# kb

id: glossary-of-power-electronics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_power_electronics-1.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of power electronics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_power_electronics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:12.696950+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-power-electronics-20260505-0
summary:
circuit off-state interval The interval during which a controllable valve device or an arm consisting of such devices is in the off state. characteristic (curve) (of a converter) A curve showing the relationship between the values of the output voltage and the values of the output current. commutating voltage The voltage which causes the current to commutate. commutation In a power converter the transfer of current from one conducting arm to the next to conduct in sequence, without interruption of the current, both arms conducting simultaneously during a finite time interval. commutation circuit The circuit consisting of the commutating arms and the source providing the commutating voltage. commutating group A group of principal arms which commutate cyclically among themselves without intermediate commutation of the current to other principal arms. commutation capacitor A capacitor included in the commutation circuit to supply commutating voltage. commutation inductance The resulting inductance in the commutation circuit. commutation interval The time interval in which commutating arms are carrying principal current simultaneously. commutation failure A failure to commutate the current from a conducting arm to the succeeding arm. commutation notch A periodic voltage transient that may appear in the AC side voltage of a line or machine


id: glossary-of-power-electronics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_power_electronics-2.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of power electronics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_power_electronics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:12.696950+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-power-electronics-20260505-0
summary:
DC conversion factor for DC conversion, the ratio of the DC power value on the load side to that on the source side. (electronic) DC (power) conversion Electronic conversion from DC to DC DC filter A filter on the DC side of a converter, designed to reduce the ripple in the associated system. DC form factor The ratio of the rms value to the mean value averaged over a full period of a periodically varying quantity having a non zero DC component. DC power The product of the direct voltage and the direct current (mean values). DC ripple factor The ratio of half the difference between the maximum and minimum value of a pulsating direct current to the mean, value of this current. direct AC/DC converter An electronic AC/DC converter without a DC or AC link. direct AC converter An AC converter without a DC link. direct (power) conversion Electronic conversion without a DC or AC link. direct DC converter DC chopper A DC converter without an AC link. direct commutation A commutation between two principal arms without transfer through any auxiliary arms. direct inverter An inverter without a DC link. direct rectifier A rectifier without a DC or AC


id: glossary-of-power-electronics-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_power_electronics-3.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of power electronics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_power_electronics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:12.696950+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-power-electronics-20260505-0
summary:
indirect (power) conversion Electronic conversion with one or more DC or AC link(s). indirect current link AC converter An AC converter with a current stiff DC link . indirect DC converter A DC converter with an AC link. indirect inverter An inverter with a DC link. indirect rectifier A rectifier with a DC or AC link. indirect voltage link AC converter An AC converter with a voltage stiff DC link. inductive direct voltage regulation The direct voltage regulation due to the commutation inductance(s). influence quantity In the field of power electronics any quantity generally external to a power supply which may affect its performance. inherent delay angle The current delay angle occurring, even without phase control, caused by multiple overlap. inherent direct voltage regulation The direct voltage regulation excluding the effect of the AC system impedance. intermittent flow (of direct current) A flow of direct current which is periodically interrupted. internal discharge device A device incorporated in the capacitor connecting the terminals of the unit, capable of reducing the residual voltage effectively to zero after the capacitor has been disconnected from the supply. internal (element) fuse A device incorporated in the capacitor which disconnects an element or a group of


id: glossary-of-power-electronics-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_power_electronics-4.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of power electronics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_power_electronics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:12.696950+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-power-electronics-20260505-0
summary:
operating temperature (capacitor) The temperature of the hottest point on the case of the capacitor in thermal equilibrium. overpressure disconnector A disconnecting device designed to interrupt the current path in the case of abnormal increase of the internal pressure. == P == pair of antiparallel arms Two valve arms in parallel with opposite conducting directions. pair of arms Two series connected valve arms with the same conducting direction. parallel operation A mode of operation of stabilized power supplies in which all similar output terminals are connected together and arranged so that the total load is shared by all the supplies. phase control factor In the case of phase control, the ratio of the voltage at prevailing current delay angle to the voltage at zero current delay angle, all voltage drops being assumed to be zero. phase converter An AC converter for changing the number of phases. phase control The process of varying the instant within the cycle at which current conduction in an electronic valve device or a valve arm begins. power electronic capacitor A power capacitor intended to be used in power electronic equipment and capable of operating continuously under non-sinusoidal current or voltage. power electronics The field of


id: glossary-of-power-electronics-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_power_electronics-5.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of power electronics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_power_electronics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:12.696950+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-power-electronics-20260505-0
summary:
stabilized power supply In the field of power electronics an equipment which takes electrical energy from a source and supplies it stabilized by means inside the equipment to one or more pairs of output terminals. stage (of a series connection) A part of a series connection of two or more converter connections consisting of one or more parallel connected converter connections. steady-state condition (capacitor) Thermal equilibrium attained by the capacitor at constant output and at constant cooling-air temperature. symmetrical phase control Phase control with equal delay angles in all principal arms of a fully controllable converter connection or commutating group. switched valve device A controllable valve device which may be turned on and off by a control signal. == T == tangent of the loss angle (tanδ) of a capacitor The ratio between the equivalent series resistance and the capacitive reactance of a capacitor at specified sinusoidal alternating voltage and frequency. threshold voltage (of an electronic valve device) The value of the voltage obtained at the intersection of the voltage axis and the straight line approximation of the on-state characteristic of an electronic valve device. transfer factor (of a DC converter) The ratio of the voltage on the load side


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-0.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:15.339434+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of topics that have, either currently or in the past, been characterized as pseudoscience by academics or researchers. Detailed discussion of these topics may be found on their main pages. Criticism of pseudoscience, generally by the scientific community or skeptical organizations, involves critiques of the logical, methodological, or rhetorical bases of the topic in question. Though some of the listed topics continue to be investigated scientifically like psychoanalysis, others were only subject to scientific research in the past and today are considered refuted, but resurrected in a pseudoscientific fashion. Other ideas presented here are entirely non-scientific, but have in one way or another impinged on scientific domains or practices. Many adherents or practitioners of the topics listed here dispute their characterization as pseudoscience. Each section here summarizes the alleged pseudoscientific aspects of that topic. == Physical sciences == === Astronomy and space sciences === 2012 phenomenon – a range of eschatological beliefs that cataclysmic or otherwise transformative events would occur on or around 21 December 2012. This date was regarded as the end-date of a 5,126-year-long cycle in the Mesoamerican Long Count calendar and as such, festivities to commemorate the date took place on 21 December


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-1.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:15.339434+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Earth sciences === Megalithic geometry or 366 geometry – posits the existence of an Earth-based geometry dating back to at least 3500 BCE and the possibility that such a system is still in use in modern Freemasonry. According to proponents, megalithic civilizations in Britain and Brittany had advanced knowledge of geometry and the size of Earth. The megalithic yard is correlated to the polar circumference of Earth using a circle divided into 366 degrees. The Bermuda Triangle – a region of the Atlantic Ocean that lies between Bermuda, Puerto Rico and (in its most popular version) Florida. Ship and aircraft disasters and disappearances perceived as frequent in this area have led to the circulation of stories of unusual natural phenomena, paranormal encounters and interactions with extraterrestrials. Climate change denial – involves denial, dismissal, unwarranted doubt or contrarian views which depart from the scientific consensus on climate change, including the extent to which it is caused by humans, its impacts on nature and human society, or the potential of adaptation to global warming by human actions. Flood geology – creationist form of geology that advocates most of the geologic features on Earth are explainable by a global flood. The Hollow


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-2.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:15.339434+00:00
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parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Agriculture === Lysenkoism, or Lysenko-Michurinism – was a political campaign against genetics and science-based agriculture conducted by Trofim Lysenko, his followers and Soviet authorities. Lysenko served as the director of the Soviet Union's Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences. Lysenkoism began in the late 1920s and formally ended in 1964. The pseudoscientific ideas of Lysenkoism built on Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's concepts of the heritability of acquired characteristics. Lysenko's theory rejected Gregor Mendel's theory of inheritance and the concept of the "gene"; it departed from Darwinian evolutionary theory by rejecting natural selection, viewing that concept as being incompatible with Marxist ideology. Biodynamic agriculture – method of organic farming that treats farms as unified and individual organisms. Biodynamics uses a calendar which has been characterized as astrological. The substances and composts used by biodynamicists have been described as unconventional and homeopathic. For example, field mice are countered by deploying ashes prepared from field mice skin when Venus is in the Scorpius constellation. No difference in beneficial outcomes has been scientifically established between certified biodynamic agricultural techniques and similar organic and integrated farming practices. Biodynamic agriculture lacks strong scientific evidence for its efficacy and has been labeled a pseudoscience because of its overreliance


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-3.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:15.339434+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
The abortion–breast cancer hypothesis posits that having an induced abortion can increase the risk of breast cancer. This hypothesis is at odds with mainstream scientific opinion and is rejected by major medical professional organizations. Access Consciousness is an alternative medicine technique similar to a combination of phrenology, reiki, energy therapies and therapeutic touch, where health and wellness can be improved by touching the 32 "Energy Bars" on a person's head. Acupuncture – use of fine needles to stimulate acupuncture points and balance the flow of qi. There is no known anatomical or histological basis for the existence of acupuncture points or meridians and acupuncture is regarded as an alternative medical procedure. Some acupuncturists regard them as functional rather than structural entities, useful in guiding evaluation and care of patients. Acupuncture has been the subject of active scientific research since the late 20th century and its effects and application remain controversial among medical researchers and clinicians. Some scholarly reviews conclude that acupuncture's effects are mainly attributable to the placebo effect and others find likelihood of efficacy for particular conditions. Dry needling is the therapeutic insertion of fine needles without regard to traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and is similarly controversial. Acupressure is


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-4.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:15.339434+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
There is disputed evidence that it may be effective in combating postoperative nausea and vomiting. Auriculotherapy (also auricular therapy, ear acupuncture, and auriculoacupuncture) is a form of alternative medicine based on the idea that the ear is a micro-system which reflects the entire body, represented on the auricle, the outer portion of the ear. Conditions affecting the physical, mental or emotional health of the patient are assumed to be treatable by stimulation of the surface of the ear exclusively. Similar mappings are used in many areas of the body, including the practices of reflexology and iridology. These mappings are not based on or supported by any medical or scientific evidence and are therefore considered to be pseudoscience. Autistic enterocolitis is a nonexistent medical condition proposed by discredited British gastroenterologist Andrew Wakefield when he suggested a link between a number of common clinical symptoms and signs which he contended were distinctive to autism. The existence of such an enterocolitis has been dismissed by experts as having "not been established". Wakefield's now-retracted and fraudulent report used inadequate controls and suppressed negative findings and multiple attempts to replicate his results have been unsuccessful. Reviews in the medical literature have found no link between


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-5.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:15.339434+00:00
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parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Chromotherapy, sometimes called color therapy, colorology or cromatherapy, is an alternative medicine method which is considered pseudoscience. Chromotherapists claim to be able to use light in the form of color to balance "energy" lacking from a person's body, whether it be on physical, emotional, spiritual, or mental levels. Color therapy is distinct from other types of light therapy, such as neonatal jaundice treatment and blood irradiation therapy, which is a scientifically accepted medical treatment for a number of conditions, and from photobiology, the scientific study of the effects of light on living organisms. French skeptic and lighting physicist Sébastien Point considers LED lamps at domestic radiance to be safe in normal use for the general population; he also pointed out the risk of overexposure to light from LEDs for practices like chromotherapy, when duration and time exposure are not under control. Chronic Lyme disease (not to be confused with Lyme disease) is a generally rejected diagnosis that encompasses "a broad array of illnesses or symptom complexes for which there is no reproducible or convincing scientific evidence of any relationship to Borrelia burgdorferi infection." Despite numerous studies, there is no clinical evidence that "chronic" Lyme disease is caused by a persistent


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-6.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:15.339434+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
The field has been compared to pseudoscience due to irreproducible or contradictory findings, exaggerated claims of usefulness and lack of high quality research protocols. Ear candling, also called ear coning or thermal-auricular therapy, is a pseudoscientific alternative medicine practice claimed to improve general health and well-being by lighting one end of a hollow candle and placing the other end in the ear canal. Medical research has shown that the practice is both dangerous and ineffective and does not functionally remove earwax or toxicants, despite product design contributing to that impression.


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-7.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:15.339434+00:00
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parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Earthing therapy or grounding is a therapy that is claimed to ease pain, provide a better night's sleep, and assist with symptoms of inflammation by being in direct physical contact with the ground or a device connected to electrical ground. Practitioners claim that Earth has an excess of electrons which people are missing due to insulating shoes and ground cover. Being in electrical contact with Earth is claimed to provide the body with those excess electrons, which then act as antioxidants. A 2012 systematic review study showed inconclusive results related to methodological issues across the literature. Subsequently, a 2017 systematic review of the benefits of spending time in forests demonstrated positive health effects, but not enough to generate clinical practice guidelines or demonstrate causality. Electrohomeopathy (or Mattei cancer cure) is a derivative of homeopathy invented in the 19th century by Count Cesare Mattei. The name is derived from a combination of electro (referring to an electric bio-energy content supposedly extracted from plants and of therapeutic value, rather than electricity in its conventional sense) and homeopathy (referring to an alternative medicinal philosophy developed by Samuel Hahnemann in the 18th century). Electrohomeopathy has been defined as the combination of electrical devices and


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-8.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:15.339434+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Systematic reviews of clinical trials of Bach flower solutions have found no efficacy beyond a placebo effect. Iridology – means of medical diagnosis which proponents believe can identify and diagnose health problems through close examination of the markings and patterns of the iris. Practitioners divide the iris into 80–90 zones, each of which is connected to a particular body region or organ. This connection has not been scientifically validated and disorder detection is neither selective nor specific. Because iris texture is a phenotypical feature which develops during gestation and remains unchanged after birth (which makes the iris useful for Biometrics), iridology is all but impossible. Jilly Juice – a potentially dangerous fermented drink that has been claimed to treat a variety of medical conditions. Leaky gut syndrome – in alternative medicine, a proposed condition caused by the passage of harmful substances outward through the gut wall. It has been proposed as the cause of many conditions, including multiple sclerosis and autism, a claim which has been called pseudoscientific. According to the UK National Health Service, the theory is vague and unproven. Some skeptics and scientists say that the marketing of treatments for leaky gut syndrome is either misguided or an


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-9.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:15.339434+00:00
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parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Radionics – means of medical diagnosis and therapy which proponents believe can diagnose and remedy health problems using various frequencies in a putative energy field coupled to the practitioner's electronic device. The first such "black box" devices were designed and promoted by Albert Abrams and were definitively proven useless by an independent investigation commissioned by Scientific American in 1924. The internal circuitry of radionics devices is often obfuscated and irrelevant, leading proponents to conjecture dowsing and ESP as operating principles. Similar devices continue to be marketed under various names, though none is approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration; there is no scientific evidence for the efficacy or underlying premise of radionics devices. The radionics of Albert Abrams and his intellectual descendants should not be confused with similarly named reputable and legitimate companies, products, or medical treatments such as radiotherapy or radiofrequency ablation. Reiki is a form of alternative medicine called energy healing. Reiki practitioners use a technique called palm healing or hands-on healing through which a "universal energy" is said to be transferred through the palms of the practitioner to the patient in order to encourage emotional or physical healing. Reiki is a pseudoscience, and is used as


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-10.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:15.339434+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Research concerning qigong has been conducted for a wide range of medical conditions, including hypertension, pain and cancer, and with respect to quality of life. Most research concerning health benefits of qigong has been of poor quality, such that it would be unwise to draw firm conclusions at this stage. Zang-fu – concept of organs as functional yin and yang entities for the storage and manipulation of qi. These organs are not based in anatomy. Tomatis Method A type of auditory integration training devised by Alfred A. Tomatis and promoted, without supporting evidence, as being of benefit to people with autism. Urine therapy – drinking either one's own undiluted urine or homeopathic potions of urine for treatment of a wide variety of diseases is based on pseudoscience. Promotion of a link between autism and vaccines, in which the vaccines are accused of causing autism-spectrum conditions, triggering them, or aggravating them, has been characterized as pseudoscience. Many epidemiological studies have reported no association between either the MMR vaccine and autism, or thimerosal-containing vaccines and autism. Consequently, the Institute of Medicine has concluded that there is no causal link between either of these varieties of vaccines and autism. Similarly, "vaccine overload", a


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-11.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:15.339434+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Technology === 5G conspiracies and 5G causes coronavirus theories – theory proposing that 5G causes health issues, including COVID-19. == Social sciences == === History === Christ myth theory – A fringe theory that proposes that the historical Jesus did not exist in any capacity whatsoever. While the divinity of Jesus is a matter of religious and philosophical rather than historical debate, Christian and non-Christian scholars of antiquity universally agree that Jesus of Nazareth was a Galilean Jew who lived in the first century, was baptized, and later crucified by Roman authorities. This is based on sources written by historians, scholars, and politicians who lived during the time of Christ. Holocaust denial – Historical revisionist movements associated with Holocaust denial have employed pseudoscientific evidence and conspiracy theories published in intradiegetic pseudo-academic journals and presented at fringe conferences (e.g. misconstruing cyanide residue studies, claiming despite all evidence to the contrary that gas chambers were built after the war). Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry – A fringe theory that postulates that Ashkenazi Jews were primarily, or to a large extent, descended from Khazars, a multi-ethnic conglomerate of mostly Turkic peoples who formed a semi-nomadic khanate in and around the northern and


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-12.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:15.339434+00:00
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parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Psychology === Attachment therapy – common name for a set of potentially fatal clinical interventions and parenting techniques aimed at controlling aggressive, disobedient, or unaffectionate children using "restraint and physical and psychological abuse to seek their desired results." (The term "attachment therapy" may sometimes be used loosely to refer to mainstream approaches based on attachment theory, usually outside the US where the pseudoscientific form of attachment therapy is less known.) Probably the most common form is holding therapy, in which the child is restrained by adults for the purpose of supposed cathartic release of suppressed rage and regression. Perhaps the most extreme, but much less common, is "rebirthing", in which the child is wrapped tightly in a blanket and then made to simulate emergence from a birth canal. This is done by encouraging the child to struggle and pushing and squeezing them to mimic contractions. Despite the practice's name, it is not based on traditional attachment theory and shares no principles of mainstream developmental psychology research. In 2006, it was the subject of an almost entirely critical Taskforce Report commissioned by the American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children (APSAC). Conversion therapy – sometimes called reparative therapy, seeks


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-13.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:15.339434+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
The Center for Applications of Psychological Type claims that the MBTI is scientifically supported, but most of the research on it is done through its own journal, Journal of Psychological Type, raising questions of bias. Results are said to follow the Barnum effect. Neuro-linguistic programming – an approach to communication, personal development, and psychotherapy created in the 1970s. The title refers to a stated connection between the neurological processes ("neuro"), language ("linguistic") and behavioral patterns that have been learned through experience ("programming") and can be organized to achieve specific goals in life. According to certain neuroscientists psychologists and linguists, NLP is unsupported by current scientific evidence, and uses incorrect and misleading terms and concepts. Reviews of empirical research on NLP indicate that NLP contains numerous factual errors, and has failed to produce reliable results for the claims for effectiveness made by NLP's originators and proponents. According to Devilly, NLP is no longer as prevalent as it was in the 1970s and 1980s. Criticisms go beyond the lack of empirical evidence for effectiveness; critics say that NLP exhibits pseudoscientific characteristics, title, concepts and terminology. NLP is used as an example of pseudoscience for facilitating the teaching of scientific literacy at the


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-14.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:15.339434+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Racial theories === Scientific racism – claim that scientific evidence shows the inferiority or superiority of certain races. Aryanism – the claim that there is a distinct "Aryan race" that is superior to other putative races was an important tenet of Nazism and "the basis of the German government policy of exterminating Jews, Gypsies, and other 'non-Aryans.'" Drapetomania was a conjectural mental illness that, in 1851, American physician Samuel A. Cartwright hypothesized as the cause of enslaved Africans fleeing captivity. It has since been debunked as pseudoscience and part of the edifice of scientific racism. Melanin theory – belief founded in the distortion of known physical properties of melanin, a natural polymer, that posits the inherent superiority of dark-skinned people and the essential inhumanity and inferiority of light-skinned people. Turkish History Thesis – the belief that Turks from Central Asia migrated and brought civilization to China, India, the Middle East, and Europe. Eugenics – As a movement, eugenics was associated with pseudoscience including pseudoscientific journals and professional societies. This is to be contrasted with the common and scientifically accepted practice of selective breeding. === Sociology === Alpha and beta male – pseudoscientific terms for men derived from alpha and


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-15.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:15.339434+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Animal mutilations – cases of animals, primarily domestic livestock, with seemingly inexplicable wounds. These wounds have been said to be caused by extraterrestrials, cults, covert government organizations, or cryptids such as el chupacabra, when in fact most such cases were found to be caused by natural predation. An aura or human energy field is, according to New Age beliefs, a colored emanation said to enclose a human body or any animal or object. In some esoteric positions, the aura is described as a subtle body. Psychics and holistic medicine practitioners often claim to have the ability to see the size, color and type of vibration of an aura. In New Age alternative medicine, the human aura is seen as a hidden anatomy that affects the health of a client, and is often understood to be composed of centers of vital force called chakra. Such claims are not supported by scientific evidence and are pseudoscience. When tested under controlled experiments, the ability to see auras has not been shown to exist. Channeling – communication of information to or through a person allegedly from a spirit or other paranormal entity. Crop circles – geometric designs of crushed or knocked-over crops created in


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-16.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:15.339434+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Affirmative prayer is a form of prayer or a metaphysical technique that is focused on a positive outcome, rather than a negative situation. For instance, a person who is experiencing some form of illness would focus the prayer on the desired state of perfect health and affirm this desired intention "as if already happened" rather than identifying the illness and then asking God for help to eliminate it. William James described affirmative prayer as an element of the American metaphysical healing movement that he called the "mind-cure"; he described it as the United States' "only decidedly original contribution to the systemic philosophy of life." What sets affirmative prayer apart from secular affirmations of the autosuggestion type taught by the 19th century self-help author Émile Coué (whose most famous affirmation was "Every day in every way, I am getting better and better") is that affirmative prayer addresses the practitioner to God, the Divine, the Creative Mind, emphasizing the seemingly practical aspects of religious belief. Christian Science is generally considered a Christian new religious movement; however, some have called it "pseudoscience" because its founder, Mary Baker Eddy, used "science" in its name, and because of its former stance against medical science. Also,


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-17
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-17.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:15.339434+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Scientology === Dianetics, a therapeutic technique promoted by Scientology, purports to treat a hypothetical reactive mind. There is no scientific evidence for the existence of an actual reactive mind, apart from the stimulus response mechanisms documented in behaviorist psychology. Narconon and Purification Rundown are Scientology programs that purport to clean the human body of toxins and drugs respectively. Their method consists of very long saunas over many days, extremely large (possibly toxic) doses of vitamins including niacin, and Scientology 'training routines', sometimes including attempts at telekinesis. The programs have been described as "medically unsafe", "quackery" and "medical fraud", while academic and medical experts have dismissed Narconon's educational programme as containing "factual errors in basic concepts such as physical and mental effects, addiction and even spelling". In turn, Narconon has claimed that mainstream medicine is "biased" against it, and that "people who endorse so-called controlled drug use cannot be trusted to review a program advocating totally drug-free living." Narconon has said that criticism of its programmes is "bigoted", and that its critics are "in favor of drug abuse [...] they are either using drugs or selling drugs". === Other === Quantum mysticism – builds on a superficial similarity between certain


id: glossary-of-elementary-quantum-mechanics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_elementary_quantum_mechanics-0.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of elementary quantum mechanics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_elementary_quantum_mechanics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:18.157092+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-elementary-quantum-mechanics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a glossary for the terminology often encountered in undergraduate quantum mechanics courses. Cautions: Different authors may have different definitions for the same term. The discussions are restricted to Schrödinger picture and non-relativistic quantum mechanics. Notation: | x ⟩ {\displaystyle |x\rangle } - position eigenstate | α ⟩ , | β ⟩ , | γ ⟩ . . . {\displaystyle |\alpha \rangle ,|\beta \rangle ,|\gamma \rangle ...} - wave function of the state of the system Ψ {\displaystyle \Psi } - total wave function of a system ψ {\displaystyle \psi } - wave function of a system (maybe a particle) ψ α ( x , t ) {\displaystyle \psi _{\alpha }(x,t)} - wave function of a particle in position representation, equal to ⟨ x | α ⟩ {\displaystyle \langle x|\alpha \rangle } == Formalism == === Kinematical postulates === a complete set of wave functions A basis of the Hilbert space of wave functions with respect to a system. bra The Hermitian conjugate of a ket is called a bra. ⟨ α | = ( | α ⟩ ) † {\displaystyle \langle \alpha |=(|\alpha \rangle )^{\dagger }} . See "bra–ket notation". Bra–ket notation The bra–ket notation is a way


id: glossary-of-elementary-quantum-mechanics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_elementary_quantum_mechanics-1.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of elementary quantum mechanics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_elementary_quantum_mechanics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:18.157092+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-elementary-quantum-mechanics-20260505-0
summary:
Degeneracy See "degenerate energy level". Degenerate energy level If the energy of different state (wave functions which are not scalar multiple of each other) is the same, the energy level is called degenerate. There is no degeneracy in a 1D system. Energy spectrum The energy spectrum refers to the possible energy of a system. For bound system (bound states), the energy spectrum is discrete; for unbound system (scattering states), the energy spectrum is continuous. related mathematical topics: Sturm–Liouville equation Hamiltonian H ^ {\displaystyle {\hat {H}}} The operator represents the total energy of the system. Schrödinger equation The Schrödinger equation relates the Hamiltonian operator acting on a wave function to its time evolution (Equation 1): i ℏ ∂ ∂ t | α ⟩ = H ^ | α ⟩ {\displaystyle i\hbar {\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}|\alpha \rangle ={\hat {H}}|\alpha \rangle } Equation (1) is sometimes called "Time-Dependent Schrödinger equation" (TDSE). Time-Independent Schrödinger Equation (TISE) A modification of the Time-Dependent Schrödinger equation as an eigenvalue problem. The solutions are energy eigenstates of the system (Equation 2): E | α ⟩ = H ^ | α ⟩ {\displaystyle E|\alpha \rangle ={\hat {H}}|\alpha \rangle } ==== Dynamics related to single particle in a potential /


id: glossary-of-elementary-quantum-mechanics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_elementary_quantum_mechanics-2.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of elementary quantum mechanics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_elementary_quantum_mechanics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:18.157092+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-elementary-quantum-mechanics-20260505-0
summary:
Probability density Given the wave function of a particle, | ψ ( x , t ) | 2 {\displaystyle |\psi (x,t)|^{2}} is the probability density at position x {\displaystyle x} and time t {\displaystyle t} . | ψ ( x 0 , t ) | 2 d x {\displaystyle |\psi (x_{0},t)|^{2}\,dx} means the probability of finding the particle near x 0 {\displaystyle x_{0}} . Scattering state The wave function of scattering state can be understood as a propagating wave. See also "bound state". There is a criterion in terms of energy: Let E {\displaystyle E} be the expectation energy of the state. It is a scattering state if and only if E > min ⁡ { V ( r → − ∞ ) , V ( r → + ∞ ) } {\displaystyle E>\operatorname {min} \{V(r\to -\infty ),V(r\to +\infty )\}} . Square-integrable Square-integrable is a necessary condition for a function being the position/momentum representation of a wave function of a bound state of the system. Given the position representation Ψ ( x , t ) {\displaystyle \Psi (x,t)} of a state vector of a wave function, square-integrable means: 1D case: ∫ − ∞ + ∞ | Ψ ( x ,


id: glossary-of-quantum-philosophy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_quantum_philosophy-0.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of quantum philosophy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_quantum_philosophy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:19.473116+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-quantum-philosophy-20260505-0
summary:
This is a glossary for the terminology applied in the foundations of quantum mechanics and quantum metaphysics, collectively called quantum philosophy, a subfield of philosophy of physics. Note that this is a highly debated field, hence different researchers may have different definitions on the terms. == Physics == === Non-classical properties of quantum mechanics === nonseparability See also: entangled Nonlocality Superposition of states See also: Schrödinger's cat === Quantum phenomena === decoherence uncertainty principle See also: Einstein and the quantum entanglement See also: Bell's theorem, EPR paradox and CHSH inequality quantum teleportation superselection rule quantum erasure delayed choice experiment Quantum Zeno effect premeasurement ideal measurement === Suggested physical entities === hidden variables ensemble === Terms used in the formalism of quantum mechanics === Born's rule collapse postulate measurement relative state decoherent histories == Metaphysics == objective and subjective ontic and epistemic intrinsic and extrinsic agnostic Philosophical realism determinism causality empiricism rationalism scientific realism psychophysical parallelism == Interpretations of quantum mechanics == List of interpretations: Bohmian Mechanics de Broglie–Bohm theory consistent histories Copenhagen interpretation conventional interpretation Usually refer to the Copenhagen interpretation. Ensemble Interpretation Everett interpretation See relative-state interpretation. hydrodynamic interpretation Ghirardi–Rimini–Weber theory (GRW theory / GRW effect) many-worlds interpretation many-minds


id: glossary-of-robotics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_robotics-0.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of robotics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_robotics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:20.792976+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-robotics-20260505-0
summary:
Robotics is the branch of technology that deals with the design, construction, operation, structural disposition, manufacture and application of robots. Robotics is related to the sciences of electronics, engineering, mechanics, and software. The following is a list of common definitions related to the Robotics field. == A == Actuator: a motor that translates control signals into mechanical movement. The control signals are usually electrical but may, more rarely, be pneumatic or hydraulic. The power supply may likewise be any of these. It is common for electrical control to be used to modulate a high-power pneumatic or hydraulic motor. Aerobot: a robot capable of independent flight on other planets. A type of aerial robot. Arduino: The current platform of choice for small-scale robotic experimentation and physical computing. Artificial intelligence: is the intelligence of machines and the branch of computer science that aims to create it. Aura (satellite): a robotic spacecraft launched by NASA in 2004 which collects atmospheric data from Earth. Automaton: an early self-operating robot, performing exactly the same actions, over and over. Autonomous vehicle: a vehicle equipped with an autopilot system, which is capable of driving from one point to another without input from a human operator. == B


id: glossary-of-robotics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_robotics-1.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of robotics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_robotics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:20.792976+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-robotics-20260505-0
summary:
== R == Remote manipulator: A manipulator under direct human control, often used for work with hazardous materials. Robonaut: a development project conducted by NASA to create humanoid robots capable of using space tools and working in similar environments to suited astronauts. == S == Sensor fusion:The process of combining data from multiple sensors, such as LiDAR, cameras, global positioning systems (GPS), and inertial measurement units (IMUs), to produce a more accurate and reliable understanding of an environment than using a single sensor alone. It is widely used in robotics and autonomous systems to improve perception, localization, and decision-making. Serial manipulator: an articulated robot or manipulator with a single series kinematic chain of actuators. cf. parallel manipulator. Service robots are machines that extend human capabilities. Servo, a motor that moves to and maintains a set position under command, rather than continuously moving. Servomechanism An automatic device that uses error-sensing negative feedback to correct the performance of a mechanism. Single Point of Control The ability to operate the robot such that initiation or robot motion from one source of control is possible only from that source and cannot be overridden from another source. Slow Speed Control A mode of robot motion


id: glossary-of-sound-laws-in-the-indo-european-languages-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-0.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of sound laws in the Indo-European languages
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:22.560008+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-sound-laws-in-the-indo-european-languages-20260505-0
summary:
The Indo-European language family comprises a vast number of languages and dialects spoken throughout the world today. All of these languages are descended from a common ancestor known as Proto-Indo-European, which scholars estimate was spoken about six thousand years ago. This common ancestor has been reconstructed by historical linguists using the comparative method. Although there is disagreement about the historical relationship of these languages to each other, this glossary uses the neo-traditional model of Indo-European phylogeny which states that the main branches of the family are Albanian, Anatolian, Armenian, Balto-Slavic, Celtic, Germanic, Hellenic, Indo-Iranian, Italic, and Tocharian. This glossary provides a list of sound laws that have been formulated by linguists for the various Indo-European languages. Any sound law which affects any of the major branches of the Indo-European family or more than one descendant language are included. Laws affecting one language may be included if a family has fewer than five members. == Proto-Indo-European or multiple branches == asno law The word-medial sequence *-mn- is simplified after long vowels and diphthongs or after a short vowel if the sequence was tautosyllabic and preceded by a consonant. The *n was deleted if the vocalic sequence following the cluster was accented,


id: glossary-of-sound-laws-in-the-indo-european-languages-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-1.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of sound laws in the Indo-European languages
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:22.560008+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-sound-laws-in-the-indo-european-languages-20260505-0
summary:
(Ancient Greek, Sanskrit, pre-Proto-Tocharian) Also, Graßmann's law; ha-ha rule; breath dissimilation. When an aspirated consonant is followed by another aspirated consonant in same or following syllable, the first consonant loses its aspiration. Examples of pairs affected by this process include Ancient Greek θρίξ (thríx, 'hair') in the nominative case, but τριχός (trikhós) in the genitive case. Hermann Grassmann first proposed this process in 1863 as the second clause of a two-part law. The first clause is now known as the aspirate throwback. The law remained productive after the Greek devoicing of aspirates and /h/, from earlier *s, which behaved as an aspirated stop. This sound change likely also took place at some point between Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Tocharian based on the behavior of *dʰ in word-initial position. A variation of this law was applied to Latin, called the limited Latin Grassman's law, to explain why expected sound changes did not occur to word-initial aspirates, such as *dʰragʰeti ('drags') becoming Latin trahit rather than the expected *frahit. The American linguist Michael Weiss concludes that the process can be explained through other means. Kortlandt effect Proto-Indo-European *d undergoes debuccalization, becoming the laryngeal *h₁, whenever it is followed by a dental consonant, a consonant


id: glossary-of-sound-laws-in-the-indo-european-languages-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-2.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of sound laws in the Indo-European languages
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:22.560008+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-sound-laws-in-the-indo-european-languages-20260505-0
summary:
Rix's law (Greek, Italic, Celtic) In zero-grade roots, when a laryngeal is followed by a syllabic resonant and at least one other consonant, the laryngeal undergoes coloring. Examples of the process include Proto-Indo-European *h₂ŕ̥tḱos ('bear') becoming Ancient Greek ᾰ̓́ρκτος (árktos) as compared with Hittite 𒄯𒁖𒂵𒀸 (ḫartaggas), which preserves the laryngeal, and Sanskrit ऋक्षः॑ (ṛ́kṣaḥ), which deletes the laryngeal. The process is generally assumed to have occurred in both Greek and Latin, though it is not universally accepted in the latter. The Celtic languages show a "limited version" where the laryngeal invariably becomes Proto-Celtic *a, irrespective of laryngeal color. Examples include Old Irish ortae ('was slain') from Proto-Indo-European *h₃r̥g-to-, and Middle Irish art ('bear') from Proto-Indo-European *h₂ŕ̥tḱos. The law is named for the German linguist Helmut Rix who first suggested the concept in 1970 for Ancient Greek. ruki sound law (Balto-Slavic, Albanian, Armenian, Indo-Iranian) Also, RUKI; ruki; ruki rule; ruki change; iurk rule; Pedersen's law. In the satem languages, Proto-Indo-European *s is retracted when preceded by *r, *u, *k, or *i. In Indo-Iranian, the phoneme retracted to š, while in Slavic it further retracted into x in most circumstances. This change is not generally believed to be commonly derived from an


id: glossary-of-sound-laws-in-the-indo-european-languages-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-3.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of sound laws in the Indo-European languages
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:22.560008+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-sound-laws-in-the-indo-european-languages-20260505-0
summary:
In compounds, the first vowel is deleted as the word undergoes crasis; the remaining vowel is sometimes then lengthened. It is unclear which languages this rule fully applied to; it certainly applies to Ancient Greek and Wagernackel's original formulation included the Indo-Iranian languages as well. Examples of the process include Ancient Greek στρατηγός (stratēgós, 'general'), composed of στρατός (stratós, 'army') and ἀγός (agós, 'leader'). The process sometimes occurs between words in addition to compounds, but it is relatively rare and may be guided by meter constraints, at least in Greek. The law is named after the Swiss linguist Jacob Wackernagel who is credited with first describing the process in 1889. weather rule Also, Wetter-Regel, Wetter rule. Laryngeals are lost in word-medial position preceding a stop followed by a resonant and a vowel. The law is named for its reflex in English, weather, which is derived from Proto-Indo-European *weh₁dʰrom ('weather'); the laryngeal *h₁ is deleted before the sequence *-dʰro- which comprises a stop, a resonant, and a vowel, respectively. The law does not cause compensatory lengthening. Weise's law The palatovelar consonants *ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ are depalatalized when preceding *r unless that *r is followed by an *i. The law is named


id: glossary-of-sound-laws-in-the-indo-european-languages-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-4.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of sound laws in the Indo-European languages
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:22.560008+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-sound-laws-in-the-indo-european-languages-20260505-0
summary:
In words with a mobile accent paradigm of three syllables or longer, the accent was retracted from a medial onto the initial syllable. Examples include Lithuanian piemuõ ('shepherd') in the nominative, but píemenį in the accusative. A falling tone is always found on the affected syllable when the law is not invoked. The law is named after the Danish linguist Holger Pedersen, who first proposed it in 1933. The process occurred very early in the Balto-Slavic period; Frederik Kortlandt considers Pedersen's law to be the oldest law of retraction and possibly the earliest law of accent in the language. However, the process later reappeared in both the Slavic and Baltic languages. In Lithuanian, for example, it appears to have reappeared sometime after the lengthening of stressed e and a, but before the application of de Saussure's law. In Slavic, it occurred after the application of Ebeling's law. Winter's law Short vowels with non-acute accents are lengthened before unaspirated voiced stops (*b, *d, *g, but not *ǵ). The newly lengthened vowel receives the acute accent. The law is named after the German linguist Werner Winter who wrote his proposal in 1976, though it was not published until 1978. Frederik Kortlandt has


id: glossary-of-sound-laws-in-the-indo-european-languages-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-5.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of sound laws in the Indo-European languages
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:22.560008+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-sound-laws-in-the-indo-european-languages-20260505-0
summary:
(Controversial) In short falling non-final syllables, stress moves to the following syllable if the following syllable has a rising accent. Some exceptions are well known, such as in Russian гото́ва (gotóva) but Serbo-Croatian gòtova, or in the historical dual Serbo-Croatian ȍba but Russian о́ба (óba). Despite this, the law saw a substantive defense in 1964 by George Shevelov, though it remains controversial. The law is named for the Russian linguist Filipp Fortunatov, who first proposed it in 1880. Georgiev's law When word-initial short vowels are stressed, they are lengthened, provided they were originally in closed syllables. Examples include Proto-Balto-Slavic *ắkmō(n) becoming Proto-Slavic *kā̋my ('stone'). The law is named for the Bulgarian linguist Vladimir I. Georgiev, who first proposed it in 1965. Hartmann's law (Not fully solved) This three-pronged process governs the application of intonation in Slavic derivations. In class I, if the acute falls on the noun stem, the adjective derivation retains stress on the stem. Examples of this include the Ukrainian noun горо́х (horókh, 'peas') and its relational adjective горо́ховий (horókhovyj). In class II, if the stem has undergone an oxytonizing process and stress does not fall on the stem, stress falls on the derivational suffix. Examples of this


id: glossary-of-sound-laws-in-the-indo-european-languages-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-6.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of sound laws in the Indo-European languages
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:22.560008+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-sound-laws-in-the-indo-european-languages-20260505-0
summary:
Also, second palatalization of velars; second regressive palatalization. Following the monophthongization of Proto-Slavic *ai to *ě in open syllables and *i in closed syllables, velars became palatalized again. The process had different outcomes based on dialect: *k typically became *c and *g became either *dz or simply *z, but *x became *š in West Slavic, *xʲ in Novgorodian, and *s elsewhere. The process is estimated to have happened around the same time the West Slavs were migrating north of Carpathia and the Novgorodians were migrating to what is now northwestern Russia. Like the first palatalization, the process occurred in several stages: palatal coarticulation, palatalization, and assibilation. It appears that Novgorodian only went through the first stage. Clusters that had originally contained *ku̯ underwent palatalization in South Slavic and some East Slavic unless it was preceded by *s, but West Slavic and Novgorodian did not experience this palatalization at all. Slavic third palatalization Also, progressive velar palatalization; palatalization of Baudouin de Courtenay. When Proto-Slavic *i, *ī, or *in precede a velar, the velar is palatalized and then assibilated; *k and *g become *c and *dz, respectively, in all languages, with *dz undergoing further lenition to *z outside of Eastern South Slavic,


id: glossary-of-sound-laws-in-the-indo-european-languages-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-7.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of sound laws in the Indo-European languages
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:22.560008+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-sound-laws-in-the-indo-european-languages-20260505-0
summary:
1. (Controversial) Voiceless word-initial stops in Proto-Indo-European become voiced fricatives, whenever it falls "not less than three syllables" from the onset. The process helps to explain one major set of exceptions to Verner's law, though it may not always be represented in the orthography; Bugge considered hænep ('hemp') to have a voiced consonant, against its Ancient Greek cognate κάνναβις (kánnabis, 'cannabis'). The rule is named for Sophus Bugge who first postulated the concept in 1887. 2. (Old Norse) In ljóðaháttr verse, if an even-numbered line ends in a trochee, the heavy syllable is made light; in other words, in strong–weak metrical feet, heavy strong syllables are prohibited at the end of a verse. Examples include the fourth-line dómr um dauðan hvern ('reputation for each dead person') rather than *dómr um dauðan hverjan. In instances such as hvat skal hans tryggðum trúa? ('how should one trust in his trustworthiness?'), the typically-long primary syllable is short, even though the orthography implies a heavy syllable. The process is dated to somewhere before the turn of the 10th century and can help to date certain texts. However, in some later Icelandic texts, the form changed somewhat to prohibit long primary syllables when the final


id: glossary-of-sound-laws-in-the-indo-european-languages-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-8.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of sound laws in the Indo-European languages
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:22.560008+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-sound-laws-in-the-indo-european-languages-20260505-0
summary:
(Controversial) Following Grimm's law, if a stop consonant abuts *n, the *n devoices and assimilates, creating a geminate stop. Donald Ringe writes that "the problem with Kluge's suggestion is simply that the etymologies are unconvincing". Another issue is that Gothic appears to be unaffected by the process, as in 𐌰𐌿𐌷𐌽𐍃 (aúhns, 'oven'), suggesting that it may not be a common Germanic innovation. Frederik Kortlandt, however, supports the law, estimating that it can be dated to between Grimm's and Verner's laws, though he places Verner's law before Grimm's. The American philologist Robert D. Fulk does not dismiss this view, but suggests that it requires a reworking of Proto-Germanic consonant reconstructions. Don Ringe and Ann Taylor refute this reordering of the laws. The law is named for the German philologist Friedrich Kluge who suggested the concept in 1884. Thurneysen's law (Gothic) Spirants in unaccented syllables changed their voiced–unvoiced quality based on the quality of the preceding consonant, whereby voiced spirants appear after unvoiced consonants and voiceless spirants appear after voiced consonants. Examples of both can be found in the dative singular forms, 𐌰𐌲𐌹𐍃𐌰 (agisa, 'fear') and 𐍂𐌹𐌵𐌹𐌶𐌰 (riqiza, 'darkness'). In short, spirants are voiced when they are immediately preceded by a vowel


id: glossary-of-sound-laws-in-the-indo-european-languages-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-9.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of sound laws in the Indo-European languages
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:22.560008+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-sound-laws-in-the-indo-european-languages-20260505-0
summary:
(Not fully accepted) Also, Miller's rule. Immediately following an accented syllable, Proto-Greek aspirated consonants are deaspirated immediately preceding a nasal consonant. Examples of the process include Ancient Greek θρόμβος (thrómbos, 'clot'), from Proto-Indo-European *dʰrónbʰo-, against its related but non-nasalized counterpart τρέφω (tréphō; 'I thicken, I congeal'), from Proto-Indo-European *dʰrebʰo-. The accent condition supplies an explanation for the oft-cited counterexamples ὀμφαλός (omphalós, 'navel'), from Proto-Indo-European *h₃(e)nbʰ-l̥-(l)-ó-, and ἀμφί (amphí, 'around'), from *h₂entbʰí. Although many violations can be attributed to Pre-Greek loanwords, the Greek term γόμφος (gómphos; 'peg, bolt') has persisted as an unexplained form, against the expected form *γόμβος (*gómbos). One explanation derives it from Proto-Indo-European *ǵonh₂-bʰo- ('like a tooth'), provided that the law precedes the Saussure effect or some similar loss of laryngeals. The law is not fully accepted; it is notably absent from standard references of Greek historical linguistics and is resolutely rejected by Beekes throughout his Etymological Dictionary of Greek. Despite this, it has gained considerable support in recent years. If true, the process is certainly preceded by Grassmann's law and the devoicing of Proto-Indo-European aspirated stops in Greek; one estimate places the law sometime between Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Greek. A similar process appears to have also taken place


id: glossary-of-sound-laws-in-the-indo-european-languages-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages-10.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of sound laws in the Indo-European languages
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sound_laws_in_the_Indo-European_languages
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:22.560008+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-sound-laws-in-the-indo-european-languages-20260505-0
summary:
humī rule (Latino-Faliscan) In unaccented word-initial syllables, historic *o becomes u before m. Examples include umbilīcus ('navel') against Ancient Greek ὀμφαλός (omphalós), both from Proto-Indo-European *h₃n̥bʰ-, and uncus ('hook') against Ancient Greek ὄγκος (ónkos, 'barb of an arrow'), from Proto-Indo-European *h₂onḱ-. Most counterexamples can be attributed to consonantal changes, such as somnus ('sleep'), derived from Proto-Indo-European *swep-no-. A handful of exceptions can be attributed to previous vowel changes, including glomus ('ball-shaped mass'), from an earlier *glemus. While typically attributed to Latin, it is possible the law also applied to Faliscan. It is unlikely that the law applied to the Sabellic languages. The name is derived from the Latin word humī ('on the ground'), which exhibits this rule. Lachmann's law When a short vowel is followed by an underlyingly voiced stop followed by a voiceless stop, it is lengthened. The process explains the differences between verbal forms, such as agō ('I drive') and cadō ('I fall'), and their respective derivatives, such as āctus ('made, done') and cāsus ('a fall'). Although the law was popularized by Paul Kiparsky, it is named for the German classicist Karl Lachmann who wrote about the process in 1850. It is unclear if the law applied to


id: glossary-of-string-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_string_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of string theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_string_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:24.096924+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-string-theory-20260505-0
summary:
This page is a glossary of terms in string theory, including related areas such as supergravity, supersymmetry, and high energy physics. == Conventions == -bein A suffix indicating a frame, where the first part is a German word indicating the dimension (as in zweibein, vierbein, and so on). -ino The superpartners of bosons are often denoted by the suffix -ino; for example, photon/photino. s- The superpartners of fermions are often denoted by adding s- at the beginning; for example, quark/squark. == αβγ == α 1. Fine-structure constant 2. Regge slope, or inverse of the string tension How are these related? There is only one dimensional constant in string theory, and that is the inverse string tension α ′ {\displaystyle \alpha ^{\prime }} with units of area. Sometimes α ′ {\displaystyle \alpha ^{\prime }} is therefore replaced by a length l s = α ′ {\displaystyle l_{s}={\sqrt {\alpha ^{\prime }}}} . The string tension is mostly defined as the fraction 1 2 π α ′ . {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{2\pi \alpha ^{\prime }}}.} Tension is energy or work per unit length. In natural units c = 1 {\displaystyle c=1} and ℏ = 1 {\displaystyle \hbar =1} , and hence α ′ {\displaystyle


id: glossary-of-string-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_string_theory-1.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of string theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_string_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:24.096924+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-string-theory-20260505-0
summary:
B 1. Baryon number 2. Short for boson. 3. Short for baryon. 4. Short for backward;for example, σB is the cross section for backward scattering. 5. a bottom meson. BAO Baryon acoustic oscillation BB Big Bang BBN Big Bang nucleosynthesis bino A hypothetical supersymmetric partner of the gauge field corresponding to weak hypercharge. BIon A BPS solution representing an infinite string ending on a D-brane. Named after the Born–Infeld action. BPS A state related to the Bogomol'nyi–Prasad–Sommerfield bound. BR Branching ratio BRS BRST quantization Short for Becchi, Rouet, Stora and Tyutin, who introduced the BRST quantization of gauge theories. brane Short for membrane. a higher-dimensional manifold moving in spacetime. See also p-brane, D-brane. BTZ Initials of Bañados–Teitelboim–Zanelli, as in BTZ black hole, a black hole in 2+1-dimensional gravity. BV Batalin–Vilkovisky, as in Batalin–Vilkovisky formalism. == C == c 1. The speed of light, when not using units where this is 1. 2. A central charge of the Virasoro algebra or similar algebra. 3. One of the two conformal ghost fields b, c used in the BRST quantization of the bosonic string. 4. A Chern class. 5. A charm quark. C 1. Charge, especially the charge symmetry. Calabi–Yau A Kähler manifold


id: glossary-of-string-theory-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_string_theory-2.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of string theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_string_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:24.096924+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-string-theory-20260505-0
summary:
energy–momentum tensor A symmetric tensor T (also called the stress-energy tensor) describing the variation of the action under changes in the metric, whose components give the local energy, momentum and stress densities. In flat spacetimes it can also be given by combining the Noether currents of the translation symmetries. EWSB Electro-weak symmetry breaking. == F == F 1. A curvature form of a connection 2. The world-sheet fermion number. 3. Short for fermion 3. Short for forward;for example, σF is the cross section for backward scattering. F4 F4 is the exceptional Lie algebra of rank 4 and dimension 52. FCNC Flavor-changing neutral current. field A section of a fiber bundle FOPT Fixed-order perturbation theory. F-string Fundamental string F-theory Possibly an abbreviation of father theory. A 12-dimensional string theory introduced by Vafa. FRW Friedman–Robertson–Walker metric on spacetime == G == g 1. A metric 2. A coupling constant 3. The genus of a Riemann surface. 4. A gluon. G 1. Newton's gravitational constant, sometimes written GN. 2. The Fermi coupling constant for weak interactions, sometimes written GF. 3. Gn is an odd element of the Ramond or Neveu–Schwarz superalgebra. G2 The exceptional Lie algebra of rank 2 and dimension 14, or


id: glossary-of-string-theory-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_string_theory-3.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of string theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_string_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:24.096924+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-string-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Majorana fermion Majorana spinor A fermion or spinor with a reality condition, in spacetimes of dimension 2, 3, 4 mod 8. Majorana–Weyl fermion Majorana–Weyl spinor A half-spinor with a reality condition, in spacetimes of dimension 2 mod 8. Mandelstam variable A sum or difference of two of the four incoming or outgoing momenta of a 2-particle interaction. matrix theory M(atrix) theory One of several non-perturbative formulations of string theory or M-theory using infinite matrices. M-brane membrane A higher dimensional analogue of a string. MC Monte Carlo integration MCG minimal model Certain solvable conformal field theories. Mirror symmetry (string theory) A partly conjectural relation between a type IIA superstring theory compactified on a Calabi–Yau manifold and a type IIB superstring theory compactified on a different "mirror" Calabi–Yau manifold. MLLA Modified leading logarithm approximation. MNS Maki–Nakagawa–Sakata matrix for neutrino mixing monopole A hypothetical particle similar to a "magnet with only one pole". Montonen–Olive duality An early case of S-duality. MS minimal subtraction (a renormalization scheme). MS is the modified minimal subtraction scheme. MSM Abbreviation for minimal standard model. MSSM Abbreviation for minimal supersymmetric standard model. mSUGRA Minimal model of supergravity. M-theory An 11-dimensional theory introduced in the second string theory revolution to


id: glossary-of-string-theory-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_string_theory-4.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of string theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_string_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:24.096924+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-string-theory-20260505-0
summary:
RGE Renormalization group equation. RH Right-handed R–NS A sector with Ramond conditions on left moving modes and Neveu–Schwarz conditions on right moving modes. RNS Ramond–Neveu–Schwarz, as in RNS formalism, a way of incorporating supersymmetry into string theory that is supersymmetric on the world sheet. R-parity A Z2 symmetry of supersymmetric models. R-R Short for Ramond–Ramond sector == S == s 1. A strange quark. 2. A Mandelstam variable S 1. An action 2. A scattering matrix. 3. The transformation τ → –1/τ of the upper half plane 4. Scalar (current) 5. Short for super or supersymmetric S-brane A brane similar to a D-brane, with Dirichlet boundary conditions in the time direction. S-duality Strong–weak duality, a string duality relating theories with a large coupling constant to theories with a small coupling constant SBB Standard Big Bang model of the universe SCFT Superconformal field theory, a supersymmetric extension of conformal field theory Schwarz Named for John Henry Schwarz Seiberg duality SGA Abbreviation for Spectrum-generating algebra short supermultiplet A supermultiplet (representation) related to BPS states sigma model A classical or quantum model based on the maps from a base manifold to a target manifold. SL Special linear group SLAC Stanford Linear Accelerator Center


id: glossary-of-structural-engineering-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_structural_engineering-0.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of structural engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_structural_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:25.484679+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-structural-engineering-20260505-0
summary:
This glossary of structural engineering terms pertains specifically to structural engineering and its sub-disciplines. Please see Glossary of engineering for a broad overview of the major concepts of engineering. Most of the terms listed in glossaries are already defined and explained within itself. However, glossaries like this one are useful for looking up, comparing and reviewing large numbers of terms together. You can help enhance this page by adding new terms or writing definitions for existing ones. == A == Abutment – refers to the substructure at the ends of a bridge span or dam whereon the structure's superstructure rests or contacts. Acre – is a unit of land area used in the imperial and US customary systems. It is traditionally defined as the area of one chain by one furlong (66 by 660 feet), which is exactly equal to 10 square chains, 1⁄640 of a square mile, or 43,560 square feet, and approximately 4,047 m2, or about 40% of a hectare. Acrow prop – or BS prop is a piece of construction equipment. It is a telescopic tubular steel prop, used as a temporary support. A jackscrew is similar but not as long and not telescopic. Outside the UK


id: glossary-of-structural-engineering-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_structural_engineering-1.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of structural engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_structural_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:25.484679+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-structural-engineering-20260505-0
summary:
== B == Ballast – is material that is used to provide stability to a vehicle or structure. Ballast, other than cargo, may be placed in a vehicle, often a ship or the gondola of a balloon or airship, to provide stability. Barrier cable – is a vehicular or pedestrian restraint system. It consists of a steel strand which is similar to the strand used in post-tensioned concrete. Beam – is a structural element that primarily resists loads applied laterally to the beam's axis. Its mode of deflection is primarily by bending. The loads applied to the beam result in reaction forces at the beam's support points. The total effect of all the forces acting on the beam is to produce shear forces and bending moments within the beam, that in turn induce internal stresses, strains and deflections of the beam. Beams are characterized by their manner of support, profile (shape of cross-section), length, and their material. Bearing capacity – is the capacity of soil to support the loads applied to the ground. The bearing capacity of soil is the maximum average contact pressure between the foundation and the soil which should not produce shear failure in the soil. Ultimate


id: glossary-of-structural-engineering-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_structural_engineering-2.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of structural engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_structural_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:25.484679+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-structural-engineering-20260505-0
summary:
== C == Calcium aluminate cements – Calcium aluminate cements are cements consisting predominantly of hydraulic calcium aluminates. Alternative names are "aluminous cement", "high-alumina cement" and "Ciment fondu" in French. They are used in a number of small-scale, specialized applications. Camber beam – In building, a camber beam is a piece of timber cut archwise, and steel bent or rolled, with an obtuse angle in the middle, commonly used in platforms, as church leads, and other occasions where long and strong beams are required. The camber curve is ideally a parabola but practically a circle segment as even with modern materials and calculations, cambers are imprecise. Castellated beam – is a beam style where an I-beam is subjected to a longitudinal cut along its web following a specific pattern in order to divide it, and reassemble the beam with a deeper web by taking advantage of the cutting pattern. Cant – The cant of a railway track or camber of a road (also referred to as superelevation, cross slope or cross fall) is the rate of change in elevation (height) between the two rails or edges. This is normally greater where the railway or road is curved; raising the outer


id: glossary-of-structural-engineering-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_structural_engineering-3.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of structural engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_structural_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:25.484679+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-structural-engineering-20260505-0
summary:
== R == Rafter – is one of a series of sloped structural members that extend from the ridge or hip to the wall plate, downslope perimeter or eave, and that are designed to support the roof deck and its associated loads. A pair of rafters is called a couple. In home construction, rafters are normally made of wood. Exposed rafters are a feature of some traditional roof styles. Rain gutter – Reinforced concrete – Reliability engineering – Rigid body – Rolled steel joist – Roof – Rubble trench foundation – == S == Sandwich panel – Sandwich theory – Second fix – Seismic analysis – Semi-monocoque – Settlement (structural) – Shallow foundation – Shear strength – Shear stress – Shell – Shukhov Rotunda – SI units – Siphon – Skyscraper – Softwood – Soil structure interaction – Solid mechanics – Solid solution strengthening – Space frame – Span (engineering) – Specific weight – Specified load – Spontaneous combustion – State of matter – Static load testing – Statical determinacy – Statics – Statnamic load test – Stave (wood) – Stewart platform Stiffness – Storm drain – Strain – Strain hardening – Street gutter – Strength of materials – Stress


id: glossary-of-vexillology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_vexillology-0.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of vexillology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_vexillology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:26.744795+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-vexillology-20260505-0
summary:
Flag terminology is the nomenclature, or system of terms, used in vexillology, the study of flags, to describe precisely the parts, patterns, and other attributes of flags and their display. == Flag types == Banderole or bannerol Main article: Banderole A small flag or streamer carried on the lance of a knight, or a long, narrow flag flown from the masthead of a ship. Banner Main article: Banner Generically, a synonym for a flag of any kind, and in heraldry specifically, a square or rectangular flag whose design is identical to the shield of a coat of arms; also denominated a banner of arms. Burgee Main article: Burgee A distinguishing flag of a recreational boating organisation, which commonly has the shape of a pennant. Civil ensign, merchant flag, or merchant ensign Main article: Civil ensign A version of a national flag that is flown on civil ships to denote their nationality. Civil flag Main article: Civil flag A version of a national flag that is flown on civil installations or craft. Colour or color Main article: Military colours, standards and guidons The flag of a military unit. Corner flag Main article: Football pitch § Pitch boundary A small flag flown


id: lists-of-biologists-by-author-abbreviation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_biologists_by_author_abbreviation-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of biologists by author abbreviation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_biologists_by_author_abbreviation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:28.936692+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-biologists-by-author-abbreviation-20260505-0
summary:
Lists of biologists by author abbreviation include lists of botanists and of zoologists. The abbreviations are typically used in articles on species described or named by the biologist. == Botanists == == Zoologists == List of authors of names published under the ICZN


id: carbon-number-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_number-0.md
category: reference
title: Carbon number
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_number
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:30.252946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carbon-number-20260505-0
summary:
In organic chemistry, the carbon number of a compound is the number of carbon atoms in each molecule. The properties of hydrocarbons can be correlated with the carbon number, although the carbon number alone does not give an indication of the saturation of the organic compound. When describing a particular molecule, the "carbon number" is also the ordinal position of a particular carbon atom in a chain. == Compounds by carbon number == == See also == IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry == References ==


id: list-of-data-references-for-chemical-elements-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_data_references_for_chemical_elements-0.md
category: reference
title: List of data references for chemical elements
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_data_references_for_chemical_elements
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:31.419835+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-data-references-for-chemical-elements-20260505-0
summary:
The List of data references for chemical elements is divided into datasheets that give values for many properties of the elements, together with various references. Each datasheet is sequenced by atomic number. == References for chemical elements == List of chemical elements — with basic properties like standard atomic weight, m.p., b.p., abundance Abundance of the chemical elements Abundances of the elements (data page) — Earth's crust, sea water, Sun and Solar System Abundance of elements in Earth's crust Atomic radii of the elements (data page) — atomic radius (empirical), atomic radius (calculated), van der Waals radius, covalent radius Boiling points of the elements (data page) — Boiling point Critical points of the elements (data page) — Critical point Densities of the elements (data page) — Density (solid, liquid, gas) Elastic properties of the elements (data page) — Young's modulus, Poisson ratio, bulk modulus, shear modulus Electrical resistivities of the elements (data page) — Electrical resistivity Electron affinity (data page) — Electron affinity Electron configurations of the elements (data page) — Electron configuration of the gaseous atoms in the ground state Electronegativities of the elements (data page) — Electronegativity (Pauling scale) Hardnesses of the elements (data page) — Mohs hardness,


id: list-of-fellows-of-the-royal-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fellows_of_the_Royal_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: List of fellows of the Royal Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fellows_of_the_Royal_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:32.687617+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fellows-of-the-royal-society-20260505-0
summary:
More than 8,000 people have been elected a fellow of the Royal Society of London, England, since the inception of the Royal Society in 1660. The Royal Society publishes a database of current fellows and a database of past fellows. == Alphabetic lists == == See also == List of female Fellows of the Royal Society Category:Fellows of the Royal Society (alphabetical) Category:Lists of fellows of the Royal Society by year == References ==


id: lists-of-earth-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_Earth_scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of Earth scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_Earth_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:33.951326+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-earth-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
There are several lists of Earth scientists: List of geodesists List of geographers List of geologists List of geophysicists List of meteorologists List of mineralogists List of oceanographers List of paleontologists List of soil scientists List of Russian Earth scientists


id: lists-of-metalloids-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_metalloids-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of metalloids
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_metalloids
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:35.529169+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-metalloids-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of 194 sources that list elements classified as metalloids. The sources are listed in chronological order. Lists of metalloids differ since there is no rigorous widely accepted definition of metalloid (or its occasional alias, 'semi-metal'). Individual lists share common ground, with variations occurring at the margins. The elements most often regarded as metalloids are boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony and tellurium. Other sources may subtract from this list, add a varying number of other elements, or both. == Overview == == Chronological list == This table shows which elements are included in each of 194 different lists of metalloids. A parenthesized symbol indicates an element whose inclusion in a particular metalloid list is qualified in some way by the author(s). The 'citations' rows show how many and what percentage of the authorities consider each element to be a metalloid, with qualified citations counted as one-half. () Parenthesized symbols indicate elements whose inclusion in a particular metalloid list is qualified in some way by the author(s). It is counted as 0.5 citation. There is an average of 7.15 elements per metalloid list. == Appearance frequency clusters == Elements cited in the listed sources (as of August 2011;


id: lists-of-nobel-laureates-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_Nobel_laureates-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of Nobel laureates
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_Nobel_laureates
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:38.103828+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-nobel-laureates-20260505-0
summary:
Lists of Nobel laureates cover winners of Nobel Prizes for outstanding contributions for humanity in chemistry, literature, peace, physics, and physiology or medicine. The lists are organized by prize, by ethnicity, by origination and by nationality. == General == List of Nobel laureates, the general list List of heads of government and state Nobel laureates List of Nobel laureates by university affiliation List of couples awarded the Nobel Prize == By prize == List of Nobel laureates in Chemistry List of Nobel Memorial Prize laureates in Economics List of Nobel laureates in Literature List of Nobel Peace Prize laureates List of Nobel laureates in Physics List of Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine == By laureate identity == List of female Nobel laureates List of black Nobel laureates List of Latin American Nobel laureates List of Christian Nobel laureates List of Jewish Nobel laureates List of nonreligious Nobel laureates == By origin == List of countries by Nobel laureates per capita List of Nobel laureates by country List of Asian Nobel laureates List of African Nobel laureates == By nationality == List of American Nobel laureates List of Argentine Nobel laureates List of Armenian Nobel laureates List of Australian Nobel


id: list-of-nominees-for-the-nobel-prize-in-physiology-or-medicine-1901-1999-20260505-0
category: reference
title: List of nominees for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1901–1999)
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:39.428455+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-nominees-for-the-nobel-prize-in-physiology-or-medicine-1901-1999-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nominees_for_the_Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine_(1901–1999)-0.md

summary:
The following is a list of lists of nominees for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the years in which such data has been publicly released. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (Swedish: Nobelpriset i fysiologi eller medicin) is awarded annually by the Nobel Assembly at the Karolinska Institute to scientists who have made outstanding contributions in physiology or medicine. It is one of the five Nobel Prizes which were established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895. Every year, the Nobel Committee for Physiology or Medicine sends out forms, which amount to a personal and exclusive invitation, to about three thousand selected individuals to invite them to submit nominations. The names of the nominees are never publicly announced, and neither are they told that they have been considered for the Prize. Nomination records are strictly sealed for fifty years. However, the nominations for the years 1901 to 1953 are publicly available. Despite the annual sending of invitations, the prize was not awarded in nine years (1915–1918, 1921, 1925, 1940–1942) and has been delayed for a year five times (1919, 1922, 1926, 1938, 1943). From 1901 to 1953, 935 scientists were nominated for the prize, 63

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nominees_for_the_Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine_(1901–1999)


id: lists-of-research-stations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_research_stations-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of research stations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_research_stations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:43.320730+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-research-stations-20260505-0
summary:
Lists of research stations provide indexes to research stations in a particular region. They include: List of space stations Research stations in Antarctica List of research stations in the Arctic Refer to category:Research stations for a complete list of articles on research stations.


id: lists-of-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:46.085095+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
This article contains links to lists of scientists. == By academic genealogy == Academic genealogy of chemists List of people considered father or mother of a scientific field List of the 72 names on the Eiffel Tower Apostles of Linnaeus List of Arab scientists and scholars List of modern Arab scientists and engineers List of archaeologists Astronomer Royal List of astronomers List of French astronomers List of Fellows of the Australian Academy of Science List of biologists List of biochemists List of carcinologists List of coleopterists List of entomologists List of geneticists List of herpetologists List of immunologists List of marine biologists List of microbiologists List of paleoethnobotanists List of plant scientists List of plant pathologists List of biophysicists List of Catholic clergy scientists List of lay Catholic scientists List of chemists List of Christians in science and technology List of Christian Nobel laureates List of Christian scientists and scholars of medieval Islam List of climate scientists List of women climate scientists and activists List of cognitive scientists List of computer scientists List of cosmologists List of criminologists List of ecologists List of Ethiopian scientists List of participants in the Evolving Genes and Proteins symposium List of Fellows of the


id: lists-of-scientific-skepticism-topics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_scientific_skepticism_topics-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of scientific skepticism topics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_scientific_skepticism_topics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:48.752359+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-scientific-skepticism-topics-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific skepticism (also spelled scepticism) is the practice of questioning whether claims are supported by empirical research and have reproducibility, as part of a methodological norm pursuing "the extension of certified knowledge". Scientific skepticism, or skepticism for short, manifests itself since the 20th century as a societal phenomenon involving several individuals and more or less organised groups through several different media, commonly referred to as "the skeptical movement". This is a compilation of the various lists about skepticism with articles in Wikipedia. List of books about skepticism List of notable skeptics List of notable debunkers List of prizes for evidence of the paranormal List of skeptical conferences List of skeptical magazines List of scientific skepticism organizations List of skeptical podcasts == See also == Lists of atheists List of topics characterized as pseudoscience == References ==


id: glossary-of-archaeology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology-0.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of archaeology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:50.564018+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-archaeology-20260505-0
summary:
This page is a glossary of archaeology, the study of the human past from material remains. == A == absolute age The age of an object with reference to a fixed and specific time scale, as determined by some method of absolute dating, e.g. 10,000 BP or 1.9 mya. absolute dating Ascertaining the age of an object with reference to a fixed and specific time scale (e.g. calendar years or radiocarbon years), as opposed to relative dating. aerial archaeology Archaeological investigations conducted from the air, e.g. using aerial photography or satellite imagery. alignment Co-linear arrangement of features or structures with external landmarks or, in archaeoastronomy, an astronomically significant point or axis. antiquarian antiquary A person interested in the collection, curation and/or study of antiquities, particularly in reference to the intellectual tradition that developed in Europe in the 16th–17th centuries and is considered a precursor to modern archaeology. antiquarianism An intellectual tradition of inquiry that developed in Europe in the 16th and early 17th centuries AD as a result of new interests in nature, antiquity, the Renaissance of learning, and the addition of time‐depth to people's view of the world. antiquities Ancient artefacts, particularly in the context of their trade and


id: glossary-of-archaeology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology-1.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of archaeology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:50.564018+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-archaeology-20260505-0
summary:
henge A type of Neolithic earthwork that has a ring-shaped bank and ditch, with the ditch inside the bank. hillfort A type of earthwork used as a fortified refuge or defended settlement. homology homolog Similarity in style or form owing to a common origin, as opposed to an analog; see also homology (biology). == I == industrial archaeology Subdiscipline devoted to the study of past industry and industrial heritage. industry A typological classification of stone tools, e.g. the Mousterian industry, the Acheulean industry. in situ Features, artefacts and other remains in their original depositional context, cf. unstratified. == J == jar burial Inhumation of whole human remains in a ceramic vessel, as opposed to the more common urn burial, where only ashes from cremation are interred. == K == K–Ar dating Potassium–argon dating; a radiometric dating method useful for samples older than 100,000 years. kerb kerbstone circle A circular retaining wall built around certain types of burial mound. kill site A site where people slaughtered and/or butchered animals, especially in a Palaeolithic context, e.g. Naco Mammoth Kill Site, Cooper Bison Kill Site. killed object An object which has been deliberately broken or damaged in such a way as to make


id: glossary-of-archaeology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology-2.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of archaeology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_archaeology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:50.564018+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-archaeology-20260505-0
summary:
updraught kiln updraft kiln Type of ceramic kiln which works by drawing hot air from a fire placed adjacent to or below the material to be fired. urban archaeology Subdiscipline devoted to the study of archaeology in major cities and towns. urn Pottery vessel in which cremated remains were placed for interment; sometimes specially made, but often a repurposed domestic container. urnfield Cemetery containing cremation burials in urns. Typical of Late Bronze Age Europe and the eponymous Urnfield culture. use-wear Microscopic traces of wear, damage or residue left on the surface of an artefact from use. Use-wear analysis involves studying these traces to discern the function of a tool. == V == virtual archaeology A subfield of digital archeology that creates and use virtual models and simulations of archaeological sites, artifacts, and processes. == W == watching brief A formal programme of observation and investigation conducted during any operation carried out for non-archaeological reasons. wet sieving The use of flowing water to force excavated sediment through a screen or mesh and recover small artefacts. It is more effective than dry sieving in heavier soils and, as part of the process of flotation, can be used to recover very small organic


id: outline-of-archaeology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_archaeology-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of archaeology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_archaeology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:51.969520+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-archaeology-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to archaeology: Archaeology – study of cultures through the recovery, documentation, and analysis of material remains and environmental data, including architecture, artifacts, biofacts, human remains, and landscapes. == What type of thing is archaeology? == Archaeology can be described as all of the following: Academic discipline Science Social science === Essence of archaeology === Archaeological ethics Archaeological excavation Archaeological record Archaeological science Archaeological site Archaeological theory Artifacts Biofacts Excavation == Branches of archaeology == === Archaeological practice === Cultural Resources Management Archaeological ethics Urban archaeology === Archaeological science === Archaeological science Archaeometry Dendrochronology Isotope analysis Palynology Radiocarbon dating Zooarchaeology Geoarchaeology Bioarchaeology Archaeogenetics Computational archaeology === Archaeological subdisciplines === Subfields of archaeology Ethnoarchaeology Taphonomy ==== By location ==== List of archaeological sites by country African archaeology Australian archaeology European archaeology Russian archaeology Archaeology of the Americas Archaeology of Ayodhya Archaeology of the Channel Islands Archaeology of China Archaeology of Cyprus Archaeology of India Archaeology of Iowa (United States) Archaeology of Israel Archaeology of Northern Europe Archaeology of the Philippines Archaeology of Qatar ==== By time period ==== Industrial archaeology Near Eastern archaeology Biblical archaeology Medieval archaeology Historical archaeology Post-medieval


id: table-of-years-in-archaeology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_years_in_archaeology-0.md
category: reference
title: Table of years in archaeology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_years_in_archaeology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:53.291128+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: table-of-years-in-archaeology-20260505-0
summary:
The following entries cover events related to the study of archaeology which occurred in the listed year. 1600s - 1700s - 1800s - 1900s- 2000s == 1600s == 1600 1601 1602 1603 1604 1605 1606 1607 1608 16091610 1611 1612 1613 1614 1615 1616 1617 1618 1619 1620 1621 1622 1623 1624 1625 1626 1627 1628 1629 1630 1631 1632 1633 1634 1635 1636 1637 1638 1639 1640 1641 1642 1643 1644 1645 1646 1647 1648 1649 1650 1651 1652 1653 1654 1655 1656 1657 1658 1659 1660 1661 1662 1663 1664 1665 1666 1667 1668 1669 1670 1671 1672 1673 1674 1675 1676 1677 1678 1679 1680 1681 1682 1683 1684 1685 1686 1687 1688 1689 1690 1691 1692 1693 1694 1695 1696 1697 1698 1699 == 1700s == 1700 1701 1702 1703 1704 1705 1706 1707 1708 17091710 1711 1712 1713 1714 1715 1716 1717 1718 1719 1720 1721 1722 1723 1724 1725 1726 1727 1728 1729 1730 1731 1732 1733 1734 1735 1736 1737 1738 1739 1740 1741 1742 1743 1744 1745 1746 1747 1748 1749 1750 1751 1752 1753 1754 1755 1756 1757 1758 1759 1760 1761 1762 1763 1764 1765 1766 1767 1768 1769 1770


id: achaemenid-royal-inscriptions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid_royal_inscriptions-0.md
category: reference
title: Achaemenid royal inscriptions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid_royal_inscriptions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:54.546237+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: achaemenid-royal-inscriptions-20260505-0
summary:
The Achaemenid royal inscriptions are the surviving inscriptions in cuneiform script from the Achaemenid Empire, dating from the 6th to 4th century BCE (reigns of Cyrus II to Artaxerxes III). These inscriptions are primary sources for the history of the empire, along with archaeological evidence and the administrative archives of Persepolis. However, scholars are reliant on Greek sources (such as Herodotus) to reconstruct much of Achaemenid history. The Achaemenid royal inscriptions differ from earlier Assyrian and Babylonian inscriptions in their multilingualism, rhetorical style and their structure. The inscriptions are mostly trilingual – in Old Persian, Elamite and Babylonian, which use two separate scripts (Babylonian and Elamite use variants of the same cuneiform). When they appear together, the privileged position is usually occupied by the Old Persian inscription: at the top when arranged vertically, and in the middle when arranged horizontally. The initial decipherment of cuneiform was based on the Achaemenid royal inscriptions from Persepolis, later supplemented with the Behistun Inscription. Scholars deciphered the Old Persian cuneiform script first, followed by the Babylonian and Elamite language versions using the trilingual inscriptions. == Overview == The trilingual inscriptions illustrate the multi-ethnic complexity of the Achaemenid Empire: Old Persian is an Indo-European language,


id: achaemenid-royal-inscriptions-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid_royal_inscriptions-1.md
category: reference
title: Achaemenid royal inscriptions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achaemenid_royal_inscriptions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:54.546237+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: achaemenid-royal-inscriptions-20260505-0
summary:
The designations or abbreviations of the Achaemenid royal inscriptions are based on the system introduced by Roland Grubb Kent in 1953. Manfred Mayrhofer (1978), Alireza Shapour Shahbazi (1985) and Rüdiger Schmitt (2000) have expanded and modified it. Rüdiger Schmitt's 2009 Die altpersischen Inschriften der Achaimeniden is considered the modern reference work. The first letter of an inscription's designation does not designate the ruler or author, but the king whom the text expressly names, often right at the beginning in the nominative. The second capital letter designates the place of discovery and the third letter is an index used by scholars to distinguish multiple inscriptions from the same place. === Summary === The Achaemenid Royal Inscriptions online (ARIo) Project, part of the Open Richly Annotated Cuneiform Corpus, currently contains 175 composite texts with 11,712 words. A 2021 list of the Achaemenid royal inscriptions counted 179 texts, from Darius I to Artaxerxes III. This categorization places the "non-authentic" inscriptions (i.e. inscriptions are "genuine" and date from the Achaemenid period, but do not come from the king who is listed at the beginning of the inscriptions) under the king during whose reign they were produced. The best-known "non-authentic" inscriptions are AmHa and AsHa


id: list-of-anglo-saxon-cemeteries-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Anglo-Saxon_cemeteries-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Anglo-Saxon cemeteries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Anglo-Saxon_cemeteries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:55.911049+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-anglo-saxon-cemeteries-20260505-0
summary:
Anglo-Saxon cemeteries have been found in England, Wales and Scotland. The burial sites date primarily from the fifth century to the seventh century AD, before the Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England. Later Anglo-Saxon period cemeteries have been found with graves dating from the 9th to the 11th century. Burials include both inhumation and cremation. Inhumation burials before the late seventh century when pagan funerary rituals were the norm, often consisted of rectangular graves, with coffins or were lined with stones. High status burials, often held burial furniture, predominantly burial beds. Grave goods were often placed with the body, and included jewellery, especially Anglo-Saxon brooches, weapons, tools, and household items. == List of Anglo Saxon Cemeteries == This is a partial list of Anglo-Saxon Cemeteries. == External links == Anglo- Saxon treatment of older women during burial The Ghostly Treasure Ship of Sutton Hoo 1,300-year-old Anglo-Saxon cross presented to Cambridge museum == See also == Burial in Anglo-Saxon England Bed burial List of Anglo-Saxon bed burials Sutton Hoo == Further reading == Bayliss, Alex; Hines, John, eds. (2013). Anglo-Saxon Graves and Grave Goods of the 6th and 7th Centuries AD: A Chronological Framework (Society for Medieval Archaeology Monographs). Routledge. ISBN 978-1909662063. Buckberry,


id: archaeology-of-iran-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology_of_Iran-0.md
category: reference
title: Archaeology of Iran
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology_of_Iran
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:57.209815+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: archaeology-of-iran-20260505-0
summary:
The Archaeology of Iran encompasses the following subjects: == Archaeological discoveries in Iran == Archaeological sites in Iran: Achaemenid inscription in the Kharg Island Achaemenid Persian Lion Rhyton Acropole Tomb Apadana hoard Bardak Siah Palace Bushel with ibex motifs Code of Hammurabi Egyptian statue of Darius I Golden bowl of Hasanlu Great Wall of Gorgan Hasanlu Lovers Islamic ceramics from the Susa site Luristan bronze Musicians plate Narundi Nazimaruttaš kudurru stone Parchments of Avroman Parthian bas-relief at Mydan Mishan Persepolis Administrative Archives Rock art in Iran Shami statue Statue of Hercules in Behistun Victory Stele of Naram-Sin Ziwiye hoard == Archaeologists == Geneviève Dollfus Roman Ghirshman Frank Hole Wolfram Kleiss Roland de Mecquenem Jean Perrot Henry T. Wright == Iranian archaeologists == Kamyar Abdi (born 1969) Iranian; Iran, Neolithic to the Bronze Age Abbas Alizadeh (born 1951) Iranian; Iran Massoud Azarnoush (1946–2008) Iranian; Sassanid archaeology Hamed Vahdati Nasab (born 1974) Iranian; Iran, Human Evolution, Neanderthals, Paleolithic Fereidoun Biglari (born 1970) Iranian Kurdish; Paleolithic Touraj Daryaee (born 1967) Iranian; ancient Persia (Iran) Seifollah Kambakhshfard (1929–2010) Iranian; Iron Age Temple of Anahita Yousef Majidzadeh (born 1938) Iranian; Jiroft culture (Iran) Sadegh Malek Shahmirzadi (1940–2020) Iranian; ancient Persia (Iran) Marjan Mashkour (born 19??)


id: list-of-archaeologists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of archaeologists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:58.651084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-archaeologists-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of archaeologists – people who study or practise archaeology, the study of the human past through material remains. == A == Charles Conrad Abbott (1843–1919) American; advocate of early occupation of Americas Kamyar Abdi (born 1969) Iranian; Iran, Neolithic to the Bronze Age Aziz Ab'Saber (1924–2012) Brazilian; Brazil Johann Michael Ackner (1783–1862) Transylvanian; Roman Dacia Dinu Adameșteanu (1913–2004) Romanian-Italian; aerial photography, survey of sites James M. Adovasio (born 1944) U.S.; New World (esp. Pre-Clovis), perishable technologies Anagnostis Agelarakis (born 1956) Greek; archaeological and physical anthropology Yohanan Aharoni (1919–1976) Israeli; Israel Bronze Age Julius Ailio (1872–1933) Finnish; Karelian Isthmus Ekrem Akurgal (1911–2002) Turkish; Anatolia Jorge de Alarcão (born 1934) Portuguese; Roman Portugal Umberto Albarella (born 19??) Italian-British; zooarchaeology William F. Albright (1891–1971) U.S.; Orientalist Leslie Alcock (1925–2006) English; Dark Age Britain Susan E. Alcock (born 1961?) American;Greece, Roman provinces Miranda Aldhouse-Green (born 1947) British; British Iron Age and Romano-Celtic Abbas Alizadeh (born 1951) Iranian; Iran Jim Allen, (born 19??) Australian; Australia, South Pacific, Port Essington, Lapita, Polynesian Penelope Allison (born 1954) household and Roman archaeology Sedat Alp (1913–2006) Turkish; Hittitology Ruth Amiran (1915–2005) Israeli; Tel Arad George El Andary (born 1958) Lebanese; site restoration Atholl Anderson (born


id: list-of-archaeologists-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists-1.md
category: reference
title: List of archaeologists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:58.651084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-archaeologists-20260505-0
summary:
== B == Churchill Babington (1821–1889) English; classical archaeology Leila Badre (born 1943) Lebanese Paul Bahn (born 1953) English; prehistoric art (rock art), Easter Island Geoff Bailey (born 19??) English; paleo-economy, shell middens, coastal archaeology, Greece Senake Bandaranayake (1938–2015) Sri Lankan; South Asia Adolph Francis Alphonse Bandelier (1840–1914) American; American South-West, Mexico Ranuccio Bianchi Bandinelli (1900–1975) Italian; Etruscans & art Rakhaldas Bandyopadhyay (1885–1930) Indian; Mohenjo-daro, Harappa culture Edward B. Banning (born 1955) Canadian; Near Eastern archaeology, archaeological survey Luisa Banti (1894–1978) Italian; Etruscology Taha Baqir (1912–1984) Iraqi; deciphered Sumero-Akkadian mathematical tablets, Akkadian law code discoveries, Babylonia, Sumerian sites Pessah Bar-Adon (1907–1985) Israeli; Israel (Bet Shearim, Tel Bet Yerah, Nahal Mishmar hoard) Ofer Bar-Yosef (1937–2020) Israeli; Palaeolithic, Neolithic Gabriel Barkay (1944–2026) Israeli; Israel (Jerusalem, burials, art, epigraphy, Iron Age glyptics, Ketef Hinnom) Graeme Barker (born 1946) British; Italian Bronze Age, Roman Libya, landscape archaeology Philip Barker (1920–2001) British; excavation methods, historic England John C. Barrett (1949–2024) British; archaeological theory, European prehistory Alessandro Barsanti (1858–1917) Italian; Egypt (Zawyet El Aryan) Diane Barwick (1938–1986) Australian; Aboriginal culture and society George Bass (1932–2021) American; underwater archaeology Thomas Bateman (1821–1861) English; England (Derbyshire) Leopoldo Batres (1852–1926) Mexican; Meso-America (Teotihuacan, Monte Albán, Mitla La Quemada, Xochicalco)


id: list-of-archaeologists-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists-2.md
category: reference
title: List of archaeologists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:58.651084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-archaeologists-20260505-0
summary:
== C == Errett Callahan (1937–2019) American; experimental archaeology Frank Calvert (1828–1908) English; Troy Raissa Calza (1894–1979) Ukrainian; Italy (Ostia) Elizabeth Warder Crozer Campbell (1893–1971) American; California Scott Cane (born 1954) Australian; Australia, desert people of Australia Luigi Canina (1795–1856) Italian; Italy (Tusculum, Appian Way) Gheorghe I. Cantacuzino (1937–2019) Romanian; Romania Bob Carr (born 1947) American; Florida historic Indians Maureen Carroll (born 1953) British; Roman archaeology Martin Carver (born 1941) British; Early Middle Ages in Northern Europe, Sutton Hoo Howard Carter (1874–1939) English; Egypt Alfonso Caso (1896–1970) Mexican; Mexico Gertrude Caton Thompson (1888–1985) English; Egyptm Helena Cehak-Holubowiczowa (1902–1979) Polish; Poland C. W. Ceram (1915–1972) German; popularizer Dilip Chakrabarti (born 1941) Indian; South Asia (Ganges Plain) John Leland Champe (1895–1978) American?; Great Plains Jean-François Champollion (1790–1832) French; Egypt Kwang-chih Chang (1931–2001) Chinese/Taiwanese; China Doris Emerson Chapman (1903–1990) British; prehistory Arlen F. Chase (born 1953) American; Mesoamerica Diane Zaino Chase (born 1953) American; Mesoamerica George Henry Chase (1874–1952) American; Heraion of Argos Alfredo Chavero (1841–1906) Mexican; Mexico Maurice Chehab (1904–1994) Lebanese; archaeology Lebanon Chen Mengjia (1911–1966) Chinese; China Chen Tiemei (1935–2018) Chinese; scientific archaeology and radiocarbon dating Chen Xingcan(born 1964) Chinese; China, history of Chinese archaeology John F. Cherry (born 19??) Welsh;


id: list-of-archaeologists-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists-3.md
category: reference
title: List of archaeologists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:58.651084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-archaeologists-20260505-0
summary:
== D == Gaetano d'Ancora (1751–1816) Italian; Italy Albéric d'Auxy (1836–1914) Belgian; Belgium Bruno Dagens (1935–2023) French; Khmer and India Constantin Daicoviciu (1898–1973) Romanian; Romania George F. Dales (1927–1992) American; Nippur, Indus valley civilizations Mary Dallas (1952–2023) Scottish-born Australian, Aboriginal cultural heritage management Ahmad Hasan Dani (1920–2009) Pakistani; South Asian archaeology Glyn Daniel (1914–1986) Welsh; European Neolithic; popularization of archaeology Ken Dark (born 19?) British; Roman and medieval Europe and the Mediterranean, theory Raymond Dart (1893–1988) Australian; paleoanthropology: Australopithecus africanus Timothy Darvill (1957–2024) British; Britain Raksha Dave (Born 1977) British; Field and Public Archaeologist, President of Council for British Archaeology Janet Davidson (born 1941) New Zealand; New Zealand, Pacific Islands Jack L. Davis (born 1950) American; ancient Greece Theodore M. Davis (1837–1915) American; Egypt William Boyd Dawkins (1837–1929) British; antiquity of man Touraj Daryaee (born 1967) Iranian; ancient Persia (Iran) Don Martino de Zilva Wickremasinghe (1865–1937) Sri Lankan; epigraphist and archaeologist, Sri Lanka Janette Deacon (born 1939) South African; rock art, heritage management Hilary Deacon (1936–2010) South African; Africa, antiquity of man Corinne Debaine-Francfort (born 19??) French; Eastern Central Asian and protohistoric China James Deetz (1930–2000) American; historical archaeology Warren DeBoer (died May 24, 2020) American; North and South America,


id: list-of-archaeologists-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists-4.md
category: reference
title: List of archaeologists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:58.651084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-archaeologists-20260505-0
summary:
== G == Charles Godakumbura (1907–1977 ) Commissioner of Archaeology in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) from 1956 to 1967 Christopher Gaffney (born 1962) British; geophysics Vincent Gaffney (born 1958) British; landscape archaeology Lamia Al-Gailani Werr (1938–2019) Iraqi; Mesopotamian archaeology Antoine Galland (1646–1715) French; numismatics, Middle East Thomas Gann (1867–1938) Irish; Mesoamerica, Maya Sandor (Alexander) Gallus (1907–1996) Australian; Pleistocene Aboriginal occupation Koonalda Cave South Australia Dry Creek archaeological site Keilor Carl Jacob Gardberg (1926–2010) Finnish; director of the Finnish Heritage Agency Jean-Claude Gardin (1925–2013) French; Bactria, theory in archaeology, computing in archaeology Andrew Gardner (born 19??) British? Roman archaeology Percy Gardner (1846–1937) English; classical archaeology Yosef Garfinkel (born 1956) Israeli; Israel Peter Garlake (1934–2011) Zimbabwean; Zimbabwe Dorothy Garrod (1892–1968) British; paleolithic John Garstang (1876–1954) British; Anatolia, Southern Levant Kathleen O'Neal Gear (born 1954) American; US West; archaeological fiction William Gell (1777–1836) English; Classical archaeology Friedrich William Eduard Gerhard (1795–1867) German; Rome Roman Ghirshman (1895–1979) French; Persian sites in Iran and Afghanistan Diane Gifford-Gonzalez American (born 19??) zooarchaeology John Wesley Gilbert (1864–1923) first African-American archaeologist; Classical Marija Gimbutas (1921–1994) Lithuanian-American; Neolithic & Bronze Age Pere Bosch-Gimpera (1891–1974) Spanish-Mexican; prehistoric Spain Einar Gjerstad (1897–1988) Swedish; Cyprus and Rome Kathryn Gleason (born 1957) American; archaeology


id: list-of-archaeologists-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists-5.md
category: reference
title: List of archaeologists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:58.651084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-archaeologists-20260505-0
summary:
== J == Roger Jacobi (1947–2009) British; Palaeolithic and Mesolithic Britain Otto Jahn (1813–1869) German; classical world (art) Herbert Jankuhn (1905–1990) German; Haithabu (Germany) Jean-François Jarrige (1940–2014) French; South Asia Jacques Jaubert (born 1957) French; Lower Paleolithic and Middle Paleolithic, lithic technology Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826) U.S. President; Virginia prehistory Arthur J. Jelinek (1928–2022) American; Eurasian Paleolithic Jesse D. Jennings (1909–1997) American; New World Llewellyn Jewitt (1816–1886) English; British antiquities Donald Johanson (born 1943) American; paleoanthropology, Ethiopia Jotham Johnson (1905–1967) American; Minturno (Italy), past president of the Archaeological Institute of America Alexandra Jones (born 19??) American; U.S. historical archaeology Margaret Ursula Jones (1916–2001) British; Mucking, England Rebecca Jones (born 19??) British; Roman Britain Rhys Maengwyn Jones (1941–2001) Welsh/Australian; Tasmania Martha Joukowsky (1936–2022) American; Middle East (Petra), field methods Rosemary A. Joyce (born 1956) American; Honduras, gender Chris Judge (born 19??) American; eastern U.S. (Woodland, Mississippian) Elsie Jury (1910–1993) Canadian; historical archaeology of Ontario == K == Lili Kaelas (1919–2007) Swedish; Stone and Bronze Age Gilbert Kaenel (1949–2020) Swiss; Iron Age, La Tène culture Barbara Kaim (born 1952) Polish; ancient Iran, Parthian and Sasanian periods. Eduard von Kallee (1818–1888) German; Germany: found 4 Roman castra on the Limes Germanicus Richard Kallee (1854–1933)


id: list-of-archaeologists-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists-6.md
category: reference
title: List of archaeologists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:58.651084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-archaeologists-20260505-0
summary:
== M == Ma Chengyuan (1927–2004) Chinese; authority on ancient Chinese bronzes Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister (1870–1950) Irish; Palestine, Celtic archaeology Burton MacDonald (1939–c. 2022) Canadian; biblical archaeology Eve MacDonald (born 19??) Canadian; classical archaeologist John MacEnery (1797–1841) Irish; Paleolithic Richard MacNeish (1918–2001) American; Canada, Iroquois (U.S./Canada), Meso-America, discovered origins of maize Aren Maeir (born 1958) Israeli; Ancient Levant, Israel, Philistines Giuseppe Maggi (1930–2025), Italian archaeologist Mai Yinghao (1929–2016) Chinese; archaeology of the Nanyue kingdom in Guangzhou Yousef Majidzadeh (born 1938) Iranian; Jiroft culture (Iran) Sadegh Malek Shahmirzadi (1940–2020) Iranian; ancient Persia (Iran) Alexis Mallon (1875–1934) French; Levantine prehistory James Patrick Mallory (born 1945) Irish-American; Indo-European origins, proto-Celtic culture Max Mallowan (1904–1978) British; Middle East John Manley (born 1952) British; Roman Britain Joyce Marcus (born 19??) American; Latin America Auguste-Édouard Mariette (1821–1881) French; Egypt Spyridon Marinatos (1901–1974) Greek; Greece, Mycenaeans Alexander Marshack (1918–2004) American; Paleolithic era Fiona Marshall (born 19??) American; zooarchaeology and ethnoarchaeology James A. Marshall (died 2006) American; eastern North American earthworks John Hubert Marshall (1876–1958) British; Indus Valley Civilization, Taxila, Crete Pamela Marshall (born 19??) British? buildings archaeologist and castellologist Marjan Mashkour (born 19??) Iranian; zooarchaeology of Europe and Middle East J. Alden Mason (1885–1967) American; New


id: list-of-archaeologists-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists-7.md
category: reference
title: List of archaeologists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:58.651084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-archaeologists-20260505-0
summary:
== P == Athanasios Papageorgiou (1931–2022) Greek Cypriot; Cyprus Senarath Paranavithana (1896–1972) Sri Lankan; Sri Lanka, Archeological Commissioner in 1940 Sarah Parcak (born 1972) American; Egypt, remote sensing Bertha Parker (1907–1978) Abenaki, Seneca; Southwest US archaeology and ethnology Barbara Parker-Mallowan (1908–1993) English; Assyriology, epigraphy André Parrot (1901–1980) French; ancient Near East Hermann Parzinger (born 1959) German; Scythians Vasile Pârvan (1882–1927) Romanian; classical archaeology (Hitria) Timothy Pauketat (born 1961) American; Mississippian culture, Medieval studies Deborah M. Pearsall (born 1950) American; paleo-ethnobotany (phytoliths) Mike Parker Pearson (born 1957) English; Neolithic British Isles, archaeology of death and burial Richard J. Pearson (born 1938) Canadian; Pacific Pei Wenzhong (1904–1982) Chinese; China William Pengelly (1812–1894) British; England, paleolithic Francis Penrose (1817–1903) British; classical George H. Pepper (1873–1924) American; Southwest USA, Nacoochee Mound (Georgia) Peter N. Peregrine (born 1963) American; Mississippian culture, cross-cultural studies Gregory Perino (1914–2005) American; Woodland, and Mississippian cultures in Illinois and Oklahoma John Shae Perring (1813–1869) British; Egyptian pyramids Hilda Petrie (1871–1957) British; Egyptology William Matthew Flinders Petrie (1853–1942) British; Egypt, methodology, ceramic typology Stewart Perowne (1901–1989) British; Imadia and Beihan Alejandro Peschard Fernández (born 19??) Mexican; Meso-America Philip Phillips (1900–1994) American; theory, eastern and central United States Alexandre Piankoff (1897–1966) Russian;


id: list-of-archaeologists-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists-8.md
category: reference
title: List of archaeologists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:58.651084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-archaeologists-20260505-0
summary:
== S == Jeremy Sabloff (born 1944) American; Maya Sadeq, Moain (Mohammedmoin) (born 1955) Palestinian; Palestine and the Gulf region Saad Abbas Ismail (born 1980) Kurdish; International archaeologist, Syria Antonio Sagona (1956–2017); Australian; Near East, Caucasus Sharada Srinivasan (born 1966) Indian; archaeometallurgy, India Roderick Salisbury (born 1967) American; ideology, soil chemistry, GIS, S.E. Europe (Neolithic) William T. Sanders (1926–2008) American; Mesoamerica Viktor Sarianidi (1929–2013) Uzbekistani; Bronze Age, Central Asia William Saturno (born 19??) American; Mayan site San Bartolo Otto Schaden (1937–2015) American; Egypt Claude Schaeffer (1898–1982) French; Ugarit Michael Brian Schiffer (born 1947) American (born in Canada); behavioural archaeology, method and theory Heinrich Schliemann (1822–1890) German; Troy, Mycenae, Tiryn Philippe-Charles Schmerling (1790–1836) Belgian; founder of paleontology: antiquity of man Klaus Schmidt (1953–2014) German; Göbekli Tepe, Turkey Alain Schnapp (born 1946) French; Classical archaeology: iconography of Greek vases Carmel Schrire (born 1941) Australian; Australia, South Africa Francesco Scipone (1675–1755) Italian; Etruscans Leslie Scott (1913–1970) British; UK, France, Italy, possibly Iraq Assaad Seif (born 1967) Lebanese; archaeology of Lebanon Mercy Seiradaki (1910–1993) English; Knossos Ovid R. Sellers (1884–1975) American; Biblical Old Testament Gemma Sena Chiesa (1929–2024) Italian; Roman Jean Baptiste Louis George Seroux D'Agincourt (1730–1814) French; ancient monumental art Veronica Seton-Williams (1910–1992)


id: list-of-archaeologists-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists-9.md
category: reference
title: List of archaeologists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:58.651084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-archaeologists-20260505-0
summary:
== V == Laima Vaitkunskienė (born 1936) Lithuanian; Medieval Lithuania Heiki Valk (born 1959) Estonian; Medieval Estonia Ron Vanderwal (1938–2021), Australian; Torres Strait, New Guinea Parviz Varjavand (1934–2007) Iranian; ancient Iran (Persia) Peter van Dommelen (born 1966), Dutch; Western Mediterranean and Phoenician-Punic archaeology William Jones Varley (1904–1976) British; English Iron Age hill forts Miloje Vasić (1869–1956) Serbian; Neolithic archaeological culture: Vinča culture Roland de Vaux (1903–1971) French; Biblical archaeology: Dead-Sea Scrolls Marius Vazeilles (1881–1973) French; Gallo-Roman archaeology, Merovingian archaeology Bruce Veitch (1957–2005) Australian; Mitchell Plateau and Pilbara Western Australia; Bruce Veitch Award Alan Vince (1952–2009) British; British ceramics Zdenko Vinski (1913–1996) Croatian; Croatia Rudolf Virchow (1821–1902) German; Pomeranian hill-forts Dominique Vivant Denon (1747–1827) French; Egyptian art Ida von Boxberg (1806–1893), German archaeologist Alexandru Vulpe (1931–2016) Romanian; Hallstatt == W == Alan Wace (1879–1957) English; Greece (especially Mycenae Marc Waelkens (1948–2021) Belgian; Turkish archaeology Tony Waldron (died 2021) British; palaeopathologist and palaeoepidemiologist Alice Leslie Walker (1885–1954) American, classical archaeologist Andrew Frederic Wallace-Hadrill (born 1951) British, classical archaeologist (Pompeii) Lynley A. Wallis (born 19??) Australian; Indigenous and historical archaeology Wang Tao (archaeologist) (born 1962) Chinese-British; Chinese archaeology Wang Zhongshu (1925–2015) Chinese; Chinese and Japanese archaeology Graeme K. Ward (born 1943) Australian; Polynesia,


id: archaeology-of-romania-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology_of_Romania-0.md
category: reference
title: Archaeology of Romania
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology_of_Romania
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:51:59.867956+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: archaeology-of-romania-20260505-0
summary:
The archaeology of Romania began in the 19th century with the establishment of the Vasile Pârvan Institute of Archaeology in Bucharest in 1834 (since 1866 as part of the Romanian Academy). The institute has been publishing the journal Dacia since 1924. The National Museum of Antiquities, established in the 19th century, was merged into the Institute in 1956. The journal Arheologia Moldovei ("Archaeology of Moldavia") was founded in 1961 in Iași, and has been published there ever since. The Iași Institute of Archaeology, founded in 1990 as part of the Romanian Academy, has taken over its publication. That same year, the Institute of Archaeology and Art History, Cluj-Napoca was founded as well. Archaeological looting in Romania has been a recurring issue in the early 21st century. == Archaeologists == Alexandru Odobescu (1834—1895) Grigore Tocilescu (1850–1909) Vasile Pârvan (1882–1927) Constantin Daicoviciu (1898–1973) living Gheorghe I. Cantacuzino (b. 1938) == Institutes == Institute of Archaeology and Art History in Cluj-Napoca Vasile Pârvan Institute of Archaeology in Bucharest == Museums == Archaeology Museum Piatra Neamț Iron Gates Region Museum Museum of Dacian and Roman Civilisation National Museum of Romanian History National Museum of Transylvanian History == Sites == Acidava (Enoşeşti) – Dacian, Roman


id: list-of-bog-bodies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_bog_bodies-0.md
category: reference
title: List of bog bodies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_bog_bodies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:01.447662+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-bog-bodies-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of bog bodies grouped by location of discovery. Bog bodies, or bog people, are the naturally preserved corpses of humans and some animals recovered from peat bogs. The bodies have been most commonly found in the northern European countries of Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and Ireland. Reports of bog bodies surfaced during the early 18th century. In 1965, the German scientist Alfred Dieck catalogued more than 1,850 bog bodies, but later scholarship revealed much of Dieck's work was erroneous. Hundreds of bog bodies have been recovered and studied, although it is believed that only around 45 remain intact today. == How to use this list == There may be more than one name in the "name" category, which may also be used to show alternate spellings for names of the bog body. The location category shows the city or state in which the bog body was discovered, although some bog bodies are discovered on borders between countries. The carbon-14 dating is used to determine an age range based on examination of the half lives of carbon isotopes. The "sex" category describes whether the find was male, female, or undetermined. The "description" category depicts


id: list-of-bronze-age-hoards-in-great-britain-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Bronze_Age_hoards_in_Great_Britain-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Bronze Age hoards in Great Britain
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Bronze_Age_hoards_in_Great_Britain
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:02.815115+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-bronze-age-hoards-in-great-britain-20260505-0
summary:
The list of Bronze Age hoards in Britain comprises significant archaeological hoards of jewellery, precious and scrap metal objects and other valuable items discovered in Great Britain (England, Scotland and Wales) that are associated with the British Bronze Age, approximately 2700 BC to 8th century BC. It includes both hoards that were buried with the intention of retrieval at a later date (personal hoards, founder's hoards, merchant's hoards, and hoards of loot), and also hoards of votive offerings which were not intended to be recovered at a later date, but excludes grave goods and single items found in isolation. == List of hoards == == See also == List of hoards in Britain List of Iron Age hoards in Britain List of Roman hoards in Britain == Notes == == Footnotes == == References == Barton, Caroline; Hitchcock, Fi, eds. (2008). Treasure Annual Report 2005/6 (PDF). Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2012. Bland, Roger, ed. (2000). Treasure Annual Report 1998–1999 (PDF). Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2012. Bland, Roger; Voden-Decker, Lisa, eds. (2002). Treasure Annual Report 2000 (PDF). Department for Culture, Media


id: list-of-caskets-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_caskets-0.md
category: reference
title: List of caskets
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_caskets
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:04.037742+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-caskets-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of individual caskets with articles: Shinkot casket, 2nd century BC, Buddhist container for reliquaries, Gandhara, stone Bajaur casket, 5–6 AD, Gandhara (now Pakistan), stone reliquary Kanishka Casket, 127, Kushan Empire (now Pakistan), gilded copper reliquary Bimaran casket, 1st century, Afghanistan, gold reliquary Brescia Casket, late 4th century, Italy, ivory reliquary Pyxis of Čierne Kľačany, perhaps 4th-century, Byzantine, ivory Franks Casket, early 8th century, Northumbria (now Northern England and south-east Scotland), bone (whale) Pyxis of Zamora, 964, Islamic Spain, ivory Pyxis of al-Mughira, 968, Islamic Spain, ivory Troyes Casket, 10th or 11th century, Byzantine (found in France), ivory Veroli Casket, late 10th or early 11th century, Constantinople (now known as Istanbul), ivory Cammin Casket, c. 1000, Scandinavia (lost in the Second World War of 1939–1945, although copies and a plaster cast remain), metal reliquary Leyre Casket, 1004–1005, Caliphate of Córdoba, Islamic Spain, ivory Uttoxeter Casket, c. 1050, Anglo-Saxon England, wood Morgan Casket, 11th–12th centuries, Southern Italy, ivory Becket Casket, 1180–1190, France, metal chasse reliquary Casket of Saint Cugat, early 14th century, Catalonia (now Spain), metal Casket with Scenes of Romances (Walters 71264), 1330–1350, France, ivory Noli me tangere casket, 1356, Germany Royal Casket, 1800, Poland, wood with


id: catacombs-of-malta-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catacombs_of_Malta-0.md
category: reference
title: Catacombs of Malta
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catacombs_of_Malta
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:05.403738+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: catacombs-of-malta-20260505-0
summary:
There are hundreds of catacombs in Malta, principally found in Mdina, the former capital of the island. The catacombs are very small, but are in good preservation. Many of the catacombs were included on the Antiquities List of 1925. Vincent Zammit notes that catacombs developed from earlier rock-cut tombs. Wherever burial places were discovered, it is generally presumed that a small community lived in the area. The catacombs are characterised by spaciousness, a smaller extent than those found in other countries, similar in types of tombs to others found around the Mediterranean, but having their own particular type of decorations. Decorations, nevertheless, are rare, which may indicate that with the exception of a few families who had their own private tombs, the community was not wealthy. Prof. George Cassar observed that the catacombs of Malta have educational value. "They are the key to the understanding of the development of religious rites and beliefs and indicate the birth and spread of Christianity among the small community of Maltese living on the islands. This mysterious yet concrete environment helps towards the creation of a pedagogical setting which the educator can utilise to the full." == Catacombs of Malta == The catacombs include:


id: list-of-chinese-cultural-relics-forbidden-to-be-exhibited-abroad-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Chinese_cultural_relics_forbidden_to_be_exhibited_abroad-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Chinese cultural relics forbidden to be exhibited abroad
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Chinese_cultural_relics_forbidden_to_be_exhibited_abroad
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:06.938339+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chinese-cultural-relics-forbidden-to-be-exhibited-abroad-20260505-0
summary:
The list of Chinese cultural relics forbidden to be exhibited abroad (Chinese: 禁止出境展览文物; pinyin: Jìnzhǐ Chūjìng Zhǎnlǎn Wénwù) comprises a list of antiquities and archaeological artifacts held by various museums and other institutions in the People's Republic of China, which the Chinese government has officially prohibited, since 2003, from being taken abroad for exhibition. Many of the relics on the list symbolize the breakthrough of archaeological discoveries that were made in China since the mid-20th century, when archaeology as a modern science began to take root in China. These items are among the most important excavated treasures in China, and have a particular historical, cultural or artistic significance. The list was first announced in January 2002, with a second batch of items added to the list in June 2012, and a third batch added the next year in July 2013. == Government regulations prohibiting exhibition abroad == According to Article 49 of the Regulations for the Implementation of the Law of the People's Republic of China on Protection of Cultural Relics (State Council Decree No. 377) promulgated on 18 May 2003: The only existing or fragile relics among the grade-one relics are prohibited from being taken out of the country


id: list-of-coin-hoards-in-china-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_coin_hoards_in_China-0.md
category: reference
title: List of coin hoards in China
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_coin_hoards_in_China
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:08.482063+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-coin-hoards-in-china-20260505-0
summary:
The list of coin hoards in China (traditional Chinese: 中國錢幣窖藏清單; simplified Chinese: 中国钱币窖藏列表; pinyin: zhōng guó qián bì jiào cáng liè biǎo) lists significant archaeological hoards of coins, other types of coinages (e.g. sycees) or objects related to coins discovered in China (the People's Republic of China in Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, and the Free area of the Republic of China, e.g. Taiwan). The history of Chinese currency dates back as early as the Spring and Autumn period (770–476 BCE), and the earliest coinages took the form of imitations of the cowrie shells that were used in ceremonial exchanges. During the Warring States period new forms of currency such as the spade money, knife money, and round copper-alloy coins were introduced (further reading: Zhou dynasty coinage and Ancient Chinese coinage). After unification of China under the Qin dynasty in 221 BC the Ban Liang (半兩) cash coin became the standard coinage, under the Han dynasty the Wu Zhu (五銖) cash coins became the main currency of China until they were replaced with the Kaiyuan Tongbao (開元通寳) during the Tang dynasty, after which a large number of inscriptions were used on Chinese coinages. During the late nineteenth century China started


id: list-of-coin-hoards-in-vietnam-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_coin_hoards_in_Vietnam-0.md
category: reference
title: List of coin hoards in Vietnam
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_coin_hoards_in_Vietnam
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:09.812590+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-coin-hoards-in-vietnam-20260505-0
summary:
The list of coin hoards in Vietnam comprises significant archaeological hoards of coins, other types of coinages (e.g. sycees) or objects related to coins discovered in Vietnam. The history of Vietnamese currency, independent from China, dates back to the Đinh dynasty period with the Thái Bình Hưng Bảo (太平興寶), produced from 970 to 979. The Vietnamese produced cash coins similar to the ones produced in China and circulated alongside Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Ryukyuan cash coins brought into the country through international trade. Cash coins continued to be produced in Vietnam until the 1940s under the Nguyễn dynasty. Through international trade foreign currencies such as Spanish dollars and Mexican reals were brought into the country by merchants and these coins would continue to circulate in Vietnam until the French colonial administration outlawed their usage on January 1, 1906, in favour of their own coinage, while Vietnamese cash coins were permitted to continue circulating. Despite the presence of coinages barter persisted until the 20th century. Following its declaration of independence in 1945 the Democratic Republic of Vietnam started issuing its own currency in 1946, while allowing cash coins to circulate until 1948. In 1952 the piastre was abolished and replaced with


id: archaeology-by-country-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology_by_country-0.md
category: reference
title: Archaeology by country
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology_by_country
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:11.135675+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: archaeology-by-country-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of articles covering the archaeology of present-day nations, states, and dependencies. Countries are listed in bold under their respective pages, whereas territories and dependencies are not. Disputed and unrecognized countries are italicized. == A == Archaeology of Afghanistan – Islamic Republic of Afghanistan Archaeology of Albania – Republic of Albania Archaeology of Algeria – People's Democratic Republic of Algeria Archaeology of Andorra – Principality of Andorra Archaeology of Angola – Republic of Angola Archaeology of Antigua and Barbuda – Antigua and Barbuda Archaeology of Argentina – Argentine Republic Archaeology of Armenia – Republic of Armenia Archaeology of Aruba – Aruba (Dutch crown dependency) Archaeology of Australia – Australia Archaeology of Austria – Republic of Austria Archaeology of Azerbaijan – Republic of Azerbaijan == B == Archaeology of the Bahamas – Commonwealth of The Bahamas Archaeology of Bahrain – Kingdom of Bahrain Archaeology of Bangladesh – People's Republic of Bangladesh Archaeology of Barbados – Barbados Archaeology of Belarus – Republic of Belarus Archaeology of Belgium – Kingdom of Belgium Archaeology of Belize – Belize Archaeology of Benin – Republic of Benin Archaeology of Bhutan – Kingdom of Bhutan Archaeology of Bolivia – Plurinational State of Bolivia Archaeology


id: archaeology-by-country-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology_by_country-1.md
category: reference
title: Archaeology by country
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology_by_country
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:11.135675+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: archaeology-by-country-20260505-0
summary:
== L == Archaeology of Laos – Lao People's Democratic Republic Archaeology of Latvia – Republic of Latvia Archaeology of Lebanon – Republic of Lebanon Archaeology of Lesotho – Kingdom of Lesotho Archaeology of Liberia – Republic of Liberia Archaeology of Libya – Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya Archaeology of Liechtenstein – Principality of Liechtenstein Archaeology of Lithuania – Republic of Lithuania Archaeology of Luxembourg – Grand Duchy of Luxembourg == M == Archaeology of Madagascar – Republic of Madagascar Archaeology of Malawi – Republic of Malawi Archaeology of Malaysia – Malaysia Archaeology of the Maldives – Republic of Maldives Archaeology of Mali – Republic of Mali Archaeology of Malta – Republic of Malta Archaeology of the Marshall Islands – Republic of the Marshall Islands Archaeology of Mauritania – Islamic Republic of Mauritania Archaeology of Mauritius – Republic of Mauritius Archaeology of Mayotte – Mayotte (French overseas community) Archaeology of Mexico – United Mexican States Archaeology of the Federated States of Micronesia – Federated States of Micronesia Archaeology of Moldova – Republic of Moldova Archaeology of Monaco – Principality of Monaco Archaeology of Mongolia – Mongolia Archaeology of Montenegro – Republic of Montenegro Archaeology of Montserrat – Montserrat (UK


id: list-of-archaeological-sites-by-country-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_sites_by_country-0.md
category: reference
title: List of archaeological sites by country
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_sites_by_country
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:12.622994+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-archaeological-sites-by-country-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of notable archaeological sites sorted by country and territories. == Afghanistan == == Albania == == Algeria == == Argentina == == Armenia == == Australia == == Austria == == Azerbaijan == == Bahrain == == Bangladesh == == Belgium == == Belize == == Bolivia == == Bosnia and Herzegovina == == Brazil == == Bulgaria == == Burkina Faso == Ancient Ferrous Metallurgy Sites of Burkina Faso Ruins of Loropéni == Cambodia == == Canada == == Chile == == China == == Colombia == == Costa Rica == Guayabo == Croatia == == Cuba == == Cyprus == == Czech Republic == Mladec (Mladeč) – Homo 31.000 years ago Dolni Vestonice settlement == Denmark == == Ecuador == == Egypt == == El Salvador == Cara Sucia Joya de Cerén Quelepa San Andrés Tazumal == Eritrea == Gash Group Buya Metera Qohayto Keskese Adulis Mendefera Sembel == Estonia == Pulli settlement Rebala == Ethiopia == Hadar, Ethiopia Gendebelo Omo remains Mifsas Bahri Bouri Formation == Finland == Astuvansalmi Ukonkivi Wolf Cave == France == Grotte du Vallonnet Terra Amata Chauvet Cave Lascaux Glanum Glozel Carnac Stones == Georgia == Armazi Dmanisi Nokalakevi


id: list-of-the-dead-sea-scrolls-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_the_Dead_Sea_Scrolls-0.md
category: reference
title: List of the Dead Sea Scrolls
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_the_Dead_Sea_Scrolls
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:14.095951+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-the-dead-sea-scrolls-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of the Dead Sea Scrolls from the caves near Qumran. The Dead Sea Scrolls are a collection of manuscripts discovered between 1946 and 1956 in the West Bank near the Dead Sea. == List of manuscripts == The content of many scrolls hasn't been fully published. Some resources for more complete information on the scrolls are the book by Emanuel Tov, "Revised Lists of the Texts from the Judaean Desert" for a complete list of all of the Dead Sea Scroll texts, as well as the online webpages for the Shrine of the Book and the Leon Levy Collection, both of which present photographs and images of the scrolls and fragments themselves for closer study. Information is not always comprehensive, as content for many scrolls has not yet been fully published. === Qumran Cave 1 === Description Wadi Qumran Cave 1 was discovered for the first time in 1946. The initial discovery, by Bedouin shepherd Muhammed edh-Dhib, his cousin Jum'a Muhammed, and Khalil Musa, took place between November 1946 and February 1947. The shepherds discovered seven scrolls housed in jars in a cave near what is now known as the Qumran site, and they took


id: list-of-designations-under-the-protection-of-wrecks-act-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_designations_under_the_Protection_of_Wrecks_Act-0.md
category: reference
title: List of designations under the Protection of Wrecks Act
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_designations_under_the_Protection_of_Wrecks_Act
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:15.502553+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-designations-under-the-protection-of-wrecks-act-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of all sites designated under the Protection of Wrecks Act 1973. The designated sites are shown on charts and notified to mariners. Historic England (formerly English Heritage) provides administration of the arrangements under the Act in England and publishes information on each site. In May 2011, it launched an online searchable database of all protected wreck sites in English territorial waters, the National Heritage List for England, which includes the location co-ordinates, designation list entry description and brief historical details for each site. The administration of designated historic wrecks in Scotland is managed by Historic Environment Scotland, and in Wales by Cadw. == List of designations under section 1 of the Protection of Wrecks Act (1973) == === De-designations (Section 1) === == List of designations under section 2 of the Protection of Wrecks Act (1973) == Section 2 of the act designates wrecks categorised as dangerous. === De-designations (Section 2) === == Notes and references == === Notes on Section 1 designations === A References are to the designation order and explanatory note. All statutory instruments since 1987 are available on-line from the Office of Public Sector Information. A concatenation of designation orders including those


id: list-of-designations-under-the-protection-of-wrecks-act-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_designations_under_the_Protection_of_Wrecks_Act-1.md
category: reference
title: List of designations under the Protection of Wrecks Act
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_designations_under_the_Protection_of_Wrecks_Act
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:15.502553+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-designations-under-the-protection-of-wrecks-act-20260505-0
summary:
A54 HMS Campania: designated 1 December 2001 A55 The Diamond: designated 2 April 2002, the first such designation under devolved powers by the National Assembly for Wales A56 Bonhomme Richard: designated 18 July 2002 A57 Swash Channel: designated 10 December 2004 A58 Holland V: designated 4 January 2005 A59 West Bay: designated 19 July 2005 A60 Resolution: designated 14 June 2006 A61 Rooswijk: designated 18 January 2007, redesignated 23 February 2018 A62 Wheel Wreck: designated 5 April 2007 A63 HMS London: designated 24 October 2008, redesignated 31 July 2012:- A64 Goodwin and Downs 8: designated 3 August 2012:- A65 Unknown wooden sailing vessel: designated 31 July 2013:- A66 Association: designated 21 March 2014:- A67 HMS A3: designated 21 July 2016:- A68 SM U-8: designated 21 July 2016:- A69 Holigost: designated 21 July 2016:- A70 HMT Arfon: designated 16 August 2016:- A71 Chesil Beach cannon: designated 18 August 2017:- A72 UC-70: designated 18 August 2017:- A73 Unknown vessel: designated 5 July 2019:- A74 Shingles Bank Wreck NW68: designated 2 June 2022:- A75 Shingles Bank Wreck NW96: designated 2 June 2022:- A76 Mortar Wreck: designated 2 June 2022:- === Notes on Responsible Authorities === B Management of Protected wrecksites designated under section


id: list-of-archaeological-excavations-by-date-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_excavations_by_date-0.md
category: reference
title: List of archaeological excavations by date
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_excavations_by_date
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:16.801448+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-archaeological-excavations-by-date-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of significant archaeological expeditions by date, which include first excavations at important sites, or expeditions that uncovered important objects. == 1500s == Pompeii - 1599 - Domenico Fontana called when the digging of an underground channel to divert the river Sarno ran into ancient walls covered with paintings and inscriptions. == 1600s == Ur - 1625 - Pietro Della Valle noted bricks with cuneiform writing and stone seals at the site of Ur. == 1700s == Julliberrie's Grave - 1702 - Heneage Finch == 1800s == === 1810s === Babylon - 1811–12 - Claudius Rich === 1840s === Dur-Sharrukin (Knorsabad) - 1842 - Paul-Émile Botta Ninevah - 1843 - Paul-Émile Botta Ninevah - 1845 - Austen Henry Layard Dur-Sharrukin (Knorsabad) - 1847 - Austen Henry Layard found Sennacherib's palace, and the library of Ashurbanipal === 1850s === Larsa - 1850 - William Loftus Nippur - 1851 - Austen Henry Layard Borsippa - 1854 - Henry Creswicke Rawlinson Eridu - 1855 - John George Taylor === 1870s === Troy - 1871-1879 - Heinrich Schliemann conducted two excavations at the site, determining that the city pre-dated the Classical era === 1880s === Sippar - 1880-81 - Hormuzd Rassam


id: list-of-archaeological-excavations-in-jerusalem-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_excavations_in_Jerusalem-0.md
category: reference
title: List of archaeological excavations in Jerusalem
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_excavations_in_Jerusalem
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:18.145296+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-archaeological-excavations-in-jerusalem-20260505-0
summary:
List of archaeological excavations in Jerusalem is an incomplete list of archaeological excavations in Jerusalem. In 1952 Father Jan Jozef Simons published Jerusalem in the Old Testament: Researches and Theories, which was a complete list of all archaeological excavations in Jerusalem up until the Second World War; the book become the "Jerusalem Bible" for archaeologists. Small scale excavations continued between 1948 and 1967, but the modern excavation of the city accelerated only after Israel's capture of East Jerusalem in 1967. == 19th Century == The nineteenth century saw much interest in Jerusalem develop. British Protestants, eager to find hard evidence for their Christian convictions, set out to dig the Holy City. Among them were Flinders Petrie, Charles Warren, Charles William Wilson and Montague Parker. == The British Mandate == During the Mandate, efforts to excavate Jerusalem continued with digs by R. A. Stewart Macalister in the City of David. == Jordanian Rule == Under Jordanian rule, Kathleen Kenyon excavated in the City of David, discovering numerous important finds including the proto-Ionic capital. == Summary Table == == Bibliography == Margreet Steiner, 2016, From Jerusalem with Love, History, Archaeology and The Bible Forty Years After “Historicity”. Changing Perspectives 6, edited by


id: list-of-hoards-in-great-britain-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hoards_in_Great_Britain-0.md
category: reference
title: List of hoards in Great Britain
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hoards_in_Great_Britain
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:19.641896+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-hoards-in-great-britain-20260505-0
summary:
The list of hoards in Great Britain comprises significant archaeological hoards of coins, jewellery, precious and scrap metal objects and other valuable items discovered in Great Britain (England, Scotland and Wales). It includes both hoards that were buried with the intention of retrieval at a later date (personal hoards, founder's hoards, merchant's hoards, and hoards of loot), and also hoards of votive offerings which were not intended to be recovered at a later date, but excludes grave goods and single items found in isolation. The list is subdivided into sections according to archaeological and historical periods. == Neolithic hoards == Hoards dating to the Neolithic period, approximately 4000 to 2000 BC, comprise stone weapons and tools such as axeheads and arrowheads. Such hoards are very rare, and only a few are known from Britain. == Bronze Age hoards == A large number of hoards associated with the British Bronze Age, approximately 2700 BC to 8th century BC, have been found in Great Britain. Most of these hoards comprise bronze tools and weapons such as axeheads, chisels, spearheads and knives, and in many cases may be founder's hoards buried with the intention of recovery at a later date for use in


id: list-of-hoards-in-the-channel-islands-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hoards_in_the_Channel_Islands-0.md
category: reference
title: List of hoards in the Channel Islands
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hoards_in_the_Channel_Islands
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:21.008698+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-hoards-in-the-channel-islands-20260505-0
summary:
The list of hoards in the Channel Islands comprises significant archaeological hoards of coins, jewellery, precious and scrap metal objects and other valuable items discovered in the Channel Islands (Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, Sark, Herm and associated smaller islands). It includes both hoards that were buried with the intention of retrieval at a later date (personal hoards, founder's hoards, merchant's hoards, and hoards of loot), and also hoards of votive offerings which were not intended to be recovered at a later date, but excludes grave goods and single items found in isolation. The list is subdivided into sections according to archaeological and historical periods. At least fifteen hoards have been found in the Channel Islands since the early 18th century, most of them in Jersey, and only one each in Guernsey, Alderney and Sark. Of the known hoards, about a third date to the Bronze Age and are mostly founder's hoards comprising broken tools, weapons and other scrap metal buried with the intention of recovery at a later date for use in casting new bronze items. Another third are hoards of Iron Age Celtic coins, mostly coins called staters cast in debased silver (billon alloy), the majority deriving from Armorica (modern


id: list-of-hoards-in-the-isle-of-man-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hoards_in_the_Isle_of_Man-0.md
category: reference
title: List of hoards in the Isle of Man
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hoards_in_the_Isle_of_Man
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:22.347475+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-hoards-in-the-isle-of-man-20260505-0
summary:
The list of hoards in the Isle of Man comprises significant archaeological hoards of coins, jewellery, precious and scrap metal objects and other valuable items discovered in the Isle of Man. It includes both hoards that were buried with the intention of retrieval at a later date (personal hoards, founder's hoards, merchant's hoards, and hoards of loot), and also hoards of votive offerings which were not intended to be recovered at a later date, but excludes grave goods and single items found in isolation. The list is subdivided into sections according to archaeological and historical periods. == Viking hoards == From the 9th to the 13th centuries the Isle of Man was part of the Viking-ruled Kingdom of the Isles, and several significant hoards from this period have been found on the Isle of Man. Viking hoards generally comprise a mixture of silver coins, silver jewellery and hacksilver that has been taken in loot. == Later Medieval hoards == Hoards dating to the later medieval period, from 1066 to about 1500, mostly comprise silver pennies. == See also == List of hoards in Great Britain List of hoards in Ireland List of hoards in the Channel Islands List of metal


id: list-of-industrial-archaeology-topics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_industrial_archaeology_topics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of industrial archaeology topics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_industrial_archaeology_topics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:23.613144+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-industrial-archaeology-topics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of topics typically studied by students of industrial archaeology. It is grouped into industry sectors: Extractive, Manufacturing, Public Utilities, Transport, Miscellaneous. == Extractive == === Mining === Adit Air vent Mine, Copper mine, Coal mine, Gold mine, Tin mine, Zinc mine Shaft mining === Quarrying === Clayworks Sand pits Gravel pit Powder house == Manufacturing == Beam engine Brewery Brewing Brick kiln Cement works Creamery Dairy Distillery Distilling Factory Forge glass Granary Hopper Kiln Pottery Silk Industry Spinning, Spinning jenny, Spinning mill, Spinning mule Stationary engine Steam engine Warehouse Weaving, Loom, Jacquard loom, Dobby loom, Shaft loom, Power loom, Flying shuttle Windpump === Mills === Boring mill Cotton mill Five-sail windmill Flax mill Flint mill Fulling mill - see Fulling Gristmill Hand mill Iron mill Lumber mill Millrace Mill engine Mill stone Oil mill Post mill Rolling mill Saw mill Smock mill Spinning mill Steel rolling mill Tailrace Textile mill Tide mill Tower mill Watermill Waterwheel Windmill Woollen mill == Public Utilities == === Electricity === Power station Turbine === Gas === Gasometer Retort house === Water === Dam Pumping station Reservoir Sewage treatment Water treatment Water tower === Steam === District heating === Hydraulic power


id: list-of-inscriptions-in-biblical-archaeology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inscriptions_in_biblical_archaeology-0.md
category: reference
title: List of inscriptions in biblical archaeology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inscriptions_in_biblical_archaeology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:24.918901+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inscriptions-in-biblical-archaeology-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of inscribed artifacts, items made or given shape by humans, that are significant to biblical archaeology. == Selected artifacts significant to biblical chronology == This table lists inscriptions which are of particular significance to the study of biblical chronology. References are from ANET and COS and link to editio princeps (EP), if known. === Egyptian === ==== Other significant Egyptian artifacts ==== Execration texts – earliest references to many Biblical locations Papyrus Brooklyn 35.1446 – A document that lists the names of 45 individuals, including a Canaanite woman named "Šp-ra." Scholars assume that this is a hieroglyphic transliteration of the Hebrew name "Shiphrah," which also appears in Exodus 1:15–21. However, while the name may be related, the document dates to c. 1833–1743 BCE (centuries before the biblical Shiphra would have lived). Ipuwer Papyrus – poem describing Egypt as afflicted by natural disasters and in a state of chaos. The document is dated to around 1250 BC but the content is thought to be earlier, dated back to the Middle Kingdom, though no earlier than the late Twelfth Dynasty. Once thought to describe the biblical Exodus, it is now considered the world's earliest known treatise on


id: list-of-inscriptions-in-biblical-archaeology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inscriptions_in_biblical_archaeology-1.md
category: reference
title: List of inscriptions in biblical archaeology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inscriptions_in_biblical_archaeology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:24.918901+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inscriptions-in-biblical-archaeology-20260505-0
summary:
Early Paleo-Hebrew writing – contenders for the earliest Hebrew inscriptions include the Gezer calendar, Biblical period ostraca at Elah and Izbet Sartah, and the Zayit Stone Yeho'ezer ben Hosh'ayahu seal – 2,700 year old seal discovered in 2024 in Jerusalem. Neo-Assyrian-style amulet thought to be from First Temple Period, likely Judahite senior administrator Pim weight – evidence of the use of an ancient source for the Book of Samuel due to the use of an archaic term. Khirbet Qeiyafa ostracon – 10th century BC inscription – both the language it is written in and the translation are disputed. Was discovered in excavations near Israel's Elah valley. Tell es-Safi inscription (10th to mid 9th centuries BC) – Potsherd inscribed with the two names "alwt" and "wlt", etymologically related to the name Goliath and demonstrate that the name fits with the context of late-tenth/early-ninth-century BC Philistine culture. Found at Tell es-Safi, the traditional identification of Gath. Ophel pithos is a 3,000-year-old inscribed fragment of a ceramic jar found near Jerusalem's Temple Mount by archeologist Eilat Mazar. It is the earliest alphabetical inscription found in Jerusalem written in what was probably Proto-Canaanite script. Some scholars believe it to be an inscription of the


id: list-of-inscriptions-in-biblical-archaeology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inscriptions_in_biblical_archaeology-2.md
category: reference
title: List of inscriptions in biblical archaeology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inscriptions_in_biblical_archaeology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:24.918901+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inscriptions-in-biblical-archaeology-20260505-0
summary:
Ketef Hinnom scrolls – Probably the oldest surviving texts currently known from the Hebrew Bible – priestly blessing dated to 600 BC. Text from the Book of Numbers in the Old Testament. Described as "one of most significant discoveries ever made" for biblical studies. Lachish letters – letters written in carbon ink by Hoshaiah (cf. Nehemiah 12:32, Jeremiah 42:1, 43:2), a military officer stationed near Jerusalem, to Joash the commanding officer at Lachish during the last years of Jeremiah during Zedekiah's reign (c.588 BC) (see Jeremiah 34:7). Lachish fell soon after, two years before the fall of Jerusalem. Lachish ewer – a pot with sacred trees and more, often mentioned in academic discussion Arad ostraca – the "House of Yahweh" ostracon is an ancient pottery fragment discovered at Tel Arad probably referring to the Temple at Jerusalem. Elephantine papyri – ancient Jewish papyri dating to the 5th century BC, name three persons mentioned in Nehemiah: Darius II, Sanballat the Horonite and Johanan the high priest. Hasmonean coinage (164–35 BC) === Greek and Latin === ==== Other significant Greek and Latin artifacts ==== Pilate Stone (c. 36 AD) – carved inscription attributed to Pontius Pilate, a prefect of the Roman-controlled province


id: list-of-iranian-artifacts-abroad-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Iranian_artifacts_abroad-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Iranian artifacts abroad
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Iranian_artifacts_abroad
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:26.282016+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iranian-artifacts-abroad-20260505-0
summary:
List of Iranian artifacts abroad is a list of notable Iranian and Persian antiquities outside Iran, especially in museums. Most of these were found outside modern Iran, either in parts of the former Persian Empire, or places influenced by it. == Middle East == === Afghanistan === Tillya Tepe, commonly referred to as the Bactrian Gold, is a significant archaeological discovery consisting of approximately 20,600 ornaments, coins, and artifacts crafted from gold, silver, ivory, and other materials. These items were unearthed from six richly adorned burial mounds (five female and one male) dated to the 1st century BCE–1st century CE. The collection includes necklaces inlaid with semi-precious stones, intricately designed belts, medallions, and a crown. The site of Yemshi Tepe, a fortified settlement located about 5 km northeast of modern Sheberghan near Akcha, lies just 500 meters from the Tillia Tepe necropolis. The treasure vanished during Afghanistan's conflicts but reemerged in public view in 2003.[1] The Buddhas of Bamiyan, along with other Afghan antiquities, suffered significant loss during decades of conflict. However, 33 Buddhist and Hindu artifacts, part of a larger cache of 2,500 items, were recently returned to Afghanistan. These pieces had been seized in U.S. raids between 2012


id: list-of-iron-age-hoards-in-great-britain-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Iron_Age_hoards_in_Great_Britain-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Iron Age hoards in Great Britain
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Iron_Age_hoards_in_Great_Britain
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:27.602011+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-iron-age-hoards-in-great-britain-20260505-0
summary:
The list of Iron Age hoards in Britain comprises significant archaeological hoards of coins, jewellery, precious and scrap metal objects and other valuable items discovered in Great Britain (England, Scotland and Wales) that are associated with the British Iron Age, approximately 8th century BC to the 1st century AD. It includes both hoards that were buried with the intention of retrieval at a later date (personal hoards, founder's hoards, merchant's hoards, and hoards of loot), and also hoards of votive offerings which were not intended to be recovered at a later date, but excludes grave goods and single items found in isolation. Hoards of Celtic coins dating from the time of the Roman occupation of Britain are also included here. == List of hoards == == See also == List of hoards in Britain List of Bronze Age hoards in Britain List of Roman hoards in Britain == Notes == == Footnotes == == References == Barton, Caroline; Hitchcock, Fi, eds. (2008). Treasure Annual Report 2005/6 (PDF). Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 March 2012. Bland, Roger, ed. (2000). Treasure Annual Report 1998–1999 (PDF). Department for Culture, Media and Sport. Archived from the


id: list-of-archaeology-journals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeology_journals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of archaeology journals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeology_journals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:28.920529+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-archaeology-journals-20260505-0
summary:
This page contains a list of academic journals covering archaeology, the study of the human past through material remains. It includes both active periodicals and those that have ceased publication. Before the advent of the modern journal format, the Society of Antiquaries of London published Vetusta Monumenta, a series of illustrated folios on antiquarian studies which appeared at irregular intervals between 1718 and 1909. Beginning in 1770, papers delivered at the society's meetings were also published in quarto format in Archaeologia (last published in 2007), and from 1843 in the Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of London, which is still published today under the title Antiquaries Journal. Other early archaeological journals that are still active include The Archaeological Journal and La Revue Archéologique, both first published in 1844, Archaeologia Cambrensis, published by the Cambrian Archaeological Association since 1846, and Sussex Archaeological Collections, published by the Sussex Archaeological Society since 1848. Apart from the dedicated academic publications listed here, scholarship in archaeology is also published in general-purpose scientific journals such as Science or Nature, and in semi-scholarly periodicals such as Archaeology, Discover, National Geographic, or Scientific American. In North America, archaeology is considered one of the four subfields of anthropology,


id: list-of-jurchen-inscriptions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Jurchen_inscriptions-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Jurchen inscriptions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Jurchen_inscriptions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:30.252865+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-jurchen-inscriptions-20260505-0
summary:
The list of Jurchen inscriptions comprises a list of the corpus of known inscriptions written in the Jurchen language using the Jurchen script. There are ten monumental inscriptions, mostly dating to the Jin dynasty (1115–1234), but the latest monument dates to the early Ming Dynasty (1413). There are also a number of short Jurchen inscriptions on portable artefacts such as mirrors, seals and paiza. In contrast with inscriptions in Khitan scripts, there are no known examples of stone-inscribed epitaphs in the Jurchen script. == Monumental inscriptions in the Jurchen script == == Other inscriptions in the Jurchen script == == See also == List of Khitan inscriptions == Footnotes == == References == Jin Guangping 金廣平; Jin Qizong 金啓孮 (1980). 女真語言文字妍究 [Study on the Jurchen Language and Characters] (in Chinese). Wenwu chubanshe. Kane, Daniel (1989). The Sino-Jurchen Vocabulary of the Bureau of Interpreters. Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies. ISBN 978-0-933070-23-3.


id: list-of-khitan-inscriptions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Khitan_inscriptions-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Khitan inscriptions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Khitan_inscriptions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:32.341565+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-khitan-inscriptions-20260505-0
summary:
The list of Khitan inscriptions comprises a list of the corpus of known inscriptions written in the Khitan large script and the Khitan small script. These two scripts were used by the Khitan people in northern China during the 10th through 12th centuries for writing the extinct Khitan language. The Khitan language was in use during the Liao dynasty (916–1125), the Western Liao dynasty (1124–1218) and the Jin dynasty (1115–1234), but the last recorded Khitan speaker, Yelü Chucai, died in 1244, and the language probably became extinct soon afterwards. There are no surviving examples of printed texts in the Khitan language, and aside from five example Khitan large characters with Chinese glosses in the Yuan and Ming-era Tao Zongyi's 1376 Important Matters in the History of Calligraphy, there are no Chinese glossaries or dictionaries of Khitan. The Khitan language is therefore little understood, and the two Khitan writing systems are only partially deciphered. The main source of Khitan texts are monumental inscriptions, mostly comprising memorial tablets buried in the tombs of Khitan nobility. Only one monument in a Khitan script was known before the 20th century, the Record of the Journey of the Younger Brother of the Emperor of the


id: list-of-archaeologically-attested-women-from-the-ancient-mediterranean-region-20260505-0
category: reference
title: List of archaeologically attested women from the ancient Mediterranean region
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:33.809577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-archaeologically-attested-women-from-the-ancient-mediterranean-region-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologically_attested_women_from_the_ancient_Mediterranean_region-0.md

summary:
The following list features women from the ancient Mediterranean region and adjacent areas who are attested primarily through archaeological evidence. They are notable either as individuals or because the archaeological data associated with them is considered significant. == Archaeology and ancient women == Archaeological data preserves information about women of different classes and social standings, while also saving details that might not have been preserved in texts. Scholars have noted its importance in revolutionizing our understanding of ancient women and providing new theoretical frameworks for analyzing them, such as gender archaeology. Archaeological projects regularly uncover surprising information about ancient women on subjects as varied as motherhood to the historical inspiration for Amazons. Archaeological data provides a wide range of information about ancient women. For example, bones reveal aspects of lived experience and family relations. Grave goods and funerary monuments record life histories, social roles, and religious affiliations. Evidence from sanctuaries documents relationships between mortal women and deities. House layouts indicate gendered spatial dynamics and work space. Correspondence and records on papyrus, wood, or clay tablets preserve information about economic histories, social networks, and emotional experience. Poems and hymns showcase women's contribution to ancient literature. Visual culture highlights narratives about women

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeologically_attested_women_from_the_ancient_Mediterranean_region


id: list-of-maya-sites-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Maya_sites-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Maya sites
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Maya_sites
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:35.546273+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-maya-sites-20260505-0
summary:
This list of Maya sites is an alphabetical listing of a number of significant archaeological sites associated with the Maya civilization of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. The peoples and cultures which comprised the Maya civilization spanned more than 2,500 years of Mesoamerican history, in the Maya Region of southern Mesoamerica, which incorporates the present-day nations of Guatemala and Belize, much of Honduras and El Salvador, and the southeastern states of Mexico from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec eastwards, including the entire Yucatán Peninsula. Throughout this region, many hundreds of Maya sites have been documented in at least some form by archaeological surveys and investigations, while the numbers of smaller/uninvestigated (or unknown) sites are so numerous (one study has documented over 4,400 Maya sites) that no complete archaeological list has yet been made. The listing which appears here is necessarily incomplete, however it contains notable sites drawn from several large and ongoing surveys, such as the Corpus of Maya Hieroglyphic Inscriptions (CMHI) and other sources (see References). Note : Ignore the Spanish definite article "El" or "La" (and their plurals "Los" and "Las") when looking for a site in the alphabetical listing e.g. for El Mirador, look under M rather than E. == Most


id: list-of-menhirs-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_menhirs-0.md
category: reference
title: List of menhirs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_menhirs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:37.730054+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-menhirs-20260505-0
summary:
The following is an alphabetical list of menhirs, also known as standing stones, by subcontinents and nations. == Africa == === Horn of Africa === Ancient standing stones are found throughout the Horn of Africa. Several of these old menhirs exist in Qohaito, Eritrea, and date to a period before the founding of the Kingdom of Axum. The Axumites themselves also erected a number of large stelae, which served a religious purpose in pre-Christian times. One of these granite columns is the largest such structure in the world, standing at 90 feet. In northeastern Somalia, on the coastal plain 20 km to Alula's east are found ruins of an ancient monument in a platform style. The structure is formed by a rectangular drystone wall that is low in height; the space in between is filled with rubble and manually covered with small stones. Relatively large standing stones are also positioned on the edifice's corners. Near the platform are graves, which are outlined in stones. 24 m by 17 m in dimension, the structure is the largest of a string of ancient platform and enclosed platform monuments exclusive to far northeastern Somalia. Additionally, around 200 stone monuments (taalos) are found in


id: list-of-menhirs-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_menhirs-1.md
category: reference
title: List of menhirs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_menhirs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:37.730054+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-menhirs-20260505-0
summary:
Brittany stands out in the distribution of menhirs by virtue of both the density of monuments and the diversity of types. The largest surviving menhir in the world is located in Locmariaquer, Brittany, and it is known as the Grand Menhir Brisé (Great Broken Menhir). Once nearly 20.6 m (68 ft) high, today, it lies fractured into four pieces, but it would have weighed near 330 tons when intact. It is placed third after the Thunder Stone in St. Petersburg and the Western Stone in the Western Wall as the heaviest object moved by humans without powered machinery. A 4.5 meter menhir can be seen on the side of Le Mans Cathedral. It was moved there in 1778 when the dolmen it was associated with was destroyed. Alignments of menhirs are common, the most famous being the Carnac stones in Brittany, where more than 3000 individual menhirs are arranged in four groups and arrayed in rows stretching across four kilometres. Each set is organised with the tallest stones at the western end and shorter ones at the eastern end. Some end with a semicircular cromlech, but many have since fallen or been destroyed. The second largest concentration of menhirs in


id: list-of-menhirs-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_menhirs-2.md
category: reference
title: List of menhirs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_menhirs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:37.730054+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-menhirs-20260505-0
summary:
=== Spain === In Spain, menhirs associated with the western European megalithic industry are relatively unusual compared to dolmens, but still are common sights in the northern half of the country, where at least 500 menhirs have been reported. They are particularly common in the Basque Country, Navarre, northern Burgos and Palencia, Cantabria, and the Pyrenees, where they are usually encountered standing alone or in small groups (cromlech) in elevated locations; the Arlobi menhir is one of the most recent examples of a menhir. In smaller numbers, but of great dimensions, some examples are located in Extremadura, very related to the menhirs of Portugal. Most of the menhirs in northern Spain appear to date back to the stone age; they are not usually associated with burials, but in at least one instance (the Menhir of Cuesta del Molino in Burgos) burials dating at least 2000 years after the menhir was originally built have been found. In mediterranean Spain and, particularly the Balearic islands, megalithic structures consisting of standing stones such as the Taulas, but associated with Bronze Age and Iron Age cultures, are also common. === Sweden === In Sweden menhirs were erected as markers for the graves of warriors


id: list-of-mesoamerican-pyramids-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Mesoamerican_pyramids-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Mesoamerican pyramids
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Mesoamerican_pyramids
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:39.184676+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mesoamerican-pyramids-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of Mesoamerican pyramids or ceremonial structures. In most cases they are not true pyramids. There are hundreds of these in many different styles throughout Mexico and Central America. These were made by several pre-Columbian cultures including the Olmecs, Maya, Toltecs, and Aztecs. In most cases they were made by city states that created many structures in the same style. The style for each city state is usually different. These are usually made out of stone and mortar but some of the earliest may have been made out of clay. == References == == External links ==


id: list-of-mesolithic-settlements-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Mesolithic_settlements-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Mesolithic settlements
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Mesolithic_settlements
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:40.485880+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mesolithic-settlements-20260505-0
summary:
List of Mesolithic and Epipaleolithic settlements. == Mesolithic Europe == == Epipaleolithic Near East == == See also == List of Neolithic settlements == References ==


id: list-of-largest-monoliths-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_monoliths-0.md
category: reference
title: List of largest monoliths
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_monoliths
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:41.913680+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-largest-monoliths-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of monoliths organized according to the size of the largest block of stone on the site. A monolith is a large stone which has been used to build a structure or monument, either alone or together with other stones. In this list at least one colossal stone over ten tons has been moved to create the structure or monument. In most cases ancient civilizations had little, if any, advanced technology that would help them move these monoliths. The most notable exception is that of the Ancient Egyptians, Ancient Greeks and Romans, who had cranes and treadwheels to help lift colossal stones (see list of ancient Greek and Roman monoliths). This article also includes a list of modern experimental archaeology efforts to move colossal stones using technologies available to the respective ancient civilizations. Most of these weights are based on estimates by published scholars; however, there have been numerous false estimates of many of these stones presented as fact. To help recognize exaggerations, an introductory description shows how to calculate the weight of colossal stones from first principles. == In situ monoliths == This section lists monoliths that have been at least partially quarried but not moved.


id: list-of-largest-monoliths-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_monoliths-1.md
category: reference
title: List of largest monoliths
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_monoliths
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:41.913680+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-largest-monoliths-20260505-0
summary:
Marinos Carburis, a Greek lieutenant-colonel in the Russian Army, organized the move of an enormous boulder called the Thunder Stone (Russian, Гром-Камень) from the Gulf of Finland in 1768 to Saint Petersburg, Russia for the purpose of using it as a pedestal for the Bronze Horseman statue. The mass of the Thunder Stone has been estimated to be around 1500 tons. This was done by rolling it on bronze ball bearings on a track. It took an estimated 400 men nine months to move it. In 1997, Julian Richards teamed up with Mark Witby and Roger Hopkins to conduct several experiments to replicate the construction at Stonehenge for NOVA's Secrets of Lost Empires mini-series. They initially failed to tow a 40-ton monolith with 130 men but after adding additional men towing as well as some men using levers to prod the megalith forward, they succeeded in inching it forward a small distance. Roger Hopkins and Mark Lehner teamed up with a NOVA crew to conduct an obelisk-erecting experiment; they successfully erected a 25-ton obelisk in 1999. They also managed to tow it a short distance. Thor Heyerdahl organized an effort to pull a 10-ton Moai on a sledge with a


id: list-of-largest-monoliths-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_monoliths-2.md
category: reference
title: List of largest monoliths
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_monoliths
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:41.913680+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-largest-monoliths-20260505-0
summary:
=== Volume === To obtain accurate estimates, one needs to survey the monolith, including realistic and explicit assessment of the shapes of inaccessible portions, and then calculate the volume and estimate volumetric errors, which vary crudely as the cube of linear uncertainties. === Density === The density of most stone is between 2 and 3 tons per cubic meter. Basalt weighs about 2.8 to 3.0 tons per cubic meter; granite averages about 2.75 metric tons per cubic meter; limestone, 2.7 metric tons per cubic meter; sandstone or marble, 2.5 tons per cubic meter. Some softer stones may be lighter than 2 tons per cubic meter; for example, volcanic tuff or some types of sandstone weigh about 1.9 tons per cubic meter. Since the density of most of these stones varies, it is necessary to know the source of the stone to obtain accurate measurements. Identifying the rock type alone is not sufficient, as this table illustrates: Simply identifying the monolith as sandstone would allow a ± 15% uncertainty in the weight estimate. In practice, one would measure the density of the monolith itself, and preferably document any variation in density within the monolith, as it may not be homogeneous. Non-destructive


id: list-of-monumente-istorice-in-romania-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_monumente_istorice_in_Romania-0.md
category: reference
title: List of monumente istorice in Romania
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_monumente_istorice_in_Romania
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:43.320823+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-monumente-istorice-in-romania-20260505-0
summary:
Romania's major historical sites, known as monumente istorice ("Historic monuments"), are listed in the National Register of Historic Monuments in Romania, which was created between 2004 and 2005. As of 2015, 30,148 Heritage sites are entered in the National Cultural Heritage of Romania. The list is maintained by the Romanian National Institute of Historical Monuments, part of the Ministry of Culture and National Patrimony Romania. == List by County == === Alba County === === Arad County === === Argeș County === === Bacău County === === Bihor County === === Bistrița-Năsăud County === === Botoșani County === === Brăila County === === Brașov County === === Bucharest === Tudor Arghezi House === Buzău County === === Călărași County === === Caraș-Severin County === Reșița Steam Locomotive Museum === Cluj County === === Constanța County === Constanța Casino Genoese Lighthouse === Covasna County === === Dâmbovița County === === Dolj County === === Galați County === === Giurgiu County === Giurgiu Clocktower === Gorj County === === Harghita County === === Hunedoara County === === Ialomița County === === Iași County === === Ilfov County === === Maramureș County === === Mehedinți County === === Mureș County === === Neamț


id: list-of-muisca-and-pre-muisca-sites-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Muisca_and_pre-Muisca_sites-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Muisca and pre-Muisca sites
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Muisca_and_pre-Muisca_sites
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:44.545414+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-muisca-and-pre-muisca-sites-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of Muisca and pre-Muisca archaeological sites; sites on the Altiplano Cundiboyacense, where archaeological evidence has been discovered of the Muisca and their ancestors of the Herrera, preceramic and prehistorical periods. Over the course of the centuries and mainly in the 21st century, many sites with evidences of Muisca and pre-Muisca presence have been found and reported. The possibly oldest evidence of human settlement in the Eastern Ranges of the Colombian Andes has been discovered just west of the former Muisca territories, at Pubenza in Tocaima, Cundinamarca. Eight stone tools have been found with bone remains, consisting of among others Haplomastodon and turtles, which have been dated at 16,400 ± 420 years BP. Due to the location at an inundated platform, it is unclear if the bones and thus age were in situ. == Background == The Altiplano Cundiboyacense, with its valleys of Sogamoso-Duitama, Tunja and Ubaté-Chiquinquirá and the southeastern flatlands of the Bogotá savanna, as well as the Tenza Valley to the east, was inhabited for 12,000 years by indigenous peoples. At the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors, the area of approximately 25,000 square kilometres (9,700 sq mi) was populated by the Muisca, organised in a


id: list-of-muisca-museum-collections-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Muisca_museum_collections-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Muisca museum collections
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Muisca_museum_collections
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:46.012665+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-muisca-museum-collections-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of museum collections pertaining to the Muisca. Most of the Muisca artefacts are housed in the Gold Museum, Bogotá, the museum with the most golden objects in the world. Other findings are in the Archaeology Museum in Sogamoso and in the Archaeology Museum of Pasca. Few artefacts are on display outside Colombia. Most of the objects outside Colombia are tunjos; small offer pieces part of the Muisca religion. == Muisca museum collections == == See also == List of Muisca research institutes List of Muisca scholars Muisca == References ==


id: list-of-national-treasures-of-japan-archaeological-materials-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_National_Treasures_of_Japan_(archaeological_materials)-0.md
category: reference
title: List of National Treasures of Japan (archaeological materials)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_National_Treasures_of_Japan_(archaeological_materials)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:48.633608+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-national-treasures-of-japan-archaeological-materials-20260505-0
summary:
The term "National Treasure" has been used in Japan to denote cultural properties since 1897. The definition and the criteria have changed since the introduction of the term. These archaeological materials adhere to the current definition, and have been designated national treasures since the Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties came into effect on June 9, 1951. The items are selected by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology based on their "especially high historical or artistic value". The list presents 52 materials or sets of materials from ancient to feudal Japan, spanning a period from about 4,500 BC to 1361 AD. The actual number of items is more than 52 because groups of related objects have been combined into single entries. Most of the items have been excavated from tombs, kofun, sutra mounds or other archaeological sites. The materials are housed in museums (34), temples (9), shrines (8) and a university (1) in 27 cities of Japan. The Tokyo National Museum houses the greatest number of archaeological national treasures, with 7 of the 52. The Japanese Paleolithic marks the beginning of human habitation in Japan. It is generally accepted that human settlement did not occur before


id: list-of-national-treasures-of-japan-archaeological-materials-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_National_Treasures_of_Japan_(archaeological_materials)-1.md
category: reference
title: List of National Treasures of Japan (archaeological materials)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_National_Treasures_of_Japan_(archaeological_materials)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:48.633608+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-national-treasures-of-japan-archaeological-materials-20260505-0
summary:
== Statistics == All of the 52 National Treasures are presently located in Japan; two were discovered in China and three were found in Japan, but the exact locations of their excavation sites is unknown. The excavation sites of the remaining 46 treasures are contained in the following table. == Usage == The table's columns (except for Details and Image) are sortable by pressing the arrow symbols. Name: name of the national treasure as registered in the Database of National Cultural Properties Details: more information about the object such as size and type of items (if the national treasure comprises more than one item) Date: period and year of the item; column entries sort by year or start year of a period if only a period is known Excavation site: "site-name town-name prefecture-name"; column entries sort as "prefecture-name town-name site-name" Present location: "temple/museum/shrine-name town-name prefecture-name"; column entries sort as "prefecture-name town-name temple/museum/shrine-name" Image: picture of the national treasure or of the excavation site == Treasures == == See also == Nara Research Institute for Cultural Properties Tokyo Research Institute for Cultural Properties Independent Administrative Institution National Museum == Notes == == References == == Bibliography ==


id: list-of-neanderthal-sites-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Neanderthal_sites-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Neanderthal sites
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Neanderthal_sites
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:49.860406+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-neanderthal-sites-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of archeological sites where remains or tools of Neanderthals were found. == Europe == === Belgium === Schmerling Caves, Engis Naulette Scladina Spy-sur-l'Orneau Veldwezelt-Hezerwater === France === Vaucluse, Bau de l'Aubesier Biache-Saint-Vaast Bruniquel Cave Châtelperron Combe Grenal Eguisheim Grotte du Renne at Arcy-sur-Cure La Chaise La Chapelle-aux-Saints La Ferrassie La Quina Le Moustier Le Regourdou Lussac-les-Châteaux, Les Rochers-de-Villeneuve Moula-Guercy Saint-Césaire === Germany === Ehringsdorf Neanderthal 1, Neander Valley Salzgitter-Lebenstedt === Netherlands === Krijn, Northsea shore === United Kingdom === Bontnewydd, Llanelwy (Wales) Creswell Crags (England) La Cotte de St Brelade (Jersey, Channel Islands) Lynford Quarry (England) Swanscombe Heritage Park (England) === Spain === Abrigo de la Quebrada (Valencian Community) L'Arbreda Atapuerca Mountains Axlor Banyoles (Catalonia) Carihuela (Andalucia) Cova Foradà (Valencian Community) Cova Negra (Valencian Community) Cueva de Bolomor (Valencian Community, Spain) Cueva Negra (Region of Murcia) El Salt (Valencian Community) Roca dels Bous (archaeological site) Sidrón Cave (Asturias) Sima de las Palomas (Region of Murcia) Zafarraya (Granada) Cova del Gegant (Sitges) === Portugal === Furninha cave Abrigo do Lagar Velho (Leiria) Figueira Brava (Arrabida Mountains) === Gibraltar === Neanderthals of Gibraltar === Italy === Monte Circeo Saccopastore Altamura Guattari Cave === Croatia === Krapina Neanderthal site


id: list-of-neolithic-settlements-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Neolithic_settlements-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Neolithic settlements
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Neolithic_settlements
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:51.405825+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-neolithic-settlements-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of human Neolithic settlements sorted in chronological order. == See also == Copper Age state societies Neolithic Revolution List of Mesolithic settlements == References ==


id: list-of-paleolithic-sites-in-china-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Paleolithic_sites_in_China-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Paleolithic sites in China
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Paleolithic_sites_in_China
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:52.749553+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-paleolithic-sites-in-china-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of Paleolithic sites in China. They are sorted in chronological order from dated earliest to latest: == List == == See also == History of China Prehistory of China List of Bronze Age sites in China List of Neolithic cultures of China List of inventions and discoveries of Neolithic China == Notes and references ==


id: list-of-archaeological-periods-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_periods-0.md
category: reference
title: List of archaeological periods
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_periods
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:54.018044+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-archaeological-periods-20260505-0
summary:
The names for archaeological periods vary enormously from region to region. This is a list of the main divisions by continent and region. Dating also varies considerably and those given are broad approximations across wide areas. The three-age system has been used in many areas, referring to the prehistorical and historical periods identified by tool manufacture and use, of Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age. Since these ages are distinguished by the development of technology, it is natural that the dates to which these refer vary in different parts of the world. In many regions, the term Stone Age is no longer used, as it has been replaced by more specific geological periods. For some regions, there is need for an intermediate Chalcolithic period between the Stone Age and Bronze Age. For cultures where indigenous metal tools were in less widespread use, other classifications, such as the lithic stage, archaic stage and formative stage refer to the development of other types of technology and social organization. Historical periods denotes periods of human development with the advantage of the development of writing. Written records tend to provide more socio-political insight into the dominant nations, and hence allow categorization according to


id: list-of-archaeological-periods-mesoamerica-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_periods_(Mesoamerica)-0.md
category: reference
title: List of archaeological periods (Mesoamerica)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_periods_(Mesoamerica)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:55.895279+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-archaeological-periods-mesoamerica-20260505-0
summary:
The chronology of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica is usually divided into the following eras: == Five Stage Classification == One of the most enduring classifications of archaeological periods & cultures was established in Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips' 1958 book Method and Theory in American Archaeology. They divided the archaeological record in the Americas into 5 phases. These are: The Lithic stage The Archaic stage The Formative stage The Classic stage The Post-Classic stage == Tabular list == == See also == Archaeogenetics Archaeology of the Americas History of the Americas Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas List of archaeological periods – parent page List of archaeological periods (North America) List of pre-Columbian cultures Mesoamerican chronology == References == Gordon R. Willey and Philip Phillips (1957). Method and Theory in American Archaeology. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-89888-1. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)


id: list-of-archaeological-periods-north-america-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_periods_(North_America)-0.md
category: reference
title: List of archaeological periods (North America)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_periods_(North_America)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:57.220127+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-archaeological-periods-north-america-20260505-0
summary:
North American archaeological periods divide the history of pre-Columbian North America into successive named eras or periods, from the earliest known human habitation through to the early Colonial period which followed the European colonization of the Americas. == Stage classification == One of the most enduring classifications of archaeological periods and cultures was established in Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips' 1958 book, Method and Theory in American Archaeology. They divided the archaeological record in the Americas into five phases, only three of which applied to North America. The use of these divisions has diminished in most of North America due to the development of local classifications with more elaborate breakdowns of times. 1. The Paleo-Indian stage and/or Lithic stage 2. The Archaic stage 3. The Formative stage – at this point, the North American classifications system differs from the rest of the Americas. For more details on the five major stages, still used in Mesoamerican archaeology, see Mesoamerican chronology and Archaeology of the Americas. == Table of archaeological periods North America == == Culture, phase, and chronological table for the Mississippi Valley == == See also == Archaeogenetics Archaeological culture Archaeology of the Americas List of archaeological periods Genetic history


id: list-of-archaeological-periods-levant-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_periods_(Levant)-0.md
category: reference
title: List of archaeological periods (Levant)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_periods_(Levant)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:58.489681+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-archaeological-periods-levant-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a refined list of Levantive archeological periods, expanded from the basic three-age system with finer subdivisions and extension into the modern historical period (note: "BP" = "Before Present"). The particular dates selected as the boundary between ages, as well as the period names for the historical era, are specific to Levantine archaeology and therefore are most accurate for that context. Beginning and ending dates of prehistoric ages are based on the introduction and prevalence of certain technologies, which varied from culture to culture; similarly, historical eras are named after cultures in the area of influence in which the Levant was included. However, archaeologists studying other regions have sometimes found it useful to use the same or a similar system of eras for their topics of research (particularly for prehistoric eras), and thus this list can be used to represent the archaeological periods of areas more general than the Near East. == See also == History of the ancient Levant List of archaeological excavations by date List of archaeological periods - parent page Time periods in the Palestine region == References == "BAESL Archaeological Period Codes". Stewart Library at Weber State University; adapted from The New Encyclopedia of


id: list-of-pre-columbian-cultures-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_pre-Columbian_cultures-0.md
category: reference
title: List of pre-Columbian cultures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_pre-Columbian_cultures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:52:59.776586+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-pre-columbian-cultures-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of pre-Columbian cultures. == Cultural characteristics == Many pre-Columbian civilizations established permanent or urban settlements, agriculture, and complex societal hierarchies. In North America, indigenous cultures in the Lower Mississippi Valley during the Middle Archaic period built complexes of multiple mounds, with several in Louisiana dated to 5600–5000 BP (3700 BC–3100 BC). Watson Brake is considered the oldest, multiple mound complex in the Americas, as it has been dated to 3500 BC. It and other Middle Archaic sites were built by pre-ceramic, hunter-gatherer societies. They preceded the better known Poverty Point culture and its elaborate complex by nearly 2,000 years. The Mississippi Valley mound-building tradition extended into the Late Archaic period, longer than what later southeastern mound building dependent on sedentary, agricultural societies.(Russo, 1996:285) Some of these civilizations had long ceased to function by the time of the first permanent European arrivals (c. late 15th – early 16th centuries), and are known only through archaeological investigations or oral history from nations today. Others were contemporary with this period, and are also known from historical accounts of the time. A few, such as the Olmec, Maya, Mixtec, and Nahua had their own written records. However, most Europeans of


id: list-of-manuscripts-from-qumran-cave-1-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_manuscripts_from_Qumran_Cave_1-0.md
category: reference
title: List of manuscripts from Qumran Cave 1
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_manuscripts_from_Qumran_Cave_1
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:01.309116+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-manuscripts-from-qumran-cave-1-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of the Dead Sea Scrolls from the cave 1 near Qumran. == Description == Wadi Qumran Cave 1 was discovered for the first time in 1946. The initial discovery, by Bedouin shepherd Muhammed edh-Dhib, his cousin Jum'a Muhammed, and Khalil Musa, took place between November 1946 and February 1947. The shepherds discovered seven scrolls housed in jars in a cave near what is now known as the Qumran site and took them back to the camp to show to his family. None of the scrolls were destroyed in this process. The original seven Dead Sea Scrolls from Cave 1 at Qumran are the Great Isaiah Scroll (1QIsaa), a second copy of Isaiah (1QIsab), the Community Rule Scroll (1QS), the Pesher on Habakkuk (1QpHab), the War Scroll (1QM), the Thanksgiving Hymns (1QH), and the Genesis Apocryphon (1QapGen). One of the pottery jars containing the scrolls from Cave 1 is now kept in the British Museum. == List of manuscripts == Some resources for more complete information on the Dead Sea Scrolls are the book by Emanuel Tov, "Revised Lists of the Texts from the Judaean Desert" for a complete list of all of the Dead Sea


id: list-of-manuscripts-from-qumran-cave-2-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_manuscripts_from_Qumran_Cave_2-0.md
category: reference
title: List of manuscripts from Qumran Cave 2
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_manuscripts_from_Qumran_Cave_2
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:02.675410+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-manuscripts-from-qumran-cave-2-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of the Dead Sea Scrolls from the cave 2 near Qumran. The cave eventually yielded 300 fragments from 33 manuscripts of Dead Sea Scrolls, including fragments of Jubilees and the Wisdom of Sirach written in Hebrew. == Description == Wadi Qumran Cave 2 was discovered in February 1952 and soon the Bedouin people discovered 30 fragments in it. The cave eventually yielded 300 fragments from 33 manuscripts of Dead Sea Scrolls, including fragments of Jubilees and the Wisdom of Sirach written in Hebrew. == List of manuscripts == Some resources for more complete information on the Dead Sea Scrolls are the book by Emanuel Tov, "Revised Lists of the Texts from the Judaean Desert" for a complete list of all of the Dead Sea Scroll texts, as well as the online webpages for the Shrine of the Book and the Leon Levy Collection, both of which present photographs and images of the scrolls and fragments themselves for closer study. Information is not always comprehensive, as content for many scrolls has not yet been fully published. == See also == Biblical manuscripts Septuagint manuscripts List of Hebrew Bible manuscripts == References == == Bibliography == Fitzmyer,


id: list-of-manuscripts-from-qumran-cave-3-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_manuscripts_from_Qumran_Cave_3-0.md
category: reference
title: List of manuscripts from Qumran Cave 3
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_manuscripts_from_Qumran_Cave_3
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:04.144411+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-manuscripts-from-qumran-cave-3-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of the Dead Sea Scrolls from the cave 3 near Qumran. == Description == Wadi Qumran Cave 3 was discovered on 14 March 1952 by the ASOR team. The cave initially yielded fragments of Jubilees and the Copper Scroll. == List of manuscripts == Some resources for more complete information on the Dead Sea Scrolls are the book by Emanuel Tov, "Revised Lists of the Texts from the Judaean Desert" for a complete list of all of the Dead Sea Scroll texts, as well as the online webpages for the Shrine of the Book and the Leon Levy Collection, both of which present photographs and images of the scrolls and fragments themselves for closer study. Information is not always comprehensive, as content for many scrolls has not yet been fully published. == See also == Biblical manuscripts Septuagint manuscripts List of Hebrew Bible manuscripts == References == == Bibliography == Fitzmyer, Joseph A. (2008). A Guide to the Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Literature. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. ISBN 9780802862419. == External links == A Catalog of Biblical Passages in the Dead Sea Scrolls by David Washburn, 2002 Textual Criticism: Recovering


id: list-of-manuscripts-from-qumran-cave-4-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_manuscripts_from_Qumran_Cave_4-0.md
category: reference
title: List of manuscripts from Qumran Cave 4
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_manuscripts_from_Qumran_Cave_4
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:05.561729+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-manuscripts-from-qumran-cave-4-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of the Dead Sea Scrolls from the cave 4 near Qumran. Cave 4 is by far the most productive of all Qumran Caves, producing ninety percent of the Dead Sea Scrolls and scroll fragments (approx. 15,000 fragments from 500 different texts), including 9–10 copies of Jubilees, along with 21 tefillin and 7 mezuzot, as well as fragments from a scroll containing Exodus and Genesis written in paleo-hebrew. == Description == Wadi Qumran Cave 4 was discovered in August 1952, and was excavated from 22–29 September 1952 by Gerald Lankester Harding, Roland de Vaux, and Józef Milik. Cave 4 is actually two hand-cut caves (4a and 4b), but since the fragments were mixed, they are labeled as 4Q. Cave 4 is the most famous of the Qumran Caves both because of its visibility from the Qumran plateau and its productivity. It is visible from the plateau to the south of the Qumran settlement. It is by far the most productive of all Qumran Caves, producing ninety percent of the Dead Sea Scrolls and scroll fragments (approx. 15,000 fragments from 500 different texts), including 9–10 copies of Jubilees, along with 21 tefillin and 7 mezuzot, as well


id: list-of-manuscripts-from-qumran-cave-11-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_manuscripts_from_Qumran_Cave_11-0.md
category: reference
title: List of manuscripts from Qumran Cave 11
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_manuscripts_from_Qumran_Cave_11
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:06.797625+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-manuscripts-from-qumran-cave-11-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of the Dead Sea Scrolls from the cave 11 near Qumran. == Description == Wadi Qumran Cave 11 was discovered in 1956 and yielded 21 texts of Dead Sea Scrolls, some of which were quite lengthy. The Temple Scroll, so called because more than half of it pertains to the construction of the Temple of Jerusalem, was found in Cave 11, and is by far the longest scroll. It is now 26.7 feet (8.15 m) long. Its original length may have been over 28 feet (8.75 m). The Temple Scroll was regarded by Yigael Yadin as "The Torah According to the Essenes". On the other hand, Hartmut Stegemann, a contemporary and friend of Yadin, believed the scroll was not to be regarded as such, but was a document without exceptional significance. Stegemann notes that it is not mentioned or cited in any known Essene writing. Found also in Cave 11 was the Paleo-Hebrew Leviticus scroll, and an eschatological fragment about the biblical figure Melchizedek (11Q13). Cave 11 also produced a copy of Jubilees. According to former chief editor of the DSS editorial team John Strugnell, there are at least four privately owned scrolls from Cave


id: list-of-roman-hoards-in-great-britain-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Roman_hoards_in_Great_Britain-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Roman hoards in Great Britain
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Roman_hoards_in_Great_Britain
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:08.132405+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-roman-hoards-in-great-britain-20260505-0
summary:
The list of Roman hoards in Britain comprises significant archaeological hoards of coins, jewellery, precious and scrap metal objects and other valuable items discovered in Great Britain (England, Scotland and Wales) that are associated with period of Romano-British culture when Southern Britain was under the control of the Roman Empire, from AD 43 until about 410, as well as the subsequent Sub-Roman period up to the establishment of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. It includes both hoards that were buried with the intention of retrieval at a later date (personal hoards, founder's hoards, merchant's hoards, and hoards of loot), and also hoards of votive offerings which were not intended to be recovered at a later date, but excludes grave goods and single items found in isolation. Most Roman hoards are composed largely or entirely of coins, and are relatively common in Britain, with over 1,200 known examples. A smaller number of hoards, such as the Mildenhall Treasure and the Hoxne Hoard, include items of silver or gold tableware such as dishes, bowls, jugs and spoons, or items of silver or gold jewellery. == List of hoards == == See also == List of hoards in Britain List of Bronze Age hoards in Britain


id: list-of-archaeological-and-artistic-sites-of-sardinia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_and_artistic_sites_of_Sardinia-0.md
category: reference
title: List of archaeological and artistic sites of Sardinia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_archaeological_and_artistic_sites_of_Sardinia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:09.440038+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-archaeological-and-artistic-sites-of-sardinia-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of archaeological and artistic sites of Sardinia, Italy: Acquafredda near Siliqua, castle, 13th century Aiodda near Nurallao-Nuragus, Giants' Tomb Albucciu near Olbia-Arzachena, nuraghe Alghero Anghelu Ruju near Alghero Ozieri, necropolis Antas near Fluminimaggiore, temple Ardara, Romanesque church of Santa Maria del Regno Argentiera carbon mines, ghost villages, industrial architecture Asoru near Muravera, nuraghe Arrubiu Assemini Catalan Gothic church, 16th century, Byzantine oratorio, 10th century Barumini nuragic palace and village (*Su Nuraxi), Catalan church 15th century, Catalan Gothic villa Benetutti church, 15th century, paintings Biristeddi Giants Tomb Bisarcio Romanesque church Bonarcado church 11th century Bonorva nuragic temple, nuragic tombs, Carthaginian fort, medieval village, church 16th century Bonu Ighinu, cave Borore Bosa Brodu Bulzi Burghidu, nuraghe Cabu Abbas Cagliari Cala Domestica Campu Luntanu Carbonia Castelsardo Coddu Vecchiu, Giants Tomb Cornus Dolianova Domu de Orgia Domu s Orku Friarosu Fonte e Mola Funtana Cuverta Genna Maria Genna Salixi Genoni Gergei Gesturi Golgo Gonnostramatza Iglesias Is Concias Is Paras, nuraghe Izzana, nuraghe Kukkuru Nuraxi Laconi Li Muri Losa, nuraghe Lugherras, nuraghe Macomer Madau Mandra Antine Massama Milis Molafa Monte Arci Monte d'Accoddi Monte Sirai A fortified hilltop town founded in the 8th century BC Montessu Montevecchio Moseddu Nora Nugoro Nuxis


id: list-of-stone-circles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_stone_circles-0.md
category: reference
title: List of stone circles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_stone_circles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:10.776806+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-stone-circles-20260505-0
summary:
This is an incomplete photographic list of stone circles. == Britain, Ireland, and the Channel Islands == Aubrey Burl's gazetteer lists 1,303 stone circles in Britain, Ireland and Brittany (France). Most of these are found in Scotland, with 508 sites recorded. There are 343 on the island of Ireland; 316 in England; 81 in Wales; 49 in Brittany (France); and 6 in the Channel Isles. === Channel Islands === Aubrey Burl records six sites in the Channel Islands, four on Guernsey and two on Jersey. All six are Cist-in-Circle monuments, which are influenced by chambered tomb design. Their relationship with the stone circle tradition of Britain, Ireland and Brittany is unclear. === England === ==== South East England ==== There are no ancient stone circles in Kent or Sussex. ==== East Midlands ==== ===== Derbyshire ===== ==== Yorkshire and the Humber ==== ==== North East England ==== ==== North West England ==== ===== Cumbria ===== ==== Lancashire ==== ==== West Midlands ==== ==== Shropshire ==== Whetstone Circle, partial circle as stones removed for local building Hoarstone Circle, utilised for local wedding celebrations ==== South West England ==== ===== Cornwall ===== ===== Devon ===== ===== Dorset ===== ===== Somerset ===== =====


id: list-of-tells-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tells-0.md
category: reference
title: List of tells
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tells
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:12.068553+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-tells-20260505-0
summary:
In archaeology, a tell, or tel (Hebrew: תֵּלArabic: تَل, tall, 'hill' or 'mound'), is an artificial mound formed from the accumulated refuse or deposits of people living on the same site for hundreds or thousands of years. A classic tell looks like a low, truncated cone with sloping sides and can be up to 30 metres high. Tells are most commonly associated with the archaeology of the ancient Near East, Southeast Europe (Bulgaria and Greece), also reaching Central Asia and West Africa. Within the Near East, they are concentrated in less arid regions, including Upper Mesopotamia, the Southern Levant, Anatolia and Iran. == Azerbaijan == == Bulgaria == == Egypt == == Gaza Strip == == Iran == == Iraq == == Israel == == Jordan == == Lebanon == == Syria == == Turkey == == United Arab Emirates == == West Bank == == See also == Tell (archaeology) List of tells in Lebanon The archaeological hills in Erbil == References ==


id: list-of-earliest-tools-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_earliest_tools-0.md
category: reference
title: List of earliest tools
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_earliest_tools
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:13.408128+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-earliest-tools-20260505-0
summary:
The following table attempts to list the oldest-known Paleolithic and Paleo-Indian sites where hominin tools have been found. It includes sites where compelling evidence of hominin tool use has been found, even if no actual tools have been found. Stone tools preserve more readily than tools of many other materials. So the oldest tools that we can find in many areas are going to be stone tools. It could be that these tools were once accompanied by, or even preceded by, non-stone tools that we cannot find because they did not preserve. Similarly, hard materials like bone or shell are more likely than softer materials to leave discernible cut marks on bone. Bamboo has been shown to leave cut marks on bone that are harder to see than cut marks by stone. So the earliest evidence of tool use that we are likely to find are often cut marks made on bone by stone or shell tools. Therefore, it should not be assumed that the items on this list represent the earliest uses of tools in each area, but rather the earliest uses of tools that have been found. Because it focuses on only the earliest evidence of tools, and


id: list-of-tumuli-in-serbia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tumuli_in_Serbia-0.md
category: reference
title: List of tumuli in Serbia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tumuli_in_Serbia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:14.556069+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-tumuli-in-serbia-20260505-0
summary:
This is a detailed list of tumuli (barrows) in Serbia, ranging from the prehistoric times to the Middle Ages. Mrčajevci, several prehistoric tumuli Bukovac, Illyrian tumuli and necropolis Five prehistoric tumuli in the Morava valley. Serbian tumuli in Ravna Gora. Kinđa == References ==


id: list-of-early-inscriptions-in-vietnam-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_early_inscriptions_in_Vietnam-0.md
category: reference
title: List of early inscriptions in Vietnam
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_early_inscriptions_in_Vietnam
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:15.805887+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-early-inscriptions-in-vietnam-20260505-0
summary:
The list of early inscriptions in northern Vietnam comprises a list of the corpus of known inscriptions written in Chinese language and Vietnamese language mostly using chữ Hán and few using chữ Nôm from c. 300s to 1230s found in northern Vietnam. == Chinese period (c. 0–900 AD) == == Postclassic – Early Đại Việt period (900–1230) == == Footnotes == === References ===


id: glossary-of-astronomy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-0.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of astronomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:17.709555+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-astronomy-20260505-0
summary:
This glossary of astronomy is a list of definitions of terms and concepts relevant to astronomy and cosmology, their sub-disciplines, and related fields. Astronomy is concerned with the study of celestial objects and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth. The field of astronomy features an extensive vocabulary and a significant amount of sophisticated terminology. == A == A-type main-sequence star In the Harvard spectral classification system, a class of main-sequence star having spectra dominated by Balmer absorption lines of hydrogen. Main-sequence stars of spectral class A are typically blue-white or white in color, measure between 1.4 and 2.1 times the mass of the Sun, and have surface temperatures of 7,600–10,000 kelvin. absolute magnitude A measure of a star's absolute brightness. It is defined as the apparent magnitude the star would show if it were located at a distance of 10 parsecs, or 32.6 light-years. accretion disk A roughly circular mass of diffuse material in orbit around a central object, such as a star or black hole. The material is acquired from a source external to the central object, and friction causes it to spiral inward towards the object. active galactic nucleus (AGN) A compact region in the center


id: glossary-of-astronomy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-1.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of astronomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:17.709555+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-astronomy-20260505-0
summary:
asteroid belt The circumstellar disc in the Solar System located roughly between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter that is occupied by numerous irregularly shaped small Solar System bodies ranging in size from dust particles to asteroids and minor planets. The asteroid belt is often called the main asteroid belt or main belt to distinguish it from other asteroid populations in other parts of the Solar System. astrobiology Also exobiology. An interdisciplinary field that studies the origins, evolution, distribution, and future of living systems in the universe, encompassing research on organic compounds in space, abiogenesis and extreme-environment adaptation on Earth, the habitability of extrasolar planets, the possible existence of extraterrestrial life, and how humans might be able to detect extraterrestrial biosignatures, among other topics. astrodynamics See orbital mechanics. astrogeology Also planetary geology. A field that studies the geology of solidified bodies such as the planets and their moons, asteroids, comets, and meteorites. Investigations are centered around the composition, structure, processes, and history of these objects. astrometric binary A type of binary system where evidence for an unseen orbiting companion is revealed by periodic gravitational perturbation of the visible component. See also spectroscopic binary. astrometry The branch of astronomy that involves


id: glossary-of-astronomy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-2.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of astronomy
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barycenter The common center of mass about which any two or more bodies of a gravitationally bound system orbit. The barycenter is one of the foci of the elliptical orbit of each body participating in the system; its location is strongly influenced by the mass of each body and the distances between them. For example, in a planetary system where the mass of the central star is significantly larger than the mass of an orbiting planet, the barycenter may actually be located within the radius of the star, such that the planet appears to orbit the star itself, though both bodies actually orbit the shared barycenter. baryogenesis The process by which the class of subatomic particles known as baryons were generated in the early Universe, including the means by which baryons outnumber antibaryons. Big Bang The prevailing cosmological model for the origin of the observable universe. It depicts a starting condition of extremely high density and temperature, followed by an ongoing expansion that led to the current conditions. binary star A star system consisting of exactly two stars orbiting around their common barycenter. The term is often used interchangeably with double star, though the latter can also refer to an


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-3.md
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title: Glossary of astronomy
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comet A relatively small, icy body that displays extended features when it approaches the Sun. The energy from the Sun vaporizes volatiles on a comet's surface, producing a visible coma around the cometary body. Sometimes a comet can produce a long tail radiating away from the Sun. commensurability A property of two objects orbiting the same body whose orbital periods are in a rational proportion. For example, the orbital period of Saturn around the Sun is very nearly 5/2 the orbital period of Jupiter. common proper motion A term used to indicate that two or more stars share the same motion through space, within the margin of observational error. That is, either they have nearly the same proper motion and radial velocity parameters, which may suggest that they are gravitationally bound or share a common origin, or they are known to be gravitationally bound (in which case their proper motions may be rather different but average to be the same over time). compact star Also compact object. Any astronomical body with a very high mass relative to its radius, compared to most ordinary atomic matter. The term typically refers to very high-density objects such as white dwarfs, neutron stars, and


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-4.md
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title: Glossary of astronomy
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detached object Also distant detached object and extended scattered disc object. A dynamical class of minor planet in the outer reaches of the Solar System whose point of closest approach to the Sun is so distant that the object is only moderately or weakly affected by the gravitational influence of Neptune and the other known planets, such that it appears to be "detached" from the rest of the Solar System. Detached objects are thus distinct from other populations of trans-Neptunian objects, such as cubewanos and scattered disc objects. direct motion See prograde motion. diurnal motion The apparent motion of an astronomical object (e.g. the Sun, a planet, or a distant star) around the two celestial poles in the Earth's night sky over the course of one day. Diurnal motion is caused by Earth's rotation about its own axis, such that every object appears to follow a circular path called the diurnal circle. double star Any pair of stars which appear near each other on the celestial sphere, either because the two stars coincidentally lie along nearly the same line of sight from the Earth, though they are in fact physically distant from each other, or because the two stars are


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-5.md
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title: Glossary of astronomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
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equinox Either of the two precise times of year when the imaginary plane of the Earth's equator, extended indefinitely in all directions, passes through the center of the Sun (i.e. the two points at which this plane intersects the plane of the ecliptic); or, equivalently, when the Sun's apparent geocentric longitude is either 0 degrees or 180 degrees. The two equinoxes, known as the vernal equinox and the autumnal equinox, occur on or near March 20 and September 22 each year. On the day of an equinox, the center of the visible Sun appears to be directly above the equator, and the durations of day and night are approximately equal all over the planet. Compare solstice. escape velocity The minimum speed that must be achieved for a free, non-propelled object to escape from the gravitational influence of a massive body, i.e. to achieve an infinite distance from it; more generally, escape velocity is the speed at which the sum of an object's kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy is equal to zero. It is a function of the mass of the body and of the distance between the object and the body's center of mass. An object which has achieved


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-6.md
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title: Glossary of astronomy
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galactic anticenter The direction in space that is directly opposite the center of the Milky Way Galaxy, as viewed from Earth; considered as a point on the celestial sphere, the Milky Way's anticenter is in the constellation Auriga. Galactic Center The rotational center of the Milky Way galaxy, consisting of a supermassive black hole of 4.100 ± 0.034 million solar masses. It is approximately 8,200 parsecs (27,000 ly) away from Earth in the direction of the constellations Sagittarius, Ophiuchus, and Scorpius, where the Milky Way appears brightest. galactic coordinate system galactic corona galactic nucleus Also galactic core or galactic center. The region at the center of a galaxy, usually home to a very dense concentration of stars and gas. It almost always includes a supermassive black hole which, when active, can generate a much higher luminosity in a compact region than its surroundings. This excess luminosity is known as an active galactic nucleus, and the brightest such active galaxies are known as quasars. galactic period Also galactic year or cosmic year. The time a given astronomical object within a galaxy takes to complete one orbit around the galactic center. Estimates of the duration of one revolution of the Solar System


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-7.md
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title: Glossary of astronomy
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gravitational lens Any very large distribution of mass, such as a galactic cluster, which can bend passing light from a distant source by a noticeable degree. The effect, known as gravitational lensing, can make background objects appear to an observer to take on a ring or arc shape. gravitational-wave astronomy A branch of observational astronomy which analyzes minute distortions in the curvature of spacetime known as gravitational waves to collect observational data about astronomical objects and events such as neutron stars, black holes, supernovae, and the Big Bang. == H == H II region An ionized nebula powered by young, massive O-type stars. Ultraviolet photons from these hot stars ionize gas in the surrounding environment, and the nebular gas shines brightly in spectral lines of hydrogen and other elements. Because O-type stars have relatively short lifetimes (typically a few million years), the presence of an H II region indicates that massive star formation has taken place recently at that location. H II regions are often found in the arms of spiral galaxies and in star-forming irregular galaxies. heliocenter The precise geometric center of the Earth's Sun, i.e. the arithmetic mean position of all points within the approximate spheroid that is


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-8.md
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title: Glossary of astronomy
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interstellar reddening An effect produced by the incremental absorption and scattering of electromagnetic energy from interstellar matter, known as extinction. This effect causes more distant objects such as stars to appear redder and dimmer than expected. It is not to be confused with the separate phenomenon of redshift. invariable plane Also Laplace's invariable plane or the Laplace plane. The imaginary plane passing through the barycenter of a planetary system and perpendicular to its angular momentum vector, and which may be regarded as the weighted average of all planetary orbital and rotational planes comprising the system. ionosphere irregular galaxy irregular moon A natural satellite following a distant, inclined, and often eccentric and retrograde orbit about its primary. Irregular moons are thought to be captured from other orbits, as opposed to regular moons, which are thought to form in situ. isochrone A curve on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram that represents the evolutionary positions of stars having the same age but differing masses. This is in contrast to an evolutionary track, which is a plot of stars having the same mass but differing ages. In fact, multiple evolutionary tracks can be used to build isochrones by putting curves through equal-age points along the tracks.


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-9.md
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title: Glossary of astronomy
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luminosity The total amount of energy emitted per unit time by a star, galaxy, or other astronomical object. In SI units, luminosity is measured in joules per second or watts, and is often given in terms of astronomical magnitude. Luminosity is related to but distinct from visual brightness. lunar Of or relating to the Earth's Moon. lunar phase Also Moon phase. The shape of the portion of the Moon that is illuminated by direct sunlight as viewed from Earth. This shape is referred to as a phase because it gradually changes in a regular cycle over the course of a synodic month: as the orbital positions of the Moon around Earth and Earth around the Sun change, the visibility of the side of the Moon that constantly faces Earth alternates between completely illuminated (known as a full moon) and completely darkened by the Moon's own shadow (known as a new moon). There are also intermediate phases, during which the visible side may be only partially sunlit, e.g. when the Moon appears as a crescent. During the part of the lunar cycle in which the illuminated portion is growing larger, the Moon is said to be waxing; when the illuminated portion


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-10.md
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title: Glossary of astronomy
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micrometeorite A very small meteorite that has survived its passage through the atmosphere to reach the surface of a planet or moon, usually ranging in size from 50 μm to 2 mm. Micrometeorites are a major component of cosmic dust. micrometeoroid A very small meteoroid, usually weighing less than one gram. If it survives to reach a planetary surface, it is then termed a micrometeorite. microvariable A stellar object such as a variable star that undergoes very small variations in luminosity, in which the amplitude of the fluctuations amounts to just a few thousandths of a magnitude. Detecting microvariability typically requires a sufficient number of observations to rule out random error as a source. Milky Way 1. The barred spiral galaxy that includes the Earth's Solar System. The name describes the galaxy's appearance from the Earth: a hazy band of light visible in the night sky, formed from billions of stars that cannot be individually distinguished by the naked eye. The Milky Way Galaxy has a diameter of 100,000–200,000 light-years and is estimated to contain 100–400 billion stars and at least that number of planets. The Solar System is located on the inner edge of one of the Milky Way's


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-11.md
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title: Glossary of astronomy
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neutrino A type of elementary particle, electrically neutral and with an extremely small rest mass, that interacts with other particles only via the weak interaction and the gravitational interaction. Neutrinos therefore typically pass through normal matter unimpeded and undetected. neutron star A type of compact star that is composed almost entirely of neutrons, which are a type of subatomic particle with no electrical charge. Typically, neutron stars have a mass between about 1.35 and 2.0 times the mass of the Sun, but with a radius of only 12 km (7.5 mi), making them among the densest known objects in the universe. New General Catalogue (NGC) night sky The appearance of the Earth's sky at nighttime, when the Sun is below the horizon, and more specifically when clear weather and low levels of ambient light permit visibility of celestial objects such as stars, planets, and the Moon. The night sky remains a fundamental setting for both amateur and professional observational astronomy. non-inclined orbit Any orbit that is coplanar with a specified plane of reference, such that the orbital inclination is 0 degrees for prograde orbits and 180 degrees for retrograde ones. nova nuclear star cluster (NSC) A compact and dense concentration


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-12.md
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title: Glossary of astronomy
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orbital inclination The tilt of an object's orbit around an astronomical body, expressed as the angle between the orbital plane or axis of direction of the orbiting object and a specified plane of reference. orbital mechanics orbital node One of two points at which the plane of an orbit intersects a specified plane of reference to which it is inclined; in some contexts, the two nodes may be distinguished as the ascending node and the descending node. A non-inclined orbit, which is coplanar with the reference plane, has no nodes. orbital period Also revolution period. The time a given astronomical object takes to complete one orbit around another object. For objects in the Solar System, the orbital period is often referred to as the sidereal period. orbital plane The imaginary geometric plane defined by the orbit of an astronomical body around its primary. The Earth's orbital plane, which defines the ecliptic, is commonly used as a plane of reference for the orbits of other objects in the Solar System. orbital resonance The situation that occurs when two or more orbiting bodies exert regular, periodic gravitational influences on each other such that one or more of their orbital parameters (e.g. eccentricity,


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_astronomy-13.md
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title: Glossary of astronomy
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plane of the sky An imaginary plane that is perpendicular to the line of sight. Typically this is used as a reference plane for determining the inclination of an orbital plane of a distant star system. planemo See planetary-mass object. planet A type of astronomical body orbiting the Sun, which is massive enough to be rounded by its own gravity (but not massive enough to achieve thermonuclear fusion) and has cleared its neighbouring region of all planetesimals. The term exoplanet is used in reference to a planet-like object that is not orbiting the Sun. planetary Of or relating to a planet or planets. planetary body Also planetary object. Any secondary body that is geologically differentiated or in hydrostatic equilibrium and therefore has a planet-like geology, such as a planet, dwarf planet, or other planetary-mass object, but excluding smaller objects such as planetesimals. planetary differentiation The process of separating out different constituents of a planetary body, causing it to develop compositionally distinct layers (such as a metallic core). planetary nebula A type of emission nebula formed from a glowing shell of expanding plasma that has been ejected from a red giant star late in its life. The name derives from their


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title: Glossary of astronomy
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radial velocity The velocity of an object along the line of sight to the observer, which in astronomy is usually determined via Doppler spectroscopy. Positive values are used to indicate a receding object. An object such as a star can undergo changes in its radial velocity because of the gravitational perturbation of another body, or because of radial pulsations of its surface. The latter, for example, occurs with a Beta Cephei variable star. radio astronomy The subfield of astronomy that studies astronomical objects at radio frequencies, using large radio antennas known as radio telescopes. radio source Any astronomical object that emits strong radio waves into space. These objects are the basis for radio astronomy. red-giant branch A conspicuous trail of enlarged red stars found on the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram for a typical globular cluster. It begins at the main-sequence turnoff point and extends toward the higher luminosity and lower temperature range until reaching the red-giant tip. This branch consists of older stars that have evolved away from the main sequence but have not yet initiated helium fusion in their core region. redshift An increase in the wavelength, and a corresponding decrease in the frequency and photon energy, of electromagnetic radiation. reference


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title: Glossary of astronomy
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semi-diameter The angle at the position of an observer subtended by the equatorial radius of the Sun, the Moon, or a planet. semi-major axis Also major semi-axis. One half of the longest diameter (the major axis) of an ellipse. It is expressed in units of length and often used to give a physical dimension to a two-body elliptical Kepler orbit, such as for a binary star system or star–planet system. When the distance between the orbiting bodies is unknown, the semi-major axis may be given as an angle. September equinox Also southward equinox. The precise time of year on Earth when the Sun appears to cross the celestial equator, while generally trending southward at each zenith passage. It represents the moment at which the North Pole of the Earth begins to tilt away from the Sun, and typically occurs on or near September 22 each year. It is the autumnal equinox in the Northern Hemisphere and the vernal equinox in the Southern Hemisphere. Contrast March equinox. sidereal day The rotation period of an object (e.g. the Earth) with respect to the distant fixed stars of its own celestial sphere (rather than to its primary star, e.g. the Sun), measured as


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title: Glossary of astronomy
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solar radius (R☉) A standard unit of distance equal to the radius of the Earth's Sun (typically measured from the Sun's center to the layer in the photosphere at which the optical depth equals 2/3), or approximately 695,700 kilometres (432,300 mi). It is commonly used to express the radii of other stars and astronomical objects relative to the Sun. solar storm See geomagnetic storm. solar spicule A dynamic jet of plasma in the Sun's chromosphere, about 300 km in diameter. Solar System The gravitationally bound planetary system of the Earth's Sun and all of the objects that orbit it, either directly or indirectly, including the eight true planets, five dwarf planets, and numerous small Solar System bodies such as asteroids, comets, and natural satellites. solar time The calculation of the passage of time based on the diurnal motion of the Sun in the Earth's sky. The fundamental unit of solar time is the solar day, i.e. the time interval between two successive returns of the Sun to the local meridian, as viewed from a given location on the Earth's surface. Because the duration of this interval changes during the Earth's orbit around the Sun, apparent solar time is distinguished from


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title: Glossary of astronomy
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stellar envelope 1. The region within the volume of a star that transports energy from the stellar core to the stellar atmosphere; or another name for the stellar atmosphere itself. 2. The common envelope of gases encompassing a binary star system. stellar evolution stellar evolution model Also simply stellar model. An astrophysical model of a star's stellar evolution over time based upon its mass and chemical composition. stellar magnetic field A magnetic field generated by the convective motion of plasma inside a star, responsible for phenomena such as starspots and coronal loops. Even when a dynamo no longer exists, a fossil magnetic field may persist from an earlier epoch of stellar evolution. stellar parallax stellar remnant submillimetre astronomy The subfield of astronomy that studies astronomical objects detectable at submillimetre wavelengths (i.e. terahertz radiation). subsatellite Any natural or artificial satellite that orbits another natural satellite, i.e. "a moon of a moon". substellar object Also substar. An astronomical object whose mass is smaller than the smallest mass at which the fusion of hydrogen nuclei can be sustained (equivalent to approximately 0.08 solar masses), including brown dwarfs and some stellar remnants, as well as certain planetary-mass objects. Sun The star occupying the center


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title: Glossary of astronomy
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theoretical astronomy A branch of astronomy that uses analytical and computational models based on principles from physics and chemistry to describe, explain, and model the properties of astronomical objects and phenomena, with the ultimate goal of accurately predicting the observable or testable consequences of those models. thick disk population One of the structural components of about 2⁄3 of all disk galaxies, including the Milky Way. thin disk population The layer of the Milky Way galaxy where the spiral arms are found and where most of the star formation takes place. It is about 300–400 parsecs (980–1,300 light-years) deep and centered on the galactic plane. Stars belonging to this population generally follow orbits that lie close to this plane. This is in contrast to members of the thick disk population and halo stars. tidal braking Also tidal acceleration. The transfer of momentum between an astronomical body and an orbiting satellite as the result of tidal forces. This can cause changes in the rotation periods for both bodies as well as modification of their mutual orbit. A satellite in a prograde orbit will gradually recede from its primary while slowing the rotation rate of both bodies. tidal force Also tide-generating force. The


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title: Glossary of astronomy
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universe 1. The entirety of space and time and their contents, including galaxies, stars, planets, all other forms of matter and energy, and the physical laws and constants that describe them. When not otherwise qualified, "the universe" usually refers to the entire universe, whose spatial extent is unknown because it is not directly measurable; this is distinguished from the observable universe, whose size it is possible to measure. 2. One of many hypothetical parallel universes which exist as causally disconnected constituent parts of a larger multiverse, which itself comprises all of space and time and their contents. == V == variable star Any star that is observed to vary in brightness. This variation may be periodic, with one or more cycles that last hours, days, months, or even years. Some stars vary in an irregular manner, while others undergo cataclysmic changes in brightness. Other forms of variability are intrinsic changes to the star's radial velocity or its profile of spectral lines. velocity dispersion The statistical dispersion of velocities about the mean velocity for a group of objects, such as stars in a globular cluster or galaxies in a galactic cluster. This value can be used to derive the combined mass


id: outline-of-astronomy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_astronomy-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of astronomy
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source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_astronomy
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The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to astronomy: Astronomy – studies the universe beyond Earth, including its formation and development, and the evolution, physics, chemistry, meteorology, and motion of celestial objects (such as galaxies, planets, etc.) and phenomena that originate outside the atmosphere of Earth (such as the cosmic background radiation). Astronomy also intersects with biology, as astrobiology, studying potential life throughout the universe. == Nature of astronomy == Astronomy can be described as all the following: An academic discipline: one with academic departments, curricula and degrees; national and international societies; and specialized journals. A scientific field (a branch of science) – widely recognized category of specialized expertise within science, and typically embodies it A natural science – one that seeks to elucidate the rules that govern the natural world using empirical and scientific methods. A branch or field of space science A hobby or part-time pursuit for the satisfaction of personal curiosity or appreciation of beauty, the latter especially including astrophotography. == Branches == Astrobiology – studies the advent and evolution of biological systems in the universe. Astrophysics (outline) – branch of astronomy that deals with the physics of the universe, including the


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_astronomy-1.md
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title: Outline of astronomy
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=== Stars and stellar objects === Compact object Fixed stars ==== Stars ==== ==== Variable stars ==== ==== Supernovae ==== ==== Black holes ==== === Constellations === Constellation Constellation family ==== The 88 modern constellations ==== ==== Constellation history ==== ===== The 48 constellations listed by Ptolemy after 150 AD ===== ===== The 41 additional constellations added in the 16th and 17th centuries ===== ===== Obsolete constellations including Ptolemy's Argo Navis ===== === Clusters and nebulae === === Galaxies === Galaxy Andromeda Galaxy Magellanic Clouds Quasar === Cosmology === === Space exploration === See: Outline of space exploration == Organizations == === Public sector space agencies === Space agencies ==== Africa ==== ===== North Africa ===== Algerian Space Agency National Authority for Remote Sensing and Space Sciences Egypt Remote Sensing Center Royal Centre for Remote Sensing National Remote Sensing Center ===== Sub-Saharan ===== National Space Research and Development Agency South African National Space Agency ==== North America ==== Agencia Espacial Mexicana Canadian Space Agency NASA United States Department of Defense National Reconnaissance Office United States Army Space and Missile Defense Command United States Space Command United States Space Force ==== South America ==== Agencia Bolivariana para Actividades Espaciales Brazilian Space


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-0.md
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title: List of astronomy acronyms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms
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This is a compilation of initialisms and acronyms commonly used in astronomy. Most are drawn from professional astronomy, and are used quite frequently in scientific publications. A few are frequently used by the general public or by amateur astronomers. The acronyms listed below were placed into one or more of these categories: Astrophysics terminology – physics-related acronyms Catalog – collections of tabulated scientific data Communications network – any network that functions primarily to communicate with spacecraft rather than performing astronomy Data – astrophysical data not associated with any single catalog or observing program Celestial object – acronyms for natural objects in space and for adjectives applied to objects in space Instrumentation – telescope and other spacecraft equipment, particularly detectors such as imagers and spectrometers Meeting – meetings that are not named after organizations Observing program – astronomical programs, often surveys, performed by one or more individuals; may include the groups that perform surveys Organization – any large private organization, government organization, or company Person – individual people Publication – magazines, scientific journals, and similar astronomy-related publications Software – software excluding catalogued data (which is categorized as "catalog") and scientific images Spacecraft – any spacecraft except space telescopes Telescope – ground-based


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-1.md
category: reference
title: List of astronomy acronyms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms
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== A == A&A – (publication) Astronomy & Astrophysics, a European scientific journal A4E – (organization) Astronomers for Planet Earth AAA – (organization) Amateur Astronomers Association of New York AAO – (organization) Australian Astronomical Observatory (prior to 1 July 2010: Anglo-Australian Observatory) AAS – (organization) American Astronomical Society AAT – (telescope) Anglo-Australian Telescope AAVSO – (organization) American Association of Variable Star Observers ABBA – ADC Backend For Bolometer Array ABRIXAS – (observing program) A BRoadband Imaging X-ray All-sky Survey AC – (catalog) Catalogue Astrographique ACE – (spacecraft) Advanced Composition Explorer ACIS – (instrumentation) Advanced CCD Imaging Spectrometer, an instrument on the Chandra X-Ray Observatory ACM – (meeting) Asteroids, Comets, and Meteors ACP – (instrumentation) – Aerosol Collector and Pyrolyser, an instrument on the Huygens probe ACS – (instrumentation) Advanced Camera for Surveys, an instrument on the Hubble Space Telescope ACT - Atacama Cosmology Telescope, a cosmological millimeter-wave telescope located on Cerro Toco in the Atacama Desert in the north of Chile. ACV – (celestial object) Alpha Canes Venatici, a class of rotating variable stars with strong magnetic fields named after Alpha Canum Venaticorum (Cor Caroli), the archetype for the class ACYG – (celestial object) Alpha CYGni, a class of rotating


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-2.md
category: reference
title: List of astronomy acronyms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms
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== B == B – (catalog) Barnard catalog BAA – (organization) British Astronomical Association BAAS – (publication) Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society BAC – (catalog) Bordeaux Astrographic Catalog BAO – (astrophysics terminology) baryon acoustic oscillations BAO – (organization) Beijing Astronomical Observatory BASIS – (observing program) Burst and All Sky Imaging Survey BAT – (instrumentation) Burst Alert Telescope, an instrument on SWIFT BATC – (observing program) Beijing-Arizona-Taiwan-Connecticut, the name of a multi-wavelength sky survey BATSE – (instrument) Burst and Transient Source Experiment, an instrument on the Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory BATTeRS – (telescope) Bisei Asteroid Tracking Telescope for Rapid Survey BB – (astrophysics terminology) Black body BBXRT – (telescope) Broad Band X-Ray Telescope BCD – (celestial object) Blue compact dwarf BCD – (software) Basic calibrated data, data produced after basic processing BCEP – (celestial object) Beta CEPhei, a class of pulsating variable stars for which Beta Cephei is the archetypal object also BCE BCG – (celestial object) Blue compact galaxy, another name for a blue compact dwarf, also bright central galaxy BCG – (celestial object) Brightest Cluster Galaxy, the brightest galaxy in a cluster of galaxies BCVS – (catalog) Bibliographic Catalogue of Variable Stars BD – (catalog) Bonner Durchmusterung BD –


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-3.md
category: reference
title: List of astronomy acronyms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms
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== C == C – First Cambridge Catalogue of Radio Sources, 2C (Second Cambridge Catalog), 3C (Third Cambridge Catalog)... CADC – (organization) Canadian Astronomy Data Centre CAHA – (organization) Centro Astronómico Hispano Alemán, a German-Spanish Astronomical Centre CANDELS – (survey) Cosmic Assembly Near-Infrared Deep Extragalactic Legacy Survey or Cosmic Assembly and Dark Energy Legacy Survey CANTAR - (telescope) Colombian Antarctic Telescope for 21-cm Absorption during Reionization CAPS – (instrumentation) Cassini Plasma Spectrometer, an instrument on the Cassini spacecraft CARA – (organization) California Association for Research in Astronomy CANGAROO – Collaboration between Australian and Nippon for a Gamma Ray Observatory CARA – (organization) Center for Astrophysical Research in Antarctica CASCA – (organization) Canadian Astronomical Society / Société canadienne d'astronomie (the name is officially bilingual) CARMA – an array CASS – (organization) Center for Advanced Space Studies CASS – (organization) Center for Astrophysics and Space Sciences, an interdisciplinary research unit at UC San Diego CBAT – (organization) Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams CBE – Collisionless Boltzmann Equation CBR – (celestial object) cosmic background radiation CC – (celestial object) candidate companion, a newly detected observed object that initially appears to orbit another celestial object CCD – (instrumentation) Charge-coupled device CCD – (astrophysics terminology)


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-4.md
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title: List of astronomy acronyms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms
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== D == DAO – (organization) Dominion Astrophysical Observatory DCEP – (celestial object) Delta CEPhei, a class of Cepheids named after Delta Cephei, the archetype for the class DDEB – (celestial object) double-lined eclipsing binary DENIS – (observing program/catalog) DEep Near Infrared Survey DENIS-P – (catalog) DEep Near Infrared Survey, Provisory designation [or also known as DNS]. DES – (observing program) Dark Energy Survey DESI - (observing program) Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument DEC – Declination DES – (observing program) Deep Ecliptic Survey DIB – (celestial object) diffuse interstellar band, an absorption feature in stellar spectra with an interstellar origin DIRBE – (instrumentation) Diffuse InfraRed Background Experiment, a multiwavelength infrared detector used to map dust emission DISR – (instrumentation) – Descent Imager/Spectral Radiometer, an instrument on the Huygens probe DMR – (instrumentation) Differential Microwave Radiometer, a microwave instrument that would map variations (or anisotropies) in the CMB DM – dark matter, the unidentified non-baryonic matter DN – (celestial object) Dwarf nova DNS – (celestial object) double neutron star, another name for a binary neutron star system. [Caution: Do not confuse with DNS relating to DENIS – Deep Near Infrared Survey]. DOG – (celestial object) dust-obscured galaxy, a galaxy with an unusually


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-5.md
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title: List of astronomy acronyms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms
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== F == FAME – (telescope) Full-sky Astrometric Mapping Explorer FASTT – (telescope) Flagstaff Astrometric Scanning Transit Telescope FBOT - (celestial object) Fast blue optical transient FCC – (catalog) Fornax Cluster Catalog, a catalog of galaxies in the Fornax Cluster FEB – (celestial object) falling-evaporating body, a solid planetary object that is being evaporated by the stellar wind FGS – (instrumentation) fine guidance sensors, an instrument on the Hubble Space Telescope FHST – (instrumentation) Fixed Head Star Trackers, an instrument on the Hubble Space Telescope FIR – (astrophysics terminology) far infrared FIRST – (observing program) Faint Images of the Radio Sky at Twenty-Centimeters, a radio survey of the sky with the Very Large Array FIRST – (telescope) Far InfraRed and Submillimeter Space Telescope, an older name for the Herschel Space Observatory FIRAS – (Instrumentation) Far-InfraRed Absolute Spectrophotometer FIRE – (simulation project) Feedback in Realistic Environments, a project to simulate galaxy formation with detailed feedback processes included FITS – (software) Flexible Image Transport System, the format commonly used for scientific astronomy images FLAMES – (instrumentation) Fibre Large Array Multi Element Spectrograph, instrument on the VLT FLOAT – (telescope) Fibre-Linked Optical Array Telescope FLWO – (telescope) Fred L. Whipple Observatory FMO –


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-6.md
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title: List of astronomy acronyms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms
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== G == G – (catalog) Giclas, a catalog of nearby stars GAIA – (telescope) Global Astrometric Interferometer for Astrophysics, a space telescope that is used to make high-precision measurements of stars GALEX – (telescope) Galaxy Evolution Explorer, an ultraviolet space telescope GALEXASC – GALaxy Evolution eXplorer all-sky catalog GASP – (software) Guide star Astrometric Support Package GAT – (catalog) AO (Gatewood+), catalog of G. Gatewood's observations GBM – (instrumentation) Gamma-Ray Burst Monitor, a set of gamma ray detectors on the Fermi Gamma-Ray Space Telescope GBT – (telescope) Green Bank Telescope GC – (catalog) General Catalog, a catalog of clusters, nebulae, and galaxies created by John Herschel and now superseded by the New General Catalogue, also globular cluster GCAS – (celestial object) Gamma CASsiopeiae, a class of eruptive variable stars named after Gamma Cassiopeiae, the archetype for the class GCMS – (instrumentation) – Gas Chromatograph and Mass Spectrometer, an instrument on the Huygens probe also GC/MS GCN – (organization) GRB Coordinates Network GCR – (astrophysics terminology) galactic cosmic rays GCVS – (catalog) the General Catalog of Variable Stars GD – (catalog) Giclas Dwarf, a catalog of white dwarf GDS – (celestial object) Great Dark Spot, a transient feature in the


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-7.md
category: reference
title: List of astronomy acronyms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms
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== H == HAeBe – (celestial object) Herbig AeBe star, a type of pre-main-sequence star with strong spectral emission lines HAe – (celestial object) Herbig Ae star HBe – (celestial object) Herbig Be star HALCA – (telescope) Highly Advanced Laboratory for Communications and Astronomy, a satellite that is part of the VLBI Space Observatory Program, a Japanese radio astronomy project HAO – (organization) high-altitude observatory HARPS – (instrumentation) High Accuracy Radial velocity Planet Searcher, a high-precision spectrograph installed on the ESO 3.6 m Telescope HASI – (instrumentation) Huygens Atmosphere Structure Instrument, an instrument on the Huygens probe HB – (celestial object) horizontal branch, a type of evolved red giant star in which helium is burned in the core and hydrogen is burned in a shell around the core HBRP – (celestial object) High-magnetic field radio pulsar HBV – (catalog) Hamburg–Bergedorf Variables, a catalog of variable stars HBMM – (astrophysics terminology) Hydrogen-burning minimum mass HCG – Hickson Compact Group HCO – (organization) Harvard College Observatory HCS – (celestial object) heliospheric current sheet, the boundary where the polarity of the Sun's magnetic field changes direction HD – (catalog) Henry Draper, a catalog of stars HDE – (catalog) Henry Draper Extension, a catalog


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-8.md
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title: List of astronomy acronyms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms
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== I == IAC – (organization) Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias IAPPP – (organization) International Amateur/Professional Photoelectric Photometry IAS – (organization) Istituto di Astrofisica Spaziale IASY – (observing program) International Active Sun Year, the name given to a series of coordinated Sun-related observational programs performed in 1969 and 1971 IAU – (organization) International Astronomical Union IAUC – (publication) IAU Circular IAYC – (meeting) International Astronomical Youth Camp IBAS – (instrumentation) – INTEGRAL Burst Alert System, an instrument on the INTEGRAL satellite IBIS – (instrumentation) – Imager on Board the INTEGRAL Satellite, an instrument on the INTEGRAL satellite IBVS – (publication) Information Bulletin on Variable Stars IC – (catalog) Index Catalog IC – (celestial object) Intracluster, either the regions between stars in star clusters or the region between galaxies in galaxy clusters IC - IceCube Neutrino Observatory a.k.a. IceCube, a neutrino observatory at the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station in Antarctica ICE – (spacecraft) International Comet Explorer ICM – (celestial object) intracluster medium, is the superheated gas present at the center of a galaxy cluster ICQ – (publication) International Comet Quarterly ICRF – (astrophysics terminology) International Celestial Reference Frame, a coordinate system based on radio sources used to define the locations of


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-9.md
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title: List of astronomy acronyms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms
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== J == Janskys – (publication) Green Bank Observatory JAC – (publication) Japan Astronomical Circular JAC – (organization) Joint Astronomy Centre, the organization that operates the United Kingdom Infrared Telescope and the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope JAPOA – (organization) Japan Amateur Photoelectric Observers Association JAXA – (organization) Japan Aerospace eXploration Agency JBO – Jodrell Bank Observatory, a radio observatory in England. JCMT – (telescope) James Clerk Maxwell Telescope JD – (astrophysics terminology) Julian Date, an alternative time commonly used in astronomy JET-X – (telescope) Joint European Telescope for X-ray astronomy JGR – (publication) Journal of Geophysical Research JILA – (organization) formerly Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics JIVE – Joint Institute for VLBI in Europe JKT – (telescope) Jacobus Kapteyn Telescope JPL – (organization) Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a research center associated with NASA JSGA – (telescope/organization) Japan SpaceGuard Association, a Japanese telescope used to track near-Earth asteroids and space junk JWST – (telescope) James Webb Space Telescope, an infrared space telescope == K == KAIT – (telescope) Katzman Automatic Imaging Telescope KAO – (telescope) Kuiper Airborne Observatory KBO – (celestial object) Kuiper belt object KCAO – (organization) Kumamoto Civil Astronomical Observatory KIC – (catalog) Kepler Input Catalog, a catalog of stars


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-10.md
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title: List of astronomy acronyms
tags: science, encyclopedia
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== L == L – (astrophysics terminology) Lagrange, Lagrange points L – (catalog) Luyten, a catalog of proper motion measurements of stars LAD-C – (instrumentation) Large Area Debris Collector, a canceled program that was to collect and catalog low orbital dust on the International Space Station LAEFF – (organization) Laboratorio de Astrofisica Espacial y Fisica Fundamental, a Spanish astronomy research organization LAL – (catalog) LALande, a historical catalog of stars LAMOST – (telescope) Large sky Area Multi-Object fiber Spectroscopic Telescope LANL – (organization) Los Alamos National Laboratory LASCO – (instrumentation) Large Angle and Spectrometric COronagraph, an instrument on the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory Laser – (instrumentation) light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation LAT – (instrumentation) Large Area Telescope, on the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope LBN – (catalog) Lynds Bright Nebula, a catalog of bright nebulae LBG - (celestial object) Lyman Break Galaxy, a galaxy identified using the Lyman-break selection technique LBNL – (organization) Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory LBT – (telescope) Large Binocular Telescope LBV – (celestial object) luminous blue variable, a type of very bright variable star LCDM – (astrophysics terminology) Lambda cold dark matter, any model for structure formation in the universe that includes dark energy also ΛCDM


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-11.md
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title: List of astronomy acronyms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms
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== M == MARVEL – (project) Multi-object Apache Point Observatory Radial Velocity Exoplanet Large-area Survey, a NASA-funded project to search for exoplanets M – (catalog) Messier M – (celestial object) Mira, a class of long period pulsating variable stars named after Mira, the archetype for the class MAC – (observing program) Multi-instrument Aircraft Campaign, a program to study the cometary dust from the Leonids meteor showers MACHO – (celestial object/observing program/catalog) MAssive Compact Halo Object, an object in the Milky Way's halo thought to comprise part of the galaxy's dark matter; also a survey to detect these sources through gravitational lensing and the catalog of sources detected by the survey MACS – (catalogue) Magellanic Catalogue of Stars MAGIC – (telescope) Major Atmospheric Gamma-ray Imaging Cherenkov telescope MALT – Millimetre Astronomy Legacy Team – including [1] and MALT45 MAP – (telescope) Microwave-background Anisotropy Probe, an older name for the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe MASER – (astrophysics terminology) microwave amplification by stimulated emission of radiation, microwave emission that is similar to the optical emission from a laser MAVEN – Mars Atmosphere and Volatile EvolutioN MBA – (celestial object) main belt asteroid MBH – (celestial object) massive black hole MCG – (catalog) Morphological


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-12.md
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title: List of astronomy acronyms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms
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== N == N – (celestial object) nova NACA – (organization) National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics, the older name for NASA NAMN – (organization) North American Meteor Network NAOJ – (organization) National Astronomical Observatory of Japan NAS – (organization) Norsk Astronomisk Selskap, the Norwegian name for the Norwegian Astronomical Society NASA – (organization) National Aeronautics and Space Administration NASDA – (organization) NAtional Space Development Agency NBS – (organization) National Bureau of Standards, an older name for the National Institute of Standards and Technology NCT – (telescope) Nuclear Compton Telescope – a balloon-borne soft gamma-ray (0.2-15 MeV) telescope. NEAP – (spacecraft) Near Earth Asteroid Prospector, a space probe used to study a near-Earth asteroid NEAR – (spacecraft) Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous, a space probe used to study a near-Earth asteroid NEAT – (observing program) Near-Earth Asteroid Tracking NED – (software) NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database NEO – (celestial object) Near-Earth object also NEA – (celestial object) Near-Earth asteroid NEID - (instrumentation) a nested acronym for NN-EXPLORE Exoplanet Investigations with Doppler Spectroscopy, and it gets its name from the Tohono O'odham word meaning "to see" NEMP – (celestial object) nitrogen-enhanced metal-poor star, a type of carbon star with high amounts of nitrogen NEODyS –


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-13.md
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title: List of astronomy acronyms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms
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== P == P60 – (telescope) Palomar 60-inch telescope PA – (astrophysics terminology) Position Angle PACS - (instrumentation) Photodetecting Array Camera and Spectrometer, a Herschel imaging camera and low resolution spectrometer PAH – (astrophysics terminology) polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon PAMELA – (telescope) Payload for Antimatter Matter Exploration and Light-nuclei Astrophysics, a space telescope used to study cosmic rays Pan-STARRS – (telescope) Panoramic Survey Telescope And Rapid Response System PASJ – (publication) Publications of the Astronomical Society of Japan PBH — (cosmological object) Primordial black hole PASP – (publication) Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific PCA – (instrumentation) Proportional Counter Array, an X-ray detector on the Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer PCAS – (observing program) Planet-Crossing Asteroid Survey PDBI – (telescope) Plateau de Bure Interferometer, a radio telescope PDR – a photodissociation region or photon-dominated region (both terms are used synonymously); a region in the neutral ISM in which far-ultraviolet photons dominate the heating and chemistry PDS – is a distributed data system that NASA uses to archive data collected by Solar System missions. PEP – (instrumentation) PhotoElectric Photometry, an observing technique using photometers PEPE – (instrumentation) Plasma Experiment for Planetary Exploration, an instrument on Deep Space 1 PGC – Principal


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-14.md
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title: List of astronomy acronyms
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== R == RAPTOR – Rapid Telescopes for Optical Response project RA – (astrophysics terminology) Right ascension RAFGL – See AFGL. RAMBO – (celestial object) An association of brown dwarfs or white dwarfs form a dark cluster. RAS – (organization) Royal Astronomical Society RASC – (organization) Royal Astronomical Society of Canada RASS – (observing program/catalog) ROSAT All-Sky Survey, used as both a name for a survey with ROSAT and the catalogs produced from the survey RC – (celestial object) Red Clump, a type of metal-rich red giant star also RCG – red clump giant RC – (catalog) Reference Catalogue, a catalog of nearby galaxies RC2 – Reference Catalogue, 2nd edition RC3 – Reference Catalogue, 3rd edition RC – (organization/telescope) Ritchey Chretien, a manufacturer of amateur and professional telescope equipment; also the telescopes themselves RCB – (celestial object) R Coronae Borealis, a class of eruptive variable stars named after R Coronae Borealis, the archetype for the class RDI – (astrophysics terminology) radiation-driven implosion RECONS – (organization) Research Consortium on Nearby Stars, a survey of nearby stars RGB – (celestial object) red-giant branch, a star that is evolving from a main-sequence star into a red giant Can also refer to the ROSAT-Green


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-15.md
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title: List of astronomy acronyms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms
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== S == S82 – Stripe 82 S&T – (publication) Sky & Telescope SAAO – (organization) South African Astronomical Observatory SALT – (telescope) Southern African Large Telescope SAF – (organization) Société astronomique de France (French Astronomical Society) SAM – (astrophysics terminology) Semi-Analytic Modeling, models that draw on numerical and analytical methods to model dark matter evolution in galaxies SAO – (organization/catalog) Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, the name of astrophysics research organization associated with Harvard University; also a catalog of stars SARA – (organization) Society of Amateur Radio Astronomers SAS – (software) Science Analysis Software, a software package used for processing data from the XMM-Newton Observatory SAT – (telescope) synthetic aperture telescope SAVAL – (organization) Sociedad Astronómica de Valparaíso y Viña del Mar, Chile. Amateur Astronomy. Founded in 1956. SB – (celestial object) spectroscopic binary SB1 – spectroscopic binary, single-lined spectra SB2 – spectroscopic binary, double-lined spectra SB – (astrophysics terminology) surface brightness SBIG – (organization/instrumentation) Santa Barbara Instrument Group, the name of both a company that manufactures telescope equipment and the company's products SBNC – (organization) Small Bodies Names Committee, an older name for the Committee for Small Body Nomenclature SCP – (observing program) Supernova Cosmology Project, a project to measure


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-16.md
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title: List of astronomy acronyms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms
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parent: list-of-astronomy-acronyms-20260505-0
summary:
SMA – (telescope) Submillimeter Array SMART – (spacecraft) Small Missions for Advanced Research in Technology SMARTS – (organization) Small and Moderate Aperture Research Telescope System at Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory SMBH – (celestial object) super massive black hole SMC – (celestial object) Small Magellanic Cloud SME – (spacecraft) Solar Mesosphere Explorer, a spacecraft used to study the Earth's ozone layer SMEX – (spacecraft) SMall EXplorers, the name of a series of small astronomical spacecraft; also the program to develop the spacecraft SMG - (celestial object) submillimeter galaxy SMM – (telescope) Solar Maximum Mission, a solar space telescope SN – (instrumentation) signal-to-noise, the ratio of the signal from an object to the noise from the detector that measured the signal also SNR – Signal-to-nosie ratio SN – (celestial object) supernova also SNe (plural form of SN) SNAP – (telescope) SuperNova Acceleration Probe, proposed space telescope SNR – (celestial object) supernova remnant SNU – (astrophysics terminology) solar neutrino units SOARD – (software) Steward Observatory Asteroid Relational Database SOFIA – (telescope) Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy, an infrared telescope currently under construction that will fly inside a modified Boeing 747 aircraft SOHO – (telescope) SOlar and Heliospheric Observatory, a solar space telescope SONEAR


id: list-of-astronomy-acronyms-20260505-17
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-17.md
category: reference
title: List of astronomy acronyms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:20.511596+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-astronomy-acronyms-20260505-0
summary:
== T == T-1 – (observing program) First Jupiter Trojan survey at Mount Palomar, part of the P–L survey T-2 – (observing program) Second Jupiter Trojan survey at Mount Palomar, part of the P–L survey T-3 – (observing program) Third Jupiter Trojan survey at Mount Palomar, part of the P–L survey TABLEAUX – International Conference on Automated Reasoning with Analytic Tableaux and Related Methods TAC – (organization) Time Allocation Committee or Telescope Allocation Committee, a general name for a committee that awards telescope observing time TAC – (catalog) Twin Astrograph Catalog TAI – (astrophysics terminology) International Atomic Time TAMS – (astrophysics terminology) terminal-age main sequence, stars at the point in their lifetimes where they have finished burning hydrogen in their cores TAROT – (telescope) Télescope à Action Rapide pour les Objets Transitoires TASS – (observing program) The Amateur Sky Survey TARDIS – (software) an open-source program used for numerical modelling and analysis of supernovae TAU – (spacecraft) Thousand Astronomical Unit, a spacecraft mission proposed in the 1980s that would reach 1000 AU in 50 years TCB – (astrophysics terminology) Barycentric Coordinate Time TCC – Theory of Cryptography Conference TCG – (astrophysics terminology) Geocentric Coordinate Time TDB – (astrophysics terminology) Barycentric


id: list-of-astronomy-acronyms-20260505-18
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-18.md
category: reference
title: List of astronomy acronyms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:20.511596+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-astronomy-acronyms-20260505-0
summary:
== V == VBO – (organization) Vainu Bappu Observatory, located in India VBT – (telescope) Vainu Bappu Telescope, located at Vainu Bappu Observatory VCC – (catalog) Virgo Cluster Catalog, a catalog of galaxies in the Virgo Cluster VdS – (organization) Vereinigung der Sternfreunde, the German amateur astronomers society VEEGA – (astrophysics terminology) Venus-Earth-Earth Gravity Assist, the path taken by the Galileo spacecraft to reach Jupiter VeLLO – (celestial object) very-low-luminosity object VERITAS – (telescope) Very Energetic Radiation Imaging Telescope Array System, gamma-ray telescope in Arizona sensitive to GeV/TeV gamma rays VERA – (telescope) VLBI Exploration of Radio Astrometry, a Japanese radio telescope designed for studying objects in the Milky Way VHE – (astrophysics terminology) Very High Energy, gamma rays with high energies VIMOS – (instrumentation) VIsible Multi-Object Spectrograph, instrument on the VLT VIPERS – VIMOS Public Extragalactic Redshift Survey an ESO Large Program VISTA – (telescope) Visible and Infrared Survey Telescope for Astronomy VLA – (telescope) Very Large Array, a radio telescope in New Mexico operated by the National Radio Astronomy Observatory VLBA – (telescope) Very Long Baseline Array, a radio telescope operated by the National Radio Astronomy Observatory with antennas spread across the United States VLBI – (instrumentation) very


id: list-of-astronomy-acronyms-20260505-19
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms-19.md
category: reference
title: List of astronomy acronyms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_acronyms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:20.511596+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-astronomy-acronyms-20260505-0
summary:
== Z == ZAHB – (celestial object) "zero-age" horizontal branch, horizontal branch stars that have just begun burning helium in their cores and hydrogen in a shell around the cores ZAMS – (celestial object) zero age main sequence, a star that has just become a main-sequence star (i.e. a star that has begun burning hydrogen in its core) ZAND – (celestial object) Z ANDromedae, a class of eruptive variable stars named after the binary star system Z Andromedae, the archetype for the class ZANDE – (celestial object) Z ANDromedae with eclipses, a subclass of ZAND stars where the stars eclipse each other ZEPLIN – (instrumentation) ZonEd proportional scintillation in liquid noble gases, a dark matter detector ZHR – (astrophysics terminology) zenith hourly rate, the maximum number of meteors per hour that may be observed during a meteor shower Z-FOURGE – (survey) The FourStar Galaxy Evolution Survey ZOA – Zone of Avoidance == See also == List of common astronomy symbols List of astronomical catalogues Glossary of astronomy Modern constellations == References == AAVSO Type List. Information retrieved on 2006-09-10 – 2006-09-11 Abbreviations and acronyms frequently used in astronomy. Information retrieved on 2006-08-28 – 2006-09-12 The Encyclopedia of Astrobiology, Astronomy, and


id: list-of-astronomers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of astronomers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:21.744168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-astronomers-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of astronomers, astrophysicists and other notable people who have made contributions to the field of astronomy. They may have won major prizes or awards, developed or invented widely used techniques or technologies within astronomy, or are directors of major observatories or heads of space-based telescope projects. == Notable astronomers == == Brief alphabetical list == === A === === B === === C === === D === === E === === F === === G === === H === === I === === J === === K === === L === === M === === N === === O === === P === === Q === Adolphe Quetelet (Belgium, 1796–1874) Ali Qushji (Ottoman, 1403–1474) M. Shahid Qureshi (Pakistan) === R === === S === === T === === U === === V === === W === === Y === === Z === == Others who influenced astronomy and astrophysics == The following is a list of people who are not astronomers but made a contribution to the field of astronomy and astrophysics. Hans Bethe (1906–2005), (physicist) Niels Bohr (1885–1962), (physicist) Andreas Cellarius (Netherlands, Germany, 1596–1665), (cartographer) Freeman Dyson (1923–2020), (physicist) Albert Einstein (1879–1955), (physicist) Karl


id: list-of-cosmologists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cosmologists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of cosmologists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cosmologists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:23.074336+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cosmologists-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of people who have made noteworthy contributions to cosmology (the study of the history and large-scale structure of the universe) and their cosmological achievements. == A == Tom Abel (1970–) studied primordial star formation Roberto Abraham (1965–) studied the shapes of early galaxies Andreas Albrecht studied the formation of the early universe, cosmic structure, and dark energy Hannes Alfvén (1908–1995) theorized that galactic magnetic fields could be generated by plasma currents Ralph A. Alpher (1921–2007) argued that observed proportions of hydrogen and helium in the universe could be explained by the big bang model, predicted cosmic background radiation Aristarchus of Samos (310–230 BC) early proponent of heliocentrism Aristotle (circa 384–322 BC) posited a geocentric cosmology that was widely accepted for many centuries Aryabhata (476–550) described a geocentric model with slow and fast epicycles == B == Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi (787–886) conveyed Aristotle's theories from Persia to Europe James M. Bardeen (1939–2022) studied the mathematics of black holes and of vacua under general relativity John D. Barrow (1952–2020) popularized the anthropic cosmological principle Charles L. Bennett (1956–) studied the large-scale structure of the universe by mapping irregularities in microwave background radiation Orfeu Bertolami (1959–)


id: list-of-cosmologists-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cosmologists-1.md
category: reference
title: List of cosmologists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cosmologists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:23.074336+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cosmologists-20260505-0
summary:
== K == Ronald Kantowski (1939–) discovered spatially homogeneous but anisotropic solutions to general relativity Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) pioneered heliocentrism, discovered elliptical planetary motion, attempted to explain heavenly motions through physical causes Isaak Markovich Khalatnikov (1919–2021) conjectured an oscillatory model with an essential singularity for the evolution of the universe Tom W. B. Kibble (1932–2016) introduced the concept of cosmic strings Robert Kirshner (1949–) discovered the Boötes void, a large region sparsely populated with galaxies, and wrote a popular book on cosmology Edward Kolb (1951–) studied big bang cosmology including the emergence of baryons and dark matter, and wrote a popular textbook on cosmology Lawrence M. Krauss (1954–) author of popular science books on cosmology including A Universe from Nothing == L == Ofer Lahav (1959–) studied dark matter and dark energy Tod R. Lauer (1957–) catalogued massive black holes at galaxy centers and correlated their mass with other properties of the galaxies' structures Georges Henri Lemaître (1894–1966) proposed the big bang theory and the distance-redshift relation Janna Levin (1967–) seeks evidence for a bounded universe of nontrivial topology Andrew R. Liddle (1965–) studied inflationary models, wrote two books on inflation and primordial inhomogeneities Evgeny M. Lifshitz (1915–1985) conjectured an


id: list-of-cosmologists-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cosmologists-2.md
category: reference
title: List of cosmologists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cosmologists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:23.074336+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cosmologists-20260505-0
summary:
== S == Rainer K. Sachs (1932–2024) discovered gravitationally induced redshifts in the cosmic background radiation Carl Sagan (1934–1996) American astrophysicist, cosmologist and author Andrei Sakharov (1921–1989) invented the theory of twins, CPT-symmetric universes Allan Sandage (1936–2010) set the cosmological distance scale and accurately estimated the speed of expansion of the universe Brian P. Schmidt (1967–) used supernova data to measure the acceleration in the expansion of the universe David N. Schramm (1945–1997) was an expert on big bang theory and an early proponent of dark matter Dennis W. Sciama (1926–1999) studied many aspects of cosmology and supervised many other leading cosmologists Irving Segal (1918–1998) created chronometric cosmology with alternative explanation of redshift in spectra of distant sources Seleucus of Seleucia (c.190–c.150 BC) used tidal observations to support a heliocentric model Roman Ulrich Sexl (1939–1986) developed an ether-based theory of absolute simultaneity that is mathematically equivalent to special relativity Al-Sijzi (c. 945–1020) invented an astrolabe based on the Earth's rotation Joseph Silk (1942–) explained the homogeneity of the early universe using photon diffusion damping Willem de Sitter (1872–1934) developed a theory of dark matter with Einstein, found an expanding matterless solution to general relativity Vesto Slipher (1875–1969) performed the first


id: list-of-astronomical-instrument-makers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_instrument_makers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of astronomical instrument makers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_instrument_makers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:28.979747+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-astronomical-instrument-makers-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of astronomical instrument makers, along with lifespan and country of work, if available. == A == == B == == C == == D == == E == == F == == G == == H == == I == == J == == K == == L == == M == == N == == O == == P == == Q == == R == == S == == T == == U == == V == == W == == X == == Y == == Z == == See also == History of the telescope List of largest optical reflecting telescopes List of largest optical refracting telescopes List of observatory codes List of Russian astronomers and astrophysicists List of telescope types Space telescope Timeline of telescopes, observatories, and observing technology == References == == External links ==


id: list-of-astronomical-instruments-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_instruments-0.md
category: reference
title: List of astronomical instruments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_instruments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:30.296501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-astronomical-instruments-20260505-0
summary:
An astronomical instrument is a device for observing, measuring or recording astronomical data. They are used in the scientific field of astronomy, a natural science that studies celestial objects and the phenomena that occur in the cosmos, with the object of explaining their origin and evolution over time. Many are also used in navigation and surveying. Astronomical instruments include: == See also == Astronomy Outline of astronomy Surveying instrument Measurement instrument == Notes ==


id: list-of-astronomy-journals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_journals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of astronomy journals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomy_journals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:31.616992+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-astronomy-journals-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of scientific journals publishing articles in astronomy, astrophysics, and space sciences. == A == == B == Baltic Astronomy Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society Bulgarian Astronomical Journal Bulletin of the Astronomical Society of India == C == Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy Classical and Quantum Gravity Connaissance des Temps Cosmic Research == E == Earth and Planetary Science Letters Earth, Moon, and Planets Experimental Astronomy == G == General Relativity and Gravitation Geophysical Research Letters == I == Icarus International Astronomical Union Circular International Journal of Astrobiology == J == == L == Living Reviews in Solar Physics == M == Meteoritics & Planetary Science Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society == N == Nature Astronomy Nature Geoscience New Astronomy == O == The Observatory Open Astronomy Open European Journal on Variable Stars (OEJV) The Open Journal of Astrophysics (OJAp) Odessa Astronomical Publications (OAP) == P == Peremennye Zvezdy Pis’ma v Astronomicheskii Zhurnal Planetary and Space Science Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australia Publications of the Astronomical Society of Japan Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific == R == Research in Astronomy and Astrophysics Research Notes of the AAS Revista Mexicana


id: kumeyaay-astronomy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kumeyaay_astronomy-0.md
category: reference
title: Kumeyaay astronomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kumeyaay_astronomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:32.910887+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kumeyaay-astronomy-20260505-0
summary:
Kumeyaay astronomy or cosmology (Kumeyaay: My Uuyow, "sky knowledge") comprises the astronomical knowledge of the Kumeyaay people, a Native American group whose traditional homeland occupies what is now Southern California in the United States and adjacent parts of northern Baja California in Mexico. A deeply rooted cosmological belief system was developed and followed by the Kumeyaay civilization based on this knowledge including the computing of time (Kumeyaay Mat’taam). The first evidence of astronomical observations and visual registration was discovered in the El Vallecito archeological zone. The "Men in a square" rupestric painting located at El Diablito area of El Vallecito depicted a square that aligns with sunlight on the Fall equinox. These paintings were made by the Kumeyaay people, possibly during nomadic travels. Kumeyaay sand paintings and rock art modeled the passage of the sun, moon, and constellations. Observation areas were made by the Kumeyaay to watch and register astronomical events. However many were destroyed by vandals before protection measures were instituted. == Astronomical objects == Hatotkeur (Spine of the Sky) – Milky Way Constellations: == See also == Cultural astronomy == References == == External links == San Diego Museum of Man Archived 2016-10-10 at the Wayback Machine


id: list-of-galaxies-by-surface-brightness-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_galaxies_by_surface_brightness-0.md
category: reference
title: List of galaxies by surface brightness
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_galaxies_by_surface_brightness
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:34.084013+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-galaxies-by-surface-brightness-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of galaxies sorted by surface brightness. Surface brightness is a measure of how bright a diffuse object like a galaxy or nebula appears over its extended surface. The brightness over the entire galaxy is called apparent magnitude. == Table == The surface brightness is calculated via S = m + 2.5 log 10 ⁡ A {\displaystyle S=m+2.5\log _{10}A} . Where S {\displaystyle S} is surface brightness, m {\displaystyle m} is total magnitude, and A {\displaystyle A} is the total area in square arcseconds. Area is calculated using the formula for an ellipse; π a b {\displaystyle \pi ab} , where a {\displaystyle a} is the semi-major axis and b {\displaystyle b} is the semi-minor axis. Each axis is half of the dimension, because each dimension is the entire length/height but the axis is only the length/height to the centre, this combined with the symmetry of an ellipse means that half the dimension is the axis. Combining this with the original formula we get: S = m + 2.5 log 10 ⁡ ( π a 2 b 2 ) {\displaystyle S=m+2.5\log _{10}(\pi {\frac {a}{2}}{\frac {b}{2}})} , which simplifies to S = m + 2.5 log 10 ⁡


id: list-of-discoverers-of-messier-objects-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_discoverers_of_Messier_objects-0.md
category: reference
title: List of discoverers of Messier objects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_discoverers_of_Messier_objects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:35.351196+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-discoverers-of-messier-objects-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of each Messier object, Its Discovery Year and its first discoverer who published/recorded their findings. Most of the Messier Objects were discovered between the years 1654 and 1782 AD, amongst some outliers. == References ==


id: meteorite-fall-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorite_fall-0.md
category: reference
title: Meteorite fall
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorite_fall
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:37.329679+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: meteorite-fall-20260505-0
summary:
A meteorite fall, also called an observed fall, is a meteorite collected after its fall from outer space, that was observed by people or automated devices. Any other meteorite is called a "find". As of May 2026, the Meteoritical Bulletin Database listed 1,273 observed falls of approved meteorites, most of which have specimens in modern collections. == Significance == Observed meteorite falls are of societal and scientific importance for several reasons: In the most energetic of events, falls are observed by many human observers, and can co-occur with dramatic consequences as seen during the Chelyabinsk meteor event, in which 1,491 people were injured seriously enough to seek medical treatment (most injured from broken glass from the shockwave; no fatalities). Material from observed falls has not been subjected to terrestrial weathering, making the find an ideal candidate for scientific study into the dynamics of dust and small-body formation and understanding the history of solar system formation. Historically, observed falls were the most compelling evidence supporting the extraterrestrial origin of meteorites. A robust subculture of meteorite hunters has developed along with an associated market for meteorite minerals. Observed fall discoveries are currently the best data source to understand the types of meteorites


id: meteorite-fall-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorite_fall-1.md
category: reference
title: Meteorite fall
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorite_fall
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:37.329679+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: meteorite-fall-20260505-0
summary:
In April 1959 the meteorite Příbram was the first meteorite whose trajectory was tracked by multiple cameras recording the associated fireball. The Ondřejov Observatory in the Czech Republic captured photos of the fireball using eleven widely spaced cameras. With the help of this stereo recording (through triangulation), Přibram's trajectory could be reconstructed quite accurately, aiding its recovery and also - for the very first time - enabling scientists to trace its pre-impact orbit back to the asteroid belt. Eleven years later, the fireball from the Lost City meteorite, was recorded with four cameras from the Prairie Meteorite Network operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, when it fell in Cherokee County Oklahoma, in January 1970. This was the first time a meteorite was recovered solely on the basis of photographic measurements. In 1977 the meteorite of Innisfree was discovered using photographs taken by the Meteorite Observation and Recovery Program of the National Research Council of Canada. The fall of Benešov was recorded in 1991, however the meteorite was only recovered in 2011 after the strewnfield was recalculated and metal detectors were used to search for small fragments. The meteorite of Ischgl was found by an Austria forest ranger in 1976 and


id: meteorite-fall-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorite_fall-2.md
category: reference
title: Meteorite fall
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorite_fall
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:37.329679+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: meteorite-fall-20260505-0
summary:
=== Radar detection === Weather radar has become a useful aid for locating meteorites after observed fireballs because it can detect descending fragments of the meteorite during the dark flight-phase – that is, the phase of a meteorite's descent when its speed has been slowed by atmospheric drag to the point that it no longer emits visible light and the fragments reach terminal velocity. Radar-derived echoes from falling stones can help determine whether an observed fireball event has produced meteorites large enough to be recovered on the ground. Radar data in combination with weather data can be used to reconstruct a fall's final trajectory in order to calculate a possible strewn field. This allows people searching for meteorites to focus their search efforts more efficiently than by relying only on traditional methods such as eyewitness accounts, recordings from security cameras and other video sources. Targeted searches have improved the chances to quickly collect minimally weathered specimens that are scientifically valuable for studying the composition and history of their parent bodies. The fall of the Ash Creek meteorite in February 2009 was the first time when data from weather radar was used to locate meteorites on the ground. Among the radar-enabled


id: meteorite-fall-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorite_fall-3.md
category: reference
title: Meteorite fall
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorite_fall
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:37.329679+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: meteorite-fall-20260505-0
summary:
=== Meteorite of Aegospotami === The meteorite of Aegospotami might be the earliest case of a meteorite fall, where in surviving literature an observed fall is directly linked to a recovered mass. Writing about this meteorite, the ancient Greek natural philosopher Diogenes of Apollonia - living in the 5th century BCE - is also credited as the first author to argue meteorites have an extraterrestrial origin. According to writings recorded by doxographer Aetius he established:"In addition to the visible stars, invisible stones also wander through the heavens, having no name. They frequently fall on Earth and their fire gets extinguished, like the stony star which fell in flames at Aegospotami."Ancient writers including Aristotle, Pliny the Elder and Plutarch reported that a large stone fell at Aegospotami on the Gallipoli Peninsula in the second year of the 78th Olympiad – corresponding to the year 466 BCE. The meteorite was described as brown in colour and the size of a wagon load and according to Plutarch was displayed and worshipped by the inhabitants of the Gallipoli Peninsula for several hundred years, until at least the first century AD. The object itself did not survive for modern study but the event - although


id: meteorite-fall-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorite_fall-4.md
category: reference
title: Meteorite fall
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorite_fall
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:37.329679+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: meteorite-fall-20260505-0
summary:
==== Meteorite of Siena ==== The publication of Chladnis book at Easter 1794 happened only six weeks before the well observed and documented meteorite fall of Siena in Italy. The Siena meteorite shower of 16 June 1794 was the first in modern times to occur in the vicinity of a major European city, which at the time had a population of nearly 30,000. Hence the meteorite fall was witnessed by so many people that its authenticity was difficult to dismiss. The observed fall sparked a lively controversy involving more than half a dozen scientists. ==== Meteorite of L'Aigle ==== A decisive turning point came with the meteorite fall of L'Aigle in France in 1803 and the documentation of this event by Jean-Baptiste Biot for the French scientific establishment; his systematic collection of testimony, mapping of the strewn field, and material comparisons helped convince much of the European scientific community that meteorites are real extraterrestrial falls. === Chemical analysis of meteorites === Another step forward into the future of meteoritics was the laboratory work of British chemist Edward Charles Howard and French mineralogist Jacques Louis, Comte de Bournon. They carried out analyses of samples of recently observed falls of Benares, Siena,


id: list-of-minor-planet-discoverers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minor_planet_discoverers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of minor planet discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minor_planet_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:39.799693+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-minor-planet-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of notable minor-planet discoverers credited by the Minor Planet Center with the discovery of one or several minor planets (such as near-Earth and main-belt asteroids, Jupiter trojans and distant objects). As of 22 October 2025, the discovery of over 800,000 numbered minor planets are credited to 2,186 astronomers, observatories, telescopes or surveys. == Discovering astronomers == The table consist of the following fields: Astronomers: links to the corresponding article about the discovering astronomer on Wikipedia. Discoveries: displays the total number of discovered and co-discovered minor planets made by the discoverer (numbered bodies only). It links to the corresponding "Discovery by..." category, which are subcategories of Category:Discoveries by astronomer. These categories do not contain discoveries for which no page on Wikipedia exists. Astronomers with only a few discoveries sometimes do not have their own discovery-category (redlinks). For those who have discovered only one single minor planet, the link in the discovery column directly points to the corresponding entry in the list of minor planets. DOB–DOD: displays the astronomer's date of birth and, if applicable, death. Name(s) at MPC: displays the name of the discoverer as used by the MPC, where the abbreviated first name is written before


id: list-of-most-massive-star-clusters-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_most_massive_star_clusters-0.md
category: reference
title: List of most massive star clusters
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_most_massive_star_clusters
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:41.216108+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-most-massive-star-clusters-20260505-0
summary:
Below are lists of the most massive known star clusters in solar masses (M☉) and sorted in descending order. == Methods for mass estimation == === Globular cluster === Globular cluster masses can be determined by observing the proper motion of nearby stars influenced by the cluster or by estimating the cluster's relaxation time. === Open clusters === The masses of open star clusters can be estimated by measuring the falloff of radial and tangential velocities of surrounding stars at a particular distance. == List == === Globular clusters === === Open clusters === == See also == List of largest star clusters == References == == External links == The young cluster RMC 136a European Southern Observatory Mayall II Messier Objects Monster Super Star Cluster Discovered In Milky Way ScienceDaily


id: list-of-neutron-stars-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_neutron_stars-0.md
category: reference
title: List of neutron stars
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_neutron_stars
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:42.443476+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-neutron-stars-20260505-0
summary:
Neutron stars are the collapsed cores of supergiant stars. They are created as a result of supernovas and gravitational collapse, and are the second-smallest and densest class of stellar objects. In the cores of these stars, protons and electrons combine to form neutrons. Neutron stars can be classified as pulsars if they are magnetized, if they rotate, and if they emit beams of electromagnetic radiation out of their magnetic poles. They may include soft gamma repeaters (SGR) and radio-quiet neutron stars, as well as pulsars such as radio pulsars, recycled pulsars, low mass X-ray pulsars, and accretion-powered pulsars. A notable grouping of neutron stars includes the Magnificent Seven. == List of neutron stars == === Anomalous X-ray pulsars === Anomalous X-ray pulsar (AXP) AXP 1E 1048-59 AXP 1E2259+586 AXP4U 0142+61 AXP 1RXS 1708–40 AXP 1E 1841–045 AXP AXJ1844-0258 AXP CXJ0110-7211 Vela X-1 4U 0352+309 Bursting Pulsar Vela Junior LMC N49 == Binary star systems == Intermediate-mass X-ray binary High-mass X-ray binaries Centaurus X-3 Circinus X-1 GX 301-2 Hercules X-1 == Related objects == Kesteven 79 PSR B1620−26 b 3C 58 Cas X-1 GW170817 Cygnus Loop Spaghetti Nebula SN 1987A Jellyfish Nebula == See also == Stellar designations and names ==


id: list-of-astronomical-observatories-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_observatories-0.md
category: reference
title: List of astronomical observatories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_observatories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:43.790936+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-astronomical-observatories-20260505-0
summary:
This is a partial list of astronomical observatories ordered by name, along with initial dates of operation (where an accurate date is available) and location. The list also includes a final year of operation for many observatories that are no longer in operation. While other sciences, such as volcanology and meteorology, also use facilities called observatories for research and observations, this list is limited to observatories that are used to observe celestial objects. Astronomical observatories are mainly divided into four categories: space-based, airborne, ground-based, and underground-based. Many modern telescopes and observatories are located in space to observe astronomical objects in wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum that cannot penetrate the Earth's atmosphere (such as ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays) and are thus impossible to observe using ground-based telescopes. Being above the atmosphere, these space observatories can also avoid the effects of atmospheric turbulence that plague ground based telescopes, although new generations of adaptive optics telescopes have since then dramatically improved the situation on the ground. The space high vacuum environment also frees the detectors from the ancestral diurnal cycle due to the atmospheric blue light background of the sky, thereby increasing significantly the observation time. An intermediate variant is the


id: list-of-astronomical-observatories-in-canada-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_observatories_in_Canada-0.md
category: reference
title: List of astronomical observatories in Canada
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_observatories_in_Canada
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:45.047681+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-astronomical-observatories-in-canada-20260505-0
summary:
== Alberta == Newbrook Observatory (disused) Oldman River Observatory, Lethbridge Astronomical Society, Lethbridge Rothney Astrophysical Observatory, University of Calgary, Priddis, Alberta Sulphur Mountain Cosmic Ray Station (historic site) Sunridge Observatory, south of Medicine Hat Telus World of Science Edmonton RASC Observatory, Edmonton Wilson Coulee Observatory, RASC Calgary Centre, De Winton, Alberta Eagle Butte Observatory, South of Dunmore == British Columbia == Dominion Radio Astrophysical Observatory, Penticton Mount Kobau National Observatory, Mount Kobau (Never built) University of British Columbia Observatory, Vancouver (Demolished 2010) Dominion Astrophysical Observatory, Herzberg Institute of Astrophysics, Victoria University of Victoria Observatory, Victoria Climenhaga Observatory, University of Victoria Gordon MacMillan Southam Observatory, H.R. Macmillan Space Centre, Vancouver Large Zenith Telescope, University of British Columbia (at Malcolm Knapp Research Forest) (Decommissioned 2014) Trottier Observatory, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby Prince George Astronomical Observatory, Prince George == Manitoba == Glenlea Astronomical Observatory, Univ. of Manitoba/RASC Winnipeg Centre, Winnipeg == New Brunswick == Université de Moncton observatory Mount Allison University Gemini Observatory Moncton High School Observatory == Newfoundland and Labrador == Grenfell Observatory == Nova Scotia == Burke-Gaffney Observatory == Ontario == Algonquin Radio Observatory, Algonquin Provincial Park Boltwood Observatory, Stittsville David Dunlap Observatory, Richmond Hill David Thompson Astronomical Observatory, Fort William


id: list-of-observatory-codes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_observatory_codes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of observatory codes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_observatory_codes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:47.041746+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-observatory-codes-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of observatory codes (IAU codes or MPC codes) published by the Minor Planet Center. For a detailed description, see observations of small Solar System bodies. == List == == References ==


id: list-of-astronomical-societies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_societies-0.md
category: reference
title: List of astronomical societies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_societies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:48.373414+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-astronomical-societies-20260505-0
summary:
A list of notable groups devoted to promoting astronomy research and education. == International == Astronomers for Planet Earth (A4E) Astronomers Without Borders (AWB) International Astronomical Union (IAU) International Meteor Organization Network for Astronomy School Education The Planetary Society == Africa == Astronomical Society of Southern Africa == Asia == === Brunei Darussalam === The Astronomical Society of Brunei Darussalam (PABD) === China === Hong Kong Astronomical Society === India === Akash Mitra Mandal AstronEra Astronomical Society of India Bangalore Astronomical Society (BAS) Birla Planetarium, Chennai Confederation of Indian Amateur Astronomers IUCAA Jyotirvidya Parisanstha Khagol Mandal Khagol Vishwa Wonders of Universe Association of Friends of Astronomy, Goa === Turkey === SpaceTurk === Thailand === Astronomy Thailand === United Arab Emirates === Dubai Astronomy Group == Europe == European Astronomical Society European Association for Astronomy Education === France === Société astronomique de France Société Française d'Astronomie et d'Astrophysique (SF2A) === Germany === Astronomische Gesellschaft Vereinigung der Sternfreunde === Greece === Hellenic Astronomical Society === Ireland === Irish Astronomical Society Irish Federation of Astronomical Societies === Italy === Unione Astrofili Italiani === Norway === Norwegian Astronomical Society CV-Helios Network === Poland === Polish Astronomical Society === Russia === Russian Astronomical Society (1891-1932)


id: list-of-star-forming-regions-in-the-local-group-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_star-forming_regions_in_the_Local_Group-0.md
category: reference
title: List of star-forming regions in the Local Group
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_star-forming_regions_in_the_Local_Group
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:49.564353+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-star-forming-regions-in-the-local-group-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of star-forming regions in the Milky Way Galaxy and the Local Group. Star formation occurs in molecular clouds, which become unstable to gravitational collapse, and these complexes may contain clusters of young stars and regions of ionized gas called H II regions. Stars typically form in groups of many stars, rather than in isolation. == Galactic star-forming regions == == Extragalactic star-forming regions == == See also == RCW Catalog – 1960s astronomical catalogue Sharpless catalog – Made of a list Gum catalog – Astronomical catalog of nebulae List of nearest stars and brown dwarfs == References == == External links == Simbad


id: list-of-stellar-properties-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_stellar_properties-0.md
category: reference
title: List of stellar properties
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_stellar_properties
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:50.724039+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-stellar-properties-20260505-0
summary:
Pages Related to Stellar properties, Pages using the word stellar in a physics context. Stellar aberration Stellar age estimation Stellar archaeology Stellar astronomy Stellar atmosphere Stellar birthline Stellar black hole Stellar cartography Stellar chemistry Stellar chonography Stellar classification Stellar cluster Stellar collision Stellar core Stellar coronae Stellar density Stellar disk Stellar distance Stellar drift Stellar dynamics Stellar engine Stellar envelope see stellar atmosphere Stellar evolution Stellar flare Stellar flux Stellar fog Stellar halo Stellar interferometer Stellar isochrone Stellar kinematics Stellar limb-darkening Stellar luminosity Stellar magnetic field Stellar magnitude Stellar mass Stellar mass black hole Stellar mass loss Stellar molecule Stellar navigation Stellar near-collision Stellar neighborhood Stellar nucleosynthesis Stellar nursery Stellar occultation Stellar parallax Stellar physics Stellar planetary Stellar population Stellar precession Stellar pulsations Stellar quake Stellar radius Stellar remnant Stellar rotation Stellar scintillation Stellar seismology Stellar spectra Stellar spheroid Stellar spin-down Stellar structure Stellar surface fusion Stellar system Stellar triangulation Stellar uplift Stellar variation Stellar vault Stellar wind Stellar wind (disambiguation) Stellar wobble Stellar X-ray astronomy Stellar-wind bubble Other Catalog of Stellar Identifications Fossil stellar magnetic field General Catalogue of Stellar Radial Velocities General Catalogue of Trigonometric Stellar Parallaxes Interstellar cloud Inter-stellar clouds Interstellar medium List of stellar angular diameters


id: list-of-telescope-parts-and-construction-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_telescope_parts_and_construction-0.md
category: reference
title: List of telescope parts and construction
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_telescope_parts_and_construction
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:53.200820+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-telescope-parts-and-construction-20260505-0
summary:
== Hardware == === Accessories === Finderscope Iron sight Reflector (reflex) sight Cheshire collimator: A simple tool to collimate a telescope === Control === Clock drive GoTo === Mechanical construction === Mirror support cell Serrurier truss Silvering === Mounts === Telescope mount - Types include: Altazimuth mount Equatorial mount Equatorial platform Poncet Platform Fork mount German equatorial mount Springfield mount === Optics === Mirrors and lenses are the critical light-bending components of a telescope. Objective: The first lens or curved mirror that collects and focuses the incoming light. Primary lens: The objective of a refracting telescope. Primary mirror: The objective of a reflecting telescope. Corrector plate: A full aperture negative lens placed before a primary mirror designed to correct the optical aberrations of the mirror. Schmidt corrector plate: An aspheric-shaped corrector plate used in the Schmidt telescope. Meniscus corrector: A meniscus-shaped corrector plate usually used in the Maksutov telescope. Focusing mask: A full aperture mask temporarily placed before the primary mirror to aid in focusing the telescope. Bahtinov mask Carey mask Hartmann mask Sub-aperture corrector: One or a series of corrective lens (sometimes combined with a corrective curved mirror) placed after (near the focus) a primary mirror designed to correct


id: tyson-medal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyson_Medal-0.md
category: reference
title: Tyson Medal
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyson_Medal
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:54.534529+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tyson-medal-20260505-0
summary:
The Tyson Medal is a prize awarded for the best performance in subjects relating to astronomy at the University of Cambridge, England. It is awarded annually for achievement in the examinations for Part III of the Mathematical Tripos when there is a candidate deserving of the prize. In his will, Henry Tyson made the following bequest: That the sum of three hundred pounds be paid to the Cambridge University the interest annually to be for a gold medal for the best proficient in Mathematics and Astronomy in the same way as Dr Smith's and to bear the donor's name. The value of the fund was £65,095 in 2008. == List of winners == Most of this list is from The Times newspaper archive. The winners of the prize are published in The Cambridge University Reporter. == See also == List of astronomy awards List of mathematics awards == References ==


id: list-of-astronomical-observatories-in-ukraine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_observatories_in_Ukraine-0.md
category: reference
title: List of astronomical observatories in Ukraine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_observatories_in_Ukraine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:55.774345+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-astronomical-observatories-in-ukraine-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of astronomical observatories in Ukraine: Andrushivka Astronomical Observatory Crimean Astrophysical Observatory Mykolaiv Astronomical Observatory Simeiz Observatory White Elephant == Radio telescopes == Giant Ukrainian Radio Telescope Ukrainian T-shaped Radio telescope, second modification


id: list-of-women-astronomers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_women_astronomers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of women astronomers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_women_astronomers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:58.306823+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-women-astronomers-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of astronomers, astrophysicists and other notable women who have made contributions to the field of astronomy. == A == Madge Adam (1912–2001), English solar astronomer Maggie Aderin-Pocock (born 1968), English space scientist Conny Aerts (born 1966), Belgian astrophysicist specializing in asteroseismology Aglaonike (c. 1st or 2nd Century BCE), ancient Greek astronomer and thaumaturge María Luisa Aguilar Hurtado (1938–2015), Peruvian astronomer Eva Ahnert-Rohlfs (1912–1954), German variable star astronomer Elizabeth Alexander (1908–1958), English geologist and physicist Leah B. Allen (1884–1973), American astronomer and educator Adelaide Ames (1900–1932), American astronomer Anja Cetti Andersen (born 1965), Danish astronomer focused on cosmic dust Necia H. Apfel (born 1930), American astronomer and educator Alice Archenhold (1874–1943), German astronomer Anne Archibald, Canadian astronomer and educator Felicitas Arias, (born 1952), Argentine astronomer and expert on geodesy Gabriella Conti Armellini (1891-1974), Italian astronomer == B == Neta Bahcall (born 1942), Israeli astrophysicist and cosmologist specializing in dark matter Odette Bancilhon (1908–1998), French astronomer Kirsten Banks Wiradjuri astronomer researching red giant stars Beatriz Barbuy (born 1950), Brazilian astrophysicist Amy Barger (born 1971), American galactic astronomer Nadine G. Barlow (1958–2020), American planetary scientist Amy Barr, American planetary geophysicist Maria A. Barucci, Italian astronomer Sarbani Basu, Indian-American


id: list-of-women-astronomers-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_women_astronomers-1.md
category: reference
title: List of women astronomers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_women_astronomers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:58.306823+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-women-astronomers-20260505-0
summary:
Margherita Hack (1922–2013), Italian astrophysicist and first female director of Trieste's Observatory Erika Hamden, American astrophysicist and instructor Heidi Hammel (born 1960), American planetary scientist Fiona A. Harrison, American astrophysicist Marjorie Hall Harrison (1918–1986), English-born American astronomer Lisa Harvey-Smith (born 1979), British-Australian astrophysicist Margaret Harwood (1885–1979), American astronomer Martha P. Haynes (born 1951), American astronomer specialized in radio astronomy and extragalactic astronomy Martha Locke Hazen (1931–2006), American astronomer E. Ruth Hedeman (1910–2006), American solar astronomer Mary Lea Heger (1897–1983), American astronomer who studied the interstellar medium Charlene Heisler (1961–1999), Canadian astronomer Eleanor F. Helin (1932–2009), American astronomer who studied near–Earth asteroids Amina Helmi (born 1970), Argentine astronomer Amanda Hendrix (born 1968), American planetary scientist Caroline Herschel (1750–1848), German astronomer Elisabeth Hevelius (1647–1693), Polish astronomer Jacqueline Hewitt (born 1958), American astrophysicist Catherine Heymans (born 1978), British astrophysicist and instructor Renée Hložek (born 1983), South African cosmologist Dorrit Hoffleit (1907–2007), American astronomer Helen Sawyer Hogg (1905–1993), American-Canadian astronomer Ann Hornschemeier, American astronomer studying X-ray astronomy Joan Horvath, American aeronautical engineer and writer Nancy Houk, American astronomer Ingrid van Houten-Groeneveld (1921–2015), Dutch astronomer studying minor planets Margaret Lindsay Huggins (1848–1915), Irish-English scientific investigator and astronomer Carolyn Hurless (1934–1987), American astronomer and an American


id: list-of-women-astronomers-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_women_astronomers-2.md
category: reference
title: List of women astronomers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_women_astronomers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:53:58.306823+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-women-astronomers-20260505-0
summary:
Penny Sackett (born 1956), American-born Australian astronomer, educator, and manager Rita M. Sambruna, American astrophysicist studying supermassive black holes and jets Anneila Sargent (born 1942), Scottish–American astronomer specialized in star formation Ann Savage (1946–2017), British astronomer Caterina Scarpellini (1808–1873), Italian astronomer and meteorologist Susan M. Scott, Australian mathematical physicist working on general relativity, gravitational singularities, and black holes. Sara Seager (born 1971), Canadian-American astronomer and planetary scientist Waltraut Seitter (1930–2007), German astronomer and instructor Muriel Mussells Seyfert (1909–1997), American astronomer Pelageya Shajn (1894–1956), Russian astronomer searching for minor planets Aomawa Shields, American astrophysicist and professor researching exoplanets Carolyn S. Shoemaker (1929–2021), American astronomer Amy Simon, American planetary scientist Charlotte Moore Sitterly (1898–1990), American astronomer who studied stellar physics Tamara Mikhaylovna Smirnova (1935–2001), Russian astronomer who searched for minor planets and comets Alicia M. Soderberg (1977–2025), American astrophysicist and instructor focused on supernovae Mary Somerville (1780–1872), Scottish scientist, writer, and polymath Linda Spilker (born 1955), American planetary scientist Ingrid Stairs, Canadian astronomer Denise Stephens, American astronomer and instructor Sarah Stewart-Mukhopadhyay, American planetary scientist Annapurni Subramaniam, director of the Indian Institute of Astrophysics Karlina Leksono Supelli (born 1958), Indonesian philosopher and astronomer Jean Swank, American astrophysicist studying compact objects Henrietta Hill Swope


id: lists-of-science-and-technology-awards-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_science_and_technology_awards-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of science and technology awards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_science_and_technology_awards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:54:00.066556+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-science-and-technology-awards-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of notable awards for specific areas of science and technology. Typically these lists give the country of the sponsoring organization, the award name, sponsor name and a description of the award criteria. Some of the awards have broad scope, or cover the intersection of different disciplines, so an award may appear in more than one list. A list of general awards for science and technology is followed by the lists of more specific awards. == General list == List of general science and technology awards == Specific lists == == Research == In July 2020, scientists reported that work honored by Nobel Prizes clusters in only a few scientific fields, with only 36/71 having received at least one Nobel Prize of the 114/849 domains that science could be divided into, according to their DC2 and DC3 classification systems. Five of the 114 domains were shown to make up over half of the Nobel Prizes awarded from 1995 to 2017 (particle physics [14%], cell biology [12.1%], atomic physics [10.9%], neuroscience [10.1%], molecular chemistry [5.3%]). This concentration of awards may be partially due to the fact that major scientific prizes, such as the Nobel Prize, are often awarded


id: list-of-biochemistry-awards-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biochemistry_awards-0.md
category: reference
title: List of biochemistry awards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biochemistry_awards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:54:02.524548+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-biochemistry-awards-20260505-0
summary:
This list of biochemistry awards is an index to articles on notable awards for contributions to biochemistry, the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. The list gives the country of the organization that gives the award, but the award may not be limited to people from that country. == Awards == == See also == Lists of awards Lists of science and technology awards List of biology awards List of chemistry awards == References ==


id: list-of-awards-in-bioinformatics-and-computational-biology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_in_bioinformatics_and_computational_biology-0.md
category: reference
title: List of awards in bioinformatics and computational biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_in_bioinformatics_and_computational_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:54:03.761286+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-awards-in-bioinformatics-and-computational-biology-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of awards in the fields of bioinformatics and computational biology. == Awards == ASBMB DeLano Award for Computational Biosciences - "to a scientist for the most accessible and innovative development or application of computer technology to enhance research in the life sciences at the molecular level" Benjamin Franklin Award for Open Access in the Life Sciences - "to an individual who has, in his or her practice, promoted free and open access to the materials and methods used in the life sciences" ISCB Innovator Award - "leading scientists who are within two decades post-degree, who consistently make outstanding contributions to the field, and who continue to forge new directions" ISCB Overton Prize - "for outstanding accomplishment to a scientist in the early to mid stage of his or her career" ISCB Accomplishment by a Senior Scientist Award - "members of the computational biology community who are more than 12 to 15 years post-degree and have made major contributions to the field of computational biology through research, education, service, or a combination of the three" Morris F. Collen Award of Excellence - "an individual whose personal commitment and dedication to biomedical informatics has made a lasting


id: list-of-biology-awards-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biology_awards-0.md
category: reference
title: List of biology awards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biology_awards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:54:04.965659+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-biology-awards-20260505-0
summary:
This list of biology awards is an index to articles about notable awards for biology. It includes a general list and lists of ecology, genetics and neuroscience awards. It excludes awards for biochemistry, biomedical science, medicine, ornithology and paleontology, which are covered by separate lists. == General awards == === International === === Americas === === Asia === === Europe === === Oceania === == Ecology == == Genetics == Genetics is a branch of biology concerned with the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in organisms. == Neuroscience == == See also == Competitions and prizes in biotechnology Lists of awards Lists of science and technology awards List of biochemistry awards List of biomedical science awards List of awards in bioinformatics and computational biology List of fellows of the AACR Academy List of medicine awards List of ornithology awards List of paleontology awards == References ==


id: list-of-biomedical-science-awards-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biomedical_science_awards-0.md
category: reference
title: List of biomedical science awards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biomedical_science_awards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:54:06.191707+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-biomedical-science-awards-20260505-0
summary:
This list of biomedical science awards is an index to notable awards for biomedical sciences, a set of sciences applying portions of natural science or formal science, or both, to knowledge, interventions, or technology that are of use in health care or public health. == Awards == == See also == Lists of awards Lists of science and technology awards List of biology awards List of medicine awards == References ==


id: list-of-chemistry-awards-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_awards-0.md
category: reference
title: List of chemistry awards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_awards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:54:07.472518+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemistry-awards-20260505-0
summary:
This list of chemistry awards is an index to articles about notable awards for chemistry. It includes awards by the Royal Society of Chemistry, the American Chemical Society, the Society of Chemical Industry and awards by other organizations. == Awards of the Royal Society of Chemistry == The Royal Society of the United Kingdom offers a number of awards for chemistry. == Awards of the American Chemical Society == The American Chemical Society of the United States offers a number of awards related to chemistry. == Awards of the Society of Chemical Industry == The Society of Chemical Industry was established in 1881 by scientists, inventors and entrepreneurs. It offers a number of awards related to chemistry. == Other awards == == See also == Lists of awards Lists of science and technology awards List of biochemistry awards == References ==


id: competitions-and-prizes-in-biotechnology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competitions_and_prizes_in_biotechnology-0.md
category: reference
title: Competitions and prizes in biotechnology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competitions_and_prizes_in_biotechnology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:54:08.653822+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: competitions-and-prizes-in-biotechnology-20260505-0
summary:
There exist a number of competitions and prizes to reward distinguished contributions and to encourage developments in biotechnology. == Inducement prizes == The Archon X Prize for Genomics of US$10,000,000 is to be awarded to "the first Team that can build a device and use it to sequence 100 human genomes within 10 days or less, with an accuracy of no more than one error in every 100,000 bases sequenced, with sequences accurately covering at least 98% of the genome, and at a recurring cost of no more than $10,000 (US) per genome." The Prize4Life ALS biomarker prize is a US$1,000,000 award for a reliable way of tracking progression of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). The Prize4Life ALS treatment prize is a US$1,000,000 award for a therapy that reliably and effectively extends the life of ALS mice by 25%. People for Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) is offering a US$1,000,000 reward for a method of producing enough meat to be marketed in 10 U.S. states at a price competitive with chicken prices. Illumina iDEA Challenge to develop new visualization and data analysis techniques. == Recognition prizes == The Gotham Prize for Cancer Research was a US$1,000,000 prize awarded annually to "encourage


id: list-of-computer-science-awards-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_science_awards-0.md
category: reference
title: List of computer science awards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer_science_awards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:54:09.948928+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-computer-science-awards-20260505-0
summary:
This list of computer science awards is an index to articles on notable awards related to computer science. It includes lists of awards by the Association for Computing Machinery, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, other computer science and information science awards, and a list of computer science competitions. The top computer science award is the ACM Turing Award, generally regarded as the Nobel Prize equivalent for Computer Science. Other highly regarded top computer science awards include IEEE John von Neumann Medal awarded by the IEEE Board of Directors, and the Japan Kyoto Prize for Information Science. == Association for Computing Machinery == The Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) gives out many computer science awards, often run by one of their Special Interest Groups. == IEEE == A number of awards are given by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), the IEEE Computer Society or the IEEE Information Theory Society. == Other computer science awards == == Information science awards == == Competitions == == See also == Competitive programming Lists of awards Lists of science and technology awards List of computer-related awards List of engineering awards == References ==


id: list-of-computer-related-awards-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer-related_awards-0.md
category: reference
title: List of computer-related awards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_computer-related_awards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:54:11.260204+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-computer-related-awards-20260505-0
summary:
This list of computer-related awards is an index to articles about notable awards given for computer-related work. It excludes computer science awards and competitions, video game awards and web awards, which are covered by separate lists. == Hardware == == Open source / freeware / shareware == == Security == == Programming == == Applications == == Scholarship == == Other == == See also == Lists of awards List of computer science awards Lists of science and technology awards List of engineering awards == References ==


id: list-of-earth-sciences-awards-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_earth_sciences_awards-0.md
category: reference
title: List of earth sciences awards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_earth_sciences_awards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:54:12.597443+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-earth-sciences-awards-20260505-0
summary:
This list of earth sciences awards is an index to articles on notable awards for earth sciences, or natural science related to the planet Earth. It includes awards for meteorology, oceanography and paleontology, but excludes awards for environmental science, geography, geology and geophysics, which are covered by separate lists. == General == == Meteorology == == Oceanography == == Paleontology == == See also == Lists of awards List of environmental awards List of geography awards List of geology awards List of geophysics awards == References ==


id: vladimir-v-tikhomirov-history-of-geology-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_V._Tikhomirov_History_of_Geology_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: Vladimir V. Tikhomirov History of Geology Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir_V._Tikhomirov_History_of_Geology_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:54:13.849374+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vladimir-v-tikhomirov-history-of-geology-award-20260505-0
summary:
Vladimir V. Tikhomirov History of Geology Award is a geological and historical medal of the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS). It is the only international award for scientific contributions and achievements in the field of history of geological sciences. == History == Named in honor of the Soviet historian of geology Vladimir Vladimirovich Tikhomirov (1915–1994) — the organizer and first president of the International Commission on the History of Geological Sciences (INHIGEO) in 1967. Nominations for the award are made by the International Commission on the History of Geological Sciences (INHIGEO), approved by the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS). In 2012, the medal was established by the International Union of Geological Sciences for work on the history of geology. The medal is made of bronze. Since 2020, the medal with a diameter of 10 cm is made of Armenian obsidian. == Awards == The medal is awarded every four years during the International Geological Congress. Throughout history, the medal has been awarded to: 2012 — Hugh Torrens, United Kingdom 2016 — Martin J. S. Rudwick, United Kingdom 2020 — David Branagan (Branagan David Francis (1930–2022)), Australia 2024 — Kenneth L. Taylor United States == References == == Links


id: list-of-engineering-awards-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_engineering_awards-0.md
category: reference
title: List of engineering awards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_engineering_awards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:54:15.159519+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-engineering-awards-20260505-0
summary:
This list of engineering awards is an index to articles about notable awards for achievements in engineering. It includes aerospace engineering, chemical engineering, civil engineering, electrical engineering, electronic engineering, structural engineering and systems science awards. It excludes computer-related awards, computer science awards, industrial design awards, mechanical engineering awards, motor vehicle awards, occupational health and safety awards and space technology awards, which are covered by separate lists. The list is organized by the region and country of the organizations that sponsor the awards, but some awards are not limited to people from that country. == International == == Africa == == Americas == == Asia == == Europe == == Oceania == == See also == List of computer science awards List of computer-related awards List of mechanical engineering awards List of motor vehicle awards List of space technology awards Lists of awards Lists of science and technology awards == References ==


id: list-of-environmental-awards-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_environmental_awards-0.md
category: reference
title: List of environmental awards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_environmental_awards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:54:16.531419+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-environmental-awards-20260505-0
summary:
This list of environmental awards is an index to articles about notable environmental awards for activities that lead to the protection of the natural environment. The list is organized by the region and country of the organization that sponsors the award. The awards may be open to the global community or limited to a particular country or field of work. == International == == Americas == == Asia == == Europe == == Oceania == == See also == Lists of awards Lists of science and technology awards == References ==


id: list-of-geology-awards-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geology_awards-0.md
category: reference
title: List of geology awards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geology_awards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:54:19.172502+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-geology-awards-20260505-0
summary:
This list of geology awards is an index to articles on notable awards for geology, an earth science concerned with the solid Earth, the rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which they change over time. Geology can also include the study of the solid features of any terrestrial planet or natural satellite such as Mars or the Moon. The list is organized by region and country of the organization that sponsors the award, but awards are not always restricted to people from that country. See list of earth sciences awards for awards for earth sciences in general, and for other branches of earth science. == Americas == === Canada === === Chile === === United States === == Europe == == Other regions == == See also == Lists of awards Lists of science and technology awards List of earth sciences awards List of geography awards List of geophysics awards == References ==


id: list-of-geophysics-awards-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysics_awards-0.md
category: reference
title: List of geophysics awards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysics_awards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:54:20.441149+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-geophysics-awards-20260505-0
summary:
This list of geophysics awards is an index to articles on notable awards for contributions to geophysics, the branch of natural science concerned with the physical processes and physical properties of the Earth and its surrounding space environment, and the use of quantitative methods for their analysis. The list gives the country of the organization that sponsors the award, but the awards are not necessarily limited to people from that country. == International == == Americas == == Asia == == Europe == == See also == Lists of awards Lists of science and technology awards List of earth sciences awards == References ==


id: list-of-ieee-awards-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IEEE_awards-0.md
category: reference
title: List of IEEE awards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_IEEE_awards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:54:21.672084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ieee-awards-20260505-0
summary:
Through its awards program, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers recognizes contributions that advance the fields of interest to the IEEE. For nearly a century, the IEEE Awards Program has paid tribute to technical professionals whose exceptional achievements and outstanding contributions have made a lasting impact on technology, society and the engineering profession. The IEEE Medals and IEEE Technical Field Awards are institution-level awards. They are considered more prestigious than IEEE Society level awards and are administered by IEEE Awards Board. Each year, the IEEE Board of Directors approved the winners of these prestigious medals and awards at their annual board meeting. An IEEE Honors Ceremony is organized and held in New York each year to present the medals and awards to the recipients. Funds for the awards program, other than those provided by corporate sponsors for some awards, are administered by the IEEE Foundation. == IEEE Medals == IEEE top medal and highest honor IEEE Medal of Honor Medals not specific to a technology field IEEE Edison Medal (IEEE's principal medal for a meritorious career) IEEE Founders Medal (for leadership, planning, and administration) IEEE Mildred Dresselhaus Medal (for carbon-based materials research) IEEE James H. Mulligan, Jr. Education Medal


id: institute-of-physics-awards-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Physics_Awards-0.md
category: reference
title: Institute of Physics Awards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Physics_Awards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:54:22.878599+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: institute-of-physics-awards-20260505-0
summary:
The Institute of Physics (IOP) awards numerous prizes to acknowledge contributions to physics research, education and applications. It also offers smaller specific subject-group prizes, such as for PhD thesis submissions. == Bilateral awards == The Max Born Medal and Prize is awarded yearly by the German Physical Society and the Institute of Physics in memory of the German physicist Max Born. The prize recognizes "outstanding contributions to physics" and is awarded to physicists based in Germany and in the UK or Ireland in alternate years. The Fernand Holweck Medal and Prize is awarded jointly by the French and British Physical Societies for distinguished work in any aspect of physics that is ongoing or has been carried out within the 10 years preceding the award. The Harrie Massey Medal and Prize is awarded biennially jointly by the Institute of Physics and by The Australian Institute of Physics. The Giuseppe Occhialini Medal and Prize is awarded to physicists in alternating years who work in Italy (even dated years) or the UK or Ireland (odd dated years). == Business awards == The Katharine Burr Blodgett Medal and Prize is a gold medal awarded annually for outstanding contributions to the organisation or applications of


id: institute-of-physics-awards-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Physics_Awards-1.md
category: reference
title: Institute of Physics Awards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Physics_Awards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:54:22.878599+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: institute-of-physics-awards-20260505-0
summary:
== Service to the IOP awards == The President's Medal can be given to both physicists and non-physicists who have provided meritorious services in various fields of endeavour which were of benefit to physics in general and the Institute in particular. The Phillips Award is awarded for distinguished service to the Institute of Physics. == Special Interest Group Prizes and Awards == Many of the Institute's special interest groups—sub-groups of the organisations members working in, or with an interest in, a specific area or sub-discipline—award prizes, typically annually. These include: The IOP Astroparticle Physics Group Early Career Prize, awarded on odd-numbered years to early-career researchers working at an institution in the UK and Ireland in the area of astroparticle physics who 'have five years or less postdoctoral experience (allowing for career breaks)'. The John Chubb Award, from the Dielectrics and Electrostatics Group for 'outstanding contributions to experimental electrostatics by early career researchers'. The Mansel Davies Award from the Dielectrics and Electrostatics Group is for 'outstanding contributions to dielectrics by early career researchers'. The High Energy Particle Physics Group Prize, awarded to 'an early career researcher for outstanding contributions to particle physics research'. The Liquids and Complex Fluids Early Career Award,


id: list-of-awards-and-honors-received-by-jennifer-doudna-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_honors_received_by_Jennifer_Doudna-0.md
category: reference
title: List of awards and honors received by Jennifer Doudna
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_honors_received_by_Jennifer_Doudna
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:54:24.177177+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-awards-and-honors-received-by-jennifer-doudna-20260505-0
summary:
This list of awards and honors received by Jennifer Doudna comprehensively shows the awards, honors, honorary degrees, fellowships and other recognition received by Jennifer Doudna, an American biochemist at the University of California, Berkeley. She has received many prestigious awards and fellowships for her numerous contributions to biochemistry and genetics, and is most famous for her work on CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing technology. Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier were awarded the 2020 Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for the development of a method for genome editing." == Awards == 1996 Beckman Young Investigators Award 1999 NAS Award for Initiatives in Research 2000 Alan T. Waterman Award for innovative research that led to the development of a technique that facilitates crystallization of large RNA molecules; for determining the crystal structures of catalytic RNA molecules and an RNA molecule that forms the ribonucleoprotein core of the signal recognition particle; and for deciphering structural features of those molecules that permit a greater understanding of the mechanistic basis of RNA function in both catalysis and protein synthesis. 2001 Eli Lilly Award in Biological Chemistry of the American Chemical Society 2013 Inaugural recipient of the Mildred Cohn Award in Biological Chemistry from the American Society for Biochemistry and


id: list-of-awards-and-honors-received-by-katalin-karik-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_honors_received_by_Katalin_Karikó-0.md
category: reference
title: List of awards and honors received by Katalin Karikó
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_honors_received_by_Katalin_Karikó
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:54:25.509495+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-awards-and-honors-received-by-katalin-karik-20260505-0
summary:
Katalin Karikó is a Hungarian–American biochemist who specializes in ribonucleic acid (RNA)-mediated mechanisms, particularly in vitro-transcribed messenger RNA (mRNA) for protein replacement therapy. Karikó laid the scientific groundwork for mRNA vaccines and received numerous awards, honors, degrees and other distinctions, including the 2023 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Katalin Karikó who works at the University of Pennsylvania is credited with one of the most important scientific discoveries of the 21st century. Her development of Messenger RNA-based technology and the two most effective vaccines based on it, BioNTech/Pfizer and Moderna, paved the way for the effective fight against the SARS-CoV-2 virus and the containment of the COVID-19 pandemic worldwide. Her discovery also holds promise for future cures for many other diseases. The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences announced on 2 October 2023 that the 2023 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine was awarded to Katalin Karikó and Drew Weissman for the development of mRNA technology. The Nobel Prize in Medicine has been awarded to 227 scientists since 1901, with Katalin Karikó being the thirteenth woman to receive the prize. Together with her, and Ferenc Krausz, who won the Nobel Prize in Physics the next day, the number of Hungarian Nobel


id: list-of-awards-and-honors-received-by-katalin-karik-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_honors_received_by_Katalin_Karikó-1.md
category: reference
title: List of awards and honors received by Katalin Karikó
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_honors_received_by_Katalin_Karikó
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:54:25.509495+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-awards-and-honors-received-by-katalin-karik-20260505-0
summary:
=== Honorary degrees in 2021 === University of Szeged | Duke University | Drew Weissman, Ken Jeong, Mary Schmidt Campbell | Humanitas University of Milan | === Honorary degrees 2022 === Eötvös Loránd University Budapest | Radboud University | Rockefeller University | Anthony Fauci, Lulu C. Wang | Tel Aviv University | Cornelia Bargmann, Sir Michael Victor Berry, Barbara Engelking, Eric J. Gertler, James S. Gertler, Bernd Friedrich Huber, Jodi Kantor, Solomon Lew, Jehuda Reinharz, Jürgen Renn | Université libre de Bruxelles | University of Geneva | Susan M. Gasser, Susan Goldin-Meadow, Ananya Roy | Yale University| Caroline Shaw, Krista Tippett, Madeleine Albright, James Clyburn, Jill Lepore, Myron Thompson, Jean Bennett, Drew Weissman, Orlando Patterson | === Honorary degrees 2023 === Brandeis University | University College Cork – National University of Ireland, Cork (UCC) | Harvard University | David Levering Lewis, Michael Mullen, Jennifer Doudna, Hugo Noé Morales Rosas, Tom Hanks | Princeton University | Lynn A. Conway, Arcadio Díaz-Quiñones, Rhiannon Giddens, Suzan Shown Harjo | Rutgers University | Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK) | === Honorary degrees 2024 === New York University (NYU) | State University of New York | === Honorary degrees 2025 === Medical University of


id: marconi-prize-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marconi_Prize-0.md
category: reference
title: Marconi Prize
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marconi_Prize
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:54:26.659065+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: marconi-prize-20260505-0
summary:
The Marconi Prize is an annual award that the Marconi Society gives for outstanding achievements and advancements in communications (radio, mobile, wireless, telecommunications, data communications, networks, the Internet, etc.). Prizewinners receive in-person recognition from distinguished colleagues and other guests as well as a work of sculpture at the Marconi Society's annual symposium and gala. == Criteria == The Marconi Prize is awarded based on the candidate’s contributions in the following areas: The significance of the impact of the nominee’s work on widely-used technology. The scientific importance of the nominee’s work in setting the stage for, influencing, and advancing the field beyond the nominee’s own achievements. The nominee’s contributions to innovation and entrepreneurship by introducing completely new ideas, methods, or technologies. These may include forming, leading, or advising organizations, mentoring students on moving ideas from research to implementation, or fostering new industries/enabling scale implementation. The social and humanitarian impact of the nominee’s contributions to the design, development, and/or deployment of new communication technologies or communications public policies that promote social development and/or inclusiveness. == Marconi Fellowships == Marconi Prize recipients are also named Marconi Fellows. The foundation and the prize are named in honor of Guglielmo Marconi, a Nobel laureate and


id: list-of-mathematics-awards-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mathematics_awards-0.md
category: reference
title: List of mathematics awards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mathematics_awards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:54:27.872119+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mathematics-awards-20260505-0
summary:
This list of mathematics awards contains articles about notable awards for mathematics. The list is organized by the region and country of the organization that sponsors the award, but awards may be open to mathematicians from around the world. Some of the awards are limited to work in a particular field, such as topology or analysis, while others are given for any type of mathematical contribution. == International == == Americas == == Asia == == Europe == == Oceania == == References == == See also == Lists of awards Lists of science and technology awards


id: list-of-mechanical-engineering-awards-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mechanical_engineering_awards-0.md
category: reference
title: List of mechanical engineering awards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mechanical_engineering_awards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:54:29.230658+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mechanical-engineering-awards-20260505-0
summary:
This list of mechanical engineering awards is an index to articles about notable awards for mechanical engineering. == Awards == == See also == Lists of awards Lists of science and technology awards List of engineering awards == References ==


id: list-of-medicine-awards-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_medicine_awards-0.md
category: reference
title: List of medicine awards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_medicine_awards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:54:30.428469+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-medicine-awards-20260505-0
summary:
This list of medicine awards is an index to articles about notable awards for contributions to medicine, the science and practice of establishing the diagnosis, prognosis, treatment, and prevention of disease. The list is organized by region and country of the organization giving the award, but the awards may be available to people from around the world. == International == == Americas == == Asia == == Europe == === United Kingdom === == Oceania == == See also == Lists of awards Lists of science and technology awards List of biomedical science awards List of psychology awards Competitions and prizes in biotechnology == References ==


id: list-of-physics-awards-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physics_awards-0.md
category: reference
title: List of physics awards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physics_awards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:54:31.702123+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-physics-awards-20260505-0
summary:
This list of physics awards is an index to articles about notable awards for physics. The list is organized by region and country of the organization that gives the award. Awards are not necessarily restricted to people from the country of the award giver. == International == == Americas == == Asia == == Europe == == Oceania == == See also == Lists of awards Lists of science and technology awards == References ==


id: list-of-general-science-and-technology-awards-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_general_science_and_technology_awards-0.md
category: reference
title: List of general science and technology awards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_general_science_and_technology_awards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:54:32.925813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-general-science-and-technology-awards-20260505-0
summary:
This list of general science and technology awards is an index to articles about notable awards for general contributions to science and technology. These awards typically have broad scope, and may apply to many or all areas of science and/or technology. The list is organized by region and country of the sponsoring organization, but awards are not necessarily limited to people from that country. == International == == Africa == == Americas == == Asia == == Europe == == Oceania == == See also == Lists of awards Lists of science and technology awards List of years in science == References ==


id: list-of-science-communication-awards-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_communication_awards-0.md
category: reference
title: List of science communication awards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_communication_awards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:54:34.156058+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-science-communication-awards-20260505-0
summary:
This list of science communication awards is an index of articles about notable awards for science communication, including journalism and books. The list is organized by the country of the sponsoring organization, although awards may not be restricted to people in that country. == List == == See also == Lists of awards List of journalism awards List of writing awards#Science writing awards List of education awards == References ==


id: list-of-space-technology-awards-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_space_technology_awards-0.md
category: reference
title: List of space technology awards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_space_technology_awards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:54:35.401733+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-space-technology-awards-20260505-0
summary:
This list of space technology awards is an index to articles about notable awards related to space technology. This includes awards for development of spacecraft, satellites, space stations, and support infrastructure, equipment, and procedures. The list shows the country of the sponsoring organization, but awards are not necessarily limited to people or organizations based in that country. == Awards == == See also == Lists of awards Lists of science and technology awards List of aviation awards List of astronomy awards List of challenge awards == References ==


id: list-of-student-science-award-programs-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_student_science_award_programs-0.md
category: reference
title: List of student science award programs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_student_science_award_programs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:54:36.612915+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-student-science-award-programs-20260505-0
summary:
List of student science award programs - a generic list of programs, fairs, and/or competitions for youth or students. Some examples include the Intel International Science and Engineering Fair or European Union Contest for Young Scientists, India International Sarabhai Student Scientist Award. Discovery Education 3M Young Scientist Challenge is another, and it used to be called Discovery Channel Young Scientist Challenge (DCYSC), which was targeted at grades 5-8 (in the US system). MIT Lincoln Lab has named asteroids it discovered as a reward for the competition. Examples: Intel International Science and Engineering Fair Discovery Education 3M Young Scientist Challenge European Union Contest for Young Scientists India International Sarabhai Student Scientists Award Siemens Westinghouse Competition (Siemens Competition) New Zealand Science Fair Belgian Science Fair == References ==


id: list-of-awards-and-honours-received-by-tim-berners-lee-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_honours_received_by_Tim_Berners-Lee-0.md
category: reference
title: List of awards and honours received by Tim Berners-Lee
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_awards_and_honours_received_by_Tim_Berners-Lee
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:54:37.870020+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-awards-and-honours-received-by-tim-berners-lee-20260505-0
summary:
Sir Timothy John "Tim" Berners-Lee, (born 8 June 1955), also known as "TimBL", the inventor of the World Wide Web, has received a number of awards and honours. == Awards == 1994 (1994): Became one of only six members of the World Wide Web Hall of Fame. 1995 (1995): Kilby Foundation's "Young Innovator of the Year" Award. 1995 (1995): The Software System Award from the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM). 1995 (1995): Distinguished Fellow of the British Computer Society (DFBCS) 1996 (1996): Honorary degree, University of Southampton. 1998 (1998): Honorary doctorate, University of Essex. 1998 (1998): The USENIX Lifetime Achievement Award, USENIX. 1999 (1999): Time Magazine named him one of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th century. March 2000 (2000-03): Honorary degree, The Open University as Doctor of the University. 2001 (2001): Elected a Fellow of the Royal Society 2001 (2001): Elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. 2002 (2002): Albert Medal (Royal Society of Arts) 2002 (2002): Named in the BBC's list of the 100 Greatest Britons following a UK-wide vote. 2003 (2003): The Royal Photographic Society's Progress Medal and Honorary Fellowship (HonFRPS) in recognition of any invention, research, publication or other contribution


id: list-of-science-and-technology-awards-for-women-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_and_technology_awards_for_women-0.md
category: reference
title: List of science and technology awards for women
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_and_technology_awards_for_women
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:54:39.212429+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-science-and-technology-awards-for-women-20260505-0
summary:
This list of science and technology awards for women is an index to articles about notable awards made to women for work in science and the STEM (Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) fields generally. It includes awards for astronomy, space and atmospheric science; biology and medicine; chemistry; engineering; mathematics; neuroscience; physics; technology; and general or multiple fields. == Astronomy, space, atmospheric science == Annie Jump Cannon Award in Astronomy – annual award for outstanding contributions to astronomy by a woman within five years of earning a doctorate degree Peter B. Wagner Memorial Award for Women in Atmospheric Sciences – awarded annually since 1998, based on paper completion, to a woman studying for a Masters or PhD in atmospheric science at a university in the United States == Biology and medicine == Elizabeth Blackwell Medal, given by the American Medical Women's Association to a woman physician "who has made the most outstanding contributions to the cause of women in the field of medicine" Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology (FASEB) Excellence in Science Award Group on Women in Medicine and Science Leadership Awards, Association of American Medical Colleges Margaret Oakley Dayhoff Award from the Biophysical Society, Rockville, Maryland – given


id: index-of-biology-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biology_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of biology articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biology_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:54:41.046209+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-biology-articles-20260505-0
summary:
Biology is the study of life and its processes. Biologists study all aspects of living things, including all of the many life forms on earth and the processes in them that enable life. These basic processes include the harnessing of energy, the synthesis and duplication of the materials that make up the body, the reproduction of the organism and many other functions. Biology, along with chemistry and physics is one of the major disciplines of natural science. == A == ABO blood group system – abscisic acid – absorption spectrum – abyssal zone – acetylcholine – acetyl-CoA – acid – acid precipitation – acoelomate – acrosome – actin – action potential – active site – adaptive radiation – address-message concept – adenosine 5'-triphosphate – adenylyl cyclase – adrenal gland – adrenodoxin – aerobic organism – age structure – agonist – AIDS – albumin – aldehydes – aldosterone – algae – allantois – allele – allometry – allopatric speciation – allosteric binding site – allosteric effector – allosteric enzyme – allosteric site – allozyme – alpha helix – amino acid – aminoacyl tRNA synthetase – amino group – amniocentesis – amniote – amphipathic molecule – anabolism – anaerobic organism – anaerobic


id: index-of-biology-articles-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biology_articles-1.md
category: reference
title: Index of biology articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biology_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:54:41.046209+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-biology-articles-20260505-0
summary:
== H == habitat – HACEK organism – halobacteria – haploid – Hardy–Weinberg principle – heart – Hela cell – helper T cell – Hepadnaviridae – hepatitis B – herbivore – heredity – hereditary disease – hermaphrodite – herpetology – Hershey–Chase experiment – heterochromatin – heterotroph – heterozygote – Hfr cell – hibernation – hierarchy of life – Hill reaction – His tag – histone – homeobox – homeostasis – homologous recombination – homology – homoplasy – homozygote – homunculus – horizontal gene transfer – hormone – host – household gene – human – Human Genome Project – humoral immunity – hybrid (biology) – hybridization – hydrolysis – hydrolytic enzyme – hygiene – hyperpolarization (biology) == I == ichthyology – immune cell – immune system – immunology – inbreeding – inducibility – infectious disease carrier – infertility – inner matrix – insect – insectivores – insulin – intermediate filament – intermembrane space – interphase – intestine – intron – invasive species – ion channel – isoenzyme – isotonic (exercise physiology) == J == James Watson – Jean-Baptiste Lamarck – joint == K == K-selection – Kary Mullis – karyoplasm – karyotype – keratin – keystone species – kidney – kinesiology


id: index-of-biology-articles-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biology_articles-2.md
category: reference
title: Index of biology articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_biology_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:54:41.046209+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-biology-articles-20260505-0
summary:
== S == saprobe – sarcoplasmic reticulum – scientific classification – secondary metabolite – secondary structure – second messenger – seed – seed plant – selection – Semiochemical – sequencing – serum – semen – Sewall Wright - sex linkage – sexual reproduction – sexual selection – shigella – shoot – signal transduction – silk – Sir Charles Lyell – sister chromatid – skeleton – skin cell – sleep – smooth ER – sociobiology – speciation – species – Hans Spemann – sperm – spermatid – spermatogenesis – spermiogenesis – spliceosome – splicing – spore – sporophyte – SSRI – starch – stem – stem cell – Stem cell chip – sticky end – stoma – stomach – streptomycin – structural biology – structural gene – substrate – substrate-level phosphorylation – surface area-to-volume ratio – symbiosis – symbiogenesis – synapomorphy – synapse – syngamy – systematics – systems biology == T == T cell – taphonomy – taxis – taxon – taxonomy – telomere – telophase – tertiary structure – testate amoebae – testes – Theodor Bilharz – Theodor Boveri – thermocline – thermoregulation – Thomas Hunt Morgan – Thomas Malthus – thylakoid – Tobacco mosaic virus – tobacco mosaic


id: list-of-laboratory-biosecurity-incidents-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laboratory_biosecurity_incidents-0.md
category: reference
title: List of laboratory biosecurity incidents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laboratory_biosecurity_incidents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:54:42.338468+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-laboratory-biosecurity-incidents-20260505-0
summary:
This list of laboratory biosecurity incidents includes accidental laboratory-acquired infections and laboratory releases of lethal pathogens, containment failures in or during transport of lethal pathogens, and incidents of exposure of lethal pathogens to laboratory personnel, improper disposal of contaminated waste, and/or the escape of laboratory animals. The list is grouped by the year in which the accident or incident occurred and does not include every reported laboratory-acquired infection. == See also == Biological hazard Biosafety level Laboratory safety List of anthrax outbreaks Select agent Cambridge Working Group == External links == A Review of Laboratory-Acquired Infections in the Asia-Pacific: Understanding Risk and the Need for Improved Biosafety for Veterinary and Zoonotic Diseases Laboratory-Acquired Infection (LAI) Database Survey of laboratory-acquired infections around the world in biosafety level 3 and 4 laboratories == Notes == == References ==


