# kb

id: list-of-sequenced-animal-genomes-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_animal_genomes-5.md
category: reference
title: List of sequenced animal genomes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_animal_genomes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:50.483884+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-sequenced-animal-genomes-20260505-0
summary:
== Nematodes == Ancylostoma ceylanicum, zoonotic hookworm infecting both humans and other mammals (2015) Aplectana chamaeleonis, amphibian parasite (2023) Ascaris suum, pig-infecting giant roundworm, closely related to human-infecting giant roundworm Ascaris lumbricoides (2011) Brugia malayi (Strain:TRS), human-infecting filarial parasite (2007) Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, infects pine trees (2011) Caenorhabditis angaria (Strain:PS1010) (2010) Caenorhabditis brenneri, a gonochoristic (male-female obligate) species more closely related to C. briggsae than C. elegans Caenorhabditis briggsae (2003) Caenorhabditis elegans (Strain:Bristol N2), model organism (1998) Caenorhabditis remanei, a gonochoristic (male-female obligate) species more closely related to C. briggsae than C. elegans Dirofilaria immitis, dog-infecting filarial parasite (2012) Globodera pallida, plant pathogen (2014) Haemonchus contortus, blood-feeding parasite infecting sheep and goats (2013) Heterodera glycines, soybean cyst nematode (2019) Heterorhabditis bacteriophora, (2013) Loa loa, human-infecting filarial parasite (2013) Meloidogyne hapla, northern root-knot nematode (plant pathogen) (2008) Meloidogyne incognita, southern root-knot nematode (plant pathogen) (2008) Necator americanus, human-infecting hookworm (2014) Onchocerca volvulus, human-infecting filarial parasite Pristionchus pacificus, model invertebrate (2008) Romanomermis culicivorax, entomopathogenic nematode that invades larvae of various mosquito species (2013) Trichuris suis, pig-infecting whipworm (2014) Trichuris muris, mouse-infecting whipworm (2014) Trichuris trichiura, human-infecting whipworm (2014) Wuchereria bancrofti, human-infecting filarial parasite == Nematomorpha == == Priapulida == == Kinorhyncha == ==


id: list-of-sequenced-archaeal-genomes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_archaeal_genomes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of sequenced archaeal genomes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_archaeal_genomes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:51.865642+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-sequenced-archaeal-genomes-20260505-0
summary:
This list of sequenced archaeal genomes contains all the archaea known to have publicly available complete genome sequences that have been assembled, annotated and deposited in public databases. Methanococcus jannaschii was the first archaeon whose genome was sequenced, in 1996. Currently in this list there are 39 genomes belonging to Crenarchaeota species, 105 belonging to the Euryarchaeota, 1 genome belonging to Korarchaeota and to the Nanoarchaeota, 3 belonging to the Thaumarchaeota and 1 genome belonging to an unclassified Archaea, totalling 150 Archaeal genomes. == Crenarchaeota == === Acidilobales === === Desulforococcales === === Sulfolobales === === Thermoproteales === == Euryarchaeota == === Archaeoglobi === === Halobacteria === === Methanobacteria === === Methanococci === === Methanomicrobia === === Methanopyri === === Thermococci === === Thermoplasmata === === Unclassified Euryarchaeota === == Korarchaeota == == Nanoarchaeota == == Thaumarchaeota == === Cenarchaeales === === Nitrosopumilales === == Unclassified Archaea == == See also == Genome project Human microbiome project Lists of sequenced genomes List of sequenced bacterial genomes List of sequenced eukaryotic genomes List of sequenced mitochondrial genomes List of sequenced plastomes List of sequenced animal genomes List of sequenced animal mitochondrial genomes List of sequenced fungi genomes List of sequenced fungi


id: list-of-sequenced-fungi-genomes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_fungi_genomes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of sequenced fungi genomes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_fungi_genomes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:53.310491+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-sequenced-fungi-genomes-20260505-0
summary:
This list of sequenced fungi genomes contains all the fungal species known to have publicly available complete genome sequences that have been assembled, annotated and published; draft genomes are not included, nor are organelle only sequences. For all kingdoms, see lists of sequenced genomes. == Ascomycota == === Dothideomycetes === Aureobasidium pullulans, A. melanogenum, A. subglaciale and A. namibiae, polyextremotolerant (2014) Hortaea werneckii, extremely halotolerant (2013 2017) Leptosphaeria maculans, plant pathogen (2011) Macrophomina phaseolina, plant pathogen (2012) Mycosphaerella fijiensis, plant pathogen (2007) Mycosphaerella graminicola IPO323, wheat pathogen (2008) Phaeosphaeria nodorum SN15, wheat pathogen (2005) Pyrenophora tritici-repentis Pt-1C-BFP, wheat pathogen (2007) === Eurotiomycetes === Ajellomyces capsulata several strains, Darling's disease (2009, unpubl.) Ajellomyces dermatitidis several strains (2009, unpubl.) Arthroderma benhamiae CBS 112371, skin infection (2010, unpubl.) Arthroderma gypseum CBS 118893, athlete's foot (2008) Arthroderma otae CBS 113480, athlete's foot (2008) Aspergillus aculeatus ATCC16872, industrial use (2010) Aspergillus carbonarius ITEM 5010, food pathogen (2009) Aspergillus clavatus Strain:NRRL1 (2008) Aspergillus fumigatus Strain:A1163, human pathogen (2008) Aspergillus fumigatus Strain:Af293, human pathogen (2005) Aspergillus kawachii IFO 4308, food industry (2011) Aspergillus nidulans Strain:FGSC A4, model organism (2005) Aspergillus niger Strain:ATCC 1015 (DOE Joint Genome institute) Aspergillus niger Strain:CBS 513.88, industrial use (2007) Aspergillus oryzae Strain:RIB40,


id: list-of-sequenced-fungi-genomes-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_fungi_genomes-1.md
category: reference
title: List of sequenced fungi genomes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_fungi_genomes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:53.310491+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-sequenced-fungi-genomes-20260505-0
summary:
== Chytridiomycota == Chytridiomycota includes fungi with spores that have flagella (zoospores) and are a sister group to more advanced land fungi that lack flagella. Several chytrid species are pathogens, but have not had their genomes sequenced yet. Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis JEL423, amphibian pathogen (2006) Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis JAM81, amphibian pathogen (2006) Spizellomyces punctatus DAOM BR117 (2009) Gonapodya prolifera JEL478 (Monoblepharidomycetes) (2011) Chytriomyces sp. MP 71 Entophlycits helioformis JEL805 Gaertneriomyces semiglobifer Barr43 Globomyces pollinis-pini Rhizoclomsatium globosum == Blastocladiomycota == Allomyces macrogynus ATCC 38327 (Blastocladiomycota) (2009) Catenaria anguillulae PL171 (Blastocladiomycota) == Neocallimastigomycota == Piromyces sp. E2 (Neocallimastigomycota) (2011) Anaeromyces sp. S4 Neocallimastix sp. G1 Orpinomyces sp. C1A == Microsporidia == Encephalitozoon cuniculi, human pathogen (2001) Encephalitozoon intestinalis ATCC 50506, human pathogen (2010) Enterocytozoon bieneusi, human pathogen particularly in the context of HIV infection (~60% of genome 2009, 2010) Nosema ceranae, honey bee pathogen (2009) Octosporea bayeri OER 3-3, Daphnia pathogen (2009) == Mucoromycota == === Mucoromycotina === Absidia padenii Absidia repens Backusella circina Circinella umbellata Cokeromyces recurvatus Cunninghamella echinulata Dichotomocladium elegans Fennellomyces sp. Gilbertella persicaria var. persicaria Gongronella butleri Hesseltinella vesiculosa Lichtheimia corymbifera Lichtheimia hyalospora Mucor circinelloides Mucor cordense Mucor indicus Mucor heterogamus Mycotypha africana Parasitella parasitica Phascolomyces articulosus Phycomyces blakesleeanus Phycomyces nitens


id: lists-of-sequenced-genomes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_sequenced_genomes-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of sequenced genomes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_sequenced_genomes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:54.563940+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-sequenced-genomes-20260505-0
summary:
There are several lists of sequenced genomes: List of sequenced algae genomes List of sequenced animal genomes List of sequenced animal mitochondrial genomes List of sequenced archaeal genomes List of sequenced bacterial genomes List of sequenced eukaryotic genomes List of sequenced fungi genomes List of sequenced plant genomes List of sequenced plastomes List of sequenced protist genomes


id: list-of-sequenced-plant-genomes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_plant_genomes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of sequenced plant genomes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_plant_genomes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:56.257480+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-sequenced-plant-genomes-20260505-0
summary:
This list of sequenced plant genomes contains plant species known to have publicly available complete genome sequences that have been assembled, annotated and published. Unassembled genomes are not included, nor are organelle only sequences. For all kingdoms, see the list of sequenced genomes. For mitochondrial genomes, see list of sequenced plant mitochondrial genomes, For plastid genomes, see list of sequenced plastomes. See also List of sequenced algae genomes. == Bryophytes == == Vascular plants == === Lycophytes === === Ferns === === Gymnosperms === === Angiosperms === ==== Amborellales ==== ==== Chloranthales ==== ==== Magnoliids ==== ==== Eudicots ==== ===== Proteales ===== ===== Ranunculales ===== ===== Trochodendrales ===== ===== Caryophyllales ===== ===== Rosids ===== ===== Asterids ===== ==== Monocots ==== ===== Grasses ===== ===== Other non-grasses ===== == Press releases announcing sequencing == Not meeting criteria of the first paragraph of this article in being nearly full sequences with high quality, published, assembled and publicly available. This list includes species where sequences are announced in press releases or websites, but not in a data-rich publication in a refereed peer-review journal with DOI. Corchorus olitorius (Jute mallow), fibre plant 2017 Corchorus capsularis 2017 Fraxinus excelsior, European ash (2013 draft) == See


id: list-of-sequenced-plastomes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_plastomes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of sequenced plastomes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_plastomes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:57.675480+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-sequenced-plastomes-20260505-0
summary:
A plastome is the genome of a plastid, a type of organelle found in plants and in a variety of protists. The number of known plastid genome sequences grew rapidly in the first decade of the twenty-first century. For example, 25 chloroplast genomes were sequenced for one molecular phylogenetic study. The flowering plants are especially well represented in complete chloroplast genomes. As of January, 2017, all of their orders are represented except Commelinales, Picramniales, Huerteales, Escalloniales, Bruniales, and Paracryphiales. A compilation of most complete plastid genomes is maintained by the NCBI in a public repository. == Plants == === Bryophytes s.l. === === Ferns and lycophytes === === Gymnosperms === === Flowering plants === This sortable table is expected to compile complete plastid genomes representing the largest range of sizes, number of genes, and angiosperm families. == Green algae == == Red algae == == Glaucophytes == == Meta-algae and apicomplexans == Meta-algae are organisms with photosynthetic organelles of secondary or tertiary endosymbiotic origin, and their close non-photosynthetic, plastid-bearing, relatives. Apicomplexans are a secondarily non-photosynthetic group of chromalveoates which retain a reduced plastid organelle. === Photosynthetic chromalveolates === Dinoflagellate plastid genomes are not organised into a single circular DNA molecule


id: list-of-sequenced-protist-genomes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_protist_genomes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of sequenced protist genomes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sequenced_protist_genomes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:57:59.051434+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-sequenced-protist-genomes-20260505-0
summary:
This list of sequenced protist genomes contains all the protist species known to have publicly available complete genome sequences that have been assembled, annotated and published; draft genomes are not included, nor are organelle only sequences. == Alveolata == Alveolata are a group of protists which includes the Ciliophora, Apicomplexa and Dinoflagellata. Members of this group are of particular interest to science as the cause of serious human and livestock diseases. == Amoebozoa == Amoebozoa are a group of motile amoeboid protists, members of this group move or feed by means of temporary projections, called pseudopods. The best known member of this group is the slime mold, which has been studied for centuries; other members include the Archamoebae, Tubulinea and Flabellinia. Some Amoeboza cause disease. == Chromista == The Chromista are a group of protists that contains the algal phyla Heterokontophyta (stramenopiles), Haptophyta and Cryptophyta. Members of this group are mostly studied for evolutionary interest. == Excavata == Excavata is a group of related free living and symbiotic protists; it includes the Metamonada, Loukozoa, Euglenozoa and Percolozoa. They are researched for their role in human disease. == Opisthokonts, basal == Opisthokonts are a group of eukaryotes that include both animals


id: list-of-subviral-agents-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_subviral_agents-0.md
category: reference
title: List of subviral agents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_subviral_agents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:12.423484+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-subviral-agents-20260505-0
summary:
Subviral agents are pathogenic entities that can cause disease, but lack various fundamental properties of viruses. Subviral agents consist of satellites, viroids, prions, defective interfering particles, viriforms, and, most recently, obelisks. == See also == List of prions Virus classification == References ==


id: table-of-neurotransmitter-actions-in-the-ans-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_neurotransmitter_actions_in_the_ANS-0.md
category: reference
title: Table of neurotransmitter actions in the ANS
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_neurotransmitter_actions_in_the_ANS
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:13.667157+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: table-of-neurotransmitter-actions-in-the-ans-20260505-0
summary:
This is a table of neurotransmitter actions in the ANS (autonomic nervous system). It includes the circulatory system, the respiratory system, the visual system, the digestive system, the endocrine system, the urinary system, the reproductive system, and the integumentary system. Both effects of the sympathetic nervous system (adrenergic) and parasympathetic nervous system (muscarinic) are included. == Circulatory system == === Heart === === Blood vessels === === Other === == Respiratory system == ✱ The bronchioles have no sympathetic innervation, but are instead affected by circulating adrenaline == Visual system == == Digestive system == == Endocrine system == == Urinary system == == Reproductive system == == Integumentary system == == References ==


id: list-of-biology-websites-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biology_websites-0.md
category: reference
title: List of biology websites
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biology_websites
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:16.215533+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-biology-websites-20260505-0
summary:
This is an annotated list of biological websites, including only notable websites dealing with biology generally and those with a more specific focus. == See also == List of biodiversity databases Lists of websites


id: index-of-chemistry-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_chemistry_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of chemistry articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_chemistry_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:18.164414+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-chemistry-articles-20260505-0
summary:
Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem), meaning "earth") is the physical science concerned with the composition, structure, and properties of matter, as well as the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions. Below is a list of chemistry-related articles in alphabetical order. Chemical compounds are listed separately at List of inorganic compounds, List of biomolecules, or List of organic compounds. The Outline of chemistry delineates different aspects of chemistry. == A == == B == == C == == D == == E == == F == == G == == H == == I == == J == == K == == L == == M == == N == == O == == P == == Q == == R == == S == == T == == U == == V == == W == == X == == Y == == Z == == References ==


id: outline-of-chemistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:19.295419+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline acts as an overview of and topical guide to chemistry: Chemistry is the science of atomic matter (matter that is composed of chemical elements), especially its chemical reactions, but also including its properties, structure, composition, behavior, and changes as they relate to the chemical reactions. Chemistry is centrally concerned with atoms and their interactions with other atoms, and particularly with the properties of chemical bonds. == Summary == Chemistry can be described as all of the following: An academic discipline – one with academic departments, curricula and degrees; national and international societies; and specialized journals. A scientific field (a branch of science) – widely recognized category of specialized expertise within science, and typically embodies its own terminology and nomenclature. Such a field will usually be represented by one or more scientific journals, where peer-reviewed research is published. There are several chemistry-related scientific journals. A natural science – one that seeks to elucidate the rules that govern the natural world using empirical and scientific method. A physical science – one that studies non-living systems. A biological science – one that studies the role of chemicals and chemical processes in living organisms. See Outline of biochemistry. == Branches ==


id: outline-of-chemistry-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry-1.md
category: reference
title: Outline of chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:19.295419+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
Astrochemistry – study of the abundance and reactions of chemical elements and molecules in the universe, and their interaction with radiation. Cosmochemistry – study of the chemical composition of matter in the universe and the processes that led to those compositions. Computational chemistry – is a branch of chemistry that uses computer simulations for solving chemical problems. Environmental chemistry – study of chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur diverse aspects of the environment such the air, soil, and water. It also studies the effects of human activity on the environment. Green chemistry is a philosophy of chemical research and engineering that encourages the design of products and processes that minimize the use and generation of hazardous substances. Supramolecular chemistry – refers to the domain of chemistry beyond that of molecules and focuses on the chemical systems made up of a discrete number of assembled molecular subunits or components. Theoretical chemistry – study of chemistry via fundamental theoretical reasoning (usually within mathematics or physics). In particular the application of quantum mechanics to chemistry is called quantum chemistry. Since the end of the Second World War, the development of computers has allowed a systematic development of computational chemistry, which is the art


id: outline-of-chemistry-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry-2.md
category: reference
title: Outline of chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:19.295419+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
Precursors to chemistry Alchemy (outline) History of alchemy History of the branches of chemistry History of analytical chemistry – history of the study of separation, identification, and quantification of the chemical components of natural and artificial materials. History of astrochemistry – history of the study of the abundance and reactions of chemical elements and molecules in the universe, and their interaction with radiation. History of cosmochemistry – history of the study of the chemical composition of matter in the universe and the processes that led to those compositions History of atmospheric chemistry – history of the branch of atmospheric science in which the chemistry of the Earth's atmosphere and that of other planets is studied. It is a multidisciplinary field of research and draws on environmental chemistry, physics, meteorology, computer modeling, oceanography, geology and volcanology and other disciplines History of biochemistry – history of the study of chemical processes in living organisms, including, but not limited to, living matter. Biochemistry governs all living organisms and living processes. History of agrochemistry – history of the study of both chemistry and biochemistry which are important in agricultural production, the processing of raw products into foods and beverages, and in environmental monitoring and


id: outline-of-chemistry-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry-3.md
category: reference
title: Outline of chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:19.295419+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
History of thermochemistry – history of the study of energy and heat associated with chemical reactions and/or physical transformations. History of phytochemistry – history of the study of phytochemicals. History of polymer chemistry – history of the multidisciplinary science that deals with the chemical synthesis and chemical properties of polymers or macromolecules. History of solid-state chemistry – history of the study of the synthesis, structure, and properties of solid phase materials, particularly, but not necessarily exclusively of, non-molecular solids History of multidisciplinary fields involving chemistry: History of chemical biology – history of the scientific discipline spanning the fields of chemistry and biology that involves the application of chemical techniques and tools, often compounds produced through synthetic chemistry, to the study and manipulation of biological systems. History of chemical oceanography – history of the study of the behavior of chemical elements within the Earth's oceans. History of chemical physics – history of the branch of physics that studies chemical processes from the point of view of physics and engineering. History of oenology – history of the science and study of all aspects of wine and winemaking except vine-growing and grape-harvesting, which is a subfield called viticulture. History of spectroscopy – history


id: outline-of-chemistry-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry-4.md
category: reference
title: Outline of chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:19.295419+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
== Chemicals == Dictionary of chemical formulas List of biomolecules List of inorganic compounds Periodic table == Atomic theory == Atomic theory Atomic models Atomism – natural philosophy that theorizes that the world is composed of indivisible pieces. Plum pudding model Rutherford model Bohr model == Thermochemistry == Thermochemistry === Terminology === Thermochemistry Chemical kinetics – the study of the rates of chemical reactions and investigates how different experimental conditions can influence the speed of a chemical reaction and yield information about the reaction's mechanism and transition states, as well as the construction of mathematical models that can describe the characteristics of a chemical reaction. Exothermic – a process or reaction in which the system releases energy to its surroundings in the form of heat. They are denoted by negative heat flow. Endothermic – a process or reaction in which the system absorbs energy from its surroundings in the form of heat. They are denoted by positive heat flow. Thermochemical equation Enthalpy change – internal energy of a system plus the product of pressure and volume. Its change in a system is equal to the heat brought to the system at constant pressure. Enthalpy of reaction Temperature – an objective


id: list-of-additives-used-for-fracking-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_additives_used_for_fracking-0.md
category: reference
title: List of additives used for fracking
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_additives_used_for_fracking
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:20.553565+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-additives-used-for-fracking-20260505-0
summary:
The differences between additives for fracking in different countries are the type of chemicals used (hazardous, non-hazardous), the disclosure of chemicals and the composition of fracturing fluid. In 2010, Halliburton announced the creation of food additive based hydraulic fracturing fluid in response to calls for transparency and demand for a "more environmentally friendly" unconventional hydrocarbon production. == Europe == In Europe, Poland, Norway and Germany have the largest reserves of shale gas, and drillings are underway. == United Kingdom == In the United Kingdom, the environmental regulator permits only chemical additives which are classed as non hazardous to groundwater for fracturing fluids. Operators are required to disclose the content of hydraulic fracturing fluids to the relevant environment agency while the composition must be disclosed if the regulator demands it. The permitted additives for hydraulic fracturing fluid include polycrylamide, hydrochloric acid and a biocide. == United States == In the US, about 750 compounds have been listed as additives for hydraulic fracturing, also known as ingredients of pressurized fracking fluid, in an industry report to the US Congress in 2011 The following is a partial list of the chemical constituents in additives that are used or may have been used in


id: list-of-additives-in-cigarettes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_additives_in_cigarettes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of additives in cigarettes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_additives_in_cigarettes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:21.769470+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-additives-in-cigarettes-20260505-0
summary:
This is a static list of 599 additives that could be added to tobacco cigarettes in 1994. The ABC News program Day One first released the list to the public on March 7, 1994. It was submitted to the United States Department of Health and Human Services in April 1994. They are also listed in the documents that are part of the 1998 Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement. It applies, as documented, only to American manufactured cigarettes intended for distribution within the United States by the listed companies. The five major tobacco companies that reported the information were: American Tobacco Company Brown and Williamson Liggett Group, Inc. Philip Morris Inc. R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company One significant issue is that while all these chemical compounds have been approved as additives to food, they were not tested by burning. Burning changes the properties of chemicals. Burning creates additional toxic compounds, including carcinogens. According to the U.S. National Cancer Institute: "Of the more than 7,000 chemicals in tobacco smoke, at least 250 are known to be harmful, including hydrogen cyanide, carbon monoxide, and ammonia. Among the 250 known harmful chemicals in tobacco smoke, at least 69 can cause cancer." See: Health effects of tobacco


id: list-of-additives-in-cigarettes-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_additives_in_cigarettes-1.md
category: reference
title: List of additives in cigarettes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_additives_in_cigarettes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:21.769470+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-additives-in-cigarettes-20260505-0
summary:
== M == Mace powder, extract and oil Magnesium carbonate Malic acid Malt and malt extract Maltodextrin Maltol Maltyl isobutyrate Mandarin oil Maple syrup and concentrate Mate leaf, absolute and oil para-Mentha-8-Thiol-3-One Menthol Menthone Menthyl acetate dl-Methionine Methoprene 2-Methoxy-4-methylphenol 2-Methoxy-4-vinylphenol para-Methoxybenzaldehyde 1-(para-Methoxyphenyl)-1-penten-3-one 4-(para-Methoxyphenyl)-2-butanone 1-(para-Methoxyphenyl)-2-propanone Methoxypyrazine Methyl 2-furoate Methyl 2-octynoate Methyl 2-pyrrolyl ketone Methyl anisate Methyl anthranilate Methyl benzoate Methyl cinnamate Methyl dihydrojasmonate Methyl ester of rosin, partially hydrogenated Methyl isovalerate Methyl linoleate (48%) Methyl linolenate (52%) mixture Methyl naphthyl ketone Methyl nicotinate Methyl phenylacetate Methyl salicylate Methyl sulfide 3-Methyl-1-cyclopentadecanone 4-Methyl-1-phenyl-2-pentanone 5-Methyl-2-phenyl-2-hexenal 5-Methyl-2-thiophenecarboxaldehyde 6-Methyl-3,-5-heptadien-2-one 2-Methyl-3-(para-isopropylphenyl) propionaldehyde 5-Methyl-3-hexen-2-one 1-Methyl-3-methoxy-4-isopropylbenzene 4-Methyl-3-pentene-2-one 2-Methyl-4-phenylbutyraldehyde 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one 4-Methyl-5-thiazoleethanol 4-Methyl-5-vinylthiazole Methyl-alpha-ionone Methyl-trans-2-butenoic acid 4-Methylacetophenone para-Methylanisole alpha-Methylbenzyl acetate alpha-Methylbenzyl alcohol 2-Methylbutyraldehyde 3-Methylbutyraldehyde 2-Methylbutyric acid alpha-Methylcinnamaldehyde Methylcyclopentenolone 2-Methylheptanoic acid 2-Methylhexanoic acid 3-Methylpentanoic acid 4-Methylpentanoic acid 2-Methylpyrazine 5-Methylquinoxaline 2-Methyltetrahydrofuran-3-one (Methylthio)Methylpyrazine (mixture of isomers) 3-Methylthiopropionaldehyde Methyl 3-methylthiopropionate 2-Methylvaleric acid Mimosa absolute and extract Molasses extract and tincture Mountain maple solid extract Mullein flowers Myristaldehyde Myristic acid Myrrh oil == N == beta-Napthyl ethyl ether Nerol Neroli bigarde oil Nerolidol Nona-2-trans,6-cis-dienal 2,6-Nonadien-1-ol gamma-Nonalactone Nonanal Nonanoic acid Nonanone trans-2-Nonen-1-ol 2-Nonenal Nonyl acetate Nutmeg powder and oil == O == Oak chips extract and oil Oakmoss absolute 9,12-Octadecadienoic acid (48%) and 9,12,15-octadecatrienoic acid (52%) delta-Octalactone


id: list-of-alchemical-substances-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_alchemical_substances-0.md
category: reference
title: List of alchemical substances
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_alchemical_substances
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:23.012305+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-alchemical-substances-20260505-0
summary:
Alchemy studies produced a number of substances, which were later classified as particular chemical compounds or mixture of compounds. Many of these terms were in common use into the 20th century. == Metals and metalloids == Antimony/Stibnium – Sb Bismuth (German: Wismuth) – Bi Copper/Cuprum – associated with Venus. Cu Gold/Aurum – associated with the Sun. Au Iron/Ferrum – associated with Mars. Fe Lead/Plumbum – associated with Saturn. Pb Quicksilver/Hydrargyrum – associated with Mercury. Hg Silver/Argentum – associated with the Moon. Ag Tin/Stannum – associated with Jupiter. Sn == Minerals, Stones, and Pigments == Bluestone – Mineral form of Copper(II) Sulfate Pentahydrate, also called Blue Vitriol. Borax – Sodium Borate; was also used to refer to other related minerals. Cadmia/Tuttia/Tutty – Probably Zinc Carbonate. Calamine – Zinc Carbonate. Calomel/Horn Quicksilver/Horn Mercury – Mercury(I) Chloride, a very poisonous purgative formed by subliming a mixture of Mercuric Chloride and Metallic Mercury, triturated in a mortar and heated in an Iron pot. The crust formed on the lid was ground to powder and boiled with water to remove the Calomel. Calx – Calcium Oxide; was also used to refer to other metal oxides. Chalcanthum – The residue produced by strongly roasting Blue Vitriol


id: list-of-alchemical-substances-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_alchemical_substances-1.md
category: reference
title: List of alchemical substances
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_alchemical_substances
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:23.012305+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-alchemical-substances-20260505-0
summary:
== Waters, oils and spirits == Aqua fortis/spirit of nitre – nitric acid, formed by 2 parts saltpetre in 1 part (pure) oil of vitriol (sulfuric acid). (Historically, this process could not have been used, as 98% oil of vitriol was not available.) Aqua ragia/spirit of turpentine/oil of turpentine/gum turpentine – turpentine, formed by the distillation of pine tree resin. Aqua regia (Latin: "royal water") – a mixture of aqua fortis and spirit of salt. Aqua tofani – arsenic trioxide, As2O3 (extremely poisonous) Aqua vitae/aqua vita/spirit of wine, ardent spirits – ethanol, formed by distilling wine Butter (or oil) of antimony – antimony trichloride. Formed by distilling roasted stibnite with corrosive sublimate, or dissolving stibnite in hot concentrated hydrochloric acid and distilling. SbCl3 Butter of tin – hydrated tin(IV) chloride; see also spiritus fumans, another chloride of tin. Oil of tartar – concentrated potassium carbonate, K2CO3 solution Oil of tartar per deliquium – potassium carbonate dissolved in the water which its extracts from the air. Oil of vitriol/spirit of vitriol – sulfuric acid, a weak version can be formed by heating green vitriol and blue vitriol. H2SO4 Spirit of box/pyroxylic spirit – methanol, CH3OH, distilled wood alcohol. Spiritus fumans –


id: list-of-alkanols-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_alkanols-0.md
category: reference
title: List of alkanols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_alkanols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:24.186459+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-alkanols-20260505-0
summary:
This list is ordered by the number of carbon atoms in an alcohol. == C1 == Methanol == C2 == Ethanol == C3 == 1-Propanol Isopropyl alcohol == C4 == n-Butanol Isobutanol sec-Butanol tert-Butyl alcohol == C5 == 1-Pentanol Isoamyl alcohol 2-Methyl-1-butanol Neopentyl alcohol 2-Pentanol 3-Methyl-2-butanol 3-Pentanol tert-Amyl alcohol == C6 == 1-Hexanol 2-Hexanol 3-Hexanol 2-Methyl-1-pentanol 3-Methyl-1-pentanol 4-Methyl-1-pentanol 2-Methyl-2-pentanol 3-Methyl-2-pentanol 4-Methyl-2-pentanol 2-Methyl-3-pentanol 3-Methyl-3-pentanol 2,2-Dimethyl-1-butanol 2,3-Dimethyl-1-butanol 3,3-Dimethyl-1-butanol


id: list-of-straight-chain-alkanes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_straight-chain_alkanes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of straight-chain alkanes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_straight-chain_alkanes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:25.517634+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-straight-chain-alkanes-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of straight-chain alkanes, the total number of isomers of each (including branched chains), and their common names, sorted by number of carbon atoms. == See also == Higher alkane List of compounds with carbon numbers 50+ == References ==


id: list-of-named-alloys-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_named_alloys-0.md
category: reference
title: List of named alloys
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_named_alloys
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:26.720373+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-named-alloys-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of named alloys grouped alphabetically by the metal with the highest percentage. Within these headings, the alloys are also grouped alphabetically. Some of the main alloying elements are optionally listed after the alloy names. == Alloys by base metal == === Alkali intermetallics === Sodium–potassium alloy === Aluminum === AA-8000: used for electrical building wire in the U.S. per the National Electrical Code, replacing AA-1350. Al–Li (2.45% lithium): aerospace applications, including the Space Shuttle Alnico (nickel, cobalt): used for permanent magnets Aluminium–Scandium (scandium) Birmabright (magnesium, manganese): used in car bodies, mainly used by Land Rover cars. Devarda's alloy (45% Al, 50% Cu, 5% Zn): chemical reducing agent. Duralumin (copper) Hiduminium or R.R. alloys (2% copper, iron, nickel): used in aircraft pistons Hydronalium (up to 12% magnesium, 1% manganese): used in shipbuilding, resists seawater corrosion Italma (3.5% magnesium, 0.3% manganese): formerly used to make coinage of the Italian lira Magnalium (5-50% magnesium): used in airplane bodies, ladders, pyrotechnics, etc. Ni-Ti-Al (nickel 50%, titanium 40%, aluminium 10%), also called Nitinol Y alloy (4% copper, nickel, magnesium) Aluminium also forms complex metallic alloys, like β–Al–Mg, ξ'–Al–Pd–Mn, and T–Al3Mn. === Beryllium === Lockalloy (62% beryllium, 38% aluminium) === Bismuth ===


id: list-of-ammonium-nitrate-incidents-and-disasters-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ammonium_nitrate_incidents_and_disasters-0.md
category: reference
title: List of ammonium nitrate incidents and disasters
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ammonium_nitrate_incidents_and_disasters
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:28.061063+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ammonium-nitrate-incidents-and-disasters-20260505-0
summary:
When heated, ammonium nitrate decomposes non-explosively into nitrous oxide and water vapor; however, it can be induced to decompose explosively by detonation into oxygen, nitrogen, and water vapor. Large stockpiles of the material can be a major fire risk due to their supporting oxidation, and may also detonate, as happened in the Texas City disaster of 1947 which led to major changes in the regulations for storage and handling. There are two major classes of incidents resulting in explosions: In the first case, the explosion happens by the shock induced detonation. The initiation happens by an explosive charge going off in the mass, by the detonation of a shell thrown into the mass, or by detonation of an explosive mixture in contact with the mass. Examples are Kriewald, Morgan, Oppau, Tessenderlo, and Traskwood. In the second case, the explosion results from a fire that spreads into the ammonium nitrate (AN) itself (Texas City, Brest, Tianjin, Beirut) or to a mixture of an ammonium nitrate with a combustible material during the fire. The fire must be confined at least to a degree for successful transition from a fire to an explosion (a phenomenon known as "deflagration to detonation transition", or DDT).


id: list-of-chemical-analysis-methods-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_analysis_methods-0.md
category: reference
title: List of chemical analysis methods
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_analysis_methods
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:29.278276+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemical-analysis-methods-20260505-0
summary:
A list of chemical analysis methods with acronyms. == A == Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) Atomic emission spectroscopy (AES) Atomic fluorescence spectroscopy (AFS) Alpha particle X-ray spectrometer (APXS) == C == Capillary electrophoresis (CE) Chromatography Colorimetry Computed tomography Cyclic Voltammetry (CV) == D == Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) == E == Electrodialysis Electrolysis Electron microscopy Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) also called Electron spin resonance (ESR) Electrophoresis Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS/EDX) == F == Field flow fractionation (FFF) Flow injection analysis (FIA) Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) == G == Gas chromatography (GC) Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) Gas chromatography-IR spectroscopy (GC-IR) Gel permeation chromatography-IR spectroscopy (GPC-IR) == H == High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) High performance liquid chromatography-IR spectroscopy (HPLC-IR) == I == Ion Microprobe (IM) Inductively coupled plasma (ICP) Infrared Spectroscopy (IR) Ion-mobility spectrometry (IMS) Ion selective electrode (ISE) e.g. determination of pH == L == Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) Liquid chromatography-IR spectroscopy (LC-IR) Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) == M == Mass spectrometry (MS) Mössbauer spectroscopy == N == Neutron activation analysis Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) == O == Optical microscopy Optical emission spectroscopy Optical rotation (OR) == P == Particle induced X-ray emission spectroscopy (PIXE) Pyrolysis gas chromatography


id: list-of-antioxidants-in-food-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_antioxidants_in_food-0.md
category: reference
title: List of antioxidants in food
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_antioxidants_in_food
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:30.508673+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-antioxidants-in-food-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of antioxidants naturally occurring in food. Vitamin C and vitamin E – which are ubiquitous among raw plant foods – are confirmed as dietary antioxidants, whereas vitamin A becomes an antioxidant following metabolism of provitamin A beta-carotene and cryptoxanthin. Most food compounds listed as antioxidants – such as polyphenols common in colorful, edible plants – have antioxidant activity only in vitro, as their fate in vivo is to be rapidly metabolized and excreted, and the in vivo properties of their metabolites remain poorly understood. For antioxidants added to food to preserve them, see butylated hydroxyanisole and butylated hydroxytoluene. == Regulatory guidance == In the following discussion, the term "antioxidant" refers mainly to non-nutrient compounds in foods, such as polyphenols, which have antioxidant capacity in vitro and so provide an artificial index of antioxidant strength – the oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) measurement. Other than for dietary antioxidant vitamins – vitamin A, vitamin C, and vitamin E – no food compounds have been proved to be antioxidants in vivo. Accordingly, regulatory agencies such as the Food and Drug Administration of the United States and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) have published guidance disallowing food product labels


id: list-of-antioxidants-in-food-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_antioxidants_in_food-1.md
category: reference
title: List of antioxidants in food
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_antioxidants_in_food
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:30.508673+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-antioxidants-in-food-20260505-0
summary:
Myricetin - walnuts are a rich source Isoflavone phytoestrogens - found primarily in soy, peanuts, and other members of the family Fabaceae Resveratrol - found in the skins of dark-colored grapes, and concentrated in red wine Pterostilbene - methoxylated analogue of resveratrol, abundant in Vaccinium berries === Phenolic acids and their esters === Examples: Chicoric acid - another caffeic acid derivative, is found in chicory and Echinacea Chlorogenic acid - found in high concentration in coffee (more concentrated in robusta than arabica beans), blueberries, and tomatoes - produced from esterification of caffeic acid Cinnamic acid and its derivatives, such as ferulic acid - found in seeds of plants such as in brown rice, whole wheat, and oats, as well as in coffee, apple, artichoke, peanut, orange, and pineapple. Ellagic acid - found in high concentration in raspberry and strawberry, and in ester form in barrel-aged alcohol such as red wine and whisky Ellagitannins - hydrolysable tannin polymer formed when ellagic acid, a polyphenol monomer, esterifies and binds with the hydroxyl group of a polyol carbohydrate such as glucose Gallic acid - found in gallnuts, sumac, witch hazel, tea leaves, oak bark, and many other plants Rosmarinic acid - found in


id: azeotrope-tables-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azeotrope_tables-0.md
category: reference
title: Azeotrope tables
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azeotrope_tables
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:31.740905+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: azeotrope-tables-20260505-0
summary:
This page contains tables of azeotrope data for various binary and ternary mixtures of solvents. The data include the composition of a mixture by weight (in binary azeotropes, when only one fraction is given, it is the fraction of the second component), the boiling point (b.p.) of a component, the boiling point of a mixture, and the specific gravity of the mixture. Boiling points are reported at a pressure of 760 mm Hg unless otherwise stated. Where the mixture separates into layers, values are shown for upper (U) and lower (L) layers. The data were obtained from Lange's 10th edition and CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 44th edition unless otherwise noted (see color code table). A list of 15825 binary and ternary mixtures was collated and published by the American Chemical Society. An azeotrope databank is also available online through the University of Edinburgh. == Binary azeotropes == == Ternary azeotropes == Tables of various ternary azeotropes (that is azeotropes consisting of three components). Fraction percentages are given by weight. ‡Saddle azeotrope ‡Saddle azeotrope == References ==


id: list-of-benzo-compounds-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_benzo_compounds-0.md
category: reference
title: List of benzo compounds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_benzo_compounds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:32.866001+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-benzo-compounds-20260505-0
summary:
In organic chemistry the addition of the prefix benzo to the name of a chemical compound indicates the addition of an even number of carbon atoms to an unsaturated or already aromatic compound by which a new aromatic ring is formed. Between the prefix benzo and the name of the parent compound then place of the addition of the extra carbon atoms is indicated by letters written between square brackets. Quite often the number of added carbon atoms is four, although sometimes two else will do the job as shown in the following table. The first entry also shows different routes to the name of the same molecule. == Examples == == See also == Benzodiazepine == References ==


id: list-of-lactam-antibiotics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_β-lactam_antibiotics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of β-lactam antibiotics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_β-lactam_antibiotics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:34.236379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-lactam-antibiotics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of common β-lactam antibiotics—both administered drugs and those not in clinical use—organized by structural class. Antibiotics are listed alphabetically within their class or subclass by their nonproprietary name. If an antibiotic is a combination drug, both ingredients will be listed. == Penams == === Narrow-spectrum === ==== β-lactamase-sensitive ==== ==== β-lactamase-resistant ==== === Broad spectrum === === Extended spectrum (Antipseudomonal) === ==== Carboxypenicillins ==== ==== Ureidopenicillins ==== == Cephems == === First generation (moderate spectrum) === === Second generation (moderate spectrum) === cefuroxime, cefaclor, cefprozil ==== With anti-Haemophilus activity ==== ==== With anti-anaerobic activity ==== === Third generation (broad spectrum) === === Fourth generation (broad spectrum) === (With β-lactamase stability and enhanced activity against Gram-positive bacteria and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) === Fifth generation* (broad spectrum) === (activity against MRSA and variably VRE. *Not universally accepted nomenclature. NO Antipseudomonal activity, mostly ceftriaxone coverage with additional MRSA and some VRE) == Carbapenems and penems == (Broadest spectrum of β-lactam antibiotics) == Monobactams == == β-lactamase inhibitors ==


id: index-of-biochemistry-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biochemistry_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of biochemistry articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biochemistry_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:35.638126+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-biochemistry-articles-20260505-0
summary:
Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes in living organisms. It deals with the structure and function of cellular components such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids and other biomolecules. Articles related to biochemistry include: == 0–9 == 2-amino-5-phosphonovalerate - 3' end - 5' end == A == ABC-Transporter Genes - abl gene - acetic acid - acetyl CoA - acetylcholine - acetylcysteine - acid - acidic fibroblast growth factor - acrosin - actin - action potential - activation energy - active site - active transport - adenosine - adenosine diphosphate (ADP) - adenosine monophosphate (AMP) - adenosine triphosphate (ATP) - adenovirus - adrenergic receptor - adrenodoxin - aequorin - aerobic respiration - agonist - alanine - albumin - alcohol - alcoholic fermentation - alicyclic compound - aliphatic compound - alkali - allosteric site - allostery - allotrope - allotropy - alpha adrenergic receptor - alpha helix - alpha-1 adrenergic receptor - alpha-2 adrenergic receptor - alpha-beta T-cell antigen receptor - alpha-fetoprotein - alpha-globulin - alpha-macroglobulin - alpha-MSH - Ames test - amide - amine - amino - amino acid - amino acid receptor - amino acid sequence - amino acid sequence homology - aminobutyric acid - ammonia -


id: index-of-biochemistry-articles-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biochemistry_articles-1.md
category: reference
title: Index of biochemistry articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biochemistry_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:35.638126+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-biochemistry-articles-20260505-0
summary:
== D == dactinomycin - dalton - decarboxylation reaction - delta opioid receptor - denaturation (biochemistry) - dendrite - dendritic cell - dendritic spine - deoxyribonucleoprotein - deoxyribose - desmopressin - deuterium - developmental biology - dialysis (chemical) - diffusion - dimer - dinucleotide repeat - diploid - disaccharide - dissociation constant - disulfide bond - disulfide bridge - DNA - DNA fragmentation - DNA replication - DNA sequence - DNA topology - DNA transposable element - DNA virus - DNA-binding protein - dopamine D1 receptor - dopamine D2 receptor - dopamine receptor - double helix - Drosophila - drugs - dynorphin == E == eIF-2 - eIF-2 kinase - electrochemical potential - electron - electron capture - electron configuration - electron microscopy - electron shell - electron transport chain - electron volt - electronegativity - electrophile - electrophoresis - electrophysiology - element - element symbol - ELISA - ELISPOT - embryo - embryonal development - emulsion - endergonic reaction - endodermis - endomembrane system - endoplasmic reticulum - endothelin receptor - endothelin-1 - energy decomposition cycles - energy level - enhancer - enkephalin - enthalpy - entomology - entropy - env gene product - environmental chemistry - enzyme -


id: index-of-biochemistry-articles-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biochemistry_articles-2.md
category: reference
title: Index of biochemistry articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biochemistry_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:35.638126+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-biochemistry-articles-20260505-0
summary:
== L == lactalbumin - lactic acid - lactic acid autotroph - lactic fermentation - lagging strand - laminin - LDL receptor - Le Chatelier's principle - lectin - leucine - leucine-2-alanine enkephalin - leukotriene B4 receptor - LH - LH receptor - LHRH receptor - life - life form - ligand - light reactions - Lineweaver-Burk diagram - lipase - lipid - lipid anchored protein - lipid bilayer - lipoprotein - liquid - list of compounds - list of gene families - locus - luminescent protein - lymphocyte homing receptor - lysine - lysis - lysis buffer - lysozyme - lytic cycle == M == macroevolution - macromolecular system - macromolecule - macrophage colony-stimulating factor - major histocompatibility complex - Malpighi body - Malpighi layer - marine biology - maslinic acid - mass spectrometer - maturation-promoting factor - mechanoreceptor - medicine - meiosis - melting point - membrane glycoprotein - membrane protein - membrane topology - membrane transport - memory B cell - memory T cell - Mendelian inheritance - metabolic pathway - metabolism - metabotropic glutamate receptor - metalloprotein - metaphase - metazoa - methionine - micelle - Michaelis-Menten kinetics - microbe - microbiology - microevolution - microfilament


id: index-of-biochemistry-articles-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biochemistry_articles-3.md
category: reference
title: Index of biochemistry articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biochemistry_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:35.638126+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-biochemistry-articles-20260505-0
summary:
== R == radioisotope - radioisotopic labelling - Raman spectroscopy - random coil - Ras gene - Ras protein - reading frame - receptor (biochemistry) - receptor antagonist - receptor protein-tyrosine kinase - recombinant fusion protein - recombinant interferon-gamma - recombinant protein - recombination - redox - redox reaction - redox system - reflux - replication origin - replicon - repressor - repressor protein - respiration (physiology) - restriction enzyme - retinoblastoma protein - retinoic acid receptor - retinol-binding protein - retroelement - retroviridae protein - retrovirus - Reverse transcriptase - RFLP - rho factor - rhodopsin - ribonucleoprotein - ribose - ribosomal protein - ribosomal protein S6 kinase - ribosome - RNA - RNA virus - RNA-binding protein - RNA-directed DNA polymerase - rod outer segment - rough ER == S == sarcoplasmic reticulum - satellite DNA - scientific notation - SDS-PAGE - second messenger - second messenger system - secondary structure - secretin - selectin - sensory receptor - sequence (biology) - sequence homology - sequence motif - sequencing - serine - serotonin - serotonin receptor - serpin - sexual reproduction - SH3 domain - SI - sigma factor - signal peptide - signal recognition particle - signal


id: outline-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_biochemistry-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of biochemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_biochemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:36.910699+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to biochemistry: Biochemistry, or biological chemistry (distinct from chemical biology), is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. A sub-discipline of both chemistry and biology, biochemistry may be divided into three fields: structural biology, enzymology, and metabolism. Over the last decades of the 20th century, biochemistry has become successful at explaining living processes through these three disciplines. Almost all areas of the life sciences are being uncovered and developed through biochemical methodology and research. Biochemistry focuses on understanding the chemical basis that allows biological molecules to give rise to the processes that occur within living cells and between cells, in turn relating greatly to the understanding of tissues and organs as well as organism structure and function. Biochemistry is closely related to molecular biology, the study of the molecular mechanisms of biological phenomena. == Applications of biochemistry == Testing Ames test – salmonella bacteria is exposed to a chemical under question (a food additive, for example), and changes in the way the bacteria grows are measured. This test is useful for screening chemicals to see if they mutate the structure of DNA and by


id: list-of-biomolecules-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biomolecules-0.md
category: reference
title: List of biomolecules
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biomolecules
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:38.260823+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-biomolecules-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of articles that describe particular biomolecules or types of biomolecules. == A == For substances with an A- or α- prefix such as α-amylase, please see the parent page (in this case Amylase). == B == == C == == D == == E == Endonuclease Enzyme Ephedrine Epinephrine – C9H13NO3 Erucic acid – CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)11COOH Erythritol Erythropoietin (EPO) Estradiol Estriol Estrogen Estrone Eugenol Exonuclease == F == == G == == H == == I == Indigo dye Indole Inosine Inositol Insulin Insulin-like growth factor Integral membrane protein Integrase Integrin Intein Interferon Interleukin Inulin Ionomycin Ionone Iron–sulfur cluster Isoleucine Isomerase Isoprene == J == == K == K252a K252b KT5720 KT5823 Keratin Kinase Kisspeptin == L == For substances with an l- or L- prefix such as L-alanine or DL-alanine, please see the parent page (in this case alanine). == M == == N == Natural phenols Neurotransmitters Neuropeptide Y Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) Norepinephrine Nucleic Acid Nucleosome Nucleoside Nucleotide == O == Ochratoxin A Oestrogens Oligopeptide Oligomycin Orcin Orexin Ornithine Oxalic acid Oxidase Oxytocin == P == == Q == Quinidine Quinine Quinone == R == == S == == T == == U ==


id: list-of-boiling-and-freezing-information-of-solvents-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_boiling_and_freezing_information_of_solvents-0.md
category: reference
title: List of boiling and freezing information of solvents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_boiling_and_freezing_information_of_solvents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:39.524307+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-boiling-and-freezing-information-of-solvents-20260505-0
summary:
== See also == Freezing-point depression Boiling-point elevation List of cooling baths == References ==


id: california-proposition-65-list-of-chemicals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Proposition_65_list_of_chemicals-0.md
category: reference
title: California Proposition 65 list of chemicals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Proposition_65_list_of_chemicals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:40.740853+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: california-proposition-65-list-of-chemicals-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of chemicals published as a requirement of Safe Drinking Water and Toxic Enforcement Act of 1986, commonly known as California Proposition 65, that are "known to the state to cause cancer or reproductive toxicity" as of January 3, 2020. As a result of lawsuits, the list also contains substances known only to cause cancer in animals. This list is not exhaustive, as the complete list contains over 900 chemicals. == Chemicals currently listed under California Proposition 65 == === Annotation === == Chemicals that were formerly listed under California Proposition 65 == † Numerical identifier assigned by the Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) Comments: Many substances include its strong acid salts Airborne particles of many substances are cancerogenic Bisphenol A (BPA) was removed from the list on April 19, 2013, and was relisted on May 11, 2015. == References ==


id: list-of-carboxylic-acids-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_carboxylic_acids-0.md
category: reference
title: List of carboxylic acids
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_carboxylic_acids
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:42.015494+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-carboxylic-acids-20260505-0
summary:
Carboxylic acids are organic acids characterized by a carboxyl (-COOH) functional group. The naming of these compounds is governed by IUPAC nomenclature, which ensures systematic and consistent naming of chemicals. Numerous organic compounds have other common names, often originating in historical source material thereof. The systematic IUPAC name is not always the preferred IUPAC name, for example, lactic acid is a common, and also the preferred, name for what systematic rules call 2-hydroxypropanoic acid. This list is ordered by the number of carbon atoms in a carboxylic acid. == C1 == == C2 == == C3 == == C4 == == C5 == == C6 == == C7 == == C8 == == C9 == == C10 == == C11 == == C12 == == C13 == == C14 == == C15 == == C16 == == C17 == == C18 == == C19 == == C20 == == C21 == == C22 == == C23 == == C24 == == C25 == == C26 ==


id: list-of-chemical-classifications-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_classifications-0.md
category: reference
title: List of chemical classifications
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_classifications
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:43.273627+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemical-classifications-20260505-0
summary:
Chemical classification systems attempt to classify elements or compounds according to certain chemical functional or structural properties. Whereas the structural properties are largely intrinsic, functional properties and the derived classifications depend to a certain degree on the type of chemical interaction partners on which the function is exerted. Sometimes other criteria like purely physical ones (e.g. molecular weight) or – on the other hand – functional properties above the chemical level are also used for building chemical taxonomies. Some systems mix the various levels, resulting in hierarchies where the domains are slightly confused, for example having structural and functional aspects end up on the same level. Whereas chemical function is closely dependent on chemical structure, the situation becomes more involved when e.g. pharmacological function is integrated, because the QSAR can usually not be directly computed from structural qualities. == Physico-chemical == by molecular weight by electrical charge: uncharged, positively, negatively, partially charged formal charge, oxidation state solubility pH value (or pKA value) == Functional == by functional groups by biological activity (mostly appropriate only for large biological molecules (as at least one interacting partner), in particular enzymes, depends on chemical functions of their constituent amino acids) ligand vs. receptor, coenzyme


id: glossary-of-chemical-formulae-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemical_formulae-0.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemical formulae
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemical_formulae
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:44.477706+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-chemical-formulae-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of common chemical compounds with chemical formulae and CAS numbers, indexed by formula. This complements alternative listing at list of inorganic compounds. == A == == B == == C == == Ca–Cu == == D == == E == == F == == G == == H == == I == == K == == L == == M == == N == == O == == P == == R == == S == == T == == U == == V == == W == == X == == Y == == Z == == External links == Webelements Landolt Börnstein Organic Index 2004


id: list-of-cheminformatics-toolkits-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cheminformatics_toolkits-0.md
category: reference
title: List of cheminformatics toolkits
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cheminformatics_toolkits
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:45.678134+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cheminformatics-toolkits-20260505-0
summary:
Cheminformatics toolkits are notable software development kits that allow cheminformaticians to develop custom computer applications for use in virtual screening, chemical database mining, and structure-activity studies. Toolkits are often used for experimentation with new methodologies. Their most important functions deal with the manipulation of chemical structures and comparisons between structures. Programmatic access is provided to properties of individual bonds and atoms. == Functionality == Toolkits provide the following functionality: Read and save structures in various chemistry file formats. Determine if one structure is a substructure of another (substructure matching). Determine if two structures are equal (exact matching). Identification of substructures common to structures in a set (maximal common substructure, MCS). Disassemble molecules, splitting into fragments. Assemble molecules from elements or submolecules. Apply reactions on input reactant structures, resulting in output of reaction product structures. Generate molecular fingerprints. Fingerprints are bit-vectors where individual bits correspond to the presence or absence of structural features. The most important use of fingerprints is in indexing of chemistry databases. == List of notable cheminformatics toolkits == == References ==


id: list-of-chemists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of chemists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemists-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of chemists. It should include those who have been important to the development or practice of chemistry. Their research or application has made significant contributions in the area of basic or applied chemistry. == A == === Ab–An === Richard Abegg (1869–1910), German chemist, pioneer of valence theory Frederick Abel (1827–1902), English chemist, inventor of cordite Friedrich Accum (1769–1838), German chemist, advances in the field of gas lighting Homer Burton Adkins (1892–1949), American chemist, known for work in hydrogenation of organic compounds Peter Agre (born 1949), American chemist and doctor, known for aquaporin water channels, 2003 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Georgius Agricola (1494–1555), German scholar known as "the father of mineralogy" Natalie Ahn (PhD 1985), American chemist working on mechanisms of cell signaling Arthur Aikin (1773–1855), English chemist and mineralogist, a founding member of the Chemical Society Adrien Albert (1907–1989), Australian medicinal chemist who studied the links between physico-chemical properties and biological effect of drugs John Albery (1936–2013), English physical chemist who studied electrochemistry, proton transfer and isotope effects Kurt Alder (1902–1958), German chemist known for the Diels–Alder reaction, 1950 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Jerome Alexander (1876–1959), American expert on the chemistry of colloids Ivan Alimarin


id: list-of-chemists-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-1.md
category: reference
title: List of chemists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemists-20260505-0
summary:
=== Bas–Ben === Fred Basolo (1920–2007), American chemist known for the mechanisms of inorganic reactions Esther Batchelder (1897–1987), American chemist, educator and specialist in nutrition Sir Alan Battersby (1925–2018), English organic chemist known for work on biosynthetic pathways Antoine Baumé (1728–1804), French chemist, inventor of the Baumé scale hydrometer for measuring the density of liquids Karl Bayer (1847–1904), Austrian chemist who invented the Bayer process of extracting alumina from bauxite Johann Joachim Becher (1635–1682), German who developed the phlogiston theory of combustion Friedrich Konrad Beilstein (1838–1906), German-Russian chemist, created Beilstein database Joseph Achille Le Bel (1847–1930), French chemist, early work in stereochemistry addressing the relationship between molecular structure and optical activity Angela Belcher (PhD 1997), American chemist, materials scientist, and biological engineer Irina Beletskaya (born 1933), Russian organometallic chemist known for studies on aromatic reaction mechanisms R. P. (Ronnie) Bell (1907–1996), English physical chemist known in particular for The Proton in Chemistry Andrey Belozersky (1905–1972), Soviet biologist and biochemist, pioneer of molecular biology and the chemistry of nucelic acids Ruth R. Benerito (1916–2013), American chemist known for inventions relating to textiles, including wash-and-wear cotton fabrics === Ber–Bla === Paul Berg (1926–2023), American biochemist known for research on nucleic acids, especially


id: list-of-chemists-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-2.md
category: reference
title: List of chemists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemists-20260505-0
summary:
=== Buc–But === Eduard Buchner (1860–1917), German chemist who sounded the death knell of vitalism by discovering cell-free fermentation, 1907 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Stephen L. Buchwald (born 1955), American organic chemist, co-discoverer of palladium-catalyzed C–N bond formation Buchwald–Hartwig amination Mary Van Rensselaer Buell (1893–1969), American chemist who worked on nucleic acids and nucleotides, the relation of hormones to the metabolism of carbohydrates, and other topics in biochemistry Kathryn Bullock (1945–2021), American chemist who co-developed valve-regulated lead-acid batteries Robert Wilhelm Bunsen (1811–1899), German inventor, chemist, discovered the elements caesium and rubidium with Gustav Kirchhoff and invented the Bunsen burner Jeanne Burbank (1915–2002), American chemist who developed lead-acid and silver-zinc batteries for submarines at the United States Naval Research Laboratory Stephanie Burns (born 1955), American organosilicon chemist and past honorary president of Society of Chemical Industry William Merriam Burton (1865–1954), American chemist, developed the first thermal cracking process for crude oil Adolf Butenandt (1903–1995), German biochemist, 1939 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for "work on sex hormones" Alison Butler (PhD 1982), American bioinorganic chemist and metallobiochemist Aleksandr Butlerov (1828–1886), Russian chemist, one of the creators of the theory of chemical structure, who discovered the formose reaction == C == === Ca ===


id: list-of-chemists-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-3.md
category: reference
title: List of chemists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemists-20260505-0
summary:
=== Cot–Cz === Frank Albert Cotton (1930–2007), American chemist known for research on transition metals and as coauthor of Advanced Inorganic Chemistry, 2000 Wolf Prize in Chemistry Charles Coulson (1910–1974), British theoretical chemist, pioneer of the application of quantum theory to problems of molecular structure Archibald Scott Couper (1831–1892), British chemist who developed the concept of tetravalent carbon atoms linking together to form large molecules James Crafts (1839–1917), American chemist, developer of Friedel–Crafts reaction for alkylation and acylation Donald J. Cram (1919–2001), American chemist, winner of the 1987 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for development of molecules with structure-specific interactions of high selectivity William Crookes (1832–1919), British chemist who discovered thallium, and was a pioneer of vacuum tubes Alexander Crum Brown (1838–1922), Scottish organic chemist who developed the concept of tetravalent carbon atoms linking together to form large molecules Paul J. Crutzen (1933–2021), Dutch chemist, winner of the 1995 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work on atmospheric chemistry, especially in relation to ozone Ana Maria Cuervo (born 1966), Spanish-American physician, researcher, and cell biologist, best known for work on autophagy Marie Curie (1867–1934), Polish and French radiation physicist, discovered the elements radium and polonium, 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics, 1911 Nobel


id: list-of-chemists-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-4.md
category: reference
title: List of chemists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemists-20260505-0
summary:
== E == Sandra Eaton (PhD 1972), American chemist notable for work on electron paramagnetic resonance John Tileston Edsall (1902–2002), American protein chemist, and co-author of Proteins, Amino Acids and Peptides Eilaf Egap (21st century), American chemist who works on imaging techniques and biomaterials for early diagnostics and drug delivery Paul Ehrlich (1854–1915), German chemist, winner of the 1908 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for contributions to immunology Arthur Eichengrün (1867–1949), German chemist known for developing the anti-gonorrhea drug Protargol Manfred Eigen (1927–2019), German chemist, winner of the 1967 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work on measuring fast chemical reactions Mostafa El-Sayed (born 1933), Egyptian-American physical chemist known for the El-Sayed rule in spectroscopy Fausto Elhuyar (1755–1833), Spanish chemist, the first to isolate tungsten Lorne Elias (PhD 1956), Canadian chemist, inventor of the explosives vapour detector EVD-1 Gertrude B. Elion (1918–1999), American biochemist and recipient of the 1988 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for innovative methods of rational drug design Conrad Elvehjem (1901–1962), American biochemist who identified two vitamins, nicotinic acid (niacin) and nicotinamide Harry Julius Emeléus (1903–1993), British inorganic chemist known for work on fluorine chemistry Gladys Anderson Emerson (1903–1984), American chemist and early nutritionist, and the


id: list-of-chemists-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-5.md
category: reference
title: List of chemists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemists-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ga–Gl === Johan Gadolin (1760–1852), Finnish chemist who discvered yttrium Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778–1850), French chemist and physicist who discovered the Gay-Lussac law, known for discovering that water is made of two parts hydrogen and one part oxygen by volume Charles Frédéric Gerhardt (1816–1856), French chemist known for reforming the notation for chemical formulas, and for synthesizing acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) Jnan Chandra Ghosh (1894–1959), Indian chemist known for research on strong electrolytes and the dissociation--ionization theory William Giauque (1895–1982), 1949 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for studies of the properties of matter at temperatures close to absolute zero Josiah Willard Gibbs (1839–1903), American chemist and physicist whose work on thermodynamics helped to transform physical chemistry into a rigorous deductive science Walter Gilbert (born 1932), 1980 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for a method of sequencing nucleic acids Cornelia Gillyard (born 1941), American organic chemist known for work with chemicals in the environment Henry Gilman (1893–1986), American chemist who developed organometallic chemistry, and discovered the Gilman reagent Judith Giordan (Thesis 1980), American chemist who worked on unsaturated hydrocarbons and became President-Elect of the American Chemical Society Johann Rudolf Glauber (1604–1670), Dutch-German alchemist and chemist who discovered sodium sulfate and wrote many books


id: list-of-chemists-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-6.md
category: reference
title: List of chemists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemists-20260505-0
summary:
=== He–Hi === Clayton Heathcock (born 1936), American chemist known for his work on the synthesis of complex polycyclic natural products Alan J. Heeger (1936–2023), American chemist known for co-founding the field of conducting polymers, 2000 Nobel Prize in chemistry Jan Baptist van Helmont (1579–1644), chemist from the Spanish Netherlands known for studying the weight gain of growing plants, The founder of pneumatic chemistry Victor Henri (1872–1940), French physical chemist of Russian parents, the first to apply ideas of physical chemistry to the properties of enzymes. Dudley R. Herschbach (born 1932), American chemist, 1986 Nobel Prize in chemistry for work on the dynamics of chemical elementary processes Avram Hershko (born 1937), Hungarian-born Israeli biochemist, 2004 Nobel Prize in chemistry for the discovery of ubiquitin-mediated protein degradation Charles Herty (1867–1938), American chemist who revolutionized the turpentine industry Gerhard Herzberg (1904–1999), German-Canadian chemist, 1971 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work on electronic structure and geometry of molecules, particularly free radicals Germain Henri Hess (1802–1850), Swiss-born Russian chemist who formulated Hess's law, an early principle of thermochemistry George de Hevesy (1885–1966), Hungarian chemist who discovered hafnium, Nobel Prize in chemistry 1943 for the development of radioactive tracers to study metabolism Jaroslav Heyrovský (1890–1967),


id: list-of-chemists-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-7.md
category: reference
title: List of chemists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemists-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ka--Kj === Henri B. Kagan (born 1930) French chemist, pioneer of asymmetric catalysis, 2001 Wolf Prize in Chemistry Isabella Karle (1921–2017), American chemist instrumental for extracting plutonium chloride from a mixture containing plutonium oxide Jerome Karle (1918–2013), 1985 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the direct analysis of crystal structures by X-ray scattering Paul Karrer (1889–1971), Swiss organic chemist known for research on vitamins, 1937 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Alan R. Katritzky (1928–2014), British-American organic chemist, pioneer of heterocyclic chemistry Joyce Jacobson Kaufman (1929–2016), American chemist and inventor of conformational topology Melinda H. Keefe (PhD 2001), American chemist known for identifying solvents that can be used to remove dirt without damaging layers of paint August Kekulé (1829–1896), German organic chemist known for the theory of chemical structure, especially the structure of benzene John Kendrew (1917–1997), British biochemist and crystallographer known for solving the structure of myoglobin, 1962 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Ann Kiessling (born 1942), American chemist and reproductive biologist known for discovering reverse transcriptase activity in normal human cells Ann Kimble-Hill (21st century), American biochemist studying structure-function relationships of membrane proteins and lipids Petrus Jacobus Kipp (1808–1864), Dutch chemist, inventor of Kipp's apparatus Johan Kjeldahl (1849–1900), Danish chemist who


id: list-of-chemists-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-8.md
category: reference
title: List of chemists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemists-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ma–Me === Alan MacDiarmid (1927–2007), American-New Zealand chemist who discovered conductive polymers, 2000 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Carolina Henriette Mac Gillavry (1904–1993), Dutch chemist and crystallographer known for discoveries on the use of diffraction in crystallography Roderick MacKinnon (born 1956), American biophsicist known for work on ion channels; 2003 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Pierre Macquer (1718–1784), French chemist known for Dictionnaire de chymie Rudolph A. Marcus (born 1923), Canadian chemist known for work on the theory of electron transfer reactions; 1992 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Jacob A. Marinsky (1918–2005), American chemist, co-discovered the element promethium Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac (1817–1894), Swiss chemist who discovered ytterbium and co-discovered gadolinium Vladimir Vasilevich Markovnikov (1838–1904), Russian chemist known for Markovnikov's rule describing addition reactions of hydrogen halides and alkenes Tobin J. Marks (born 1944), American inorganic chemist and materials scientist known for work in polymerization catalysts Alan G. Marshall (born 1944), American chemist, co-inventor of Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance (FT-ICR) mass spectrometry Archer John Porter Martin (1910–2002), British physical chemist, 1952 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the invention of partition chromatography Martinus van Marum (1750–1837), Dutch physician, inventor, scientist and teacher, which created the "large electricity machine" Elmer McCollum (1879–1967),


id: list-of-chemists-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-9.md
category: reference
title: List of chemists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemists-20260505-0
summary:
== N == Robert Nalbandyan (1937–2002), Armenian protein chemist known for discovery of photosynthetic protein plantacyanin Sergey Nametkin (1976–1950), Russian organic chemist known the cracking of petrochemicals, and rearrangement of camphenes Louise Natrajan (PhD 2003), British chemist who ortks on actinide chemistry and luminescence spectroscopy Giulio Natta (1903–1979), Italian chemical engineer worked on high density polymers, 1963 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Costin Nenițescu (1902–1970), Romanian chemist who studied the oxidation of open-chain and aromatic hydrocarbons with chromic acid and chromic oxychloride Antonio Neri (1576–1614), Florentine priest, author of L’Arte Vetraria (The Art of Glass), the first general treatise on the systematics of glassmaking Walther Nernst (1864–1941), German physical chemist whose heat theorem led the way to the third law of thermodynamics, 1920 Nobel Prize in Chemistry John Alexander Reina Newlands (1837–1898), British analytical chemist, precursor of the periodic order of elements William Nicholson (1753–1815), British chemist and civil engineer, the first to achieve electrolysis Kyriacos Costa Nicolaou (born 1946), Cypriot-American chemist known for total synthesis of natural products Julius Nieuwland (1878–1936), Belgian and American prirest and chemist who worked on synthetic rubber Mathias Nilsson, Swedish physical and analytical chemist concerned with liquid NMR spectroscopy Alfred Nobel (1833–1896), Swedish chemist who


id: list-of-chemists-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-10.md
category: reference
title: List of chemists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemists-20260505-0
summary:
== S == Paul Sabatier (1854–1941), French chemist, 1912 Nobel Prize in Chemistry corecipient Frederick Sanger (1918–2013), 1958 and 1980 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Carl Wilhelm Scheele (1742–1786), Swedish 18th century chemist, discovered numerous elements Christian Friedrich Schönbein (1799–1868), German-Swiss chemist, invented the fuel cell, and discovered gun cotton and ozone Stuart L. Schreiber (born 1956), American chemist, a pioneer in a field of chemical biology Richard R. Schrock (born 1945), 2005 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Peter Schultz (born 1956), American chemist Glenn T. Seaborg (1912–1999), 1951 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Nils Gabriel Sefström (1787–1845), chemist Francesco Selmi (1817–1881), Italian chemist, regarded as one of the founders of colloid chemistry Nikolay Nikolayevich Semyonov (1896–1986), physicist and chemist, 1956 Nobel Prize in Chemistry T. R. Seshadri (1900–1975), Indian chemist, pioneer in plant chemistry K. Barry Sharpless (born 1941), 2001 Wolf Prize in Chemistry, 2001 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Dan Shechtman (born 1941), 2011 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, discovered quasicrystals Patsy O. Sherman (1930–2008), 12 US patents John Sherwood (died 2020), British physical chemist Nevil Vincent Sidgwick (1873–1952), English theoretical chemist, known for work in valency Osamu Shimomura (1928–2018), 2008 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Hideki Shirakawa (born 1936), 2000 Nobel Prize in


id: list-of-chemists-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists-11.md
category: reference
title: List of chemists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:47.131194+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemists-20260505-0
summary:
== W == Johannes Diderik van der Waals (1837–1923), Dutch physicist Sir James Walker (1863–1935), Scottish physical chemist John E. Walker (born 1941), British chemist, 1997 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Otto Wallach (1847–1931), German chemist, 1910 Nobel Prize in Chemistry John Warner (born 1962), American chemist, 2014 Perkin Medal, one of the "founders" of green chemistry Alfred Werner (1866–1919), Swiss chemist, 1913 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Thomas Summers West (1927–2010), British analytical chemist Peter Jaffrey Wheatley (1921–1997), English chemist Chaim Weizmann (1874–1952), Russian chemist, developed the ABE-process George M. Whitesides (born 1939), American chemist John Rex Whinfield (1901–1966), British chemist, discovered polyester fibres Otto Wichterle (1913–1998), Czech chemist, known for inventing modern contact lenses Heinrich Otto Wieland (1877–1957), German chemist 1927 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Julius Wilbrand (1839–1906), German chemist, inventor of TNT Harvey W. Wiley (1844–1930), American chemist, pure food and drug advocate Sir Geoffrey Wilkinson (1921–1996), English chemist, 1973 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Alexander William Williamson (1824–1904), English chemist, famous for Williamson ether synthesis Thomas Willson (1860–1915), Canadian chemist, discovered an economically efficient process for creating calcium carbide Richard Willstätter (1872–1942), German chemist, 1915 Nobel Prize in Chemistry Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus (1876–1959), German chemist, 1928 Nobel Prize


id: list-of-chlorinated-propanes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chlorinated_propanes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of chlorinated propanes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chlorinated_propanes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:48.360196+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chlorinated-propanes-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of the 29 molecules of chlorinated propane in order of number of chlorine atoms. == Monochloro == 1-Chloropropane 2-Chloropropane == Dichloro == 1,1-Dichloropropane 1,2-Dichloropropane 1,3-Dichloropropane 2,2-Dichloropropane == Trichloro == 1,1,1-Trichloropropane 1,2,3-Trichloropropane 1,2,2-Trichloropropane 1,1,2-Trichloropropane 1,1,3-Trichloropropane == Tetrachloro == 1,1,1,2-Tetrachloropropane 1,1,1,3-Tetrachloropropane 1,1,2,2-Tetrachloropropane 1,1,2,3-Tetrachloropropane 1,1,3,3-Tetrachloropropane 1,2,2,3-tetrachloropropane == Pentachloro == 1,1,1,2,2-Pentachloropropane 1,1,1,2,3-Pentachloropropane 1,1,1,3,3-Pentachloropropane 1,1,2,2,3-Pentachloropropane 1,1,2,3,3-Pentachloropropane == Hexachloro == 1,1,1,2,2,3-Hexachloropropane 1,1,1,2,3,3-Hexachloropropane 1,1,1,3,3,3-Hexachloropropane 1,1,2,2,3,3-Hexachloropropane == Heptachloro == 1,1,1,2,2,3,3-Heptachloropropane 1,1,1,2,3,3,3-Heptachloropropane == Octachloro == Octachloropropane == References ==


id: list-of-cigarette-smoke-carcinogens-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cigarette_smoke_carcinogens-0.md
category: reference
title: List of cigarette smoke carcinogens
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cigarette_smoke_carcinogens
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:49.504661+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cigarette-smoke-carcinogens-20260505-0
summary:
Commercial tobacco smoke is a mixture of more than 5,000 chemicals. A 2011 report in the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (IJERPH) lists 65 carcinogens or possible carcinogens: "Our list of hazardous smoke components includes all nine components reported in mainstream cigarette smoke that are known human carcinogens (IARC Group I carcinogens), as well as all nine components that are probably carcinogenic to humans (IARC Group 2A carcinogens). In addition, it contains 34 of the 48 components that are possibly carcinogenic to humans (IARC Group 2B carcinogens)." == IJERPH table == "1Cancer inhalation risk values provide an excess lifetime exposure risk, in this case the human lung cancer risk at a 1 in 100,000 (E-5) level." == See also == Kent, a cigarette that contained a filter made of asbestos. Composition of electronic cigarette aerosol Health effects of tobacco smoking List of additives in cigarettes == References ==


id: list-of-compounds-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_compounds-0.md
category: reference
title: List of compounds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_compounds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:50.676864+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-compounds-20260505-0
summary:
Compounds are organized into the following lists: List of inorganic compounds, compounds without a C–H bond List of biomolecules == See also == Chemical substance – Form of matterPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets List of alchemical substances List of chemical elements List of fragrance compounds List of minerals List of named alloys List of straight-chain alkanes Polyatomic ion – Ion containing two or more atoms Exotic molecule – a compound containing one or more exotic atoms == External links == Relevant links for chemical compounds are: Chemical Abstracts Service, a division of the American Chemical Society Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) – substance databases CAS Common Chemistry ChemSpider PubChem


id: list-of-computational-chemistry-software-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computational_chemistry_software-0.md
category: reference
title: List of computational chemistry software
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computational_chemistry_software
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:51.876846+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-computational-chemistry-software-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of computational chemistry software used for electronic structure calculations, molecular property prediction, and related simulations. The programs listed below implement methods such as Hartree–Fock, Post–Hartree–Fock, density-functional theory, and relativistic formalisms for molecular, biological, and solid-state chemistry systems. == Quantum chemistry == == Molecular dynamics == == Molecular modeling software == == Cheminformatics, docking, and modeling == == Utilities and frameworks == == See also == Comparison of nucleic acid simulation software Computational Chemistry List Crystallographic database Crystallography Open Database List of chemical process simulators List of chemistry journals List of computational chemists List of computer-assisted organic synthesis software List of molecular graphics systems List of software for Monte Carlo molecular modeling List of software for nanostructures modeling == References == == External links == Software | Computational Chemical Sciences Open-Source Software Development Group Free and open source software for computational chemistry education Cheminformatics and Molecular Modeling – Translational Informatics Division Best Open Source Chemistry Software 2025 lmmentel/awesome-python-chemistry Cutting-Edge Free Tools To Unlock the Power of Computational Chemistry


id: list-of-conjugated-polymers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_conjugated_polymers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of conjugated polymers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_conjugated_polymers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:53.097778+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-conjugated-polymers-20260505-0
summary:
== See also == Light emitting polymers in OLEDs Conductive polymer Electroluminescence == References ==


id: list-of-cooling-baths-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cooling_baths-0.md
category: reference
title: List of cooling baths
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cooling_baths
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:54.317715+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cooling-baths-20260505-0
summary:
This article contains a list of cooling bath mixtures. == Table == == References == Lee, Do W.; Jensen, Craig M. (2000). "Dry-Ice Bath Based on Ethylene Glycol Mixtures". J. Chem. Educ. 77 (5): 629. doi:10.1021/ed077p629. Phipps, Alan M.; Hume, David N. (1968). "General purpose low temperature dry-ice baths". J. Chem. Educ. 45 (10): 664. Bibcode:1968JChEd..45..664P. doi:10.1021/ed045p664. Rondeau, Roger E. (1966). "Slush baths". Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data. 11: 124. doi:10.1021/je60028a037.


id: list-of-copper-salts-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_copper_salts-0.md
category: reference
title: List of copper salts
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_copper_salts
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:55.607543+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-copper-salts-20260505-0
summary:
Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (from Latin: cuprum) and the atomic number of 29. It is easily recognisable, due to its distinct red-orange color. Copper also has a range of different organic and inorganic salts, having varying oxidation states ranging from (0,I) to (III). These salts (mostly the (II) salts) are often blue to green in color, rather than the orange color copper is known for. Despite being considered a semi-noble metal, copper is one of the most common salt-forming transition metals, along with iron. == Copper(0,I) salts == == Copper(I) salts == == Copper(II) salts == == Copper(I, II) salts == == See also == List of organic salts List of inorganic compounds


id: list-of-corticosteroids-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_corticosteroids-0.md
category: reference
title: List of corticosteroids
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_corticosteroids
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:56.951676+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-corticosteroids-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of corticosteroids (glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids) or derivatives of cortisol (hydrocortisone). Most esters of these corticosteroids are not included in this list; for esters, see here instead. The most common structural modifications in synthetic corticosteroids include 1(2)-dehydrogenation, 6α-, 9α-, 16α-, and 16β-substitution (with a halogen or methyl group), 16α,17α-acetonidation, and 17α- and 21-esterification. == Natural == 11-Dehydrocorticosterone (11-oxocorticosterone, 17-deoxycortisone) = 21-hydroxypregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione 11-Deoxycorticosterone (deoxycortone, desoxycortone; 21-hydroxyprogesterone) = 21-hydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione 11-Deoxycortisol (cortodoxone, cortexolone) = 17α,21-dihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione 11-Ketoprogesterone (11-oxoprogesterone; Ketogestin) = pregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione 11β-Hydroxypregnenolone = 3β,11β-dihydroxypregn-5-en-20-one [1] 11β-Hydroxyprogesterone (21-deoxycorticosterone) = 11β-hydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione 11β,17α,21-Trihydroxypregnenolone = 3β,11β,17α,21-tetrahydroxypregn-5-en-20-one [2] 17α,21-Dihydroxypregnenolone = 3β,17α,21-trihydroxypregn-5-en-20-one [3] 17α-Hydroxypregnenolone = 3β,17α-dihydroxypregn-5-en-20-one 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone = 17α-hydroxypregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione 18-Hydroxy-11-deoxycorticosterone = 18,21-dihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione [4] 18-Hydroxycorticosterone = 11β,18,21-trihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione 18-Hydroxyprogesterone = 18-hydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione [5] 21-Deoxycortisol = 11β,17α-dihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione, 21-Deoxycortisone = 17α-hydroxypregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione 21-Hydroxypregnenolone (prebediolone) = 3β,21-dihydroxypregn-5-en-20-one Aldosterone = 11β,21-dihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,18,20-trione Corticosterone (17-deoxycortisol) = 11β,21-dihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione Cortisol (hydrocortisone) = 11β,17α,21-trihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione Cortisone = 17α,21-dihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione Pregnenolone = pregn-5-en-3β-ol-20-one Progesterone = pregn-4-ene-3,20-dione The glucocorticoid activity of progesterone and 17α-hydroxyprogesterone is very weak (>100-fold less than that of cortisol). The above list includes precursors and intermediates in corticosteroid biosynthesis. == Synthetic == === Progesterone-type === Flugestone (flurogestone) = 9α-fluoro-11β,17α-dihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione Fluorometholone = 6α-methyl-9α-fluoro-11β,17α-dihydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione Medrysone (hydroxymethylprogesterone) = 6α-methyl-11β-hydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione Prebediolone acetate (21-acetoxypregnenolone) = 3β,21-dihydroxypregn-5-en-20-one 21-acetate In addition to the above, various progesterone derivative


id: list-of-cp-cannabinoids-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_CP_cannabinoids-0.md
category: reference
title: List of CP cannabinoids
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_CP_cannabinoids
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:58.267339+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cp-cannabinoids-20260505-0
summary:
Many synthetic cannabinoids were designed by Pfizer in the 1970s and 1980s, and feature an alphanumeric code beginning with the prefix "CP" (after Charles Pfizer). Recently, several members of this class of cannabinoids have been discovered in recreational drug products. CP 47,497 — (C6)-CP 47,497 — (C7)-CP 47,497 (CP 47,497 itself) — (C8)-CP 47,497 (Cannabicyclohexanol) — (C9)-CP 47,497 — CP 50,556-1 (Levonantradol) — CP 55,244 — CP 55,940 — (±)-CP 55,940 — (±)-CP 55,940 is a widely used cannabinoid research tool. (+)-CP 55,940 — (-)-CP 55,940 — CP-945,598 (Otenabant) — == See also == List of AM cannabinoids List of HU cannabinoids List of JWH cannabinoids List of miscellaneous designer cannabinoids == References ==


id: list-of-chemical-databases-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_databases-0.md
category: reference
title: List of chemical databases
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_databases
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:58:59.651708+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemical-databases-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of websites that contain lists of chemicals, or databases of chemical information. There is further detail on the content of these and other resources in a Wikibook of information sources. == External links == Drugs, Herbs and Supplements informations at the MedlinePlus service of the US National Institutes of Health (NIH) The Drug Information Service at the US Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) website == References ==


id: dea-list-of-chemicals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DEA_list_of_chemicals-0.md
category: reference
title: DEA list of chemicals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DEA_list_of_chemicals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:00.892735+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dea-list-of-chemicals-20260505-0
summary:
The United States Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) maintains lists regarding the classification of illicit drugs (see DEA Schedules). It also maintains List I of chemicals and List II of chemicals, which contain chemicals that are used to manufacture the controlled substances/illicit drugs. The list is designated within the Controlled Substances Act but can be modified by the U.S. Attorney General as illegal manufacturing practices change. Although the list is controlled by the Attorney General, the list is considered a DEA list because the DEA publishes and enforces the list. Suppliers of these products are subject to regulation and control measures: == List I chemicals == These chemicals are designated as those that are used in the manufacture of the controlled substances and are important to the manufacture of the substances: == List II chemicals == These chemicals are designated as those that are used in the manufacture of controlled substances: == Special Surveillance List == === Chemicals === All listed chemicals as specified in 21 CFR 1310.02 (a) or (b). This includes supplements which contain a listed chemical, regardless of their dosage form or packaging and regardless of whether the chemical mixture, drug product or dietary supplement is exempt from


id: list-of-desiccants-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_desiccants-0.md
category: reference
title: List of desiccants
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_desiccants
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:02.174207+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-desiccants-20260505-0
summary:
List of desiccants: Activated alumina Aerogel Benzophenone (as anion) Bentonite clay Calcium chloride Calcium hydride Calcium oxide Calcium sulfate (Drierite) Cobalt(II) chloride Copper(II) sulfate Lithium chloride Lithium bromide Magnesium chloride hexahydrate Magnesium sulfate Magnesium perchlorate Molecular sieve Phosphorus pentoxide Potassium carbonate Potassium hydroxide Rice Silica gel Sodium Sodium chlorate Sodium chloride Sodium hydroxide Sodium sulfate Sucrose Sulfuric acid Triethylene glycol Zeolite (molecular sieves) == External links == Education Center == References ==


id: list-of-discredited-substances-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_discredited_substances-0.md
category: reference
title: List of discredited substances
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_discredited_substances
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:03.476066+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-discredited-substances-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of substances or materials generally considered discredited. A substance can be discredited in one of three ways: It was widely believed to exist at one time but no longer is. Such substances are often part of an obsolete scientific theory. It was once believed to have drastically different properties from those accepted now. It was widely claimed and believed to possess significant properties that are no longer attributed to it. It is currently believed to exist as part of a theory that has not met the theoretical and experimental requirements of mainstream science. In particular, such a theory must be predictive. == Substances whose existence is discredited == == Substances whose properties are discredited == This is not to be construed as implying that these items–as they are understood today–are discredited. What is listed are fire, water, metal, etc. as universal principles or fundamentals. Classical elements and Chinese elements discredited by atomic theory and nuclear physics. Fire (classical element) Water (classical element) Earth (classical element) Air (classical element) Wood (classical element) Metal (classical element) Aether (classical element): Now known not to exist (see above) The four bodily humours: Blood, Phlegm, Black Bile, and Yellow Bile. Fluids


id: list-of-dyes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_dyes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of dyes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_dyes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:04.859605+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-dyes-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of dyes with Colour Index International generic names and numbers and CAS Registry numbers. Note Synonyms should be treated with caution because they are often used inconsistently, see discussion page and external link [1] == See also == Glossary of dyeing terms == Sources == BDH laboratory chemicals & biochemicals catalogue 1983 Important Early Synthetic Dyes 1991 Smithsonian Institution == External links == Stainsfile dye index World Dye Variety Hazardous substances used in textile dyeing


id: list-of-essential-oils-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_essential_oils-0.md
category: reference
title: List of essential oils
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_essential_oils
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:07.468008+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-essential-oils-20260505-0
summary:
Essential oils are volatile and liquid aroma compounds from natural sources, usually plants. They are not oils in a strict sense, but often share with oils a poor solubility in water. Essential oils often have an odor and are therefore used in food flavoring and perfumery. They are usually prepared by fragrance extraction techniques (such as distillation, cold pressing, or Solvent extraction). Essential oils are distinguished from aroma oils (essential oils and aroma compounds in an oily solvent), infusions in a vegetable oil, absolutes, and concretes. Typically, essential oils are highly complex mixtures of often hundreds of individual aroma compounds. Agar oil or oodh, distilled from agarwood (Aquilaria malaccensis). Highly prized for its fragrance. Ajwain oil, distilled from the leaves of (Carum copticum). Oil contains 35–65% thymol. Amyris oil Angelica root oil, distilled from the Angelica archangelica. Has a green musky scent. Anise oil, from the Pimpinella anisum, rich odor of licorice Armoise/Mugwort oil A green and camphorous essential oil. Asafoetida oil, used to flavor food. Attar or ittar, used in perfumes for fragrances such as rose and sandlewood. Balsam of Peru, from the Myroxylon, used in food and drink for flavoring, in perfumes and toiletries for a cheaper alternative


id: list-of-essential-oils-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_essential_oils-1.md
category: reference
title: List of essential oils
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_essential_oils
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:07.468008+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-essential-oils-20260505-0
summary:
Sandalwood oil, used primarily as a fragrance, for its pleasant, woody fragrance. Sassafras oil, from sassafras root bark. Used in aromatherapy, soap-making, perfumes, and the like. Formerly used as a spice, and as the primary flavoring of root beer, inter alia. Sassafras oil is heavily regulated in the United States due to its high safrole content. Savory oil, from Satureja species. Used in aromatherapy, cosmetic and soap-making applications. Schisandra oil Spearmint oil, often used in flavoring mouthwash and chewing gum, among other applications. Spikenard Spruce oil Star anise oil, highly fragrant oil using in cooking. Also used in perfumery and soaps, has been used in toothpastes, mouthwashes, and skin creams. 90% of the world's star anise crop is used in the manufacture of Tamiflu, a drug used to treat influenza, and is hoped to be useful for avian flu Tangerine Tarragon oil, distilled from Artemisia dracunculus Tea tree oil, extracted from Melaleuca alternifolia. Thyme oil Tsuga belongs to the pine tree family. Turmeric, used to flavor food. Valerian Warionia, used as a perfume ingredient Vetiver oil (khus oil) a thick, amber oil, primarily from India. Used as a fixative in perfumery, and in aromatherapy. Western red cedar Wintergreen Yarrow oil


id: list-of-estrogens-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_estrogens-0.md
category: reference
title: List of estrogens
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_estrogens
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:09.935711+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-estrogens-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of steroidal estrogens or derivatives of estradiol, estrone, and estriol. Most esters of these estrogens are not included in this list; for esters, see here instead. == Estradiol derivatives == === 17α-Substituted estradiol derivatives === === Nitrogen mustard-coupled alkylating antineoplastic estradiol derivatives === === 17β-Aminoestrogens === == Estrone derivatives == === Nitrogen mustard-coupled alkylating antineoplastic estrone derivatives === == Estriol derivatives == === 17α-Substituted estriol derivatives === == Other estrogen derivatives == === Epimers === === Equine estrogens === == See also == List of steroids == Notes == ? = Chemical names that are unverified. == References ==


id: epa-list-of-extremely-hazardous-substances-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPA_list_of_extremely_hazardous_substances-0.md
category: reference
title: EPA list of extremely hazardous substances
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPA_list_of_extremely_hazardous_substances
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:11.175702+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: epa-list-of-extremely-hazardous-substances-20260505-0
summary:
This is the list of extremely hazardous substances defined in Section 302 of the U.S. Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (42 U.S.C. § 11002). The list can be found as an appendix to 40 CFR 355. Updates as of 2006 can be seen on the Federal Register, 71 FR 47121 (August 16, 2006). The data were provided by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). == A == Acetone cyanohydrin Acetone thiosemicarbazide Acrolein Acrylamide Acrylonitrile Acryloyl chloride Adiponitrile Aldicarb Aldrin Allyl alcohol Allylamine Aluminium phosphide Aminopterin Amiton Amiton oxalate Ammonia Amphetamine Aniline Aniline, 2,4,6-trimethyl- Antimony pentafluoride Antimycin A ANTU (Alpha-Naphthylthiourea) Arsenic pentoxide Arsenous oxide Arsenous trichloride Arsine Azinphos-ethyl Azinphos-methyl == B == Benzal chloride Benzenamine, 3-(trifluoromethyl)- Benzenearsonic acid Benzimidazole, 4,5-dichloro-2-(trifluoromethyl)- Benzotrichloride Benzyl chloride Benzyl cyanide Bicyclo(2.2.1)heptane-2-carbonitrile Bis(chloromethyl) ketone Bitoscanate Boron trichloride Boron trifluoride Boron trifluoride compound with dimethyl ether (1:1) Bromadiolone Bromine == C == Cadmium oxide Cadmium stearate Calcium arsenate Camphechlor Cantharidin Carbachol chloride Carbamic acid, Methyl-, O-(((2,4-Dimethyl-1,3-Dithiolan-2-yl)Methylene)Amino)- (Tirpate) Carbofuran Carbon disulfide Carbophenothion Chlordane Chlorfenvinfos Chlorine Chlormephos Chlormequat chloride Chloroacetic acid 2-chloroethanol Chloroethyl chloroformate Chloroform Chloromethyl ether Chloromethyl methyl ether Chlorophacinone Chloroxuron Chlorthiophos Chromic chloride Cobalt carbonyl Colchicine Coumaphos Cresol, -o Crimidine Crotonaldehyde Crotonaldehyde, (E)- Cyanogen bromide Cyanogen


id: list-of-fentanyl-analogues-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fentanyl_analogues-0.md
category: reference
title: List of fentanyl analogues
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fentanyl_analogues
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:12.457793+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fentanyl-analogues-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of fentanyl analogues (sometimes referred to as fentalogs), and includes both compounds developed by pharmaceutical companies for legitimate medical use, and those which have been sold as designer drugs. The latter have been reported to national drug control agencies such as the DEA, and some to transnational agencies such as the EMCDDA and UNODC. This is not a comprehensive or exhaustive list of fentanyl analogues, as more than 1400 compounds from this family have been described in the scientific and patent literature. However, this list does include many notable compounds that have reached late-stage human clinical trials, and compounds which have been sold as designer drugs, as well as representative examples of significant structural variations reported in the scientific and patent literature. The structural variations among fentanyl analogues can impart profound pharmacological differences between each other, especially regarding potency and efficacy. In the United States, the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) placed the class of "Fentanyl-Related Substances" on the list of Schedule I drugs in 2018, making it illegal to manufacture, distribute, or possess fentanyl analogs, with very broad terminology being used in its scheduling. Regarding the temporary control of fentanyl-related substances, Schedule I was extended


id: list-of-fentanyl-analogues-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fentanyl_analogues-1.md
category: reference
title: List of fentanyl analogues
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fentanyl_analogues
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:12.457793+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fentanyl-analogues-20260505-0
summary:
The modifications covered in this diagram have to do with carbon skeleton modifications of the original fentanyl molecular structure. These are organized into methyl acetate additions, which are most known for the fentanyl -> carfentanil conversion. Many analogues of great potency, such as ohmfentanyl and lofentanyl possess methyl acetate groups added to the 4-carbon (of the piperidine ring, in the para- position relative to the annular nitrogen). The methyl acetate is added here from the α-carbon of the acetate moiety as it is with ohm- and lofentanyl. The 4-carbon is not a chiral center in carfetnanil because of a lack of piperidinyl substituents, but this same carbon is a chiral center in both ohm- and lofentanyl because both of those analogues have piperidinyl substituents. The second group are organized into methyl additions, which are known for the fentanyl analogues such as α-methylfentanyl and cis-3-methylfentanyl. These analogues can possess a wide variety of modified pharmacological properties, including increased and decreased potency (receptor binding efficiency), increased or decreased half-life (metabolic binding efficiency) or other side effects on human physiology. Other substituents such as hydroxy, chloro, fluoro, and a wide variety of alkyl groups, are also substituted in place of these methylations to


id: list-of-fentanyl-analogues-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fentanyl_analogues-2.md
category: reference
title: List of fentanyl analogues
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fentanyl_analogues
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:12.457793+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fentanyl-analogues-20260505-0
summary:
The third case studied here is alpha-methylfentanyl. This group contains a substitution similar to the 3-methylfentanyl that was examined in the previous example on the previous image in this series (Fentanyl Synthesis p4.png), but it is on the phenethyl chain as opposed to being implanted on the piperidine ring. We then mark the two stereocenters, one on the C-4 carbon just as on fentanyl itself, and the other on the C-α (alpha carbon). To analogize these stereocenters we chose N-(1-hydroxyethyl)-4-hydroxypiperidine. When we draw out all potential stereoisomers, we see that the C-4 stereocenter is super-imposable, eliminating it as a true stereocenter. This leaves only 2 R/S assignments that follow the orientation of the stereocenter at the C-α (alpha carbon) position for the real α-methylfentanyl. These are labeled 7S and 7R, a reflection of the stereocenter in the piperidine derivative we used being at C-7 position. It is interesting that the C-4 stereocenter, which has no chiral activity in fentanyl (1st example), activiates it in 3-methylfentanyl with an on-the-ring addition, and loses it again in α-methylfentanyl with an off-the-ring addition. The fourth case studied here is ohmfentanyl. Ohmfentanyl has three potential stereocenters, which are best analogized by another piperidine derivative: N-(1-hydroxyethyl)-3-methyl-4-hydroxypiperidine.


id: list-of-fictional-elements-materials-isotopes-and-subatomic-particles-20260505-0
category: reference
title: List of fictional elements, materials, isotopes and subatomic particles
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:13.721495+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fictional-elements-materials-isotopes-and-subatomic-particles-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_elements,_materials,_isotopes_and_subatomic_particles-0.md

summary:
This list contains fictional chemical elements, materials, isotopes or subatomic particles that either a) play a major role in a notable work of fiction, b) are common to several unrelated works, or c) are discussed in detail by independent sources. == Fictional elements and materials == == Fictional isotopes and allotropes of real elements == == Fictional subatomic particles == == See also == == References == == External links == Elements from DC Comics Legion of Super-heroes Periodic Table of Comic Books – lists comic book uses of real elements Periodic table from the BBC comedy series Look Around You. Tarzan at the Earths Core

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fictional_elements,_materials,_isotopes_and_subatomic_particles


id: list-of-food-additives-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives-0.md
category: reference
title: List of food additives
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:14.855331+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-food-additives-20260505-0
summary:
Food additives are substances added to food to preserve flavor or enhance its taste, appearance, or other qualities. == Purposes == Additives are used for many purposes but the main uses are: Acids Food acids are added to make flavors "sharper", and also act as preservatives and antioxidants. Common food acids include vinegar, citric acid, tartaric acid, malic acid, folic acid, fumaric acid, and lactic acid. Acidity regulators Acidity regulators are used to change or otherwise control the acidity and alkalinity of foods. Anticaking agents Anticaking agents keep powders such as milk powder from caking or sticking. Antifoaming agents Antifoaming agents reduce or prevent foaming in foods. Antioxidants Antioxidants such as vitamin C act as preservatives by inhibiting the effects of oxygen on food, and can be beneficial to health. Bulking agents Bulking agents such as starch are additives that increase the bulk of a food without affecting its nutritional value. Food coloring Colorings are added to food to replace colors lost during preparation, or to make food look more attractive. Color retention agents In contrast to colorings, color retention agents are used to preserve a food's existing color. Emulsifiers Emulsifiers allow water and oils to remain mixed together in


id: list-of-food-additives-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives-1.md
category: reference
title: List of food additives
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:14.855331+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-food-additives-20260505-0
summary:
== B == Babassu oil – similar to, and used as a substitute for coconut oil. Baking powder – leavening agent; includes acid and base Baking soda – food base Balm, lemon – Balm oil – Balsam of Peru – used in food and drink for flavoring Barberry – Barley flour – Basil (Ocimum basilicum) – Basil extract – Bay leaves – Beeswax – glazing agent Beet red – color (red) Beetroot red – color (red) Ben oil – extracted from the seeds of the moringa oleifera. High in behenic acid. Extremely stable edible oil. Also suitable for biofuel. Bentonite – anti-caking agent Benzoic acid – preservative Benzoyl peroxide – flour treatment agent Berebere – Bergamot – in Earl Grey tea Beta-apo-8'-carotenal (C 30) – color Beta-apo-8'-carotenic acid ethyl ester – color Betanin – color (red) Biphenyl – preservative Bison grass (Hierochloe odorata) – Bixin – color Black 7984 – color (brown and black) Black cardamom – Black cumin – Blackcurrant seed oil – used as a food supplement, because of high content of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids. Also used in cosmetics. Black limes – Pepper (black, white, and green) – Black PN – color (brown and black) Bleached


id: list-of-food-additives-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives-2.md
category: reference
title: List of food additives
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:14.855331+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-food-additives-20260505-0
summary:
== C == Cacao shell – Cachou extract – Cactus root extract – Cadinene – Caffeine – stimulant Cajeput oil – Calamus – Calcium 5'-ribonucleotides – flavor enhancer Calcium acetate – preservative, acidity regulator Calcium alginate – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent, emulsifier Calcium ascorbate – antioxidant (water-soluble) Calcium aluminosilicate (calcium aluminium silicate) – anti-caking agent Calcium ascorbate (Vitamin C) – Calcium benzoate – preservative Calcium bisulfite – preservative, antioxidant Calcium carbonates – color (white), anticaking agent, stabiliser Calcium chloride – mineral salt Calcium citrates – food acid, firming agent Calcium diglutamate – flavor enhancer Calcium disodium EDTA – preservative Calcium ferrocyanide – anti-caking agent Calcium formate – preservative Calcium fumarate – food acid Calcium gluconate – acidity regulator Calcium guanylate – flavor enhancer Calcium hydrogen sulfite – preservative, antioxidant Calcium hydroxide – mineral salt Calcium inosinate – flavor enhancer Calcium lactate – food acid Calcium lactobionate – stabilizer Calcium malates – food acid Calcium oxide – mineral salt Calcium pantothenate (Vitamin B5) – Calcium peroxide – Calcium phosphates – mineral salt, anti-caking agent, firming agent Calcium polyphosphates – anti-caking agent Calcium propionate – preservative Calcium salts of fatty acids – emulsifier, stabiliser, anti-caking agent Calcium silicate – anti-caking


id: list-of-food-additives-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives-3.md
category: reference
title: List of food additives
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:14.855331+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-food-additives-20260505-0
summary:
== F == False flax oil – made of the seeds of Camelina sativa. Can be considered as a food or fuel oil. Fantesk – Farnesol – Fast green FCF – color (FDA: FD&C Green #3) Fat – Flavoxanthin – color Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) – Fenugreek – Ferric ammonium citrate – food acid Ferrous gluconate – color retention agent Ferrous lactate – Filé powder – Five-spice powder (Chinese) – Fo-ti-tieng – Formaldehyde – preservative Formic acid – preservative Fructose – Fumaric acid – acidity regulator Folic acid – fortyfying agent == G == Galangal – Galangal root – Galbanum oil – Gallic acid – Gamma-tocopherol(synthetic) – antioxidant Garam masala – Garlic extract – Garlic – Garlic oil – Gelatin/gelatine – Gelling agent, emulsifier Gellan gum – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, emulsifier Ginger – Ginger oil – Ginger root – Ginseng – Glacial Acetic acid – preservative, acidity regulator Glucitol – Gluconate – Glucono delta-lactone – acidity regulator Glucose oxidase – antioxidant Glucose syrup – sweetener Glutamate – Glutamic acid – flavor enhancer Gluten – Glycerin – humectant, sweetener Glycerol – Glycerol ester of wood rosin – emulsifier Glyceryl distearate – emulsifier Glyceryl monostearate – emulsifier Glycine – flavor enhancer Glyoxylic


id: list-of-food-additives-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives-4.md
category: reference
title: List of food additives
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:14.855331+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-food-additives-20260505-0
summary:
== M == Macadamia oil – used as an edible oil. Also used as a massage oil. Mace – Magnesium – Magnesium carbonate – anti-caking agent, mineral salt Magnesium chloride – mineral salt Magnesium citrate – acidity regulator Magnesium diglutamate – flavor enhancer Magnesium hydroxide – mineral salt Magnesium lactate – food acid Magnesium oxide – anti-caking agent Magnesium phosphates – mineral salt, anti-caking agent Magnesium salts of fatty acids – emulsifier, stabiliser, anti-caking agent Magnesium silicate – anti-caking agent Magnesium stearate – emulsifier, stabiliser Magnesium sulfate – mineral salt, acidity regulator, firming agent Mahleb – Malabathrum – Malic acid – acidity regulator Malt extract – flavor enhancer Maltitol – humectant, stabiliser Maltodextrin – carbohydrate sweetener Maltol – flavor enhancer Maltose – Mandarin oil – leavening agent Manganese – Mannitol – humectant, anti-caking agent, sweetener Margarine – Marjoram (Origanum majorana) – Mastic – Meadowfoam seed oil – highly stable oil, with over 98% long-chain fatty acids. Competes with rapeseed oil for industrial applications. Mega-purple – a Kosher food additive made from grapes Mentha arvensis oil/Mint oil, used in flavoring toothpastes, mouthwashes and pharmaceuticals, as well as in aromatherapy and other medicinal applications. Metatartaric acid – food acid, emulsifier Methionine –


id: list-of-food-additives-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives-5.md
category: reference
title: List of food additives
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:14.855331+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-food-additives-20260505-0
summary:
== P == Palm oil – the most widely produced tropical oil. Also used to make biofuel. Panax ginseng – Panax quinquefolius – Ponch phoran – Pandan leaf – Pantothenic acid (Vitamin B5) – Papain – A cysteine protease hydrolase enzyme present in papaya (Carica papaya) and mountain papaya (Vasconcellea cundinamarcensis). Paprika red – Paprika – Paprika extract – Paraffins – glazing agent Parsley (Petroselinum crispum) – Patent blue V – color (blue) Peanut oil/Ground nut oil – mild-flavored cooking oil. Pecan oil – valued as a food oil, but requiring fresh pecans for good quality oil. Pectin – vegetable gum, emulsifier Perilla seed oil – high in omega-3 fatty acids. Used as an edible oil, for medicinal purposes, in skin care products and as a drying oil. Phosphated distarch phosphate – thickener, vegetable gum Phosphoric acid – food acid Phytic acid – preservative Pigment Rubine – color Pimaricin – preservative Pine needle oil Pine seed oil – an expensive food oil, used in salads and as a condiment. Pistachio oil – strongly flavored oil, particularly for use in salads. Prune kernel oil – marketed as a gourmet cooking oil Poly vinyl pyrrolidone – Polydextrose – humectant Polyethylene glycol 8000


id: list-of-food-additives-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives-6.md
category: reference
title: List of food additives
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_food_additives
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:14.855331+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-food-additives-20260505-0
summary:
== S == Saccharin – artificial sweetener Safflower oil – a flavorless and colorless cooking oil. Safflower – Saffron – color Saigon Cinnamon – Salad Burnet (Sanguisorba minor or Poterium sanguisorba) – Salt – Sandalwood – color Savory (Satureja hortensis, S. montana) – Scarlet GN – color Sesame oil – used as a cooking oil, and as a massage oil, particularly in India. Sesame seed – Shellac – glazing agent Sichuan pepper (Xanthoxylum piperitum) – Silicon dioxide – anti-caking agent Silver – color (silver) Luohanguo – Sodium acetate – preservative, acidity regulator Sodium adipate – food acid Sodium alginate – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent, emulsifier Sodium aluminium phosphate – acidity regulator, emulsifier Sodium aluminosilicate (sodium aluminium silicate) – anti-caking agent Sodium ascorbate – antioxidant (water-soluble) Sodium benzoate – preservative Sodium bicarbonate – mineral salt Sodium bisulfite (sodium hydrogen sulfite) – preservative, antioxidant Sodium carbonate – mineral salt Sodium carboxymethylcellulose – emulsifier Sodium citrates – food acid Sodium dehydroacetate – preservative Sodium erythorbate – antioxidant Sodium erythorbin – antioxidant Sodium ethyl para-hydroxybenzoate – preservative Sodium ferrocyanide – anti-caking agent Sodium formate – preservative Sodium fumarate – food acid Sodium gluconate – stabiliser Sodium hydrogen acetate – preservative, acidity regulator


id: international-numbering-system-for-food-additives-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Numbering_System_for_Food_Additives-0.md
category: reference
title: International Numbering System for Food Additives
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Numbering_System_for_Food_Additives
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:16.154713+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-numbering-system-for-food-additives-20260505-0
summary:
The International Numbering System for Food Additives (INS) is an international naming system for food additives, aimed at providing a short designation of what may be a lengthy actual name. It is defined by Codex Alimentarius, the international food standards organisation of the World Health Organization (WHO) and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations (UN). The information is published in the document Class Names and the International Numbering System for Food Additives, first published in 1989, with revisions in 2008 and 2011. The INS is an open list, "subject to the inclusion of additional additives or removal of existing ones on an ongoing basis". == Numbering system == INS numbers consist of three or four digits, optionally followed by an alphabetical suffix to further characterize individual additives. On packaging in the European Union (EU), approved food additives are written with a prefix of E. An additive that appears in the INS does not automatically have a corresponding E number. INS numbers are assigned by the committee to identify each food additive. INS numbers generally correspond to E numbers for the same compound, e.g. INS 102, Tartrazine, is also E102. INS numbers are not unique and, in fact,


id: list-of-gases-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gases-0.md
category: reference
title: List of gases
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gases
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:17.619086+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-gases-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of gases at standard conditions, which means substances that boil or sublime at or below 25 °C (77 °F) and 1 atm pressure and are reasonably stable. == List == This list is sorted by boiling point of gases in ascending order, but can be sorted on different values. "sub" and "triple" refer to the sublimation point and the triple point, which are given in the case of a substance that sublimes at 1 atm; "dec" refers to decomposition. "~" means approximately. Blue type items have an article available by clicking on the name. Number of entries: 550 == Known as gas == The following list has substances known to be gases, but with an unknown boiling point. Fluoroamine Trifluoromethyl trifluoroethyl trioxide CF3OOOCF2CF3 boils between 10 and 20° Bis-trifluoromethyl carbonate boils between −10 and +10° possibly +12, freezing −60° Difluoroaminosulfinyl fluoride F2NS(O)F is a gas but decomposes over several hours Trifluoromethylsulfinyl chloride CF3S(O)Cl Nitrosyl cyanide ?−20° blue-green gas 4343-68-4 Thiazyl chloride NSCl greenish yellow gas; trimerises. == Possible == This list includes substances that may be gases. However reliable references are not available. cis-1-Fluoro-1-propene trans-1-Chloropropene ? cis-1-Chloropropene ? Perfluoro-1,2-butadiene Perfluoro-1,2,3-butatriene −5 polymerizes Perfluoropent-2-ene Perfluoropent-1-ene 29-30° Trifluoromethanesulfenylfluoride


id: list-of-gasoline-additives-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gasoline_additives-0.md
category: reference
title: List of gasoline additives
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gasoline_additives
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:18.970391+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-gasoline-additives-20260505-0
summary:
Gasoline additives may increase gasoline's octane rating, thus allowing the use of higher compression ratios for greater efficiency and power, or act as corrosion inhibitors or as lubricants. Other additives include metal deactivators, oxygenates and antioxidants. Some additives are harmful and are regulated or banned in some countries. == Fictional additives == Sugar, as seen in The Passionate Stranger (1957) and popularly believed to damage the engine. == Additives == === Oxygenates === ==== Alcohols ==== Methanol (MeOH) Ethanol (EtOH); see also common ethanol fuel mixtures Isopropyl alcohol (IPA) n-butanol (BuOH) Gasoline grade t-butanol (GTBA) ==== Ethers ==== Methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), now outlawed in many states of the U.S. for road use because of water contamination. Tertiary amyl methyl ether (TAME) Tertiary hexyl methyl ether (THEME) Ethyl tertiary butyl ether (ETBE) Tertiary amyl ethyl ether (TAEE) Diisopropyl ether (DIPE) === Antioxidants, stabilizers === Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) 2-tert-Butylphenol 3-tert-Butylphenol 4-tert-Butylphenol 2,4-Dimethyl-6-tert-butylphenol 2,6-Di-tert-butylphenol (2,6-DTBP) 2,4,6-Tri-tert-butylphenol (2,4,6-TTBP) tert-Butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) p-Phenylenediamine N,N'-Di-2-butyl-1,4-phenylenediamine Ethylenediamine === Detergents === Fuel detergents combine a low molecular weight polymer "tail" with a polar "head" group such as the amine group. Polybuteneamine (PBA), also known as polybutylene amine. Polyisobuteneamine (PIBA), also known as polyisobutylene amine. Some


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-0.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
This glossary of chemistry terms is a list of terms and definitions relevant to chemistry, including chemical laws, diagrams and formulae, laboratory tools, glassware, and equipment. Chemistry is a physical science concerned with the composition, structure, and properties of matter, as well as the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions; it features an extensive vocabulary and a significant amount of jargon. Note: All periodic table references refer to the IUPAC Style of the Periodic Table. == A == absolute zero A theoretical condition concerning a system at the lowest limit of the thermodynamic temperature scale, or zero kelvins, at which the system does not emit or absorb energy (i.e. all atoms are at rest). By extrapolating the ideal gas law, the internationally agreed-upon value for absolute zero has been determined as −273.15 °C (−459.67 °F; 0.00 K). absorbance absorption 1. The physical or chemical process by which a substance in one state becomes incorporated into and retained by another substance of a different state. Absorption differs from adsorption in that the first substance permeates the entire bulk of the second substance, rather than just adhering to the surface. 2. The process by which matter (typically electrons bound in atoms) takes


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-1.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
alkane Also paraffin. Any fully saturated acyclic hydrocarbon,An acyclic saturated hydrocarbon containing only carbon and hydrogen atoms with only single carbon–carbon bonds; alkanes generally have the formula CnH2n+2. i.e. one in which all carbon–carbon bonds are single bonds. alkene Also olefin. Any unsaturated hydrocarbon containing at least one carbon–carbon double bond. alkoxy A functional group of the form R–O–, derived from an alcohol by removal of the hydrogen atom from the hydroxyl group. alkyl The substituent form of an alkane, i.e. any alkane missing a hydrogen atom. The term may be used to broadly describe many different functional groups, e.g. a methyl, ethyl, or propyl group. alkyne Also acetylene. Any unsaturated hydrocarbon containing at least one carbon–carbon triple bond. allomer A substance that differs in chemical composition but has the same crystalline structure as another substance. allotrope Any of a variety of different structural forms of the same element, as with carbon, whose allotropes include diamonds, graphite, and fullerene. alloy A mixture of metals or of a metal and another element which in combination exhibit a metallic bonding character. Common examples include bronze, brass, and pewter. amalgam Any alloy of mercury with another metal. ambident A molecule or functional group


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-2.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
atomic number (Z) Also proton number. The number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom of a given chemical element. It is identical to the charge number of the nucleus and is used in the periodic table to uniquely identify each chemical element. atomic orbital Any region in which one or more electrons may be found in an individual atom (as opposed to that within a molecule). atomic radius atomic weight See relative atomic mass. atomicity The total number of atoms present in a single molecule of a given substance; e.g. ozone (O3) has an atomicity of 3, while benzene (C6H6) has an atomicity of 12. autoignition temperature Also kindling point. The lowest temperature at which a given substance will spontaneously ignite in a normal atmosphere without an external source of ignition such as a flame or spark, i.e. when the ambient temperature is sufficiently high to provide the activation energy needed for combustion. Substances which spontaneously ignite at naturally occurring temperatures are termed pyrophoric. Compare ignition temperature. Avogadro constant (NA) The ratio of the number of discrete constituent particles (such as molecules, atoms, or ions) to the amount of a substance, defined as exactly 6.02214076×1023 mol−1. Avogadro


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-3.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
buffered solution Also simply called a buffer. An aqueous solution consisting of a weak acid and its conjugate base or a weak base and its conjugate acid that resists changes in pH when strong acids or bases are added. bumping A phenomenon in which a homogeneous liquid raised to its boiling point becomes superheated and, upon nucleation, rapidly boils to the gas phase, resulting in a violent expulsion of the liquid from the container; in extreme cases, the container itself may shatter. Frequent stirring, the use of an appropriate container, and the use of boiling chips can help prevent bumping. bung Also stopper or cork. A cylindrical or conical plug or closure used to seal a container such as a bottle, tube, flask, or barrel. burette Also spelled buret. Glassware used to dispense specific amounts of liquid when precision is necessary (e.g. during titrations and resource-dependent reactions). butyl The alkyl functional group derived from either of the two isomers of butane, with the generic chemical formula –C4H9. It may occur as a substituent in organic compounds or exist independently as an ion or radical. In IUPAC nomenclature, the presence of a butyl substituent is indicated with the prefix butyl in


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-4.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
chemical decomposition The breakdown of a single particle or entity (such as a molecule or reactive intermediate) into two or more fragments, or a chemical reaction in which two or more products are formed from a single reactant. Contrast chemical synthesis. chemical element See element. chemical formula Any of various means of concisely displaying information about the chemical composition of a compound or molecule using letters, numbers, and/or typographical symbols. Chemical formulas, such as empirical and molecular formulas, can only indicate the identities and numerical proportions of the atoms in a compound and are therefore more limited in descriptive power than chemical names and structural formulas. chemical law A law of nature relevant to chemistry, such as the law of conservation of mass. chemical nomenclature chemical physics chemical process 1. Any method or means of changing one or more chemicals or chemical compounds in any way, either naturally or artificially, spontaneously or by the actions of external forces. 2. In chemical engineering, any method used on an industrial scale (especially in manufacturing) to change the composition of one or more chemicals or materials. chemical reaction The change of one or more substances into one or more different substances. chemical species


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-5.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
concentration The quantity or abundance of a constituent of a mixture per unit quantity of that mixture; e.g. the amount, in moles, of a dissolved solute per unit volume of a solution, a measure known as molar concentration or molarity. Several different definitions of concentration are widely used in chemistry, including molar concentration, mass concentration, and volume concentration. condensation The phase transition of a substance from a gas to a liquid. condosity A comparative measurement of the electrical conductivity of a solution defined as the molar concentration of a sodium chloride (NaCl) solution that has the same specific electrical conductance as the solution under test. It is typically expressed in units of moles per litre (or per some other unit of volume). conduction conductivity See electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity. conductor Any object or material that allows the flow of an electric current in one or more directions. Contrast insulator. conformation The spatial arrangement of atoms affording distinction between stereoisomers which can be interconverted by rotations about formally single bonds. conjugate acid conjugate base conjugated system A molecule that contains double or triple bonds separated by one single bond; e.g. the compound buta-1,3-diene, with the chemical structure H2C=CH−CH=CH2, has conjugated


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-6.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
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depression of freezing point See freezing-point depression. desiccant Also drying agent. A hygroscopic substance used to induce or sustain a state of dryness or desiccation (i.e. the absence of moisture) in its vicinity by abstracting water molecules from other substances. Desiccants come in many different forms and work by many different principles, ranging from simple absorption to the chemical bonding of water molecules. desiccation deuterium Also hydrogen-2 or heavy hydrogen, and symbolized 2H or D. One of two stable isotopes of a hydrogen atom, the nucleus of which contains one proton and one neutron. Deuterium is both heavier and much less abundant in nature than the other stable isotope, known as protium (1H). deuteron The nucleus of a deuterium atom (an isotope of hydrogen), containing one proton and one neutron. Dewar flask See vacuum flask. dianion A compound or molecular entity bearing exactly two negative charges, which may be located on a single atom or on different atoms, or may be delocalized. diastereomer diatomic Composed of two atoms, of the same or different elements. Contrast monatomic and polyatomic. diatomic molecule Any molecule composed of only two atoms, of the same or different elements. diffusion The net movement of atoms or


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-7.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
electrochemical cell A device capable of either generating electrical energy from chemical reactions, in which case it is known as a galvanic or voltaic cell, or using electrical energy to cause chemical reactions, in which case it is known as an electrolytic cell. For example, a battery contains one or more galvanic cells, each of which consists of two electrodes arranged such that an oxidation–reduction reaction produces an electromotive force. electrochemistry A branch of physical chemistry concerned with the relationship between electrical potential difference and identifiable chemical change, as understood through either the chemical reactions accompanying the passage of an electric current or the potential difference that results from a particular chemical reaction. electrolyte A solution that conducts a certain amount of electric current and can be split categorically into weak and strong electrolytes. electromagnetic radiation A type of wave that can go through vacuums as well as material and is classified as a self-propagating wave. electromagnetic spectrum electromagnetism Fields with an electric charge and electrical properties that change the way that particles move and interact. electromotive force (emf) electron A type of subatomic particle with a net charge that is negative. Contrast positron. electron acceptor electron capture A type


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-8.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
environmental chemistry enzyme A biological protein catalyst that speeds up a chemical reaction. epimer Eppendorf tube A generalized and trademarked name used to refer to a microcentrifuge tube. equation of state equilibrium The condition of a system in which all competing influences are balanced. Chemical equilibrium is the state in which the concentrations of the reactants and products in a reacting system have stopped changing in time. equimolar Having an equal number of moles, or solutions of equal molar concentration. Erlenmeyer flask ester A class of organic and inorganic compounds derived from the reaction of an acid with an alcohol, in which at least one hydroxyl group (–OH) is replaced by an alkoxy group (–O–). Esters have the general formula RCO2R′, where R and R' represent any alkyl or aryl group. ether A class of organic compounds and a functional group containing an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups, which may be the same or different. Ethers have the general formula R–O–R′, where R and R′ represent the alkyl or aryl groups. ethyl The alkyl functional group derived from ethane, consisting of two carbon atoms covalently bonded to each other and fully saturated with bonds to hydrogen


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-9.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
fractional distillation The fractionation of a mixture of liquids into its component parts, or fractions, by the process of distillation, typically by using a long vertical column attached to the distillation vessel and filled with glass beads. The mixture is heated to a temperature at which one or more of the component compounds will vaporize; the vapor rises up the column until it condenses and runs back into the vessel, creating a temperature and volatility gradient and permitting various fractions to be drawn off at different points along the length of the column. Common in industrial chemistry, the technique is sensitive enough to separate compounds which have boiling points that differ by less than 25 °C (45 °F) from each other at standard pressure. fractionation A separation process in which a particular quantity of a mixture is divided during a phase transition into a number of smaller quantities, known as fractions, for which the chemical composition varies according to a gradient. Fractionation exploits subtle differences in some specific property (e.g. mass, boiling point, solubility, etc.) between the mixture's component compounds, making it possible to isolate more than two components of a mixture at the same time. There are many varieties


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-10.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
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hydron (H+) Informally synonymous with proton. The cationic form of atomic hydrogen; i.e. a positively charged hydrogen nucleus of any isotopic composition. Thus the term can refer to a proton (11H+), deuteron (21H+), or triton (31H+). hydrous Having or containing water molecules, referring especially to water of hydration. Contrast anhydrous. hydroxide A diatomic anion consisting of a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to an oxygen atom, having an overall negative charge, with the chemical formula OH−; or any member of a class of organic and inorganic compounds containing a hydroxy group, e.g. sodium hydroxide (NaOH). hydroxy hygroscopy == I == ideal gas A hypothetical gas composed of many randomly moving point particles that do not participate in any interparticle interactions, thereby making it mathematically convenient to describe and predict their behavior as state variables change. The ideal gas concept is useful because it obeys the ideal gas law and can be analyzed within the framework of statistical mechanics. ideal gas constant Also universal gas constant. The proportionality constant in the ideal gas law, defined as 0.08206 L·atm/(K·mol). ideal gas law Also general gas equation. The equation of state of a hypothetical ideal gas, which states that the volume of such a


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-11.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
ketone A class of organic compounds and a functional group composed of a carbonyl group between two carbon atoms. Ketones have the general formula R2C=O, where R can be any carbon-containing substituent. kindling point See autoignition temperature. kinetics A subfield of chemistry specializing in the study of reaction rates. kinetic energy The energy of an object due to its motion. == L == lability lanthanides Also lanthanoids. The periodic series of metallic elements with atomic numbers 57 through 71, from lanthanum through lutetium. lattice The unique geometric arrangement of atoms or molecules in a crystalline liquid or solid. lattice energy The energy released upon the formation of one mole of a crystalline ionic compound from its constituent ions, which are assumed to exist initially in the gaseous state. Lattice energy can be viewed as a measure of the cohesive forces that bind ionic solids; it is therefore directly related to many other physical properties of the solid, including solubility, hardness, and volatility. law of conservation of energy law of conservation of mass law of multiple proportions laws of thermodynamics leveling effect The effect of a solvent on the chemical properties of acids or bases which are dissolved in the solvent.


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-12.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
methylene blue A heterocyclic aromatic compound with the molecular formula C16H18N3SCl. microcentrifuge tube A small plastic, sealable container that is used to store small volumes of liquid, generally less than 2 milliliters. mineral A solid chemical compound with a fairly well-defined chemical composition and a specific crystal structure that occurs naturally in pure form. miscibility The tendency or capability of two or more substances to blend uniformly when combined (most commonly liquids, though the concept is also applicable to solids and gases), i.e. to dissolve in each other, forming a homogeneous mixture that exists in a single phase, without separation of phases, regardless of the proportions of each substance. Substances that do not mix uniformly in all proportions are said to be immiscible. mixture A material made up of two or more different substances which are mixed physically but are not combined chemically (i.e. a chemical reaction has not taken place which has changed the molecules of either substance into new substances). moiety Any named characteristic group, branch, or other part of a large molecule that may be identified within other kinds of molecules as well. Functional groups are typically smaller and more generic than moieties, whereas substituents and side


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-13.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
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octet rule Also Lewis octet rule. A classical rule for describing the electron configuration of atoms in certain molecules: the maximum number of electron pairs that can be accommodated in the valence shell of an element in the first row of the periodic table is four (or eight total electrons). For elements in the second and subsequent rows, there are many exceptions to this rule. olefin A trivial (non-IUPAC) name for any alkene. optical activity orbital Any region of an atom or molecule in which one or more electrons can be found. The term may refer to either an atomic orbital or a molecular orbital. orbital hybridisation Also orbital hybridization. order of reaction organic acid Any organic compound with acidic properties. Contrast organic base. organic base Any organic compound with basic properties. Contrast organic acid. organic chemistry The branch of chemistry concerned with the chemical properties and reactions of organic compounds. Contrast inorganic chemistry. organic compound Any chemical compound that contains one or more carbon atoms. Contrast inorganic compound. organic redox reaction organosulfur compound Any chemical compound which contains both carbon and sulfur atoms. osmole osmosis The spontaneous net movement or diffusion of molecules of a solvent (e.g. water) through


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-14.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
pH A logarithmic scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. The pH scale approximates the negative of the base-10 logarithm of the molar concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution. At room temperature, pure water is neutral (pH = 7); solutions with a pH less than 7 are acidic and those with a pH greater than 7 are basic. phase A region of space throughout which all physical properties of a substance are essentially uniform, or a region of material that is chemically uniform, physically distinct, and often mechanically separable. The term phase may have several different uses in chemistry contexts; colloquially, it is often used interchangeably with state of matter, but many distinct phases may exist within a single state of matter. phase diagram A graphical representation of the equilibrium relationships between thermodynamically distinct phases of a chemical compound, mixture, or solution, indicating the physical conditions (e.g. temperature and pressure) under which various phases (e.g. solid, liquid, and vapor) occur or coexist. phase transition 1. A transformation of a chemical substance between solid, liquid, and gaseous states of matter and, in rare cases, plasma. 2. The measurable values of the external conditions at which


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-15.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
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pyrochemistry The study of chemical reactions that occur at high temperatures. pyrolysis The thermal decomposition of materials at elevated temperatures in an inert atmosphere such as a vacuum gas. == Q == quantum (pl.) quanta quantum mechanics The study of how atoms, molecules, subatomic particles, etc. behave and are structured. quark An elementary particle and a fundamental constituent of matter. == R == racemate An equimolar mixture of a pair of enantiomers which does not exhibit optical activity. The chemical name or formula of a racemate is distinguished from those of the enantiomers by the prefix (±)- or by the symbols RS and SR. radiation Energy released in the form of waves or subatomic particles when there is a change from high-energy to low-energy states. radical Also free radical. Any atom, molecule, or ion that has at least one unpaired valence electron. With few exceptions, such unpaired electrons make radicals highly chemically reactive, and therefore organic radicals are usually short-lived. radioactive decay The process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses excess nuclear energy by emitting radiation in any of several forms, including as gamma radiation, as alpha or beta particles, or by ejecting electrons from its atomic orbitals. radiochemistry


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-16.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
retort A laboratory apparatus used for the distillation or dry distillation of chemical substances, traditionally consisting of a spherical vessel with a long, downward-pointing neck that conducts the condensed vapors produced by distillation into a separate collection vessel. reversible reaction A chemical reaction that can proceed in either direction depending on the reaction conditions, i.e. from reactants to products or from products to reactants, especially implying one in which both conversions occur simultaneously. Contrast irreversible reaction. rotamer round-bottom flask rust == S == s-block The collective name for the elements in Groups 1 and 2 of the periodic table (the alkali and alkaline metals), as well as hydrogen and helium. saline solution A common term for a solution of sodium chloride (NaCl) dissolved in water (H2O). salt Any ionic compound composed of one or more anions and one or more cations. salt bridge A device used to connect reduction with oxidation half-cells in an electrochemical cell. saturation Schrödinger equation A quantum state equation which represents the behaviour of an electron around an atom. scintillation A burst of luminescence of short duration produced by an individual energetically excited particle as it releases energy. second-order reaction semiconductor An electrically conductive solid whose


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-17
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-17.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
stoichiometry The calculation of quantities of reactants and products in chemical reactions. Stoichiometry is based on the law of conservation of mass and the observation that quantities of reactants and products typically exist in ratios of positive integers, implying that if the amounts of the separate reactants are known, then the amounts of the products can be calculated, and vice versa. strong acid An acid that completely dissociates in solution according to the reaction HA + S ↽ − − ⇀ SH + + A − {\displaystyle {\ce {HA + S <=> SH+ + A-}}} , or to such an extent that the concentration of the undissociated species HA {\displaystyle {\ce {HA}}} is too low to be measured. Any acid with a pKa of less than approximately -2 is generally considered a strong acid; an example is hydrochloric acid (HCl). Contrast weak acid. strong base structural formula A graphical representation of the molecular structure and geometry of a particular chemical compound, showing how the atoms are arranged in real, three-dimensional space. Chemical bonding within the molecule is also shown, either implicitly or explicitly. When known with certainty, structural formulas are very useful because they allow chemists to visualize the molecules


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-18
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-18.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
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triple bond A bond that involves the covalent sharing of three pairs of electrons (for example, the diatomic nitrogen molecule, N2, is composed of two nitrogen atoms linked by a triple bond). triple point The place where temperature and pressure of three phases are the same. Water has a special phase diagram. Tyndall effect The effect of light scattering by colloidal or suspended particles. == U == UN number A four-digit code used to note hazardous and flammable substances. uncertainty The notion that any measurement that involves estimation of any amount cannot be exactly reproducible. uncertainty principle Knowing the location of a particle makes the momentum uncertain, while knowing the momentum of a particle makes the location uncertain. unit cell The smallest repeating unit of a crystalline lattice. unit factor Statements used in converting between units. unpaired electron == V == vacuum flask Also Dewar flask or thermos. A storage vessel consisting of two flasks or other containers, placed one within the other and joined at the neck, and a space in between that is partially evacuated of air, creating a near-vacuum that significantly reduces the transfer of heat between the vessel's interior and its ambient environment. Vacuum flasks can


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-19
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-19.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
zone melting Any of several methods of purifying crystalline solids which involve applying heat to a small region of a larger solid (particularly a metal ingot) until localized melting occurs, creating a molten zone which is then slowly moved along the surface to other parts of the solid by moving the target of the heating element. As it moves, the forward edge of the molten zone continuously melts new areas of impure solid, while leaving a path of purer solid behind it as previously melted areas are cooled and resolidified; because the molten liquid phase can hold a higher concentration of impurities than the solid phase, the impurities of melted areas tend to concentrate in the molten zone and be carried along as it moves, leaving behind regions with fewer impurities. The process is commonly used in the refinement of high-purity metalloids for use in semiconductors. zinc A metallic chemical element with atomic number 30 and symbol Zn. zwitterion Also inner salt and dipolar ion. Any molecule that contains an internal polarity by virtue of having an equal number of positively charged and negatively charged functional groups. == See also == Outline of chemistry Index of chemistry articles List of


id: list-of-herbicides-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_herbicides-0.md
category: reference
title: List of herbicides
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_herbicides
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:22.282288+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-herbicides-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of herbicides. These are chemical compounds which have been registered as herbicides. The names on the list are the ISO common name for the active ingredient which is formulated into the branded product sold to end-users. The University of Hertfordshire maintains a database of the chemical and biological properties of these materials, including their brand names and the countries and dates where and when they have been introduced. The industry-sponsored Herbicide Resistance Action Committee (HRAC) advises on the use of herbicides in crop protection and classifies the available compounds according to their chemical structures and mechanism of action so as to manage the risks of pesticide resistance developing. The 2024 HRAC poster of herbicide modes of action includes the majority of chemicals listed below. The British Crop Production Council also publishes information on ISO common names of new pesticides. The Weed Science Society of America also classifies herbicides by their mechanism of action using the HRAC classification system. == 0-9 == == A == == B == == C == == D == == E == == F == == G == == H == == I == == K == == L == == M


id: highly-hazardous-chemical-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highly_hazardous_chemical-0.md
category: reference
title: Highly hazardous chemical
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highly_hazardous_chemical
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:23.601936+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: highly-hazardous-chemical-20260505-0
summary:
A highly hazardous chemical, also called a harsh chemical, is a substance classified by the American Occupational Safety and Health Administration as material that is both toxic and reactive and whose potential for human injury is high if released. Highly hazardous chemicals may cause cancer, birth defects, induce genetic damage, cause miscarriage, injury and death from relatively small exposures. As of August 21st, 2025, the highly hazardous chemicals list includes: == External links == OSHA list of highly hazardous chemicals


id: list-of-highly-toxic-gases-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_highly_toxic_gases-0.md
category: reference
title: List of highly toxic gases
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_highly_toxic_gases
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:24.913057+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-highly-toxic-gases-20260505-0
summary:
Many gases have toxic properties, which are often assessed using the LC50 (median lethal concentration) measure. In the United States, many of these gases have been assigned an NFPA 704 health rating of 4 (may be fatal) or 3 (may cause serious or permanent injury), and/or exposure limits (TLV, TWA/PEL, STEL, or REL) determined by the ACGIH professional association. Some, but by no means all, toxic gases are detectable by odor, which can serve as a warning. Among the best known toxic gases are carbon monoxide, chlorine, nitrogen dioxide and phosgene. == Definitions == Toxic: a chemical that has a median lethal concentration (LC50) in air of more than 200 parts per million (ppm) but not more than 2,000 parts per million by volume of gas or vapor, or more than 2 milligrams per liter but not more than 20 milligrams per liter of mist, fume or dust, when administered by continuous inhalation for 1 hour (or less if death occurs within 1 hour) to albino rats weighing between 200 and 300 grams each. Highly Toxic: a gas that has a LC50 in air of 200 ppm or less. NFPA 704: Materials that, under emergency conditions, can cause serious or


id: infrared-spectroscopy-correlation-table-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_spectroscopy_correlation_table-0.md
category: reference
title: Infrared spectroscopy correlation table
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_spectroscopy_correlation_table
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:26.211950+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: infrared-spectroscopy-correlation-table-20260505-0
summary:
An infrared spectroscopy correlation table (or table of infrared absorption frequencies) is a list of absorption peaks and frequencies, typically reported in wavenumber, for common types of molecular bonds and functional groups. In physical and analytical chemistry, infrared spectroscopy (IR spectroscopy) is a technique used to identify chemical compounds based on the way infrared radiation is absorbed by the compound. The absorptions in this range do not apply only to bonds in organic molecules. IR spectroscopy is useful when it comes to analysis of inorganic compounds (such as metal complexes or fluoromanganates) as well. == Group frequencies == Tables of vibrational transitions of stable and transient molecules are also available. == See also == Applied spectroscopy Absorption spectroscopy == References ==


id: list-of-inorganic-compounds-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-0.md
category: reference
title: List of inorganic compounds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:27.827999+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inorganic-compounds-20260505-0
summary:
Although most compounds are referred to by their IUPAC systematic names (following IUPAC nomenclature), traditional names have also been kept where they are in wide use or of significant historical interests. == A == === Ac === Actinium(III) chloride – AcCl3 Actinium(III) fluoride – AcF3 Actinium(III) oxide – Ac2O3 Actinium(III) sulfide – Ac2S3 Actinium(III) nitrate – Ac(NO3)3 Actinium(III) bromide – AcBr3 Actinium(III) hydroxide – Ac(OH)3 Actinium(III) iodide – AcI3 Actinium(III) phosphate – AcPO4 === Al === Aluminium antimonide – AlSb Aluminium arsenate – AlAsO4 Aluminium arsenide – AlAs Aluminium diboride – AlB2 Aluminium bromide – AlBr3 Aluminium carbide – Al4C3 Aluminium iodide – AlI3 Aluminium nitride – AlN Aluminium oxide – Al2O3 Aluminium phosphide – AlP Aluminium chloride – AlCl3 Aluminium fluoride – AlF3 Aluminium hydroxide – Al(OH)3 Aluminium nitrate – Al(NO3)3 Aluminium sulfide – Al2S3 Aluminium sulfate – Al2(SO4)3 Aluminium potassium sulfate – KAl(SO4)2 Aluminium hydride – AlH3 === Am === Americium(II) bromide – AmBr2 Americium(III) bromide – AmBr3 Americium(II) chloride – AmCl2 Americium(III) chloride – AmCl3 Americium(III) fluoride – AmF3 Americium(IV) fluoride – AmF4 Americium(II) iodide – AmI2 Americium(III) iodide – AmI3 Americium dioxide – AmO2 === NH3/[NH4]+ === Ammonia – NH3 Ammonium azide – [NH4]N3 Ammonium bicarbonate


id: list-of-inorganic-compounds-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-1.md
category: reference
title: List of inorganic compounds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:27.827999+00:00
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parent: list-of-inorganic-compounds-20260505-0
summary:
=== Cs === Caesium bicarbonate – CsHCO3 Caesium bromide – CsBr Caesium carbonate – Cs2CO3 Caesium chloride – CsCl Caesium chromate – Cs2CrO4 Caesium dichloroiodate – CsICl2 Caesium dodecaborate – Cs2B12H12 Caesium fluoride – CsF Caesium heptafluoroxenate – CsXeF7 Caesium hydride – CsH Caesium hydrogen sulfate – CsHSO4 Caesium iodide – CsI Caesium monoxide – Cs2O Caesium nitrate – CsNO3 Caesium ozonide – CsO3 Caesium perchlorate – CsClO4 Caesium peroxide – Cs2O2 Caesium sulfate – Cs2SO4 Caesium superoxide – CsO2 Caesium triiodide – CsI3 === Cf === Californium(III) bromide – CfBr3 Californium(III) carbonate – Cf2(CO3)3 Californium(III) chloride – CfCl3 Californium(III) fluoride – CfF3 Californium(III) iodide – CfI3 Californium(II) iodide – CfI2 Californium(III) nitrate – Cf(NO3)3 Californium(III) oxide – Cf2O3 Californium(III) phosphate – CfPO4 Californium(III) sulfate – Cf2(SO4)3 Californium(III) sulfide – Cf2S3 Californium oxyfluoride – CfOF Californium oxychloride – CfOCl === Ca === Calcium bromide – CaBr2 Calcium carbide – CaC2 Calcium carbonate (Precipitated Chalk) – CaCO3 Calcium chlorate – Ca(ClO3)2 Calcium chloride – CaCl2 Calcium chromate – CaCrO4 Calcium cyanamide – CaCN2 Calcium fluoride – CaF2 Calcium hydride – CaH2 Calcium hydroxide – Ca(OH)2 Calcium monosilicide – CaSi Calcium oxalate – CaC2O4 Calcium hydroxychloride – CaOCl2 Calcium perchlorate – Ca(ClO4)2


id: list-of-inorganic-compounds-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-2.md
category: reference
title: List of inorganic compounds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:27.827999+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inorganic-compounds-20260505-0
summary:
=== Cl === Actinium(III) chloride – AcCl3 Aluminium chloride – AlCl3 Americium(III) chloride – AmCl3 Ammonium chloride – [NH4]Cl Antimony(III) chloride – SbCl3 Antimony(V) chloride – SbCl5 Arsenic(III) chloride – AsCl3 Barium chloride – BaCl2 Beryllium chloride – BeCl2 Bismuth(III) chloride – BiCl3 Boron trichloride – BCl3 Bromine monochloride – BrCl Cadmium chloride – CdCl2 Caesium chloride – CsCl Calcium chloride – CaCl2 Calcium hypochlorite – Ca(ClO)2 Carbon tetrachloride – CCl4 Cerium(III) chloride – CeCl3 Chloramine – NH2Cl Chloric acid – HClO3 Chlorine azide – ClN3 Chlorine dioxide – ClO2 Chlorine dioxide – ClO2 Chlorine monofluoride – ClF Chlorine monoxide – ClO Chlorine pentafluoride – ClF5 Chlorine perchlorate – Cl2O4 Chlorine tetroxide – O3ClOOClO3 Chlorine trifluoride – ClF3 Chlorine trifluoride – ClF3 Chlorine trioxide – ClO3 Chlorine trioxide – ClO3 Chloroplatinic acid – H2[PtCl6] Chlorosulfonic acid – ClSO3H Chlorosulfonyl isocyanate – ClSO2NCO Chloryl fluoride – ClO2F Chromium(II) chloride – CrCl2 Chromium(III) chloride – CrCl3 Chromyl chloride – CrO2Cl2 Cisplatin (cis–platinum(II) chloride diamine) – [PtCl2(NH3)2] Cobalt(II) chloride – CoCl2 Copper(I) chloride – CuCl Copper(II) chloride – CuCl2 Curium(III) chloride – CmCl3 Cyanogen chloride – ClCN Dichlorine dioxide – Cl2O2 Dichlorine heptaoxide – Cl2O7 Dichlorine heptoxide – Cl2O7 Dichlorine hexoxide – Cl2O6


id: list-of-inorganic-compounds-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-3.md
category: reference
title: List of inorganic compounds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:27.827999+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inorganic-compounds-20260505-0
summary:
=== Cm === Curium(III) chloride – CmCl3 Curium(III) oxide – Cm2O3 Curium(IV) oxide – CmO2 Curium hydroxide – Cm(OH)3 === CN === Cyanogen bromide – BrCN Cyanogen chloride – ClCN Cyanogen iodide – ICN Cyanogen – (CN)2 Cyanuric chloride – C3Cl3N3 Cyanogen thiocyanate – CNSCN Cyanogen selenocyanate – CNSeCN Cyanogen azide – N3CN == D == === Dy === Dysprosium(II) chloride – DyCl2 Dysprosium(II) iodide – DyI2 Dysprosium(III) acetate – Dy(CH3COO)3 Dysprosium(III) bromide – DyBr3 Dysprosium(III) carbonate – Dy2(CO3)3 Dysprosium(III) chloride – DyCl3 Dysprosium(III) fluoride – DyF3 Dysprosium(III) iodide – DyI3 Dysprosium(III) nitrate – Dy(NO3)3 Dysprosium(III) oxalate – Dy2(C2O4)3 Dysprosium(III) oxide – Dy2O3 Dysprosium(III) phosphate – DyPO4 Dysprosium(III) selenide – Dy2Se3 Dysprosium(III) sulfide – Dy2S3 Dysprosium(III) sulfate – Dy2(SO4)3 Dysprosium(III) telluride – Dy2Te3 Dysprosium arsenide – DyAs Dysprosium bismuthide – DyBi Dysprosium iodate – Dy(IO3)3 Dysprosium monosulfide – DyS Dysprosium nitride – DyN Dysprosium phosphide – DyP Dysprosium stannate – Dy2Sn2O7 Dysprosium titanate – Dy2Ti2O7 == E == === Es === Einsteinium(III) bromide – EsBr3 Einsteinium(III) carbonate – Es2(CO3)3 Einsteinium(III) chloride – EsCl3 Einsteinium(III) fluoride – EsF3 Einsteinium(III) iodide – EsI3 Einsteinium(III) nitrate – Es(NO3)3 Einsteinium(III) oxide – Es2O3 Einsteinium(III) phosphate – EsPO4 Einsteinium(III) sulfate – Es2(SO4)3 Einsteinium(III) sulfide –


id: list-of-inorganic-compounds-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-4.md
category: reference
title: List of inorganic compounds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:27.827999+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inorganic-compounds-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ho === Holmium antimonide – HoSb Holmium arsenide – HoAs Holmium bismuthide – HoBi Holmium diantimonide – HoSb2 Holmium disilicide – HoSi2 Holmium iodate – Ho(IO3)3 Holmium monosulfide – HoS Holmium nitride – HoN Holmium oxychloride – HoOCl Holmium oxyfluoride – HoOF Holmium phosphide – HoP Holmium titanate – Ho2Ti2O7 Holmium(III) acetate – Ho(CH3COO3)3 Holmium(III) acetylacetonate – Ho(acac)3 Holmium(III) bromide – HoBr3 Holmium(III) carbonate – Ho2(CO3)3 Holmium(III) chloride – HoCl3 Holmium(III) fluoride – HoF3 Holmium(III) hydroxide – Ho(OH)3 Holmium(III) iodide – HoI3 Holmium(III) nitrate – Ho(NO3)3 Holmium(III) oxalate – Ho2(C2O4)3 Holmium(III) oxide – Ho2O3 Holmium(III) phosphate – HoPO4 Holmium(III) selenide – Ho2Se3 Holmium(III) sulfate – Ho2(SO4)3 Holmium(III) sulfide – Ho2S3 Holmium(III) telluride – Ho2Te3 === H === Hexafluorosilicic acid – H2F6Si Hydrazine – N2H4 Hydrazoic acid – HN3 Hydroiodic acid – HI Hydrogen bromide – HBr Hydrogen chloride – HCl Hydrogen cyanide – HCN Hydrogen fluoride – HF Hydrogen peroxide – H2O2 Hydrogen selenide – H2Se Hydrogen sulfide – H2S Hydrogen telluride – H2Te Hydroxylamine – NH2OH Hypobromous acid – HBrO Hypochlorous acid – HClO Hypophosphorous acid – H3PO2 Metaphosphoric acid – HPO3 Protonated molecular hydrogen – H+3 Trioxidane – H2O3 Water - H2O === He === Sodium helide


id: list-of-inorganic-compounds-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-5.md
category: reference
title: List of inorganic compounds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:27.827999+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inorganic-compounds-20260505-0
summary:
=== Hg === Mercury(I) chloride – Hg2Cl2 Mercury(I) sulfate – Hg2SO4 Mercury(II) chloride – HgCl2 Mercury(II) hydride – HgH2 Mercury(II) selenide – HgSe Mercury(II) sulfate – HgSO4 Mercury(II) sulfide – HgS Mercury(II) telluride – HgTe Mercury(II) thiocyanate – Hg(SCN)2 Mercury(IV) fluoride – HgF4 Mercury fulminate – Hg(ONC)2 === Mo === Molybdenum(II) bromide – MoBr2 Molybdenum(II) chloride – Mo6Cl12 Molybdenum(III) bromide – MoBr3 Molybdenum(III) chloride – MoCl3 Molybdenum(IV) carbide – MoC Molybdenum(IV) chloride – MoCl4 Molybdenum(IV) fluoride – MoF4 Molybdenum(V) chloride – Mo2Cl10 Molybdenum(V) fluoride – MoF5 Molybdenum diselenide – MoSe2 Molybdenum disulfide – MoS2 Molybdenum hexacarbonyl – Mo(CO)6 Molybdenum hexafluoride – MoF6 Molybdenum tetrachloride – MoCl4 Molybdenum trioxide – MoO3 Molybdic acid – H2MoO4 == N == === Nd === Neodymium acetate – Nd(CH3COO)3 Neodymium(III) arsenate – NdAsO4 Neodymium(II) chloride – NdCl2 Neodymium(III) chloride – NdCl3 Neodymium magnet – Nd2Fe14B Neodymium(II) bromide – NdBr2 Neodymium(III) bromide – NdBr3 Neodymium(III) fluoride – NdF3 Neodymium(III) hydride – NdH3 Neodymium(II) iodide – NdI2 Neodymium(III) iodide – NdI3 Neodymium molybdate – Nd2(MoO4)3 Neodymium perrhenate – Nd(ReO4)3 Neodymium(III) sulfide – Nd2S3 Neodymium tantalate – NdTaO4 Neodymium(III) vanadate – NdVO4 === Np === Neptunium(III) fluoride – NpF3 Neptunium(IV) fluoride – NpF4 Neptunium(IV) oxide – NpO2 Neptunium(VI)


id: list-of-inorganic-compounds-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-6.md
category: reference
title: List of inorganic compounds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:27.827999+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inorganic-compounds-20260505-0
summary:
=== K === Potash Alum – K2SO4·Al2(SO4)3·24H2O Potassium alum – AlK(SO4)2 Potassium aluminium fluoride – KAlF4 Potassium amide – KNH2 Potassium argentocyanide – KAg(CN)2 Potassium arsenite – KAsO2 Potassium azide – KN3 Potassium borate – K2B4O7·4H2O Potassium bromide – KBr Potassium bicarbonate – KHCO3 Potassium bifluoride – KHF2 Potassium bisulfite – KHSO3 Potassium carbonate – K2CO3 Potassium calcium chloride – KCaCl3 Potassium chlorate – KClO3 Potassium chloride – KCl Potassium chlorite – KClO2 Potassium chromate – K2CrO4 Potassium cyanide – KCN Potassium dichromate – K2Cr2O7 Potassium dithionite – K2S2O4 Potassium ferrate – K2FeO4 Potassium ferrioxalate – K3[Fe(C2O4)3] Potassium ferricyanide – K3[Fe(CN)6] Potassium ferrocyanide – K4[Fe(CN)6] Potassium heptafluorotantalate – K2[TaF7] Potassium hexafluorophosphate – KPF6 Potassium hydrogen carbonate – KHCO3 Potassium hydrogen fluoride – KHF2 Potassium hydroxide – KOH Potassium iodide – KI Potassium iodate – KIO3 Potassium manganate – K2MnO4 Potassium monopersulfate – K2SO4·KHSO4·2KHSO5 Potassium nitrate – KNO3 Potassium perbromate – KBrO4 Potassium perchlorate – KClO4 Potassium periodate – KIO4 Potassium permanganate – KMnO4 Potassium sodium tartrate – KNaC4H4O6 Potassium sulfate – K2SO4 Potassium sulfite – K2SO3 Potassium sulfide – K2S Potassium tartrate – K2C4H4O6 Potassium tetrachloroiodate(III) – KICl4 Potassium tetraiodomercurate(II) – K2HgI4 Potassium thiocyanate – KSCN Potassium titanyl phosphate –


id: list-of-inorganic-compounds-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-7.md
category: reference
title: List of inorganic compounds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:27.827999+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inorganic-compounds-20260505-0
summary:
=== Na === Sodamide – NaNH2 Sodium aluminate – NaAlO2 Sodium arsenate – H24Na3AsO16 Sodium azide – NaN3 Sodium bicarbonate – NaHCO3 Sodium biselenide – NaSeH Sodium bisulfate – NaHSO4 Sodium bisulfite – NaHSO3 Sodium borate – Na2B4O7 Sodium borohydride – NaBH4 Sodium bromate – NaBrO3 Sodium bromide – NaBr Sodium bromite – NaBrO2 Sodium carbide – Na2C2 Sodium carbonate – Na2CO3 Sodium chlorate – NaClO3 Sodium chloride – NaCl Sodium chlorite – NaClO2 Sodium cobaltinitrite – CoN6Na3O12 Sodium copper tetrachloride – Na2CuCl4 Sodium cyanate – NaCNO Sodium cyanide – NaCN Sodium dichromate – Na2Cr2O7·2H2O Sodium dioxide – NaO2 Sodium dithionite – Na2S2O4 Sodium ferrocyanide – Na4[Fe(CN)6] Sodium fluoride – NaF Sodium fluorosilicate – Na2[SiF6] Sodium formate – HCOONa Sodium hydride – NaH Sodium hydrogen carbonate (Sodium bicarbonate) – NaHCO3 Sodium hydrosulfide – NaSH Sodium hydroxide – NaOH Sodium hypobromite – NaOBr Sodium hypochlorite – NaOCl Sodium hypoiodite – NaOI Sodium hypophosphite – NaPO2H2 Sodium iodate – NaIO3 Sodium iodide – NaI Sodium manganate – Na2MnO4 Sodium molybdate – Na2MoO4 Sodium monofluorophosphate (MFP) – Na2PFO3 Sodium nitrate – NaNO3 Sodium nitrite – NaNO2 Sodium nitroprusside – Na2[Fe(CN)5NO]·2H2O Sodium oxide – Na2O Sodium perborate – NaBO3·H2O Sodium perbromate – NaBrO4 Sodium


id: list-of-inorganic-compounds-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-8.md
category: reference
title: List of inorganic compounds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:27.827999+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inorganic-compounds-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ti === Hexafluorotitanic acid – (H3O)2[TiF6] Titanium(II) chloride – TiCl2 Titanium(II) oxide – TiO Titanium(II) sulfide – TiS Titanium(III) bromide – TiBr3 Titanium(III) chloride – TiCl3 Titanium(III) fluoride – TiF3 Titanium(III) iodide – TiI3 Titanium(III) oxide – Ti2O3 Titanium(III) phosphide – TiP Titanium(IV) bromide (titanium tetrabromide) – TiBr4 Titanium(IV) carbide – TiC Titanium(IV) chloride (titanium tetrachloride) – TiCl4 Titanium(IV) hydride – TiH4 Titanium(IV) iodide (titanium tetraiodide) – TiI4 Titanium carbide – TiC Titanium diboride – TiB2 Titanium dioxide (titanium(IV) oxide) – TiO2 Titanium diselenide – TiSe2 Titanium disilicide – TiSi2 Titanium disulfide – TiS2 Titanium nitrate – Ti(NO3)4 Titanium nitride – TiN Titanium perchlorate – Ti(ClO4)4 Titanium silicon carbide – Ti3SiC2 Titanium tetrabromide – TiBr4 Titanium tetrafluoride – TiF4 Titanium tetraiodide – TiI4 === TiO === Titanyl sulfate – TiOSO4 === W === Tungsten(VI) chloride – WCl6 Tungsten(VI) fluoride – WF6 Tungsten boride – WB2 Tungsten carbide – WC Tungstic acid – H2WO4 Tungsten hexacarbonyl – W(CO)6 == U == === U === Triuranium octaoxide (pitchblende or yellowcake) – U3O8 Uranium hexafluoride – UF6 Uranium pentafluoride – UF5 Uranium sulfate – U(SO4)2 Uranium tetrachloride – UCl4 Uranium tetrafluoride – UF4 Uranium(III) chloride – UCl3 Uranium(IV) chloride – UCl4 Uranium(V)


id: list-of-inorganic-reactions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_reactions-0.md
category: reference
title: List of inorganic reactions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_reactions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:29.087997+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inorganic-reactions-20260505-0
summary:
Well-known types of reactions that involve inorganic compounds include: Alkylation Alkyne trimerisation Alkyne metathesis Aminolysis Amination Arylation Barbier reaction Beta-hydride elimination Birch reduction Bönnemann cyclization Bromination Buchwald–Hartwig coupling Cadiot–Chodkiewicz coupling Calcination Carbometalation Carbothermal reduction Carbonation Carbonylation Castro–Stephens coupling Clemmensen reduction Chain walking Chan–Lam coupling Chlorination Comproportionation C–C coupling C–H activation Cyanation Cyclometalation Decarbonylation Decarboxylation Dehydration Dehalogenation Dehydrogenation Dehydrohalogenation Deprotonation Desilylation Dimerisation Disproportionation Dötz reaction Eder reaction Electromerism Electron transfer (inner sphere and outer sphere) Étard reaction Fenton oxidation Fischer–Tropsch process Fluorination Formylation Fowler process Fukuyama coupling Glaser coupling Gomberg–Bachmann reaction Haber–Weiss reaction Halcon process Halogenation Hay coupling Heck reaction Heck–Matsuda reaction Hiyama coupling Hofmann-Sand reaction Homolysis Huisgen cycloaddition Hydride reduction Hydroamination Hydration Hydroboration Hydrocarboxylation Hydrocyanation Hydrodesulfurization Hydroformylation Hydrogenation Hydrohalogenation Hydrolysis Hydrometalation Hydrosilylation Iodination Isomerisation Jones oxidation Kulinkovich reaction Kumada coupling Lemieux–Johnson oxidation Ley oxidation Linkage isomerization Luche reduction McMurry reaction Meerwein–Ponndorf–Verley reduction Mercuration Methylation Migratory insertion Negishi coupling Nicholas reaction Nitrosylation Noyori asymmetric hydrogenation Olefin polymerization Oppenauer oxidation Oxidation Oxidative addition Oxygenation Oxymercuration reaction Pauson–Khand reaction Photodissociation Pseudorotation Protonation Protonolysis Proton-coupled electron transfer Racemization Redox reactions (see list of oxidants and reductants) Reduction Reductive elimination Reppe synthesis Riley oxidation Salt metathesis Sarett oxidation Sharpless epoxidation Shell higher olefin process Silylation


id: list-of-chemistry-journals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_journals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of chemistry journals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_journals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:30.325768+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemistry-journals-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of scientific journals in chemistry and its various subfields. For journals mainly about materials science, see List of materials science journals. == A == == B == Beilstein Journal of Organic Chemistry Biochemical Journal Bioconjugate Chemistry Biomacromolecules Biomedical Chromatography Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry Letters Bulletin of the Chemical Society of Japan == C == == D == Dalton Transactions == E == Education in Chemistry Energy and Environmental Science Energy & Fuels Environmental Chemistry European Journal of Inorganic Chemistry European Journal of Medicinal Chemistry European Journal of Organic Chemistry == F == Faraday Discussions Faraday Transactions == G == Geostandards and Geoanalytical Research Green Chemistry == H == Helvetica Chimica Acta == I == Inorganic Chemistry International Journal of Hydrogen Energy International Journal of Quantum Chemistry Ion Exchange Letters == J == == L == Lab on a Chip Langmuir Liebigs Annalen == M == Macromolecules Magnetic Resonance in Chemistry MedChemComm Metallomics Methods in Organic Synthesis Microchimica Acta Molbank Molecular BioSystems Molecular Diversity Molecular Physics Molecules == N == Nano Letters Natural Product Reports Nature Chemical Biology Nature Chemistry Nature Materials Nature Protocols New Journal of Chemistry == O == Open Chemistry


id: list-of-insecticides-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_insecticides-0.md
category: reference
title: List of insecticides
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_insecticides
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:31.599050+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-insecticides-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of insecticides. These are chemical compounds which have been registered as insecticides. Biological insecticides are not included. The names on the list are the ISO common names. A complete list of pesticide common names is published by the BCPC. The University of Hertfordshire maintains a database of the chemical and biological properties of these materials, including their brand names and the countries and dates where and when they have been introduced. The industry-sponsored Insecticide Resistance Action Committee (IRAC) advises on the use of insecticides in crop protection and classifies the available compounds according to their chemical classes and mechanism of action so as to manage the risks of pesticide resistance developing. The 2024 IRAC poster of insecticide modes of action includes the majority of chemicals listed below. The pesticide manual provides much information on pesticides. The British Crop Production Council also publishes information on ISO common names of new insecticides. Many of the insecticides in the list are not in use. The developer of a pesticide applies for a common name when they intend to sell it, but some nevertheless do not reach the market. Many insecticides have been banned or otherwise withdrawn from the market


id: list-of-largest-aluminum-producers-by-output-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_aluminum_producers_by_output-0.md
category: reference
title: List of largest aluminum producers by output
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_aluminum_producers_by_output
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:32.839223+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-largest-aluminum-producers-by-output-20260505-0
summary:
Below is a list of the largest aluminum-producing companies by output (in 1,000,000 metric tons), accurate as of 2022 according to Statista. == See also == List of largest manufacturing companies by revenue List of public corporations by market capitalization List of largest financial services companies by revenue List of largest European manufacturing companies by revenue List of largest companies by revenue == References == == External links == statista website


id: list-of-synthetic-polymers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_synthetic_polymers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of synthetic polymers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_synthetic_polymers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:34.096439+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-synthetic-polymers-20260505-0
summary:
Some familiar household synthetic polymers include: Nylons in textiles and fabrics, Teflon in non-stick pans, Bakelite for electrical switches, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) in pipes, etc. The common PET bottles are made of a synthetic polymer, polyethylene terephthalate. The plastic kits and covers are mostly made of synthetic polymers like polythene, and tires are manufactured from polybutadienes. However, due to the environmental issues created by these synthetic polymers which are mostly non-biodegradable and often synthesized from petroleum, alternatives like bioplastics are also being considered. They are however expensive when compared to the synthetic polymers. == Inorganic polymers == Polysiloxane Polyphosphazene Polyborazyline == Organic polymers == The eight most common types of synthetic organic polymers, which are commonly found in households are: Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) High-density polyethylene (HDPE) Polypropylene (PP) Polyethylene (PE) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Polystyrene (PS) Nylon, nylon 6, nylon 6,6 Teflon (Polytetrafluoroethylene) Thermoplastic polyurethanes (TPU) == Brand names == These polymers are often better known through their brand names, for instance: == Summary Chart == == Plastic identification codes == == See also == Polymerization RAFT (chemistry) == References ==


id: list-of-biophysically-important-macromolecular-crystal-structures-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biophysically_important_macromolecular_crystal_structures-0.md
category: reference
title: List of biophysically important macromolecular crystal structures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biophysically_important_macromolecular_crystal_structures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:35.482535+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-biophysically-important-macromolecular-crystal-structures-20260505-0
summary:
Crystal structures of protein and nucleic acid molecules and their complexes are central to the practice of most parts of biophysics, and have shaped much of what we understand scientifically at the atomic-detail level of biology. Their importance is underlined by the United Nations declaring 2014 as the International Year of Crystallography, as the 100th anniversary of Max von Laue's 1914 Nobel Prize for discovering the diffraction of X-rays by crystals. This chronological list of biophysically notable protein and nucleic acid structures is loosely based on a review in the Biophysical Journal. The list includes all the first dozen distinct structures, those that broke new ground in subject or method, and those that became model systems for work in future biophysical areas of research. == Myoglobin == 1958 – Myoglobin was the very first crystal structure of a protein molecule. Myoglobin cradles an iron-containing heme group that reversibly binds oxygen for use in powering muscle fibers, and those first crystals were of myoglobin from the sperm whale, whose muscles need copious oxygen storage for deep dives. The myoglobin 3-dimensional structure is made up of 8 alpha-helices, and the crystal structure showed that their conformation was right-handed and very closely matched


id: list-of-biophysically-important-macromolecular-crystal-structures-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biophysically_important_macromolecular_crystal_structures-1.md
category: reference
title: List of biophysically important macromolecular crystal structures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biophysically_important_macromolecular_crystal_structures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:35.482535+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-biophysically-important-macromolecular-crystal-structures-20260505-0
summary:
== Trypsin inhibitor == 1970 – Basic pancreatic trypsin inhibitor, or BPTI (PDB file 2pti), is a small, very stable protein that has been a highly productive model system for study of super-tight binding, disulfide bond (SS) formation, protein folding, molecular stability by amino-acid mutations or hydrogen-deuterium exchange, and fast local dynamics by NMR. Biologically, BPTI binds and inhibits trypsin while stored in the pancreas, allowing activation of protein digestion only after trypsin is released into the stomach. == Rubredoxin == 1970 – Rubredoxin (PDB file 2rxn) was the first redox structure solved, a minimalist protein with the iron bound by 4 Cys sidechains from 2 loops at the top of β hairpins. It diffracted to 1.2Å, enabling the first reciprocal-space refinement of a protein (4,5rxn). (NB: note that 4rxn was done without geometry restraints.) Archaeal rubredoxins account for many of the highest-resolution small structures in the PDB. == Insulin == 1971 – Insulin (PDB file 1INS) is a hormone central to the metabolism of sugar and fat storage, and important in human diseases such as obesity and diabetes. It is biophysically notable for its Zn binding, its equilibrium between monomer, dimer, and hexamer states, its ability to form crystals


id: list-of-accelerator-mass-spectrometry-facilities-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_accelerator_mass_spectrometry_facilities-0.md
category: reference
title: List of accelerator mass spectrometry facilities
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_accelerator_mass_spectrometry_facilities
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:36.747687+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-accelerator-mass-spectrometry-facilities-20260505-0
summary:
The following list of accelerator mass spectrometry facilities includes research centers that employ accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS). Accelerator mass spectrometry is a form of mass spectrometry that accelerates ions to extraordinarily high kinetic energies before mass analysis. == Facilities == === Africa === iThemba Laboratory for Accelerator Based Sciences, Johannesburg, South Africa === Oceania === 14UD The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia SSAMS The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia ANTARES 10MV, STAR 2MV, Sydney, Australia Rafter Radiocarbon Laboratory, GNS Science, New Zealand Chronos 14Carbon-Cycle Facility, UNSW, Australia. === North America === Accium BioSciences at Swedish Medical Center Cherry Hill, Seattle, WA André E. Lalonde Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Laboratory (AEL AMS) at the University of Ottawa in Ottawa, Canada Beta Analytic Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Facility in Miami, Florida Center for Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (CAMS) at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Center for Applied Isotope Studies (CAIS) at University of Georgia. DirectAMS (D-AMS) radiocarbon labs in Bothell, WA & Seattle, WA Facility for Rare Isotope Beams, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan Institute for Structure and Nuclear Astrophysics, The University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana Institute of Energy and the Environment Radiocarbon Laboratory at the Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania


id: list-of-misidentified-chemical-elements-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_misidentified_chemical_elements-0.md
category: reference
title: List of misidentified chemical elements
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_misidentified_chemical_elements
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:37.916882+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-misidentified-chemical-elements-20260505-0
summary:
Chemical elements that have been mistakenly "discovered". Further investigation showed that their discovery was either mistaken, that they have been mistaken from an already-known element, or mixture of two elements, or that they indicated a failing in theory where a new element had been assumed rather than some previously unknown behaviour. == References ==


id: list-of-chemistry-mnemonics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_mnemonics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of chemistry mnemonics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_mnemonics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:39.238127+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemistry-mnemonics-20260505-0
summary:
A mnemonic is a memory aid used to improve long-term memory and make the process of consolidation easier. Many chemistry aspects, rules, names of compounds, sequences of elements, their reactivity, etc., can be easily and efficiently memorized with the help of mnemonics. This article contains the list of certain mnemonics in chemistry. == Orbitals == === Sequence of orbitals === Sober Physicists Don't Find Giraffes Hiding In Kitchens. Note: After the k shell, they follow alphabetical order (skipping s and p as they came earlier). === Aufbau principle === The order of sequence of atomic orbitals (according to Madelung rule or Klechkowski rule) can be remembered by the following. == Periodic table == === Periods === ==== Periods 1, 2 and 3 ==== Hi Hello Little Beer Bottles Crack Nicely On Freddie's kNee. Nasties Merge All Silly 'People Suffer Clouts Arnti Happy Henry Likes Beans Brownies and Chocolate Nuts Over Friday's News. Naughty Margaret Always Sighs, "Please Stop Clowning Around." Kind Cats Scare Tiny Vicious Creatures, Might Fear Cows & Nice Cute Zebras. Happy Henry Likes Beans Brownies and Chocolate Nuts Over Friday's News. Happy Harry/Henry Listens B B C Network Over France Nevertheless Nothing More Arose So Peter Stopped


id: list-of-chemistry-mnemonics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_mnemonics-1.md
category: reference
title: List of chemistry mnemonics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_mnemonics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:39.238127+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemistry-mnemonics-20260505-0
summary:
Only Strong Athletes In College Study Past Midnight Oh, see(Si), Alfie(Fe) Cannot(Na) Kiss Meg(Mg) As they are present in trace quantities they are measured in parts per million(ppm). === Activity series of metals === Please Stop Calling Me A Cute Zebra Crab I Like Her Call Smart Goat Please Stop Calling Me A Carless Zebra Crab Instead Try Learning How Copper Miners Save Gold Pit Popular Scientists Can Make A Zoo In Low Humid Climate ... Note that carbon and hydrogen are non-metals, used as a baseline. Kangaroos Naturally Muck About in Zoos For Purple Hippos Chasing Aardvarks. Katty's Naughty Cat Mingled with Alice and Zarina; Fearlessly Plundering Her Cupboard of Gold. Papa Said Call Me After Zinc Interacts Tin Leading Hydrogen Co-operate Mr. Sylvester to Gain Popularity. Pretty(Potassium) Sally(Sodium) Could(Calcium) Marry(Magnesium) A(Aluminium) Crazy(Carbon) Zulu(Zinc) IN(Iron/Nickel) Tree(Tin) Lined(Lead) House(Hydrogen) Causing(Copper) Strangely(Silver) Glancing(Gold) People(Platinum). === Electronegativity === Pronounce: FOClN BrIS CHP. (F)irst (O)ff, (Cl)ean (N)ow; (Br)ing (I)n (S)ome (C)lothes, (H)ats, and (P)ants. (First off, clean now. Bring in some caps, hats {and} pants.) === Electrochemical series === Paddy Still Could Marry A Zulu In The Lovely Honolulu Causing Strange Gazes. Passive Sarcasm Can Mutate Angry Zombies InTo Large Hypocritical Cold Sexy


id: list-of-chemistry-mnemonics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_mnemonics-2.md
category: reference
title: List of chemistry mnemonics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_mnemonics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:39.238127+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemistry-mnemonics-20260505-0
summary:
"E" for 'enemies'. i.e. higher priority groups on opposite sides. Z form has higher priority groups on same side. "Z" means 'zame zide' (same side) i.e. high priority groups on same side. === Cis–trans isomerism === Cis starts with a C and the functional groups form a C. Trans, therefore is the other one by default. === Benzene ring: order of substitutes === From R group moving around the ring: Benzene likes to ROMP. == Biochemistry == === Nutrients === The four most common elements in living organisms – carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen – may be remembered with the acronym CHON. An extensions is CHNOPS, which adds phosphorus and sulfur. To remember the elements necessary for agriculture; C (see) Hopkins CaFe, Mighty-good Man, Cu (see your) Money, hope they are Closed or out of Business. For remembering macronutrients; C. HOPKiN'S Ca Mg (C. Hopkins coffee mug). MagiCal CKN SHOP (Magical Chicken SHOP). To remember the elements comprising the human body; Chopin's CaFe I.P. Cohn's CaFe === Essential amino acids === PVT TIM HaLL and TT HALL Very IMPortant. These Ten Valuable Acids Have Long Preserved Life In Men MATT HILL, VP LIFT HIM KIW(V)I TV FILM HW(R)K. FM TK


id: lists-of-molecules-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_molecules-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of molecules
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_molecules
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:40.586169+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-molecules-20260505-0
summary:
This is an index of lists of molecules (i.e. by year, number of atoms, etc.). Millions of molecules have existed in the universe since before the formation of Earth. Three of them, carbon dioxide, water and oxygen were necessary for the growth of life. Although humanity had always been surrounded by these substances, it has not always known what they were composed of. == By century == The following is an index of list of molecules organized by time of discovery of their molecular formula or their specific molecule in case of isomers: List of compounds == By number of carbon atoms in the molecule == List of compounds with carbon number 1 List of compounds with carbon number 2 List of compounds with carbon number 3 List of compounds with carbon number 4 List of compounds with carbon number 5 List of compounds with carbon number 6 List of compounds with carbon number 7 List of compounds with carbon number 8 List of compounds with carbon number 9 List of compounds with carbon number 10 List of compounds with carbon number 11 List of compounds with carbon number 12 List of compounds with carbon number 13 List of compounds


id: list-of-interstellar-and-circumstellar-molecules-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_interstellar_and_circumstellar_molecules-0.md
category: reference
title: List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_interstellar_and_circumstellar_molecules
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:42.079611+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-interstellar-and-circumstellar-molecules-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of molecules that have been detected in the interstellar medium and circumstellar envelopes, grouped by the number of component atoms. The chemical formula is listed for each detected compound, along with any ionized form that has also been observed. == Background == The molecules listed below were detected through astronomical spectroscopy. Their spectral features arise because molecules either absorb or emit a photon of light when they transition between two molecular energy levels. The energy (and thus the wavelength) of the photon matches the energy difference between the levels involved. Molecular electronic transitions occur when one of the molecule's electrons moves between molecular orbitals, producing a spectral line in the ultraviolet, optical or near-infrared parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. Alternatively, a vibrational transition transfers quanta of energy to (or from) vibrations of molecular bonds, producing signatures in the mid- or far-infrared. Gas-phase molecules also have quantised rotational levels, leading to transitions at microwave or radio wavelengths. Sometimes a transition can involve more than one of these types of energy level e.g. ro-vibrational spectroscopy changes both the rotational and vibrational energy level. Occasionally all three occur together, as in the Phillips band of C2 (diatomic carbon), in


id: list-of-na-numbers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_NA_numbers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of NA numbers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_NA_numbers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:43.247450+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-na-numbers-20260505-0
summary:
The NA numbers (North American Numbers) are assigned by the United States Department of Transportation, supplementing the larger set of UN numbers, for identifying hazardous materials. NA numbers largely duplicate UN numbers, however a selection of additional numbers are provided for materials that are not covered by UN numbers as a hazardous material. In a couple of instances NA numbers provide an alternative description than the equivalent UN number. == See also == List of UN numbers NA/UN exceptions - List of specific conflicts between NA numbers and UN numbers. == Notes == == References == "UN/NA Datasheets". CAMEO Chemicals. Retrieved 2019-10-21. "Library - Hazardous Materials Table (HMT)". PHMSA. Retrieved 2017-08-25.


id: list-of-inorganic-compounds-named-after-people-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds_named_after_people-0.md
category: reference
title: List of inorganic compounds named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:44.503558+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inorganic-compounds-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
Well-known inorganic and organometallic compounds and reagents that are named after individuals include: Adams' catalyst (proposed to be PtOx) Adamsite (NH(C6H4)2AsCl) Adkins catalyst (Cu2Cr2O5) Attenburrow's Oxide (MnO2) Arduengo carbene (class of compounds) Baeyer's reagent (KMnO4(aq)) Benedict's reagent Bobbitt's salt (4-(Acetylamino)-2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-1-oxo-piperidinium tetrafluoroborate) Bertrand carbene (class of compounds) Brookhart's acid (H(OEt2)2BArF4) Buckminsterfullerene (C60) Burow's solution (Al(CH3CO2)3(aq)) Calderon catalyst (WCl6/EtAlCl2/EtOH) Caro's acid (H2SO5) Chevreul's salt (Cu3(SO3)2 • 2 H2O) Chugaev's red salt ([Pt(C(NHMe)2N2H2](CNMe)2]Cl2) Chugaev's salt ([Pt(NH3)5Cl]Cl3) Cleve's triammine ([Pt(NH3)3Cl]Cl) Collman's reagent (Na2Fe(CO)4) Collins reagent (CrO3 / py / CH2Cl2) Condy's crystals (KMnO4) Corey–Chaykovsky reagent (O=S(CH2)Me2) Cornforth reagent ([pyH]2[Cr2O7]) Crabtree's catalyst (Ir(COD)(py)(PCy3)+) Creutz–Taube complex ([(NH3)10Ru2(pyrazine)]5+) Etard's reagent (CrO2Cl2) Davy's reagent {(MeS)PS}2S2 Deacon Catalyst (CuO/CuCl2) Dimroth's reagent (B(OAc)2)2O Durrant's Salt (K2[Co2(oxalate)4(OH)2]3H2O] Fehling's solution ([Cu(C4H4O6)2]4−) Fenton's reagent (Fe2+ / H2O2) Fetizon's reagent (Ag2CO3 / celite) Fischer carbene (class of compounds related to [(CO)5Cr=C(CH3)OCH3] Folin–Ciocalteu reagent (H3PMo12O40 / H3PW12O40) Furukawa's cyclopropanation reagent (ZnEt2 / CH2I2) Frémy's salt (Na2NO(SO3)2) Gilman reagents (R2CuLi, class of compounds) Glauber's salt (Na2SO4·10H2O) Gmelin's salt (K3Fe(CN)6) Gingras reagent (Ph3SnF2.NnBu4) Grignard reagents (RMgX, class of compounds) Grubbs catalyst (RuCl2(PCy3)2(CHPh)) Hauser base (R2NMgBr) Hoveyda–Grubbs catalyst (RuCl2(PCy3)(CH(C6H4)OiPr)) Jacobsen's catalyst (derivative of Mn(salen)Cl) Jones reagent (CrO3 / H2SO4(aq) / Me2CO) Jordan's cation ((Cp)2Zr(Me)(THF)+) Kagan's reagent (SmI2) Karstedt's


id: list-of-neurosteroids-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_neurosteroids-0.md
category: reference
title: List of neurosteroids
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_neurosteroids
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:45.691264+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-neurosteroids-20260505-0
summary:
Neurosteroids are natural and synthetic steroids that are active on the mammalian nervous system through receptors other than steroid hormone receptors. It includes inhibitory, excitatory, and neurotrophic neurosteroids as well as pheromones and vomeropherines. In contrast to steroid hormones, neurosteroids have rapid, non-genomic effects through interactions with membrane steroid receptors and can quickly influence central nervous system function. == Inhibitory == === Natural === ==== Cholestanes ==== 25-Hydroxycholesterol: cholest-5-en-3β,25-diol – NMDA receptor negative allosteric modulator ==== Androstanes ==== 3α,5α-Androstanediol (3α-androstanediol): 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator 3α,5β-Androstanediol (etiocholanediol): 5β-androstane-3α,17β-diol – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator 3α-Androstenol: 5α-androst-16-en-3α-ol – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator Androsterone: 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator Etiocholanolone: 5β-androstan-3α-ol-17-one – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator The following are proneurosteroids: Dihydrotestosterone (DHT; androstanolone, stanolone): 5α-androst-17β-ol-3-one – of the above-listed inhibitory androstane neurosteroids Testosterone: androst-4-en-17β-ol-3-one – of the above-listed inhibitory androstane neurosteroids ==== Pregnanes ==== 3α-Dihydroprogesterone (3α-DHP): pregn-4-en-3α-ol-20-one – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator 5α-Dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP; allopregnanedione): 5α-pregnane-3,20-dione – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator 5β-Dihydroprogesterone (5β-DHP; pregnanedione): 5β-pregnane-3,20-dione – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator Allopregnanediol: 5α-pregnane-3α,20α-diol – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator Allopregnanolone (brexanolone; SAGE-547): 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator Dihydrodeoxycorticosterone (DHDOC): 21-hydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one – GABAA


id: list-of-nonmetal-monographs-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nonmetal_monographs-0.md
category: reference
title: List of nonmetal monographs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nonmetal_monographs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:46.930047+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-nonmetal-monographs-20260505-0
summary:
The purpose of this annotated list is to provide a chronological, consolidated list of nonmetal monographs, which could enable the interested reader to further trace classification approaches in this area. Those marked with a ▲ classify these 14 elements as nonmetals: H, N; O, S; the 4 stable halogens; and the 6 naturally occurring noble gases. Steudel R 2020, Chemistry of the Non-metals: Syntheses - Structures - Bonding - Applications, in collaboration with D Scheschkewitz, Berlin, Walter de Gruyter, doi:10.1515/9783110578065. ▲ An updated translation of the 5th German edition of 2013, incorporating the literature up to Spring 2019. Twenty-three nonmetals, including B, Si, Ge, As, Se, Te, and At but not Sb (nor Po). The nonmetals are identified on the basis of their electrical conductivity at absolute zero putatively being close to zero, rather than finite as in the case of metals. That does not work for As however, which has the electronic structure of a semimetal (like Sb). Halka M & Nordstrom B 2010, "Nonmetals", Facts on File, New York, ISBN 978-0-8160-7367-2 A reading level 9+ book covering H, C, N, O, P, S, Se. Complementary books by the same authors examine (a) the post-transition metals (Al, Ga, In,


id: outline-of-organic-chemistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_organic_chemistry-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of organic chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_organic_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:48.210958+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-organic-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to organic chemistry: Organic chemistry is the scientific study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation (by synthesis or by other means) of carbon-based compounds, hydrocarbons, and their derivatives. These compounds may contain any number of other elements, including hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, the halogens as well as phosphorus, silicon, and sulfur. == General topics == History of organic chemistry IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry Organic reaction Organic compound Organic synthesis Retrosynthetic analysis == Current trends == Current trends in organic chemistry include (as of 2020): Biocatalysis Catalysis Chemosensors Chiral synthesis Flow chemistry Green chemistry Mechanochemistry Photoredox catalysis == Concepts == Acids and bases Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory Acid dissociation constants Lewis acids and bases Chemoselectivity Molecular structure Aromaticity Chemical bonding Covalent bonding Lewis model Molecule shapes Bond angles Resonance structures Conjugated systems Functional groups Stereochemistry Conformational isomerism Diastereomer Stereoisomerism Chirality Optical activity Enantiomers Regioselectivity Stereoselectivity Spectroscopy Infrared spectroscopy Mass spectrometry NMR spectroscopy Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy Organometallic chemistry == Chemical species == Acetals Hemiacetals Thioacetals Ketals Alcohols and diols Haloalkanes Thiols Alkanes and cycloalkanes Alkenes Alkynes Amines Amino acids, peptides, proteins Aromatics Acetophenones Anilines Anisoles Benzene Benzenesulfonic acids Benzophenones Nitrobenzenes


id: list-of-organic-reactions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_organic_reactions-0.md
category: reference
title: List of organic reactions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_organic_reactions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:49.562463+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-organic-reactions-20260505-0
summary:
Well-known reactions and reagents in organic chemistry include == 0-9 == 1,2-Wittig rearrangement 1,3-Dipolar cycloaddition 2,3-Wittig rearrangement == A == Acetalisation Acetoacetic ester condensation Achmatowicz reaction Acylation Acyloin condensation Adams' catalyst Adams decarboxylation Adkins catalyst Adkins–Peterson reaction Akabori amino acid reaction Alcohol oxidation Alder ene reaction Alder–Stein rules Aldol addition Aldol condensation Algar–Flynn–Oyamada reaction Alkylimino-de-oxo-bisubstitution Alkyne trimerisation Alkyne zipper reaction Allan–Robinson reaction Allylic rearrangement Amadori rearrangement Amine alkylation Angeli–Rimini reaction Andrussov oxidation Appel reaction Arbuzov reaction, Arbusow reaction Arens–Van Dorp synthesis, Isler modification Aromatic nitration Arndt–Eistert synthesis Aston–Greenburg rearrangement Auwers synthesis Aza-Cope rearrangement Azo coupling == B == Baeyer–Drewson indigo synthesis Baeyer–Villiger oxidation, Baeyer–Villiger rearrangement Bakeland process (Bakelite) Baker–Venkataraman rearrangement, Baker–Venkataraman transformation Baldwin's rules Bally–Scholl synthesis Balz–Schiemann reaction Bamberger rearrangement Bamberger triazine synthesis Bamford–Stevens reaction Barbier reaction Barbier–Wieland degradation Bardhan–Sengupta phenanthrene synthesis Barfoed's test Bargellini reaction Bartoli indole synthesis, Bartoli reaction Barton decarboxylation Barton reaction Barton–Kellogg reaction Barton–McCombie reaction, Barton deoxygenation Barton-Zard Synthesis Barton vinyl iodine procedure Baudisch reaction Bayer test Baylis–Hillman reaction Bechamp reaction Bechamp reduction Beckmann fragmentation Beckmann rearrangement Bellus–Claisen rearrangement Belousov–Zhabotinsky reaction Benary reaction Benedict's reagent Benkeser reaction Benzidine rearrangement Benzilic acid rearrangement Benzoin condensation Bergman cyclization Bergmann azlactone peptide synthesis Bergmann degradation Bergmann–Zervas carbobenzoxy method Bernthsen


id: list-of-organic-reactions-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_organic_reactions-1.md
category: reference
title: List of organic reactions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_organic_reactions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:49.562463+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-organic-reactions-20260505-0
summary:
== J == Jacobsen epoxidation Jacobsen rearrangement Janovsky reaction Japp–Klingemann reaction Japp–Maitland condensation Jocic reaction Johnson–Claisen rearrangement Johnson–Corey–Chaykovsky reaction Jones oxidation Jordan–Ullmann–Goldberg synthesis Julia olefination, Julia–Lythgoe olefination == K == Kabachnik–Fields reaction Kharasch–Sosnovsky reaction Keck asymmetric allylation Ketimine Mannich reaction Ketone halogenation Kiliani–Fischer synthesis Kindler reaction Kishner cyclopropane synthesis Knoevenagel condensation Knorr pyrazole synthesis Knorr pyrrole synthesis Knorr quinoline synthesis Koch–Haaf reaction Kochi reaction Koenigs–Knorr reaction Kolbe electrolysis Kolbe nitrile synthesis Kolbe–Schmitt reaction Kornblum oxidation Kornblum–DeLaMare rearrangement Kostanecki acylation Kowalski ester homologation Krapcho decarboxylation Krische allylation Kröhnke aldehyde synthesis Kröhnke oxidation Kröhnke pyridine synthesis Kucherov reaction Kuhn–Winterstein reaction Kulinkovich reaction Kumada coupling == L == Larock indole synthesis Lawesson's reagent Lebedev process Lehmstedt–Tanasescu reaction Leimgruber–Batcho indole synthesis Letts nitrile synthesis Leuckart reaction Leuckart thiophenol reaction Leuckart–Wallach reaction Leuckart amide synthesis Levinstein process Ley oxidation Lieben iodoform reaction, Haloform reaction Liebeskind–Srogl coupling Liebig melamine synthesis Lindlar catalyst Lobry de Bruyn–Van Ekenstein transformation Lombardo methylenation Lossen rearrangement Lucas' reagent Luche reduction == M == Maillard reaction Madelung synthesis Malaprade reaction, Periodic acid oxidation Malonic ester synthesis Mannich reaction Markó–Lam deoxygenation Markovnikov's rule, Markownikoff rule, Markownikow rule Marschalk reaction Martinet dioxindole synthesis McDougall monoprotection McFadyen–Stevens reaction McMurry reaction Meerwein arylation Meerwein–Ponndorf–Verley reduction Meisenheimer


id: index-of-pesticide-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_pesticide_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of pesticide articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_pesticide_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:50.801117+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-pesticide-articles-20260505-0
summary:
This is an index of articles relating to pesticides. == 0–9 == == A == == B == == C == == D == == E == == F == == G == == H == == I == == J == == K == == L == == M == == N == == P == == Q == == R == == S == == T == == U == == V == == W, X, Y, Z == == See also == List of fungicides List of herbicides List of insecticides


id: list-of-largest-selling-pharmaceutical-products-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_selling_pharmaceutical_products-0.md
category: reference
title: List of largest selling pharmaceutical products
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_selling_pharmaceutical_products
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:51.992126+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-largest-selling-pharmaceutical-products-20260505-0
summary:
== Best selling pharmaceuticals of U.S. market == The top 5 best selling pharmaceuticals 2015–2019. Sales in billion USD. == Best selling pharmaceuticals of 2017/18 == The top 16 best selling pharmaceuticals of 2017/18. == Largest selling pharmaceutical products of 2015 == Drugs with sales above $5 billion in 2015 included: == Best selling pharmaceuticals of 2013 == For the fourth quarter of 2013, the largest selling drugs were: == See also == List of drugs Lists about the pharmaceutical industry == References ==


id: list-of-phenyltropanes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phenyltropanes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of phenyltropanes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phenyltropanes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:53.479705+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-phenyltropanes-20260505-0
summary:
Phenyltropanes (PTs) are a family of chemical compounds originally derived from structural modification of cocaine. The main feature differentiating phenyltropanes from cocaine is that they lack the ester functionality at the 3-position terminating in the benzene; thus, the phenyl is attached direct to the tropane skeleton (hence the name "phenyl"-tropane) with no further spacer that the cocaine benzoyloxy provided. The original purpose of phenyltropane-related research was to extirpate the cardiotoxicity inherent in the local anesthetic "numbing" capability of cocaine (which stems from the methylated benzoate ester being essential to cocaine's blockage of sodium channels, and which causes topical anesthesia) while retaining stimulant function. Phenyltropane compounds present promising avenues of research into therapeutic applications, particularly in regard to addiction treatment. These compounds' uses vary depending on their construction and structure-activity relationship ranging from the treating of cocaine dependency to understanding the dopamine reward system in the human brain to treating Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. (Since 2008 there have been continual additions to the list and enumerations of the plethora of types of chemicals that fall into the category of this substance profile.) Certain phenyltropanes can even be used as a smoking cessation aid (cf. RTI-29). Many of the compounds were first


id: list-of-phenyltropanes-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phenyltropanes-1.md
category: reference
title: List of phenyltropanes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phenyltropanes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:53.479705+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-phenyltropanes-20260505-0
summary:
==== 2β-Acyl-3β-naphthyl substituted ==== === Ester reduction === Note: p-fluorophenyl is weaker than the others. RTI-145 is not peroxy, it is a methyl carbonate. === 2-Alkane/Alkene === aKi value for displacement of WIN 35428. bIC50 value. === Irreversible covalent (cf. ionic) C2 ligands === Irreversible (phenylisothiocyanate) binding ligand (Murthy, V.; Martin, T. J.; Kim, S.; Davies, H. M. L.; Childers, S. R. (2008). "In Vivo Characterization of a Novel Phenylisothiocyanate Tropane Analog at Monoamine Transporters in Rat Brain". Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 326 (2): 587–595. doi:10.1124/jpet.108.138842. PMID 18492949. S2CID 5996473.) RTI-76: 4′-isothiocyanatophenyl (1R,2S,3S,5S)-3-(4-chlorophenyl)-8-methyl-8-azabicyclo[3.2.1]octane-2-carboxylate. Also known as: 3β-(p-chlorophenyl)tropan-2β-carboxylic acid p-isothiocyanatophenylmethyl ester. ==== C2 Acyl, N8 phenylisothiocyanate ==== HD-205 (Murthy et al., 2007) Note the contrast to the phenylisothiocyanate covalent binding site locations as compared to the one on p-Isococ, a non-phenyltropane cocaine analogue. === Benztropine based (C2-position hetero-substituted) phenyltropanes === === F&B series (Biotin side-chains etc.) === One patent claims a series of compounds with biotin-related sidechains are pesticides. === Miscellany (i.e. Misc./Miscellaneous) C2-substituents === == C2-truncated/descarboxyl (non-ecgonine w/o 2-position-replacement tropanes) == === Aryl-Tropenes === WO 2004113297, Peters, Dan; Olsen, Gunnar M. & Nielsen, Elsebet Oestergaard et al., "Aza-ring derivatives and their use as monoamine neurotransmitter re-uptake inhibitors", published


id: list-of-phenyltropanes-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phenyltropanes-2.md
category: reference
title: List of phenyltropanes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phenyltropanes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:53.479705+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-phenyltropanes-20260505-0
summary:
=== Bridged N-constrained phenyltropanes (fused/tethered) === See: Bridged cocaine derivatives & N8 Tricyclic (2β—crossed-over) N8—to—3β replaced aryl linked (expansive front-bridged) cocaine analogues ==== p-methyl aryl front & back N-bridged phenyltropanes ==== U.S. patent 6,150,376 ɑValue for displacement of [3H]WIN 35,428 binding @ DAT bValue for displacement of [3H]paroxetine binding to SERT cValue for displacement of [3H]nisoxetine from NET Fused tropane-derivatives as neurotransmitter reuptake inhibitors. Singh notes that all bridged derivatives tested displayed 2.5—104 fold higher DAT affinity than cocaine. The ones 2.8—190 fold more potent at DAT also had increased potency at the other two MAT sites (NET & SERT); NET having 1.6—78× increased activity. (+)-128 additionally exhibited 100× greater potency @ SERT, whereas 132a & 133a had 4–5.2× weaker 5-HTT (i.e. SERT) activity. Front-bridged (e.g. 128 & 129) had a better 5-HT/DA reuptake ratio in favor of SERT, while the back-bridged (e.g. 130–133) preferred placement with DAT interaction. U.S. patent 5,998,405 ==== 3,4-Cl2 aryl front-bridged phenyltropanes ==== 1-Chloroethyl chloroformate is used to remove N-methyl of trans-aryltropanes. 2° amine is reacted with Br(CH2)nCO2Et. Base used to abstract proton α- to CO2Et group and complete the tricyclic ring closure step (Dieckmann cyclization). To make a different type of analog (see Kozikowski


id: list-of-phenyltropanes-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phenyltropanes-3.md
category: reference
title: List of phenyltropanes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phenyltropanes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:53.479705+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-phenyltropanes-20260505-0
summary:
=== Transition metal complexes === These compounds include transition metals in their heteroatomic conformation, unlike non-radiolabel intended chelates where their element is chosen for intrinsic affectation to binding and function, these are tagged on by a "tail" (or similar) with a sufficient spacer to remain separated from known binding properties and instead are meant to add radioactivity enough to be easily tracked via observation methods that utilize radioactivity. As for anomalies of binding within the spectrum of the under-written kinds just mentioned: other factors not otherwise considered to account for its relatively lower potency, "compound 89c" is posited to protrude forward at the aryl place on its moiety toward the MAT ligand acceptor site in a manner detrimental to its efficacy. That is considered due to the steric bulk of the eight-position "tail" chelate substituted constituent, overreaching the means by which it was intended to be isolated from binding factors upon a tail, and ultimately nonetheless, interfering with its ability to bind. However, to broach this discrepancy, decreasing of the nitrogen tether at the eight position by a single methylene unit (89d) was shown to bring the potency of the analogous compound to the expected, substantially higher, potency: The N-methyl


id: list-of-phytochemicals-in-food-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phytochemicals_in_food-0.md
category: reference
title: List of phytochemicals in food
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phytochemicals_in_food
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:55.957913+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-phytochemicals-in-food-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of phytochemicals present in foods. == Terpenoids (isoprenoids) == === Carotenoids (tetraterpenoids) === ==== Carotenes ==== orange pigments α-Carotene – to vitamin A: carrots, pumpkins, maize, tangerine, orange β-Carotene – to vitamin A: dark, leafy greens, red, orange and yellow fruits and vegetables. γ-Carotene - to vitamin A δ-Carotene ε-carotene Lycopene: Vietnamese Gac, tomatoes, grapefruit, watermelon, guava, apricots, carrots, autumn olive. Neurosporene: tomato, pink grapefruit,watermelon Phytofluene: star fruit, sweet potato, orange Phytoene: sweet potato, orange ==== Xanthophylls ==== yellow pigments Canthaxanthin: paprika, mushrooms, crustaceans, fish and eggs . β-Cryptoxanthin to vitamin A: mango, tangerine, orange, papaya, peaches, avocado, pea, grapefruit, kiwi Zeaxanthin: wolfberry, spinach, kale, turnip greens, maize, eggs, red pepper, pumpkin, orange Astaxanthin: microalgae, yeast, krill, shrimp, salmon, lobsters, and some crabs Lutein: spinach, turnip greens, romaine lettuce, eggs, red pepper, pumpkin, mango, papaya, oranges, kiwi, peaches, squash, brassicas, prunes, sweet potatoes, honeydew melon, rhubarb, plum, avocado, pear, cilantro Rubixanthin: rose hip === Triterpenoids === Saponins: soybeans, beans, other legumes, maize, alfalfa Oleanolic acid: American pokeweed, honey mesquite, garlic, java apple, cloves, and many other Syzygium species Ursolic acid: apples, basil, bilberries, cranberries, elder flower, peppermint, lavender, oregano, thyme, hawthorn, prunes Betulinic acid: Ber


id: list-of-phytochemicals-in-food-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phytochemicals_in_food-1.md
category: reference
title: List of phytochemicals in food
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phytochemicals_in_food
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:55.957913+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-phytochemicals-in-food-20260505-0
summary:
=== Organosulfides/ Organosulfur compounds === Polysulfides (allium compounds): garlic, onions, leeks, chives, shallots Sulfides Diallyl disulfide garlic, onions, leeks, chives, shallots Alliin garlic Allyl isothiocyanate: horseradish, mustard, wasabi Syn-propanethial-S-oxide: cut onions === Indoles === Indole-3-carbinol: cabbage, kale, brussels sprouts, rutabaga, mustard greens, broccoli 3,3'-Diindolylmethane or DIM: broccoli family, brussels sprouts, cabbage, kale Indole-3-acetic acid: Commonly occurring plant hormone, a part of the auxin family. == Betalains == Betacyanins beets, chard, Amaranthus tricolor betanin isobetanin probetanin neobetanin Betaxanthins (non glycosidic versions) Indicaxanthin: beets, sicilian prickly pear Vulgaxanthin: beets == Chlorophylls == Chlorophyllin: Dark green leafy vegetables like spinach == Other organic acids == Saturated cyclic acids Phytic acid: (inositol hexaphosphate) cereals, nuts, sesame seeds, soybeans, wheat, pumpkin, beans, almonds Quinic acid Oxalic acid: orange, spinach, rhubarb, tea and coffee, banana, ginger, almond, sweet potato, bell pepper Tartaric acid: apricots, apples, sunflower, avocado, grapes, tamarind Anacardic acid: cashews, mangoes Malic acid: apples Caftaric acid: grapes Coutaric acid: grapes Fertaric acid == Amines == Betanin: beetroot == Carbohydrates == === Monosaccharides === Hexose: wheat, barley Pentose: rye, oat === Polysaccharides === Beta-glucan Chitin: fungi includes other edible mushrooms Lentinan: fruit body of shiitake (Lentinula edodes mycelium (LEM)) and other edible mushrooms Fructan Inulins:


id: list-of-progestogens-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_progestogens-0.md
category: reference
title: List of progestogens
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_progestogens
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:57.264255+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-progestogens-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of progestogens that are or that have been used in clinical or veterinary medicine. They are steroids and include derivatives of progesterone and testosterone. == Progesterone derivatives == === Retroprogesterone derivatives === Although an active progestogen, retroprogesterone is not medically used. === 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone derivatives === 17α-hydroxyprogesterone is inactive as a progestogen and is not used medically. The 19-norprogesterone derivatives gestonorone caproate (gestronol hexanoate), nomegestrol acetate, segesterone acetate (nestorone, elcometrine), and norgestomet are also derivatives of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (see below). === 17α-Methylprogesterone derivatives === Although an active progestogen, 17α-methylprogesterone is not medically used. The 19-norprogesterone derivatives demegestone, promegestone, and trimegestone are also derivatives of 17α-methylprogesterone (see below). === Other 17α-substituted progesterone derivatives === === 19-Norprogesterone derivatives === Although an active progestogen, 19-norprogesterone is not medically used. == Testosterone derivatives == Testosterone itself does not have significant progestogenic activity. Testosterone is instead classified as an anabolic-androgenic steroid and is included here purely because it is the parent structure of this group of progestins. === 17α-Ethynyltestosterone derivatives === === 19-Nortestosterone derivatives === While nandrolone (19-nortestosterone) does have significant progestogenic activity, it is not used as a progestogen. It is instead classified as an androgenic-anabolic steroid and is included here purely


id: list-of-purification-methods-in-chemistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_purification_methods_in_chemistry-0.md
category: reference
title: List of purification methods in chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_purification_methods_in_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:59.757286+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-purification-methods-in-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
Purification in a chemical context is the physical separation of a chemical substance of interest from foreign or contaminating substances. Pure results of a successful purification process are termed isolate. The following list of chemical purification methods should not be considered exhaustive. Affinity purification purifies proteins by retaining them on a column through their affinity to antibodies, enzymes, or receptors that have been immobilised on the column. Filtration is a mechanical method to separate solids from liquids or gases by passing the feed stream through a porous sheet such as a cloth or membrane, which retains the solids and allows the liquid to pass through. Centrifugation is a process that uses an electric motor to spin a vessel of fluid at high speed to make heavier components settle to the bottom of the vessel. Evaporation removes volatile liquids from non-volatile solutes, which cannot be done through filtration due to the small size of the substances. Liquid–liquid extraction removes an impurity or recovers a desired product by dissolving the crude material in a solvent in which other components of the feed material are soluble. Crystallization separates a product from a liquid feed stream, often in extremely pure form, by cooling the


id: list-of-reagents-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_reagents-0.md
category: reference
title: List of reagents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_reagents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:01.186595+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-reagents-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of inorganic and organic reagents commonly used in chemistry. == Synopsis == Reagents are "substances or compounds that are added to a system in order to bring about a chemical reaction or are added to see if a reaction occurs." Some reagents are just a single element. However, most processes require reagents made of chemical compounds. Some of the most common ones used widely for specific reactive functions are listed below, but is by no means exhaustive. == Reagent Compounds == == See also == Reagent Limiting reagent Category: Reagents for organic chemistry == References ==


id: list-of-refrigerants-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_refrigerants-0.md
category: reference
title: List of refrigerants
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_refrigerants
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:02.795048+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-refrigerants-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of refrigerants, sorted by their ASHRAE-designated numbers, commonly known as R numbers. Many modern refrigerants are human-made halogenated gases, especially fluorinated gases and chlorinated gases, that are frequently referred to as Freon (a registered trademark of Chemours). Freons are responsible for the formation of the ozone hole. The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol are international agreements that oblige signatory countries to limit the emission of ozone-depleting gases. The Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol furthermore obliges signatory countries to limit the emission of gases with high global warming potential. == Numbering scheme == According to ASHRAE standard 34, the R-number of a chemical refrigerant is assigned systematically according to its molecular structure and has between two and four digits. If there are carbon-carbon multiple bonds, there are four digits in all: the number of these bonds is the first digit and the number of carbon atoms minus one (C − 1) is next. If there is more than one carbon atom but no multiple bonds, there are three digits, and the number of carbon atoms minus one is the first digit. If there is only one carbon atom,


id: rotterdam-convention-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotterdam_Convention-0.md
category: reference
title: Rotterdam Convention
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotterdam_Convention
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:04.010688+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rotterdam-convention-20260505-0
summary:
The Rotterdam Convention (formally, the Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade) is a multilateral treaty to promote shared responsibilities in relation to importation of hazardous chemicals. The convention promotes open exchange of information and calls on exporters of hazardous chemicals to use proper labeling, include directions on safe handling, and inform purchasers of any known restrictions or bans. Signatory nations can decide whether to allow or ban the importation of chemicals listed in the treaty, and exporting countries are obliged to make sure that producers within their jurisdiction comply. In 2012, the Secretariats of the Basel and Stockholm conventions, as well as the UNEP-part of the Rotterdam Convention Secretariat, merged to a single Secretariat with a matrix structure serving the three conventions. The three conventions now hold back to back Conferences of the Parties as part of their joint synergies decisions. The ninth meeting of the Rotterdam Conference was held from 29 April to 10 May 2019 in Geneva, Switzerland. == Substances covered under the Convention == The following chemicals are listed in Annex III to the convention: 2,4,5-T and its salts and esters Alachlor Aldicarb Aldrin Asbestos –


id: list-of-saturated-fatty-acids-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_saturated_fatty_acids-0.md
category: reference
title: List of saturated fatty acids
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_saturated_fatty_acids
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:05.181126+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-saturated-fatty-acids-20260505-0
summary:
Saturated fatty acids are fatty acids that make up saturated fats. == Straight-chain == Saturated straight-chain fatty acids: == Branched-chain == Saturated branched-chain fatty acids: == See also == List of unsaturated fatty acids Carboxylic acid List of carboxylic acids Dicarboxylic acid


id: list-of-schedule-1-substances-cwc-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Schedule_1_substances_(CWC)-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Schedule 1 substances (CWC)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Schedule_1_substances_(CWC)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:08.723385+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-schedule-1-substances-cwc-20260505-0
summary:
Schedule 1 substances, in the sense of the Chemical Weapons Convention, are chemicals which are feasible either to be used directly as chemical weapons or in the manufacture of chemical weapons, and which have very limited to no use outside of chemical warfare. These may be produced or used for research, medical, pharmaceutical or chemical weapon defence testing (called "protective testing" in the treaty) purposes but production above 100 grams per year must be declared to the OPCW in accordance with Part VI of the "Verification Annex". A country is limited to possessing a maximum of one tonne of these materials. Schedule 1 is divided into Part A substances, which are chemicals that can be used directly as weapons, and Part B which are precursors useful in the manufacture of chemical weapons. Examples are mustard and nerve agents, and substances which are solely used as precursor chemicals in their manufacture. A few of these chemicals have very small-scale non-military applications; for example, minute quantities of nitrogen mustard are used to treat certain cancers. The Schedule 1 list is one of three lists. Chemicals which are feasible to use as weapons, and their precursors, but which have legitimate applications as well


id: list-of-schedule-2-substances-cwc-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Schedule_2_substances_(CWC)-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Schedule 2 substances (CWC)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Schedule_2_substances_(CWC)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:10.335309+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-schedule-2-substances-cwc-20260505-0
summary:
Schedule 2 substances, in the sense of the Chemical Weapons Convention, are chemicals that are feasible to use as chemical weapons themselves (Part A), or their manufacturing precursors (Part B), and which have small-scale applications outside of chemical warfare and so can be legitimately manufactured in small quantities. An example is thiodiglycol, which can be used in the manufacture of mustard agents but is also used as a solvent in inks. Manufacture must be declared as their production is subject to declaration to the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) per Part VII of the "Verification Annex", and they may not be exported to countries that are not party to the Convention. The Schedule 2 list is one of three lists. Chemicals that can be used as weapons, or used in their manufacture, but that have no, or almost no, legitimate applications as well are listed in Schedule 1, whilst Schedule 3 is used for chemicals that also have widespread industrial uses. The use of Schedule 1, 2, or 3 chemicals as weapons is banned by the convention. == Guidelines for Schedule 2 == Schedule 2 lists toxic chemicals and precursors – not listed in Schedule 1 –


id: list-of-schedule-3-substances-cwc-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Schedule_3_substances_(CWC)-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Schedule 3 substances (CWC)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Schedule_3_substances_(CWC)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:12.650792+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-schedule-3-substances-cwc-20260505-0
summary:
Schedule 3 substances, in the sense of the Chemical Weapons Convention, are chemicals which have large-scale industrial uses, but are feasible to use as toxic chemical weapons (Part A) or manufacturing precursors (Part B). Plants which manufacture more than 30 tonnes per year must be declared and can be inspected as per Part VIII of the "Verification Annex", and there are restrictions on export to countries which are not CWC signatories. Examples of these substances are phosgene, which has been used as a chemical weapon but which is also a precursor in the manufacture of many legitimate organic compounds, and triethanolamine, used in the manufacture of nitrogen mustard but also commonly used in toiletries and detergents. The Schedule 3 list is one of three lists. Chemicals which can be used as weapons, or used in their manufacture, but which have no, or almost no, legitimate applications as well are listed in Schedule 1, whilst Schedule 2 is used for chemicals which have legitimate small-scale applications. The use of Schedule 1, 2, or 3 chemicals as weapons is banned by the Convention. == Guidelines for Schedule 3 == The criteria for including a chemical in this schedule is that it is


id: list-of-sex-hormonal-medications-available-in-the-united-states-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sex-hormonal_medications_available_in_the_United_States-0.md
category: reference
title: List of sex-hormonal medications available in the United States
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sex-hormonal_medications_available_in_the_United_States
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:14.007543+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-sex-hormonal-medications-available-in-the-united-states-20260505-0
summary:
List of sex-hormonal medications available in the United States may refer to: List of androgens/anabolic steroids available in the United States List of estrogens available in the United States List of progestogens available in the United States == See also == List of combined sex-hormonal preparations List of steroids List of steroid esters == References ==


id: solubility-table-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solubility_table-0.md
category: reference
title: Solubility table
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solubility_table
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:17.689616+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: solubility-table-20260505-0
summary:
The tables below provides information on the variation of solubility of different substances (mostly inorganic compounds) in water with temperature, at one atmosphere pressure. Units of solubility are given in grams of substance per 100 millilitres of water (g/100 ml), unless shown otherwise. The substances are listed in Latin alphabetical order. == Tables == === A === === B === === C === === D and E === === F and G === === H === === I === === L === === M === === N and O === === P === === R === === S === === T === === U, V, and X === === Y === === Z === == References == Chemicalc v4.0 - software that includes data on solubility Learning, Food resources Kaye and Laby Online ChemBioFinder.com(registration required) == External links == Solubility Database - International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry / National Institute of Standards and Technology CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics - Online resource that includes solubility data (requires subscription)


id: standard-electrode-potential-data-page-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_electrode_potential_(data_page)-0.md
category: reference
title: Standard electrode potential (data page)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_electrode_potential_(data_page)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:19.093695+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: standard-electrode-potential-data-page-20260505-0
summary:
The data below tabulates standard electrode potentials (E°), in volts relative to the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE), at: Temperature 298.15 K (25.00 °C; 77.00 °F); Effective concentration (activity) 1 mol/L for each aqueous or amalgamated (mercury-alloyed) species; Unit activity for each solvent and pure solid or liquid species; and Absolute partial pressure 101.325 kPa (1.00000 atm; 1.01325 bar) for each gaseous reagent — the convention in most literature data but not the current standard state (100 kPa). Variations from these ideal conditions affect measured voltage via the Nernst equation. Electrode potentials of successive elementary half-reactions cannot be directly added. However, the corresponding Gibbs free energy changes (∆G°) can be added. Those free energy changes satisfy ∆G° = –zFE°, where z electrons are transferred, and the Faraday constant F is the conversion factor describing Coulombs transferred per mole electrons. For example, from Fe2+ + 2 e− ⇌ Fe(s) (−0.44 V), the energy to form one neutral atom of Fe(s) from one Fe2+ ion and two electrons is 2 × 0.44 eV = 0.88 eV, or 84 907 J/(mol e−). That value is also the standard formation energy (∆Gf°) for an Fe2+ ion, since e− and Fe(s) both have zero formation energy.


id: table-of-standard-reduction-potentials-for-half-reactions-important-in-biochemistry-20260505-0
category: reference
title: Table of standard reduction potentials for half-reactions important in biochemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:20.666557+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: table-of-standard-reduction-potentials-for-half-reactions-important-in-biochemistry-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_standard_reduction_potentials_for_half-reactions_important_in_biochemistry-0.md

summary:
The values below are standard apparent reduction potentials (E°') for electro-biochemical half-reactions measured at 25 °C, 1 atmosphere and a pH of 7 in aqueous solution. The actual physiological potential depends on the ratio of the reduced (Red) and oxidized (Ox) forms according to the Nernst equation and the thermal voltage. When an oxidizer (Ox) accepts a number z of electrons ( e−) to be converted in its reduced form (Red), the half-reaction is expressed as: Ox + z e− → Red The reaction quotient (Qr) is the ratio of the chemical activity (ai) of the reduced form (the reductant, aRed) to the activity of the oxidized form (the oxidant, aox). It is equal to the ratio of their concentrations (Ci) only if the system is sufficiently diluted and the activity coefficients (γi) are close to unity (ai = γi Ci): Q r = a Red a Ox = C Red C Ox {\displaystyle Q_{r}={\frac {a_{\text{Red}}}{a_{\text{Ox}}}}={\frac {C_{\text{Red}}}{C_{\text{Ox}}}}} The Nernst equation is a function of Qr and can be written as follows: E red = E red ⊖ − R T z F ln ⁡ Q r = E red ⊖ − R T z F ln ⁡ a Red a

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_standard_reduction_potentials_for_half-reactions_important_in_biochemistry


id: table-of-standard-reduction-potentials-for-half-reactions-important-in-biochemistry-20260505-1
category: reference
title: Table of standard reduction potentials for half-reactions important in biochemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:20.666557+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: table-of-standard-reduction-potentials-for-half-reactions-important-in-biochemistry-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_standard_reduction_potentials_for_half-reactions_important_in_biochemistry-1.md

summary:
== Formal standard reduction potential combined with the pH dependency == To obtain the reduction potential as a function of the measured concentrations of the redox-active species in solution, it is necessary to express the activities as a function of the concentrations. E h = E red = E red ⊖ − 0.05916 z log ⁡ ( { C } c { D } d { A } a { B } b ) − 0.05916 h z pH {\displaystyle E_{h}=E_{\text{red}}=E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus }-{\frac {0.05916}{z}}\log \left({\frac {\{C\}^{c}\{D\}^{d}}{\{A\}^{a}\{B\}^{b}}}\right)-{\frac {0.05916\,h}{z}}{\text{pH}}} Given that the chemical activity denoted here by { } is the product of the activity coefficient γ by the concentration denoted by [ ]: ai = γi·Ci, here expressed as {X} = γx [X] and {X}x = (γx)x [X]x and replacing the logarithm of a product by the sum of the logarithms (i.e., log (a·b) = log a + log b), the log of the reaction quotient ( Q r {\displaystyle Q_{r}} ) (without {H+} already isolated apart in the last term as h pH) expressed here above with activities { } becomes: log ⁡ ( { C } c { D } d { A } a { B } b )

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_standard_reduction_potentials_for_half-reactions_important_in_biochemistry


id: table-of-standard-reduction-potentials-for-half-reactions-important-in-biochemistry-20260505-2
category: reference
title: Table of standard reduction potentials for half-reactions important in biochemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:20.666557+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: table-of-standard-reduction-potentials-for-half-reactions-important-in-biochemistry-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_standard_reduction_potentials_for_half-reactions_important_in_biochemistry-2.md

summary:
E red = E red ⊖ ′ {\displaystyle E_{\text{red}}=E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus '}} , when C red C ox = 1 {\displaystyle {\frac {C_{\text{red}}}{C_{\text{ox}}}}=1} , because ln ⁡ 1 = 0 {\displaystyle \ln {1}=0} , and that the term γ red γ ox {\displaystyle {\frac {\gamma _{\text{red}}}{\gamma _{\text{ox}}}}} is included in E red ⊖ ′ {\displaystyle E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus '}} . The formal reduction potential makes possible to more simply work with molar or molal concentrations in place of activities. Because molar and molal concentrations were once referred as formal concentrations, it could explain the origin of the adjective formal in the expression formal potential. The formal potential is thus the reversible potential of an electrode at equilibrium immersed in a solution where reactants and products are at unit concentration. If any small incremental change of potential causes a change in the direction of the reaction, i.e. from reduction to oxidation or vice versa, the system is close to equilibrium, reversible and is at its formal potential. When the formal potential is measured under standard conditions (i.e. the activity of each dissolved species is 1 mol/L, T = 298.15 K = 25 °C = 77 °F, Pgas = 1 bar) it becomes de facto a

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_standard_reduction_potentials_for_half-reactions_important_in_biochemistry


id: list-of-steroid-abbreviations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroid_abbreviations-0.md
category: reference
title: List of steroid abbreviations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroid_abbreviations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:22.145662+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-steroid-abbreviations-20260505-0
summary:
The steroid hormones are referred to by various abbreviations in the biological literature. The purpose of this list is to give commonly used abbreviations for steroid hormones, with supporting references to the literature. == Table of abbreviations == == References ==


id: list-of-steroid-esters-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroid_esters-0.md
category: reference
title: List of steroid esters
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroid_esters
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:23.375391+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-steroid-esters-20260505-0
summary:
List of steroid esters may refer to: List of androgen esters – androgen esters List of estrogen esters – estrogen esters List of progestogen esters – progestogen esters List of corticosteroid esters – corticosteroid esters == See also == List of steroids List of sex-hormonal medications available in the United States List of combined sex-hormonal preparations == References ==


id: list-of-steroidal-antiandrogens-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroidal_antiandrogens-0.md
category: reference
title: List of steroidal antiandrogens
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroidal_antiandrogens
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:24.645895+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-steroidal-antiandrogens-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of steroidal antiandrogens. == Progesterone derivatives == 11α-Hydroxyprogesterone = 11α-hydroxyprogesterone Chlormadinone acetate = 17α-acetoxy-6-chloro-δ6-progesterone Clometerone (L-38000) = 6α-chloro-16α-methylprogesterone Cyproterone (SH-80881) = 1,2α-methylene-6-chloro-δ6-17α-hydroxyprogesterone Cyproterone acetate = 1,2α-methylene-6-chloro-δ6-17α-acetoxyprogesterone Edogestrone (PH-218) = 17α-acetoxy-3,3-ethylenedioxy-6-methylpregn-5-en-20-one Medrogestone = 6,17α-dimethyl-δ6-progesterone Megestrol acetate = 17α-acetoxy-δ6-6-methylprogesterone Nomegestrol acetate = 17α-acetoxy-δ6-6-methyl-19-norprogesterone Osaterone acetate (TZP-4238) = 17α-acetoxy-6-chloro-2-oxa-δ6-progesterone == Testosterone derivatives == Abiraterone (CB-7598) = 17-(3-pyridinyl)androsta-5,16-dien-3β-ol Abiraterone acetate = 17-(3-pyridinyl)androsta-5,16-dien-3β-ol acetate Benorterone (SKF-7690, FC-612) = 17α-methyl-B-nortestosterone BOMT (Ro 7-2340) = 6α-bromo-4-oxa-17α-methyl-4,5α-dihydrotestosterone Delanterone (GBR-21162) = 17β-dehydroxy-1α-methyl-δ16-testosterone Dienogest = 17α-cyanomethyl-19-nor-δ9(10)-testosterone Epitestosterone = 17α-epitestosterone Galeterone (TOK-001, VN/124-1) = 17-(1H-benzimidazol-1-yl)androsta-5,16-dien-3β-ol Metogest (SC-14207) = 16,16-dimethyl-19-nortestosterone Mifepristone = 11β-[p-(dimethylamino)phenyl]-17-(1-propynyl)-δ9-19-nortestosterone Oxendolone (TSAA-291) = 16β-ethyl-19-nortestosterone Rosterolone (SH-434, 17α-propylmesterolone) = 1α-methyl-17α-propyl-4,5α-dihydrotestosterone Topterone (WIN-17665) = 17α-propyltestosterone Trimethyltrienolone (R-2956, RU-2956) = 2α,2β,17α-trimethyl-19-nor-δ9,11-testosterone Zanoterone (WIN-49596) = (5α,17α)-1'-(methylsulfonyl)-1'-H-pregn-20-yno[3,2-c]pyrazol-17-ol == Spirolactone derivatives == SC-5233 (spirolactone) = 17α-(2-carboxyethyl)testosterone γ-lactone SC-8109 = 19-norspirolactone Canrenone (aldadiene) = Δ6-spirolactone Dicirenone (SC-26304) = 7α-carboxyisopropylspirolactone Drospirenone = 6β,7β:15β,16β-dimethylenespirolactone Mespirenone (ZK-94679) = Δ1-7α-acetylthio-15β,16β-methylenespirolactone Mexrenone (ZK-32055, SC-25152) = 7α-(methoxycarbonyl)spirolactone Prorenone (SC-23133) = 6α,7α-methylenespirolactone Spironolactone = 7α-acetylthiospirolactone Spirorenone (ZK-35973) = Δ1-6β,7β:15β,16β-dimethylenespirolactone Spiroxasone = 7α-acetylthiospirolactone with the ketone group removed from the C17α spirolactone ring == Cortisol derivatives == 9,11-Dehydrocortexolone 17α-butyrate (CB-03-04) = 17α-(butyryloxy)-9,11-didehydrodeoxycorticosterone Clascoterone (CB-03-01; cortexolone 17α-propionate, 11-deoxycortisol 17α-propionate) = 17α-(propionyloxy)deoxycorticosterone == Others == Guggulsterone = pregna-4,17-diene-3,16-dione Nordinone = 11α-hydroxy-17,17-dimethyl-18-norandrosta-4,13-dien-3-one ==


id: list-of-sgt-cannabinoids-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_SGT_cannabinoids-0.md
category: reference
title: List of SGT cannabinoids
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_SGT_cannabinoids
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:27.341275+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-sgt-cannabinoids-20260505-0
summary:
Many synthetic cannabinoids were designed by Stargate International, a now defunct New Zealand company in the 2000s and 2010s, and feature an alphanumeric code beginning with the prefix "SGT". PB-22 (SGT-21) is credited with being the first synthetic cannabinoid to feature a quinoline substructure with an ester linker at the indole 3-position. The mainly N-cumyl-indazole-3-carboxamide derivatives are best known. Many SGT compounds are banned as designer drugs in various jurisdictions, such as Japan. == Chemical structures of SGT cannabinoid compounds == == See also == List of AM cannabinoids List of CP cannabinoids List of HU cannabinoids List of JWH cannabinoids List of miscellaneous designer cannabinoids == External links == Cannabinoid collection, isomerdesign.com == References ==


id: list-of-stoffs-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_stoffs-0.md
category: reference
title: List of stoffs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_stoffs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:28.497127+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-stoffs-20260505-0
summary:
During World War II, Germany fielded many aircraft and rockets whose fuels, and oxidizers, were designated (letter)-Stoff (pronounced [ʃtɔf]). The following list of stoffs refers to the World War II aerospace meanings if not noted otherwise. == Meaning of stoff == The German word Stoff (plural Stoffe), like the English word stuff, derives from Old French estoffe, however the meanings are somewhat different. Stoff has a fairly broad range of meanings, including "chemical substance" or "matter", "fuel" and "cloth", depending on the context. The German names of the common elements hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen are Wasserstoff, Sauerstoff and Stickstoff ("hydrogen" being a scientific Greek neologism for "constituent of water", "oxygen" for "constituent of acids", "nitrogen" for "constituent of nitre", i.e. saltpeter - although the German root stick- is derived from ersticken, "to smother, suffocate", referring to its property of not supporting combustion and respiration). Stoff was used in chemical code names in both world wars. Some code names were reused between the wars and had different meanings at different times; for example, T-Stoff meant a rocket propellant in World War II, but a tear gas (xylyl bromide) in World War I. == List == A-Stoff (World War I): chloroacetone (tear


id: table-of-explosive-detonation-velocities-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_explosive_detonation_velocities-0.md
category: reference
title: Table of explosive detonation velocities
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_explosive_detonation_velocities
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:29.781547+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: table-of-explosive-detonation-velocities-20260505-0
summary:
This is a compilation of published detonation velocities for various high explosive compounds. Detonation velocity is the speed with which the detonation shock wave travels through the explosive. It is a key, directly measurable indicator of explosive performance, but depends on density which must always be specified, and may be too low if the test charge diameter is not large enough. Especially for little studied explosives there may be divergent published values due to charge diameter issues. In liquid explosives, like nitroglycerin, there may be two detonation velocities, one much higher than the other. The detonation velocity values presented here are typically for the highest practical density which maximizes achievable detonation velocity. The velocity of detonation is an important indicator for overall energy and power of detonation, and in particular for the brisance or shattering effect of an explosive which is due to the detonation pressure. The pressure can be calculated using Chapman–Jouguet theory from the velocity and density. == See also == TNT equivalent RE factor == References ==


id: list-of-unsaturated-fatty-acids-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsaturated_fatty_acids-0.md
category: reference
title: List of unsaturated fatty acids
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsaturated_fatty_acids
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:31.224086+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsaturated-fatty-acids-20260505-0
summary:
== Fatty acid molecular species == === Mono-unsaturated fatty acid === The following fatty acids have one unsaturated bond. == See also == List of saturated fatty acids Carboxylic acid List of carboxylic acids Dicarboxylic acid == References ==


id: list-of-vegetable-oils-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils-0.md
category: reference
title: List of vegetable oils
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:33.641143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-vegetable-oils-20260505-0
summary:
Vegetable oils are triglycerides extracted from plants. Some of these oils have been part of human culture for millennia. Edible vegetable oils are used in food, both in cooking and as supplements. Many oils, edible and otherwise, are burned as fuel, such as in oil lamps and as a substitute for petroleum-based fuels. Some of the many other uses include wood finishing, oil painting, and skin care. == Definition == The term "vegetable oil" can be narrowly defined as referring only to substances that are liquid at room temperature, or broadly defined without regard to a substance's state (liquid or solid) at a given temperature. While a large majority of the entries in this list fit the narrower of these definitions, some do not qualify as vegetable oils according to all understandings of the term. == Classification == Vegetable oils can be classified in several ways. For instance, by their use or by the method used to extract them. In this article, vegetable oils are grouped in common classes of use. === Extraction method === There are several types of plant oils, distinguished by the method used to extract the oil from the plant. The relevant part of the plant


id: list-of-vegetable-oils-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils-1.md
category: reference
title: List of vegetable oils
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:33.641143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-vegetable-oils-20260505-0
summary:
=== Citrus oils === A number of citrus plants yield pressed oils. Some, such as lemon and orange oil, are used as essential oils, which is uncommon for pressed oils. The seeds of many if not most members of the citrus family yield usable oils. Grapefruit seed oil, extracted from the seeds of grapefruit (Citrus × paradisi). Grapefruit seed oil was extracted experimentally in 1930 and was shown to be suitable for making soap. Lemon oil, similar in fragrance to the fruit. One of a small number of cold pressed essential oils. Used as a flavoring agent and in aromatherapy. Orange oil, like lemon oil, cold pressed rather than distilled. Consists of 90% d-Limonene. Used as a fragrance, in cleaning products and in flavoring foods. === Oils from melon and gourd seeds === Members of the Cucurbitaceae include gourds, melons, pumpkins, and squashes. Seeds from these plants are noted for their oil content, but little information is available on methods of extracting the oil. In most cases, the plants are grown as food, with dietary use of the oils as a byproduct of using the seeds as food. Bitter gourd oil, from the seeds of Momordica charantia. High in α-Eleostearic


id: list-of-vegetable-oils-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils-2.md
category: reference
title: List of vegetable oils
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:33.641143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-vegetable-oils-20260505-0
summary:
Coriander seed oil, from coriander seeds, used in a wide variety of flavoring applications, including gin and seasoning blends. Recent research has shown promise for use in killing food-borne bacteria, such as E. coli. Date seed oil, extracted from date pits. Its low extraction rate and lack of other distinguishing characteristics make it an unlikely candidate for major use. Dika oil, from Irvingia gabonensis seeds, native to West Africa. Used to make margarine, soap and pharmaceuticals, where is it being examined as a tablet lubricant. Largely underdeveloped. False flax oil made of the seeds of Camelina sativa. One of the earliest oil crops, dating back to the 6th millennium B.C. Produced in modern times in Central and Eastern Europe; fell out of production in the 1940s. Considered promising as a food or fuel oil. Grape seed oil, a cooking and salad oil, also sprayed on raisins to help them retain their flavor. Hemp oil, a high quality food oil also used to make paints, varnishes, resins and soft soaps. Kapok seed oil, from the seeds of Ceiba pentandra, used as an edible oil, and in soap production. Kenaf seed oil, from the seeds of Hibiscus cannabinus. An edible oil similar


id: list-of-vegetable-oils-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils-3.md
category: reference
title: List of vegetable oils
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:33.641143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-vegetable-oils-20260505-0
summary:
A number of oils are used for biofuel (biodiesel and Straight Vegetable Oil) in addition to having other uses. Other oils are used only as biofuel. Although diesel engines were invented, in part, with vegetable oil in mind, diesel fuel is almost exclusively petroleum-based. Vegetable oils are evaluated for use as a biofuel based on: Suitability as a fuel, based on flash point, energy content, viscosity, combustion products and other factors Cost, based in part on yield, effort required to grow and harvest, and post-harvest processing cost === Multipurpose oils also used as biofuel === The oils listed immediately below are all (primarily) used for other purposes – all but tung oil are edible – but have been considered for use as biofuel. Castor oil, lower cost than many candidates. Kinematic viscosity may be an issue. Coconut oil (copra oil), promising for local use in places that produce coconuts. Colza oil, from Brassica rapa, var. oleifera (turnip) is closely related to rapeseed (or canola) oil. It is a major source of biodiesel in Germany. Corn oil, appealing because of the abundance of maize as a crop. Cottonseed oil, the subject of study for cost-effectiveness as a biodiesel feedstock. False flax


id: list-of-vegetable-oils-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils-4.md
category: reference
title: List of vegetable oils
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:33.641143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-vegetable-oils-20260505-0
summary:
Amur cork tree fruit oil, pressed from the fruit of the Phellodendron amurense. It has been studied for insecticidal use. Artichoke oil, extracted from the seeds of the artichoke fruit, is an unsaturated semi-drying oil with potential applications in making soap, shampoo, alkyd resin and shoe polish. Astrocaryum murumuru butter is employed in lotions, creams, soaps hair conditioners, facial masks, shampoo, oils and emulsions, skin moisturizer, products for the nutrition of the hair and restore damaged hair, depilatory waxes. Balanos oil, pressed from the seeds of Balanites aegyptiaca, was used in ancient Egypt as the base for perfumes. Bladderpod oil, pressed from the seeds of Physaria fendleri, native to North America. Rich in lesquerolic acid, which is chemically similar to the ricinoleic acid found in castor oil. Many industrial uses. Possible substitute for castor oil as it requires much less moisture than castor beans. Brucea javanica oil, extracted from the seeds of the Brucea javanica. The oil has been shown to be effective in treating certain cancers. Burdock oil (Bur oil) extracted from the root of the burdock. Used as an herbal remedy for scalp conditions. Buriti oil, extracted from the Mauritia flexuosa fruit, is high in carotenoids and monounsaturated


id: list-of-vegetable-oils-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils-5.md
category: reference
title: List of vegetable oils
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:33.641143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-vegetable-oils-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == "Fats and Cholesterol: Out with the Bad, In with the Good". The Nutrition Source. Harvard School of Public Health. Retrieved 2011-10-22. "Bulk Oil Trading". Retrieved 2006-07-25.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link) An older version of this site was very helpful in making this list more comprehensive. "Vegetable Oil Yields and Characteristics". Retrieved 2011-10-24. Compiles useful information on vegetable oils from a number of sources. "Castor Oil". Archived from the original on 2006-07-15. Retrieved 2006-07-25. The site contains a large set of resources on castor oil and many other oils, particularly those used to make biodiesel. Botanical Garden of Indian Republic (BGIR) (April 5, 2004). "Database of Oil Yielding Plants" (PDF). Botanical Survey of India. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-21. Retrieved 2010-10-19. List of about 300 plants that grow in India, and that yield oil. Also includes common names in languages spoken in India. Macmillan, H.F. (1989). "Oils and Vegetable Fats". Handbook of Tropical Plants. Herbdata New Zealand. ISBN 978-81-7041-177-2. Archived from the original on 2011-07-21. Old reference with basic information on an unusually large variety of plant oils. Ashurst, P. R. (1999). Food Flavorings. Springer. ISBN 978-0-8342-1621-1. Retrieved 2014-10-05. Comprehensive information on


id: list-of-viscosities-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_viscosities-0.md
category: reference
title: List of viscosities
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_viscosities
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:35.037462+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-viscosities-20260505-0
summary:
Dynamic viscosity is a material property which describes the resistance of a fluid to shearing flows. It corresponds roughly to the intuitive notion of a fluid's 'thickness'. For instance, honey has a much higher viscosity than water. Viscosity is measured using a viscometer. Measured values span several orders of magnitude. Of all fluids, gases have the lowest viscosities, and thick liquids have the highest. There is evidence of solid flow as result of Brownian motion in condition of extremes such as high temperature, high pressure, and extremely long time scales as theorized for the motion of the Earth's solid metal core. The values listed in this article are representative estimates only, as they do not account for measurement uncertainties, variability in material definitions, or non-Newtonian behavior. Kinematic viscosity is dynamic viscosity divided by fluid mass density. This page lists only dynamic viscosity. == Units and conversion factors == For dynamic viscosity, the SI unit is Pascal-second. In engineering, the unit is usually Poise or centiPoise, with 1 Poise = 0.1 Pascal-second, and 1 centiPoise = 0.01 Poise. For kinematic viscosity, the SI unit is m^2/s. In engineering, the unit is usually Stoke or centiStoke, with 1 Stoke = 0.0001 m^2/s,


id: list-of-water-miscible-solvents-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_water-miscible_solvents-0.md
category: reference
title: List of water-miscible solvents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_water-miscible_solvents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:36.279272+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-water-miscible-solvents-20260505-0
summary:
The following compounds are liquid at room temperature and are completely miscible with water; they are often used as solvents. Many of them are hygroscopic. == Organic compounds == == Inorganic compounds == == See also == Category:Alcohol solvents == External links == Solvent miscibility table [1] Diethylenetriamine [2] Hydrazine [3]


id: women-in-chemistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_chemistry-0.md
category: reference
title: Women in chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:37.588580+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of women chemists. It should include those who have been important to the development or practice of chemistry. Their research or application has made significant contributions in the area of basic or applied chemistry. == Nobel laureates == Source: 1911 – Marie Sklodowska-Curie – discovery of radium & polonium 1935 – Irène Joliot-Curie – artificial radioactivity 1964 – Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin – protein crystallography 2009 – Ada E. Yonath – structure & function of the ribosome 2018 – Frances Arnold – directed evolution to engineer enzymes 2020 – Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna – for CRISPR gene editing 2022 - Carolyn R. Bertozzi - for bioorthogonal chemistry Eight women have won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (listed above), awarded annually since 1901 by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Marie Curie was the first woman to receive the prize in 1911, which was her second Nobel Prize (she also won the prize in physics in 1903, along with Pierre Curie and Henri Becquerel – making her the only woman to be award two Nobel prizes). Her prize in chemistry was for her "discovery of the elements radium and polonium, by the isolation of radium and the


id: women-in-chemistry-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_chemistry-1.md
category: reference
title: Women in chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:37.588580+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
=== 20th century === Elly Agallidis (1914–2006), Greek physical chemist Nancy Allbritton, American analytical and biochemist Marianne Angermann (1904-1977), German-Spanish-New Zealand biochemist Valerie Ashby, American chemist Barbara Askins (born 1939), American chemist Kim K. Baldridge, American computational chemist Alice Ball (1892–1916), American chemist Carolyn Bertozzi (born 1966), American biochemist Cynthia Burrows, American physical organic chemist Asima Chatterjee (1917–2006), Indian organic chemist Astrid Cleve (1875–1968), Swedish chemist Mildred Cohn (1913–2009), American chemist Janine Cossy (born 1950), French organic chemist Maria Skłodowska-Curie (1867–1934), Polish-French physicist and chemist (discoverer of polonium and radium, pioneer in radiology); Nobel laureate in physics 1903, and in chemistry 1911 Jillian Lee Dempsey (born 1983), American chemist Vy M. Dong, American organic chemist Abigail Doyle (born 1980), American organic chemist Odile Eisenstein (born 1949), French, theoretical chemist Gertrude B. Elion (1918–1999), American biochemist (Nobel prize in Physiology or Medicine 1988 for drug development) Margaret Faul, Irish/American organic chemist Mary Peters Fieser (1909–1997), American organic chemist Marye Anne Fox (1947–2021), American physical organic chemist Rosalind Franklin (1920–1957), British physical chemist and crystallographer Helen Murray Free (1923–2021), American chemist Gunda I. Georg, German-trained medicinal chemist, professor of medicinal chemistry in the US Ellen Gleditsch (1879–1968), Norwegian radiochemist Paula T. Hammond


id: women-in-chemistry-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_chemistry-2.md
category: reference
title: Women in chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:37.588580+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
=== 21st century === Heather C. Allen, American chemist whose research focuses air-liquid interfaces Rommie Amaro, American chemist focusing on development of computational methods in biophysics for applications to drug discovery. Emily Balskus, American organic and biological chemist, and microbiologist. Recipient of the 2020 Alan T. Waterman Award for her work on understanding the chemistry of metabolic processes. Professor at Harvard University. Natalie Banerji, Swiss chemist and Professor of Chemistry at the University of Bern who studies organic and hybrid materials using ultrafast spectroscopies. Jane P. Chang, chemical engineer, materials scientist and professor at UCLA known for her research developing advanced atomic layer deposition (ALD) and etching techniques with applications in microelectronics and energy storage devices. Sherry Chemler, American Organic Chemist. Professor University at Buffalo. ACS Cope Scholar Award recipient (2017). Paulette Clancy, British chemist focusing on computational and machine learning methods, particularly chemistry-informed Bayesian optimization, to model the behavior of semiconductor materials. Sheila Hobbs DeWitt, American chemist. Chair, President, CEO, Cofounder of DeuteRx which has developed PXL065 a Deuterated drug. ACS Kathryn C. Hach Award for Entrepreneurial Success (2025). She is a pioneer of Combinatorial Chemistry. Elena Galoppini, Italian chemist and professor at Rutgers University–Newark whose research focuses on


id: list-of-yttrium-compounds-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_yttrium_compounds-0.md
category: reference
title: List of yttrium compounds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_yttrium_compounds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:38.884803+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-yttrium-compounds-20260505-0
summary:
This list of yttrium compounds shows compounds of yttrium. Inclusion criteria: those that have applications, academic significance, single crystal structures or have their own Wikipedia articles. == References ==


id: glossary-of-climate-change-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change-0.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:40.546594+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
This glossary of climate change is a list of definitions of terms and concepts relevant to climate change, global warming, and related topics. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) use tens of acronyms and initialisms in documents relating to climate change policy. == 0–9 == 100,000-year problem The apparent discrepancy between the climate response and the forcing from the amount of incoming solar radiation. == A == adaptation Any adjustment in natural or human systems in response to a changing or changed climate. additionality In the context of a project funded by carbon offsets, the additionality is the reduction in greenhouse gas emissions that is in addition to what would have resulted in the absence of the carbon offset funding. albedo An index of the "reflectiveness" of a surface; a way of quantifying how much radiation is reflected back, as opposed to absorbed. Objects or surfaces with low albedo (closer to 0) absorb most of the radiation directed toward them, and those with high albedo (closer to 1) reflect most of it. anoxic event A period when the Earth's oceans have no oxygen below the surface layer. Antarctic bottom


id: glossary-of-climate-change-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change-1.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:40.546594+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
climate change feedback A natural phenomenon that may increase or decrease the warming that eventually results from a change in radiative forcing. climate change mitigation approaches to limit global warming, primarily by the substitution of fossil fuels with low-carbon sources of energy climate commitment How much future warming is "committed", even if greenhouse gas levels do not rise, due to thermal inertia, mainly of the oceans. Climate crisis Term used to show a sense of emergency and urgency about climate change. climate cycle See climate oscillation. climate ethics An area of research that focuses on the ethical dimensions of climate change. climate forcing Also called radiative forcing - an energy imbalance imposed on the climate system either externally or by human activities. climate inertia The tendency of a climate system to resist changes. climate justice A term used for viewing climate change as an ethical issue, and considering how its causes and effects relate to social and political concepts of justice. climate legislation Legislation dealing with regulation of greenhouse gas emissions. climate model An imperfect representation of a climate system that is constructed, validated, studied, and often improved upon in order to gain a knowingly limited amount of useful information.


id: glossary-of-climate-change-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change-2.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:40.546594+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
global dimming The observed decrease in surface insolation, that may have recently reversed. global warming (GW) Usually: the warming trend over the past century or so; also: any period in which the temperature of the Earth's atmosphere increases; also the theory of such changes. global warming controversy Socio-political issues surrounding the theory of global warming. global warming denial See climate change denial. global warming period Any period in which the temperature of the Earth's atmosphere increases. global warming potential A measure of how much a given mass of greenhouse gas is estimated to contribute to global warming. greenhouse debt greenhouse effect greenhouse gas Any gas that causes or contributes to greenhouse effect. greenhouse gas inventory A type of emission inventory that includes greenhouse gas emissions from source categories as well as removal by carbon sinks. Gulf Stream A powerful, warm, and swift Atlantic Ocean current that originates in the Gulf of Mexico, exits through the Strait of Florida, and follows the eastern coastlines of the United States and Newfoundland before crossing the Atlantic Ocean. GCM General circulation model or global climate model GFDL Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory GHG Greenhouse gas GWP Global warming potential == H == historical temperature record


id: glossary-of-climate-change-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change-3.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:40.546594+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
polar amplification Greater temperature increases in the Arctic than in the earth as a whole is a result of the collective effect of positive feedback loops and other processes. Despite its name, polar amplification only applies to the Arctic, and not to the Antarctic, because the Southern Ocean acts as a heat sink. polar city A proposed human refuge located in northern regions of the Earth, and in Tasmania, New Zealand, and Antarctica, where people might have to live in order to survive major global warming "events" in the far distant future. Also dubbed "Lovelock Retreats". proxy A variable that can be related to one of interest (e.g. tree rings can be proxies for temperature variations). == R == radiative forcing A quantifiable driver of change to Earth's energy balance. regime shift removal unit A tradable carbon credit or "Kyoto unit" representing an allowance to emit one tonne of greenhouse gases absorbed by a removal or carbon sink activity in an Annex I country. runaway greenhouse effect A somewhat ill-defined term associated with the idea of large irreversible temperature rises. RCP Representative Concentration Pathway REDD Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation mechanisms use market/financial incentives to reduce the emission


id: index-of-climate-change-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_climate_change_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of climate change articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_climate_change_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:41.722626+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-climate-change-articles-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of climate change topics. == 0-9 == 100% renewable energy - 100,000-year problem - 1500-Year climate cycle - 4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference == A == Abrupt climate change - The Age of Stupid - Albedo - An Inconvenient Truth - An Inconvenient Book - Antarctica cooling controversy - Antarctic Bottom Water - Antarctic Cold Reversal - Antarctic oscillation - Anthropocene extinction - Arctic amplification - Arctic Climate Impact Assessment - Arctic geoengineering - Arctic shrinkage - Arctic oscillation - Atlantic oscillation - Arctic Climate Impact Assessment - Arctic methane release - Arctic sea ice decline - Arctic shrinkage - Argo (oceanography) - ARkStorm - Athabasca oil sands - Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation - Atmospheric circulation - Atmospheric sciences - Atmospheric window - Attribution of recent climate change - Aviation and climate change - Aviation and the environment - Avoiding dangerous climate change == B == Bali Communiqué - Bali Road Map - Bezos Earth Fund - Biochar - Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage - Bio-geoengineering - Black carbon - Blytt–Sernander system - Broad spectrum revolution - Business action on climate change == C == Callendar effect - Cap and Share - Carbon bubble


id: index-of-climate-change-articles-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_climate_change_articles-1.md
category: reference
title: Index of climate change articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_climate_change_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:41.722626+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-climate-change-articles-20260505-0
summary:
== S == Sahara pump theory - Satellite temperature measurements - Scientific opinion on climate change - Scientific consensus - Scientific skepticism - Sea level rise - Shutdown of thermohaline circulation - Sixth extinction - Slash and burn - Snowball Earth - Solar Radiation Management - Solar shade - Solar variation - Space sunshade - Stratospheric Particle Injection for Climate Engineering - Stratospheric sulfur aerosols - Stratospheric sulfur aerosols (geoengineering) - Sunspot - Surveys of scientists' views on climate change - Sustainable energy == T == Table of Historic and Prehistoric Climate Indicators - Temperature record of the past 1000 years - Temperature record since 1880 - Thermohaline circulation - Timeline of glaciation - TEX-86 - Thermocline - The Deniers - The Great Global Warming Swindle - The Republican War on Science - Timeline of environmental history - Tipping point (climatology) == U == Urban heat island - UN climate change conference 2009 - The Uninhabitable Earth == W == Warming stripes - Waste heat - Water World - West Antarctic Ice Sheet - World climate research programme - World Climate Report == Y == Yamal Peninsula == See also == Glossary of climate change Scientific opinion on climate change


id: list-of-areas-depopulated-due-to-climate-change-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_areas_depopulated_due_to_climate_change-0.md
category: reference
title: List of areas depopulated due to climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_areas_depopulated_due_to_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:43.016588+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-areas-depopulated-due-to-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
This article lists several areas, regions, and municipalities that have either been completely or markedly depopulated, or are involved in plans for depopulation or relocation due to anthropogenic climate change. Several factors created or worsened by climate change can be responsible for necessitating managed retreat or the relocation of people and/or infrastructure. These include rising sea levels, increased flooding risk, changes to the makeup of the land (e.g. a habitable area becoming a wetland), coastal erosion, increased susceptibility to dangerous cyclones, droughts, water shortages, wildfires, and other factors, all of which can overlap with each other to enhance the risk of danger or inhabitability of a formerly populated region. The lists contain a general number of the number of people moved or at risk of being moved due to climate change-related causes, as well as rough dates for when programs to relocate were first created or for when a climate disaster first caused significant forcible displacement of a population. == Lists == === Completely depopulated === === Significantly impacted === == Gallery == == See also == Climate migration Environmental migrant Extreme event attribution Great Filter Managed retreat List of landmarks destroyed or damaged by climate change == References ==


id: list-of-climate-change-books-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_change_books-0.md
category: reference
title: List of climate change books
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_change_books
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:44.352085+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-climate-change-books-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of climate change books that describe, as a major theme, the effects of human activity on climate change. == Non-fiction == Non-fiction is an account or representation of a subject that is presented as fact. This presentation may be accurate or not; that is, it can give either a true or a false account of the subject in question. However, it is generally assumed that the authors of such accounts believe them to be truthful at the time of their composition. == Fiction == == See also == Climate change in literature List of environmental books == References == Books on Global Warming, Climate Change Books, Climate Change Education.org


id: list-of-countries-by-carbon-dioxide-emissions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions-0.md
category: reference
title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:45.541574+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-countries-by-carbon-dioxide-emissions-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity, based on the EDGAR database created by the European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency. The following table lists the annual CO2 emissions estimates (in kilotons of CO2 per year) for the year 2023, as well as the change from the year 2000. The data only consider carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture, but not emissions from land use, land-use change and forestry. Over the last 150 years, estimated cumulative emissions from land use and land-use change represent approximately one-third of total cumulative anthropogenic CO2 emissions. Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures, which can make a large difference for small countries with important ports. In 2023, global GHG emissions reached 53.0 GtCO2eq (without Land Use, land Use Change and Forestry). The 2023 data represent the highest level recorded and experienced an increase of 1.9% or 994 MtCO2eq compared to the levels in 2022. The majority of GHG emissions consisted of fossil CO2 accounting for 73.7% of total emissions. China, the United States, India, the European Union,


id: list-of-countries-by-carbon-intensity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_carbon_intensity-0.md
category: reference
title: List of countries by carbon intensity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_carbon_intensity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:58.513210+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-countries-by-carbon-intensity-20260505-0
summary:
The following list of countries by carbon intensity of GDP sorts countries by their emission intensity. Carbon intensity or emission intensity of GDP is a measure that evaluates the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions produced per unit of GDP. It provides an indication of how efficiently an economy uses carbon-based resources to generate economic output. A lower carbon intensity indicates that less CO2 is emitted to produce a given level of economic output, indicating a more carbon-efficient economy. == List == === Countries === Countries by carbon intensity of GDP. Carbon intensity is measured by CO2 emissions in kilograms per International dollar (US dollar adjusted for purchasing power parity) of economic output. Data are for the year 2022. === World regions and income groups === == Historical development == Development of CO2 emissions in kilograms per international dollar of economic output in major countries over time. == References ==


id: list-of-climate-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of climate scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:59.767558+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-climate-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
This list of climate scientists contains famous or otherwise notable persons who have contributed to the study of climate science. The list is compiled manually, so will not be complete, up to date, or comprehensive. The list includes scientists from several specialities or disciplines. == A == Waleed Abdalati, American, director of Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Studies, former chief scientist of NASA Nerilie Abram (1977–), Australian paleoclimatologist, at Australian National University Ernest Afiesimama, Nigerian weatherman, former senior associate of the International Centre for Theoretical Physics Myles Allen, head of the Climate Dynamics group at University of Oxford's Atmospheric, Oceanic and Planetary Physics Department. Lead author, IPCC Third Assessment Report. Review editor, Fourth Assessment Report. Richard Alley (1957–), Penn State College of Earth and Mineral Science, American, Earth's cryosphere and global climate change. Kevin Anderson, Director of the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research and is an adviser to the British Government on climate change. James Annan, British climatologist with Blue Skies Research, UK Julie Arblaster, Australian climatologist at The Centre for Australian Weather and Climate Research in CSIRO David Archer, American professor of oceanography at University of Chicago Svante Arrhenius (1859–1927), Swedish, greenhouse effect == B == Sallie


id: list-of-climate-scientists-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_scientists-1.md
category: reference
title: List of climate scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:59.767558+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-climate-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
== H == Joanna Haigh, (1954–), British, co-director of Grantham Institute at Imperial College London, solar variability Edmund Halley, published a map of the trade winds in 1686 after a voyage to the southern hemisphere Gordon Hamilton, (1966–2016), Scottish, Associate Research Professor, Climatology Group, of the University of Maine James E. Hansen (1941–), American, planetary atmospheres, remote sensing, numerical models, and global warming Kenneth Hare OC FRSC (1919–2002), Canadian climatologist Klaus Hasselmann, German oceanographer and climate modeller, founding director of the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology Ed Hawkins MBE, British climate scientist at University of Reading, and designer of data visualization graphics Katharine Hayhoe, Canadian, Atmospheric science, global climate models. Gabriele C. Hegerl (1963–), Professor of Climate System Science at the University of Edinburgh School of GeoSciences. Isaac Held, German-American atmospheric physicist, researcher at GFDL Ann Henderson-Sellers (1952–), Australian, climate change risk evaluation Ellie Highwood, Professor of Climate Physics at the University of Reading David A. Hodell, (1958–), British paleoclimatologist, professor at Cambridge University Ove Hoegh-Guldberg, Australian oceanographer at University of Queensland Greg Holland, Australian meteorology researcher at NCAR Brian Hoskins, British climatologist and professor at University of Reading John T. Houghton (1931–2020), British, atmospheric physics, remote sensing Malcolm K.


id: list-of-climate-scientists-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_scientists-2.md
category: reference
title: List of climate scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:59.767558+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-climate-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
== M == Michael MacCracken (1942–), American, chief scientist at the Climate Institute in Washington, DC Gordon J. F. MacDonald (1929–2002), American physicist who developed one of the first computational models of climate change, and was an early advocate for governmental action Jerry D. Mahlman (1940–2012), American meteorologist and climatologist and a pioneer in the use of computational models of the atmosphere to examine the interactions between atmospheric chemistry and physics László Makra (1952–), Hungarian climatologist. Full professor. His main research area is pollen climatology and, within this, analysis of climatological relationships of ragweed pollen, as well as relationship between ragweed pollen concentration and respiratory diseases. Syukuro Manabe (1931–), American, professor Princeton University, pioneered the use of computers to simulate global climate change and natural climate variations Gordon Manley (1902–1980), English, Central England temperature (CET) series Michael E. Mann (1965–), American, professor of meteorology and director, Earth System Science Center, Penn State U. David Marshall, British physical oceanographer at the University of Oxford. Valerie Masson-Delmotte, French climate scientist with a focus on paleoclimatology at the Climate and Environment Sciences Laboratory (LSCE) Gordon McBean, Canadian, boundary layer research, hydrometeorology and environmental impact research, and weather forecasting James J. McCarthy, American professor


id: list-of-climate-scientists-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_scientists-3.md
category: reference
title: List of climate scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:59.767558+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-climate-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
== S == Murry Salby, American atmospheric and climate scientist Jim Salinger, New Zealand climatologist Dork Sahagian, Armenian-American, Lehigh University Marie Sanderson (1921–2010), Canadian geographer and climatologist Ben Santer (1955–), climatologist at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Nicola Scafetta (1975–), Italian astronomer and climate scientist Hans Joachim Schellnhuber (1950–), German climatologist, was an author for the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change David Schindler, Canadian-American environmental chemist, professor of ecology at University of Alberta Michael Schlesinger, American professor of Atmospheric Sciences at UIUC William H. Schlesinger (1950–), American biogeochemist, former Dean of the Nicholas School at Duke University Gavin A. Schmidt, American climatologist and climate modeler at the NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS) Stephen H. Schneider (1945–2010), American, Professor of Environmental Biology and Global Change at Stanford University Daniel P. Schrag (1966–), American, Professor of Geology at Harvard University and Director of the Harvard University Center for the Environment Stephen E. Schwartz (1941–), American, chemistry of air pollutants, radiative forcing of aerosols on climate Tom Segalstad (1949–), Norwegian geochemist Wolfgang Seiler (1940–), German climatologist at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology John H. Seinfeld, American atmospheric chemist at California Institute of Technology Mark Serreze (1960–), American


id: list-of-climate-engineering-topics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_engineering_topics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of climate engineering topics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_engineering_topics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:01.290388+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-climate-engineering-topics-20260505-0
summary:
Climate engineering geoengineering topics related to greenhouse gas remediation include: == Solar radiation management == Solar radiation management Stratospheric aerosol injection (climate engineering) Marine cloud brightening Cool roof Space sunshade Stratospheric Particle Injection for Climate Engineering == Carbon dioxide removal == Carbon dioxide removal Biochar Bio-energy with carbon capture and storage Direct air capture Ocean fertilization Enhanced weathering === Other greenhouse gas remediation === Greenhouse gas removal CFC laser photochemistry == Other projects == Arctic geoengineering Cirrus Cloud Thinning Sea ice refreezing == References == == External links == An interactive Geoengineering Map prepared by ETC Group and the Heinrich Boell Foundation


id: list-of-countries-by-carbon-dioxide-emissions-per-capita-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions_per_capita-0.md
category: reference
title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions per capita
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions_per_capita
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:02.419261+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-countries-by-carbon-dioxide-emissions-per-capita-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of sovereign states and territories by per capita carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity, based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission. The following table lists the annual per capita CO2 emissions estimates (in kilotons of CO2 per year) for the year 2023, as well as the change from the year 2000. The data only considers carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture, but not emissions from land use, land-use change and forestry Over the last 150 years, estimated cumulative emissions from land use and land-use change represent approximately one-third of total cumulative anthropogenic CO2 emissions. Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures, which can make a large difference for small countries with important ports. Measures of territorial-based emissions, also known as production-based emissions, do not account for emissions embedded in global trade, where emissions may be imported or exported in the form of traded goods, as it only reports emissions emitted within geographical boundaries. Accordingly, a proportion of the CO2 produced and reported in Asia and Africa is for the production of goods consumed in Europe and North


id: list-of-countries-by-greenhouse-gas-emissions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions-0.md
category: reference
title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:04.175224+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-countries-by-greenhouse-gas-emissions-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of sovereign states and territories by greenhouse gas emissions due to certain forms of human activity, based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission. The following table lists the 1970, 1990, 2000, 2010, 2020, 2021, 2022, and 2023 annual GHG emissions estimates (in kilotons of CO2 equivalent per year) along with a list of calculated emissions per capita (in metric tons of CO2 equivalent per year). The data include carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide from all sources, including agriculture and land use change. They are measured in carbon dioxide-equivalents over a 100-year timescale. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 6th assessment report finds that the "Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU)" sector on average, accounted for 13–21% of global total anthropogenic GHG emissions in the period 2010–2019. Land use change drivers net AFOLU CO2 emission fluxes, with deforestation being responsible for 45% of total AFOLU emissions. In addition to being a net carbon sink and source of GHG emissions, land plays an important role in climate through albedo effects, evapotranspiration, and aerosol loading through emissions of volatile organic compounds. The IPCC report finds that the LULUCF sector offers significant near-term mitigation potential


id: list-of-countries-by-greenhouse-gas-emissions-per-capita-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions_per_capita-0.md
category: reference
title: List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions per capita
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions_per_capita
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:05.691490+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-countries-by-greenhouse-gas-emissions-per-capita-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of sovereign states and territories by per capita greenhouse gas emissions due to certain forms of human activity, based on the EDGAR database created by European Commission. The following table lists the 1970, 1990, 2000, 2010, 2020, 2021, 2022 and 2023 annual per capita GHG emissions estimates (in metric tons of CO2 equivalent per year). The data include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) from all sources, including agriculture and land use change. They are measured in carbon dioxide-equivalents over a 100-year timescale. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 6th assessment report finds that the "Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU)" sector on average, accounted for 13–21% of global total anthropogenic GHG emissions in the period 2010–2019. Land use change drivers net AFOLU CO2 emission fluxes, with deforestation being responsible for 45% of total AFOLU emissions. In addition to being a net carbon sink and source of GHG emissions, land plays an important role in climate through albedo effects, evapotranspiration, and aerosol loading through emissions of volatile organic compounds. The IPCC report finds that the LULUCF sector offers significant near-term mitigation potential while providing food, wood and other renewable resources as


id: list-of-periods-and-events-in-climate-history-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_periods_and_events_in_climate_history-0.md
category: reference
title: List of periods and events in climate history
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_periods_and_events_in_climate_history
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:06.859116+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-periods-and-events-in-climate-history-20260505-0
summary:
The list of periods and events in climate history includes some notable climate events known to paleoclimatology. Knowledge of precise climatic events decreases as the record goes further back in time. The timeline of glaciation covers ice ages specifically, which tend to have their own names for phases, often with different names used for different parts of the world. The names for earlier periods and events come from geology and paleontology. The marine isotope stages (MIS) are often used to express dating within the Quaternary. == Before 1 million years ago == Scale: Millions of years before present, earlier dates approximate. == Pleistocene == All dates are approximate. "(B-S)" means this is one of the periods from the Blytt-Sernander sequence, originally based on studies of Danish peat bogs. == Holocene == All dates are BC (BCE) and approximate. "(B-S)" means this is one of the periods from the Blytt-Sernander sequence, originally based on studies of Danish peat bogs. === Common Era/AD === Climate changes of 535-536 (535–536 AD), sudden cooling and failure of harvests, perhaps caused by volcanic dust 900–1300 Medieval Warm Period, wet in Europe, arid in North America, may have depopulated the Great Plains of North America, associated


id: india-climate-collaborative-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_Climate_Collaborative-0.md
category: reference
title: India Climate Collaborative
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_Climate_Collaborative
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:08.099902+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: india-climate-collaborative-20260505-0
summary:
India Climate Collaborative (ICC) is an initiative undertaken by philanthropists from India to understand the challenges posed by climate change and find solutions for climate crisis. Planning began in 2018, and the initiative was launched in January 2020. == Context == The primary objective of the collective is to establish an India-only climate narrative and identify solutions for the harsh effects of climate change. It will be a platform for "diverse voices, innovative solutions, and collective investments." In 2018, India ranked 5th among 181 countries as a nation with the highest number of deaths triggered by climate change. == Participants == Individual philanthropists include Ratan Tata, Rohini Nilekani, Nadir Godrej, Anand Mahindra, Aditi Premji, Rishad Premji, Vidya Shah, and Hemendra Kothari. The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), Centre for Science & Environment, Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology & the Environment, Centre for Policy Research, Indian School of Business, World Resources Institute, Shakti Sustainable Energy Foundations, People's Archive for Rural India (PARI), Swades Foundation, Indian Development Review (IDR), SELCO, and Oxford University are some of the academic and research organisations associated with the collective. Shloka Nath of Tata Trusts is the Executive Director. == References == == External links ==


id: list-of-climate-change-initiatives-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_change_initiatives-0.md
category: reference
title: List of climate change initiatives
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_change_initiatives
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:09.486632+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-climate-change-initiatives-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of climate change initiatives of international, national, regional, and local political initiatives to take action on climate change (global warming). A Climate Action Plan (CAP) is a set of strategies intended to guide efforts for climate change mitigation. == International initiatives == Climate target#Global climate targets United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Kyoto Protocol International Carbon Action Partnership Global Environment Facility Muslim Seven Year Action Plan on Climate Change Paris Agreement Plant-based action plan Conference of Parties === Europe === === North America === == National initiatives == == Local initiatives == === United Kingdom === Of the 397 councils in the United Kingdom, 337 have a climate action plan. === United States === ==== Detroit ==== One of the more recent climate action plans is the 2019 Sustainability Action Agenda is a climate strategy plan created by the city of Detroit that emerged from gradual 12-year planning process of multiple efforts moving towards a more sustainable city. The action plan focuses on 4 main categories: Transitioning to clean energy through a 3-year target to reach 50% solar power to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Icreasing sustainable mobility geared towards improving public transportation, transition to electric


id: list-of-parties-to-the-kyoto-protocol-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_parties_to_the_Kyoto_Protocol-0.md
category: reference
title: List of parties to the Kyoto Protocol
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_parties_to_the_Kyoto_Protocol
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:10.770336+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-parties-to-the-kyoto-protocol-20260505-0
summary:
As of June 2013, there are 192 parties to the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, which aims to combat global warming. This total includes 191 states (189 United Nations member states as well as the Cook Islands and Niue) and one supranational union (the European Union). Canada renounced the protocol effective 15 December 2012 and ceased to be a member from that date. With the Protocol's 2008-2012 commitment period expiring, the Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol was agreed to, which establishes new commitments for the period 2013–2020. As of October 2020, 147 states have accepted this amendment. == Parties == Signing is optional, indicating an intention to ratify the Protocol. Ratification means that a state is legally bound by the provisions of the treaty. For Annex I parties (e.g. a developed state or one with an 'economy in transition') this means that it has agreed to cap emissions in accordance with the Protocol. Iceland was the 55th state to ratify, fulfilling the first condition for coming-into-force. With Russia's ratification the "55 percent of 1990 carbon dioxide emissions of the Parties included in Annex I" clause was satisfied and the treaty was brought into


id: list-of-landmarks-destroyed-or-damaged-by-climate-change-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_landmarks_destroyed_or_damaged_by_climate_change-0.md
category: reference
title: List of landmarks destroyed or damaged by climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_landmarks_destroyed_or_damaged_by_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:11.979628+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-landmarks-destroyed-or-damaged-by-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of significant natural or man-made landmarks that have been destroyed or damaged as a direct result or byproduct of anthropogenic climate change, such as by increased sea levels, exceptional rainfall or 100-year flooding, wildfires, and other exceptional natural disasters specifically linked to anthropogenic climate change. == List == === Destroyed === === Damaged === == See also == Cultural heritage sites at risk from climate change List of areas depopulated due to climate change List of destroyed heritage List of World Heritage in Danger == References ==


id: list-of-large-scale-temperature-reconstructions-of-the-last-2-000-years-20260505-0
category: reference
title: List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:13.320493+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-large-scale-temperature-reconstructions-of-the-last-2-000-years-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years-0.md

summary:
This list of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years includes climate reconstructions which have contributed significantly to the modern consensus on the temperature record of the past 2,000 years. The instrumental temperature record only covers the last 150 years at a hemispheric or global scale, and reconstructions of earlier periods are based on climate proxies. In an early attempt to show that climate had changed, Hubert Lamb's 1965 paper generalised from temperature records of central England together with historical, botanical, and archeological evidence to produce a qualitative estimate of temperatures in the North Atlantic region. Subsequent quantitative reconstructions used statistical techniques with various climate proxies to produce larger-scale reconstructions. Tree ring proxies can give an annual resolution of extratropical regions of the northern hemisphere and can be statistically combined with other sparser proxies to produce multiproxy hemispherical or global reconstructions. Quantitative reconstructions have consistently shown earlier temperatures below the temperature levels reached in the late 20th century. This pattern as seen in Mann, Bradley & Hughes 1999 was dubbed the hockey stick graph, and as of 2010 this broad conclusion was supported by more than two dozen reconstructions, using various statistical methods and combinations of proxy records, with

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years


id: list-of-large-scale-temperature-reconstructions-of-the-last-2-000-years-20260505-1
category: reference
title: List of large-scale temperature reconstructions of the last 2,000 years
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:13.320493+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-large-scale-temperature-reconstructions-of-the-last-2-000-years-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years-1.md

summary:
Pollack and Smerdon (2004) [also in AR4] Moberg et al. (2005) [also in AR4] D'Arrigo, Wilson & Jacoby (2006) [also in AR4] Frank, Esper & Cook (2007) "Adjustment for proxy number and coherence in a large-scale temperature reconstruction". Hegerl et al. (2007) "Detection of human influence on a new, validated 1500–year temperature reconstruction". Juckes et al. 2007 "Millennial temperature reconstruction intercomparison and evaluation". Loehle & McCulloch (2008) "Correction to: A 2000-year global temperature reconstruction based on non-tree ring proxies". Mann et al. 2008 "Proxy-based reconstructions of hemispheric and global surface temperature variations over the past two millennia". Mann et al. 2009 "Global Signatures and Dynamical Origins of the Little Ice Age and Medieval Climate Anomaly". Ljungqvist 2010 "A New Reconstruction of Temperature Variability in the Extra-Tropical Northern Hemisphere During the Last Two Millennia". Christiansen & Ljungqvist 2012 "The extra-tropical Northern Hemisphere temperature in the last two millennia: Reconstructions of low-frequency variability". Leclercq & Oerlemans (2012) "Global and Hemispheric temperature reconstruction from glacier length fluctuations". Shi et al. 2013 "Northern Hemisphere temperature reconstruction during the last millennium using multiple annual proxies". === Further reconstructions === Smith et al. 2006 "Reconstructing hemispheric-scale climates from multiple stalagmite records". Lee, Zwiers & Tsao 2008

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_large-scale_temperature_reconstructions_of_the_last_2,000_years


id: list-of-ministers-of-climate-change-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ministers_of_climate_change-0.md
category: reference
title: List of ministers of climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ministers_of_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:14.635831+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ministers-of-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
A list of ministers of climate change or officials in charge of cabinet positions with portfolios dealing primarily with climate change and issues related to mitigation of global warming. == A == === Australia === See Australian list of ministers for climate change === Austria === == B == === Belgium === See also Belgian minsters of mobility (transport) who later included it in their portfolio == C == === Canada === == D == === Denmark === See Ministry of Climate, Energy and Utilities == E == === European Union === See List of commissioners == F == === Finland === See List of ministers of the environment and climate change === France === == G == === Germany === === Greece === == I == === Ireland === === India === === Italy === == L == === Luxembourg === == M == === Malaysia === === Malta === == N == === Netherlands === === New Zealand === === Niue === === Norway === == P == === Pakistan === === Portugal === == R == === Romania === == S == === Scotland === === Spain === === Sweden === == U == === United Kingdom


id: speeches-of-greta-thunberg-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speeches_of_Greta_Thunberg-0.md
category: reference
title: Speeches of Greta Thunberg
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speeches_of_Greta_Thunberg
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:15.893643+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: speeches-of-greta-thunberg-20260505-0
summary:
Swedish climate activist Greta Thunberg has been noted for her skills as an orator. Her speech at the 2019 United Nations climate summit made her a household name. Prior to her speaking engagements, Thunberg had demonstrated outside the Swedish parliament, the Riksdag, using the signage Skolstrejk för klimatet (School strike for climate). == List of speeches == === November 2018: TEDxStockholm === On 24 November 2018, she spoke at TEDxStockholm. She spoke about realizing, when she was eight years old, that climate change existed and wondering why it was not headline news on every channel, as if there was a world war going on. She said she did not go to school to become a climate scientist, as some suggested, because the science was done and only denial, ignorance, and inaction remained. Speculating that her children and grandchildren would ask her why they had not taken action in 2018 when there was still time, she concluded with "we can't change the world by playing by the rules, because the rules have to be changed." === December 2018: COP24 === Thunberg addressed the COP24 United Nations climate change summit on 4 December 2018, and also spoke before the plenary assembly on


id: speeches-of-greta-thunberg-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speeches_of_Greta_Thunberg-1.md
category: reference
title: Speeches of Greta Thunberg
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speeches_of_Greta_Thunberg
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:15.893643+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: speeches-of-greta-thunberg-20260505-0
summary:
=== 20 September 2019: Global Climate Strike (New York City) === On 20 September 2019, Thunberg spoke to New York City's contingent of the Global Climate Strike. The demonstration in New York City was one of hundreds around the world with millions of people taking part. Young people were joined by adults for the first time since the strikes began. Thunberg drew laughter when she described how the politicians that she met asked her for selfies and "tell us they really, really admire what we do yet have done nothing to address the climate crisis." === 23 September 2019: United Nations Climate Action Summit – "How dare you!" === On 23 September 2019, Thunberg addressed the assembled world leaders at the 2019 UN Climate Action Summit held in New York City. Accusing world leaders of stealing her dreams and her childhood by their inaction on climate change, she opened her speech to the General Assembly with an impassioned introduction, which was widely covered by the media. "This is all wrong. I shouldn’t be up here. I should be back in school on the other side of the ocean. Yet you all come to us young people for hope? How dare


id: list-of-u-s-states-and-territories-by-carbon-dioxide-emissions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions-0.md
category: reference
title: List of U.S. states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:17.259708+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-u-s-states-and-territories-by-carbon-dioxide-emissions-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of U.S. states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions for energy use, as well as per capita and by area. The state with the highest total carbon dioxide emissions is Texas and the lowest is Vermont. The state with the highest per capita carbon dioxide emissions is Wyoming and the lowest is New York. == Table == == See also == Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions Top contributors to greenhouse gas emissions == References == == External links == Energy-Related Carbon Dioxide Emissions by State, 2000-2015


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-0.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:18.647589+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
The contributions of women in climate change have received increasing attention in the early 21st century. Feedback from women and the issues faced by women have been described as "imperative" by the United Nations and "critical" by the Population Reference Bureau. A report by the World Health Organization concluded that incorporating gender-based analysis would "provide more effective climate change mitigation and adaptation." Many studies have documented the gender gap in science and investigated why women are not included or represented, particularly at higher levels of research. Despite significant progress, female scientists continue to endure discrimination, unequal pay, and funding inequities, according to a special report published in the journal Nature in 2013. It also states that 70 percent of men and women around the world regard science as a male endeavor. Women encounter hurdles due to their family obligations, and they are underrepresented in publications and citations. == Overview == Women have made major contributions to climate change research and policy and to broader analysis of global environmental issues. They include many women scientists as well as policy makers and activists. Women researchers have made significant contributions to major scientific assessments such as those of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-1.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:18.647589+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
== Arguments for women in science and climate change == It is argued that when women are overlooked as scholars and decision makers the world fails to take advantage of its full human capacity, which is needed for issues as urgent as climate change. Women may also take more collaborative approaches, especially in negotiations, and may pay more attention to disadvantaged groups and to the natural environment. Gender has become an issue because of women's essential roles in managing resources such as water, forests and energy and as women lead fights for environmental protection. A general concern has been expressed about the need to highlight the work of women and to include more women in major committees in order to provide gender balance, social justice, and inspiration to young women to enter careers in science. This reflects more general arguments about the barriers to women's advancement and the need for women to "Lean in" to leadership positions. Another argument focuses on the effects climate change on reproductive health. It was not until recently that these issues were discovered and brought to light however, they are currently affecting many women all around the world and in turn will eventually have population


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-2.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:18.647589+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
== Women working in climate change == There are a variety of ways to identify women who have made major contributions to climate change. The first is the list of authors of the high level international assessments for the UN and other organizations such as the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The second is to examine women who have been invited to join the editorial boards of climate change refereed journals. A third is to look at the membership of the global change committees of the International Council for Science (ICSU). And a fourth is to recognize women that are members of their National Academy of Sciences who work on climate change. Many of them are IPCC or other report authors, and also members of ICSU committees, members of their National Academy and other marks of accomplishment. Seven cities around the world have appointed women as Chief Heat Officers (CHOs) to take action against extreme heat due to climate change. In February 2024, the EIB Group established the Women Climate Leaders Network, bringing together 47 women leaders from the commercial sector from all 27 EU Member States, to collaborate on innovative


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-3.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:18.647589+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
== The Greta Thunberg effect == Greta Thunberg has been credited with inspiring young girl to take more action on climate change, which has become known as the "Greta Thunberg effect." Thunberg is well known for her work on fighting climate change, and is seen as a role model for younger girls. These new generations of girls are being called "eco-warriors", they are taking actions for the environment in various ways. In Kazakhstan, a group of young girls named Team Coco have come together to fight the ecological problems that pollute their nation, in order to accomplish this they have created an app known as TECO which is an "augmented reality game that merges educational and entertainment tools to help players change their behavior and become more eco-conscious". More girls have been taking action against climate change by using technology, and in turn help encourage other political leaders to take action for climate change and business corporations to reduce the carbon foot print they leave behind. == Women climate researchers == Following is a comprehensive list of women researchers in the climate change field. Note that not all women researchers have their individual Wikipedia pages that showcase their work (red


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-4.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:18.647589+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
Ibidun Adelekan: Associate Professor in the Department of Geography at University of Ibadan, Nigeria. Her research focuses on climate-society interactions, human dimensions of global environmental change, vulnerability and resilience of human-environment systems to climate change. She is a lead author of the IPCC AR6 and a contributing author to the IPCC AR5 - Africa Chapter. Carolina Adler: Executive Director of Mountain Research Initiative (MRI), Switzerland where she oversees the work of the MRI coordination office, promotes global change research agenda and supports regional and thematic collaborations across mountain communities worldwide. She is an Environmental Scientist and Geographer by background and has vast experience in international career, both in public and private sector. She is a lead author of the IPCC Special Report on Ocean and Cryosphere and Working Group II of IPCC AR6. Paulina Aldunce: Associate Professor of the Department of Environmental Science and Natural Resources and the Deputy Director of the Center of Disaster Risk Reduction, CITRID at University of Chile, Chile. Her research interests include the social and institutional dimension of disaster management and climate change, with a focus on adaptation, resilience, transformation, and local and community management. She is a leading author of three IPCC reports including


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-5.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:18.647589+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
She is a lead author of the IPCC AR6 Working Group I: The Physical Science Basis. She completed her PhD from University of Oxford in Atmospheric, Oceanic and Planetary Physics. Noemí Chacón: Researcher at Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas (IVIC), Venezuela. She is a lead author of the IPCC AR6 report. Elizabeth Chatterjee: She is an Environmental Historian expert. She works with a focus on energy histories,specifically in India. She wrote one book called Electric Democracy about the history of India's energy- centered transformation over time and is currently working on her second book about worldwide energy and environmental crises starting from the 1970s. She is currently teaching at the University of Chicago. Lynette Cheah: Associate Professor at Singapore University of Technology and Design, Singapore. She leads the Sustainable Urban Mobility research group to reduce environmental impacts of passengers and urban freight transport. Her expertise lies in transport modeling and simulation, life cycle energy and environmental assessment of products and systems, and urban metabolism. She is a review editor of the IPCC AR6. Ying Chen: Professor at Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS) Graduate School and a Senior Research Fellow at Institute for Urban and Environmental Studies (IUE), CASS, China.


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-6.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:18.647589+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
She is also a visiting lecturer at United Nations University - Institute for the Advanced Study of Sustainability. Her research focuses on sustainable development, governance, disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation. Currently, she is a fellow of the Earth System Governance Network and is a lead author of IPCC AR6. Fatima Driouech: Associate Professor and the Executive Coordinator of the Adaptation Metrics and Techniques Cluster at the Mohammed VI Polytechnic University, Morocco. Her research interests include climate variability, regional climate modeling and climate science. Previously, she was the Head of the Meteorological Research Center of the Moroccan Meteorology and the National Climate Centre. She was also Vice-Chair of Working Group I of the IPCC and she was lead author of the fifth IPCC report. For the recent IPCC AR6, she serves as a review editor. She is currently acting as co-coordinator of MedECC, the independent network of Mediterranean Experts on Climate and environmental Change. Opha Pauline Dube: Professor of Environmental Science, University of Botswana. Dube has expertise in sustainable development, community-inclusive environmental management, and climate change adaptation. She is an IPCC contributing author. Carolina Dubeux: Social Scientist and a Senior Researcher at the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro,


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-7.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:18.647589+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
Jacobs is a full professor in Soil, Water and Environmental Science at the University of Arizona. From 2009 - 2013 Jacobs served as director of the U.S. National Climate Assessment and Assistant Director, Energy and Environment Division, Office of Science and Technology Policy, Executive Office of the President, USA. Jill Jager (Williams): Independent Scholar, former executive director of the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change (IHDP) (1999 until 2002) and senior researcher at the Sustainable Europe Research Institute (SERI), Austria (2004 until 2008). She studies research themes ranging from energy and climate, biodiversity, global responsibility, public and stakeholder participation, integrating policies to linkages between knowledge and action for sustainable development. Hui Ju: Based at the Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, China. Her research includes studying wheat quality, drought characteristics and impacts of climate change on evapotranspiration in the Huang-Huai-Hai plain in China. She is a lead author of the IPCC AR6. Suzana Kahn Ribeiro: Professor at COPPE, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. She researches renewable energy, climate change, urban mitigation alternatives and sustainable mobility. She is the coordinator of UFRJ Green Fund and the president of the Scientific


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-8.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:18.647589+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
Diana Liverman: Professor of Geography and Development and formerly co-director of the Institute of the Environment at the University of Arizona USA and expert on the human dimensions of climate change. IPCC author. ICSU. Emma Liwenga: Senior Lecturer at the Institute of Resource Assessment, University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Her research focuses on agriculture, food and livelihood security, natural resource management and climate change adaptation. She was an author of the IPCC Special Report on Land and Climate Change and currently serves as a coordinating lead author of IPCC AR6 report. Jane Lubchenco: Professor of environmental science and marine ecology at Oregon State University. Former Administrator of NOAA and Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere (2009-2013). Her research interests include interactions between the environment and human well-being, biodiversity, climate change, and sustainable use of oceans and the planet. Nominated by President Obama in December 2008 as part of his "Science Dream Team". Amanda Lynch: Professor of Earth, Environmental and Planetary Sciences at Brown University and the founding director of the Institute at Brown for Environment and Society. She is an expert in polar climate system modelling, indigenous environmental knowledge and climate policy analysis. She is a Fellow


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-9.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:18.647589+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
Her research focuses on strengthening science, policy and practice alignment/interface for optimal land use, infrastructure provision and environmental management. Soojeong Meong: Senior Research Fellow at Korea Environment Institute, Korea. She is a review editor of the IPCC AR6 report. Sarah Myhre: climate and ocean scientist with expertise in the physical, biological, and chemical consequences of abrupt climate warming. A Ph.D. holder from the University of California at Davis, and has worked as a research associate at the University of Washington's School of Oceanography. She is a Kavli Fellow with the National Academy of Science. Sasha Naidoo: Researcher at the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, South Africa. Her expertise lies in forest, wood anatomy, silviculture, wood science, climate change and environmental science. She is a lead author of the IPCC AR6 report. Sunita Narain: Director general of the India-based Centre for Science and Environment and the director of the Society for Environmental Communications and publisher of the bimonthly magazine, Down To Earth. She is an influential environmental activist with interests in democracy at different scales, climate change, and natural resource management.


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-10.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:18.647589+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
Gemma Terersa Narisma: Executive Director of the Manila Observatory, Philippines and the Head of the Regional Climate Systems programme from 2017 - 2021. She was also an associate professor of the Physics Department at Ateneo de Manila University. She served as a coordinating lead author of the IPCC AR6 Working Group I. Grace Ngaruiya: Head of the Ecology and Conservation Biology Section and a Lecturer in the Department of Plant Sciences at Kenyatta University, Kenya. She is also an IPCC AR6 lead author. Her research is focused on the relationship between climate change and Africa's heritage. Isabelle Niang: Professor at the University of Chiekh Anta Diop in Dakar. An expert in coastal erosion and climate change; coordinating lead author of the chapters on "Afrique du Groupe de travail II" for IPCC, in the 4th and 5th reports. Since 2008, she has been coordinating regional project ACCC (Adaptation au Changements Climatiques et Côtiers en Afrique de l'Ouest) and is based in BREDA/UNESCO. She is also Chair of the Pan-African Regional Committee for START (PACOM) through the Pan-African START Secretariat (PASS) based at the Institute for Resource Assessment (IRA) of the University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Andrea J. Nightingale: Professor of


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-11.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:18.647589+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
There is a give and take from each side that cannot be passed without consequences. She founded Doughnut Economics Action Lab which works to bring communities around the country to work within these donut rings. Maureen Raymo: Paleoclimatologist and marine geologist. Interim Director of the Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory. She is the G. Unger Vetlesen Professor of Earth & Environmental Sciences and the director of the Lamont–Doherty Core Repository. She is best known for the Uplift-Weathering Hypothesis. Katherine Richardson Christensen: Professor in Biological Oceanography at the University of Copenhagen's Sustainability Science Center. She was one of the main organizers of the scientific conference, "Climate Change: Global Risks, Challenges and Decisions," which sought to inform the 2010 United Nations Climate Change Conference. She studies carbon cycling in the upper ocean and how biological processes impact food webs. She also researches planetary boundaries. Maisa Rojas: Associate Professor at the Department of Geophysics, University of Chile, Chile. Her research interests include paleoclimate study of the evolution and dynamics of the climate system in the southern hemisphere over the last 25,000 years, regional climate modeling and climate change impacts on different sectors of society. She contributed to IPCC's work during the 5th Assessment Report as


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-12.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:18.647589+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
Susan Solomon: Ellen Swallow Richards Professor of Atmospheric Chemistry & Climate Science known for her work on atmospheric chemistry and ozone and for leading the IPCC 4th assessment report on climate science. Member US National Academy of Sciences. She won the Volvo Environment and Blue Planet prizes. Anna Amelia Sörensson: Researcher at the Center for Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences (CIMA / CONICET-UBA), Argentina. Her research interests include climate change, climate modeling and variability, hydrology and precipitation. In the latest IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, she is serving as a coordinating lead author of Working Group I - Chapter 10: Linking global to regional climate change. Tannecia Stephenson: Senior Lecturer/Professor of Physics at The University of West Indies, Jamaica. Her research focuses on climate variability and seasonal prediction, climate extremes, climate change impacts and solar energy. She is a lead author of the IPCC AR6 report - Working Group I. Nicole Stevens: Ecologist and Trapnell Fellow at Environmental Change Institute, University of Oxford, UK. She is also affiliated with Stellenbosch University, South Africa. Her work examines the impact of global change on non-forested ecosystems in Africa and seeks to understand the mechanisms that shape plant distribution ranges. She is a lead author


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-13.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:18.647589+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
Kirsten Zickfeld: Associate Professor at Simon Fraser University, Canada, working on the effects of anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols on climate on centennial to millennial timescales. Gina Ziervogel: Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental and Geographical Science at the University of Cape Town, South Africa. Her research interests include climate change adaptation and resilience across scales, multi-level governance of urban adaptation, and social justice. She is a lead author of the IPCC AR6 report. Zinta Zommers: Mercy Corp's Head of the Zurich Flood Resilience Alliance and is a Rhodes and Commonwealth Scholar from Latvia. Her work experience includes providing support to the United Nations' Secretary-General's support team during the Paris Negotiation with the United Nations Environment and Food and Agriculture Organization, advising the United States' Government and the Government of Sierra Leone and co-editing a book on early warning systems for climate change. She is a review editor of the IPCC AR6. Zhiyan Zuo: Professor in the Department of Atmospheric and Ocean Sciences, Fudan University, China. She was formerly a researcher at the Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences. Her research focuses on land-atmosphere interaction, climate change, extreme events and asian monsoon. She currently serves as a lead


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-14.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:18.647589+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
== Women climate change policy makers and activists == Franny Armstrong: British documentary film director known for films including The Age of Stupid, a reflection from 2055 about climate change. She founded the carbon reduction campaign 10:10 in 2009. Gro Harlem Brundtland: Former prime minister of Norway and author of the Brundtland report on Sustainable Development who has served on countless international committees on the environment. Kotchakorn Voraakhom: Thai landscape architect, public green space campaigner, Echoing Green Climate Fellow and chief executive officer of Porous City Network. She is also the founder of the Koungkuey Design Initiative. Helen Clark: Administrator of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and the 37th Prime Minister of New Zealand (1999-2008). Clark's government implemented several major economic initiatives including the New Zealand Emissions Trading Scheme. Sheila Watt-Cloutier: Canadian Inuit activist who has focused on persistent organic pollutants and global warming, among other issues. Christiana Figueres: Costa Rican diplomat who has served in negotiations over climate change instruments since 1995. She became the Executive Secretary of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 2010. She was the founder of the Global Optimism group and was also the head of the UN climate change convention


id: lists-of-colors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_colors-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of colors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_colors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:20.337490+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-colors-20260505-0
summary:
These are the lists of colors; List of colors: A–F List of colors: G–M List of colors: N–Z List of colors (alphabetical) List of colors by shade List of color palettes List of Crayola crayon colors List of RAL colours List of X11 color names == See also == Index of color-related articles List of dyes Web colors


id: list-of-colors-alphabetical-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_colors_(alphabetical)-0.md
category: reference
title: List of colors (alphabetical)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_colors_(alphabetical)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:21.620540+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-colors-alphabetical-20260505-0
summary:
The following list shows a compact version of the colors in the list of colors A–F, G–M, and N–Z articles. The list shows the color swatch and its name. Hovering over the color box shows the HSV, RGB, and #hex values for the color in the tool tip. All values and conversions are in the sRGB color space, which is an inappropriate assumption for some entries. == RGB color list == == List of colors == === A === === B === === C === === D === === E === === F === === G === === H === === I === === J === === K === === L === === M === === N === === O === === P === === Q === === R === === S === === T === === U === === V === === W === === X === === Y === === Z === == See also == List of colors by shade == External links ==


id: list-of-colors-a-f-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_colors:_A–F-0.md
category: reference
title: List of colors: A–F
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_colors:_A–F
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:23.037745+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-colors-a-f-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of colors. A number of the color swatches below are taken from domain-specific naming schemes such as X11 or HTML4. RGB values are given for each swatch because such standards are defined in terms of the sRGB color space. It is not possible to accurately convert many of these swatches to CMYK values because of the differing gamuts of the two spaces, but the color management systems built into operating systems and image editing software attempt such conversions as accurately as possible. The HSV (hue, saturation, value) color space values, also known as HSB (hue, saturation, brightness), and the hex triplets (for HTML web colors) are also given in the following table. Some environments (like Microsoft Excel) reverse the order of bytes in hex color values (i.e. to "BGR"). Colors that appear on the web-safe color palette—which includes the sixteen named colors—are noted. (Those four named colors corresponding to the neutral greys have no hue value, which is effectively ignored—i.e., left blank.) == Colors in alphabetical order A–F == == See also == == References == Citations Sources


id: list-of-colors-g-m-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_colors:_G–M-0.md
category: reference
title: List of colors: G–M
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_colors:_G–M
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:24.634233+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-colors-g-m-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of colors. A number of the color swatches below are taken from domain-specific naming schemes such as X11 or HTML4. RGB values are given for each swatch because such standards are defined in terms of the sRGB color space. It is not possible to accurately convert many of these swatches to CMYK values because of the differing gamuts of the two spaces, but the color management systems built into operating systems and image editing software attempt such conversions as accurately as possible. The HSV (hue, saturation, value) color space values, also known as HSB (hue, saturation, brightness), and the hex triplets (for HTML web colors) are also given in the following table. Some environments (like Microsoft Excel) reverse the order of bytes in hex color values (i.e. to "BGR"). Colors that appear on the web-safe color palette—which includes the sixteen named colors—are noted. (Those four named colors corresponding to the neutral greys have no hue value, which is effectively ignored—i.e., left blank.) == Colors in alphabetical order G–M == == See also == == References == Frery, A. C.; Melo, C. A. S.; Fernandes, R. C. (13 October 2000). "Web-based Interactive Dynamics for Color Models


id: list-of-colors-n-z-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_colors:_N–Z-0.md
category: reference
title: List of colors: N–Z
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_colors:_N–Z
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:26.067987+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-colors-n-z-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of colors. A number of the color swatches below are taken from domain-specific naming schemes such as X11 or HTML4. RGB values are given for each swatch because such standards are defined in terms of the sRGB color space. It is not possible to accurately convert many of these swatches to CMYK values because of the differing gamuts of the two spaces, but the color management systems built into operating systems and image editing software attempt such conversions as accurately as possible. The HSV (hue, saturation, value) color space values, also known as HSB (hue, saturation, brightness), and the hex triplets (for HTML web colors) are also given in the following table. Some environments (like Microsoft Excel) reverse the order of bytes in hex color values (i.e. to "BGR"). Colors that appear on the web-safe color palette—which includes the sixteen named colors—are noted. (Those four named colors corresponding to the neutral greys have no hue value, which is effectively ignored—i.e., left blank.) == Colors in alphabetical order N–Z == == See also == == References == Frery, A. C.; Melo, C. A. S.; Fernandes, R. C. (13 October 2000). "Web-based Interactive Dynamics for Color Models


id: list-of-chicken-colours-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chicken_colours-0.md
category: reference
title: List of chicken colours
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chicken_colours
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:27.382045+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chicken-colours-20260505-0
summary:
Breeders and fanciers of chickens accurately describe the colours and patterns of the feathers of chicken breeds and varieties. This is a list of the terms used in this context. == Self == Self-coloured chickens are those which display one solid colour without patterning of any kind. == Barred and cuckoo == == Columbian, belted == == Duckwing == == Laced == == Pencilled == == Mottled, spangled, mille fleur == == Black-tailed == == Black-breasted == == Others == == References ==


id: list-of-crayola-crayon-colors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Crayola_crayon_colors-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Crayola crayon colors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Crayola_crayon_colors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:28.784961+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-crayola-crayon-colors-20260505-0
summary:
Since the introduction of Crayola drawing crayons by Binney & Smith in 1903, more than 200 colors have been produced in a wide variety of assortments. The table below represents all of the colors found in regular Crayola assortments from 1903 to the present. Since the introduction of fluorescent crayons in the 1970s, the standard colors have been complemented by a number of specialty crayon assortments, represented in subsequent tables. == Standard colors == == Specialty crayons == Along with the regular packs of crayons, there have been many specialty sets, including Silver Swirls, Gem Tones, Pearl Brite Crayons, Metallic FX Crayons, Magic Scent Crayons, Silly Scents, and more. === Fluorescent crayons === In 1972, Binney & Smith introduced eight Crayola fluorescent crayons, designed to fluoresce under black light. The following year, they were added to the 72-count box, which had previously contained two of the eight most-used colors, in place of the duplicate crayons. These crayons remained steady until 1990, when all eight were renamed, and eight more were added, for a total of 16 fluorescent crayons. One of the new colors, Hot Magenta, shared a name with one of the original colors, now Razzle Dazzle Rose. For some


id: list-of-crayola-crayon-colors-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Crayola_crayon_colors-1.md
category: reference
title: List of Crayola crayon colors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Crayola_crayon_colors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:28.784961+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-crayola-crayon-colors-20260505-0
summary:
In 2001, Crayola produced Metallic FX Crayons, a set of 16 metallic crayons whose names were chosen through a contest open to residents of the U.S. and Canada. The hex triplets below are representative of the colors produced by the named crayons. In 2019, an updated version was released under its original name of Metallic Crayons, adding eight more metallic colors for a total of 24. The original 16 colors are included in the special 152-count Ultimate Crayon Collection pack alongside 120 standard and 16 Crayons with Glitter. Four of the colors are included in the regular 96-count crayon box. === Gel FX Crayons === In 2001, Crayola produced Gel FX Crayons. However, it did not contain any color names. Four of the colors are included in the 96-count crayon box alongside four Metallic FX colors and are not included in the 152-count Ultimate Crayon Collection set. The hex triplets below are representative of the colors produced by the named crayons. === Pearl Crayons === In 2019, a 24-count box of Pearl Crayons was released alongside the updated versions of the Metallic Crayons, Neon Crayons, and Crayons with Glitter. === Neon Crayons === In 2019, a new 24 count of


id: equine-coat-color-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equine_coat_color-0.md
category: reference
title: Equine coat color
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equine_coat_color
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:30.019671+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: equine-coat-color-20260505-0
summary:
Horses exhibit a diverse array of coat colors and distinctive markings. A specialized vocabulary has evolved to describe them. While most horses remain the same coat color throughout life, some undergo gradual color changes as they age. Most white markings are present at birth, and the underlying skin color of a healthy horse does not change. Certain coat colors are also associated with specific breeds, such as the Friesian, which is almost exclusively black. The basic outline of equine coat color genetics has largely been resolved, and DNA tests to determine the likelihood that a horse will have offspring of a given color have been developed for some colors. Discussion, research, and even controversy continue about some of the details, particularly those surrounding spotting patterns, color sub-shades such as "sooty" or "flaxen", and markings. == Basic coat colors == The two basic pigment colors of horse hairs are pheomelanin ("red"), which produces a reddish brown color, and eumelanin, which produces black. These two hair pigment genes create two base colors: chestnut, which is fully red, and black, which is fully black. All other coat colors are created by additional genes that modify these two base colors. The most common modifier


id: equine-coat-color-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equine_coat_color-1.md
category: reference
title: Equine coat color
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equine_coat_color
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:30.019671+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: equine-coat-color-20260505-0
summary:
The word "points" is given to the mane, tail, lower legs, and ear rims with respect to horse coloration. The overall name given to a horse's coat color depends on the color of both the points and the body. For example, bay horses have a reddish-brown body with black points. Point coloration is most often produced by the action of the agouti gene. It acts on the extension gene, when present, to suppress black color to all but the extremities of the horse; the legs, mane, tail and tips of the ears. If the extension gene is not present, the effect of agouti is not visible, as there is no black color present to suppress. Other genes, such as those for white markings, may affect a horse's coat color in addition to agouti, and if present, can further alter or suppress black hair color and may mask any point coloration. In particular, Gray horses are born dark and lighten with age; if born bay, they will eventually lose point coloration as the body hair silvers with age, though often the points are the slowest areas of the body to go gray. Point coloration may also be visible on horses with


id: equine-coat-color-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equine_coat_color-2.md
category: reference
title: Equine coat color
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equine_coat_color
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:30.019671+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: equine-coat-color-20260505-0
summary:
Buckskin: A bay horse with one copy of the cream gene, a dilution gene that "dilutes" or fades the coat color to a yellow, cream, or gold while keeping the black points (mane, tail, legs). Palomino: chestnut horse that has one cream dilution gene that turns the horse to a golden, yellow, or tan shade with a flaxen or white mane and tail. Often cited as being a color "of twenty-two carat gold", palominos range in shades from extremely light, almost cremello, to deep chocolate, but always with a white or flaxen mane and tail. Perlino: similar to a cremello, but is genetically a bay base coat with two dilute genes. Eyes are usually blue. Mane, tail and points are not black, but can sometimes be darker than the body coat, generally a reddish or rust color, though not to be confused with a red dun. Smoky black: A horse which visually appears to be only black, but actually has a black base coat and one copy of the cream gene. Smoky Cream: Virtually indistinguishable from a cremello or perlino without DNA testing, a horse with a black base coat and two copies of the cream gene. === Dun ===


id: equine-coat-color-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equine_coat_color-3.md
category: reference
title: Equine coat color
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equine_coat_color
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:30.019671+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: equine-coat-color-20260505-0
summary:
Piebald: a black-and-white (term more commonly used in the UK than the US). This is pinto spotting on top of black. Skewbald: a spotting pattern of white over chestnut or any other color other than black (term more commonly used in the UK than the US). Tricolored: A variation of Skewbald, specifically referring to pinto spotting over a bay base coat or other coat color that features black points. Terminology variations based on the observable shape of the white patterns include: Overo: Describes a group of spotting patterns genetically distinct from one another, characterized by sharp, irregular markings with a horizontal orientation, usually more dark than white. In some cases, the face is usually white, often with blue eyes. The white rarely crosses the back, and the lower legs are normally dark. Variations include "frame overo" and "splashed white". Sabino: Describes a range of spotting patterns characterized by high white on legs, belly spots, white markings on the face extending past the eyes and/or patches of roaning patterns standing alone, or on the edges of white markings. Usually produced by certain dominant white or "white spotting" alleles, though not all sabino patterns have been genetically mapped. Sometimes grouped with the


id: equine-coat-color-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equine_coat_color-4.md
category: reference
title: Equine coat color
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equine_coat_color
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:30.019671+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: equine-coat-color-20260505-0
summary:
== Other colors and modifiers == Brindle: One of the rarest colors in horses, characteristics are any base coat color with "zebralike" stripes, but the most common is a brown horse with faint yellowish markings. Usually linked to chimerism, but one heritable brindle pattern that affects coat texture and color in a family of American Quarter Horses has been named Brindle1 was announced in 2016. Sooty is a proposed genetic modifier not yet mapped that causes dark hairs to be dispersed within the coat, darkening the whole coat with age. Pangaré is a modifier that is the opposite of sooty, it causes individual hairs to lighten, causing lightened areas on the muzzle, flank and belly of a horse. "Flaxen" is used only to describe the lightened mane and tail of a chestnut, and has been proposed as a genetic modifier, particularly when it appears to be a trait of certain breeds. However, the genetic mechanism of this process has yet to be identified. Primitive marking variants sometimes called "bider markings" have been seen in Przewalski's horses and Mongolian horses. == Eye and hoof color == Most horses have brown eyes with minor shade variations. Blue eyes are linked to the


id: list-of-flags-by-color-combination-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination-0.md
category: reference
title: List of flags by color combination
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:32.945849+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-flags-by-color-combination-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of flags of states, territories, former, religious and other geographic entities (plus a few non-geographic flags) sorted by their combinations of dominant colors. Flags emblazoned with seals, coats of arms, and other multicolored emblems are sorted only by their color fields. The color of text is almost entirely ignored. Colors white and gold, related to the two metals of European heraldry (argent and or) are sorted first. The five major colors of European heraldry (black, red, green, blue, and purple) are sorted next. Miscellaneous colors (murrey, tan, grey, and pink) are sorted last. Similar colors are grouped together to make navigation of this list practical. As such, the dark greens prevalent in the Middle East are sorted together with the brighter greens prevalent in Western Europe. Significantly, yellows, golds, and oranges are grouped together as "gold" due to the lack of discrete divisions within this spectrum and the differing standards of interpretation of "gold", which appears in the legally codified specifications of many flags. Some flags, including a number from South Asia, include both a distinct yellow and a distinct orange; these have been noted accordingly. Magenta is included with red. == White == White flag,


id: list-of-flags-by-color-combination-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination-1.md
category: reference
title: List of flags by color combination
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:32.945849+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-flags-by-color-combination-20260505-0
summary:
Alsace, France Apeldoorn, Netherlands Aude, France Barcelona, Spain Białystok, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms) Bielsko-Biała, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms) Carinthia, Austria Columbus, Ohio, United States (with multicolored seal) Free City of Danzig (1920–1939) Dorset, England, United Kingdom Elba, 1814–1815, used during Napoleon Bonaparte's imprisonment Essex, England, United Kingdom Commune of the Working People of Estonia (1918–1919) Gard, France Gdańsk, Poland Greater Poland Voivodeship, Poland Grudziądz, Poland Guernsey (British crown dependency) Haarlem, Netherlands Haute-Garonne, France Hérault, France Inowrocław, Poland Isle of Man (British crown dependency) Jelenia Góra, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms) Jersey (British crown dependency) Lesser Poland Voivodeship, Poland Limburg, Belgium Lincoln, England, United Kingdom Lorraine, former administrative region of France Lot-et-Garonne, France Lublin Voivodeship, Poland Masovian Voivodeship, Poland Middlesex, England, United Kingdom North Ossetia-Alania, Russia Odesa, Ukraine Proszowice, Poland Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, a French region Saint Petersburg, Russia San Diego, United States (with multicolored seal) Santa Barbara, California, United States Sark, one of the British Channel Islands Seine-Maritime, France (with other color symbol) Selangor, Malaysia Sikkim (1967–1975) South Ossetia (de facto state, limited recognition) Świebodzin, Poland Sułkowice, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms) Warmian–Masurian Voivodeship, Poland Westmorland, England, United Kingdom Wolin, Poland York, England, United Kingdom


id: list-of-flags-by-color-combination-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination-2.md
category: reference
title: List of flags by color combination
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:32.945849+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-flags-by-color-combination-20260505-0
summary:
Amapá, Brazil Andorra la Vella, Andorra Apure, Venezuela (with multicolored emblem) Bashkortostan, Russia Bolívar State, Venezuela (with multicolored emblem) Brazil Ceará, Brazil Chaco Province, Argentina (with multicolored emblems) Christmas Island (Australian external territory) Connecticut, United States – with other color symbol Cumbria, England, United Kingdom Derbyshire, England, United Kingdom Duluth, Minnesota, United States Flevoland, Netherlands Formosa Province, Argentina Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil Goiás, Brazil Guárico State, Venezuela (with two multicolored emblems) Janská Janská, Ústí nad Labem Region, Czechia Mato Grosso, Brazil Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil Nairobi, Kenya Nairobi City County, Kenya (with tan symbols) National Renewal Alliance (1964–1985), extinct political party of Brazil Nueva Esparta State, Venezuela Piauí, Brazil Portland, Oregon, United States Portuguesa State, Venezuela Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil Rondônia, Brazil Sergipe, Brazil Solomon Islands Yorkshire, England, United Kingdom === White, gold, green, murrey === Western Province, Sri Lanka === White, gold, green, tan === North Western Province, Sri Lanka === White, gold, blue === Aisne, France Albany, New York, United States (with multicolored seal) Dolphin Flag, used by the unrecognized Republic of Anguilla (1967–1969) Aube, France Australian Capital Territory, Australia Azores (Portuguese autonomous region) (with multicolored coat of arms) Białobrzegi, Poland Bir Tawil Bosnia and Herzegovina Brisbane,


id: list-of-flags-by-color-combination-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination-3.md
category: reference
title: List of flags by color combination
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:32.945849+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-flags-by-color-combination-20260505-0
summary:
=== White, black, murrey === Democratic Republic of Georgia (1918–1921) Georgia (1991–2004) === White, red === Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates Aceh Sultanate (1496–1903) Aichi Prefecture, Japan Ajman, United Arab Emirates Akita Prefecture, Japan Alabama, United States Alsace (Historical), France Amersfoort, Netherlands Antwerp (city), Belgium Árpád stripes, historical flag of House of Árpád Asunción, Paraguay – with other color symbol Atlántico, Colombia Austria Bahrain Bari, Italy Basel-Landschaft, Switzerland Bas-Rhin, France Belarus (1918, 1991–1995) Będzin, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms) Birmingham, Alabama, United States Brandenburg, Germany Brandywine flag, used during the American Revolution Bremen, Germany Breda, Netherlands Brno, Czechia Calgary, Canada California, United States (with multicolored emblem and text) Canada Cantabria, Spain (with multicolored coat of arms) Republic of Central Albania (1913-1914) Chlístovice, Central Bohemian Region, Czechia Chuquisaca Department, Bolivia City of London, England, United Kingdom Cross of Burgundy, historical flag of the Duchy of Burgundy and Spain Denmark District of Columbia, United States Dordrecht, Netherlands Drahobuz, Ústí nad Labem Region, Czechia Dubai, United Arab Emirates Džbánice, South Moravian Region, Czechia Easter Island, Chile Eindhoven, Netherlands Elbląg, Poland England, United Kingdom Florence, Italy Florida, United States – with other color symbol Franconia, Germany Frankfurt (to 1866) – with multicolored coat


id: list-of-flags-by-color-combination-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination-4.md
category: reference
title: List of flags by color combination
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:32.945849+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-flags-by-color-combination-20260505-0
summary:
Adjara, Georgia Alagoas, Brazil (with multicolored coat of arms) Amazonas, Brazil American Samoa, (US insular area) (with multicolor emblem) Anguilla (British overseas territory) – with other color symbol Arkansas, United States Ascension Island (part of the British overseas territory of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha) – with other color symbol Assyrian flag – with other color symbol, two shades of blue or red (may or may not always be included) Australia Bahia, Brazil Bandera del Directorio Revolucionario Estudiantil Bali Kingdom (914–1908) Belize (with multicolored coat of arms) Bermuda (British overseas territory) – with other color symbol Bohol, Philippines British Antarctic Territory (British overseas territory) – with other color symbol British Indian Ocean Territory (British overseas territory) – with other color symbol Bydgoszcz, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms) Cambodia Campania, Italy Carpathian Ruthenia Cayman Islands (British overseas territory) (with multicolored coat of arms) Central Department, Paraguay Chicago, Illinois, United States Chile Chile, 1817 Republic of China (Taiwan and surrounding islands) Choctaw Republic, flag in use 1860–1866 Christian flag Cincinnati, Ohio, United States Cleveland, Ohio, United States – with other color symbol Confederate States of America, 1861–1865, flag in use 1861–1863 Confederate States of America, 1861–1865, flag in use


id: list-of-flags-by-color-combination-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination-5.md
category: reference
title: List of flags by color combination
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:32.945849+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-flags-by-color-combination-20260505-0
summary:
Abruzzo, Italy – with other color symbol Afar Region, Ethiopia (with multicolored emblem) Alpes-Maritimes, France Azerbaijan Aztlán, unofficial flag of Chicano nationalism, with other color symbol Bayelsa State, Nigeria Central Ethiopia Regional State, Ethiopia Chin State, Myanmar (with multicolored emblem) Djibouti Equatorial Guinea – with other color symbol Federal Dependencies of Venezuela The Gambia Groningen (province), Netherlands Guanacaste, Costa Rica Herzegovina-Neretva Canton, Bosnia and Herzegovina – with other color symbol Imbabura Province, Ecuador Lesotho (1966–1987) Mérida, Venezuelan state Nieuwe Republiek (1884–1888, unrecognized) Ogaden, Ethiopia Sakha Republic, Russia Sidama Region, Ethiopia Somali Region, Ethiopia South African Republic (1852–1877 & 1881–1902) Republic of South Maluku (1950–1963) State of Syria, French Mandate for Syria and Lebanon (1925–1930) Uzbekistan === White, blue === Almelo, Netherlands Altai Republic, Russia Antarctic Treaty System Antarctica – Graham Bartram flag Antarctica – True South flag Argentina – with other color symbol Arlon, Belgium Arnhem, Netherlands Ashdod, Israel Assen, Netherlands Basilicata, Italy Bat Yam, Israel Bavaria, Germany Bavaria, Germany Billings, Montana, United States (with multicolored emblem) Bonnie Blue Flag, unofficial flag of the Confederate States of America Brescia, Italy Buffalo, New York, United States (with multicolored emblem) Central America, 1823–1824 (with multicolored coat of arms) Central America, 1824–1839 (with


id: list-of-flags-by-color-combination-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination-6.md
category: reference
title: List of flags by color combination
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:32.945849+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-flags-by-color-combination-20260505-0
summary:
Andalusia, Spain – with other color symbol Anhalt-Bernburg (to 1863) Anhalt-Dessau (to 1863) Anhalt-Köthen (to 1853) Antioquia, Colombia Aomori Prefecture, Japan Bangkok, Thailand Caaguazú, Paraguay Cesar Department, Colombia Coburg, Germany (1918–1920) Comoros (1978–1992) Comoros (1992–1996) Comoros (1996–2001) East Java (1948–1950) Egypt (1922–1958) Esmeraldas Province, Ecuador Esperanto flag Esquintla, Guatemala (with multicolored seal) Gifu Prefecture, Japan Groningen (city), Netherlands Hasselt, Belgium Jaworzno, Poland Kanepi Parish, Estonia Kagawa Prefecture, Japan Kirkcudbrightshire, Scotland, United Kingdom La Guajira, Colombia Lombardy, Italy Los Ríos Province, Ecuador Madura (1948–1950) Meta, Colombia Mie Prefecture, Japan Miyagi Prefecture, Japan Nigeria Norfolk Island (Australian external territory) Pakistan Pando Department, Bolivia Pasundan (1948–1950) Pine Tree Flag, historical flag used during the American Revolution Rhodesia (1968–1979) – with other color symbol Ridderkerk, Netherlands Risaralda Department, Colombia Rotterdam, Netherlands St. Gallen, Switzerland Santa Cruz Department (Bolivia), Bolivia Saudi Arabia Saxe-Altenburg, Germany (1826–1920) Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Germany (1826–1911) Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Germany (1911–1918) Saxe-Gotha, Germany (1918–1920) Saxe-Hildburghausen (to 1826) Saxe-Meiningen, Germany (to 1920) Saxony, Germany Siberia, Russia Stellaland (1883–1885, de facto state, limited recognition) Styria, Austria Sucre, Colombia (with multicolored coat of arms) Tochigi Prefecture, Japan Togo (1958–1960) Tokyo, Japan (Symbol flag) Toyama Prefecture, Japan Vaupés Department, Colombia – two different shades of


id: list-of-flags-by-color-combination-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination-7.md
category: reference
title: List of flags by color combination
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:32.945849+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-flags-by-color-combination-20260505-0
summary:
Socialist Soviet Republic of Abkhazia (1931-1941) The Achaemenid Empire (The Standard of Cyrus the Great) (550-330 BC) Alash Autonomy Albuquerque Amhara Region, Ethiopia Andrychów, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms) Anglesey, Wales, United Kingdom Aragon, Spain (with multicolored coat of arms) Aragua State, Venezuela (with multicolored coat of arms) Aramean-Syriac flag Armenian SSR, Soviet Union (1921–1922) Armenian SSR, TSFSR, Soviet Union (1922–1936) Armenian SSR, Soviet Union (1936–1940) Armenian SSR, Soviet Union (1940–1952) Aveyron, France Azerbaijan SSR, TSFSR, Soviet Union (1924–1927) Azerbaijan SSR, TSFSR, Soviet Union (1927–1931) Azerbaijan SSR, TSFSR, Soviet Union (1931–1937) Azerbaijan SSR, Soviet Union (1937–1940) Azerbaijan SSR, Soviet Union (1940–1952) Azuay, Ecuador Baden, Germany (to 1891) Baden, Germany (1891–1945) (South) Baden, West Germany (1945–1952) Bogotá, Colombia (with multicolored coat of arms) Burgenland, Austria Byelorussian SSR, Soviet Union (1919–1927) Byelorussian SSR, Soviet Union (1927–1937) Byelorussian SSR, Soviet Union (1937–1951) Byzantine Empire (Palaiologos dynasty, c. 1350) Senyera, flag of Catalonia (Spain), Northern Catalonia (France) and Alghero (Italy) People's Republic of China Chuvashia, Russia Dobczyce, Poland Dordogne, France Estonian SSR, Soviet Union (1940–1953) Georgian SSR, Soviet Union (1921–1922) Georgian SSR, Soviet Union (1922–1937) Georgian SSR, Soviet Union (1937–1951) Gmina Garbatka-Letnisko, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms) Gmina Gózd, Poland (with multicolored


id: list-of-flags-by-color-combination-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination-8.md
category: reference
title: List of flags by color combination
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_flags_by_color_combination
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:01:32.945849+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-flags-by-color-combination-20260505-0
summary:
Adelaide, South Australia, Australia (with multicolored emblems) Åland (Finnish autonomous territory) Allier, France Andorra – with other color symbol Arenberg (1803–1810) Arizona, United States – blue, red, gold and copper Armenia Armenian SSR, Soviet Union (1952–1990) Azerbaijan SSR, Soviet Union (1952–1991) Bouches-du-Rhône, France Calvados, France Cañar Province, Ecuador Chad Cieszyn, Poland Colombia Congo-Léopoldville (1963–1966) Congo-Kinshasa (1966–1971) Democratic Republic of the Congo Corrèze, France Cundinamarca Department, Colombia (with multicolored coat of arms) Ecuador (with multicolored coat of arms) Free State of Fiume (1920–1924) Gran Colombia (1821–1831) Great Dayak (1946–1950) Hautes-Alpes, France Kazakh SSR, Soviet Union (1953–1992) Landes, France Łomża, Poland Lozère, France Maine-et-Loire, France Manche, France Mecklenburg, Germany United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia (1859–1862) United Principalities of Romania (1862–1866) Moldova – with other color symbol Mongolia Montgomery County, Maryland, United States New Brunswick, Canada – with other color symbol Normandy, France North Holland, Netherlands Orkney, Scotland, United Kingdom Overijssel, Netherlands Pas-de-Calais, France Płock, Poland Réunion, French overseas department, unofficial Romania Russian SFSR, Soviet Union (1954–1991) Skåne, Sweden Świętochłowice, Poland (with multicolored coat of arms) Turkmen SSR, Soviet Union (1952–1992) Ukrainian SSR, Soviet Union (1950–1991) Valencia, Spain – with other color symbol Var, France South Vietnam, 1975–1976 Waalre, Netherlands West Flanders,


