coining with the screw press around 1550. Theodor Schwann: Discovery of properties of cells in animals. Karl Schwarzschild: astronomer, Schwarzschild metric, Deriving the Schwarzschild solution, Schwarzschild radius Alois Senefelder: He invented the printing technique of lithography in 1796. Friedrich Sertürner: First to isolate morphine from the opium poppy in 1803/1804, discovering morphine. Philipp Franz von Siebold: Physician and naturalist, detailed description and collection of the Japanese flora and fauna. Introduced Western medicine to Japan and opened a medical school. Ernst Werner von Siemens: Dynamo, pointer telegraph that used a needle to point to the right letter, first electric elevator, trolleybus. Max Skladanowsky: Bioscop, German inventor and early filmmaker. Friedrich Soennecken: Invented Hole punch and ring binder. Arnold Sommerfeld: Theoretical physicist who pioneered developments in atomic and quantum physics. Johannes Stark: Discovery of the


id: list-of-italian-inventors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Italian_inventors-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Italian inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Italian_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:55.010938+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-italian-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of Italian inventors: == A == Archimedes Giovanni Battista Amici == B == Flavio Baracchini Eugenio Barsanti Robert Ludvigovich Bartini Enrico Bernardi Gianni Bettini Alfonso Bialetti Lucio Bini Augusto Bissiri Claudio Bordignon Enea Bossi, Sr. Giovanni Branca Francesco Antonio Broccu Luigi Valentino Brugnatelli Tito Livio Burattini Carlo Felice Buzio == C == Temistocle Calzecchi-Onesti Tullio Campagnolo Secondo Campini Mario Capecchi Arturo Caprotti Gerolamo Cardano Antonio Benedetto Carpano Giovanni Caselli Ugo Cerletti Leonardo Chiariglione Alberto Ciaramella Giuseppe Cipriani Francesco Cirio Bartolomeo Cristofori Alessandro Cruto == D == Luigi Dadda Salvino D'Armate Corradino D'Ascanio Leonardo da Vinci Raimondo di Sangro Giuseppe Donati == F == Francesco Faà di Bruno Fabio Perini Gabriele Falloppio Federico Faggin Enrico Fermi Salvatore Ferragamo Galileo Ferraris Pietro Ferrero Carlo Forlanini Enrico Forlanini == G == Galileo Galilei Luigi Galvani Gasparo da Salò Giovanni Francesco Gemelli Careri Flavio Gioja Giuseppe di Giugno Guido of Arezzo == J == Candido Jacuzzi == K == Pedro Kanof == L == Ruggero Lenci Leonardo da Vinci Domingo Liotta Cesare Lombroso Vincenzo Lunardi Giovanni Luppis == M == Amatino Manucci Innocenzo Manzetti Guglielmo Marconi Felice Matteucci Antonio Meucci Guido Monaco Maria Montessori Angelo Moriondo == N == Giulio


id: list-of-inventors-killed-by-their-own-invention-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors_killed_by_their_own_invention-0.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors killed by their own invention
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors_killed_by_their_own_invention
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:56.184974+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-killed-by-their-own-invention-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of people whose deaths were in some manner caused by or directly related to a product, process, procedure, or other technological innovation that they invented or designed. == Ill-fated inventors == === Automotive === Sylvester H. Roper (1823–1896), inventor of the Roper steam velocipede, died of a heart attack or subsequent crash during a public speed trial in 1896. It is unknown whether the crash caused the heart attack, or the heart attack caused the crash. William Nelson (c. 1879–1903), a General Electric employee, invented a new way to motorize bicycles. He then fell off his prototype bike during a test run. Francis Edgar Stanley (1849–1918) was killed while driving a Stanley Steamer automobile. He drove his car into a woodpile while attempting to avoid farm wagons travelling side by side on the road. Fred Duesenberg (1876–1932) was killed in a high-speed road accident in a Duesenberg automobile. David Ogle (1921–1962) was killed in an auto accident when he lost control while driving the Ogle SX1000 he had designed. === Aviation === Ismail ibn Hammad al-Jawhari (died c. 1003–1010), a Kazakh Turkic scholar from Farab, attempted to fly using two wooden wings and a rope. He


id: list-of-inventors-killed-by-their-own-invention-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors_killed_by_their_own_invention-1.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors killed by their own invention
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors_killed_by_their_own_invention
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:56.184974+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-killed-by-their-own-invention-20260505-0
summary:
Henry Winstanley (1644–1703) designed and built the world's first offshore lighthouse on the Eddystone Rocks in Devon, England between 1696 and 1698. Boasting of the safety of his invention, he expressed a desire to shelter inside it "during the greatest storm there ever was". During the Great Storm of 1703, the lighthouse was completely destroyed with Winstanley and five other men inside. No trace of them was found. John Day (c. 1740–1774) was an English carpenter and wheelwright who died during a test of his experimental diving chamber. Horace Lawson Hunley (1823–1863) was a Confederate American marine engineer who built the H. L. Hunley submarine and perished inside it as a member of the second crew to face drownings while testing the experimental vessel. After Hunley's death, the Confederates resurfaced the ship for another mission that proved fatal for its own crew: the successful sinking of the USS Housatonic during the American Civil War. The feat made the H. L. Hunley the first submarine to sink an enemy warship in wartime. Karl Flach (1821–1866) was a German living in Valparaiso, Chile. He built the submarine Flach (brother of the Peruvian "Toro", sunk, refloated by the Chilean Navy and then disappeared,


id: list-of-inventors-killed-by-their-own-invention-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors_killed_by_their_own_invention-2.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors killed by their own invention
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors_killed_by_their_own_invention
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:56.184974+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-killed-by-their-own-invention-20260505-0
summary:
== Popular legends and related stories == In Greek mythology, Daedalus built wings made of feathers and blankets to escape the labyrinth of Crete with his son Icarus, who died while ignoring his father's instructions not to "fly too close to the sun". Perillos of Athens (c. 550 BCE), according to legend, was the first to be roasted in the brazen bull he made for Phalaris of Sicily for executing criminals. Li Si (208 BCE), Prime Minister during the Qin dynasty, was executed by the Five Pains method which some sources claim he had devised. However, the history of the Five Pains is traced further back in time than Li Si. Wan Hu, a possibly apocryphal 16th-century Chinese official, is said to have attempted to launch himself into outer space in a chair to which 47 rockets were attached. The rockets exploded, and it is said that neither he nor the chair were ever seen again. João Torto, a most likely apocryphal 16th-century Portuguese man who jumped from the top of Viseu Cathedral wearing a biplane-like flying rig and an eagle-shaped helmet. Orban, the designer and manufacturer of the Basilic, a gigantic cannon used to break down the walls of


id: list-of-national-inventors-hall-of-fame-inductees-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_National_Inventors_Hall_of_Fame_inductees-0.md
category: reference
title: List of National Inventors Hall of Fame inductees
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_National_Inventors_Hall_of_Fame_inductees
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:58.685506+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-national-inventors-hall-of-fame-inductees-20260505-0
summary:
The National Inventors Hall of Fame (NIHF) is an American not-for-profit organization, founded in 1973, which recognizes individual engineers and inventors who hold a U.S. patent of significant technology. The inventor list constitutes historic persons from the past three centuries in addition to living inductees. Nominees must hold a U.S. patent of significant contribution to public welfare, and which advances science and the useful arts. John Fitch (anno 1743) was the earliest born inventor inducted into the NIHF. == Inductees == == References == == External links == The official website of the National Inventors Hall of Fame


id: list-of-new-zealand-inventors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_New_Zealand_inventors-0.md
category: reference
title: List of New Zealand inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_New_Zealand_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:59.899853+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-new-zealand-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of New Zealand inventors and inventions. Godfrey Bowen – developer of an improved sheep-shearing technique John Britten – designer of the Britten motorcycle Thomas Brydone and William Soltau Davidson – refrigerated shipping pioneers Morton Coutts – invented the continuous fermentation method of brewing Bill Gallagher – developer of the electric fence and founder of Gallagher Group Limited Ernest Godward – improved eggbeater A. J. Hackett – popularised of commercial Bungy jumping Bill Hamilton – developed the modern jetboat Frederick Hanson – inventor of chipseal, known in New Zealand as tar seal Peter Lynn – leading kitemaker, aeronautical theoretician and inventor of the tipping blade portable sawmill Colin Murdoch – inventor of the disposable syringe and the tranquilliser gun Richard Pearse – aviation pioneer Bill Pickering – rocketry and space pioneer, former NASA Jet Propulsion Lab director Alan Prichard – pioneer of aerial topdressing Bill Robinson – inventor of the lead rubber bearing used for seismic base isolation in earthquake engineering == References ==


id: list-of-polish-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Polish_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Polish inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Polish_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:01.301700+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-polish-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of Polish inventors and discoverers. The following incomplete list comprises people from Poland and of Polish origin, and also people of predominantly Polish heritage, in alphabetical order of surname. == A == Bruno Abakanowicz: invented integrapf, a mechanical analog computing device for plotting the integral of a graphically defined function. Osman Achmatowicz Jr.: specialist in the field of organic chemistry. Inventor of the Achmatowicz reaction. Karol Adamiecki: management theorist. Together with Frederick Winslow Taylor and Henry Fayola the creator of organisation and management science. In 1925 Adamiecki founded the Polish Institute of Scientific Management. Albert Wojciech Adamkiewicz: pathologist. His research of the variable vascularity of the spinal cord was an important contribution to the development of modern clinical vascular surgery. He is known for Artery of Adamkiewicz and Adamkiewicz reaction. Henryk Arctowski: scientist and explorer. Living in exile for a large part of his life, he was one of the first persons to reach Antarctica during winter and became an internationally renowned meteorologist. == B == Joseph Babinski: neurologist, discoverer of the Babinski reflex. Stefan Banach: considered one of the world's most important and influential 20th-century mathematicians, creator of Banach space. He was one of the


id: list-of-polish-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Polish_inventors_and_discoverers-1.md
category: reference
title: List of Polish inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Polish_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:01.301700+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-polish-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
== H == Józef Hofmann: musician, invented Paper clips. Johannes Hevelius: astronomer who gained a reputation as "the founder of lunar topography", and described ten new constellations, seven of which are still used by astronomers. == J == Stefania Jabłońska: physician; in 1972 Jabłońska proposed the association of the human papilloma viruses with skin cancer in epidermodysplasia verruciformis; in 1978 Jabłońska and Gerard Orth discovered HPV-5 in skin cancer; Jabłońska was awarded the 1985 Robert Koch Prize. Wojciech Jastrzębowski: scientist, naturalist and inventor, one of the fathers of ergonomics. Walery Jaworski: one of the pioneers of gastroenterology in Poland who made one of the first observations of Helicobacter pylori and published those findings in 1899 in a book titled Podręcznik chorób żołądka (Handbook of Gastric Diseases). == K == Jacek Karpiński: pioneer in computer engineering and computer science. He became a developer of one of the first machine learning algorithms, techniques for character and image recognition. In 1971, he designed one of the first minicomputers, the K-202. Adam Adamandy Kochański: mathematician, physicist, clockmaker, who found an approximation of π today called the Kochański's Approximation. He also suggested replacing the clock's pendulum with a spring, constructed a clock with a magnetic


id: list-of-polish-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Polish_inventors_and_discoverers-2.md
category: reference
title: List of Polish inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Polish_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:01.301700+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-polish-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
== R == Tadeusz Reichstein: Polish-Swiss chemist and the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine laureate (1950), who was awarded for his work on the isolation of cortisone. Zbigniew Religa: a pioneer in human heart transplantation in Poland, he led the team that performed the first successful heart transplantation in the country, and in June 1995 he was the first surgeon to graft an artificial valve created from materials taken from human corpses. Marian Rejewski: mathematician and cryptologist who reconstructed the sight-unseen German military Enigma cipher machine. Jerzy Rudlicki: aerospace engineer and pilot. He is best known for his inventing and patenting of the V-tail in 1930, which is an aircraft tail configuration that combines the rudder and elevators into one system. Ludwik Rydygier: surgeon, who performed the first in Poland and second in the world successful surgical removal of the pylorus in a patient suffering from stomach cancer, and the first peptic ulcer resection in the world. == S == Andrew Schally: endocrinologist and Nobel Prize laureate (1977) whose research contributed to the discovery that the hypothalamus controls hormone production and release by the pituitary gland, which controls the regulation of other hormones in the body. Michael Sendivogius: pioneer


id: list-of-prolific-inventors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prolific_inventors-0.md
category: reference
title: List of prolific inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prolific_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:02.576128+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-prolific-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
The 100 known most prolific inventors based on worldwide utility patents are shown in the following table. While in many cases this is the number of utility patents granted by the United States Patent and Trademark Office, it may include utility patents granted by other countries, as noted by the source references for an inventor. == Prolific Inventors == This table is usually updated every Tuesday, and is current as of April 28, 2026. The columns are defined as follows: Inventor: The name of the inventor. Pats: The number of utility patents that have been issued. Only utility patents (or the international equivalent) are listed, as a utility patent is a patent for an invention. Not all patents are for inventions. Other patent types include: design patents for the ornamental design of an object; plant patents for plant varieties; and reissue patents, where a correction is made to an already granted patent. This list does not include patent applications (patents pending) as there is no guarantee that a patent application actually describes a novel invention until the patent is granted. Fams: The number of patent families, which in USPTO data includes an original or continuation-in-part patent by itself or with


id: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:03.955699+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
Before Christopher Columbus and the Spanish Conquistadors landed on the island of "Borikén" (Puerto Rico), the Taínos who inhabit the island depended on their astronomical observations for the cultivation of their crops. In 1581, Juan Ponce de León II, the grandson of the Conquistador Juan Ponce de León, studied an eclipse and its effects on the island and was able to establish the exact geographical coordinates of San Juan with his observations. During the 19th century the economies of many countries in the world suffered from the spread of crop failures. Puerto Rico, whose economy depended heavily on its agriculture, felt the effects of some of the crop diseases. Scientists such as Agustín Stahl, Fermín Tangüis and Fernando López Tuero conducted investigations and experiments in the fields of agriculture, botany, ethnology and zoology. The findings of their investigations helped Puerto Rico's agricultural industry. With the advances in medical technologies and the coming of the Space Age of the 20th century, Puerto Ricans have expanded their horizons and have made many contributions in various scientific fields, among them the fields of aerospace and medicine. There are many Puerto Rican scientists involved in the American space program at the National Aeronautics and


id: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-1.md
category: reference
title: List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:03.955699+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
Olga D. González-Sanabria is a scientist and inventor. She is the highest ranking Hispanic at NASA Glenn Research Center, and a member of the Ohio Women's Hall of Fame. As Director of the Engineering and Technical Services, she is responsible for planning and directing a full range of integrated services including engineering, fabrication, testing, facility management and aircraft services for the Glenn Research Center. She played an instrumental role in the development of the "Long Cycle-Life Nickel-Hydrogen Battery" that helps enable the International Space Station power system. Among the technical reports that she has authored and or co-authored are:1. Effect of NASA advanced designs on thermal behavior of Ni-H2 cells (1987)2. Component variations and their effects on bipolar nickel-hydrogen cell performance (1987)3. NASA Aerospace Flight Battery Systems Program – Issues and actions (1988)4. Effect of NASA advanced designs on thermal behavior of Ni-H2 cells 2 (1988)5. Energy storage considerations for a robotic Mars surface sampler (1989) Amri Hernández-Pellerano is an electronics engineer and scientist who designs, builds and tests the electronics that will regulate the solar array power in order to charge the spacecraft battery and distribute power to the different loads or users inside various spacecraft at NASA's Goddard


id: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-2.md
category: reference
title: List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:03.955699+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
Fermín Tangüis (1851–1930) was a Puerto Rican businessman, agriculturist and scientist who in 1901 developed the seed that would eventually produce the Tanguis cotton in Peru when that nation's cotton industry suffered because of a fungus plague caused by a plant disease known some places as "cotton wilt" and in others as "Fusarium wilt" (Fusarium vasinfectum) saving that nation's cotton industry. Tangüis began to study some species of the plant that were affected by the disease to a lesser extent and experimented in germination with the seeds of various cotton plants. In 1911, after 10 years of experimenting and failures, Tangüis was able to develop a seed that produced a superior cotton plant resistant to the disease. The seeds produced a plant that had a 40% longer (between 29 mm and 33 mm) and thicker fiber that did not break easily and required little water. The cotton grown in Peru (Egyptian cotton) before the fungus plague grew only once a year; the Tangüis cotton grows six times a year. This type of fiber showed a better resistance and performance than other fibers. Tangüis cotton grows in Canete's valley (south of Lima) and in the Central Coast of Peru. The success


id: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-3.md
category: reference
title: List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:03.955699+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
Enectalí Figueroa-Feliciano is a mechanical engineer, Astronaut applicant and an Associate Professor of Physics at Northwestern University and the author of various papers including "Position-sensitive low-temperature detectors". Figueroa's research interests revolve around the development of high-energy-resolution imaging spectrometers for space-borne applications in experimental astrophysics and cosmology. Figueroa pioneered the development of position-sensitive detectors that will provide an order of magnitude more pixels (and thus larger field of view) than traditional single-pixel X-ray microcalorimeters." He is an expert and researcher on dark matter. and a researcher with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and a professor of physics Northwestern University. Adolfo Figueroa-Viñas is the first Puerto Rican astrophysicist at NASA working in solar plasma physics. As a senior research scientist, he is involved in many NASA missions, such as Wind, SOHO, Cluster and MMS projects, in which he is the author and co-author of numerous scientific papers in his field. Figueroa-Viñas has served as Guest Co-Investigator of the International Sun Earth Explorer (ISEE-1) mission and the Voyagers program. He is currently a Co-Investigator in the WIND/SWE experiment of the International Solar Terrestrial Program (ISTP) and the Space Physics Theory Program grant entitled The Role of Turbulence in Heliospheric Plasmas. Viñas


id: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-4.md
category: reference
title: List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:03.955699+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
== Marine biology == Pablo Clemente-Colon is the first Puerto Rican to serve as Chief Scientist of the National Ice Center (NIC), headquartered in Alexandria Virginia, a position he has held since 2005. As such, he serves the three entities that operate the NIC, the United States Navy, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the United States Coast Guard. Carlos Del Castillo was the Program Scientist for the Ocean Biology and Biogeochemistry Program at NASA Headquarters, in Washington, D.C. Del Castillo is the recipient of the Presidential Early Career Award for Scientists and Engineers (PECASE) award, the highest honor bestowed by the United States government on scientists and engineers beginning their independent careers. He began working in the Mississippi River plume and in the application of remote sensors to study coastal environments. He co-edited with Richard Miller and Brent McKee, Remote Sensing of the Coastal Environment, a book that provides extensive insight on remote sensing of coastal waters from aircraft and space-based platforms Antonio A. Mignucci-Giannoni is a biological oceanographer specializing in the biology, management and conservation of marine mammals. He is the founder of the international conservation organization Red Caribeña de Varamientos (Caribbean Stranding Network) dedicated to


id: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-5.md
category: reference
title: List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:03.955699+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
Isaac González Martínez (1871–1954) was one of the first urologist in Puerto Rico and pioneer in the fight against cancer in the island. González Martínez conducted many investigations and experiments in parasitology, bilharzia, leprosy and typhoid fever. González Martínez and Bailey K. Ashford formed the first commission in Puerto Rico to study the causes of anemia. In 1914, he was named director of the biological laboratory of the sanitation service of Puerto Rico. In 1935, González Martínez founded The Puerto Rican League against Cancer. He also promoted the construction of Puerto Rico's first hospital specializing in oncology. Organ transplantation Iván González Cancel is a cardiovascular and thoracic surgeon who is credited with the realization of the first heart transplant in Puerto Rico. He participated in his first heart transplant at the University of Pittsburgh. González Cancel returned to Puerto Rico in 1993 and was named Director of the Department of Surgery of the Cardiovascular Center of Puerto Rico and the Caribbean (Centro Cardiovascular de Puerto Rico y el Caribe). González Cancel implemented a cardiovascular program in the institution and on June 27, 1999, with the help of Hector Banchs Pieretti performed the first heart transplant in Puerto Rico. Diego R.


