# kb

id: d-s-malik-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D._S._Malik-0.md
category: reference
title: D. S. Malik
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D._S._Malik
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:42:44.354507+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: d-s-malik-20260505-0
summary:
Davender Singh Malik (14 August 1958 – 13 May 2025) was an Indian-American mathematician and professor of mathematics and computer science at Creighton University. == Education == Malik attended the University of Delhi in New Delhi, India, receiving his bachelor's and master's degrees in mathematics, where he won the Prof. Ram Behari Gold Medal in 1980 for his high marks. Then at the University of Waterloo in Ontario, Canada, he received a master's degree in pure mathematics. In the United States, Malik went to Ohio University, earning an M.S. in computer science, and a Ph.D. in mathematics in 1985, writing his dissertation on "A Study of Q-Hypercyclic Rings." == Career == In 1985, Malik joined the faculty of Creighton University, teaching in the mathematics department. In 2013, he became the first holder of the Frederick H. and Anna K. Scheerer Endowed Chair in Mathematics. His research focused on ring theory, abstract algebra, information science, and fuzzy mathematics, including fuzzy automata theory, fuzzy logic, and applications of fuzzy set theory in other disciplines. In the academic community, Malik was a member of the American Mathematical Society and Phi Kappa Phi. Within his community, he co-created a Creighton program in which faculty


id: aryn-martin-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryn_Martin-0.md
category: reference
title: Aryn Martin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryn_Martin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:42:45.579704+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aryn-martin-20260505-0
summary:
Aryn Martin is a sociologist, and historian of biomedicine, as well as a scholar of feminist science and technology studies at York University, where she is an associate professor of sociology. She is affiliated with the graduate programs in social, political, science, technology, and environmental studies. She received her Bachelor of Science in biology at Queen's University, a master's degree in environmental studies at York University, and a PhD in science and technology studies at Cornell University, under the supervision of Michael Lynch. Her work is on feminist theories of the body and biology, especially the implications for identity surrounding the phenomenon of fetomaternal microchimerism and other forms of genetic chimeras. Her dissertation on the history of human chimeras was funded by the National Science Foundation. In 2017, Martin became the Associate Dean of Students at York University's Faculty of Graduate Studies. == References == == External links == Aryn Martin publications indexed by Google Scholar


id: alice-marwick-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice_Marwick-0.md
category: reference
title: Alice Marwick
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice_Marwick
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:42:46.709902+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alice-marwick-20260505-0
summary:
Alice E. Marwick is a communication scholar, academic, and author, who currently works as an Associate Professor in the Communication department and Principal Researcher at the Center for Information, Technology and Public Life at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and an affiliated researcher with the Data and Society Research Institute. Marwick has written for publications such as the New York Times, and the Guardian. Her works include the examination of politics, race, social media and gender. She has been a keynote speaker for various universities throughout the United States. == Education == Marwick graduated with her political science and women's studies bachelor's degree from Wellesley College in Massachusetts in 1998. She received her Master of Arts degree in communication from the University of Washington in 2005. She received her PhD in the Department of Media, Culture and Communication from New York University in 2010. == Written works == She has written for the New York Review of Books. Marwick has authored two books: Status Update: Celebrity, Publicity and Branding in the Social Media Age (2013) and The Private Is Political: Networked Privacy and Social Media (2023). She also co-edited The Sage Handbook of Social Media (2016) with


id: carl-r-may-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_R._May-0.md
category: reference
title: Carl R. May
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_R._May
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:42:47.901229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carl-r-may-20260505-0
summary:
Carl May FAcSS (born 1961, in Farnham, Surrey) is a British sociologist. He researches in the fields of medical sociology and Implementation Science. Formerly based at Southampton University and Newcastle University, he is now Professor of Health Systems Implementation at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. Carl May was elected an Academician of the Academy of Learned Societies in the Social Sciences in 2006. He was appointed a Senior Investigator at the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) in 2010. He was elected an Honorary Fellow of the Royal College of General Practitioners in 2020. He has honorary professorial appointments in primary care at the University of Melbourne, and in public health at Monash University. May is best known for his contributions to Implementation Science and his work is represented by many studies of the interaction between health technologies and their users. In Implementation Science his work investigates how innovations become routinely embedded in health care and other organizational systems. This research has led to Normalization Process Theory, developed with Tracy Finch and others, including Victor Montori. This is a sociological theory of the implementation, embedding, and integration of new technologies and organizational innovations. May and


id: annemarie-mol-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annemarie_Mol-0.md
category: reference
title: Annemarie Mol
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annemarie_Mol
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:42:49.088552+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: annemarie-mol-20260505-0
summary:
Annemarie Mol (born 13 September 1958) is a Dutch ethnographer and philosopher. She is the Professor of Anthropology of the Body at the University of Amsterdam. Winner of the Constantijn & Christiaan Huijgens Grant from the NWO in 1990 to study 'Differences in Medicine', she was awarded a European Research Council Advanced Grant in 2010 to study 'The Eating Body in Western Practice and Theory'. She has helped to develop post-ANT/feminist understandings of science, technology and medicine. In her earlier work she explored the performativity of health care practices, argued that realities are generated within those practices, and noted that since practices differ, so too do realities. The body, as she expressed it, is multiple: it is more than one but it is also less than many (since the different versions of the body also overlap in health care practices). This is an empirical argument about ontology (which is the branch of philosophy that explores being, existence, or the categories of being.) As a part of this she also developed the notion of 'ontological politics', arguing that since realities or the conditions of possibility vary between practices, this means that they are not given but might be changed. Mol has


id: michael-mulkay-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Mulkay-0.md
category: reference
title: Michael Mulkay
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Mulkay
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:42:50.294697+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: michael-mulkay-20260505-0
summary:
Michael Joseph Mulkay (10 August 1936 – 21 October 2025) was a British sociologist known for his contributions to the development of the sociology of scientific knowledge, discourse analysis, and reflexive sociology. == Early life and education == Mulkay was born in London on 10 August 1936 to Joseph Mulkay, a window cleaner, and Annie Johnson, a housewife. After his mother left the family home in 1946, he was raised by his father in a council house in Tottenham. He attended a Catholic boys' school in North London, which he later recalled as being austere and highly disciplined. Leaving school at 16 without a desire to continue education, he worked as a clerk for the London Water Board. In 1954, he began National Service but was released early after collapsing on parade and being diagnosed with Type 1 diabetes. He subsequently completed A-level correspondence courses funded by itinerant work, including periods as a grave digger and a deckchair attendant, and these enabled him to enter the London School of Economics (LSE), where he graduated with a first-class degree in Sociology in 1965. == Academic career == After LSE, Mulkay was invited to move to Simon Fraser University (SFU) in Vancouver


id: fabian-muniesa-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabian_Muniesa-0.md
category: reference
title: Fabian Muniesa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabian_Muniesa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:42:51.497419+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fabian-muniesa-20260505-0
summary:
Fabian Muniesa (alternative spelling: Fabián Muniesa) is an author, social scientist, and poet of French and Spanish citizenship. He is a Professor at the École des Mines de Paris, and a member of the Centre de Sociologie de l'Innovation in Paris, France. == Life == Fabian Muniesa (born 16 October 1972 in Madrid, Spain) received high school education at the Lycée Français de Madrid, in Spain. He graduated (sociology) from the Universidad Complutense de Madrid (Facultad de Ciencias Políticas y Sociología) in 1996, and obtained a master's degree in that same institution in 1998. Notable mentors and influences in this institution included Ignacio Gómez de Liaño, Jesús Ibáñez, and Ramón Ramos Torre. He then joined the Centre National d'Études des Télécommunications in France, enrolling simultaneously in the doctoral programme of Centre de Sociologie de l'Innovation, at the École des Mines de Paris, and completing a doctoral dissertation in 2003 (on the automation of the Paris Bourse). After a year working as a post-doctoral researcher at the London School of Economics (Department of Information Systems), he returned to Paris with an international grant from the city's municipal government. He obtained a permanent position at the École des Mines de Paris in


id: natasha-myers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natasha_Myers-0.md
category: reference
title: Natasha Myers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natasha_Myers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:42:52.704792+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natasha-myers-20260505-0
summary:
Natasha Myers is an associate professor of anthropology at York University. In 2016 she coined the term "Planthroposcene". Her first book, Rendering Life Molecular: Models, Modelers, and Excitable Matter is an ethnography of protein crystallographers and discusses how scientists teach one another how to sense the molecular realm. This book won the 2016 Robert Merton Book Prize from the Science, Knowledge, and Technology Section of the American Sociological Association. She received her BSc in biology from McGill University, a Masters in Environmental Studies from York University's Faculty of Environmental Studies and her PhD in the Program in History, Anthropology, and Science, Technology & Society (HASTS) at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. == References == === Further reading === Yoshizawa RS. Rendering life molecular: models, modelers, and excitable matter. New Genetics & Society. 2017;36(4):410-411. doi:10.1080/14636778.2016.1162093 Wald JG. A Haptic Anthropology of Science. Current Anthropology. 2016;57(4):533-534. doi:10.1086/687564


id: shobita-parthasarathy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shobita_Parthasarathy-0.md
category: reference
title: Shobita Parthasarathy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shobita_Parthasarathy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:42:53.930722+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: shobita-parthasarathy-20260505-0
summary:
Shobita Parthasarathy is an American academic, author, and contributor to the field of Science and Technology Studies based at the Gerald R. Ford School of Public Policy at the University of Michigan. She is the director of the Science, Technology, and Public Policy Program, a research, education, and policy engagement center concerned with questions at the intersection of science, technology, policy, and society. She has received numerous prominent awards and grants for her work and has provided expert advice on technology, equity, and policy to civil society groups, international organizations, and governments around the world, including testimony to the U.S. Congress. == Career and research == Parthasarathy was the founding director of the Science, Technology, and Public Policy (STPP) program at the University of Michigan Gerald R. Ford School of Public Policy from 2006 to 2011, and currently serves as its director, in addition to holding a faculty appointment as Professor. At U-M, she is also affiliated with the Department of Women's Studies, the Science/Technology/Society Program, Institute for Data Science, Precision Health Initiative, the Organizational Studies Program, and the Centers for European Studies and South Asian Studies; she sits on the Internal Advisory Board for the Center for Ethics, Society,


id: heather-paxson-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heather_Paxson-0.md
category: reference
title: Heather Paxson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heather_Paxson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:42:55.090661+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: heather-paxson-20260505-0
summary:
Heather Paxson is an American cultural anthropologist and science and technology studies scholar. She is an expert on the anthropology of reproduction, and on the anthropology of food, including in particular cheese and commonplace family food practices. She is the William R. Kenan, Jr. Professor of Anthropology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Paxson is a graduate of Haverford College, and obtained her Ph.D. from Stanford University. She is an editor of the Oxford Companion to Cheese. Her other books include: Making Modern Mothers: Ethics and Family Planning in Urban Greece (University of California Press, 2004) The Life of Cheese: Crafting Food and Value in America (University of California Press, 2013) She is married to fellow cultural anthropologist, STS scholar and professor Stefan Helmreich. == References ==


id: trevor-pinch-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trevor_Pinch-0.md
category: reference
title: Trevor Pinch
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trevor_Pinch
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:42:56.288526+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: trevor-pinch-20260505-0
summary:
Trevor J. Pinch (1 January 1952 – 16 December 2021) was a British sociologist, part-time musician and chair of the science and technology studies department at Cornell University. In 2018, he won the J.D. Bernal Prize from the Society for Social Studies of Science for "distinguished contributions to Science and Technology Studies over the course of [a] career." == Personal life == Pinch was born in Lisnaskea, Northern Ireland on the New Year's Day of 1952. He lived in Cornell's Forest Home neighborhood and started the band Electric Golem. Pinch died from cancer, four years after his initial diagnosis, on 16 December 2021, 16 days before his 70th birthday. == Career == Pinch held a degree in physics from Imperial College London and a PhD in sociology from the University of Bath. He taught sociology at the University of York before moving to the United States. Together with Wiebe Bijker, Pinch started the movement known as Social Construction of Technology (SCOT) within the sociology of science. == Works == Pinch was a significant contributor to the study of sound culture, and his books include a major study of Robert Moog. His book Confronting Nature is widely considered the definitive sociological


id: joanna-poulton-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joanna_Poulton-0.md
category: reference
title: Joanna Poulton
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joanna_Poulton
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:42:57.473663+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: joanna-poulton-20260505-0
summary:
Joanna Poulton is a British medical researcher, and Professor of Mitochondrial Genetics at the University of Oxford. She is an honorary consultant in Oxford, where she works on diseases caused by mutations in mitochondrial DNA. Such mutations are associated with many diseases, including diabetes, organ failure, deafness, and blindness, and are also important in neurodegeneration and aging. Poulton has spoken up on behalf of women in academia, as well as on the effects of neurodiversity on women's careers. == Education and career == Poulton is the daughter of the physician and psychologist E. C. Poulton. Her mother, one of the earliest women to study medicine at the University of Cambridge, gained her MD at the age of 90. Poulton credits her parents for having taught her and her siblings a scientific attitude and critical thinking. In 1976, Poulton gained a BA in physiological sciences at Lady Margaret Hall, University of Oxford, followed by a Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery in 1979. She became a Member of the Royal College of Physicians, London, in 1982. She was awarded a doctorate in medicine at Oxford in 1991. In 1997, she became a Fellow of the Royal College of Paediatrics and


id: arie-rip-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arie_Rip-0.md
category: reference
title: Arie Rip
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arie_Rip
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:42:58.677262+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: arie-rip-20260505-0
summary:
Arie Rip (born 13 June 1941, in Kethel en Spaland) is a Dutch professor emeritus of Philosophy of Science and Technology. == Career == During 1988–1989 he was the President of the international Society for Social Studies of Science. From 2000 until 2005 he was the head of WTMC, the Netherlands Graduate School of Science, Technology and Modern Culture. The WTMC is a formal collaboration of Dutch researchers studying the development of science, technology and modern culture. In 2006 Rip formally retired as the Professor of Philosophy of Science and Technology at the University of Twente, a position he held since 1987. He has published extensively on various topics concerning the philosophy and sociology of scientific and technological developments, and on science and innovation policy. Rip has, for example, introduced the widely used Constructive Technology Assessment method. Currently he is among others a Professor at the University of Stellenbosch in South Africa. Rip became chairman of the Society for the Study of Nanoscience and Emerging Technologies (S-NET) in 2008. In 2022 Rip received for his oeuvre the John Desmond Bernal Prize of the Society for Social Studies of Science (4S), which will be awarded to him in the second week


id: ulbo-de-sitter-sociologist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulbo_de_Sitter_(sociologist)-0.md
category: reference
title: Ulbo de Sitter (sociologist)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulbo_de_Sitter_(sociologist)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:42:59.836838+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ulbo-de-sitter-sociologist-20260505-0
summary:
Lamoraal Ulbo de Sitter (April 2, 1930 – December 18, 2010) was a Dutch sociologist and Professor of Business Administration at the Radboud University Nijmegen, known for his seminal work in the field of sociotechnical systems in the Netherlands. == Biography == Born in Jönköping, Sweden, Ulbo de Sitter was named after his father Ulbo de Sitter (1902–1980), a geologist working at the Leiden University. Ulbo, the sociologist, was the grandson of astronomer Willem de Sitter (1872-1934). He studied sociology at the University of Amsterdam, and obtained his PhD in 1970 at the University of Leiden with the thesis, entitled "Leiderschapsvorming en leiderschapsgedrag in een organisatie" (Leadership formation and leadership behavior in an organization). De Sitter had started working as engineer in the merchant navy for four years before he started his studies in Amsterdam. After graduation in Amsterdam he worked as sociologist at the head office of the Koninklijke PTT Nederland, nowadays KPN. Sequentially he was research assistant at the Sociografische Werkgemeenschap (Socio Graphic Work Association) of the University of Amsterdam. In 1971, he was appointed professor at Eindhoven University of Technology. From 1986 to 1988 he was also director of the Koers consulting group in 's-Hertogenbosch. In 1990,


id: softa-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Softa-0.md
category: reference
title: Softa
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Softa
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:01.056048+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: softa-20260505-0
summary:
According to the Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition written by English historian and Orientalist C.E. Bosworth, the term "softa" (ṣofta) was a name given to students in the fields of theology, law and other sciences within the madrasa educational system of the Ottoman Empire. A parallel form can be found in Persian, pronounced as sūkhte, meaning "in flames" or "to set on fire", i.e. consumed by the love of God or learning. However, the relationship between the two words is unclear. More specifically, "softa" seems to have been used to refer to beginners within their fields of science or theology, where as after they've completed their first courses they're instead referred to as "dānishmend". == History == Starting with Mehmed II, Ottoman sultans established these centers of education to develop a qualified group of individuals that would constitute a strong bureaucracy and fill administrative roles. The cities became intellectual centers of modernization. Through their studies in the madrasa system, softas aimed to become part of the ulama, the class of Muslim religious elites within the Ottoman Empire. The ulama class, especially during the classical period, had significant political and social power and functioned as an avenue of economic advancement. Though


id: lucy-suchman-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucy_Suchman-0.md
category: reference
title: Lucy Suchman
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucy_Suchman
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:02.237981+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lucy-suchman-20260505-0
summary:
Lucy Suchman is professor emerita of Anthropology of Science and Technology in the Department of Sociology at Lancaster University, in the United Kingdom, also known for her work at Xerox PARC in the 1980s and 90s. Her current research extends her longstanding critical engagement with the field of human-computer interaction to the domain of contemporary war fighting, including problems of ‘situational awareness’ in military training and simulation, and in the design and deployment of automated weapon systems. At the center of this research is the question of whose bodies are incorporated into military systems, how and with what consequences for social justice and the possibility for a less violent world. Suchman is a member of International Committee for Robot Arms Control and the author of the blog dedicated to the problems of ethical robotics and 'technocultures of humanlike machines' Before coming to Lancaster, she worked for 22 years at Xerox's Palo Alto Research Center (PARC) in California, where she held the positions of principal scientist and manager of the Work Practice and Technology research group. While at PARC, she conducted an influential ethnographic study, using video, of office workers and research scientists struggling to use a copy machine. Suchman is


id: lucy-suchman-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucy_Suchman-1.md
category: reference
title: Lucy Suchman
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucy_Suchman
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:02.237981+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lucy-suchman-20260505-0
summary:
Suchman, L. (1987) Plans and situated actions : The Problem of Human-Machine Communication. Cambridge University Press, New York. Suchman, L. (1993) Response to Vera and Simon's Situated Action: A Symbolic Interpretation. Cognitive Science, 17:71—75, 1993. Suchman, L. (1995) Making Work Visible. Communications of the ACM, 38 (9). pp. 56–61+. Suchman, L. (1995) Representations of Work (Special Report). Communications of the ACM, 38 (9). pp. 33–68. Suchman, L. and Blomberg, J. and Orr, J. E. (1999) Reconstructing Technologies as Social Practice. The American Behavioral Scientist, 43 (3). pp. 392–408. Suchman, L. (2000) Embodied Practices of Engineering Work. Mind, Culture and Activity, 7 (1&2). pp. 4–18. Suchman, L. (2000) Making a case: knowledge and routine work in document production. In: Workplace studies : recovering work practice and informing system design. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 29–45. Suchman, L. (2000) Organising alignment : a case of bridge-building. Organization, 7 (2). pp. 311–327. Suchman, L. and Bishop, L. (2000) Problematizing 'Innovation' as a Critical Project. Technology Analysis & Strategic Management, 12 (3). pp. 327–333. Suchman, L. (2002) Practice-based design of information systems : notes from the hyperdeveloped world. The Information Society, 18 (2). pp. 139–144. Suchman, L. A. and Blomberg, J. and Trigg, R.


id: kim-tallbear-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_TallBear-0.md
category: reference
title: Kim TallBear
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_TallBear
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:03.481446+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kim-tallbear-20260505-0
summary:
Kim TallBear (born 1968) is a Sisseton Wahpeton Oyate professor at the University of Minnesota – Twin Cities, specializing in racial politics in science. Holding the first ever Canada Research Chair in Indigenous Peoples, Technoscience and Environment, TallBear has published on DNA testing, race science and Indigenous identities, as well as on polyamory as a decolonization practice. == Early life == TallBear was born in 1968 at a public hospital in Pipestone, Minnesota. She grew up moving back and forth between the Sisseton and Flandreau reservations in South Dakota. During this time, she was mostly raised by her maternal grandmother and great-grandmother, until the age of fourteen when she went to live full time with her mother in St. Paul, Minnesota. TallBear is a citizen of the Sisseton-Wahpeton Oyate in South Dakota, as well as a descendant from the Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes of Oklahoma through her maternal grandfather. Her Indigenous descent comes from her mother's side. She also has some Cree and Métis ancestry from Canada. Her father, who was only present in her life up to age three, is white. TallBear has two sisters and one brother, whose father is Floyd Westerman, a Dakota Sioux musician, actor and


id: kim-tallbear-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_TallBear-1.md
category: reference
title: Kim TallBear
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_TallBear
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:03.481446+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kim-tallbear-20260505-0
summary:
=== "The Critical Polyamorist" and decolonizing relationships === In her later work, TallBear is focused on sexuality, specifically on decolonizing the valourization of monogamy that she characterizes as emblematic of "settler sexualities". She pursued this topic of study through a blog written under an alter ego, "The Critical Polyamorist". TallBear was part of a panel discussing decolonizing institutions such as relationships, at the National Women's Studies Association meeting in 2016. TallBear's critiques of monogamous, heteronormative colonial relations focus on their incompatibility with an environmentally sustainable world. For TallBear, moving beyond the current environmental problems of the neoliberal nation state requires expanding understandings and practices of kinship. She argues Indigenous conceptions of kin provide opportunities for this transition. TallBear's critical polyamory places emphasis on looking beyond human-centric intimacy to also incorporate relational ways of being with place and other non-human dimensions to relationships. TallBear's focus on kin goes to the "decolonization" of intimacy: relationships outside of what she describes as settler-colonial relationship structures. == Selected works == === Articles === "Dossier: Theorizing Queer Inhumanisms: An Indigenous Reflection on Working Beyond the Human/Not Human" in GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies, Vol. 21(2–3), 2015: 230–235. "The Emergence, Politics, and Marketplace


id: zoe-todd-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoe_Todd-0.md
category: reference
title: Zoe Todd
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoe_Todd
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:04.660675+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: zoe-todd-20260505-0
summary:
Zoe Todd is a Métis anthropologist and scholar of Indigenous studies, human-animal studies, science and technology studies and the Anthropocene. She is an associate professor in the Department of Indigenous Studies at Simon Fraser University and a Presidential Visiting Fellow at Yale University during the 2018–19 academic year. == Early life == Todd was born to a Métis father and white mother in Edmonton, Alberta, in 1983. She credits her father, an artist, Gary Todd's engagement with his Métis heritage as an influential factor in her scholarship; especially his art and his knowledge of fish and wildlife of the Canadian prairies. Todd is a descendant of William Todd, a 19th-century surgeon from the British Navy. She received her BSc degree in biological sciences and an MSc in rural sociology from the University of Alberta and her PhD in social anthropology from the University of Aberdeen. She received the prestigious Pierre Elliott Trudeau Foundation Scholarship in 2011 for her PhD research. == Research == Todd's research concerns human-animal relations, in particular, human-fish, relationships in the context of Settler colonialism in Canada. She is an assistant professor at Carleton University's Department of Sociology and Anthropology. She is best known for her work


id: kentaro-toyama-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kentaro_Toyama-0.md
category: reference
title: Kentaro Toyama
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kentaro_Toyama
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:05.866135+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kentaro-toyama-20260505-0
summary:
Kentaro Toyama is a computer scientist and international development researcher, who works on the relationship of technology and global development. He is the W. K. Kellogg Professor at the University of Michigan School of Information and author of Geek Heresy: Rescuing Social Change from the Cult of Technology. He is also a fellow of the Dalai Lama Center for Ethics and Transformative Values at MIT. Toyama was founding assistant director of Microsoft Research India, a Bangalore-based computer science laboratory, where he established the Technology for Emerging Markets group which conducts interdisciplinary research in the field of "information and communication technologies for development" (ICT4D). Together with AnnaLee Saxenian and Raj Reddy, he co-founded the International Conference on Information and Communication Technologies and Development, a global platform for rigorous, academic, interdisciplinary research in ICT4D. == Education == Toyama graduated from the American School in Japan. Toyama received a Ph.D. in Computer Science from Yale University, and an A.B. in Physics from Harvard University. == Research and career == Toyama's research spans several disparate areas, including ICT4D, development studies, computer vision, human-computer interaction, geographic information systems, and multimedia. He is best known for his research in ICT4D, which includes technology projects such as


id: richard-twine-sociologist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Twine_(sociologist)-0.md
category: reference
title: Richard Twine (sociologist)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Twine_(sociologist)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:07.072516+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: richard-twine-sociologist-20260505-0
summary:
Richard Twine (born 1974) is a British sociologist whose research addresses environmental sociology as well as gender, human/animal and science studies. He is noted for his "foundational" work in critical animal studies, as well as his contributions to ecofeminism. His work includes developing Barbara Noske's notion of the animal-industrial complex and theorizing the "vegan killjoy", building on Sara Ahmed's "feminist killjoy". Twine is a reader in sociology in the Department of History, Geography & Social Sciences at Edge Hill University, where he is the co-director of the Centre for Human-Animal Studies. He is also the chair of the Research Advisory Committee of The Vegan Society. He is the author of 2010's Animals as Biotechnology and 2024's The Climate Crisis and Other Animals, as well as a co-editor of 2014's The Rise of Critical Animal Studies and 2024's Violence and Harm in the Animal Industrial Complex. == Career == Twine studied for a Bachelor of Arts in Sociology and Psychology at the University of Stirling, graduating in 1995, and then went on to study for a Master of Arts in Sociology at the University of Essex, which he completed in 1996. He was awarded his PhD in Sociology from Manchester Metropolitan


id: helen-verran-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helen_Verran-0.md
category: reference
title: Helen Verran
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helen_Verran
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:08.278103+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: helen-verran-20260505-0
summary:
Helen Verran is an Australian historian and empirical philosopher of science, primarily working in the Social Studies of Science and Technology (STS), and currently adjunct professor at Charles Darwin University. == Background == Verran is from New South Wales, Australia. She trained as a scientist and teacher in the 1960s (BSc, DipEd, University of New England) and has a PhD in metabolic biochemistry (UNE, 1972). She then spent eight years lecturing in science education at Obafemi Awolowo University in Ifẹ, southwestern Nigeria. In the 1980s she became a lecturer and later associate professor at the University of Melbourne, working in a unit dedicated to the study of history and philosophy of science. She retired in 2012. On retiring she became adjunct professor at the Northern Institute, Charles Darwin University in Darwin, where she still teaches. == Scholarship == === Numbers and Enumerated Entities === Verran's book, Science and an African Logic (University of Chicago Press, 2001), received the Ludwik Fleck Prize in 2003. It analyses counting, and its relation to the ontology of numbers based on her lengthy field observations as a mathematics lecturer and teacher in Nigeria. The book draws on her sudden realisation of the radically different nature


id: shiv-visvanathan-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiv_Visvanathan-0.md
category: reference
title: Shiv Visvanathan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiv_Visvanathan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:09.466128+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: shiv-visvanathan-20260505-0
summary:
Shiv Visvanathan is an Indian academic best known for his contributions to developing the field of science and technology studies (STS), and for the concept of cognitive justice, a term he coined. He is currently Professor at O P Jindal Global University, Sonepat. He was Professor, Dhirubhai Ambani Institute of Information and Communication Technology (DA-IICT), Gandhinagar, India and has held the position of Senior fellow Center for the Study of Developing Societies (CSDS) in Delhi He has also taught at the Delhi School of Economics. He has held visiting professorships at Smith College, Stanford, Goldsmiths, Arizona State University and Maastricht University, Harvard University & Oxford University. He is author of Organizing for Science (OUP, Delhi, 1985), A Carnival for Science (OUP, Delhi, 1997) and has co-edited Foulplay: Chronicles of Corruption (Banyan Books, Delhi, 1999). He has been consultant to the National Council of Churches and Business India. As a public intellectual, he is a regular columnist to newspapers like The Hindu, The New Indian Express, Indian Express, The Deccan Chronicle and The Asian Age. He also contributes to popular magazines like Outlook, India Today, Governance Today and Tehelka. His popular writings touch topics as wide as science, cricket, anthropology, development,


id: judy-wajcman-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judy_Wajcman-0.md
category: reference
title: Judy Wajcman
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judy_Wajcman
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:10.667848+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: judy-wajcman-20260505-0
summary:
Judy Wajcman, is the Anthony Giddens Professor of Sociology at the London School of Economics and Political Science. She is the Principal Investigator of the Women in Data Science and AI project at The Alan Turing Institute. She is also a visiting professor at the Oxford Internet Institute. Her scholarly interests encompass the sociology of work, science and technology studies, gender theory, and organizational analysis. Her work has been translated into French, German, Greek, Italian, Korean, Japanese, Portuguese, Russian, Chinese and Spanish. Prior to joining the LSE in 2009, she was a professor of sociology in the Research School of Social Sciences at the Australian National University. She was the first woman to be appointed the Norman Laski Research Fellow (1978–80) at St. John's College, Cambridge. In 1997 she was elected Fellow of the Academy of the Social Sciences in Australia. Wajcman was President of the Society for the Social Studies of Science (2009–2011), and is the recipient of the William F. Ogburn Career Achievement Award of the American Sociological Association (2013). She received an honorary doctorate from the University of Geneva (2015) and was elected a Fellow of the British Academy (2016). Her book Pressed for Time is the


id: robin-williams-academic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robin_Williams_(academic)-0.md
category: reference
title: Robin Williams (academic)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robin_Williams_(academic)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:11.822870+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: robin-williams-academic-20260505-0
summary:
Robin Williams (born 13 November 1952) is a British social scientist who is professor of social research on technology at the University of Edinburgh, Scotland, and director of the Institute for the Study of Science, Technology and Innovation. He is an interdisciplinary researcher in the field of Science and Technology Studies and contributed much to the social shaping of technology by studying the interplay between 'social' and 'technical' factors in the design and implementation of a range of technologies. == Biography == After studying Natural Sciences and Social and Political Science at Clare College, Cambridge, Robin Williams took an MSc and PhD at Aston University and worked as research fellow in the Technology Policy Unit until 1986. He then joined the Research Centre for Social Sciences (RCSS) at the University of Edinburgh and coordinated the Edinburgh PICT Centre, one of the six university research centres established under the ESRC Programme on Information and Communications Technologies (1986 - 1995). During this time Robin Williams and other researchers in Edinburgh PICT Centre published on issues regarding social, economic and political aspects of the design and implementation of technology. Concluding the findings of a decade's research Robin Williams and David Edge published a


id: langdon-winner-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langdon_Winner-0.md
category: reference
title: Langdon Winner
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langdon_Winner
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:13.007664+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: langdon-winner-20260505-0
summary:
Langdon Winner (born August 7, 1944) is an American academic who is the Thomas Phelan Chair of Humanities and Social Sciences in the Department of Science and Technology Studies at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York. His academic interests include science, technology, American popular culture, and theories of sustainability and he is known for his articles and books on science, technology, and society. He also spent several years as a reporter, rock music critic, and contributing editor for Rolling Stone magazine. == Career == Langdon Winner was born in San Luis Obispo, California. He received his B.A. in 1966, M.A. in 1967 and Ph.D. in 1973, all in political science, at the University of California, Berkeley. His primary focus was political theory. He has served as professor at the University of Leiden, MIT, University of California, Los Angeles and at the University of California, Santa Cruz. Since 1985 he has been at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute; he was a visiting professor at Harvey Mudd College (2000) and Colgate University (2001). In 2010 he was a Fulbright Fellow visiting the Universidad Complutense in Madrid. His interests include science, technology, American popular culture, and theories of sustainability. === Technology and politics ===


id: certified-health-physicist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certified_health_physicist-0.md
category: reference
title: Certified health physicist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certified_health_physicist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:14.530564+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: certified-health-physicist-20260505-0
summary:
Certified Health Physicist is an official title granted by the American Board of Health Physics, the certification board for health physicists in the United States. A Certified Health Physicist is designated by the letters CHP or DABHP (Diplomate of the American Board of Health Physics) after his or her name. A certification by the ABHP is not a license to practice and does not confer any legal qualification to practice health physics. However, the certification is well respected and indicates a high level of achievement by those who obtain it. Certified Health Physicists are plenary or emeritus members of the American Academy of Health Physics (AAHP). In 2019, the AAHP web site listed over 1600 plenary and emeritus members. == Professional responsibilities == A person certified as a health physicist has a responsibility to uphold the professional integrity associated with the certification to promote the practice and science of radiation safety. It is expected that such a person will always give health physics information based on the highest standards of science and professional ethics. A certified individual has a responsibility to remain professionally active in the health physics field and remain technically competent in the scientific, technical and regulatory developments


id: chartered-scientist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chartered_Scientist-0.md
category: reference
title: Chartered Scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chartered_Scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:15.703730+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chartered-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
Chartered Scientist (CSci) is a professional qualification in the United Kingdom that is awarded by the Science Council through its licensed member organisations. Holders of this qualification can use the post-nominal letters CSci. Chartered scientists are professional scientists who are practising and/or advancing science at the full professional level and are individuals for whom scientific knowledge or practice at that level form an essential element of their role. The required standard for Chartered Scientist registration is a master's-level science qualification accredited by one of the licensed bodies (or equivalent) with four years of postgraduate work experience. The standards of the Chartered Scientist designation are upheld by the Science Council’s registration authority, whose members are elected representatives from the licensed bodies and appointed experts from other areas. == Chartered Science Teacher == There is a specialist section of the register for scientists whose primary profession is teaching. Those registered are entitled to use the post-nominal CSciTeach. It was developed in 2007 by the Science Council in partnership with the Association for Science Education, and is also awarded by the Royal Society of Biology and the Royal Society of Chemistry. == See also == Chartered Biologist Chartered Chemist Chartered Engineer (UK) Chartered


id: european-chemist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Chemist-0.md
category: reference
title: European Chemist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Chemist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:16.883101+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: european-chemist-20260505-0
summary:
European Chemist (EurChem) is an international professional qualification awarded by the European Chemist Registration Board (ECRB) of the European Chemical Society (EuChemS) for chemists, for use in many European countries. Through the European Chemist designation, the chemical societies in the European Union (EU) have ensured that there is an easily understood title to indicate a high level of competence in the practice of chemistry. The award of EurChem assists individual chemists who are moving from one employer to another in different EU member states, receiving equal treatment across the Union. EurChem Candidates must meet the following requirements: Be a member of a participating national chemical society; Hold a degree accredited by the participating national chemical society; Have at least eight years of post-secondary school education/experience including a category-A schedule academic qualification; Have at least three years' approved post-graduation professional experience; Two referees who must be members of the applicant's national chemical society; Show proficient professional experience appearing out of: Able to work in conditions with minor leadership Applying knowledge Consciousness of safety, health, and environment aspects Demonstrate of professional skill Excellent written and oral communications Good people's management, advising, evaluating skills. The title EurChem is a post-nominal, placed after the


id: fellow-of-the-institute-of-physics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Institute_of_Physics-0.md
category: reference
title: Fellow of the Institute of Physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Institute_of_Physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:18.098463+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fellow-of-the-institute-of-physics-20260505-0
summary:
Fellowship of the Institute of Physics (FInstP) is "the highest level of membership attainable" by physicists who are members of the Institute of Physics (IOP), "for those with a degree in physics or related subject (or equivalent knowledge gained in the workplace) and who have made a significant impact on their sector"; it is for "distinguished physicists in recognition of their accomplishments". Honorary Fellowship (HonFInstP) is for "exceptional individuals" who can be nominated in recognition of having "contributed to physics generally or to the work of the IOP", working in fields including business, education, research, and policy relating to physics. The Institute's bye-laws limit the number of fellows in this category to being not more than 100 living Honorary Fellows at any one time. == Fellows (FInstP) == Fellows are entitled to use the post-nominal letters FInstP, and receive a number of minor benefits such as a subscription to Physics World magazine (like other members of the IOP). As of 2022 fellows include: See also Category:Fellows of the Institute of Physics == Honorary Fellows (HonFInstP) == The designation of Honorary Fellow of the Institute of Physics, as an honorary title. The award of Honorary Fellowship is "the highest accolade presented


id: fellow-of-the-royal-society-of-chemistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Chemistry-0.md
category: reference
title: Fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:19.321917+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fellow-of-the-royal-society-of-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
Fellowship of the Royal Society of Chemistry (FRSC) is one of the most prestigious awards conferred by the Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC) in the United Kingdom. Existing Fellows include award winning scientists and Nobel prize winners. == FRSC award == Achieving Fellow status in the chemical profession signals to the broader community a high level of accomplishment as a professional chemist. Eligibility for Fellow status is open to Members of the Royal Society of Chemistry (MRSC) who have excelled in their fields through patents, scientific publications, discoveries, and other notable achievements. To be elected, the fellows must have made an outstanding contribution to the advancement of the chemical sciences; or to the advancement of the chemical sciences as a profession; or have been distinguished in the management of a chemical sciences organization. In all cases, sponsor references from other RSC Fellows are required. The award of designatory letters FRSC is subject to the final approval of the RSC Applications Committee. In addition to the above, all RSC membership requires acceptance and adherence to a specific code of conduct and an established set of high standards of ethical and professional behavior. The RSC continuously establishes, and evaluates professional qualifications and


id: medical-physicist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_physicist-0.md
category: reference
title: Medical physicist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_physicist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:20.466169+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-physicist-20260505-0
summary:
A medical physicist is a health professional with specialist education and training in the concepts and techniques of applying physics in medicine and competent to practice independently in one or more of the subfields (specialties) of medical physics. A medical physicist plays a fundamental role in applying physics to medicine, but particularly in the diagnosis and treatment of cancer. The scientific and technological progress in medical physics has led to a variety of skills that must be integrated into the role of a medical physicist in order for them to perform their job. The "medical services" provided to patients undergoing diagnostic and therapeutic treatments must, therefore, be the result of different but complementary skills. In general, the medical physicist is responsible for all scientific and technical aspects of imaging, radiation treatment, and radiation safety. It is their occupational role to ensure that medical modalities offered to patients are met with the utmost quality assurance. It is the medical physicist that manage and supervise the efforts of dosimetrists, therapists and technologists in that capacity. == Education and training == === Australia and New Zealand === The Australasian College of Physical Scientists and Engineers in Medicine (ACPSEM) is the professional body that


id: professional-chemist-canada-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional_chemist_(Canada)-0.md
category: reference
title: Professional chemist (Canada)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional_chemist_(Canada)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:21.633611+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: professional-chemist-canada-20260505-0
summary:
Professional chemist is the term for registered or licensed chemists in Canada who are permitted to offer their professional services directly to the public. The professional chemist designation is commonly abbreviated to PChem when added as a suffix after a person's name. The term professional chemist and the actual practice of professional chemistry is legally defined and protected by the government. In some jurisdictions only registered or licensed professional chemists or chartered chemists are permitted to use the title, or to practice professional chemistry. The earmark that distinguishes a licensed/registered professional chemist is the authority to sign and seal or "stamp" chemistry documents (reports, drawings and calculations) for a study, estimate, design or analysis, thus taking legal responsibility for it. == Registration and regulation == Each province has specific procedures and requirements for license or registration. On March 20, 2017, the Federation of Canada’s Professional Chemists (FCPC) announced that provincial chemists’ organizations have adopted a Memorandum of Understanding to facilitate mobility of professional chemists between provinces which enabled Professional Chemists who are members of organizations established in each province to move and work in other provinces. The licensing procedure varies, but the general process is: Graduate with a degree from


id: registered-science-technician-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Registered_Science_Technician-0.md
category: reference
title: Registered Science Technician
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Registered_Science_Technician
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:22.800978+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: registered-science-technician-20260505-0
summary:
Registered Science Technician (RSciTech) is a professional qualification in the United Kingdom for science technicians. It was introduced in 2011 alongside Registered Scientist as an extension to the UK Science Council's existing professional register for Chartered Scientists. the Registered Science Technician (RSciTech) was developed with the support of the Gatsby Charitable Foundation, with the aim of increasing the professionalism and recognition of those working in technical roles in science. Holders of this qualification can use the post-nominal letters RSciTech. Registration as RSciTech has been encouraged by institutions such as Imperial College London, and the UK Government's Science manufacturing technician and Laboratory technician apprenticeship standards are designed to lead to registration as an RSciTech. == Licensed Bodies == The Science Council licences its member bodies to award professional statuses. The professional bodies listed below are those licensed to award Registered Science Technician as of May 2017: Association for Science Education British Psychological Society Institute of Animal Technology Institute of Biomedical Science Institute of Food Science & Technology Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining Institute of Physics Institute of Science and Technology Institute of Physics and Engineering in Medicine Institution of Chemical Engineers Institute of Water Royal Society of Biology Royal Society


id: regtech-technician-registration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RegTech_technician_registration-0.md
category: reference
title: RegTech technician registration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RegTech_technician_registration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:23.952238+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: regtech-technician-registration-20260505-0
summary:
RegTech is a project established by the Prospect union to promote and support the professional registration of engineering, IT and science technicians in the UK. == Membership bodies == With technician members across hundreds of workplaces in sectors ranging from defence and energy to heritage and telecoms, the union is working in conjunction with membership bodies including professional associations: the Engineering Council, Science Council, BCS - The Chartered Institute for IT and EngTechNow. == Entitlement == Technicians who successfully gain professional registration status through a relevant membership body have the right to display the appropriate letters after their name. In the case of RegTech this means either EngTech, RSciTech or RITTech. The title or “post nominal” provides a formal recognition of relevant skills and experience. == Career progression & skills gap == Prospect believes technician registration is a key means of supporting apprentices and other young professionals with structured vocational routes to career progression. While it is a valuable asset in its own right it can provide the foundation for achieving chartered status. More broadly the RegTech project is aimed at helping to address skills shortages, by raising the profile of technicians and attracting more recruits to the roles. ==


id: list-of-science-communicators-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_communicators-0.md
category: reference
title: List of science communicators
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_communicators
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:25.531034+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-science-communicators-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of notable science communicators or popularizers of science, in alphabetical order by last name. == A == John Acorn, naturalist and broadcaster known as the "Nature Nut" Amir Aczel, Jewish author and mathematician Maggie Aderin-Pocock, space scientist and broadcaster Hashem Al-Ghaili, molecular biotechnologist and video producer Jim Al-Khalili, theoretical physicist, author, and science communicator Alan Alda, actor; inspired the Alan Alda Center for Communicating Science Michael Allaby, writes on science, ecology, and weather Elise Andrew, British blogger, founder and maintainer of the Facebook page "I Fucking Love Science" Alberto Angela (born 1962), television presenter, paleontologist, writer, popularizer of science and history Piero Angela (1928–2022), journalist, television presenter, writer, popularizer of science, founder of CICAP (Italian Committee for the Investigation of Claims on Pseudosciences) Natalie Angier, science journalist and writer Isaac Asimov, biochemist, science-fiction writer, and author Peter Atkins, physical chemist and author Sir David Attenborough, naturalist and broadcaster Amy Atwater, paleontologist, podcaster and author == B == Francis Bacon, English philosopher, statesman, scientist, jurist, and author J. Michael Bailey, psychologist; known for his research on the etiology of sexual orientation Johnny Ball, broadcaster and math popularizer Kirsten Banks, Australian astrophysicist and science communicator of the Wiradjuri


id: list-of-science-communicators-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_communicators-1.md
category: reference
title: List of science communicators
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_communicators
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:25.531034+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-science-communicators-20260505-0
summary:
== J == Hope Jahren, geochemist and author Ray Jayawardhana, astrophysicist and author Donald Carl Johanson, paleoanthropologist and author Steven Johnson, author Steve Jones, evolutionary biologist and author Horace Freeland Judson, historian of molecular biology and author Olivia Judson, evolutionary biologist, broadcaster and author == K == Michio Kaku, theoretical physicist and author Sam Kean, author David Kipping, associate professor, astronomer and YouTuber Marek Kukula, public astronomer at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich Lawrence Krauss, physicist and author Robert Krulwich, broadcaster Karl Kruszelnicki (also known as Dr Karl), broadcaster == L == Lynne Lamberg, American freelance science journalist Richard Leakey, Kenyan paleoanthropologist and conservationist John Lennox, mathematician and author Edward M. Lerner, computer engineer and author Daniel Levitin, cognitive neuroscientist and author Roger Lewin, British anthropologist Richard Lewontin, evolutionary biologist, geneticist, and author Willy Ley, space-travel enthusiast and science writer (Prophet of the Space Age) Don Lincoln, particle physicist and author Chris Lintott, astrophysicist Avi Loeb, astronomer and author Professor Lyrical, rapper, associate professor of mathematics == M == Bob McDonald, CBC journalist and host of Quirks and Quarks Alister McGrath, molecular biologist and author Katie Mack, astrophysics professor who focuses on studying dark matter Lynn Margulis, evolutionary biologist and author


id: alexander-butyagin-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Butyagin-0.md
category: reference
title: Alexander Butyagin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Butyagin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:26.770185+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alexander-butyagin-20260505-0
summary:
Alexander Mikhailovich Butyagin (Russian: Александр Михайлович Бутягин; born October 12, 1971) is a Russian archaeologist and classical scholar, a Candidate of Historical Sciences, and a science communicator. He is the head of the Sector of Archaeology of the Northern Black Sea region in the Department of the Ancient World at the State Hermitage Museum. Since 1999, he has served as the head of the Myrmekion Archaeological Expedition, which studies the ruins of the ancient (Greek, then Bosporan and Roman) city of Myrmekion in present-day Kerch. In December 2025, Butyagin was detained in Poland at Ukraine's request due to accusations of conducting archaeological excavations in Crimea after 2014 without permission from Ukrainian authorities. In March 2026, he was ordered by the Warsaw District Court to be extradited to Ukraine to stand trial. On April 28, Butyagin was released as part of a prisoner exchange. == Biography == Butyagin was born in 1971 in Leningrad. From 1978 to 1988 he studied at School No. 67 with an advanced curriculum in the Spanish language. In 1985 he joined an archaeology club at the Leningrad Palace of Pioneers (now the St. Petersburg City Palace of Youth Creativity). In 1988 he entered the Department of


id: alexander-butyagin-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Butyagin-1.md
category: reference
title: Alexander Butyagin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Butyagin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:26.770185+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alexander-butyagin-20260505-0
summary:
=== Arrest in Poland === In 2024, Ukrainian prosecutors reported that Butyagin had been notified in absentia of suspicion of unlawful excavations, damage to a cultural heritage site, and causing damage estimated at more than 200 million hryvnias, under Part 4 of Article 298 of the Criminal Code of Ukraine ("illegal search work at an archaeological heritage site; destruction, ruin or damage to cultural heritage objects"). The accusations were based on the international cultural heritage law that prohibits any archaeological excavations on occupied territories unless explicitly authorized and permitted by the internationally recognized authorities. According to the Kharkiv Human Rights Group, Russia had violated said law by excavating, 'renovating', and causing other irreparable damage to places of Crimean Tatar or Ukrainian cultural heritage in Crimea, such as Bakhchysarai Palace or the Ancient City of Tauric Chersonese and its Chora. In March 2025, Ukraine's Main Directorate of Intelligence (HUR) stated that "hundreds of archaeological artifacts discovered during excavations" had been removed from Crimea, including from the ancient city of Panticapaeum, where Butyagin also carried out archaeological work. Meanwhile, Vadim Mayko, director of the Institute of Archaeology of Crimea (Russian Academy of Sciences), said in an interview with a Russian outlet that


id: alexander-butyagin-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Butyagin-2.md
category: reference
title: Alexander Butyagin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Butyagin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:26.770185+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alexander-butyagin-20260505-0
summary:
=== Selected articles === Butyagin, A. M. (2004). "Клады античного Мирмекия" [Hoard finds from ancient Myrmekion]. Сообщения Государственного Эрмитажа (in Russian). LXII. Saint Petersburg: Издательство Государственного Эрмитажа: 86–91. ISBN 5-93572-142-2. Butyagin, A. M. (2004). "Кизикины: античная валюта Понта" [Cyzicenes: an ancient currency of Pontus] (PDF). Мирмекийский клад. Новые открытия на Боспоре Эрмитажной археологической экспедиции [The Myrmekion hoard: new discoveries on the Bosporus by the Hermitage archaeological expedition] (Exhibition catalogue) (in Russian). Saint Petersburg: Издательство Государственного Эрмитажа. pp. 12–15. ISBN 5-93572-143-0. Butyagin, A. M. (2004). "Клады кизикинов и Мирмекийский клад" [Hoard finds of Cyzicenes and the Myrmekion hoard] (PDF). Мирмекийский клад. Новые открытия на Боспоре Эрмитажной археологической экспедиции [The Myrmekion hoard: new discoveries on the Bosporus by the Hermitage archaeological expedition] (Exhibition catalogue) (in Russian). Saint Petersburg: Издательство Государственного Эрмитажа. pp. 17–21. ISBN 5-93572-143-0. Butyagin, A. M. (2004). "Дом под мирмекийскими зольниками" [A house beneath the Myrmekion ash mounds]. Боспорский феномен: проблемы хронологии и датировки памятников [The Bosporan phenomenon: problems of chronology and dating of sites] (Proceedings of an international conference) (in Russian). Vol. I. Saint Petersburg: Издательство Государственного Эрмитажа. pp. 126–131. ISBN 5-93572-116-3. Butyagin, A. M. (2005). "К интерпретации зольников Мирмекия (свидетельства Павсания и боспорская культовая практика)" [On interpreting the


id: c-sar-augusto-aguilar-puntriano-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/César_Augusto_Aguilar_Puntriano-0.md
category: reference
title: César Augusto Aguilar Puntriano
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/César_Augusto_Aguilar_Puntriano
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:28.323349+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: c-sar-augusto-aguilar-puntriano-20260505-0
summary:
César Augusto Aguilar Puntriano also written as César Aguilar-Puntriano (born 1971) is a Peruvian zoologist, herpetologist, and professor. He conducts academic and scientific work in the Department of Herpetology at the Museo de Historia Natural Javier Prado of the National University of San Marcos in Lima, Peru. A total of 25 taxon names are authored by Aguilar Puntriano. == Work == === Selected taxa described === == References ==


id: anne-sophie-dielen-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne-Sophie_Dielen-0.md
category: reference
title: Anne-Sophie Dielen
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne-Sophie_Dielen
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:29.495767+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anne-sophie-dielen-20260505-0
summary:
Anne-Sophie Dielen is a researcher, scientist communicator and policy maker. Her research focuses on generating and regulating sodium/proton antiporters in plant chloroplasts. She is the Founder of The League of Remarkable Women in Science. == Career == Dielen has a bachelor's degree from the Academy of Montpellier. After completing a PhD in Plant Biology and Biochemistry from the Bordeaux II University in France, Dielen then became a postdoctoral fellow at The Australian National University (ANU) as part of its Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency research project. The League of Remarkable Women that she founded, is an interview project featuring women in STEM. It aims at profiling role models for the next generation of female scientists and was first supported by a 2014 ANU Gender Institute grants. She then became the director of crop biotechnology policy at CropLife Australia. == References ==


id: engineer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer-0.md
category: reference
title: Engineer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:31.104825+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: engineer-20260505-0
summary:
An engineer is a practitioner of engineering. The word engineer (Latin ingeniator, Ir is the term and or title of an engineer in countries like Belgium, The Netherlands, and Indonesia) is derived from the Latin words ingeniare ("to contrive, devise") and ingenium ("cleverness"). The foundational qualifications of a licensed professional engineer typically include a four-year bachelor's degree in an engineering discipline, or in some jurisdictions, a master's degree in an engineering discipline plus four to six years of peer-reviewed professional practice (culminating in a project report or thesis) and passage of engineering board examinations. The work of engineers forms the link between scientific discoveries and their subsequent applications to human and business needs and quality of life. == Definition == In 1961, the Conference of Engineering Societies of Western Europe and the United States of America defined "professional engineer" as follows: A professional engineer is competent by virtue of his/her fundamental education and training to apply the scientific method and outlook to the analysis and solution of engineering problems. He/she is able to assume personal responsibility for the development and application of engineering science and knowledge, notably in research, design, construction, manufacturing, superintending, managing, and in the education of the


id: engineer-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer-1.md
category: reference
title: Engineer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:31.104825+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: engineer-20260505-0
summary:
There are many branches of engineering, each of which specializes in specific technologies and products. Typically, engineers will have deep knowledge in one area and basic knowledge in related areas. For example, mechanical engineering curricula typically include introductory courses in electrical engineering, computer science, materials science, metallurgy, mathematics, and software engineering. An engineer may either be hired for a firm that requires engineers on a continuous basis, or may belong to an engineering firm that provides engineering consulting services to other firms. When developing a product, engineers typically work in interdisciplinary teams. For example, when building robots an engineering team will typically have at least three types of engineers. A mechanical engineer would design the body and actuators. An electrical engineer would design the power systems, sensors, electronics, embedded software in electronics, and control circuitry. Finally, a software engineer would develop the software that makes the robot behave properly. Engineers that aspire to management engage in further study in business administration, project management and organizational or business psychology. Often engineers move up the management hierarchy from managing projects, functional departments, and divisions, and some eventually become CEOs of multi-national corporations. == Ethics == Engineers have obligations to the public, their


id: engineer-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer-2.md
category: reference
title: Engineer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:31.104825+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: engineer-20260505-0
summary:
In the United States, engineering is a regulated profession whose practice and practitioners are licensed and governed by law. Licensure is generally attainable through combination of education, pre-examination (Fundamentals of Engineering exam), examination (professional engineering exam), and engineering experience (typically in the area of 5+ years). Each state tests and licenses professional engineers. Currently, most states do not license by specific engineering discipline, but rather provide generalized licensure, and trust engineers to use professional judgment regarding their individual competencies; this is the favoured approach of the professional societies. Despite this, at least one of the examinations required by most states is actually focused on a particular discipline; candidates for licensure typically choose the category of examination which comes closest to their respective expertise. In the United States, an "industrial exemption" allows businesses to employ employees and call them an "engineer", as long as such individuals are under the direct supervision and control of the business entity and function internally related to manufacturing (manufactured parts) related to the business entity, or work internally within an exempt organization. Such person does not have the final authority to approve, or the ultimate responsibility for, engineering designs, plans, or specifications that are to be


id: engineer-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer-3.md
category: reference
title: Engineer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:31.104825+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: engineer-20260505-0
summary:
In France, the term ingénieur (engineer) is not a protected title and can be used by anyone who practices this profession. However, the title ingénieur diplomé (graduate engineer) is an official academic title that is protected by the government and is associated with the Diplôme d'Ingénieur, which is a renowned academic degree in France. Anyone misusing this title in France can be fined a large sum and jailed, as it is usually reserved for graduates of French engineering grandes écoles. Engineering schools which were created during the French revolution have a special reputation among the French people, as they helped to make the transition from a mostly agricultural country of late 18th century to the industrially developed France of the 19th century. A great part of 19th-century France's economic wealth and industrial prowess was created by engineers that have graduated from École Centrale Paris, École des Mines de Paris, École polytechnique or Télécom Paris. This was also the case after WWII when France had to be rebuilt. Before the "réforme René Haby" in the 1970s, it was very difficult to be admitted to such schools, and the French ingénieurs were commonly perceived as the nation's élite. However, after the Haby


id: alessandro-fran-ois-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alessandro_François-0.md
category: reference
title: Alessandro François
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alessandro_François
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:32.288451+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alessandro-fran-ois-20260505-0
summary:
Alessandro François (1796–1857) was an Italian archaeologist. He was also a scholar, artist, engineer, and war commissioner of the Grand Duke of Tuscany in the mid-19th century. == Biography == François was born in 1796 in Florence, then part of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. Throughout his life, François undertook a number of occupations, including as a mining engineer. After travelling widely in his youth, François decided in 1825 to excavate Etruscan sites, including Cosa, Cortona, Volterra, Fiesole, Vetulonia, Populonia, Chiusi and Vulci. He discovered several black-figure vase fragments in 1844 at Fonte Rotelle near Chiusi. He discovered more fragments in 1845, and the pieces were assembled into a complete vase of the highest quality, subsequently named after him, which was purchased by Leopold II, Grand Duke of Tuscany, in 1846 for the Uffizi Gallery. In 1857, François discovered a spectacular painted Etruscan tomb, which has also been named after him. François created his own excavation society and kept his finds in his home in Florence. Numerous attempts to found a museum to house his finds failed, despite his appealing to potential sponsors in Italy and to the French government. While in Florence, François fell ill and died at the


id: biological-illustration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_illustration-0.md
category: reference
title: Biological illustration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_illustration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:33.926239+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biological-illustration-20260505-0
summary:
Biological illustration is the use of technical illustration to visually communicate the structure and specific details of biological subjects of study. This can be used to demonstrate anatomy, explain biological functions or interactions, direct surgical procedures, distinguish species, and other applications. The scope of biological illustration can range from the whole organism level to microscopic. == Subcategories == Types of biological illustrations include: Medical illustration Botanical illustration Zoological illustration == History == Historically, biological illustrations have been in use since the beginning of man's exploration and attempts to understand the world. The Paleolithic cave paintings were so detailed that species and breeds of many of the depicted animals can be recognized. For example, in the Chauvet-Pont-d'Arc Cave (circa 30,000 BC), at least 13 different species have been identified. In one prehistoric cave (circa 15,000 BC), there is a drawing of a mammoth with a darkened area where the heart should be. If this is indeed the intention of the illustration, it would be the world's first anatomical illustration. During the Renaissance, artist and scientist Leonardo da Vinci famously sketched his observations from human dissections, as well as his studies of plants and the flight of birds. In the mid-16th century,


id: botanical-illustration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_illustration-0.md
category: reference
title: Botanical illustration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_illustration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:35.237685+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: botanical-illustration-20260505-0
summary:
Botanical illustration is the art of depicting the form, color, and details of plant species. They are generally meant to be scientifically descriptive about subjects depicted and are often found printed alongside a botanical description in books, magazines, and other media. Some are sold as artworks. Often composed by a botanical illustrator in consultation with a scientific author, their creation requires an understanding of plant morphology and access to specimens and references. Many illustrations are in watercolour, but may also be in oils, ink, or pencil, or a combination of these and other media. The image may be life-size or not, though at times a scale is shown, and may show the life cycle and/or habitat of the plant and its neighbors, the upper and reverse sides of leaves, and details of flowers, bud, seed and root system. The fragility of dried or otherwise preserved specimens, and restrictions or impracticalities of transport, saw illustrations used as valuable visual references for taxonomists. In particular, minute plants or other botanical specimens only visible under a microscope were often identified through illustrations. To that end, botanical illustrations used to be generally accepted as types for attribution of a botanical name to a taxon.


id: botanical-illustration-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_illustration-1.md
category: reference
title: Botanical illustration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_illustration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:35.237685+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: botanical-illustration-20260505-0
summary:
=== Sixteenth century === In the 15th and 16th centuries, botany developed as a scientific discipline distinct from herbalism and medicine, although it continued to contribute to both. Several factors contributed to the development and progress of botany during these centuries: the evolution from miniature painting or woodblock printing to more modern techniques; the invention (and improvements) of the printing press, which facilitated the widespread dissemination of botanical knowledge; the advent of paper for the preparation of herbariums; and the development of botanical gardens, which allowed for the cultivation, observation, and study of plants from diverse regions. These developments were closely tied to advancements in navigation and exploration, which led to botanical expeditions that introduced numerous previously unknown species to Europe. As explorers and botanists traveled to new lands, they collected plants and expanded both the scope of botanical knowledge and the range of plants available. Together, these factors significantly increased the number of known plant species and facilitated the global exchange of local and regional botanical knowledge. During this period, Latin remained the universal language of science, ensuring that botanical discoveries could be shared and understood across national and linguistic boundaries. Christian Egenolff attached great importance to the illustrations


id: botanical-illustration-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_illustration-2.md
category: reference
title: Botanical illustration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_illustration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:35.237685+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: botanical-illustration-20260505-0
summary:
In 1533 the first chair of botany in Europe was established in Padua. Luca Ghini, an Italian physician and botanist, founded the Orto botanico di Pisa (Europe's first university botanical garden) in 1544 with the support of Cosimo I de' Medici and published his first herbarium that same year. He is credited with inventing the herbarium (known as "hortus siccus", dried garden), around 1520 or 1530. His compatriot Ulisse Aldrovandi compiled one of the first floras in the mid-16th century. Jacopo Ligozzi worked for both Ghini and Aldovrandi. Pietro Andrea Mattioli's botanical masterpiece was his Commentarii in libros sex Pedacii Dioscoridis, first published in Italian in 1544 with 500, and later 1,200 engravings. This work made a profound impression on the botanist Gherardo Cibo, who then illustrated some of the plants featured in Mattioli's work (with roots, flowers and fruit) in close-up set against a backdrop of a real (often inhabited) landscape depicting their natural environment. Many of the illustrations also feature two little botanists collecting specimens of the plant illustrated. The work (Pietro Andrea Mattioli, Discorsi, a herbal assembled and illustrated by Gherardo Cibo), dated 1564–1584, is accessible for online viewing on the British Library website. See the Gherardo


id: botanical-illustration-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_illustration-3.md
category: reference
title: Botanical illustration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_illustration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:35.237685+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: botanical-illustration-20260505-0
summary:
His Amoris Monumentum Matri Charissimae (1589) shows a floral arrangement that seems to have been perceived at the precise moment when butterflies, caterpillars and snails appeared. The idea was often taken up again. His Archetypa studiaque patris Georgii Hoefnagelii (published by his son Jacob, in Frankfurt, in 1592) contains 48 engravings by Jacob (and perhaps Theodor de Bry or his son) based on studies that seem to have been made from life by Joris (who, according to Filippo Bonanni, had used a microscope).


id: botanical-illustration-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_illustration-4.md
category: reference
title: Botanical illustration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_illustration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:35.237685+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: botanical-illustration-20260505-0
summary:
=== Seventeenth century === Theodor de Bry, draughtsman and engraver, published his Florilegium novum in 1612, consisting of 116 plates representing, as the full title emphasises, flowers and plants, with their roots and bulbs, engraved from nature. It appears that at least some of the plates were borrowed from Pierre Vallet (c. 1575–1657), engraver and embroiderer to Kings Henri IV and Louis XIII, who himself published two florilèges: Le Jardin du roy tres chrestien Henri IV (1608) and Le Jardin du roy tres chrestien Loys XIII (1623). Some of the plates are beautifully hand-colored. Both books were made for "those who wish to paint or illuminate, embroider or make tapestries". Johann Theodor de Bry greatly assisted his father. With the assistance of Matthäus Merian der Ältere he later published Florilegium renovatum et auctum, also known as Anthologia Magna (1641), an expanded version with 177 engraved plates. Emanuel Sweerts, a tulip collector, published another florilegium: Florilegium by Emanuel Sweerts of Zevenbergen, living in Amsterdam [...] showing various flowers and other plants, in two parts, drawn from nature and rendered in four languages (Latin, German, French and Dutch). The first part is devoted to 67 bulb plants (32 varieties of tulips), and


id: botanical-illustration-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_illustration-5.md
category: reference
title: Botanical illustration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_illustration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:35.237685+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: botanical-illustration-20260505-0
summary:
It was John Ray who brought them to light by applying them to his own botanical classification work, and, through Ray, Carl von Linné eventually incorporated them into his own system. Jacob Marrel's stepdaughter Maria Sibylla Merian, who published her first book in 1675, included insects in her floral pictures. Metamorphosis insectorum Surinamensium (1705) showed caterpillars and the plants to which they are attached. Her daughters Rachel Ruysch and Dorothea Maria Graff were also flower painters. The most important work on plant systematics in the 17th century was the Historia generalis plantarum ('The General History of Plants', 1686) by John Ray (1627–1705), on which Linnaeus based his work and whom he proclaimed the 'founder' of systematics. The botanist and draughtsman Charles Plumier, who made four botanical expeditions (the first one in 1689), brought back a (now lost) herbarium and many drawings: Description des plantes de l'Amérique was published after the second voyage (1693), and Nova plantarum americanarum genera (1703) after the third. These works include plates showing flowers and fruits at different stages of development. A few decades earlier, Flora Sinensis (Vienna, 1656) had been published by a Jesuit missionary, Michał Boym. At the end of the 17th century, the


id: botanical-illustration-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_illustration-6.md
category: reference
title: Botanical illustration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_illustration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:35.237685+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: botanical-illustration-20260505-0
summary:
=== 18th century === After the emergence of plant anatomy in the 17th, the 18th century saw that of plant physiology, which has since had a profound influence on the development of all areas of botany. Stephen Hales is considered the father of plant physiology for his many experiments in Vegetable Staticks (1727). As for Carl Linnaeus, he is widely recognized as the father of modern botanical nomenclature. Linnaeus introduced several key innovations in taxinomy. First, he applied binomial nomenclature, assigning each species a two-part Latin name, while also emphasizing detailed morphological characterization. This system allowed for clearer, more systematic classification. Additionally, he implemented a precise terminology for describing plant morphology, especially floral and fruit structures. Building on Jungius's work, Linnaeus carefully defined terms that became standard in botanical descriptions. Through his major works—Systema Naturae (1735) and "Species Plantarum" (1753), —he revolutionized taxonomy, creating a framework still used today. In Hortus Cliffortianus (1737), a collaboration between Linnaeus and the illustrator Georg Dionysius Ehret, he described 2536 genres et espèces de plantes. He organised their list according to the system he had established in the Specis Plantarum and in the Systema Naturae. To name the plants, he relied on his Critica


id: botanical-illustration-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_illustration-7.md
category: reference
title: Botanical illustration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_illustration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:35.237685+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: botanical-illustration-20260505-0
summary:
=== 19th century === In the 19th century a number of different methods of colour printing were developed in Europe, using including chromoxylography, which became the most successful of several methods of colour printing developed in the 19th century, and chromolithography. Other methods were developed by printers such as Jacob Christoph Le Blon, George Baxter and Edmund Evans, and mostly relied on using several woodblocks with different colours. Hand-colouring also remained important. From 1801, William Say worked on steel plates rather than the usual, less durable, copper plates used since the early 16th century. However, Jean-Michel Papillon revived the art of engraving, which reached a new peak with Thomas Bewick, who engraved the woodblocks "across the grain", making them much more durable. Robert John Thornton, A new family herbal, 1810, was engraved by T. Bewick. Invented in 1796 lithography quickly became the standard. Jan Kops' first issue of Flora Batava was published in Amsterdam in 1800 (last one 1934), with most of the illustrations in the first three volumes by Georgius Jacobus Johannes van Os), a flower and fruit painter for the Sèvres porcelain factory. Charles Alexandre Lesueur took part in the Baudin expedition to Australia (1800–1803) as a draughtsman,


id: botanical-illustration-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_illustration-8.md
category: reference
title: Botanical illustration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_illustration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:35.237685+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: botanical-illustration-20260505-0
summary:
Iwasaki Tsunemasa had already started publishing Honzō Zufu (Iconographia Plantarum or Diagrams and Chronicles of Botany) a woodblock illustrated work (1828–1921). In the 1870s, Leopold Kny created a series of large, detailed botanical wall charts (Botanische Wandtafeln). These charts depicted various plant structures, including roots, flowers, and leaves, in great detail and at a large scale, making them useful for teaching botany in classrooms. Teachers could also use Robert and Reinhold Brendel's papier-mâché models (For more details, see Wikipedia in French: Modèles Brendel, or in German: Robert Brendel (Modellbauer)). Deyrolle also published wall charts (planches didactiques). After several expeditions to South and Central America, Jean Jules Linden made a detailed study of orchid growth conditions in their natural habitat. His findings revolutionised the cultivation of orchids under European conditions. Upon his return to Belgium, he became a prominent commercial orchid grower. Linden published exceptional books on orchids and their cultivation, commissioning leading botanical illustrators to create a number of chromolithographs. His Iconographie des Orchidées (17 volumes, 1885–1903) is monumental. Many of the plates in the first series and all of the plates in the second series were executed by the noted botanical illustrator Walter Hood Fitch, called by Blunt &


id: botanical-illustration-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_illustration-9.md
category: reference
title: Botanical illustration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_illustration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:35.237685+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: botanical-illustration-20260505-0
summary:
=== 20th and 21st centuries === As the 19th century ended and photography gained popularity, Photoengraving, which used halftone technology instead of traditional illustration, became the primary aesthetic of the era. The first offset press was introduced in 1907, revolutionizing image reproduction. New botanical specialties emerged and developed: Lichenology (pioneered by Erik Acharius), Phycology (William Henry Harvey), Palaeobotany (Kaspar Maria von Sternberg), and Ecology (Eugenius Warming), along with new fields like Cytogenetics. Botanical illustrators are still actively working today. Deborah Lambkin, the official illustrator of new orchids described by the RHS since 2005, was awarded the Margaret Flockton Award in 2020. American botanists Nathaniel Lord Britton and Joseph Nelson Rose, with illustrator Mary Emily Eaton, published The Cactaceae (1919–1923). The prolific Matilda Smith was active until the early 1920s. Batty Langley, Pomona, or The Fruit-garden illustrated (London, 1928). Nellie Roberts was the first and longest serving Royal Horticultural Society orchid artist, from 1897 until 1953. In 1972, the Smithsonian Institution hired its first botanical illustrator, Alice Tangerini. In the 1980s, Celia Rosser undertook to illustrate every Banksia species for the masterwork, The Banksias. When another species was described after its publication, Banksia rosserae, it was named to honour her mammoth


id: botanical-illustration-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_illustration-10.md
category: reference
title: Botanical illustration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_illustration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:35.237685+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: botanical-illustration-20260505-0
summary:
Papercutting : (Philipp Otto Runge, 1777–1810). This discipline was also practised in Ottoman Turkey (17th-18th centuries), under the name of Kaat'ı (more or less similar to quilling). Collages: (watercolor-enhanced paper collages by Mary Delany). Cut-out gouaches (Acanthus by Henri Matisse), 1953. Wall-paper and textile designers like Joseph-Laurent Malaine and the Arthur et Robert wallpaper factory, or William Morris, who paid close attention to botanical detail in his botanical patterns (Common hollyhock, 1862). Ceramics, such as those from Sèvres, often feature botanical motifs, finely observed from the 18th century onward. In 1790, Frederick VI of Denmark ordered a dinner set made decorated with exact copies of the plates of Flora Danica. Loren L. Zeller notes that Jean-Baptiste Pillement also produced several collections containing exotic floral and botanical designs. This was at a time when many women loved accessories decorated with flowers (flower holders, fans, perfume dispensers such as perfume [14]) and floral wall hangings, wallpaper, textiles and jewels were fashionable. Floral marquetry : Jan van Mekeren (Tiel 1658-1733 Amsterdam) is remembered for his cabinets covered with floral marquetry representing more than ten identifiable flowers. Cabinetmaker Jean-François Oeben was renowned for his foral marquetry decorations. Martine Lefèvre suggests that the foliage and


id: stuttgart-database-of-scientific-illustrators-1450-1950-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuttgart_Database_of_Scientific_Illustrators_1450–1950-0.md
category: reference
title: Stuttgart Database of Scientific Illustrators 1450–1950
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuttgart_Database_of_Scientific_Illustrators_1450–1950
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:37.541219+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stuttgart-database-of-scientific-illustrators-1450-1950-20260505-0
summary:
The Stuttgart Database of Scientific Illustrators 1450–1950 (abbreviated DSI) is an online repository of bibliographic data about people who illustrated published scientific works from the time of the invention of the printing press, around 1450, until 1950; the latter cut-off chosen with the intention of excluding currently-active illustrators. The database includes those who worked in a variety of fields, including anatomical, astronomical, botanical, zoological and medical illustration. The database is hosted by the University of Stuttgart. Content is displayed in English, and is free to access. As of October 2023, the database includes over 13,000 illustrators. The site is searchable by 20 fields. Suggestions for additional entries, or amendments, may be submitted by members of the public, but are subject to editorial review before inclusion. == References == === Further reading === Hentschel, Klaus (2012-10-03). "The Stuttgart Database of Scientific Illustrators 1450–1950: Making the Invisible Hands Visible" (PDF). Spontaneous Generations: A Journal for the History and Philosophy of Science. 6 (1): 182–191. doi:10.4245/sponge.v6i1.17156. Hentschel, Klaus; Himmel, Torsten (2018). "Die Stuttgarter Database of Scientific Illustrators 1450-1950 (DSI)". In Peggy Bockwinkel; Beatrice Nickel; Gabriel Viehhauser (eds.). Digital Humanities. Perspektiven der Praxis (in German). Berlin.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) ==


id: technical-illustration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_illustration-0.md
category: reference
title: Technical illustration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_illustration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:38.718156+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technical-illustration-20260505-0
summary:
Technical illustration is illustration meant to visually communicate information of a technical nature. Technical illustrations can be components of technical drawings or diagrams. Technical illustrations in general aim "to generate expressive images that effectively convey certain information via the visual channel to the human observer". Technical illustrations generally have to describe and explain the subjects to a nontechnical audience. Therefore, the visual image should be accurate in terms of dimensions and proportions, and should provide "an overall impression of what an object is or does, to enhance the viewer’s interest and understanding". == Types == === Types of communication === Today, technical illustration can be broken down into three categories based on the type of communication: Communication with the general public: informs the general public, for example illustrated instructions found in the manuals for automobiles and consumer electronics. This type of technical illustration contains simple terminology and symbols that can be understood by the lay person and is sometimes called creative technical illustration/graphics. Specialized engineering or scientific communication: used by engineers/scientists to communicate with their peers and in specifications. This use of technical illustration has its own complex terminology and specialized symbols; examples are the fields of atomic energy, aerospace


id: jeannine-ach-n-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeannine_Achón-0.md
category: reference
title: Jeannine Achón
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeannine_Achón
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:39.910539+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jeannine-ach-n-20260505-0
summary:
Jeannine Achón (born 1973) is a Cuban abstract painter. Born in Havana, after secondary studies at LaLenin school, she completed a university degree in Industrial Design from the Instituto Superior de Diseño Industrial (ISDI) of Cuba, specializing in Housing (1996). After ISDI, she worked a couple of years at Decoro d'Arq,a design company, for hotel projects, including Hotel Nacional and Capri. Then she focuses on fine arts and paintings, first figurative and illustration, in the late 1990s. She does scientific illustrations ("Mi Libro de Lagartijas" Alfonso Silva Lee, published by Editorial Gente Nueva), as well as drawings for children's books, always with the same publisher. Her painting in the late 1990s and early 2000s is still in large part figurative, but already contains the main technical basis and features for her future abstract works: structure composed of multiple layers, the use of acrylic on paper or canvas, rather colorful approaches. This is the time of sales in the art markets of Habana Vieja or Vedado, where foreign tourists and young Cuban artists meet. Jeannine had her first solo exhibition in 2005 on the Isle of Youth ("Isla de la Juventud"), at the gallery of the Hermanos Saiz Association. It bears


id: ricardo-almend-riz-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricardo_Almendáriz-0.md
category: reference
title: Ricardo Almendáriz
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricardo_Almendáriz
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:41.080228+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ricardo-almend-riz-20260505-0
summary:
Ricardo Almendáriz (fl. 1787) was a draftsman from New Spain who accompanied Antonio del Río to the first excavation of pre-Columbian Maya ruins at Palenque in Chiapas, Mexico. Undertaken in May and June 1787, the expedition was performed under orders from Charles III of Spain, to investigate reports about the ruins from the inhabitants of the neighboring pueblo of Santo Domingo de Palenque. The team spent two weeks digging at the location, followed by three weeks studying the site. Almendáriz made thirty drawings of the bas relief sculptures at the Palenque ruins. These drawings were intended to accompany del Río's written report, which was dated June 24, 1787. According to George Stuart, writing for the Kislak Foundation, the del Río report "ranks as the first substantial archaeological report known in the Americas." Almendáriz's drawings of Palenque are "remarkably accurate for the era" and depict features of Palenque that have since been destroyed from exposure. For this reason they remain scientifically useful. The Almendáriz drawings were copied for archival purposes. The most complete set of contemporary copies belongs to the library of the Royal Palace in Madrid. == Notes == == References == == External links == Coleccion de Estampas Copiadas


id: astrid-andreasen-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrid_Andreasen-0.md
category: reference
title: Astrid Andreasen
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrid_Andreasen
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:42.288482+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astrid-andreasen-20260505-0
summary:
Astrid Jóhanna Andreasen (born 31 July 1948 in Vestmanna, Faroe Islands) is a Faroese artist, illustrator and postage stamp designer. As a scientific illustrator, she specialises in marine animals. Andreasen grew up in Vestmanna, as the daughter of Andreas Andreasen (1906–1974), a teacher, and Daniella Andreasen, a housewife. Early in her career she produced illustrations for collections of her father's poetry. From 1968 to 1970 she studied at a vocational school in Kerteminde in Denmark to become a teacher of embroidery. In 1974 she studied to become an occupational therapist in Hellerup. In the 1970s she took a job as a therapist in Tórshavn hospital where she worked with mentally handicapped people, teaching them embroidery and other art forms. From 1984 to 1986, Andreasen learned illustration and weaving at the Academy of Arts in Århus, and from 1990 to 1991 she specialized in scientific illustration at the Gerlesborg School of Fine Art as well as at the Tjärnö Marine Biological Laboratory. Andreasen worked from 1999 until 2016 as a scientific illustrator at the National Museum of the Faroe Islands. She has gained international recognition through her illustrations for Postverk Føroya. As an artist she is especially known for her textile


id: ang-lique-allais-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angélique_Allais-0.md
category: reference
title: Angélique Allais
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angélique_Allais
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:43.491715+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ang-lique-allais-20260505-0
summary:
Marie-Angélique Briceau-Allais (1767–1827) was a French engraver active during the late Enlightenment and the French Revolution. Trained in her family workshop, she became known as one of the foremost crayon engravers in France of the late 18th century. Her work includes anatomical plates for Félix Vicq-d’Azyr’s Traité d’anatomie et de physiologie, as well widely circulated portraits of leading figures of the Revolution. == Early life and training == Marie-Angélique Briceau was born on 24 May 1767 in Paris, the daughter of Suzanne Porcher and the painter and engraver Pierre-Claude Briceau. She received her artistic training within her family, following a common practice among engravers of the time. The Briceau studio was situated on rue Aubri-le-Boucher, near the historic printmaking neighbourhood of rue Montorgueil. By the age of 20 Briceau-Allais was an established printmaker, and a number of sources suggest that around this time she was awarded the title peintre du roi (Painter of the King). Briceau-Allais married the engraver Louis-Jean Allais in November 1790. Together they had a large number of children, several of whom went on to pursue artistic careers. In addition to her own work, she trained a number of students, including her children Jean Alexandre Allais and


id: mauricio-ant-n-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauricio_Antón-0.md
category: reference
title: Mauricio Antón
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauricio_Antón
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:44.674985+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mauricio-ant-n-20260505-0
summary:
Mauricio Antón Ortuzar (born 1961 in Bilbao, Spain) is a Spanish paleoartist, vertebrate paleontologist, and illustrator. As a paleontologist specialising in carnivoran mammals, he has written extensively about sabertooth cats, as well as other groups like hyenas and amphicyonids. As a paleoartist and illustrator, he has created numerous illustrations of prehistoric life illustrating carnivorans as well as other animals (typically mammals), and archaic humans. Antón is one of the most widely known and influential contemporary paleoartists. == Life and career == Anton was born in Bilbao, Spain. His family moved to Venezuela in the 1970s. As a teenager in Caracas, Antón became fascinated with the skeleton of the saber-tooth cat Smilodon fatalis on exhibition at the local museum. Ever since, he has been working and improving his techniques to bring fossils alive, being especially interested in felids, hominids and other vertebrates. As he puts it in one of his books (El secreto de los fósiles) “It is the responsibility of the scientific paleo-illustrator to make sure that his images rigorously transmit the knowledge that the paleontologists have gathered from specific extinct species.” To do this he gathers data from extant species, travelling the world extensively, working hands on with fossils,


id: gabriele-dell-otto-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriele_Dell'Otto-0.md
category: reference
title: Gabriele Dell'Otto
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriele_Dell'Otto
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:45.851882+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gabriele-dell-otto-20260505-0
summary:
Gabriele Dell'Otto (born December 20, 1973) is an Italian illustrator and author whose works have been published in several countries in the fields of scientific illustration, comic books, calendars, lithographies, books, colored graphic folders, and cover work for magazines and video games. == Early life == Dell'Otto was born December 20, 1973, in Rome. He received a diploma in artistic maturity and registered in the European Design Institute. == Career == In 1998, Dell'Otto started collaborating with the European division of Marvel Comics, producing covers, posters and lithographies for Italy, France and Germany. In Germany he started collaborating with DC Comics and other publishers such as IPP, Egmont Ehapa and MG Publishing. In 2002 and 2003, the Italian Carabinieri hired him to design the images for their historical calendar. In 2002, his work was shown to Joe Quesada, the editor-in-chief of Marvel Comics, who assigned him the art duties for the Secret War mini-series, written by Brian Michael Bendis. In 2006, he illustrated the cover and promotional images of the Italian version of the Activision videogame Marvel: Ultimate Alliance. Between 2006 and 2007, Dell'Otto provided the covers of the miniseries Annihilation, which starred the space-based characters of the Marvel Universe.


id: esther-hastings-hart-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esther_Hastings_Hart-0.md
category: reference
title: Esther Hastings Hart
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esther_Hastings_Hart
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:47.029757+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: esther-hastings-hart-20260505-0
summary:
Esther Hastings Hart (22 February 1862 – 3 August 1940) was an American entomological illustrator. She worked at the Bureau of Entomology for twelve years drawing insects for publications. Hart was born in Elmira, New York, where her father Ira Hart was a well-known physician. She received an AB degree from Elmira college and spent four years to study the art of engraving at the Cooper Institute where she was a friend of Anna Botsford Comstock. She gave private lessons in art at her home in Elmira and in 1906 she worked in the Patent Office and the next year went to work with the Forest Service as a draftsman. Her expertise in illustrating insects led A. D. Hopkins to transfer her to the Bureau of Entomology in 1911. She worked on documenting forest insects and worked for 23 years, retiring in 1932. She was made a trustee of the Elmira College Alumnae Association in that year. She died after two years of illness in 1940. == References == == External links == The Bug Lady: Ms. Esther Hart


id: emma-kissling-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma_Kissling-0.md
category: reference
title: Emma Kissling
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma_Kissling
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:48.199874+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: emma-kissling-20260505-0
summary:
Emma Kissling (1862 or 1864? – 1950?) was a scientific illustrator who worked for the Prince of Monaco and completed illustrations of marine species. Her work was published in Poissons provenant des campagnes du yacht Princesse-Alice (1901-1910). == References ==


id: anka-krizmani-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anka_Krizmanić-0.md
category: reference
title: Anka Krizmanić
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anka_Krizmanić
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:49.403684+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anka-krizmani-20260505-0
summary:
Anka Krizmanić, also known as Anka Krizmanic-Paulic, (1896–1987) was a Croatian painter and printmaker, and later scientific illustrator. She was active between 1910 and 1946. == About == She attended a private painting school at Krizman School of Painting in Zagreb, where she studied under Tomislav Krizman. From 1913 to 1917, she continued her education at Kunstgewerbeschule in Dresden, Germany. Afterward, she pursued further studies in Paris from 1920 to 1930. In 1921 and 1922, she worked on creating lithographic maps of Dubrovnik, while staying in that city Her painting work had two major series, one of which was "dance" and was inspired dancers by Anna Pavlova, Grete Wiesenthal, and Gertrud Leistikow. The other series was "lovers". In 1935, she met German painter Ludwig Weninger (1904–1945) and a romance was started between them. By the beginning of World War II (c.1939), the relationship ended. In 1946, she became a scientific illustrator for the School of Medicine in Zagreb, and she lessened her time painting. == References == == External links == Anka Krizmanić on AskArt.com Anka Krizmanic on ArtNet.com


id: roberto-pace-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roberto_Pace-0.md
category: reference
title: Roberto Pace
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roberto_Pace
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:50.593832+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: roberto-pace-20260505-0
summary:
Roberto Pace (7 May 1935 – 13 February 2017) was an Italian entomologist and scientific illustrator specializing in beetles. == Biography == Roberto Pace was born in Monteforte d’Alpone to Attilio Pace and his wife Edvige, née Poli. In 1953, he graduated from the Liceo Statale Guarino Veronese in Verona, after which he worked as an elementary school teacher in Roncà. In 1968, he became a researcher at the Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Verona, where, with the support of Sandro Ruffo, Giuseppe Osella, and Adriano Zanetti, he worked on the family Staphylinidae (rove beetles). His main research interest was the subfamilies Leptotyphlinae and Aleocharinae. He focused not only on Italian species but also on those from New Caledonia, Madagascar, Africa, and Chile. By 2015, Pace had described around 6,400 species and 400 genera or subgenera, and had published more than 370 scientific papers in journals such as Memorie del Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Verona, Bollettino della Società Entomologica Italiana, Fragmenta Entomologica, Redia, and Nouvelle Revue d’Entomologie. He authored several monographs, including Monografia del genere Leptusa Kraatz (Coleoptera Staphylinidae) (1989), Coleoptera. Staphylinidae. Leptotyphlinae (1996), Insectes Coléoptères Staphylinidae Aleocharinae. Faune de Madagascar, 89 (1999), and Aleocharinae del Madagascar.


id: alex-warnick-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex_Warnick-0.md
category: reference
title: Alex Warnick
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex_Warnick
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:51.749881+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alex-warnick-20260505-0
summary:
Alex Clark Warnick (born September 1987) is an American naturalist and scientific illustrator, specializing in avifauna (birds), and a painter. She describes herself as a "natural history artist" and aims to use her artwork to foster appreciation and conservation action for the natural world, stating that she hopes her work will "introduce many others to the significance and beauty of birds so that birds can benefit the lives of people, and in turn, people can benefit the lives of birds." == Early life and education == Warnick grew up in Indiana and began painting and studying birds at a young age. She has said: "Birds have always been my mild obsession. In 5th grade, I delivered my career project on ornithology sitting in a giant nest I'd built from willow sticks. I held a pair of binoculars in my sixth grade yearbook picture." She graduated with a degree in Integrated Studio Art from Brigham Young University–Idaho. == Career == Warnick's work is characterized by the integration of scientific accuracy with an aesthetic inspired by historical natural history artists. Her signature style is defined by illustrating "all things crested, spotted, and gilded," a reference to terms found in bird nomenclature. She


id: nina-andreyeva-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nina_Andreyeva-0.md
category: reference
title: Nina Andreyeva
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nina_Andreyeva
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:53.295030+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nina-andreyeva-20260505-0
summary:
Nina Alexandrovna Andreyeva (Russian: Нина Александровна Андреева, 12 October 1938 – 24 July 2020) was a Soviet Russian chemical scientist, teacher, author, and political activist. A supporter of classical Soviet principles, she wrote an essay entitled I Cannot Forsake My Principles that defended many aspects of the traditional Soviet system, and criticized General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev and his closest supporters for not being true communists. In the rebuke published in the official party newspaper Pravda the essay was called The Manifesto of Anti-Perestroika Forces. == Career in chemistry == She was born in Leningrad (now St. Petersburg), and was a chemistry lecturer at the Leningrad Technological Institute. She joined the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) around 1966. == I Cannot Forsake My Principles == Andreyeva's essay I Cannot Forsake My Principles (Не могу поступаться принципами; variously translated in English commentary) was published in the newspaper Sovetskaya Rossiya on March 13, 1988, at a time when Gorbachev and Alexander Yakovlev were either about to start on overseas visit or already abroad, and was initiated and approved by the secretary of the Communist Party's Central Committee, Yegor Ligachev. She was contemptuous of Perestroika and defended the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin.


id: stephen-attride-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Attride-0.md
category: reference
title: Stephen Attride
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Attride
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:54.454868+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stephen-attride-20260505-0
summary:
Stephen Attride (born 1993) is a Gaelic footballer who has played for the Killeshin club and the Laois county team, serving as captain of his county for the 2017, 2018 and 2019 seasons. Attride was primarily interested in athletics from a young age, specifically middle-/long-distance running, at which he competed both nationally and internationally. However, while in his last year at school, he developed shin splints and this affected his future progress in athletics. He attended Dublin City University (DCU), where he played for the university football team. Initially playing at wing-forward, Attride developed into a corner-back. Laois manager Justin McNulty noticed his progress and invited him onto the county panel in 2013. He scored a goal against Dublin in Laois's 2016 Leinster Senior Football Championship quarter-final loss to the then All-Ireland Senior Football Championship title holders. In 2017, the then Laois manager Peter Creedon appointed Attride as captain of the team. Creedon's successor John Sugrue allowed Attride to retain the county captaincy. Sugrue led Laois to the National Football League Division 4 title in his first year. It meant that Attride became the first Laois captain since Ian Fitzgerald to raise a trophy aloft in the Hogan Stand of


id: gordon-aylward-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Aylward-0.md
category: reference
title: Gordon Aylward
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Aylward
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:55.672043+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gordon-aylward-20260505-0
summary:
Gordon Hillis Aylward is an Australian chemical author. He is known for writing the SI Chemical Data book. == Biography == Aylward graduated on 20 May 1952 with a BSc (Honours) in Applied Chemistry from the then-new University of New South Wales in Sydney, Australia. Later he received a MSc from the same university, and continued to teach Analytical Chemistry for 13 years there. During that period he organized the Approach to Chemistry summer schools, together with his co-teacher Dr Tristan Findlay. To support the course, they wrote the book SI Chemical Data as the textbook. Later Aylward joined Macquarie University as Associate Professor and worked from 1970 till his retirement in 2005 in developing countries as a Science Education consultant for UNESCO, then for the World Bank and finally as a freelance Senior Science Education Advisor. == Published works == Aylward, G. H.; T. J. V. Findlay (1965). SI Chemical Data (1st ed.). Milton, Queensland: John Wiley & Sons Australia. Now in its 6th edition. == References ==


id: andrew-balmford-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Balmford-0.md
category: reference
title: Andrew Balmford
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Balmford
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:56.873268+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: andrew-balmford-20260505-0
summary:
Andrew Balmford is a professor of conservation science at the University of Cambridge. His research focuses on planning conservation, comparing the costs and benefits of conservation and how conservation can be reconciled with other activities. == Education and career == Balmford studied for his undergraduate degree, and PhD at the University of Cambridge before becoming a research fellow at the university. He was then a research fellow at the Institute of Zoology before becoming a lecturer at Sheffield University. He returned to Cambridge in 1998 as a member of the zoology department. He was a fellow of Clare College from 2008 to 2024, and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 2011. === Research === In 1993, along with two other researchers, he investigated why the tails of birds are shaped as they are, aiming to test Charles Darwin's hypothesis that females have a preference for males with longer and more ornate tails using aerodynamic analysis. They reported that shallow forked shaped tails (such as those of the house martin) are aerodynamically optimal and that species with them had similar lengthed tails, indicating they could have developed through natural selection. In species with longer tails, males tend to


id: rachel-barrett-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachel_Barrett-0.md
category: reference
title: Rachel Barrett
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachel_Barrett
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:58.069695+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rachel-barrett-20260505-0
summary:
Rachel Barrett (12 November 1874 – 26 August 1953) was a Welsh suffragette and newspaper editor born in Carmarthen. Educated at the University College of Wales in Aberystwyth she became a science teacher, but quit her job in 1906 on hearing Nellie Martel speak of women's suffrage, joined the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) and moved to London. In 1907, she became a WSPU organiser, and after Christabel Pankhurst fled to Paris, Barrett became joint organiser of the national WSPU campaign. In 1912, despite no journalistic background, she took charge of the new newspaper The Suffragette. Barrett was arrested on occasions for activities linked to the suffrage movement and, in 1913–1914, spent some time incognito to avoid re-arrest. == Early life == Barrett was born in Carmarthen on 12 November 1874 to Rees Barrett, a land and road surveyor, and his second wife Anne Jones, both Welsh-speakers. She grew up in the town of Llandeilo with her elder brother Rees and a younger sister, Janette. By the 1881 census, her mother Anne was the lone adult living at their address on Alan Road, her father having died in 1878. Barrett was educated at Stratford Abbey School, a boarding school


id: rachel-barrett-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachel_Barrett-1.md
category: reference
title: Rachel Barrett
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rachel_Barrett
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:43:58.069695+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rachel-barrett-20260505-0
summary:
Over the next two years, Barrett was a key figure in keeping the newspaper in print despite the Home Secretary's efforts to suppress it. In April 1913, the offices of The Suffragette were raided by the police and Barrett, Beatrice Sanders, Agnes Lake, Harriet Kerr and Flora Drummond were arrested on charges of conspiring to damage property. Barrett was sentenced to nine months' imprisonment at Holloway. She immediately went on hunger strike, was transferred to Canterbury Prison, and after five days she was released under the "Cat and Mouse Act". She moved into "Mouse Castle", 2 Campden Hill Square, home of the Brackenbury family who were sympathetic suffragists. After three weeks at the house, Barrett emerged and was rearrested. She went back on hunger strike and after four days was again released to "Mouse Castle". This time, she was smuggled out of the house in disguise to allow her to speak at meetings, before being rearrested for a second time and was looked after by her friend I. A. R. Wylie at St John's Wood, known as the "Mouse Hole" and for the third time, Barrett was released after a hunger strike, but this time, she successfully eluded the authorities


id: as-m-orhan-barut-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asım_Orhan_Barut-0.md
category: reference
title: Asım Orhan Barut
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asım_Orhan_Barut
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:14.192545+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: as-m-orhan-barut-20260505-0
summary:
Asım Orhan Barut (June 6, 1926 – December 5, 1994) was a Turkish-American theoretical physicist. == Education == He received both his undergraduate diploma and his Ph.D. degree from the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich in 1949 and 1952, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at the University of Chicago during 1953–1954. == Academic life == Barut was an assistant professor at Reed College during 1954-55 and then joined the faculty at Syracuse University in 1956. He became a professor of physics at the University of Colorado at Boulder in 1962 and served for 32 years. == Research areas == His research interests centered on group theoretic methods in physics. His books include Theory of the Scattering Matrix, Electrodynamics and Classical Theory of Fields and Particles and Representations of Noncompact Groups and Applications. Asım Orhan Barut was elected a fellow of the American Physical Society in 1966. == Publications == === Books === Theory of group representations and applications, (2nd edition) Barut, Asim O.; Raczka, Ryszard, 1980, ISBN 83-01-02716-9, Polish Science Publishers, Varsovie. Quantum Systems, Barut, Asim O.; Feranchuk, I. D.; Shnir, Yu M., 1995, ISBN 9810220995, World Scientific Publishing Company, Incorporated. Polarization Dynamics in Nuclear & Particle


id: peter-becker-biologist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Becker_(biologist)-0.md
category: reference
title: Peter Becker (biologist)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Becker_(biologist)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:15.325211+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: peter-becker-biologist-20260505-0
summary:
Peter Burkhard Becker is a German molecular biologist. He studied biology at Heidelberg University until 1984 and finished his Ph.D. at the German Cancer Research Center and Heidelberg University in 1987. After being employed at the European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL) from 1991 until 1999, he became head of the Adolf Butenandt Institute for molecular biology at LMU Munich. In 2000, he was elected as a member of EMBO. In 2005, he received the Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, which is the highest honour awarded in German research. In 2007, he became a member of the German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina. He became chair of EMBL Council, the governing body of EMBL, in 2023, having served as a delegate since 2016. == References == == External links == Summary biography at the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (in German)


id: carlo-beenakker-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlo_Beenakker-0.md
category: reference
title: Carlo Beenakker
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlo_Beenakker
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:16.490566+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carlo-beenakker-20260505-0
summary:
Carlo Willem Joannes Beenakker (born 9 June 1960) is a professor at Leiden University and leader of the university's mesoscopic physics group, established in 1992. == Education and career == Born in Leiden as the son of physicists Jan Beenakker and Elena Manaresi, Beenakker graduated from Leiden University in 1982 and obtained his doctorate two years later. After the awarding of his doctorate, he then spent one year working in the United States of America as a fellow of the Niels Stensen Foundation before returning to the Netherlands as a member of the scientific staff of the Philips Research Laboratories in Eindhoven. He joined the Lorentz Institute for theoretical physics at Leiden University in 1991. == Work == His work in mesoscopic physics addresses fundamental physical problems that occur when a macroscopic object is miniaturized to dimensions on the nanoscale. Quantum mechanical effects then play a decisive role, as demonstrated in the quantum point contact (a narrow constriction with a quantized conductance). To understand the universal quantum mechanical properties of mesoscopic systems, Beenakker adapted methods from the theory of random matrices, originally developed in the context of nuclear physics. Discoveries by Beenakker and colleagues include the one-third suppression of shot


id: lawrence-beesley-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Beesley-0.md
category: reference
title: Lawrence Beesley
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence_Beesley
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:17.739756+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lawrence-beesley-20260505-0
summary:
Lawrence Beesley (31 December 1877 – 14 February 1967) was an English science teacher, journalist and author who was a survivor of the sinking of RMS Titanic. == Education == Beesley was educated at Derby School, where he was a scholar, and afterwards at Caius College, Cambridge, again as a scholar. He took a First Class degree in the Natural Science tripos in 1903. == Career == Beginning as a schoolmaster at Wirksworth Grammar School in Derbyshire, he moved to Dulwich College in south London, where he was a science master. In 1957 he was still teaching as Principal of the Northwood School of Coaching, Northwood, Middlesex. == RMS Titanic == A second class passenger, Beesley is one of the survivors of the sinking of Titanic in April 1912. He wrote a successful book about his experience, The Loss of the SS Titanic (June 1912), published just nine weeks after the disaster. Lifeboat No.13 was being launched on the Boat Deck, no women or children were in immediate sight, but it seemed there was room for more. As a result, Beesley was instructed to jump into the lifeboat just before it launched. He managed to survive a subsequent incident where


id: theodor-ludwig-wilhelm-von-bischoff-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Ludwig_Wilhelm_von_Bischoff-0.md
category: reference
title: Theodor Ludwig Wilhelm von Bischoff
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Ludwig_Wilhelm_von_Bischoff
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:18.902155+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theodor-ludwig-wilhelm-von-bischoff-20260505-0
summary:
Theodor Ludwig Wilhelm von Bischoff (28 October 1807 in Hannover – 5 December 1882 in Munich) was a German physician and biologist. == Biography == He lectured on pathological anatomy at Heidelberg (1835-1843) and held professorships in anatomy and physiology at Giessen (1843-1855) and Munich, where he was appointed to the chair of anatomy and physiology in 1854. In 1843, Theodor von Bischoff was elected as member of the German Academy of Sciences. His most important contributions were made in embryology with a series of four exhaustive memoirs on the development of the mammalian ovum; published in 1842 (rabbit), 1845 (dog), 1852 (guinea pig), and 1854 (roe deer). His studies concerning animal metabolism by measuring urea were less successful, as was his research on the anatomy of skull and brain. He was elected a foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1878. == Selected works == Beiträge zur Lehre von den Eyhüllen des menschlichen Fötus, 1834 – Contributions to the study of the human fetus. Entwickelungsgeschichte der Säugethiere und des Menschen, 1842 – Developmental history of mammals and man. Entwicklungsgeschichte des kaninchen-eies, 1842 – Developmental history of the rabbit ovum. Entwicklungsgeschichte des hunde-eies, 1845 –


id: christian-bohr-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Bohr-0.md
category: reference
title: Christian Bohr
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Bohr
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:20.084098+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: christian-bohr-20260505-0
summary:
Christian Harald Lauritz Peter Emil Bohr (14 February 1855 - 3 February 1911) was a Danish physician, father of the physicist and Nobel laureate Niels Bohr, as well as the mathematician and football player Harald Bohr and grandfather of another physicist and Nobel laureate Aage Bohr. He married Ellen Adler in 1881. == Personal life == He wrote his first scientific paper, "Om salicylsyrens indflydelse på kødfordøjelsen" ("On salicylic acid's influence on the digestion of meat"), at the age of 22. He received his medical degree in 1880, studied under Carl Ludwig at University of Leipzig, took a Ph.D. in physiology and was appointed professor of physiology at the University of Copenhagen in 1886. Christian Bohr is buried in the Assistens Kirkegård. == Physiology == In 1891, he was the first to characterize dead space. In 1904, Christian Bohr described the phenomenon, now called the Bohr effect, whereby hydrogen ions and carbon dioxide heterotopically decrease hemoglobin's oxygen-binding affinity. This regulation increases the efficiency of oxygen release by hemoglobin in tissues, like active muscle tissue, where rapid metabolization has produced relatively high concentrations of hydrogen ions and carbon dioxide. == References == == Sources == Fredericia, L.S. (1932) Christian Bohr, pp.


id: lorenz-cederbaum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorenz_Cederbaum-0.md
category: reference
title: Lorenz Cederbaum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorenz_Cederbaum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:21.280290+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lorenz-cederbaum-20260505-0
summary:
Lorenz S. Cederbaum (born 26 October 1946 in Braunschweig, Germany) is a German physical chemist. He studied physics at the University of Munich and obtained his diplome in 1970, his Ph.D. in 1972 under Georg Hohlneicher, and habilitation in 1976. He was professor at the University of Freiburg before becoming professor for theoretical chemistry at the University of Heidelberg in 1979. Cederbaum is member of the International Academy of Quantum Molecular Science and the Academy of Sciences Leopoldina. == Research areas == Calculation of electronic states and transitions using many-particle methods (computational chemistry) Spectroscopy and radiationless relaxation of polyatomic molecules Electron-molecule scattering, photoionization and Auger decay Wave packet dynamics (the multi-configuration time-dependent Hartree method). Chaos and statistics Structure and dynamics of quasi-one-dimensional systems Stable multiply charged anions of isolated small molecules and clusters Fundamental aspects, electronic structure and dynamics of atoms and molecules in strong magnetic fields Bose-Einstein Condensation Interatomic/Intermolecular Coulombic Decay (ICD) == External links == University of Heidelberg Biography (German) IAQMS: Lorenz S. Cederbaum


id: charles-clarke-botanist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Clarke_(botanist)-0.md
category: reference
title: Charles Clarke (botanist)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Clarke_(botanist)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:22.435787+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: charles-clarke-botanist-20260505-0
summary:
Dr. Charles M. Clarke (born in Melbourne, Australia) is an ecologist and botanist specialising in the carnivorous plant genus Nepenthes, for which he is regarded as a world authority. Clarke has an honours degree in Botany from Monash University in Melbourne, and a Ph.D. in Ecosystem management at the University of New England, in Armidale, New South Wales. Clarke first travelled to Borneo in search of pitcher plants in 1987. In 1989 and 1990 he lived in Brunei, studying the ecology of Nepenthes. In between travels, Clarke has taught Ecology and Biometrics at James Cook University in Queensland, and worked as a horticultural consultant in Hong Kong. He now works at the Cairns Botanic Garden. Clarke has written five books and guides on Nepenthes, which present a synthesis of the research performed on his travels around the Malay Archipelago. The most significant of these works are the monographs Nepenthes of Borneo (1997) and Nepenthes of Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia (2001). Clarke has described six species of Nepenthes: N. baramensis (now known as N. hemsleyana), N. benstonei, N. chaniana, N. izumiae, N. jacquelineae, and N. tenax. == Publications == Clarke, C., Schlauer, J., Moran, J. & Robinson, A.S., 2018. Systematics and


id: stephen-cluxton-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Cluxton-0.md
category: reference
title: Stephen Cluxton
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Cluxton
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:23.725940+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stephen-cluxton-20260505-0
summary:
Stephen Cluxton (born 17 December 1981) is an Irish Gaelic footballer who plays as a goalkeeper at senior level for the Dublin county team. Cluxton made his senior debut for Dublin during the 2001 Championship. Since then he has established himself as Dublin's first-choice goalkeeper. Along with Mick Fitzsimons and James McCarthy, Cluxton holds the record of most All-Ireland Senior Football Championship medals, with nine medals, beginning with wins in 2011 and 2013, and including six championships in a row from 2015 to 2020. Cluxton is the only player in the history of the game to captain a team to seven championship titles. He has also won a record 18 Leinster medals, five National Football League medals and six All Stars. == Early life == Born in Coolock, Cluxton was raised in a house that had a strong association with association football. His father, Pat, won a lot of medals with Postal Celtic, while Cluxton himself played with St David's Primary School and Tolka Rovers. == Playing career == === College === Cluxton first played competitive Gaelic football with St David's CBS in Artane. He initially played association football at school and was reluctant to play Gaelic football as he


id: stephen-cluxton-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Cluxton-1.md
category: reference
title: Stephen Cluxton
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Cluxton
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:23.725940+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stephen-cluxton-20260505-0
summary:
Dublin surrendered their title to Meath in 2010 in a game which saw Cluxton concede five goals; however, he won a seventh Leinster Championship medal the following year after a 2–12 to 1–12 defeat of Wexford in the final. On 18 September 2011, Cluxton lined out in goal against Kerry in his first All-Ireland SFC final. In the 72nd minute of the game, and with the sides level, he scored a free kick to secure a 1–12 to 1–11 victory and a first All-Ireland SFC title for Dublin in 16 years. Shortly after the final whistle, Cluxton was presented with the match ball by Tomás Ó Sé; however, in keeping with his intensely private persona, he avoided the post-match celebrations and retreated to the dressing room. Dublin teammate Paul Flynn paid tribute afterwards: "He [Cluxton] is out training an hour before everybody else and he kicks them over with his eyes closed. I didn't even look at the kick. I looked at him and he just kicked it and ran back. He is a phenomenal man, I am delighted for him." Cluxton ended the season by winning a fourth All Star Award, as well as being nominated for Footballer of


id: stephen-cluxton-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Cluxton-2.md
category: reference
title: Stephen Cluxton
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Cluxton
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:23.725940+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stephen-cluxton-20260505-0
summary:
===== 2021–2023 ===== Cluxton was missing from the Dublin panel in both the 2021 League and Championship campaigns as Dublin shared the Allianz Division 1 Football League title with Kerry, and lost their first Championship match since 2014 against Mayo in the 2021 All-Ireland SFC semi-final, ending their quest for 7 consecutive All-Ireland SFC titles, and bringing the most successful and continuously dominant period in the history of Gaelic football to an end. His absence was a discussion point in the media throughout the year, with some speculation as to whether no announcement was in-keeping with Cluxton's low profile personality, or whether the departure was more acrimonious in nature. On 8 January 2022, in the aftermath of Dublin's O'Byrne Cup victory over Offaly, Dublin manager Dessie Farrell announced that Cluxton would not be returning to the Dublin fold for the coming league and championship, seemingly all but confirming Cluxton's retirement. However, despite his absence the previous two years, Cluxton was named as a substitute in Dublin's Round 7 Division 2 match against Louth in March 2023. This return came as a major surprise due to speculation of a falling out between Cluxton and Dublin manager Dessie Farrell. On 30 July


id: patrick-cramer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Cramer-0.md
category: reference
title: Patrick Cramer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Cramer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:24.940888+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patrick-cramer-20260505-0
summary:
Patrick Cramer (born 3 February 1969) is a German chemist, structural biologist, and molecular systems biologist. In 2020, he was elected an international member of the National Academy of Sciences. He became president of the Max Planck Society in June 2023. == Early life and education == Cramer studied chemistry at the University of Stuttgart and Heidelberg University (Germany) from 1989 until 1995. He completed a part of his studies as ERASMUS scholar at the University of Bristol in the UK. As a research student, he also worked in the lab of Sir Alan Fersht in Cambridge, UK at the MRC Laboratory for Molecular Biology (LMB) site. In 1995 until 1998 he worked as a PhD student in laboratory of Christoph W. Müller at the European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL) in Grenoble, France. He obtained his PhD in natural sciences (Dr. rer. nat.) from Heidelberg University in 1998. == Career in research == === Stanford University, 1999–2001 === From 1999 until 2001 Cramer worked as postdoctoral researcher and fellow of the German Research Foundation (DFG) in the laboratory of the later Nobel Prize laureate Roger D. Kornberg at Stanford University, USA. === LMU Munich, 2001–2013 === In 2001, Cramer returned


id: patrick-cramer-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Cramer-1.md
category: reference
title: Patrick Cramer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Cramer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:24.940888+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patrick-cramer-20260505-0
summary:
=== Original research articles (selection) === Schwalb, Björn; Michel, Margaux; Zacher, Benedikt; Frühauf, Katja; Demel, Carina; Tresch, Achim; Gagneur, Julien; Cramer, Patrick (3 June 2016). "TT-seq maps the human transient transcriptome". Science. 352 (6290): 1225–1228. Bibcode:2016Sci...352.1225S. doi:10.1126/science.aad9841. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 27257258. S2CID 8549873. Plaschka, C.; Hantsche, M.; Dienemann, C.; Burzinski, C.; Plitzko, J.; Cramer, P. (2016). "Transcription initiation complex structures elucidate DNA opening". Nature. 533 (7603): 353–358. Bibcode:2016Natur.533..353P. doi:10.1038/nature17990. hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-002A-6CC4-0. PMID 27193681. S2CID 4465762. Bernecky, Carrie; Herzog, Franz; Baumeister, Wolfgang; Plitzko, Jürgen M.; Cramer, Patrick (2016). "Structure of transcribing mammalian RNA polymerase II". Nature. 529 (7587): 551–554. Bibcode:2016Natur.529..551B. doi:10.1038/nature16482. hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0029-7D45-3. PMID 26789250. S2CID 4404463. Plaschka, C.; Larivière, L.; Wenzeck, L.; Seizl, M.; Hemann, M.; Tegunov, D.; Petrotchenko, E. V.; Borchers, C. H.; Baumeister, W. (2015). "Architecture of the RNA polymerase II–Mediator core initiation complex". Nature. 518 (7539): 376–380. Bibcode:2015Natur.518..376P. doi:10.1038/nature14229. hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0024-CED0-5. PMID 25652824. S2CID 4450934. Schulz, Daniel; Schwalb, Bjoern; Kiesel, Anja; Baejen, Carlo; Torkler, Phillipp; Gagneur, Julien; Soeding, Johannes; Cramer, Patrick (21 November 2013). "Transcriptome surveillance by selective termination of noncoding RNA synthesis". Cell. 155 (5): 1075–1087. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2013.10.024. hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0015-39ED-1. ISSN 1097-4172. PMID 24210918. Kostrewa, Dirk; Zeller, Mirijam E.; Armache, Karim-Jean; Seizl, Martin; Leike, Kristin; Thomm, Michael; Cramer, Patrick (2009). "RNA


id: john-darwin-disappearance-case-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Darwin_disappearance_case-0.md
category: reference
title: John Darwin disappearance case
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Darwin_disappearance_case
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:26.175660+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: john-darwin-disappearance-case-20260505-0
summary:
The John Darwin disappearance case involved the faked death of the British former teacher and prison officer John Darwin. Darwin turned up alive in December 2007, five and a half years after he was believed to have died in a canoeing accident. Darwin was arrested and charged with fraud. His wife, Anne, was also arrested and charged for helping Darwin to collect his life insurance of £250,000 (equivalent to about £460,000 in 2025). The fraudulent claim had allowed the couple to pay off their £130,000 (equivalent to about £240,000 in 2025) mortgage. In December 2007, after it was revealed the couple had been photographed together in Panama a year earlier, Anne confessed to knowing Darwin was alive and revealed that he had been secretly living in their house and the house next door, which allowed him to receive the insurance money for his own use. On 23 July 2008, John and Anne Darwin were each sentenced to more than six years in prison. == Background == John Darwin was born in 1950 or 1951. He attended St Francis Xavier's Grammar School, Hartlepool and De La Salle College, Salford, where he studied biology and chemistry. On 22 December 1973, Darwin married


id: john-darwin-disappearance-case-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Darwin_disappearance_case-1.md
category: reference
title: John Darwin disappearance case
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Darwin_disappearance_case
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:26.175660+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: john-darwin-disappearance-case-20260505-0
summary:
== Return and arrest == Following a change in Panama's visa laws, Darwin emailed Anne on 14 June 2007 to notify her that their identities would have to be verified by UK police in order for them to receive now-required Panamanian "investors' visas". Knowing that his "John Jones" alias would not pass this level of scrutiny, Darwin decided to return to the UK under his real name and fake amnesia. On 1 December 2007, Darwin walked into the West End Central police station in London, claiming to have no memory of the past five years. Anne expressed surprise, joy and elation at the return of her missing husband. The UK police by that time had already suspected that Darwin might not have been dead since Anne, despite portraying herself as a broken-hearted widow, took foreign holidays, planned to sell the family home in Hartlepool to move to Panama and transferred large sums of money abroad. A police financial investigation had already begun three months prior to Darwin's reappearance, following a tip from one of Anne's colleagues connecting her claim on her husband's life insurance and her subsequent emigration to Panama. The Darwins' cover story unravelled after the Daily Mirror published


id: john-darwin-disappearance-case-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Darwin_disappearance_case-2.md
category: reference
title: John Darwin disappearance case
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Darwin_disappearance_case
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:26.175660+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: john-darwin-disappearance-case-20260505-0
summary:
== In popular culture == The story of John and Anne Darwin was dramatised in the BBC Four programme Canoe Man in 2010. The film starred Bernard Hill and Saskia Reeves as John and Anne Darwin, respectively. In fiction, it inspired a 2009 novel by Adrian Gere called Return from the Dead, and a 2010 storyline in the ITV soap opera Coronation Street saw the character Joe McIntyre (Reece Dinsdale) attempt the same thing but ultimately drown for real. It was also used as an inspiration for the return of the supposedly dead Kathy Beale in the BBC soap opera EastEnders. In October 2021, Wondery released a podcast exploring the disappearance of John Darwin as part of their British Scandal series. The Thief, His Wife and the Canoe, a dramatisation written by Chris Lang without any cooperation from the Darwin family, and with Eddie Marsan and Monica Dolan in the title roles, was shown on ITV in April 2022. In September 2023, he was mentioned on the show Saving Lives at Sea that airs on BBC iPlayer as they talked with members of the Hartlepool lifeboat station. The 2026 BBC sitcom Can You Keep a Secret? is loosely based on


id: edmund-davy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Davy-0.md
category: reference
title: Edmund Davy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Davy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:27.314025+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: edmund-davy-20260505-0
summary:
Edmund Davy FRS (1785 – 5 November 1857) was a professor of chemistry at the Royal Cork Institution from 1813 and at the Royal Dublin Society from 1826. He discovered acetylene, as it was later named by Marcellin Berthelot. He was also an original member of the Chemical Society, and a member of the Royal Irish Academy. == Family and early life == Edmund Davy was a cousin of Humphry Davy, the famous chemist who invented the Davy lamp for the safety of miners. Edmund, the son of William Davy, was born in Penzance, Cornwall, and lived there throughout his teen years. He moved to London in 1804 to spend eight years as operator and assistant to Humphry Davy in the Royal Institution laboratory, which he kept in order. For a large part of that time, Edmund was also superintendent of the Royal Society's mineralogical collection. When, in October 1807, Humphry accomplished the electrolytic preparation of potassium and saw the minute globules of the quicksilver-like metal burst through the crust and take fire, Edmund described that his cousin was so delighted with this achievement that he danced about the room in ecstasy. Humphry Davy's younger brother, Dr. John Davy, (24


id: ewine-van-dishoeck-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ewine_van_Dishoeck-0.md
category: reference
title: Ewine van Dishoeck
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ewine_van_Dishoeck
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:28.502936+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ewine-van-dishoeck-20260505-0
summary:
Ewine Fleur van Dishoeck (born 13 June 1955) is a Dutch astronomer and chemist. She is Professor of Molecular Astrophysics at Leiden Observatory, and served as the President of the International Astronomical Union (2018–2021) and a co-editor of the Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics (2012–present). She is one of the pioneers of astrochemistry, and her research is aimed at determination of the structure of cosmic objects using their molecular spectra. == Early life == Ewine Fleur van Dishoeck was born on June 13, 1955, in Leiden, Netherlands. With her father being a professor of ear, nose, and throat medicine, her love of science was inspired at the young age of 12. During this time, her father was invited to spend six months in San Diego, CA. Her first science class ever was through the San Diego Public School system. She fondly remembers that her science teacher, a female and African-American in the 1960s, was forced to overcome many obstacles to reach the position she is at now. Her upbringing inspired Van Dishoeck to gain an interest in science and have the desire to do great things in the world of chemistry. When she went back to the Netherlands, she


id: erin-dolan-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erin_Dolan-0.md
category: reference
title: Erin Dolan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erin_Dolan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:29.777130+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: erin-dolan-20260505-0
summary:
Erin Dolan is the Georgia Athletic Association Professor of Innovative Science Education at the University of Georgia. Dolan is a biochemist known for her research on engaging students in science research. == Education and career == Dolan has a B.A. in biology from Wellesley College (1993) where she did an honors thesis on SCPb, a neurotransmitter in the American lobster. She earned a Ph.D. in neuroscience from the University of California, San Francisco where she worked on developmental plasticity in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Following her Ph.D., she worked at the University of Arizona for two years before moving to Virginia Tech in 2002. In 2011, Dolan moved to the University of Georgia where she was named the Georgia Athletic Association Professor of Innovative Science Education in 2016. From 2014 until 2016 she was the executive director of the Texas Institute for Discovery Education in Science at the University of Texas at Austin. In 2010 Dolan was named Editor-in-chief of the journal CBE: Life Sciences Education. == Research == As a neuroscientist, Dolan worked on sensory signalling, gene expression, and nerve development in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Following her graduate work, Dolan started researching science education where she focuses on


id: paul-ehrenfest-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Ehrenfest-0.md
category: reference
title: Paul Ehrenfest
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Ehrenfest
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:30.949944+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: paul-ehrenfest-20260505-0
summary:
Paul Ehrenfest (German: [ˈpaʊl ˈeːʁənˌfɛst]; 18 January 1880 – 25 September 1933) was an Austrian theoretical physicist who made major contributions to statistical mechanics and its relation to quantum mechanics, including the theory of phase transition and the Ehrenfest theorem. He befriended Albert Einstein on a visit to Prague in 1912 and became a professor in Leiden, where he frequently hosted Einstein. Suffering from depression, in 1933 Ehrenfest killed his disabled son, Wassik, and then himself. == Biography == Paul Ehrenfest was born on 18 January 1880 in Vienna to Jewish parents, who were originally from Loštice in Moravia (now part of the Czech Republic). His parents, Sigmund Ehrenfest and Johanna Jellinek, managed a grocery store. Ehrenfest excelled in grade school but did not do well at the Akademisches Gymnasium, his best subject being mathematics. After transferring to the Franz Josef Gymnasium, his marks improved. In 1899, he passed the final exams. He majored in chemistry at the Vienna Institute of Technology, but took courses at the University of Vienna, in particular from Ludwig Boltzmann on his kinetic theory of thermodynamics. These lectures had a profound influence: they were instrumental in developing Ehrenfest's interest in theoretical physics, defined his main


id: paul-ehrenfest-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Ehrenfest-1.md
category: reference
title: Paul Ehrenfest
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Ehrenfest
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:30.949944+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: paul-ehrenfest-20260505-0
summary:
If Ehrenfest felt there was little more he could teach a student, he would send them to other centers in Europe for more training. He would also encourage students to accept positions abroad. Among his students were Johannes Burgers, Hendrik Kramers, Dirk Coster, George Uhlenbeck and Samuel Goudsmit, who became famous for jointly proposing the concept of electron spin, Jan Tinbergen, Arend Rutgers, Hendrik Casimir, Gerhard Dieke, Dirk Struik, and Gerard Kuiper. His assistants included Yuri Krutkov, Viktor Trkal, Adriaan Fokker, Paul Epstein, and Gregory Breit. Other young foreign scientists who spent extended periods in his laboratory included Gunnar Nordström, Enrico Fermi, Igor Tamm, Oskar Klein, J. Robert Oppenheimer, Walter Elsasser, Ralph Kronig, Werner Heisenberg, Paul Dirac, and David Dennison. Ehrenfest had ambivalent opinions about science, technological progress, and cultural and social issues. In 1919, he became a member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. === Final years === Going by his correspondence with his friends, it seems that Ehrenfest suffered from severe depression at latest by May 1931. By August 1932, Einstein was so worried that he wrote to the Board of the University of Leiden, expressing concern and suggesting ways in which Ehrenfest's workload could


id: james-cossar-ewart-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Cossar_Ewart-0.md
category: reference
title: James Cossar Ewart
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Cossar_Ewart
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:32.122537+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: james-cossar-ewart-20260505-0
summary:
James Cossar Ewart FRS FRSE (26 November 1851 – 31 December 1933) was a Scottish zoologist. He performed breeding experiments with horses and zebras which disproved earlier theories of heredity. == Life == Ewart was born in Penicuik, Midlothian, Scotland, the son of Jean Cossar and John Ewart, a joiner. He studied medicine from 1871 to 1874 at the University of Edinburgh where he graduated with an MB ChB. After graduation, he became an anatomy demonstrator under William Turner and then held the position of Curator of the Zoological Museum at University College, London, where he assisted Ray Lankester (later director of the Natural History Museum) by making zoological preparations for the museum and providing teaching support for Lankester's course in practical zoology. In 1878 he returned to Scotland to take a post of Regius Professor of Natural History at the University of Aberdeen from where he moved to the University of Edinburgh in 1882, staying in the post until 1927. In Aberdeen he encountered James Duncan Matthews, a mature student (older than himself) and they became friends until Matthew's premature death in 1890. In 1879 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. His proposers were


id: alexander-ferrauti-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Ferrauti-0.md
category: reference
title: Alexander Ferrauti
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Ferrauti
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:33.307351+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alexander-ferrauti-20260505-0
summary:
Alexander Ferrauti is a German sport scientist, university professor and past president of the European College of Sport Science (ECSS). == Education == Ferrauti graduated in Sport Science and Biology at the German Sport University Cologne and at the University of Cologne. He completed his PhD in 1992 and completed his Post-Doc Thesis in 1997 on "Energy metabolism in tennis with practical recommendations for high-performance and recreational sports." == Career == Since 2002, Ferrauti is a full Professor for Sports Science at Ruhr University Bochum teaching Training & Exercise Science and will be Emeritus from 2026. His research topics are related to physiological aspects in team and racket sports, performance testing training prescription and sports nutrition for different age groups on recreational and competitive level. He is editor of several textbooks. Ferrauti served as Faculty Dean from 2013 to 2017 and was a member of the Senate at Ruhr University Bochum. He was Scientific Consultant for the German Tennis Federation and holds an A-level Coaching license. After being Congress President of the 22nd Annual Congress of the European College of Sport Science (ECCS) in 2017, he was elected to the ECSS Executive Board (2019) and was ECSS President (2023-2025) and


id: thomas-fincke-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Fincke-0.md
category: reference
title: Thomas Fincke
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Fincke
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:34.460955+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: thomas-fincke-20260505-0
summary:
Thomas Fincke (6 January 1561 – 24 April 1656) was a Danish mathematician and physicist, and a professor at the University of Copenhagen for more than 60 years. == Biography == Thomas Jacobsen Fincke was born in Flensburg in Schleswig. Fincke was the son of Councillor Jacob Fincke and Anna Thorsmede. He completed his primary schooling at Flensburg. From 1577, he studied mathematics, rhetoric and other philosophical studies for five years at the University of Strasbourg. Fincke's lasting achievement is found in his book Geometria rotundi (1583), in which he introduced the modern names of the trigonometric functions tangent and secant. In 1590, he became professor of mathematics at the University of Copenhagen. In 1603 he also obtained a professorship in medicine. == Personal life == He was married to Ivaria Jungesdatter Ivers (1574–1614). His son Jacob Fincke (1592–1663) was a professor of physics. His daughters married scientist Caspar Bartholin the Elder (1585–1629), botanist Jørgen Fuiren (1581–1628), historian Ole Worm (1588–1654) and theologian Hans Brochmand (1594–1630). Fincke died at Copenhagen and was buried at Vor Frue Kirke. == References == == External links == O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Thomas Fincke", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St


id: alfred-mathieu-giard-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Mathieu_Giard-0.md
category: reference
title: Alfred Mathieu Giard
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Mathieu_Giard
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:35.627623+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alfred-mathieu-giard-20260505-0
summary:
Alfred Mathieu Giard (8 August 1846 – 8 August 1908) was a French zoologist born in Valenciennes. He served as a professor of zoology at the Faculty of Sciences in Lille. He specialized in parasitology, and the genus Giardia was named after him by Johann Künstler in 1882. == Biography == Giard was born in Valenciennes to grocer Alfred François Émile and Jeanne Henriette Mortamais. At an early age he became interested in plants and insects. In 1867, he began his studies of natural sciences at the École Normale Supérieure, followed by work as préparateur de zoologie at the laboratory of Henri de Lacaze-Duthiers (1821–1901) in Paris and later the teratologist Gabriel Dareste de la Chavanne. In 1872, he defended his doctoral thesis with a study on compound ascidians titled "Recherches sur les ascidies composées ou synascidies". From 1873 to 1882, he was professeur suppléant of natural history at the faculty of sciences in Lille, and in the meantime, was also affiliated with the Institut industriel du Nord. In 1874, he founded a biological station at Wimereux in order to familiarize his students to marine and terrestrial organisms. At Lille, he is credited for putting together an active school of


id: heinz-gollwitzer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinz_Gollwitzer-0.md
category: reference
title: Heinz Gollwitzer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinz_Gollwitzer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:36.772078+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: heinz-gollwitzer-20260505-0
summary:
Heinz Gollwitzer (30 January 1917 – 26 December 1999) was a German historian. He held the chair of Modern Political and Social History at the University of Münster. == Life == Gollwitzer was born in Nuremberg and grew up in Munich. After being severely wounded in World War II he took up his studies (history and German literature) at the University of Munich, earning his Ph.D. in 1944. He earned his qualification to teach as a professor in 1950 with a thesis called “The Image of Europe and the European Thought – Contributions to the German History of Ideas”. He subsequently taught at universities in Munich and Münster until retiring in 1982. He died in Munich. == Scientific focus == Gollwitzer's books mostly deal with the history of mentalities and political ideas, as well as with German regional history and biography. Due to the preponderance of structural history in the German scientific community during the post war age, his impact on colleagues and students was rather small. This outsider position was to change from the beginning of the early Nineties, when historians became more and more sensible to universal history as well as to the relevance of personality in history,


id: els-goulmy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Els_Goulmy-0.md
category: reference
title: Els Goulmy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Els_Goulmy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:37.957196+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: els-goulmy-20260505-0
summary:
Els Goulmy (born 27 November 1946, The Hague) is an eminent professor of transplantation biology, especially regarding minor histocompatibility antigen, at Leiden University. Goulmy is an expert in the area of tissue typing and belongs internationally to the absolute top of her discipline. She was awarded the Spinoza Prize in 2002. == Research == Goulmy did groundbreaking research on the role of antigens in organ and stem cell transplantation. She is the pioneer of the so-called Minor Transplantation Antigens in men. Minor antigens can induce strong immune reactions. She discovered the H-Y minor antigen encoded by the Y-chromosome (1976) and the autosomally encoded HA-1 antigen (1983). She then described the polymorphism and the population frequencies of several autosomal minor antigens. Crucial was her work on the differential expression of minor antigens showing either overall expression on all body cells, such as the male specific H-Y antigens, or restricted expression on solely blood and blood cancer cells, such as HA-1. Goulmy was the first to describe the chemical structure of the human minor antigens (1995). In 1996 she demonstrated the crucial role of minor antigens in the outcome of organ and stem cell transplantation. In 1997 she launched new concepts for


id: malcolm-grimston-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malcolm_Grimston-0.md
category: reference
title: Malcolm Grimston
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malcolm_Grimston
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:39.145221+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: malcolm-grimston-20260505-0
summary:
Malcolm Charles Grimston (born 1 May 1958) is a British advocate of nuclear power, and is also a scientific author, based at the Centre for Energy Policy and Technology at Imperial College London. == Early life == Grimston was born in Cleethorpes, now in North East Lincolnshire, then in Lindsey. He grew up in North Yorkshire, attending the independent Scarborough College. He studied natural sciences at Magdalene College, Cambridge, where he graduated in 1979. He subsequently took a Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE), again at Magdalene Cambridge. == Career == Grimston taught chemistry for seven years from 1980, at Stowe and Millfield schools. From 1987-92 he was an information officer at the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority (UKAEA). From 1992-95 he was an information officer at the British Nuclear Industry Forum (now called the Nuclear Industry Association). In 1995 Grimston joined Imperial College as a senior research fellow. In 1999 Grimston became a senior research fellow at the Royal Institute of International Affairs, also known as Chatham House. He served as an associate fellow until 2015. == Publications == Double or Quits – the global future of civil nuclear energy (with Peter Beck, Earthscan Books, 2002) Civil nuclear energy –


id: v-clav-hampl-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Václav_Hampl-0.md
category: reference
title: Václav Hampl
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Václav_Hampl
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:40.275720+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: v-clav-hampl-20260505-0
summary:
Václav Hampl (born 1 July 1962) is a Czech physiologist and a former politician who was a Senator from Prague 1 from 2014 until 2020. From 2006 to 2014, Hampl served as Rector of the Charles University. == Research == Hampl was born in Prague, Czechoslovakia in 1962. He received his PhD from the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences in 1990. He did postgraduate work at the University of Minnesota Medical School and, since 2002, has been a professor of physiology at Charles University in Prague. His research has focused on the pulmonary circulation and its use of nitric oxide as a signaling agent. His research publications have been cited more than 3,750 times, his H-index is 28. In February 2006, Hampl became the 507th rector of Charles University. After serving the two four-years terms stipulated by law, he stepped down on 31 January 2014, and was succeeded by Tomáš Zima. == Professional Membership == In 2006–2011 Hampl served in the association of rectors of public, state and private higher education institutions in the Czech Republic, the Czech Rectors Conference, as its Vice-President for public relations and foreign affairs, and Vice-President for creative activities, respectively; in 2011–2014 he served as its


id: judith-hancock-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judith_Hancock-0.md
category: reference
title: Judith Hancock
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judith_Hancock
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:41.438938+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: judith-hancock-20260505-0
summary:
Judith Anne Hancock (born 25 August 1937 in Lismore, New South Wales) is an Australian retired educator and high school principal. She worked as a science Teacher at Dover Heights Girls High School, Science Mistress at Sydney Church of England Girls' Grammar School and Deputy Principal at Presbyterian Ladies' College, Sydney. Hancock became principal of Brisbane Girls Grammar School in 1977. The Hancock Communication Centre at the school is named after her. In 2000, Hancock was appointed a Member of the Order of Australia. Hancock was appointed as a member of the Board of Trustees of the Rockhampton Girls Grammar School from 11 November 2010 until 30 January 2012. == References ==


id: brad-hazzard-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brad_Hazzard-0.md
category: reference
title: Brad Hazzard
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brad_Hazzard
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:42.646249+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: brad-hazzard-20260505-0
summary:
Bradley Ronald "Brad" Hazzard (born 30 August 1951) is a retired Australian politician who served as the member of the New South Wales Legislative Assembly district of Wakehurst between May 1991 and March 2023. A member of the Liberal Party, Hazzard has also served as the Minister for Planning and Infrastructure and the Minister Assisting the Premier on Infrastructure NSW in the O'Farrell government between 2011 and 2014; as the Attorney General of New South Wales and the Minister for Justice between 2014 and 2015 in the first Baird ministry; as the Minister for Family and Community Services and the Minister for Social Housing between April 2015 and January 2017 in the second Baird government; and as the Minister for Health between January 2017 and March 2023 in the Berejiklian and Perrottet ministries. == Background and early career == Hazzard was educated at Manly Boys' High School (now Manly Selective Campus), Macquarie University where he gained a Bachelor of Arts (Science) and a Diploma of Education, the University of New South Wales where he graduated Bachelor of Laws, and the University of Sydney where he graduated Master of Laws. Hazzard was then employed as a science teacher (1974–1977) before being


id: john-hegarty-academic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hegarty_(academic)-0.md
category: reference
title: John Hegarty (academic)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hegarty_(academic)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:43.844777+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: john-hegarty-academic-20260505-0
summary:
John Hegarty (born 1948) is an Irish physicist and academic who served as the 43rd Provost of Trinity College Dublin from 2001 to 2011. == Early life and education == He was born in Claremorris, County Mayo, and was educated locally at St Colman's College. He holds a BSc in Physics/Chemistry/Mathematics/Philosophy from St Patrick's College, Maynooth, a HDipEd also from Maynooth and a PhD from University College Galway. == Academic career == Following a postdoctoral stay at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, he was a research scientist at Bell Labs, New Jersey for six years. He returned to Ireland in 1986 as a professor of Laser Physics at Trinity College. Producing over 140 publications, and developing several patents, he was a co-founder of Optronics Ireland and campus company Eblana Photonics. He is a member of the Royal Irish Academy, the American Physical Society, the Optical Society of America, the Institute of Electronic and Electrical Engineers and Fellow of the Institute of Physics. Before becoming Provost, Hegarty was Dean of Research and Head of the Physics Department. == Personal life == Hegarty is married to Neasa Ní Chinnéide, President of the European Bureau for Lesser-Used Languages, and they have two children, Cillian


id: gustav-herglotz-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav_Herglotz-0.md
category: reference
title: Gustav Herglotz
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav_Herglotz
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:45.032073+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gustav-herglotz-20260505-0
summary:
Gustav Herglotz (2 February 1881 – 22 March 1953) was a German Bohemian physicist best known for his works on the theory of relativity and seismology. == Biography == Gustav Ferdinand Joseph Wenzel Herglotz was born in Volary num. 28 to a public notary Gustav Herglotz (also a Doctor of Law) and his wife Maria née Wachtel. The family were Sudeten Germans. He studied mathematics and astronomy at the University of Vienna in 1899, and attended lectures by Ludwig Boltzmann. In this time of study, he had a friendship with his colleagues Paul Ehrenfest, Hans Hahn and Heinrich Tietze. In 1900 he went to the LMU Munich and achieved his Doctorate in 1902 under Hugo von Seeliger. Afterwards, he went to the University of Göttingen, where he habilitated under Felix Klein. In 1904 he became Privatdozent for Astronomy and Mathematics there, and in 1907 Professor extraordinarius. In 1908 he became Professor extraordinarius in Vienna, and in 1909 at the University of Leipzig. From 1925 (until becoming Emeritus in 1947) he again was in Göttingen as the successor of Carl Runge on the chair of applied mathematics. One of his students was Emil Artin. == Work == Herglotz worked in the


id: dariusz-hoffmann-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dariusz_Hoffmann-0.md
category: reference
title: Dariusz Hoffmann
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dariusz_Hoffmann
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:46.237193+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dariusz-hoffmann-20260505-0
summary:
Dariusz Hoffmann (Polish: [ˈda.rjuʂ ˈxɔf.man]) is a Polish educator and entertainer, publishing popular science educational videos on his YouTube channel, titled SciFun. Created in 2011, it is one of the most popular Polish-language popular science channels on the platform, with videos dedicated to among others, scientific facts and trivia, experiments, and analysis and debunking of pseudoscientific content. In January 2026, it had 1.24 million subscribers. Together with his brother, Marek Hoffmann, he also hosts YouTube channel Tube Raiders, where they publish travel and urban exploration vlogs, which in January 2026, had 345,000 subscribers. == Biography == Dariusz Hoffmann was born and grew up in Poznań, Poland. He has a degree in the information technology. He created a Polish-language popular science channel SciFun on YouTube in 2011. He began publishing videos on it in early 2012, after the success of his popular science blog, titled Nietuzinkowy Blog Naukowy (lit. 'Unconventional Science Blog'). In his videos, he talks about scientific facts and trivia, conducts experiments, and analyses and debunks pseudoscientific content. He also created miniseries such as videos dedicated to debunking modern flat Earth beliefs, and a documentary series dedicated to the Titan submersible, and its implosion in 2023, during an expedition


id: eben-norton-horsford-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eben_Norton_Horsford-0.md
category: reference
title: Eben Norton Horsford
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eben_Norton_Horsford
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:47.409320+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eben-norton-horsford-20260505-0
summary:
Eben Norton Horsford (July 27, 1818 – January 1, 1893) was an American scientist who taught agricultural chemistry in the Lawrence Scientific School at Harvard from 1847 to 1863. Later he was known for his reformulation of baking powder, his interest in Viking settlements in North America, and the monuments he built to Leif Erikson. == Life and career == Horsford was born in Moscow, New York, located in the Genesee River valley, to Jerediah Horsford and Maria Charity Norton. "At home he showed a certain inventive or mechanical skill, great ability in sketching, and unbounded interest in collecting specimens from the rich fossil deposits on the family farm." In 1837 Eben met James Hall working on the New York State Natural History Survey. Eben was of such service that Hall wrote Amos Eaton, effectively recommending him for scholarship. He instructed in perspective drawing at the school in Troy, New York, county seat of Rensselaer County. In 1838 Horsford was awarded Bachelor of Natural Science in Engineering from Rensselaer School and took up teaching mathematics and natural history at Albany Female Academy. At some point he met Mary L'Hommedieu Gardiner of Shelter Island, New York, a student, and she became


id: eben-norton-horsford-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eben_Norton_Horsford-1.md
category: reference
title: Eben Norton Horsford
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eben_Norton_Horsford
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:47.409320+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eben-norton-horsford-20260505-0
summary:
=== Vikings === Horsford became interested in the theory that the Vikings, specifically Leif Ericson, had visited North America, and set out to prove it. He connected the Charles River Basin to places described in the Norse sagas, invented Old Norse etymologies for Algonquian place-names like Naumkeag, Namskaket, and Amoskeag, and claimed to have found Viking archaeological remains. Robin Fleming wrote that these included an assertion that he found "an elaborately engineered system of Viking waterways throughout Boston, constructed to support the industrial efforts of the Norse settled in New England, who produced, for three centuries, thousands of tons of wooden drinking cups." Horsford had a plaque documenting all this placed on Memorial Drive near Mount Auburn Street in Cambridge, Massachusetts. A few miles upstream, at the mouth of Stony Brook, he had Norumbega Tower built marking the supposed location of Norumbega, a Viking fort and city, complete with its Althing and America's first Christian bishop. He also commissioned a statue of Leif Ericson that stands on Commonwealth Avenue in Boston. The professor wrote a series of books, articles, and pamphlets about the Vikings' visits to Massachusetts. After his death, his daughter Cornelia Horsford took up the cause. Their work


id: charles-j-joachain-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_J._Joachain-0.md
category: reference
title: Charles J. Joachain
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_J._Joachain
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:48.561140+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: charles-j-joachain-20260505-0
summary:
Charles J. Joachain is a Belgian physicist. == Biography == Born in Brussels on 9 May 1937, Charles J. Joachain obtained his Ph.D. in Physics in 1963 at the Université libre de Bruxelles (Free University of Brussels). From 1964 to 1965 he was a Postdoctoral Fellow of the Belgian American Educational Foundation at the University of California, Berkeley and the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, and from 1965 to 1966 a Research Physicist at these institutions. At the Université libre de Bruxelles he was appointed chargé de cours associé in 1965, chargé de cours in 1968, professeur extraordinaire in 1971 and professeur ordinaire in 1978. He was chairman of the Department of Physics in 1980 and 1981. He was also appointed professor at the Université Catholique de Louvain in 1984. In 2002, he became professeur ordinaire émérite (Emeritus Professor) at the Université libre de Bruxelles and professeur honoraire at the Université Catholique de Louvain. Professor Joachain has been a visiting professor in several universities and laboratories in Europe and the United States, in particular at the University of California, Berkeley and the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, the Université Pierre et Marie Curie (Paris VI), the University of Rome “La Sapienza” and the Max


id: philipp-von-jolly-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philipp_von_Jolly-0.md
category: reference
title: Philipp von Jolly
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philipp_von_Jolly
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:49.738712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philipp-von-jolly-20260505-0
summary:
Johann Philipp Gustav von Jolly (26 September 1809 – 24 December 1884) was a German experimental physicist. He measured gravitational acceleration with precision weights and also worked on osmosis. He also designed several tools like the Jolly balance in 1864, a special eudiometer in 1878, as well as his own air pump and Jolly air thermometer. He is the father of neurologist Friedrich Jolly. == Life == Johann Phillip Gustav Jolly was born in Mannheim, as the son of merchant Ludwig Jolly and Marie Eleonore Jolly, who came originally from France. Politician Julius Jolly was Philipp's brother. His primary education was in Mannheim. Jolly attended joined Heidelberg University in 1829, to study physics and mathematics. During his studies he worked in Vienna as a mechanician for factories and mining plants, before returning back to Heidelberg in 1834, where he received his PhD. After his studies, he was appointed professor of mathematics in 1839 and professor of physics in 1846, in Heidelberg. He moved to the University of Munich in 1854, where he took the position once held by Georg Simon Ohm. He was knighted in 1854 (and henceforth referred to as von Jolly). Jolly died in Munich. == Relationship with


id: henning-kagermann-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henning_Kagermann-0.md
category: reference
title: Henning Kagermann
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henning_Kagermann
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:50.946655+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: henning-kagermann-20260505-0
summary:
Henning Kagermann (born 12 July 1947) is a German physicist and businessman. He was the former chairman of the Executive Board and Chief Executive Officer of SAP. == Early life and education == Born in Braunschweig, Kagermann studied physics in Braunschweig and Munich. He received his doctorate degree in theoretical physics in 1975 from the TU Braunschweig and was promoted to professor there in 1980. He taught physics and computer science at TU Braunschweig and University of Mannheim from 1980 to 1992. == Career at SAP == Kagermann joined SAP in 1982 and was initially responsible for product development in the areas of cost accounting and controlling. Together with Hasso Plattner, co-founder of SAP, he was co-chairman of the SAP Executive Board and CEO from 1998 to 2003. During that period, his responsibilities included sales, global customer relations, strategic development projects and consulting. Following Plattner's election as chairman of the SAP Supervisory Board in May 2003, Kagermann became sole chairman of the SAP Executive Board and CEO. At the time, he had overall responsibility for SAP's strategy, business development and also oversaw the areas of global communications, global intellectual property, internal audit and talent management. In the following years, he


id: kajetan-georg-von-kaiser-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kajetan_Georg_von_Kaiser-0.md
category: reference
title: Kajetan Georg von Kaiser
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kajetan_Georg_von_Kaiser
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:52.147595+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kajetan-georg-von-kaiser-20260505-0
summary:
Kajetan Georg von Kaiser (5 January 1803 – 28 August 1871) was a German chemistry professor, researcher and inventor. == Biography == He was born at Kelheim on the Danube, in Bavaria, on 5 January 1803. He was appointed professor of technology at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München in 1851, and, in 1868, became professor of applied chemistry at the Technical University of Munich. His scientific researches into the chemistry of fermentation are of importance; a saccharometer invented by him in 1842 serves for the determination of the percentages of the contents of wort. He died in Munich on 28 August 1871, aged 68. == Writings == In addition to articles in scientific journals, he published the paper "Ueber Bieruntersuchungen und Fehler, welche dabei gemacht werden können" about researches into beer and their errors (Munich, 1846). He also brought out the scientific works of his friend, the chemist and mineralogist Johann Nepomuk von Fuchs (d. 1856), under the title "Gesammelte Schriften des Joh. Nep. von Fuchs" (Munich, 1856), adding an obituary notice of that scientist. == Sources == Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Kajetan Georg von Kaiser". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.


id: piotr-kosek-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piotr_Kosek-0.md
category: reference
title: Piotr Kosek
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piotr_Kosek
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:53.336990+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: piotr-kosek-20260505-0
summary:
Piotr Kosek (Polish: [ˈpjɔtr ˈkɔ.sɛk]; born 1986) is a Polish educator and entertainer, publishing popular science educational videos about astronomy and space exploration, on his YouTube channel, titled Astrofaza (Polish: [as.trɔˈfa.za]; from Latin astrum 'star', and Polish faza 'craving'). He also streams video games. As of October 2025, it has 595,000 subscribers, being the most popular Polish-language space-related YouTube channel. == Biography == Piotr Kosek was born in 1986, and grew up in Płock, Poland. He has a degree in English studies. He began his YouTube career by posting a series Się Kręci, recorded together with his friend Kamil Wojkowski, which was best known for surveying people's opinions on the streets of Płock. Later, he also made animated shorts. In January 2015, he started the channel Astrofaza (from Latin astrum 'star', and Polish faza 'craving'), in which he began posting popular science educational videos about astronomy and space exploration, as well, as streaming video games, such as Kerbal Space Program. At the time, he worked as a marketer and photographer in Gdańsk, later ending his employment and moving back to Płock, to focus on developing the channel. As of October 2025, it had 595,000 subscribers, being the most popular Polish-language


id: ferenc-krausz-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferenc_Krausz-0.md
category: reference
title: Ferenc Krausz
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferenc_Krausz
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:54.558027+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ferenc-krausz-20260505-0
summary:
Ferenc Krausz (born 17 May 1962) is a Hungarian physicist working in attosecond science. He was a director at the Max Planck Institute of Quantum Optics and a professor of experimental physics at LMU Munich in Germany. His research team generated and measured the first attosecond light pulse and used it for capturing electrons' motion inside atoms, marking the birth of attophysics. In 2023, jointly with Pierre Agostini and Anne L'Huillier, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics. Since November 2025, he has been Chair Professor at Department of Physics in The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong. == Academic career == From 1981 until 1985 Krausz studied theoretical physics at Eötvös Loránd University and electrical engineering at the Technical University of Budapest in Hungary. From 1987 to 1991 he graduated with a PhD at the Technical University of Vienna, in Austria, and from 1991 to 1993 he also did his habilitation there. 1996–1998 he became associate professor, from 1999 until 2004 professor of electrical engineering at the same institute. In 2003, he was appointed director at the Max Planck Institute for Quantum Optics in Garching, and in 2004 became chair of experimental physics at LMU Munich. In


id: christine-lambkin-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christine_Lambkin-0.md
category: reference
title: Christine Lambkin
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christine_Lambkin
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:56.108104+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: christine-lambkin-20260505-0
summary:
Christine Lynette Lambkin is an Australian entomologist, scientific illustrator, and Curator of Entomology at the Queensland Museum in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. == Career == Lambkin began her career as a science teacher in Sydney and Brisbane after graduating from the University of Queensland with a Bachelor of Science and Diploma of Education in 1976. She became a Scientific Illustrator at the Queensland Museum in 1986, then with the CSIRO Division of Entomology, Long Pocket, Queensland in 1993. In 1994 Lambkin completed a Certificate of Visual Arts and Design at the Queensland College of Art. In 1995, she joined The Department of Entomology at the University of Queensland as a Scientific Illustrator and Research Assistant. In 2001, she attained a Ph.D. at the University of Queensland and became a Post-doctoral Fellow (2001–2005) and Research Scientist (2003–2006) at the CSIRO Division of Entomology, Canberra. In 2004, Lambkin was a visiting Post Doctoral Fellow at North Carolina State University in their Department of Entomology. In 2006, Lambkin returned to the Queensland Museum as the Curator of Entomology. She was the President of the Entomological Society of Queensland in 2008 and 2015 and was awarded an Honorary Membership. == Awards == March 1997: Australian


id: hermann-lux-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Lux-0.md
category: reference
title: Hermann Lux
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Lux
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:57.235588+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hermann-lux-20260505-0
summary:
Hermann Lux (3 September 1904, in Karlsruhe – 8 July 1999), was a prominent inorganic chemist from Munich, Germany. Lux studied chemistry in the University of Karlsruhe where he graduated with honors in 1928 and then completed his education in the University of Bonn in 1929. He returned to Karlsruhe and worked there until his move to the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München in 1937, where he worked as an assistant until 1940, then as a lecturer until 1946 and then became the head of the analytical chemistry department. He became an associate professor in 1944 and a full professor in 1955. He moved to the Technical University of Munich in 1968 where he was a full professor of inorganic and analytical chemistry until his retirement in 1973. He died on 8 July 1999, almost 95 years old. == Achievements == Discovered a method of quantitative determination of 1 ppm quantities of mercury (1931, together with Alfred Stock) Extensively studied chemical reactions in molten salts, leading up to the Lux–Flood acid–base theory (1937) Invented the "hanging melt" method which made it possible to study extremely aggressive molten salt systems, such as alkali oxides. Investigated salts of metals in unusual oxidation states, such as


id: feodor-lynen-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feodor_Lynen-0.md
category: reference
title: Feodor Lynen
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feodor_Lynen
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:58.478248+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: feodor-lynen-20260505-0
summary:
Feodor Felix Konrad Lynen (German pronunciation: [ˈfeːodoːɐ̯ ˈlyːnən] ; 6 April 1911 – 6 August 1979) was a German biochemist. In 1964, he won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine together with Konrad Bloch for their discoveries concerning the mechanism and regulation of cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism while he was director of the Max-Planck Institute for Cellular Chemistry in Munich. == Biography == Feodor Lynen was born in Munich on 6 April 1911. His parents were Wilhelm Lynen, who taught mechanical engineering, and Frieda née Prym, whose father was an industrialist. He started his studies at the chemistry department of the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU) in 1930 and graduated in March 1937 under Heinrich Wieland with the work: "On the Toxic Substances in Amanita". Lynen remained in Germany throughout World War II. In 1942, he became a chemistry lecturer at LMU. In 1947, he became an assistant professor and in 1953 a professor of biochemistry. From 1954 onwards, he was director of the Max-Planck Institute for Cellular Chemistry in Munich, a position which was created for him at the instigation of two senior scientists, Otto Warburg and Otto Hahn. In 1972, that institute was merged into the newly founded


id: louise-mcdonald-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louise_McDonald-0.md
category: reference
title: Louise McDonald
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louise_McDonald
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:44:59.671229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: louise-mcdonald-20260505-0
summary:
Louise Warden McDonald born Louise Warden Crooks (14 July 1903 – 20 November 1988) was an Irish born Australian headmistress at Brisbane Girls Grammar School. She introduced houses. She improved the teaching of science and the resulting science block was named for her. == Life == McDonald was born in 1903 in Belfast, but by 1912 she was in Brisbane in Australia where her parents, Theresa (born Hogan) and Silas Crooks, had emigrated. The family lived in the Brisbane suburb of Paddington where her father worked as a draper. She attended Brisbane Normal School and she was at what is now called St Margaret's Anglican Girls' School from 1919 to 1922. She was Dux and led the school's debating society. She went on to study science at the University of Queensland and she gained her degree in 1926. In 1940 she was first employed by Brisbane Girls’ Grammar School where Kathleen M. Lilley was the head and she was proud of the school's reputation for English. Lilley retired and McDonald, then still named Crooks, took over as head in 1952. She wanted more of the students to study science but it was tricky to find competent science teachers and facilities


id: franklin-miller-jr-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Miller,_Jr.-0.md
category: reference
title: Franklin Miller, Jr.
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Miller,_Jr.
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:00.820273+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: franklin-miller-jr-20260505-0
summary:
Franklin Miller Jr. (September 8, 1912 – October 4, 2012) was an American physicist, textbook author, and professor at Kenyon College. He wrote an introductory physics textbook College Physics, created his single-concept physics demonstration films funded by the National Science Foundation, and had a long career as a teacher and scholar. Miller received the 1970 Robert A. Millikan Medal for distinguished contributions to physics education. Kenyon College later named the Franklin Miller Observatory in his honor. == Early life and education == Miller was born on September 8, 1912 in St. Louis, Missouri, to Franklin Miller, a lawyer and judge, and Maude Barnes, a writer. He graduated from Swarthmore College in 1933 with a bachelor's degree in mathematics, where he also played soccer and participated in track. Miller earned his Ph.D. in physics from the University of Chicago in 1939, specializing in X-ray physics research, including experimental and theoretical studies on X-ray diffraction. == Academic career == Miller joined the physics faculty at Rutgers University in 1937. During his time at Rutgers he conducted research on double-crystal spectrometer theory, radioactive tracers in biology, and discontinuities in thermal expansion coefficients. In 1948 Miller joined the faculty of Kenyon College as professor


id: marcel-minnaert-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_Minnaert-0.md
category: reference
title: Marcel Minnaert
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_Minnaert
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:02.001638+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: marcel-minnaert-20260505-0
summary:
Marcel Gilles Jozef Minnaert (12 February 1893 – 26 October 1970) was a Belgian-Dutch astronomer. He was born in Bruges and died in Utrecht. He is notable for his contributions to astronomy and physics and for a popular book on meteorological optics: Light and colour in the open air, first published in English in 1940. == Biography == Minnaert obtained a PhD in biology at Ghent University in 1914. Later he obtained also a PhD in physics from Utrecht University, under the supervision of Leonard Ornstein. He was a supporter of the Flemish movement during World War I and endorsed the replacement of French by Dutch during the German occupation of Belgium. He worked as "lector fysica" at the new Flemish University of Ghent, which was made possible by the support of the German occupation forces, and was viewed as connivance with the enemy by the reestablished Belgian authorities. Because of this, he was sentenced after the war in absence to 15 years of forced labor. However, Minnaert had anticipated this outcome by fleeing Belgium in time. In 1918, he found a position at Utrecht University in the Netherlands, initially to do photometric research. In Utrecht, he became interested in


id: dorothy-cynthia-nampota-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorothy_Cynthia_Nampota-0.md
category: reference
title: Dorothy Cynthia Nampota
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorothy_Cynthia_Nampota
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:03.227880+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dorothy-cynthia-nampota-20260505-0
summary:
Dorothy Cynthia Nampota is a Malawian educator and academic in science education. She is the executive director of the Malawi National Examinations Board (MANEB) and an associate professor at the University of Malawi. == Education == Nampota obtained a Bachelor of Education from the University of Malawi in 1991. In 1997, she received a Master of Arts degree from King's College, University of London, and completed her PhD in Science Education at the University of Bath in 2005. == Academic career == Dorothy joined the University of Malawi in 1992. She has served as Head of the Department of Curriculum and Teaching Studies (2005–2009), Deputy Dean of the Faculty of Education (2005–2006), and Director of the Centre for Educational Research and Training. In November 2020, Nampota was appointed Acting Executive Director of the Malawi National Examinations Board. She was confirmed as executive director in October 2021. == References ==


id: ian-nankervis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Nankervis-0.md
category: reference
title: Ian Nankervis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Nankervis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:04.434711+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ian-nankervis-20260505-0
summary:
Ian James Nankervis (born 3 January 1948) is a former Australian rules footballer for the Geelong Football Club in the Victorian Football League (VFL). Nankervis played for Geelong for 17 seasons and was captain from 1978 to 1981, and again in 1983. Nankervis held the record of most senior level games for Geelong with 325 VFL games. Nankervis also represented Victoria at state level on 12 occasions. == VFL career == Nankervis was recruited from Barwon. Initially he played mainly as a forward pocket-rover, scoring a creditable 203 goals. He later developed into one of the finest back pockets in the VFL after then coach Rodney Olsson shifted him to that end of the ground Nankervis was awarded the club's best and fairest award, the Carji Greeves Medal on three occasions in 1972, 1976 and 1977 and captained the team from 1978 until 1982 (110 games). Nankervis wore a guernsey with the number 40 during his tenure at the club. His brother Bruce Nankervis also played for Geelong. In 2001 he was named in the Geelong Football Club Team of the Century and in 2005 was inducted into the Australian Football Hall of Fame. == Honours == Individual: VFL: Victorian


id: malcolm-nokes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malcolm_Nokes-0.md
category: reference
title: Malcolm Nokes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malcolm_Nokes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:05.596997+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: malcolm-nokes-20260505-0
summary:
Malcolm Cuthbert Nokes MC MA BSc (20 May 1897 – 22 November 1986) was a British schoolteacher, soldier, research scientist and Olympic athlete, who competed in the hammer throw and discus throw. == Biography == He won the bronze medal in the hammer throw at the 1924 Summer Olympics. Four years later he finished eleventh in the 1928 Olympic hammer throw competition. In 1923 he beat the British hammer throw record, but did so in a demonstration rather than a competition, so his throw did not count for record purposes. He won the gold medal for England in the 1930 British Empire Games in the hammer throw contest and finished fifth in the discus throw event. At the 1934 British Empire Games he won again the gold medal in the hammer throw competition. Nokes was the Amateur Athletic Association (AAA) Champion from 1923 to 1926 and placed second at the 1921 AAA Championships and 1922 AAA Championships and 1927–28. He was chairman of the AAA's Coaching Committee, and also a member of the Achilles Club. He was a graduate of Magdalen College, Oxford, where he studied chemistry and wrote a thesis on metaphenetidine. Nokes served in the Great War in


id: keith-o-brien-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keith_O'Brien-0.md
category: reference
title: Keith O'Brien
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keith_O'Brien
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:06.748233+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: keith-o-brien-20260505-0
summary:
Keith Michael Patrick O'Brien (17 March 1938 – 19 March 2018) was a senior-ranking Catholic prelate in Scotland. He was the Archbishop of Saint Andrews and Edinburgh from 1985 to 2013. O'Brien was the leader of the Catholic Church in Scotland and had been the head of its conference of bishops until he stepped down as archbishop in February 2013. O'Brien's resignation followed publication of allegations that he had engaged in inappropriate and predatory sexual conduct with priests and seminarians under his jurisdiction and abused his power. O'Brien was opposed to homosexuality, which he described as "moral degradation", and a vehement opponent of same-sex marriage. On 20 March 2015, the Vatican announced that though he remained a member of the College of Cardinals, O'Brien would not exercise his rights or duties as a cardinal, in particular voting in papal conclaves; he had excused himself from participating in the 2013 conclave. O'Brien died after a fall, aged 80, on 19 March 2018. == Early life and education == O'Brien was born at Ballycastle, in County Antrim, Northern Ireland, on St. Patrick's Day, 17 March 1938. After primary education in Ballycastle, his family moved to Scotland where his father was serving with


id: keith-o-brien-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keith_O'Brien-1.md
category: reference
title: Keith O'Brien
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keith_O'Brien
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:06.748233+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: keith-o-brien-20260505-0
summary:
=== Curial appointments === After his creation as cardinal, O'Brien was appointed a member of the Pontifical Council for Social Communications and also a member of the Pontifical Council for the Pastoral Care of Migrants and Itinerant People. He was President of the Bishops' Conference of Scotland and fulfilled various engagements at the request of other members of the Conference. He was sometimes referred to as the "Primate of Scotland"; however, this title or position has never existed. === Resignation as archbishop === O'Brien tendered his resignation from the governance of the Archdiocese of St Andrews and Edinburgh to the Pope some time in 2012, in view of his 75th birthday in March 2013; the Pope accepted it nunc pro tunc on 13 November 2012 and decided it would become effective on 25 February 2013. He remained a cardinal. The announcement of his resignation followed allegations initially in The Observer newspaper that O'Brien had engaged in inappropriate sexual conduct with junior clergy. The Pope appointed Philip Tartaglia as temporary apostolic administrator in O'Brien's place. In July, Leo Cushley, a priest from Motherwell, was named to succeed O'Brien as archbishop. == Sexual misconduct and consequences == In 2013 allegations became public


id: keith-o-brien-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keith_O'Brien-2.md
category: reference
title: Keith O'Brien
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keith_O'Brien
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:06.748233+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: keith-o-brien-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ecclesiastical response === On 27 April 2013, The Scotsman reported that Cardinal Marc Ouellet would head an investigation into O'Brien, and that appointment of Scottish bishops had been halted until the inquiry was completed. This contradicted another report suggesting that the Vatican would not hold a formal investigation or publish any formal report because "The Church doesn't work that way." No decision had been made to demote or laicise O'Brien. O'Brien returned to Scotland and attempted to settle into the church-owned cottage he had planned as his retirement home in Dunbar, East Lothian. One of his accusers, a former seminarian, stated, "Keith O'Brien is giving the impression he wants a nice peaceful little retirement now. My experience hasn't left me for decades and as far as I'm concerned this brings things very much back into focus. I have an issue with Keith O'Brien and it needs to be dealt with." There were fears the cardinal's visibility would harm the church further. On 15 March 2013, it was confirmed that the Vatican had ordered O'Brien to leave Scotland, and he left for months of "prayer and penance". According to The Washington Post, "The statement did not specify that the decision


id: keith-o-brien-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keith_O'Brien-3.md
category: reference
title: Keith O'Brien
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keith_O'Brien
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:06.748233+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: keith-o-brien-20260505-0
summary:
==== Apostolic visitation ==== After some delay, it was reported in The Observer on 23 June 2013 that the Vatican had decided to hold an apostolic visitation. This is a formal high-level inspection into the affair, in which the "visitator" is given authority directly by the pope. In this case the visitator was the archbishop of St Andrews and Edinburgh, who had not yet been appointed at the time. Papal nuncio Antonio Mennini told one of the complainants, a former priest known as "Lenny", of the decision. Anyone affected would be able to give evidence; if there was considered to be sufficient evidence, a deeper process would take place in Rome. Lenny was relieved that the facts would finally be examined, but said that the visitation also had to examine "whether any promotions were awarded to the cardinal's cronies". According to the article, senior figures in Rome said the visitation would also deal with the more general accusations of moral failings in the church in Scotland. There was criticism of the choice of O'Brien's successor as Archbishop of Edinburgh as visitator; Tom Doyle, a canon lawyer who had worked at the nunciature in Washington and later represented Catholic abuse victims


id: keith-o-brien-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keith_O'Brien-4.md
category: reference
title: Keith O'Brien
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keith_O'Brien
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:06.748233+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: keith-o-brien-20260505-0
summary:
== Health and death == O'Brien said, while criticising a parliamentary bill on embryology in 2008, that he carried an organ donor card. O'Brien suffered from heart problems and was fitted with a pacemaker after complaining of dizzy spells and fainting prior to Passion Sunday Mass in March 2008. Following the acceptance of his resignation in February 2013 he said "Approaching the age of 75 and at times in indifferent health, I tendered my resignation as Archbishop of St Andrews and Edinburgh to Pope Benedict XVI some months ago." O'Brien died after a fall on 19 March 2018, two days after his 80th birthday. == Views == O'Brien was often forthright in his political and spiritual views. In 1999, at the European Synod of Bishops, O'Brien declared who he saw fit to be the next Archbishop of Westminster, following the death of Cardinal Basil Hume. He named his candidate, Timothy Radcliffe, Master General of the Dominican order (Black Friars). At the synod, Radcliffe had made an appeal to O'Brien, saying that there was a crisis of authority in the church, but the answer could not be more emphasis on authority. In the presence of the Pope, Radcliffe went on: the


id: keith-o-brien-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keith_O'Brien-5.md
category: reference
title: Keith O'Brien
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keith_O'Brien
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:06.748233+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: keith-o-brien-20260505-0
summary:
=== Abortion and embryo research === In May 2007 O'Brien urged Roman Catholics to reject political candidates who support what he called the "social evil" of abortion, and said that such Catholic politicians should not expect to remain full members of the church. During March 2008, O'Brien highlighted the issue of the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Bill being debated in Parliament, denouncing the government for a "monstrous attack on human rights" through its "evil" endorsement of "Frankenstein" experiments. Some scientists suggested that he intentionally used inflammatory language to stir up opposition to the bill; others argued he was sticking up for morals and forced the Government to allow MPs to vote freely on the issue. (Gordon Brown had originally imposed a three-line whip on Labour MPs, meaning they had to back the bill, regardless of personal convictions.) O'Brien himself narrated a five-minute video recording in which he stated the "many, many concerns" of the Catholic Church concerning the bill which was to be voted on in Parliament. It was posted on YouTube, and sent as a DVD to every member of Parliament. In the video O'Brien made clear he was not against medical research, and supported research with non-embryonic stem


id: peter-o-leary-referee-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_O'Leary_(referee)-0.md
category: reference
title: Peter O'Leary (referee)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_O'Leary_(referee)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:07.943845+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: peter-o-leary-referee-20260505-0
summary:
Peter O'Leary (born 3 March 1972) is a New Zealand former Association football referee, previously of Wellington but now is residing in Hamilton. He operated in the Australian A-League and the New Zealand Football Championship, and his other occupation is as a teacher and deputy principal at Te Aroha College. He currently has the record for controlling the most matches in the FIFA Club World Cup. == Career == He first took up refereeing in 1994. He has officiated in many Oceania Football Confederation tournaments since becoming a FIFA referee in 2003, notably the OFC Nations Cup in 2004, and the Oceania Club Championship in 2006. In 2007, he was selected to officiate at the FIFA Under-20 World Cup in Canada during June and July of that year. He took charge of the Group F game between Nigeria and Costa Rica at the Royal Athletic Park in Victoria, British Columbia, on 1 July. He was then assigned the Group B match between Uruguay and Jordan at the Swangard Stadium in Burnaby, on 4 July. At the English Premiership tie between Aston Villa and Sunderland F.C. as a guest of top English referee Steve Bennett, O’Leary was summoned from the stands


id: alberto-oliverio-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberto_Oliverio-0.md
category: reference
title: Alberto Oliverio
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberto_Oliverio
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:09.105432+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alberto-oliverio-20260505-0
summary:
Alberto Oliverio (born December 1, 1938) is a biologist and psycho-biologist. He is currently professor of Psychobiology at the Sapienza University of Rome. He has been one of the main assistants of Nobel prize winner Daniel Bovet. == Publications == Oliverio is author or co-author of about 400 publications. He is author of about 30 chapters or general reviews in edited books or annual reviews. Has edited 6 books on animal behavior and behavioral genetics and is the author of many books on memory, brain and behavior. == Research fields == Neurochemical – neurophysiological correlates of memory. Genetic approaches to behavior. == Books == Oliverio A. & Oliverio Ferraris A., Lo sviluppo comparato del comportamento, Boringhieri, Turin, 1974. Oliverio A. & Oliverio Ferraris A., Psicologia: Basi biologiche, sviluppo, ambiente, Zanichelli, Bologna, 1976; 2nd Edition, 1980; 3rd Edition (Psicologia: I motivi del comportamento umano), 1986; 4th Edition, 1990; 5th edition 1996; 6th edition 2002; 7th edition 2007. Oliverio A., (Ed.) Zoologia 1: Comunicazione e comportamento sociale. Letture da Le Scienze, Le Scienze, Milan, 1977. Oliverio A., Maturità e vecchiaia, Feltrinelli, Milan, 1977. Oliverio A.. (Ed.) Genetics, Environment and Intelligence, North Holland, Amsterdam, 1977. Oliverio A. & Oliverio Ferraris A., Maschio/Femmina: Biologia,


id: albert-oppel-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Oppel-0.md
category: reference
title: Albert Oppel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Oppel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:10.267162+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: albert-oppel-20260505-0
summary:
Carl Albert Oppel (19 December 1831 – 23 December 1865) was a German paleontologist. == History == He was born at Hohenheim in Württemberg, on 19 December 1831. He first went to the University of Tübingen, where he graduated with a Ph.D. in 1853. The results of his work was published in Die Juraformation Englands, Frankreichs und des südwestlichen Deutschlands (1856–1858). He went to the Palaeontological Museum at Munich in 1858 and became an assistant there. It was in 1860 that he became the Professor of Palaeontology at the University of Munich. Then, a year later, he became the director of the Palaeontological Collection. Of his later works, it can be said that the most important was Paläontologische Mittheilungen aus dem Museum des Königlichen Bayerischen Staates (1862–1865). He died on 23 December 1865 at the age of 34. The wrinkle ridge Dorsum Oppel on the Moon is named after him, as is the fossil prawn genus Albertoppelia. == Studies == Oppel devoted his life to the study of fossils and the examination of the strata of the Jurassic period deposits. He is considered to have founded the study of zone stratigraphy and the use of index fossils, a term which


id: guadalupe-ortiz-de-land-zuri-fern-ndez-de-heredia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guadalupe_Ortiz_de_Landázuri_Fernández_de_Heredia-0.md
category: reference
title: Guadalupe Ortiz de Landázuri Fernández de Heredia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guadalupe_Ortiz_de_Landázuri_Fernández_de_Heredia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:11.426485+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: guadalupe-ortiz-de-land-zuri-fern-ndez-de-heredia-20260505-0
summary:
Guadalupe Ortiz de Landázuri Fernández de Heredia (12 December 1916 – 16 July 1975) was a Spanish Catholic professor and a member of Opus Dei. She was one of the first women to join Opus Dei, after meeting the founder Josemaría Escrivá in 1944. She helped start Opus Dei in Mexico and also collaborated directly with Escrivá in Rome. A serious heart condition eventually claimed her life in 1975. After several requests from people who knew her during her life, her cause of canonization opened on 3 November 2001. In mid-2017, Pope Francis declared that she had lived a life of heroic virtue and named her Venerable. The same Pope confirmed a miracle attributed to her intercession (the healing of a cancer patient) in June 2018. Her beatification was celebrated on 18 May 2019 in Madrid. == Life == Guadalupe Ortiz de Landázuri Fernández de Heredia was born in Madrid on 12 December 1916 as the fourth of four children (and the only daughter) to Manuel Ortiz de Landázuri, a military officer, and Eulogia Fernández-Heredia. Her three elder siblings were Manuel, Eduardo, and Francisco, who died in childhood. Her brother Eduardo (who became a doctor and college professor) and his


id: guadalupe-ortiz-de-land-zuri-fern-ndez-de-heredia-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guadalupe_Ortiz_de_Landázuri_Fernández_de_Heredia-1.md
category: reference
title: Guadalupe Ortiz de Landázuri Fernández de Heredia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guadalupe_Ortiz_de_Landázuri_Fernández_de_Heredia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:11.426485+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: guadalupe-ortiz-de-land-zuri-fern-ndez-de-heredia-20260505-0
summary:
== Beatification == In 2001 the Opus Dei prelate Javier Echevarría Rodríguez started the steps needed to launch the beatification process. The forum for the diocesan process for the cause was transferred on 30 March 2001 from the Pamplona-Tudela diocese to the Madrid archdiocese at which point the Congregation for the Causes of Saints on 3 November issued the "nihil obstat" (no objections) edit to begin the cause and to title her as a Servant of God. Cardinal Antonio María Rouco Varela opened the diocesan process on 18 November and later closed it on 18 March 2005. From 2002 to 2003 there were 66 sessions held with 32 witnesses from Madrid being called to provide evidence and interrogatories while another week-long session in mid-2003 in Mexico saw 22 witnesses giving evidence in support of Ortiz de Landázuri's virtues in 37 sessions. The C.C.S. later received all the documents gathered during that process in 2005 (3008 pages in seven compiled volumes) and validated the process later on 17 February 2006. The postulation later compiled and submitted the Positio dossier to the C.C.S. in 2009 for evaluation. Theologians provided a positive vote to the cause on 7 June 2016 after having assessed


id: abraham-pais-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Pais-0.md
category: reference
title: Abraham Pais
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Pais
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:12.672173+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: abraham-pais-20260505-0
summary:
Abraham Pais (; May 19, 1918 – July 28, 2000) was a Dutch-American physicist and science historian. Pais earned his Ph.D. from University of Utrecht just prior to a Nazi ban on Jewish participation in Dutch universities during World War II. When the Nazis began the forced relocation of Dutch Jews, he went into hiding, but was later arrested and saved only by the end of the war. He then served as an assistant to Niels Bohr in Denmark and was later a colleague of Albert Einstein at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. His Subtle is the Lord, considered by many to be the definitive biography of Einstein, won the Science Writing Award. He followed it with Inwaard Bound: Of Matter and Forces in the Physical World, a history of modern physics, Niels Bohr's Times: In Physics, Philosophy, and Polity and Einstein Lived Here: Essays for the Layman. He was a physics professor at Rockefeller University until his retirement. He won the 1995 Lewis Thomas Prize for science writing. == Early life == Pais was born in Amsterdam, the first child of middle-class Dutch-Jewish parents. His father, Isaiah "Jacques" Pais, was the descendant of Sephardic Jewish


id: abraham-pais-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Pais-1.md
category: reference
title: Abraham Pais
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Pais
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:12.672173+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: abraham-pais-20260505-0
summary:
== Higher education == In the fall of 1935 Pais began his studies at the University of Amsterdam without a clear idea regarding his desired career. With an interest in the exact sciences, he gradually gravitated to chemistry and physics as major subjects, and mathematics and astronomy as minor subjects. In the winter of 1936/1937 his career goals were defined by two guest lectures by George Uhlenbeck, professor of theoretical physics at University of Utrecht. Pais was fascinated by Uhlenbeck's discussion of Enrico Fermi's incorporation of the neutrino into the theory of beta radiation. On February 16, 1938, Pais was awarded two Bachelor of Science degrees in physics and mathematics, with minors in chemistry and astronomy. He began attending graduate courses in Amsterdam, including those in physics. He soon became disappointed by the only professor there in theoretical physics, Johannes Diderik van der Waals Jr. (the son of the 1910 Nobel laureate Johannes Diderik van der Waals), whom he found dull and averse to the new developments in physics. Pais soon wrote to Uhlenbeck at Utrecht and was granted an interview. During the remainder of the spring term he discontinued attending classes in Amsterdam and made several trips to visit


id: abraham-pais-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Pais-2.md
category: reference
title: Abraham Pais
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Pais
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:12.672173+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: abraham-pais-20260505-0
summary:
During his student years Pais had been involved in the Zionist movement, through which he became acquainted with Trusha (Tirtsah) van Amerongen and Tina (Tineke) Strobos, and developed a close friendship with these two women and their families. The Germans began gradually to restrict the activities of the Dutch Jews and in early 1942 required them to wear yellow stars. At first Pais felt safe because his former university status exempted him from being sent to a labor camp. In early 1943, however, the Dutch secretary general of internal affairs, Frederiks, made arrangements for the university Jews to report to Barneveld for their own safety, where they would be housed in a chateau. Pais did not trust that and instead went into hiding. Those who reported to Barneveld were later sent to the Theresienstadt concentration camp where most of them did survive. His friend and for a time fiancée Tina Strobos was not Jewish and thus was freer of restrictions and threat of incarceration. She arranged hiding places for Pais and other Jews in Amsterdam. When the Germans began forcing the Dutch Jews into a ghetto in the old Jewish quarter of Amsterdam, his sister Annie and her husband Hermann


id: abraham-pais-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Pais-3.md
category: reference
title: Abraham Pais
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Pais
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:12.672173+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: abraham-pais-20260505-0
summary:
== Science historian == In the late 1970s Pais became interested in documenting the history of modern physics. He felt he was in a unique position to do so, having known many of the key people and with his knowledge of the language, culture, and science. Pais was perhaps best known for his biography of Albert Einstein, Subtle is the Lord: The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein, and its companion volume, Einstein Lived Here (Clarendon Press/Oxford University Press, 1994). Subtle is the Lord won the 1983 U.S. National Book Award in Science. His Inward Bound: Of matter and forces in the physical world (Clarendon Press/Oxford University Press, 1988) describes the events in physics during the preceding 100 years, and tries to explain why they happened as they did. In 1991 he published Niels Bohr's Times: In physics, philosophy, and polity (Clarendon Press/Oxford University Press, 1991) which describes the life and scientific contributions of Bohr. In 1995 he teamed with Laurie M. Brown and Sir Brian Pippard to compile a three-volume reference collection of articles portraying the scientific and cultural development of modern physics in Twentieth Century Physics (American Institute of Physics and the Institute of Physics, U.K., 1995).


id: efraim-racker-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efraim_Racker-0.md
category: reference
title: Efraim Racker
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efraim_Racker
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:13.985598+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: efraim-racker-20260505-0
summary:
Efraim Racker (June 28, 1913 – September 9, 1991) was an Austrian biochemist who was responsible for identifying and purifying Factor 1 (F1), the first part of the ATP synthase enzyme to be characterised. F1 is only a part of a larger ATP synthase complex known as Complex V. It is a peripheral membrane protein attached to component Fo, which is integral to the membrane. == Early life == Efraim Racker was born to a Jewish family in 1913 in Neu Sandez, Austrian Galicia, and grew up in Vienna. His elder brother, Heinrich Racker, was to become a famous psychoanalyst. Efraim Racker was studying medicine at the University of Vienna when Hitler invaded in 1938. Racker fled to Great Britain, where he took a job in a mental hospital in Wales. His research focused on the biochemical causes for mental diseases. During the war, Racker was given the opportunity to practice medicine, but he decided to move to the United States to continue his research. == Career == In the U.S., he accepted a position as a research associate in physiology at the University of Minnesota in Minneapolis from 1941 to 1942. While investigating the biochemical basis for brain diseases,


id: stefan-raunser-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefan_Raunser-0.md
category: reference
title: Stefan Raunser
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefan_Raunser
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:15.247958+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stefan-raunser-20260505-0
summary:
Stefan Raunser (born 1976 in Landau in der Pfalz, Germany) is a German scientist and structural biologist specializing in membrane proteins, the cytoskeleton, toxins, and sarcomere structural biochemistry. Since 2014, he has been a director at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Physiology in Dortmund, Germany. == Education and career == Raunser studied biology and chemistry at the Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz and completed his Ph.D. in biochemistry at the Goethe University Frankfurt in 2004, under the supervision of Prof. Werner Kühlbrandt at the Max Planck Institute of Biophysics in Frankfurt/Main. He continued his research as a postdoctoral researcher at Harvard Medical School in Boston, USA, working with Thomas Walz from 2005 to 2008. He then became an "Emmy Noether group leader" at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Physiology in Dortmund, serving in that position from 2008 to 2013. In 2014, Raunser held the Einstein Professorship for Membrane Biochemistry at Free University of Berlin from January to June before assuming his current role as a director at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Physiology. In 2015, he became an honorary professor at the University of Duisburg-Essen, and later that same year, he became an adjunct professor at Technical University of


id: paul-reiter-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Reiter-0.md
category: reference
title: Paul Reiter
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Reiter
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:16.391182+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: paul-reiter-20260505-0
summary:
Paul Reiter is a professor of medical entomology at the Pasteur Institute in Paris, France. He is a member of the World Health Organization Expert Advisory Committee on Vector Biology and Control. He was an employee of the Centers for Disease Control (Dengue Branch) for 22 years. He is a specialist in the natural history, epidemiology and control of mosquito-borne diseases such as dengue fever, West Nile fever, and malaria. He is a Fellow of the Royal Entomological Society. == Criticism of the IPCC == Reiter says he was a contributor to the third IPCC Working Group II (Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability) report but resigned because he "found [himself] at loggerheads with persons who insisted on making authoritative pronouncements, although they had little or no knowledge of [his] speciality". After ceasing to contribute he says he struggled to get his name removed from the Third report "After much effort and many fruitless discussions, I decided to concentrate on the USGCCRP and resigned from the IPCC project. My resignation was accepted, but in a first draft I found that my name was still listed. I requested its removal, but was told it would remain because "I had contributed". It was only


id: john-rothwell-physiologist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rothwell_(physiologist)-0.md
category: reference
title: John Rothwell (physiologist)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rothwell_(physiologist)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:18.723577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: john-rothwell-physiologist-20260505-0
summary:
John C. Rothwell (born 1954) is a Professor of neurophysiology at the UCL Institute of Neurology. His main area of interest is transcranial magnetic stimulation and motor control. == Education == Rothwell was educated at the University of Cambridge. He completed his PhD at King's College London in 1980 which supervised by David Marsden. == Career and research == His group has pioneered the use of the paired-pulse technique (Kujirai et al. 1992), interhemispheric studies (Ferbert et al. 1992). Rothwell was appointed head of the Medical Research Council (MRC) Human Movement and Balance Unit after the untimely death of David Marsden. He has written over 400 papers and numerous chapters. == References ==


id: catherine-margaret-shachaf-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_Margaret_Shachaf-0.md
category: reference
title: Catherine Margaret Shachaf
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_Margaret_Shachaf
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:19.894269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: catherine-margaret-shachaf-20260505-0
summary:
Catherine Margaret Shachaf (Hebrew: קתרין מרגרט שחף) is an Indian cell biologist. She previously held an instructor position at Stanford University School of Medicine, and has made ground-breaking discoveries in cancer research. Shachaf has spoken at scientific conferences and has published more than 17 journal articles. Her leading work was published in Nature (2004), "MYC Inactivation Uncovers Pluripotent Differentiation and Tumor Dormancy in Hepatocellular Cancer." Shachaf is on the Editorial Board of the International Journal of Green Nanotechnology. == Education == Post doctorate fellow: Stanford University, Medical Oncology Ph.D: Israel Institute of Technology, Molecular Medicine M.Sc: Israel Institute of Technology, Genetics B.Sc.: University of Haifa, Israel, Biology Dr. Shachaf Technion PhD thesis http://www.graduate.technion.ac.il/Theses/Abstracts.asp?Id=10256 Archived 2020-09-27 at the Wayback Machine == Honors and awards == FOCIS Trainee Satellite Symposia Award, FOCIS (2008) AACR, Scholar in Training Award, Aflac (2008) Young Scientist Clinical Award, FAMRI (2004–2009) Comprehensive Cancer Center Translational Award, Stanford University (2005) Richard W. Weiland Fellowship, CCIS, Stanford University (2001–2004) == Key scientific contributions == Shachaf has researched how MYC expression induces cancer in mice and the effect of its inactivation in those tumors. She showed that removing MYC expression kills the tumor and that MYC reprograms the tumor cells.


id: alexander-smith-chemist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Smith_(chemist)-0.md
category: reference
title: Alexander Smith (chemist)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Smith_(chemist)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:21.052856+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alexander-smith-chemist-20260505-0
summary:
Alexander Smith (11 September 1865 – 8 September 1922) was a Scottish chemist, who spent his working life teaching in the universities of America. == Biography == He was born at 4 Nelson Street in Edinburgh's New Town, the son of Isabella (née Carter) and Alexander W. Smith, a music teacher. His paternal grandfather was the sculptor Alexander Smith. The family moved to 4 West Castle Road in the Merchiston district while he was young. He was educated at Edinburgh Collegiate School. He studied sciences (later specialising in chemistry) at the University of Edinburgh. He was taught mathematics by George Chrystal, physics by Peter Guthrie Tait and chemistry by Alexander Crum Brown. He obtained his B.Sc. in 1886 at the University of Edinburgh. During his university years, he showed a keen interest in astronomy and published four papers on the subject. He went to Germany in 1886 for further postgraduate studies and gained his doctorate at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München under Prof Rainer Ludwig Claisen in Baeyer's laboratory in 1889. In 1890, aged 25, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. His proposers were Alexander Crum Brown, John Gibson, Leonard Dobbin and Ralph Stockman. In 1911, the


id: chris-smith-science-communicator-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Smith_(science_communicator)-0.md
category: reference
title: Chris Smith (science communicator)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Smith_(science_communicator)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:22.220841+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chris-smith-science-communicator-20260505-0
summary:
Chris Smith (born 16 January 1975) - "the Naked Scientist" - is a British consultant virologist and a lecturer based at Cambridge University where he is a fellow of Queens' College. He is also a science radio broadcaster and writer, and presents the Naked Scientists, a programme which he founded in 2001, for BBC Radio and other networks internationally, as well as 5 Live Science on BBC Radio 5 Live. == Qualifications == Chris Smith has a Cambridge University medical degree (MB BChir) and a PhD in virology. He also gained a First Class Honours degree in neuroscience from University College London (UCL). He is a fellow of the Royal College of Pathologists (FRCPath) and on the General Medical Council (GMC) specialist register for medical microbiology and virology, practising as he does as a consultant clinical virologist at Addenbrooke's Hospital, Cambridge. == Naked Scientists podcast == Launched by Smith in 2001, and distributed as one of the first iTunes podcasts from 2005, it was also the first BBC local and regional programme to be published as a podcast and within its first twelve months it received 2 million programme downloads. In January 2010, Smith's The Naked Scientists group announced on


id: sami-solanki-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sami_Solanki-0.md
category: reference
title: Sami Solanki
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sami_Solanki
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:23.475442+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sami-solanki-20260505-0
summary:
Sami Khan Solanki (born 1958 in Karachi, Pakistan) is director of the Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research (MPS), director of the Sun-Heliosphere Department of MPS, a scientific member of the Max Planck Society, and a Chair (and spokesperson) of the International Max Planck Research School on Physical Processes in the Solar System and Beyond at the Universities of Braunschweig and Göttingen. Solanki is also an Honorary Professor at the Institute of Astronomy at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich, and (2) Institute for Geophysics and Extraterrestrial Physics at the Braunschweig University of Technology in Germany. In addition, he is a Distinguished Professor at the Kyung Hee University in Korea. He is the editor-in-chief of the Living Reviews in Solar Physics, an exclusively web-based, peer-reviewed journal, publishing reviews of research in all areas of solar and heliospheric physics. Living Reviews in Solar Physics was recently rated with an impact factor of 17.636 taking the third place in the "Astronomy & Astrophysics" category. Solanki's main topics of research are: Solar and heliospheric physics, in particular solar magnetism and Sun-Earth relations Stellar astrophysics, mainly stellar activity and magnetism Astronomical tests of theories of gravitation Atomic and molecular physics of astronomical


id: gerolf-steiner-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerolf_Steiner-0.md
category: reference
title: Gerolf Steiner
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerolf_Steiner
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:24.677600+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gerolf-steiner-20260505-0
summary:
Gerolf Steiner (22 March 1908 – 14 August 2009) was a German zoologist. == Life and career == Steiner was born in Strasbourg, Alsace in March 1908. He earned his doctorate in 1931 at the University of Heidelberg. He completed his habilitation in 1942 at the Technical University Darmstadt and 1947 at the University of Heidelberg, where he was appointed as professor in 1949. In 1962, he was an associate professor at the Technical University of Karlsruhe, becoming full professor in 1966 and occupying the chair of zoology from 1962 to 1973. He died five months after his 101st birthday on August 14, 2009 in Heidelberg. == Rhinogradentia == Steiner is best known for a 1961 book authored pseudonymously as Harald Stümpke on the anatomy and habits of the rhinogradentia, a fictitious order of extinct mammals whose nose evolved in unusual ways. He has published also under the pseudonyms of Justus Andereich, Trotzhard Wiederumb, and Karl D.S. Geeste. == Publications == Die Automatie und die zentrale Beeinflussung des Herzens von Periplaneta americana. Heidelberg (1932). Methodische Untersuchungen über die Geruchsorientierung von Fleischfliegen. Springer, Berlin (1942). with Richard Sternfeld, Die Reptilien und Amphibien Mitteleuropas. Quelle & Meyer, Heidelberg (1952). Harald Stümpke (pseud.),


id: bengt-str-mgren-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengt_Strömgren-0.md
category: reference
title: Bengt Strömgren
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengt_Strömgren
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:25.869306+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bengt-str-mgren-20260505-0
summary:
Bengt Georg Daniel Strömgren (21 January 1908 – 4 July 1987) was a Danish astronomer and astrophysicist. == Life and career == Bengt Strömgren was born in Gothenburg. His parents were Hedvig Strömgren (née Lidforss) and Elis Strömgren, who was professor of astronomy at the University of Copenhagen and director of the University Observatory in Copenhagen. Bengt grew up in the professor's mansion surrounded with scientists, assistants, observers and guests. His father paced and promoted Bengt into a life with science, and Bengt's first paper was published already at the age of 14. He graduated from high school in 1925 and enrolled at the Copenhagen university. Only two years later, he graduated in astronomy and atomic physics, and during the following two years, he completed a doctoral degree, which was evaluated with the best marks in December 1929, when he was 21 years old. He gained a great deal of useful experience from his studies in theoretical physics at Niels Bohr's Institute close by, and he was at the right place at the right time. He soon found out that he intended to use the fresh theoretical framework of quantum physics in space, and investigate the applications of quantum mechanics


id: andrew-szydlo-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Szydlo-0.md
category: reference
title: Andrew Szydlo
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Szydlo
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:27.078565+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: andrew-szydlo-20260505-0
summary:
Andrew Zbigniew Szydlo ( SHID-low; born 1949) is a British chemist and chemistry teacher of Polish descent. Born in London, he is best known for his talks and lectures on chemistry. == Early life and education == Szydlo was born in London, England to Polish parents, Kazimierz and Daniela (née Suchecka). Daniela was one of many Polish children who were forcibly expatriated to Siberia by Soviet forces in 1942, and her experiences as an orphaned child in India have been described in an interview which she gave in 2011 and also in the book Poles in India. Szydlo attended Ellerslie Junior Mixed School in Shepherd's Bush, followed by Latymer Upper School, and then Imperial College London and University College London. He holds MSc, PhD, DIC, ACGI, and is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry, of which he is also a CChem. An expert on the history of alchemy, Szydlo is the author of the standard work on the Polish alchemist, Michael Sendivogius. The thesis of his book "Water that does not wet hands": The Alchemy of Michael Sendivogius, which argues that Sendivogius' role in the discovery of oxygen has not received proper attention, has won widespread acceptance within


id: fred-talbot-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Talbot-0.md
category: reference
title: Fred Talbot
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Talbot
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:28.298443+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fred-talbot-20260505-0
summary:
Frederick Wilson Talbot (born 17 December 1949) is a British former television presenter and convicted sex offender. He grew up in north west England. == Early life and teaching == Born in Edinburgh, Talbot grew up in north west England, where he attended North Cestrian Grammar School in Altrincham, Cheshire. In 1964 he was a founding member of the Altrincham and District Astronomical Society, with which he co-discovered a meteor shower, the June Lyrids in June 1966. After teacher training in Gateshead in the late 1960s, he was employed to teach biology at Altrincham Grammar School for Boys until May 1984, when his schooling career came to "an abrupt end" following an indecent proposal he made to two pupils at his home. == Media career == Talbot began working for Granada Television in 1982, with The Final Frontier, an educational science series networked on ITV as part of their children's programming strand. In 1984, he began presenting for the regional news programme Granada Reports in North West England. He continued as a regular reporter for Granada Reports and became a weatherman for the ITV's This Morning in October 1988. Until production of This Morning was moved from the Albert Dock,


id: john-r-taylor-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_R._Taylor-0.md
category: reference
title: John R. Taylor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_R._Taylor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:29.498732+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: john-r-taylor-20260505-0
summary:
John Robert Taylor is British-born emeritus professor of physics at the University of Colorado, Boulder. He received his B.A. in mathematics at Cambridge University, and his Ph.D. from the University of California, Berkeley in 1963 with thesis advisor Geoffrey Chew. Taylor has written several college-level physics textbooks. His bestselling book is An Introduction to Error Analysis, which has been translated into nine languages. His intermediate-level undergraduate textbook, Classical Mechanics, was well-reviewed. == Awards == Taylor was designated a Presidential Teaching Scholar in 1991. He has also received an Emmy Award for his television series Physics 4 Fun (1988–1990). == References ==


id: bruno-th-ring-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruno_Thüring-0.md
category: reference
title: Bruno Thüring
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruno_Thüring
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:30.679560+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bruno-th-ring-20260505-0
summary:
Bruno Jakob Thüring (7 September 1905, in Warmensteinach – 6 May 1989, in Karlsruhe) was a German physicist and astronomer. == Life and career == Thüring studied mathematics, physics, and astronomy at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München and received his doctorate in 1928, under Alexander Wilkens. Wilkens was a professor of astronomy and director of the Munich Observatory, which was part of the university. From 1928 to 1933, Thüring was an assistant at the Munich Observatory. From 1934 to 1935, he was an assistant to Heinrich Vogt at Heidelberg University. Thüring completed his Habilitation there in 1935, whereupon he became an observator at the Munich Observatory. In 1937, Thüring became a lecturer (Dozent) at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München. From 1940 to 1945, he held the chair for astronomy at the University of Vienna and was director of the Vienna Observatory. After 1945, Thüring lived as a private scholar in Karlsruhe. During the reign of Adolf Hitler, Thüring was a proponent of Deutsche Physik, as were the two Nobel Prize-winning physicists Johannes Stark and Philipp Lenard; Deutsche Physik, was anti-Semitic and had a bias against theoretical physics, especially quantum mechanics. He was also a student of the philosophy of Hugo Dingler. Thüring was an


id: suzy-urbaniak-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzy_Urbaniak-0.md
category: reference
title: Suzy Urbaniak
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzy_Urbaniak
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:32.933821+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: suzy-urbaniak-20260505-0
summary:
Suzy Urbaniak, OAM is an Australian science teacher and former geologist known for her teaching methods and the establishment of the Centre of Resources Excellence (CoRE) program. She has been teaching Earth sciences at Kent Street Senior High School in Perth, Western Australia since 2004. Urbaniak received the 2016 Prime Minister's Prize for Excellence in Science Teaching for her skills-based teaching program and contributions to the field of education. == Early life and education == Urbaniak attended the Australian National University from 1984 to 1988, where she studied geology and received several student accolades. She then graduated with a Diploma of Secondary Education from Edith Cowan University in 2003. == Career == Following her graduation, Urbaniak worked as a geologist for Newcrest. In 2004, she transitioned to a career in education, becoming a science teacher at Kent Street Senior High School in Perth. Her teaching approach focuses on developing young scientists by emphasizing hands-on learning, field trips, and real-world scientific practices. In addition to her teaching responsibilities, Urbaniak has launched various initiatives to promote earth sciences and STEM principles in her curriculum. She introduced the bi-annual Kent Street Women in Mining Day, which provides female students with networking opportunities and


id: virginia-uribe-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia_Uribe-0.md
category: reference
title: Virginia Uribe
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia_Uribe
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:34.134629+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: virginia-uribe-20260505-0
summary:
Dr. Virginia Uribe (December 20, 1933 - March 30, 2019) was an American educator, counselor and LGBT youth education outreach advocate. She was best known for founding the Los Angeles Unified School District's Project 10 program, an educational support and drop-out prevention program for LGBT youth, and the nonprofit arm of the Project 10 program, Friends of Project 10 Inc. == Personal life == Uribe was born in Los Angeles, and lived her entire life in Pasadena, California. She grew up in an Italian family, living with parents and her grandparents in the same household. She went to Catholic school throughout elementary school, high school, and college. Her grandparents were immigrants and "intensely" patriotic and believed the United States to be a land of opportunity. Their sense of fairness, working class sensibilities, and liberal ideals shaped her world view. Uribe felt that her family was supportive of her throughout her childhood, which gave her the mindset and strength needed to advocate for youth. Uribe felt her deepest attractions towards women. During her time as a student, she found herself sexually attracted to nuns at the Catholic schools she attended. While these desires remained mostly hidden, Uribe believed that some of


id: carl-von-voit-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_von_Voit-0.md
category: reference
title: Carl von Voit
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_von_Voit
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:35.290076+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carl-von-voit-20260505-0
summary:
Carl von Voit (31 October 1831 – 31 January 1908) was a German physiologist and dietitian. == Biography == Voit was born in Amberg, the son of August von Voit and Mathilde Burgett. From 1848 to 1854 he studied at the universities of Munich and Würzburg. At Munich, his teachers were Justus von Liebig and Max Joseph Pettenkofer, and at Würzburg, he was a pupil of Albert von Kölliker. In 1855 he furthered his education at the University of Göttingen under chemist Friedrich Wohler, and in 1856/57 served as an assistant to Theodor von Bischoff in Munich. In 1857, he obtained his habilitation, and from 1863 was a full professor of physiology, as well as curator of the physiological collection at the University of Munich. == Contributions == Carl von Voit is considered by many to be the "father" of modern dietetics. As a chemist and physiologist, he found that the amount of nitrogen in excreted urea is a measure for the protein turnover. Using a respiration calorimeter, he could measure the contribution of individual nutrients, known as Voitsche Kostmaß. He was also a successful teacher, attracting international students to the University of Munich and thus significantly influencing the US


id: wilhelm-heinrich-waagen-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Heinrich_Waagen-0.md
category: reference
title: Wilhelm Heinrich Waagen
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Heinrich_Waagen
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:36.497967+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wilhelm-heinrich-waagen-20260505-0
summary:
Wilhelm Heinrich Waagen (23 June 1841 – 24 March 1900) was a German geologist and paleontologist. He was born in Munich and died in Vienna. He worked from 1870 to 1875 in the Geological Survey of India. He was a professor of paleontology at the University of Vienna from 1890. == Life and work == Waagen was born in Munich, the son of a Prussian councillor and his wife, Nanette (née Schechner), who had been a singer. He studied locally and attended the lectures of Karl Theodor Ernst von Siebold and Albert Oppel at the University of Munich before going to the University of Zurich where he studied natural sciences. His first work was on the Jurassic of France, Swabia and Switzerland published in 1864. He received a Doctor of Philosophy degree at the University of Munich under Albert Oppel where he studied the rocks and fossils of the Jurassic system, and published an elaborate work on geology (Versuch einer Allgemeinen Classification der Schichten des oberen Jura) that was crowned by the university. In 1866, he became an instructor in paleontology at the University of Munich and at the same time taught Princess Theresa and Prince Arnulf of Bavaria. In


id: johann-andreas-wagner-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Andreas_Wagner-0.md
category: reference
title: Johann Andreas Wagner
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Andreas_Wagner
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:37.685183+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: johann-andreas-wagner-20260505-0
summary:
Johann Andreas Wagner (21 March 1797 – 17 December 1861) was a German palaeontologist, zoologist and archaeologist who wrote several important works on palaeontology. He was also a pioneer of biogeographical theory. == Career == Wagner was born in Nuremberg and received a PhD from the University of Erlangen in 1826 after spending some time in the University of Wurzburg (1814–16). He worked as a privatdozent at Erlangen after a tour that included a visit to Paris. In 1832 he became an adjunct to Gotthilf Heinrich von Schubert at the Munich zoological collection. In 1835 he was elected to the Royal Bavarian Academy of Science. In 1845 he organized a survey of the distributions of 44 vertebrates (16 mammals, 27 birds, 1 reptile) across the districts of Bavaria under auspices of the Kingdom of Bavaria. In 1849 he was made third curator for the zoological collections. He was the author of Die Geographische Verbreitung der Säugethiere Dargestellt (1844–1846). In this work he recognized the zone around Mexico, Honduras and Nicaragua as being occupied by a mix of Nearctic and Neotropical fauna. This had also been suggested by Karl Illiger and Heinrich Lichtenstein. But Wagner produced some of the earliest biogeographical


id: alan-walker-anthropologist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Walker_(anthropologist)-0.md
category: reference
title: Alan Walker (anthropologist)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Walker_(anthropologist)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:38.834334+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alan-walker-anthropologist-20260505-0
summary:
Alan Cyril Walker (23 August 1938 – 20 November 2017) was the Evan Pugh Professor of Biological Anthropology and Biology at the Pennsylvania State University and a research scientist for the National Museum of Kenya. == Life == He received his B.A. from Cambridge University in 1962, and his PhD from the University of London in 1967. In 2000 he received an honorary D.Sc. from the University of Chicago. Walker was a paleoanthropologist who worked on primate and human evolution. Walker was a member of the team led by Richard Leakey responsible for the 1984 discovery of the skeleton of the so-called Turkana Boy, and in 1985 Walker himself discovered the Black Skull near Lake Turkana in Kenya. == Awards == Walker was awarded a MacArthur Fellowship "genius grant" in 1988. In 1997 he received the Rhône-Poulenc Award from the Royal Society for The Wisdom of the Bones co-authored with Pat Shipman. During the award ceremony, Terry Pratchett, chairman of the judges, said "We were fascinated by the way the forensic net was spread out, bringing so many sciences to bear on the mystery of this million-year-old teenager." The following year he received the International Fondation Fyssen Prize in Paris.


id: christian-samuel-weiss-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Samuel_Weiss-0.md
category: reference
title: Christian Samuel Weiss
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_Samuel_Weiss
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:39.985589+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: christian-samuel-weiss-20260505-0
summary:
Christian Samuel Weiss (26 February 1780 – 1 October 1856) was a German mineralogist born in Leipzig. Following graduation, he worked as a physics instructor in Leipzig from 1803 until 1808. and in the meantime, conducted geological studies of mountain formations in Tyrol, Switzerland and France (1806–08). In 1810 he became a professor of mineralogy at the University of Berlin, where in 1818/19 and 1832/33, he served as university rector. He died near Eger in Bohemia. Weiss is credited for creating parameters of modern crystallography, and was instrumental in making it a branch of mathematical science. He stressed the significance of direction in crystals, considering crystallographic axes to be a possible basis for classification of crystals. He is credited for introducing the categorization schema of crystal systems, and has a basic law of crystallography named after him called the "Weiss zone law". == Works by Weiss that have been translated into English == "On the methodical and natural distribution of the different systems of crystallisation" Edinburgh : Printed for A. Constable, 1823. "On the crystallographic discoveries and systems of Mohs and Weiss" (with Friedrich Mohs); Edinburgh : Printed for A. Constable, 1823. == See also == Geometrical crystallography before X-rays


id: alice-whitley-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice_Whitley-0.md
category: reference
title: Alice Whitley
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice_Whitley
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:41.204508+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alice-whitley-20260505-0
summary:
Dr Alice Whitley (6 February 1913 – 15 August 1990) was an Australian chemist and educator. Whitley focused on the science education of women and was for 50 years a faculty member at her alma mater Methodist Ladies' College (now known as the MLC School). She worked as a science teacher and headmistress. Whitley served as president of the Australian Science Teachers Association and the Association of Heads of Independent Girls' Schools. == Early life and education == Alice Whitley was born on 6 February 1913 to Alfred and May Whitley in Stanmore, New South Wales. She attended Methodist Ladies' College, Burwwod, commencing in 1921 and was Dux of College in 1930. She earned a degree in Science from the University of Sydney. == Teaching career == Whitley then taught mathematics at Brighton College, Manly and at SCEGGS Moss Vale, and was a science and mathematics teacher at MLC from 1941 to 1952. From 1952 to 1954, Whitley attended the University of London where she earned a PhD for her thesis in chemistry before returning to MLC as Head of Science and Deputy Headmistress from 1955 to 1959. She was Headmistress of MLC from 1960 until 1972. She was the


id: herbert-ward-wilson-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Ward_Wilson-0.md
category: reference
title: Herbert Ward Wilson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Ward_Wilson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:42.381372+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: herbert-ward-wilson-20260505-0
summary:
Herbert Ward Wilson (29 September 1877 – 1 October 1955) was an Australian science lecturer and naturalist. == Education == B.Com. 1sth computer eng. == World War 1 == Wilson's studies were interrupted by the First World War. Enlisting in the Australian Imperial Forces in 1915, he served at Gallipoli and in Egypt and France, being steadily promoted and rising to the rank of Major by the time of his demobilization in 1919. He was awarded the Military Cross, the Belgian Croix de guerre and was appointed to the OBE. == Career == After the war Wilson married Myra Hester Smith in 1920. Resuming his studies, he gained a BSc in 1920 and a MSc in 1925. This was followed by a career of lecturing on biological science, and especially botany. He was a member of the Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union, the Bird Observers Club, the Microscopical Society and the Field Naturalists Club of Victoria, from the latter of which he was awarded the Australian Natural History Medallion in 1943. He died at his home in Caulfield, being survived by a son. == References ==


id: h-dieter-zeh-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._Dieter_Zeh-0.md
category: reference
title: H. Dieter Zeh
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._Dieter_Zeh
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:43.772996+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: h-dieter-zeh-20260505-0
summary:
Heinz-Dieter Zeh (German: [tseː]; 8 May 1932 – 15 April 2018) was theoretical physicist and professor emeritus of the University of Heidelberg. He is known for formalizing the theory of quantum decoherence. == Education and career == H. Dieter Zeh was born in Braunschweig and studied physics at the Technical University of Braunschweig and nuclear physics at the University of Heidelberg under J. Hans D. Jensen. At Heidelberg, he also investigated alpha particle formation in nuclei with Hans Jörg Mang and Zeh investigated the topic for his PhD thesis under Mang. Between 1964 and 1965, Zeh was a research assistant at California Institute of Technology and in 1965 and between 1967 and 1968 at the University of California, San Diego. He later became a professor in Heidelberg. == Research == Zeh is known for his work on decoherence, formally described in his 1970 seminal paper. He showed that the environment plays a central role in recovering the classical limit from quantum mechanics. In his paper he discussed applications, like explaining the emergence of chirality in sugar molecules. In 1973, with Olaf Kübler, Zeh explained using a reduced density matrix why coherent states are the most classical states, and why quantum


id: chemical-process-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_process-0.md
category: reference
title: Chemical process
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_process
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:45.373044+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chemical-process-20260505-0
summary:
In a scientific sense, a chemical process is a method or means of changing one or more chemicals or chemical compounds. Such a process can occur by itself or be caused by an outside force, and involves a chemical reaction of some sort. In an "engineering" sense, a chemical process is a method intended to be used in manufacturing or on an industrial scale (see Industrial process) to change the composition of chemical(s) or material(s), usually using technology similar or related to that used in chemical plants or the chemical industry. Neither of these definitions are exact in the sense that one can always tell definitively what is a chemical process and what is not; they are practical definitions. There is also significant overlap in these two definition variations. Because of the inexactness of the definition, chemists and other scientists use the term "chemical process" only in a general sense or in the engineering sense. However, in the "process (engineering)" sense, the term "chemical process" is used extensively. The rest of the article will cover the engineering type of chemical processes. Although this type of chemical process may sometimes involve only one step, often multiple steps, referred to as unit


id: acheson-process-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acheson_process-0.md
category: reference
title: Acheson process
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acheson_process
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:46.541191+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: acheson-process-20260505-0
summary:
The Acheson process is a method of synthesizing silicon carbide (SiC) and graphite invented by Edward Goodrich Acheson and patented by him in 1896. == Process == The process consists of heating a mixture of silicon dioxide (SiO2), in the form of silica or quartz sand, and carbon, in its elemental form as powdered coke, in an iron bowl. In the furnace, the silicon dioxide, which sometimes also contains other additives along with ferric oxide and saw dust is melted surrounding a graphite rod, which serves as a core. These rods are inserted in such a way that they are held in contact with each other through the particles of coke, which is commonly called coke bed. An electric current is passed through the graphite rods which heats the mixture to 1700–2500 °C. The result of the carbothermic reaction is a layer of silicon carbide (especially in its alpha and beta phases) forming around the rod and emission of carbon monoxide (CO). There are four chemical reactions in the production of silicon carbide: C + SiO2 → SiO + CO SiO2 + CO → SiO + CO2 C + CO2 → 2CO SiO + 2 C → SiC + CO


id: adsorption-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adsorption-0.md
category: reference
title: Adsorption
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adsorption
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:47.677105+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: adsorption-20260505-0
summary:
Adsorption is the adhesion of atoms, ions, or molecules from a gas, liquid, or dissolved solid to a surface. This process creates a film of the adsorbate on the surface of the adsorbent. This process differs from absorption, in which a fluid (the absorbate) is dissolved by or permeates a liquid or solid (the absorbent). While adsorption does often precede absorption, which involves the transfer of the absorbate into the volume of the absorbent material, alternatively, adsorption is distinctly a surface phenomenon, wherein the adsorbate does not penetrate through the material surface and into the bulk of the adsorbent. The term sorption encompasses both adsorption and absorption, and desorption is the reverse of sorption. Like surface tension, adsorption is a consequence of surface energy. In a bulk material, all the bonding requirements (be they ionic, covalent, or metallic) of the constituent atoms of the material are fulfilled by other atoms in the material. However, atoms on the surface of the adsorbent are not wholly surrounded by other adsorbent atoms and therefore can attract adsorbates. The exact nature of the bonding depends on the details of the species involved, but the adsorption process is generally classified as physisorption (characteristic of weak


id: adsorption-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adsorption-1.md
category: reference
title: Adsorption
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adsorption
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:47.677105+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: adsorption-20260505-0
summary:
where P {\displaystyle P} is the partial pressure of the gas or the molar concentration of the solution. For very low pressures θ ≈ K P {\displaystyle \theta \approx KP} , and for high pressures θ ≈ 1 {\displaystyle \theta \approx 1} . The value of θ {\displaystyle \theta } is difficult to measure experimentally; usually, the adsorbate is a gas and the quantity adsorbed is given in moles, grams, or gas volumes at standard temperature and pressure (STP) per gram of adsorbent. If we call vmon the STP volume of adsorbate required to form a monolayer on the adsorbent (per gram of adsorbent), then θ = v v mon {\displaystyle \theta ={\frac {v}{v_{\text{mon}}}}} , and we obtain an expression for a straight line: 1 v = 1 K v mon 1 P + 1 v mon . {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{v}}={\frac {1}{Kv_{\text{mon}}}}{\frac {1}{P}}+{\frac {1}{v_{\text{mon}}}}.} Through its slope and y intercept we can obtain vmon and K, which are constants for each adsorbent–adsorbate pair at a given temperature. vmon is related to the number of adsorption sites through the ideal gas law. If we assume that the number of sites is just the whole area of the solid divided into the


id: adsorption-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adsorption-2.md
category: reference
title: Adsorption
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adsorption
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:47.677105+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: adsorption-20260505-0
summary:
As SD is dictated by factors that are taken into account by the Langmuir model, SD can be assumed to be the adsorption rate constant. However, the rate constant for the Kisliuk model (R') is different from that of the Langmuir model, as R' is used to represent the impact of diffusion on monolayer formation and is proportional to the square root of the system's diffusion coefficient. The Kisliuk adsorption isotherm is written as follows, where θ(t) is fractional coverage of the adsorbent with adsorbate, and t is immersion time: d θ ( t ) d t = R ′ ( 1 − θ ) ( 1 + k E θ ) . {\displaystyle {\frac {d\theta _{(t)}}{dt}}=R'(1-\theta )(1+k_{\text{E}}\theta ).} Solving for θ(t) yields: θ ( t ) = 1 − e − R ′ ( 1 + k E ) t 1 + k E e − R ′ ( 1 + k E ) t . {\displaystyle \theta _{(t)}={\frac {1-e^{-R'(1+k_{\text{E}})t}}{1+k_{\text{E}}e^{-R'(1+k_{\text{E}})t}}}.} === Adsorption enthalpy === Adsorption constants are equilibrium constants, therefore they obey the Van 't Hoff equation: ( ∂ ln ⁡ K ∂ 1 T ) θ = − Δ H R . {\displaystyle \left({\frac {\partial \ln K}{\partial {\frac


id: adsorption-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adsorption-3.md
category: reference
title: Adsorption
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adsorption
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:47.677105+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: adsorption-20260505-0
summary:
The plot of n a d s {\displaystyle n_{ads}} adsorbed versus χ {\displaystyle \chi } is referred to as the chi plot. For flat surfaces, the slope of the chi plot yields the surface area. Empirically, this plot was noticed as being a very good fit to the isotherm by Michael Polanyi and also by Jan Hendrik de Boer and Cornelis Zwikker but not pursued. This was due to criticism in the former case by Albert Einstein and in the latter case by Brunauer. This flat surface equation may be used as a "standard curve" in the normal tradition of comparison curves, with the exception that the porous sample's early portion of the plot of n a d s {\displaystyle n_{ads}} versus χ {\displaystyle \chi } acts as a self-standard. Ultramicroporous, microporous, and mesoporous conditions may be analyzed using this technique. Typical standard deviations for full isotherm fits including porous samples are less than 2%. Notice that in this description of physical adsorption, the entropy of adsorption is consistent with the Dubinin thermodynamic criterion, that is the entropy of adsorption from the liquid state to the adsorbed state is approximately zero. == Adsorbents == === Characteristics and general requirements ===


id: adsorption-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adsorption-4.md
category: reference
title: Adsorption
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adsorption
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:47.677105+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: adsorption-20260505-0
summary:
== Water adsorption == The adsorption of water at surfaces is of broad importance in chemical engineering, materials science, and catalysis. Also termed surface hydration, the presence of physically or chemically adsorbed water at the surfaces of solids plays an important role in governing interface properties, chemical reaction pathways, and catalytic performance in a wide range of systems. In the case of physically adsorbed water, surface hydration can be eliminated simply through drying at conditions of temperature and pressure allowing full vaporization of water. For chemically adsorbed water, hydration may be in the form of either dissociative adsorption, where H2O molecules are dissociated into surface adsorbed -H and -OH, or molecular adsorption (associative adsorption) where individual water molecules remain intact == Adsorption solar heating and storage == The low cost ($200/ton) and high cycle rate (2,000 ×) of synthetic zeolites such as Linde 13X with water adsorbate has garnered much academic and commercial interest recently for use for thermal energy storage (TES), specifically of low-grade solar and waste heat. Several pilot projects have been funded in the EU from 2000 to the present (2020). The basic concept is to store solar thermal energy as chemical latent energy in the zeolite.


id: adsorption-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adsorption-5.md
category: reference
title: Adsorption
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adsorption
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:47.677105+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: adsorption-20260505-0
summary:
== Adsorption spillover == In the case catalytic or adsorbent systems where a metal species is dispersed upon a support (or carrier) material (often quasi-inert oxides, such as alumina or silica), it is possible for an adsorptive species to indirectly adsorb to the support surface under conditions where such adsorption is thermodynamically unfavorable. The presence of the metal serves as a lower-energy pathway for gaseous species to first adsorb to the metal and then diffuse on the support surface. This is possible because the adsorbed species attains a lower energy state once it has adsorbed to the metal, thus lowering the activation barrier between the gas phase species and the support-adsorbed species. Hydrogen spillover is the most common example of an adsorptive spillover. In the case of hydrogen, adsorption is most often accompanied with dissociation of molecular hydrogen (H2) to atomic hydrogen (H), followed by spillover of the hydrogen atoms present. The spillover effect has been used to explain many observations in heterogeneous catalysis and adsorption. == Polymer adsorption == Adsorption of molecules onto polymer surfaces is central to a number of applications, including development of non-stick coatings and in various biomedical devices. Polymers may also be adsorbed to surfaces


id: aeration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeration-0.md
category: reference
title: Aeration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:48.840057+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aeration-20260505-0
summary:
Aeration (also called aerification or aeriation) is the process by which air is circulated through, mixed with or dissolved in a liquid or other substances that act as a fluid (such as soil). Aeration processes create additional surface area in the mixture, allowing greater chemical or suspension reactions. == Aeration of liquids == === Methods === Aeration of liquids (usually water) is achieved by: passing air through the liquid by means of the Venturi tube, aeration turbines or compressed air which can be combined with diffuser(s) air stone(s), as well as fine bubble diffusers, coarse bubble diffusers or linear aeration tubing. Ceramics are suitable for this purpose, often involving dispersion of fine air or gas bubbles through the porous ceramic into a liquid. The smaller the bubbles, the more gas is exposed to the liquid increasing the gas transfer efficiency. Diffusers or spargers can also be designed into the system to cause turbulence or mixing if desired. Porous ceramic diffusers are made by fusing aluminum oxide grains using porcelain bonds to form a strong, uniformly porous and homogeneous structure. The naturally hydrophilic material is easily wetted resulting in the production of fine, uniform bubbles. On a given volume of air


id: alkali-manufacture-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkali_manufacture-0.md
category: reference
title: Alkali manufacture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkali_manufacture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:50.015803+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alkali-manufacture-20260505-0
summary:
Alkali manufacture is the process by which an alkali is made. Typical alkalis, produced commercially, include sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, potassium hydroxide and potassium carbonate. == The lime process == Historically, sodium hydroxide was produced by treating sodium carbonate (usually from seaweed ash or "glasswort"-plant ash) with calcium hydroxide (aka lime) in a metathesis reaction. (Sodium hydroxide is soluble while calcium carbonate is not.) This process was called causticizing. Ca ( OH ) 2 ( aq ) + Na 2 CO 3 ( s ) ⟶ CaCO 3 ↓ + 2 NaOH ( aq ) {\displaystyle {\ce {Ca(OH)2(aq) + Na2CO3(s) -> CaCO3 v + 2 NaOH(aq)}}} == The Leblanc process == The Leblanc process, which was invented by Nicolas Leblanc around 1790, begins with the decomposition of sodium chloride by sulfuric acid, by which sodium sulfate and hydrochloric acid are produced. The sodium sulfate is afterwards fired with calcium carbonate and coal. Sodium carbonate can be extracted from this mixture by washing the mixture with water. Until the rise of the ammonia-soda process, which has better economics, the Leblanc process was used extensively making the United Kingdom the lead in alkali production. By the early 20th century, the UK's production


id: alkaline-water-electrolysis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkaline_water_electrolysis-0.md
category: reference
title: Alkaline water electrolysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkaline_water_electrolysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:51.241822+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alkaline-water-electrolysis-20260505-0
summary:
Alkaline water electrolysis is a type of electrolysis that is characterized by having two electrodes operating in a liquid alkaline electrolyte. Commonly, a solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH) or sodium hydroxide (NaOH) at 25-40 wt% is used. These electrodes are separated by a diaphragm, separating the product gases and transporting the hydroxide ions (OH−) from one electrode to the other. A recent comparison showed that state-of-the-art nickel based water electrolysers with alkaline electrolytes lead to competitive or even better efficiencies than acidic polymer electrolyte membrane water electrolysis with platinum group metal based electrocatalysts. The technology has a long history in the chemical industry. The first large-scale demand for hydrogen emerged in late 19th century for lighter-than-air aircraft, and before the advent of steam reforming in the 1930s, the technique was competitive. Hydrogen-based technologies have evolved significantly since the initial discovery of hydrogen and its early application as a buoyant gas approximately 250 years ago. In 1804, the Swiss inventor Francois Isaac de Rivaz secured a patent for the inaugural hydrogen-powered vehicle. This prototype, equipped with a four-wheel design, utilised an internal combustion engine (ICE) fuelled by a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen gases. The hydrogen fuel was stored in a


id: alkylation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkylation-0.md
category: reference
title: Alkylation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkylation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:52.443136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alkylation-20260505-0
summary:
Alkylation is a chemical reaction that entails transfer of an alkyl group. The alkyl group may be transferred as an alkyl carbocation, a free radical, a carbanion, or a carbene (or their equivalents). Alkylating agents are reagents for effecting alkylation. Alkyl groups can also be removed in a process known as dealkylation. Alkylating agents are often classified according to their nucleophilic or electrophilic character. In oil refining contexts, alkylation refers to a particular alkylation of isobutane with olefins. For upgrading of petroleum, alkylation produces a premium blending stock for gasoline. In medicine, alkylation of DNA is used in chemotherapy to damage the DNA of cancer cells. Alkylation is accomplished with the class of drugs called alkylating antineoplastic agents. == Nucleophilic alkylating agents == Nucleophilic alkylating agents deliver the equivalent of an alkyl anion (carbanion). The formal "alkyl anion" attacks an electrophile, forming a new covalent bond between the alkyl group and the electrophile. The counterion, which is a cation such as lithium, can be removed and washed away in the work-up. Examples include the use of organometallic compounds such as Grignard (organomagnesium), organolithium, organocopper, and organosodium reagents. These compounds typically can add to an electron-deficient carbon atom such as at


id: alkylation-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkylation-1.md
category: reference
title: Alkylation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkylation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:52.443136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alkylation-20260505-0
summary:
C 2 H 4 + CH 3 CO 2 H ⟶ CH 3 CO 2 C 2 H 5 {\displaystyle {\ce {C2H4 + CH3CO2H -> CH3CO2C2H5}}} == In biology == Alkylation in biology causes DNA damage. It is the transfer of alkyl groups to the nitrogenous bases. It is caused by alkylating agents such as EMS (Ethyl methanesulfonate). Bifunctional alkyl groups which have two alkyl groups in them cause cross linking in DNA. Alkylation damaged ring nitrogen bases are repaired via the base excision repair (BER) pathway. == Commodity chemicals == Several commodity chemicals are produced by alkylation. Included are several fundamental benzene-based feedstocks such as ethylbenzene (precursor to styrene), cumene (precursor to phenol and acetone), linear alkylbenzene sulfonates (for detergents). == Gasoline production == In a conventional oil refinery, isobutane is alkylated with low-molecular-weight alkenes (primarily a mixture of propene and butene) in the presence of a Brønsted acid catalyst, which can include solid acids (zeolites). The catalyst protonates the alkenes (propene, butene) to produce carbocations, which alkylate isobutane. The product, called "alkylate", is composed of a mixture of high-octane, branched-chain paraffinic hydrocarbons (mostly isoheptane and isooctane). Alkylate is a premium gasoline blending stock because it has exceptional antiknock


id: aludel-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aludel-0.md
category: reference
title: Aludel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aludel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:53.667093+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aludel-20260505-0
summary:
An aludel (Arabic: ﺍﻟﻮﺛﻞ al-ūṯal from Greek αἰθαλίων aithaliōn, 'smoky, sooty, burnt-colored') is a subliming pot used in alchemy. The term refers to a range of earthen tubes, or pots without bottoms, fitted one over another, and diminishing as they advance towards the top. The lowest is adapted to a pot, placed in a furnace, wherein the matter to be sublimed is placed. At the top is a head to retain the flowers, or condensation, which ascends. An aludel was used as a condenser in the sublimation process and thus came to signify the end-stages of transformation and the symbol of creation. Also called the Hermetic Vase, the Philosopher's Egg, and the Vase of the Philosophy. == Description == The aludel is illustrated in a Pseudo-Geber treatise, in the Bibliotheca Chemica Curiosa of Jean-Jacques Manget, and in a Syriac alchemy manuscript conserved in the British Museum. It is mentioned in the "Mafātīḥ al-ʿUlūm" ("Key of Sciences") of al-Khwarazmi. == See also == Alembic == References == This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chambers, Ephraim, ed. (1728). "Aludels". Cyclopædia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. Vol. 1 (1st ed.). James and John Knapton,


id: ames-process-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ames_process-0.md
category: reference
title: Ames process
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ames_process
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:54.883880+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ames-process-20260505-0
summary:
The Ames process is a process by which pure uranium metal is obtained. It can be achieved by mixing any of the uranium halides (commonly uranium tetrafluoride) with magnesium metal powder or aluminium metal powder. == History == The Ames process was used on August 3, 1942, by a group of chemists led by Frank Spedding and Harley Wilhelm at the Ames Laboratory as part of the Manhattan Project. It is a type of thermite-based purification, which was patented in 1895 by German chemist Hans Goldschmidt. Development of the Ames process came at a time of increased research into mass uranium-metal production. The desire for increased production was motivated by a fear of Nazi Germany's developing nuclear weapons before the Allies. The process originally involved mixing powdered uranium tetrafluoride and powdered magnesium together. This mixture was placed inside an iron pipe that was welded shut on one side and capped shut on another side. This container, called a "bomb" by Spedding, was placed into a furnace. When heated to a temperature of 1,500 °C (2,730 °F), the contents of the container reacted violently, leaving a 35-gram ingot of pure uranium metal. The process was quickly scaled up; by October 1942


id: amine-gas-treating-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amine_gas_treating-0.md
category: reference
title: Amine gas treating
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amine_gas_treating
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:56.042709+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: amine-gas-treating-20260505-0
summary:
Amine gas treating, also known as amine scrubbing, gas sweetening and acid gas removal, refers to a group of processes that use aqueous solutions of various alkylamines (commonly referred to simply as amines) to remove hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and carbon dioxide (CO2) from gases. It is a common unit process used in refineries, and is also used in petrochemical plants, natural gas processing plants and other industries. Processes within oil refineries or chemical processing plants that remove hydrogen sulfide are referred to as "sweetening" processes because the odor of the processed products is improved by the absence of "sour" hydrogen sulfide. An alternative to the use of amines involves membrane technology. However, membrane separation is less attractive due to the relatively high capital and operating costs as well as other technical factors. Many different amines are used in gas treating: Diethanolamine (DEA) Monoethanolamine (MEA) Methyldiethanolamine (MDEA) Diisopropanolamine (DIPA) Aminoethoxyethanol (Diglycolamine) (DGA) The most commonly used amines in industrial plants are the alkanolamines DEA, MEA, and MDEA. These amines are also used in many oil refineries to remove sour gases from liquid hydrocarbons such as liquified petroleum gas (LPG). == Description of a typical amine treater == Gases containing H2S or


id: amine-gas-treating-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amine_gas_treating-1.md
category: reference
title: Amine gas treating
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amine_gas_treating
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:56.042709+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: amine-gas-treating-20260505-0
summary:
Monoethanolamine: About 20 % for removing H2S and CO2, and about 30 % for removing only CO2, where the plant metallurgy is appropriate. Diethanolamine: About 25 to 35 % removing H2S and CO2 Methyldiethanolamine: About 30 to 55 % for removing H2S and CO2 Diglycolamine: About 40 to 50 % for removing H2S and CO2 The choice of amine concentration in the circulating aqueous solution depends upon several factors, involving the composition of the feed gas natural gas or petroleum refinery by-product gases that contain relatively low concentrations of both H2S and CO2 or whether the unit is treating gases with a high percentage of CO2 such as the offgas from the steam reforming process used in ammonia production or the flue gases from power plants. Both H2S and CO2 are acid gases and hence corrosive to unprotected carbon steel. Their corrosiveness are greatly enhanced in the presence of moisture. However, in an amine treating unit, CO2 is a stronger acid than H2S. Furthermore hydrogen sulfide can form a passivating film of iron sulfide that may act to protect the steel. When treating gases with a high percentage of CO2, control of the CO2 loading in the amine is important


id: amine-gas-treating-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amine_gas_treating-2.md
category: reference
title: Amine gas treating
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amine_gas_treating
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:56.042709+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: amine-gas-treating-20260505-0
summary:
Low pressure gas increases difficulty of transferring CO2 from the gas into amine Oxygen content of the gas can cause amine degradation and acid formation CO2 degradation of primary (and secondary) amines High energy consumption Very large facilities Finding a suitable location (enhanced oil recovery, deep saline aquifers, basaltic rocks...) to dispose of the removed CO2 The partial pressure is the driving force to transfer CO2 into the liquid phase. Under low pressure, this transfer is hard to achieve without increasing the reboilers' heat duty, which will result in higher costs. Primary and secondary amines, for example, MEA and DEA, will react with CO2 and form degradation products. O2 from the inlet gas will cause degradation as well. The degraded amine is no longer able to capture CO2, which decreases the overall carbon capture efficiency. Currently, a variety of amine mixtures are being synthesized and tested to achieve a more desirable set of overall properties for use in CO2 capture systems. One major focus is on lowering the energy required for solvent regeneration, which has a major impact on process costs. However, there are trade-offs to consider. For example, the energy required for regeneration is typically related to the driving


id: ammonia-production-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonia_production-0.md
category: reference
title: Ammonia production
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonia_production
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:57.215847+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ammonia-production-20260505-0
summary:
Ammonia production takes place worldwide, mostly in large-scale manufacturing plants that produce 240 million metric tonnes of ammonia (2023) annually. Based on the annual production in 2023 the major part (~70%) of the production facilities are based in China (29%), India (9.5%), USA (9.5%), Russia (9.5%), Indonesia (4%), Iran (2.9%), Egypt (2.7%), and middle Saudi Arabia (2.7%). 80% or more of ammonia is used as fertilizer. Ammonia is also used for the production of plastics, fibres, explosives, nitric acid (via the Ostwald process), and intermediates for dyes and pharmaceuticals. The industry contributes 1% to 2% of global CO2. Between 18–20 Mt of the gas is transported globally each year. == History == === Dry distillation === Before the start of World War I, most ammonia was obtained by the dry distillation of nitrogenous vegetable and animal products; by the reduction of nitrous acid and nitrites with hydrogen; and also by the decomposition of ammonium salts by alkaline hydroxides or by quicklime, the salt most generally used being the chloride (sal-ammoniac). === Frank–Caro process === Adolph Frank and Nikodem Caro found that Nitrogen could be fixed by using the same calcium carbide produced to make acetylene to form calcium-cyanamide, which could


id: ammonia-production-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonia_production-1.md
category: reference
title: Ammonia production
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonia_production
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:57.215847+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ammonia-production-20260505-0
summary:
=== Small-scale onsite plants === In April 2017, Japanese company Tsubame BHB implemented a method of ammonia synthesis that could allow economic production at scales 1-2 orders of magnitude below than ordinary plants with utilizing electrochemical catalyst. == Green ammonia == In 2024, the BBC announced numerous companies were attempting to reduce the 2% of global carbon dioxide emissions caused by the use/production of ammonia by producing the product in labs. The industry has become known as "green ammonia." When an existing blast furnace is modified to use biomass as its fuel, production of both green steel and green hydrogen/ammonia are feasible. == Byproducts and shortages due to shutdowns == One of the main industrial byproducts of ammonia production is CO2. In 2018, high oil prices resulted in an extended summer shutdown of European ammonia factories causing a commercial CO2 shortage, thus limiting production of CO2-based products such as beer and soft drinks. This situation repeated in September 2021 due to a 250-400% increase in the wholesale price of natural gas over the course of the year. == See also == Ammonia Amine gas treating Haber process Liquid nitrogen wash Hydrogen economy Methane pyrolysis == References == === Works cited


id: anodic-protection-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anodic_protection-0.md
category: reference
title: Anodic protection
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anodic_protection
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:58.383409+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anodic-protection-20260505-0
summary:
Anodic protection (AP) otherwise referred to as Anodic Control is a technique to control the corrosion of a metal surface by making it the anode of an electrochemical cell and controlling the electrode potential in a zone where the metal is passive. Anodic protection is used to protect metals that exhibit passivation in environments whereby the current density in the freely corroding state is significantly higher than the current density in the passive state over a wide range of potentials. Anodic protection is used for carbon steel storage tanks containing extreme pH environments including concentrated sulfuric acid and 50 percent caustic soda where cathodic protection is not suitable due to very high current requirements. In anodic protection potentiostat is used to maintain a metal at constant potential with respect to reference electrode. Out of three terminals of the potentiostat one is connected to tank to be protected, another to an auxiliary cathode (platinum) and the third to reference electrode. Thus, a potentiostat maintains a constant potential between tank and reference electrode. An anodic protection system includes an external power supply connected to auxiliary cathodes and controlled by a feedback signal from one or more reference electrodes. Careful design and control


id: anthraquinone-process-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthraquinone_process-0.md
category: reference
title: Anthraquinone process
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthraquinone_process
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:45:59.550481+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anthraquinone-process-20260505-0
summary:
The anthraquinone process, also called the Riedl–Pfleiderer process, is a process for the production of hydrogen peroxide, which was developed by IG Farben in the 1940s. The industrial production of hydrogen peroxide is based on the reduction of oxygen, as in the direct synthesis from the elements. Instead of hydrogen itself, however, a 2-alkyl-anthrahydroquinone, which is generated before from the corresponding 2-alkyl-anthraquinone by catalytic hydrogenation with palladium is used. Oxygen and the organic phase react under formation of the anthraquinone and hydrogen peroxide. Among other alkyl groups (R) ethyl- and tert-butyl- are used, e.g., 2-ethylanthraquinone. The hydrogen peroxide is then extracted with water and in a second step separated by fractional distillation from the water. The hydrogen peroxide accumulates as sump product. The anthraquinone acts as a catalyst, the overall reaction equation is therefore: H2 + O2 → H2O2 If ozone is used instead of oxygen, dihydrogen trioxide can be produced by this method. == References == == External links == The manufacture of hydrogen peroxide Archived 2019-02-03 at the Wayback Machine


id: asymmetric-hydrogenation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymmetric_hydrogenation-0.md
category: reference
title: Asymmetric hydrogenation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymmetric_hydrogenation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:00.770091+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: asymmetric-hydrogenation-20260505-0
summary:
Asymmetric hydrogenation is a chemical reaction that adds two atoms of hydrogen to a target (substrate) molecule with three-dimensional spatial selectivity. Critically, this selectivity does not come from the target molecule itself, but from other reagents or catalysts present in the reaction. This allows spatial information (what chemists refer to as chirality) to transfer from one molecule to the target, forming the product as a single enantiomer. The chiral information is most commonly contained in a catalyst and, in this case, the information in a single molecule of catalyst may be transferred to many substrate molecules, amplifying the amount of chiral information present. Similar processes occur in nature, where a chiral molecule like an enzyme can catalyse the introduction of a chiral centre to give a product as a single enantiomer, such as amino acids, that a cell needs to function. By imitating this process, chemists can generate many novel synthetic molecules that interact with biological systems in specific ways, leading to new pharmaceutical agents and agrochemicals. The importance of asymmetric hydrogenation in both academia and industry contributed to two of its pioneers — William Standish Knowles and Ryōji Noyori — being collectively awarded one half of the 2001 Nobel


id: asymmetric-hydrogenation-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymmetric_hydrogenation-1.md
category: reference
title: Asymmetric hydrogenation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymmetric_hydrogenation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:00.770091+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: asymmetric-hydrogenation-20260505-0
summary:
hydrides, which transfer to the unsaturated substrate diamines, which interact with substrate and with base activator by the second coordination sphere diphosphine, which confers asymmetry. The "Noyori-class" of catalysts are often referred to as bifunctional catalysts to emphasize the fact that both the metal and the (amine) ligand are functional. In the hydrogenation of C=O containing substrates, the mechanism was long assumed to operate by a six membered pericyclic transition state/intermediate whereby the hydrido ruthenium hydride center (HRu-NH) interacts with the carbonyl substrate R2C=O. More recent DFT and experimental studies have shown that this model is largely incorrect. Instead, the amine backbone interacts strongly with the base activator, which often is used in large excess. However in both cases, the substrate does not bond directly with the metal centre, thus making it a great example of an outer sphere mechanism. == Metals == Practical AH employ platinum metal-based catalysts. === Base metals === Iron is a popular research target for many catalytic processes, owing largely to its low cost and low toxicity relative to other transition metals. Asymmetric hydrogenation methods using iron have been realized, although in terms of rates and selectivity, they are inferior to catalysts based on precious


id: asymmetric-hydrogenation-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymmetric_hydrogenation-2.md
category: reference
title: Asymmetric hydrogenation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymmetric_hydrogenation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:00.770091+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: asymmetric-hydrogenation-20260505-0
summary:
Conversely to the case of olefins, asymmetric hydrogenation of enamines has favoured diphosphine-type ligands; excellent results have been achieved with both iridium- and rhodium-based systems. However, even the best systems often suffer from low ee's and a lack of generality. Certain pyrrolidine-derived enamines of aromatic ketones are amenable to asymmetrically hydrogenation with cationic rhodium(I) phosphonite systems, and I2 and acetic acid system with ee values usually above 90% and potentially as high as 99.9%. A similar system using iridium(I) and a very closely related phosphoramidite ligand is effective for the asymmetric hydrogenation of pyrrolidine-type enamines where the double bond was inside the ring: in other words, of dihydropyrroles. In both cases, the enantioselectivity dropped substantially when the ring size was increased from five to six. === Imines and ketones === Ketones and imines are related functional groups, and effective technologies for the asymmetric hydrogenation of each are also closely related. Early examples are Noyori's ruthenium-chiral diphosphine-diamine system. For carbonyl and imine substrates, end-on, η1 coordination can compete with η2 mode. For η1-bound substrates, the hydrogen-accepting carbon is removed from the catalyst and resists hydrogenation. Iridium/P,N ligand-based systems have been effective for some ketones and imines. For example, a consistent system


id: asymmetric-hydrogenation-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymmetric_hydrogenation-3.md
category: reference
title: Asymmetric hydrogenation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asymmetric_hydrogenation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:00.770091+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: asymmetric-hydrogenation-20260505-0
summary:
An alternative technique and one that allows more control over the structural and electronic properties of active catalytic sites is the immobilization of catalysts that have been developed for homogeneous catalysis on a heterogeneous support. Covalent bonding of the catalyst to a polymer or other solid support is perhaps most common, although immobilization of the catalyst may also be achieved by adsorption onto a surface, ion exchange, or even physical encapsulation. One drawback of this approach is the potential for the proximity of the support to change the behaviour of the catalyst, lowering the enantioselectivity of the reaction. To avoid this, the catalyst is often bound to the support by a long linker though cases are known where the proximity of the support can actually enhance the performance of the catalyst. The final approach involves the construction of MOFs that incorporate chiral reaction sites from a number of different components, potentially including chiral and achiral organic ligands, structural metal ions, catalytically active metal ions, and/or preassembled catalytically active organometallic cores. One of these involved ruthenium-based catalysts. As little as 0.005 mol% of such catalysts proved sufficient to achieve the asymmetric hydrogenation of aryl ketones, although the usual conditions featured 0.1


id: atomic-layer-etching-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_layer_etching-0.md
category: reference
title: Atomic layer etching
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_layer_etching
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:01.933848+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: atomic-layer-etching-20260505-0
summary:
Atomic layer etching (ALE) is an emerging technique in semiconductor manufacture, in which a sequence alternating between self-limiting chemical modification steps which affect only the top atomic layers of the wafer, and etching steps which remove only the chemically-modified areas, allows the removal of individual atomic layers. The standard example is etching of silicon by alternating reaction with chlorine and etching with argon ions. This is a better-controlled process than reactive ion etching, though the issue with commercial use of it has been throughput; sophisticated gas handling is required, and removal rates of one atomic layer per second are around the state of the art. The equivalent process for depositing material is atomic layer deposition (ALD). ALD is substantially more mature, having been used by Intel for high-κ dielectric layers since 2007 and in Finland in the fabrication of thin film electroluminescent devices since 1985. == See also == Single layer etching == References == == External links == ECS-JSS focus journal on atomic layer etch Overview of atomic layer etching in the semiconductor industry


id: atomic-vapor-laser-isotope-separation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_vapor_laser_isotope_separation-0.md
category: reference
title: Atomic vapor laser isotope separation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_vapor_laser_isotope_separation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:03.097326+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: atomic-vapor-laser-isotope-separation-20260505-0
summary:
Atomic vapor laser isotope separation (AVLIS) is a method by which specially tuned lasers are used to separate isotopes of uranium using selective ionization of hyperfine transitions. A similar technology, using molecules instead of atoms, is molecular laser isotope separation (MLIS). Natural uranium consists of a large mass of 238U and a much smaller mass of fissile 235U. Traditionally, the 235U is separated from the mass by dissolving it in acid to produce uranium hexafluoride and then using gas centrifuges to separate the isotopes. Each trip through the centrifuge "enriches" the amount of 235U and leaves behind depleted uranium. In contrast, AVLIS produces much higher enrichment in a single step without the need to mix it with acid. The technology could, in principle, also be used for isotope separation of other elements, which is uneconomic outside specialist applications with current non-laser-based technologies for most elements. As the process does not require the feedstock to be chemically processed before enrichment, it is also suitable for use with used nuclear fuel from light water reactors and other nuclear waste. At present, extracting 235U from those sources is only economical up to a degree, leaving tons of 235U still contained in waste products.


id: ballotechnics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballotechnics-0.md
category: reference
title: Ballotechnics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballotechnics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:04.284208+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ballotechnics-20260505-0
summary:
In chemistry, ballotechnics are a class of materials that undergo a chemical reaction when quickly subjected to extreme pressures. These pressures are of the order of tens of thousands of atmospheres, and the chemical reactions are initiated by shock waves transmitted through the material. The reaction progresses with little change in volume, and are therefore not "explosive", i.e. the energy is released in the form of heat, rather than work. == Research == While most of the research performed on ballotechnics originates from Sandia National Laboratories, the researchers involved primarily focus on chemical and simulation research, not nuclear weapons research. Other research has been performed at the Georgia Institute of Technology. A critical reevaluation was written in 1995, concluding that shock compression data do not provide evidence for strong exothermic reactions, but this report was not publicly released by Sandia until 2017. == See also == Entropic explosion - The reverse of this, an explosion with a large change in volume but relatively little heat produced. == References ==


id: bayer-process-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayer_process-0.md
category: reference
title: Bayer process
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayer_process
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:05.458075+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bayer-process-20260505-0
summary:
The Bayer process is the principal industrial means of refining bauxite to produce alumina (aluminium oxide) and was developed by Carl Josef Bayer. Bauxite, the most important ore of aluminium, contains only 30–60% aluminium oxide (Al2O3), the rest being a mixture of silica, various iron oxides, and titanium dioxide. The aluminium oxide must be further purified before it can be refined into aluminium. The Bayer process is also the main source of gallium as a byproduct despite low extraction yields. == Process == Bauxite ore is a mixture of hydrated aluminium oxides and compounds of other elements such as iron. The aluminium compounds in the bauxite may be present as gibbsite (Al(OH)3), böhmite (γ-AlO(OH)) or diaspore (α-AlO(OH)); the different forms of the aluminium component and the impurities dictate the extraction conditions. Aluminium oxides and hydroxides are amphoteric, meaning that they are both acidic and basic. The solubility of Al(III) in water is very low but increases substantially at either high or low pH. In the Bayer process, bauxite ore is heated in a pressure vessel along with a sodium hydroxide solution (caustic soda) at a temperature of 150 to 200 °C (302 to 392 °F). At these temperatures, the aluminium


id: bayer-process-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayer_process-1.md
category: reference
title: Bayer process
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayer_process
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:05.458075+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bayer-process-20260505-0
summary:
On October 4, 2010, the Ajka alumina plant in Hungary had an incident where the western dam of its red mud reservoir collapsed. The reservoir was filled with 700,000 cubic metres (25 million cubic feet) of a mixture of red mud and water with a pH of 12. The mixture was released into the valley of Torna river and flooded parts of the city of Devecser and the villages of Kolontár and Somlóvásárhely. The incident resulted in 10 deaths, more than a hundred injuries, and contamination in lakes and rivers. == History == In 1859, Henri Étienne Sainte-Claire Deville in France developed a method for making alumina by heating bauxite in sodium carbonate, Na2CO3, at 1,200 °C (2,190 °F), leaching the sodium aluminate formed with water, then precipitating aluminium hydroxide by carbon dioxide, CO2, which was then filtered and dried. This process is known as the Deville–Pechiney process. In 1886, the Hall–Héroult electrolytic aluminium process was invented, and the cyanidation process was invented in 1887. The Bayer process was invented in 1888 by Carl Josef Bayer. Working in Saint Petersburg, Russia to develop a method for supplying alumina to the textile industry (it was used as a mordant in dyeing


id: becher-process-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Becher_process-0.md
category: reference
title: Becher process
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Becher_process
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:06.641562+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: becher-process-20260505-0
summary:
The Becher process is a process to produce rutile, a form of titanium dioxide, from the ore ilmenite. Although it is competitive with the chloride process and the sulfate process, the Becher process is not used on scale. With the idealized formula FeTiO3, ilmenite contains 55-65% titanium dioxide, the rest being iron oxide. The Becher process, like other beneficiation processes, aims to remove iron. The Becher process exploits the conversion of the ferrous iron (FeO) to ferric iron (Fe2O3). Ilmenite ores can be upgraded to synthetic rutile by increasing their TiO2 content to between 90 and 96 percent. == History == This technology was developed in the early 1960s in Western Australia by a joint initiative between industry and government. The process was named after Robert Gordon Becher, who while working at the Western Australian Government Chemical Laboratories (the precursor to ChemCentre) invented, developed and introduced the technique to the Western Australian Mineral Sands industry. The process was patented in 1961. == Process == The Becher process is suitable for weathered ilmenite that has low concentrations of chromium and magnesium. There are four steps involved in removing the iron portion of the ilmenite: Oxidation Reduction Aeration Leaching === Oxidation ===


id: biochemical-cascade-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemical_cascade-0.md
category: reference
title: Biochemical cascade
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemical_cascade
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:07.942614+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biochemical-cascade-20260505-0
summary:
A biochemical cascade, also known as a signaling cascade or signaling pathway, is a series of chemical reactions that occur within a biological cell when initiated by a stimulus. This stimulus, known as a first messenger, acts on a receptor that is transduced to the cell interior through second messengers which amplify the signal and transfer it to effector molecules, causing the cell to respond to the initial stimulus. Most biochemical cascades are series of events, in which one event triggers the next, in a linear fashion. At each step of the signaling cascade, various controlling factors are involved to regulate cellular actions, in order to respond effectively to cues about their changing internal and external environments. An example would be the coagulation cascade of secondary hemostasis which leads to fibrin formation, and thus, the initiation of blood coagulation. Another example, sonic hedgehog signaling pathway, is one of the key regulators of embryonic development and is present in all bilaterians. Signaling proteins give cells information to make the embryo develop properly. When the pathway malfunctions, it can result in diseases like basal cell carcinoma. Recent studies point to the role of hedgehog signaling in regulating adult stem cells involved in


id: biochemical-cascade-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemical_cascade-1.md
category: reference
title: Biochemical cascade
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemical_cascade
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:07.942614+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biochemical-cascade-20260505-0
summary:
=== Examples of biochemical cascades === In biochemistry, several important enzymatic cascades and signal transduction cascades participate in metabolic pathways or signaling networks, in which enzymes are usually involved to catalyze the reactions. For example, the tissue factor pathway in the coagulation cascade of secondary hemostasis is the primary pathway leading to fibrin formation, and thus, the initiation of blood coagulation. The pathways are a series of reactions, in which a zymogen (inactive enzyme precursor) of a serine protease and its glycoprotein co-factors are activated to become active components that then catalyze the next reaction in the cascade, ultimately resulting in cross-linked fibrin. Another example, sonic hedgehog signaling pathway, is one of the key regulators of embryonic development and is present in all bilaterians. Different parts of the embryo have different concentrations of hedgehog signaling proteins, which give cells information to make the embryo develop properly and correctly into a head or a tail. When the pathway malfunctions, it can result in diseases like basal cell carcinoma. Recent studies point to the role of hedgehog signaling in regulating adult stem cells involved in maintenance and regeneration of adult tissues. The pathway has also been implicated in the development of some


id: biochemical-cascade-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemical_cascade-2.md
category: reference
title: Biochemical cascade
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemical_cascade
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:07.942614+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biochemical-cascade-20260505-0
summary:
=== Neurons === Purinergic signalling has an essential role at interactions between neurons and glia cells, allowing these to detect action potentials and modulate neuronal activity, contributing for intra and extracellular homeostasis regulation. Besides purinergic neurotransmitter, ATP acts as a trophic factor at cellular development and growth, being involved on microglia activation and migration, and also on axonal myelination by oligodendrocytes. There are two main types of purinergic receptors, P1 binding to adenosine, and P2 binding to ATP or ADP, presenting different signalling cascades. The Nrf2/ARE signalling pathway has a fundamental role at fighting against oxidative stress, to which neurons are especially vulnerable due to its high oxygen consumption and high lipid content. This neuroprotective pathway involves control of neuronal activity by perisynaptic astrocytes and neuronal glutamate release, with the establishment of tripartite synapses. The Nrf2/ARE activation leads to a higher expression of enzymes involved in glutathione syntheses and metabolism, that have a key role in antioxidant response. The LKB1/NUAK1 signalling pathway regulates terminal axon branching at cortical neurons, via local immobilized mitochondria capture. Besides NUAK1, LKB1 kinase acts under other effectors enzymes as SAD-A/B and MARK, therefore regulating neuronal polarization and axonal growth, respectively. These kinase cascades implicates also


id: biochemical-cascade-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemical_cascade-3.md
category: reference
title: Biochemical cascade
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemical_cascade
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:07.942614+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biochemical-cascade-20260505-0
summary:
=== Lymphocytes === The main goal of biochemical cascades in lymphocytes is the secretion of molecules that can suppress altered cells or eliminate pathogenic agents, through proliferation, differentiation and activation of these cells. Therefore, the antigenic receptors play a central role in signal transduction in lymphocytes, because when antigens interact with them lead to a cascade of signal events. These receptors, that recognize the antigen soluble (B cells) or linked to a molecule on Antigen Presenting Cells (T cells), do not have long cytoplasm tails, so they are anchored to signal proteins, which contain a long cytoplasmic tails with a motif that can be phosphorylated (ITAM – immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif) and resulting in different signal pathways. The antigen receptor and signal protein form a stable complex, named BCR or TCR, in B or T cells, respectively. The family Src is essential for signal transduction in these cells, because it is responsible for phosphorylation of ITAMs. Therefore, Lyn and Lck, in lymphocytes B and T, respectively, phosphorylate immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motifs after the antigen recognition and the conformational change of the receptor, which leads to the binding of Syk/Zap-70 kinases to ITAM and its activation. Syk kinase is specific of


id: biochemical-cascade-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemical_cascade-4.md
category: reference
title: Biochemical cascade
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemical_cascade
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:07.942614+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biochemical-cascade-20260505-0
summary:
=== Stem cells === Self-renewal and differentiation abilities are exceptional properties of stem cells. These cells can be classified by their differentiation capacity, which progressively decrease with development, in totipotents, pluripotents, multipotents and unipotents. Self-renewal process is highly regulated from cell cycle and genetic transcription control. There are some signaling pathways, such as LIF/JAK/STAT3 (Leukemia inhibitory factor/Janus kinase/Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3) and BMP/SMADs/Id (Bone morphogenetic proteins/ Mothers against decapentaplegic/ Inhibitor of differentiation), mediated by transcription factors, epigenetic regulators and others components, and they are responsible for self-renewal genes expression and inhibition of differentiation genes expression, respectively. At cell cycle level there is an increase of complexity of the mechanisms in somatic stem cells. However, it is observed a decrease of self-renewal potential with age. These mechanisms are regulated by p16Ink4a-CDK4/6-Rb and p19Arf-p53-P21Cip1 signaling pathways. Embryonic stem cells have constitutive cyclin E-CDK2 activity, which hyperphosphorylates and inactivates Rb. This leads to a short G1 phase of the cell cycle with rapid G1-S transition and little dependence on mitogenic signals or D cyclins for S phase entry. In fetal stem cells, mitogens promote a relatively rapid G1-S transition through cooperative action of cyclin D-CDK4/6 and cyclin E-CDK2 to inactivate


id: biochemical-cascade-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemical_cascade-5.md
category: reference
title: Biochemical cascade
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemical_cascade
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:07.942614+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biochemical-cascade-20260505-0
summary:
=== Spermatozoon === Spermatozoon is the male gamete. After ejaculation this cell is not mature, so it can not fertilize the oocyte. To have the ability to fertilize the female gamete, this cell suffers capacitation and acrosome reaction in female reproductive tract. The signaling pathways best described for spermatozoon involve these processes. The cAMP/PKA signaling pathway leads to sperm cells capacitation; however, adenylyl cyclase in sperm cells is different from the somatic cells. Adenylyl cyclase in spermatozoon does not recognize G proteins, so it is stimulated by bicarbonate and Ca2+ ions. Then, it converts adenosine triphosphate into cyclic AMP, which activates Protein kinase A. PKA leads to protein tyrosine phosphorylation. Phospholipase C (PLC) is involved in acrosome reaction. ZP3 is a glycoprotein present in zona pelucida and it interacts with receptors in spermatozoon. So, ZP3 can activate G protein coupled receptors and tyrosine kinase receptors, that leads to production of PLC. PLC cleaves the phospholipid phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) into diacyl glycerol (DAG) and inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate. IP3 is released as a soluble structure into the cytosol and DAG remains bound to the membrane. IP3 binds to IP3 receptors, present in acrosome membrane. In addition, calcium and DAG together work to activate


id: biochemical-cascade-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemical_cascade-6.md
category: reference
title: Biochemical cascade
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemical_cascade
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:07.942614+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biochemical-cascade-20260505-0
summary:
Legend: Y – Yes, N – No; BIND – Biomolecular Interaction Network Database, DIP – Database of Interacting Proteins, GNPV – Genome Network Platform Viewer, HPRD = Human Protein Reference Database, MINT – Molecular Interaction database, MIPS – Munich Information center for Protein Sequences, UNIHI – Unified Human Interactome, OPHID – Online Predicted Human Interaction Database, EcoCyc – Encyclopaedia of E. Coli Genes and Metabolism, MetaCyc – aMetabolic Pathway database, KEGG – Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes, PANTHER – Protein Analysis Through Evolutionary Relationship database, STKE – Signal Transduction Knowledge Environment, PID – The Pathway Interaction Database, BioPP – Biological Pathway Publisher. A comprehensive list of resources can be found at http://www.pathguide.org. == Pathway-related databases and tools == === KEGG === The increasing amount of genomic and molecular information is the basis for understanding higher-order biological systems, such as the cell and the organism, and their interactions with the environment, as well as for medical, industrial and other practical applications. The KEGG resource provides a reference knowledge base for linking genomes to biological systems, categorized as building blocks in the genomic space (KEGG GENES), the chemical space (KEGG LIGAND), wiring diagrams of interaction networks and reaction networks (KEGG PATHWAY),


id: biochemical-cascade-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemical_cascade-7.md
category: reference
title: Biochemical cascade
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemical_cascade
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:07.942614+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biochemical-cascade-20260505-0
summary:
== Pathway-oriented approaches == In the post-genomic age, high-throughput sequencing and gene/protein profiling techniques have transformed biological research by enabling comprehensive monitoring of a biological system, yielding a list of differentially expressed genes or proteins, which is useful in identifying genes that may have roles in a given phenomenon or phenotype. With DNA microarrays and genome-wide gene engineering, it is possible to screen global gene expression profiles to contribute a wealth of genomic data to the public domain. With RNA interference, it is possible to distill the inferences contained in the experimental literature and primary databases into knowledge bases that consist of annotated representations of biological pathways. In this case, individual genes and proteins are known to be involved in biological processes, components, or structures, as well as how and where gene products interact with each other. Pathway-oriented approaches for analyzing microarray data, by grouping long lists of individual genes, proteins, and/or other biological molecules according to the pathways they are involved in into smaller sets of related genes or proteins, which reduces the complexity, have proven useful for connecting genomic data to specific biological processes and systems. Identifying active pathways that differ between two conditions can have more explanatory


id: biochemical-cascade-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemical_cascade-8.md
category: reference
title: Biochemical cascade
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemical_cascade
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:07.942614+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biochemical-cascade-20260505-0
summary:
=== Alzheimer's disease (AD) === Synaptic degeneration and death of nerve cells are defining features of Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most prevalent age-related neurodegenerative disorders. In AD, neurons in the hippocampus and basal forebrain (brain regions that subserve learning and memory functions) are selectively vulnerable. Studies of postmortem brain tissue from AD people have provided evidence for increased levels of oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction and impaired glucose uptake in vulnerable neuronal populations. Studies of animal and cell culture models of AD suggest that increased levels of oxidative stress (membrane lipid peroxidation, in particular) may disrupt neuronal energy metabolism and ion homeostasis, by impairing the function of membrane ion-motive ATPases, glucose and glutamate transporters. Such oxidative and metabolic compromise may thereby render neurons vulnerable to excitotoxicity and apoptosis. Recent studies suggest that AD can manifest systemic alterations in energy metabolism (e.g., increased insulin resistance and dysregulation of glucose metabolism). Emerging evidence that dietary restriction can forestall the development of AD is consistent with a major "metabolic" component to these disorders, and provides optimism that these devastating brain disorders of aging may be largely preventable. == References == == External links == KEGG resource DAVID tools Archived 16 September 2014 at the


id: bioconversion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioconversion-0.md
category: reference
title: Bioconversion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioconversion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:09.109620+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bioconversion-20260505-0
summary:
Bioconversion, also known as biotransformation, is the conversion of organic materials, such as plant or animal waste, into usable products or energy sources by biological processes or agents, such as certain microorganisms. One example is the industrial production of cortisone, which one step is the bioconversion of progesterone to 11-alpha-Hydroxyprogesterone by Rhizopus nigricans. Another example is the bioconversion of glycerol to 1,3-propanediol, which is part of scientific research for many decades. Another example of bioconversion is the conversion of organic materials, such as plant or animal waste, into usable products or energy sources by biological processes or agents, such as certain microorganisms, some detritivores or enzymes. In the US, the Bioconversion Science and Technology group performs multidisciplinary R&D for the Department of Energy's (DOE) relevant applications of bioprocessing, especially with biomass. Bioprocessing combines the disciplines of chemical engineering, microbiology and biochemistry. The Group 's primary role is investigation of the use of microorganism, microbial consortia and microbial enzymes in bioenergy research. New cellulosic ethanol conversion processes have enabled the variety and volume of feedstock that can be bioconverted to expand rapidly. Feedstock now includes materials derived from plant or animal waste such as paper, auto-fluff, tires, fabric, construction materials, municipal


id: birkeland-eyde-process-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birkeland–Eyde_process-0.md
category: reference
title: Birkeland–Eyde process
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birkeland–Eyde_process
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:10.310451+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: birkeland-eyde-process-20260505-0
summary:
The Birkeland–Eyde process was one of the competing industrial processes in the beginning of nitrogen-based fertilizer production. It is a multi-step nitrogen fixation reaction that uses electrical arcs to react atmospheric nitrogen (N2) with oxygen (O2), ultimately producing nitric acid (HNO3) with water. The resultant nitric acid was then used as a source of nitrate (NO−3) in the reaction HNO3 + H2O → H3O+ + NO−3 which may take place in the presence of water or another proton acceptor. It was developed by Norwegian industrialist and scientist Kristian Birkeland along with his business partner Sam Eyde in 1903, based on a method used by Henry Cavendish in 1784. A factory based on the process was built in Rjukan and Notodden in Norway, combined with the building of large hydroelectric power facilities. The Birkeland–Eyde process is relatively inefficient in terms of energy consumption. Therefore, in the 1910s and 1920s, it was gradually replaced in Norway by a combination of the Haber process and the Ostwald process. The Haber process produces ammonia (NH3) from molecular nitrogen (N2) and hydrogen (H2), the latter usually but not necessarily produced by steam reforming methane (CH4) gas in current practice. The ammonia from the Haber process


id: bleaching-of-wood-pulp-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bleaching_of_wood_pulp-0.md
category: reference
title: Bleaching of wood pulp
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bleaching_of_wood_pulp
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:11.463710+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bleaching-of-wood-pulp-20260505-0
summary:
Bleaching of wood pulp is the chemical processing of wood pulp to lighten its color and whiten the pulp. The primary product of wood pulp is paper, for which whiteness (similar to, but distinct from brightness) is an important characteristic. These processes and chemistry are also applicable to the bleaching of non-wood pulps, such as those made from bamboo or kenaf. == Paper brightness == Brightness is the amount of incident light reflected from paper under specified conditions, usually reported as the percentage of light reflected, so a higher number means a brighter or whiter paper. In the US, the TAPPI T 452 or T 525 standards are used. The international community uses ISO standards. The table shows how the two systems rate high-brightness papers, but there is no simple way to convert between the two systems because the test methods are so different. The ISO rating is higher and can be over 100. This is because contemporary white paper incorporates fluorescent whitening agents (FWA). Because the ISO standard only measures a narrow range of blue light, it is not directly comparable to human vision of whiteness or brightness. Newsprint ranges from 55 to 75 ISO brightness. Writing and printer


id: bleaching-of-wood-pulp-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bleaching_of_wood_pulp-1.md
category: reference
title: Bleaching of wood pulp
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bleaching_of_wood_pulp
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:11.463710+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bleaching-of-wood-pulp-20260505-0
summary:
Cl2 + H2O ⇌ H+ + Cl− + HClO At pH > 8 the dominant species is hypochlorite, ClO−, which is also useful for lignin removal. Sodium hypochlorite can be purchased or generated in situ by reacting chlorine with sodium hydroxide: 2 NaOH + Cl2 ⇌ NaOCl + NaCl + H2O The main objection to the use of chlorine for bleaching pulp is the large amounts of soluble organochlorine compounds produced and released into the environment. === Chlorine dioxide === Chlorine dioxide, ClO2 is an unstable gas with moderate solubility in water. It is usually generated in an aqueous solution and used immediately because it decomposes and is explosive in higher concentrations. It is produced by reacting sodium chlorate with a reducing agent like sulfur dioxide: 2 NaClO3 + H2SO4 + SO2 → 2 ClO2 + 2 NaHSO4 Chlorine dioxide is sometimes used in combination with chlorine, but it is used alone in ECF (elemental-chlorine-free) bleaching sequences. It is used at moderately acidic pH (3.5 to 6). The use of chlorine dioxide minimizes the amount of organochlorine compounds produced. Chlorine dioxide (ECF technology) currently is the most important bleaching method worldwide. About 95% of all bleached kraft pulp is made


id: bleaching-of-wood-pulp-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bleaching_of_wood_pulp-2.md
category: reference
title: Bleaching of wood pulp
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bleaching_of_wood_pulp
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:11.463710+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bleaching-of-wood-pulp-20260505-0
summary:
The bleaching of chemical pulps has the potential to cause significant environmental damage, primarily through the release of organic materials into waterways. Pulp mills are almost always located near large bodies of water because they require substantial quantities of water for their processes. An increased public awareness of environmental issues from the 1970s and 1980s, as evidenced by the formation of organizations like Greenpeace, influenced the pulping industry and governments to address the release of these materials into the environment. Conventional bleaching using elemental chlorine produces and releases into the environment large amounts of chlorinated organic compounds, including chlorinated dioxins. Dioxins are recognized as a persistent environmental pollutant, regulated internationally by the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants. Dioxins are highly toxic, and health effects on humans include reproductive, developmental, immune and hormonal problems. They are known to be carcinogenic. Over 90% of human exposure is through food, primarily meat, dairy, fish and shellfish, as dioxins accumulate in the food chain in the fatty tissue of animals. As a result, from the 1990s onwards, the use of elemental chlorine in the delignification process was substantially reduced and replaced with ECF (elemental chlorine free) and TCF (totally chlorine free) bleaching processes.


id: bma-process-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMA_process-0.md
category: reference
title: BMA process
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMA_process
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:12.608080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bma-process-20260505-0
summary:
The BMA process or Degussa process is a chemical process developed by the German chemical company Degussa for the production of hydrogen cyanide from methane and ammonia in presence of a platinum catalyst. Hydrogen cyanide is used in the chemical industry for the production of intermediate chemicals like acrylonitrile, methyl methacrylate, and adiponitrile. The name is abbreviated from Blausäure (hydrogen cyanide) from Methan (methane) and Ammoniak (ammonia) in German. The reaction equation is analog to the steam methane reforming (SMR) reaction of methane and water: CH4 + NH3 → HCN + 3 H2, ΔHR = 251 kJ / mol The reaction is extremely endothermic. The reactants react in a Platinum-covered pipe at approximately 1400 °C. The reaction mixture contains around 23 Vol.-% HCN and 72 Vol.-% H2 as well as minor quantities of ammonia, nitrogen, and unreacted methane. The gaseous mixture is introduced in a scrubber and treated with an ammonia solution (producing ammonium cyanide) allowing the other gaseous components: H2, CH4, and N2 to pass through. In a second step the HCN is released by acidification of the solution, followed by a final distillation of the hydrogen cyanide. Because of the highly endothermic reaction, the BMA process is of


id: boiler-blowdown-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiler_blowdown-0.md
category: reference
title: Boiler blowdown
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiler_blowdown
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:13.787359+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: boiler-blowdown-20260505-0
summary:
Boiler blowdown is water intentionally wasted from a boiler to avoid concentration of impurities during continuing evaporation of steam. The water is blown out of the boiler with some force by steam pressure within the boiler. Bottom blowdown used with early boilers caused abrupt downward adjustment of boiler water level and was customarily expelled downward to avoid the safety hazard of showering hot water on nearby individuals. == Background == A steam boiler evaporates liquid water to form steam, or gaseous water, and requires frequent replenishment of boiler feedwater for the continuous production of steam required by most boiler applications. Water is a capable solvent, and will dissolve small amounts of solids from piping and containers including the boiler. Continuing evaporation of steam concentrates dissolved impurities until they reach levels potentially damaging to steam production within the boiler. Without blowdown, impurities would reach saturation levels and begin to precipitate within the boiler. Impurity concentrations are highest where steam is being produced near heat exchange surfaces. Precipitation would be expected to occur in the form of scale deposits on those heat exchange surfaces. Scale deposits thermally insulate heat exchange surfaces initially decreasing the rate of steam generation, and potentially causing boiler


id: borax-method-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borax_method-0.md
category: reference
title: Borax method
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borax_method
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:14.970192+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: borax-method-20260505-0
summary:
The borax method is a technique of artisanal gold mining, which uses borax as a flux to purify gold concentrates. By using borax, no mercury flour is produced, hence gold recovery increases. == History == The borax method of gold extraction has been used by artisanal gold miners in the Benguet area north of Manila in the Philippines for more than 30 years. Some believe it was in practice as early as the 1900s. The method is increasingly being seen as a safe alternative to the widespread use of toxic mercury in artisanal gold mining today. About 30% of the world's mercury emissions comes from small scale mining. Efforts are being made to revive the method and spread its use. As of 2012, around 15,000 artisanal gold miners in a small area of Luzon, the main island in the northern portion of the Philippines, use this method exclusively. The mineral is inexpensive and easily available, and the miners have reportedly found that more gold is recovered through its use. == Chemistry == In contrast to the use of mercury (which relies on amalgamation of the gold to coalesce it and separate it from impurities) this method relies on borax's ability


id: bosch-meiser-process-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosch–Meiser_process-0.md
category: reference
title: Bosch–Meiser process
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosch–Meiser_process
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:16.158874+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bosch-meiser-process-20260505-0
summary:
The Bosch–Meiser process is an industrial process for the large-scale manufacturing of urea, a valuable nitrogenous chemical. It was patented in 1922 and named after its discoverers, the German chemists Carl Bosch and Wilhelm Meiser. The whole process consists of two main equilibrium reactions, with incomplete conversion of the reactants. The first, called carbamate formation: the fast exothermic reaction of liquid ammonia with gaseous carbon dioxide (CO2) at high temperature and pressure to form ammonium carbamate ([NH4]+[NH2COO]−): 2 NH3 + CO2 ⇌ [NH4]+[NH2COO]− (ΔH = −117 kJ/mol at 110 atm and 160 °C) The second, called urea conversion: the slower endothermic decomposition of ammonium carbamate into urea and water: [NH4]+[NH2COO]− ⇌ CO(NH2)2 + H2O (ΔH = +15.5 kJ/mol at 160–180 °C) The overall conversion of NH3 and CO2 to urea is exothermic, with the reaction heat from the first reaction driving the second. The conditions that favor urea formation (high temperature) have an unfavorable effect on the carbamate formation equilibrium. The process conditions are a compromise: the ill-effect on the first reaction of the high temperature (around 190 °C) needed for the second is compensated for by conducting the process under high pressure (140–175 bar), which favors the first reaction.


id: brin-process-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brin_process-0.md
category: reference
title: Brin process
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brin_process
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:17.336792+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: brin-process-20260505-0
summary:
Brin process is a now-obsolete industrial scale production process for oxygen. In this process barium oxide reacts at 500–600 °C with air to form barium peroxide which decomposes at above 800 °C by releasing oxygen. 2 BaO + O2 ⇌ 2 BaO2 The reaction was discovered by Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac and Louis-Jacques Thenard in 1811 and Jean-Baptiste Boussingault tried to use this reaction to establish a process to produce oxygen in 1852. The process worked only for a few cycles and then became inefficient. Two students of Boussingault, Quentin and Arthur Leon Brin, discovered that traces of carbon dioxide formed barium carbonate. Removing the carbon dioxide with sodium hydroxide solved this problem. In 1884 they opened a factory producing oxygen by their improved process. In the commercial process, oxygen capture and release was controlled by pressure rather than temperature, with oxygen being captured at high pressure and released at low pressure. This allowed a faster change between the capture and release phases, which would last one to two hours. The company was first named Brins Oxygen Company after the two brothers. In 1906 it was renamed as the British Oxygen Company. One major application of the oxygen was the use for


id: burton-process-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burton_process-0.md
category: reference
title: Burton process
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burton_process
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:18.510217+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: burton-process-20260505-0
summary:
The Burton process is a thermal cracking process invented by William Merriam Burton and Robert E. Humphreys, both of whom held a PhD in chemistry from Johns Hopkins University. The process they developed is commonly referred to as the Burton process. However, it should be recognized as the Burton-Humphreys process, as both individuals played pivotal roles in its development. The legal dispute surrounding this matter was eventually settled, although the decision primarily recognized Burton's contributions. The process involves the destructive distillation of crude oil, which is heated under pressure in a still. The innovative design of this still allows various products to emerge from a bubble tower at different temperatures and pressures. One crucial aspect of the process is that it significantly increased gasoline production from various types of oil, more than doubling the output. The first large-scale implementation of these towers occurred when Standard Oil of Indiana made the decision to construct 120 stills using an authorized budget of $709,000 in 1911. Notably, this decision coincided with the US Supreme Court's ruling to dissolve the Standard Oil Trust. This thermal cracking process was patented on January 7, 1913 (Patent No. 1,049,667). The first thermal cracking method, the Shukhov cracking


id: calcination-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcination-0.md
category: reference
title: Calcination
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcination
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:19.682635+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: calcination-20260505-0
summary:
Calcination is thermal treatment of a solid chemical compound (e.g. mixed carbonate ores) whereby the compound is raised to high temperature without melting with a restricted supply of oxygen (i.e. gaseous O2 fraction of air), generally for the purpose of removing impurities or volatile substances and/or to induce thermal decomposition. The root of the word calcination refers to its most prominent use, which is to remove carbon and oxygen from limestone (calcium carbonate) through applying heat to yield calcium oxide (quicklime). This calcination reaction (which is endothermic) is CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g). Calcium oxide is a crucial ingredient in modern cement, and is also used as a chemical flux in smelting. Industrial calcination generally emits carbon dioxide (CO2). A calciner is a steel cylinder that rotates inside a heated furnace and performs indirect high-temperature processing (550–1150 °C, or 1000–2100 °F) within a controlled atmosphere. == Etymology == The process of calcination derives its name from the Latin calcinare 'to burn lime' due to its most common application, the decomposition of calcium carbonate (limestone) to calcium oxide (lime) and carbon dioxide, in order to create cement. The product of calcination is usually referred to in general as "calcine", regardless of


id: calcium-looping-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_looping-0.md
category: reference
title: Calcium looping
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_looping
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:20.922266+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: calcium-looping-20260505-0
summary:
Calcium looping (CaL), or the regenerative calcium cycle (RCC), is a second-generation carbon capture technology. It is the most developed form of carbonate looping, where a metal (M) is reversibly reacted between its carbonate form (MCO3) and its oxide form (MO) to separate carbon dioxide from other gases coming from either power generation or an industrial plant. For this reason, calcium looping is also known as carbonate looping. In the calcium looping process, the two species are calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and calcium oxide (CaO). The captured carbon dioxide can then be transported to a storage site, used in enhanced oil recovery or used as a chemical feedstock. Calcium oxide is often referred to as the sorbent. Calcium looping is being developed as it is a more efficient, less toxic alternative to current post-combustion capture processes such as amine scrubbing. It also has interesting potential for integration with the cement industry, as well as waste incineration and waste-to-energy plants. == Basic concept == There are two main steps in CaL: Calcination: Solid calcium carbonate is fed into a calciner, where it is heated to 850-950 °C to cause it to thermally decompose into gaseous carbon dioxide and solid calcium oxide (CaO).


id: calcium-looping-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_looping-1.md
category: reference
title: Calcium looping
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_looping
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:20.922266+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: calcium-looping-20260505-0
summary:
Combustion of fuel in an external chamber and conduction of energy in to the vessel Combustion of fuel in an external chamber and use of a heat transfer medium. Indirect methods are generally less efficient but do not require the provision of oxygen for combustion within the calciner to prevent dilution. The flue gas from the combustion of fuel in the indirect method could be mixed with the flue gas from the process that the CaL plant is attached to and passed through the carbonator to capture the CO2. One efficient way of transferring heat into the calciner is by means of heat pipes. The indirectly heated calcium looping (IHCaL) using heat pipes has high potential to decarbonize the lime and cement industry. The deployment of this technology with refuse-derived fuels would allow to achieve net negative CO2 emissions. == Recovery of energy from the carbonator == Although the heat from the carbonator is not at a high enough temperature to be used in the calciner, the high temperatures involved (>600 °C) mean that a relatively efficient Rankine cycle for generating electricity can be operated. Note that the waste heat from the market-leading amine scrubbing CO2 capture process is emitted


id: calcium-looping-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_looping-2.md
category: reference
title: Calcium looping
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_looping
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:20.922266+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: calcium-looping-20260505-0
summary:
=== Sintering === CaO is also prone to sintering, or change in pore shape, shrinkage and grain growth during heating. Ionic compounds such as CaO mostly sinter because of volume diffusion or lattice diffusion mechanics. As described by sintering theory, vacancies generated by temperature sensitive defects direct void sites from smaller to larger ones, explaining the observed growth of large pores and the shrinkage of small pores in cycled limestone. It was found that sintering of CaO increases at higher temperatures and longer calcination durations, whereas carbonation time has minimal effect on particle sintering. A sharp increase in sintering of particles is observed at temperatures above 1173 K, causing a reduction in reactive surface area and a corresponding decrease in reactivity. Solutions: Several options to reduce sorbent deactivation are currently being researched. An ideal sorbent would be mechanically strong, maintain its reactive surface through repeated cycles, and be reasonably inexpensive. Using thermally pre-activated particles or reactivating spent sorbents through hydration are two promising options. Thermally pre-activated particles have been found to retain activity for up to a thousand cycles. Similarly, particles reactivated by hydration show improved long term (after~20 cycles) conversions. Additionally, an optimized make-up strategy can maintain sufficient levels


id: calcium-looping-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_looping-3.md
category: reference
title: Calcium looping
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_looping
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:20.922266+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: calcium-looping-20260505-0
summary:
=== Cost per metric ton for CO2 captured === Firstly, Ca-looping offers greater cost advantage compared to conventional amine-scrubbing technologies. The cost/metric ton for CO2 captured through Ca-looping is ~$23.70 whereas that for CO2 captured through amine scrubbing is about $35–$96. This can be attributed to the high availability and low cost of the CaO sorbent (derived from limestone) as compared to MEA. Also, Ca-looping imposes a lower energy penalty than amine scrubbing, resulting in lower energy costs. The amine scrubbing process is energy intensive, with approximately 67% of the operating costs going into steam requirements for solvent regeneration. A more detailed comparison of Ca-looping and amine scrubbing is shown below. === Cost of CO2 emissions avoided through Ca-looping === In addition, the cost of CO2 emissions avoided through Ca-looping is lower than the cost of emissions avoided via an oxyfuel combustion process (~US$23.8/t). This can be explained by the fact that, despite the capital costs incurred in constructing the carbonator for Ca-looping, CO2 will not only be captured from the oxy-fired combustion, but also from the main combustor (before the carbonator). The oxygen required in the calciners is only 1/3 that required for an oxyfuel process, lowering air separation


id: calcium-looping-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_looping-4.md
category: reference
title: Calcium looping
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_looping
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:20.922266+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: calcium-looping-20260505-0
summary:
=== Political implications === Though many recent scientific reports (e.g.: the seven-wedge stabilization plan by Pacala and Socolow) convey an urgent need to deploy CCS, this urgency has not spread to the political establishment, mainly due to the high costs and energy penalty of CCS The economics of calcium looping are integral to its political viability. One economic and political advantage is the ability for Ca-looping to be retrofitted onto existing power plants, rather than requiring new plants to be built. The IEA sees power plants as an important target for carbon capture, and has set the goal to have all fossil fuel based power plants deploy CCS systems by 2040. However, power plants are expensive to build, and long lived. Retrofitting of post-combustion capture systems, such as Ca-looping, seems to be the only politically and economically viable way to achieve the IEA's goal. A further political advantage is the potential synergy between calcium looping and cement production. An IEA report concludes that to meet emission reduction goals, there should be 450 CCS projects in India and China by 2050. However, this could be politically difficult, especially with these nations' numerous other development goals. After all, for a politician to


id: calcium-looping-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_looping-5.md
category: reference
title: Calcium looping
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_looping
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:20.922266+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: calcium-looping-20260505-0
summary:
== Benefits of calcium looping compared with other post-combustion capture processes == Calcium looping compares favorably with several post-combustion capture technologies. Amine scrubbing is the capture technology closest to being market-ready, and calcium looping has several marked benefits over it. When modeled on a 580 MW coal-fired power plant, Calcium looping experienced not only a smaller efficiency penalty (6.7-7.9% points compared to 9.5% for monoethanolamine and 9% for chilled ammonia) but also a less complex retrofitting process. Both technologies would require the plant to be retrofitted for adoption, but the calcium looping retrofitting process would result in twice the net power output of the scrubbing technology. Furthermore, this advantage can be compounded by introducing technology such as cryogenic O2 separation systems. This ups the efficiency of the calcium looping technology by increasing the energy density by 57.4%, making the already low energy penalties even less of an issue. Calcium looping already has an energy advantage over amine scrubbing, but the main problem is that amine scrubbing is the more market-ready technology. However, the accompanying infrastructure for amine scrubbing include large solvent scrubbing towers, the likes of which have never been used on an industrial scale. The accompanying infrastructure for calcium


id: carbon-dioxide-reforming-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_reforming-0.md
category: reference
title: Carbon dioxide reforming
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_reforming
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:22.090561+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carbon-dioxide-reforming-20260505-0
summary:
Carbon dioxide reforming (also known as dry reforming) is a method of producing synthesis gas (mixtures of hydrogen and carbon monoxide) from the reaction of carbon dioxide with hydrocarbons such as methane with the aid of metal catalysts (typically Ni or Ni alloys). Synthesis gas is conventionally produced via the steam reforming reaction or coal gasification. In recent years, increased concerns on the contribution of greenhouse gases to global warming have increased interest in the replacement of steam as reactant with carbon dioxide. The dry reforming reaction may be represented by: CH 4 + CO 2 ⇌ 975 o C 2 CO + 2 H 2 {\displaystyle {\ce {CH4 + CO2 <=>[975^oC] 2CO + 2H2}}} Thus, two greenhouse gases are consumed and useful chemical building blocks, hydrogen and carbon monoxide, are produced. A challenge to the commercialization of this process is that the hydrogen that is produced tends to react with carbon dioxide. For example, the following reaction typically proceeds with lower activation energy than the dry reforming reaction itself: CO + H 2 O ⇌ 600 o C CO 2 + H 2 {\displaystyle {\ce {CO + H2O <=>[600^oC] CO2 + H2}}} Another issue with dry reforming is situated


id: carbonization-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonization-0.md
category: reference
title: Carbonization
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonization
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:23.312060+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carbonization-20260505-0
summary:
Carbonization or carbonisation is the conversion of organic matters like plants and dead animal remains into carbon through destructive distillation. == Complexity in carbonization == Carbonization is a pyrolytic reaction, therefore, is considered a complex process in which many reactions take place concurrently such as dehydrogenation, condensation, hydrogen transfer and isomerization. Carbonization differs from coalification in that it occurs much faster. For the final pyrolysis temperature, the amount of heat applied controls the degree of carbonization and the residual content of foreign elements. For example, at T ~ 1,200 K (930 °C; 1,700 °F) the carbon content of the residue exceeds a mass fraction of 90 wt.%, whereas at T ~ 1,600 K (1,330 °C; 2,420 °F) more than 99 wt.% carbon is found. Carbonization is often exothermic, which means that it could in principle be made self-sustaining and be used as a source of energy that does not produce carbon dioxide. In the case of glucose, the reaction releases about 237 calories per gram. When biomaterial is exposed to sudden searing heat (as in the case of a nuclear explosion or pyroclastic flow from a volcano, for instance), it can be carbonized extremely quickly, turning it into solid carbon.


id: carbonyl-metallurgy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonyl_metallurgy-0.md
category: reference
title: Carbonyl metallurgy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonyl_metallurgy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:24.518564+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carbonyl-metallurgy-20260505-0
summary:
Carbonyl metallurgy is used to manufacture products of iron, nickel, steel, and other metals. Coatings are produced by vapor plating using metal carbonyl vapors. These are metal-ligand complexes where carbon monoxide is bonded to individual atoms of metals . Iron carbonyl is stable as iron pentacarbonyl, where five carbon monoxide molecules are pendently bonded to the iron atom, while nickel carbonyl is stable as nickel tetracarbonyl, which has four carbon monoxide molecules pendantly bonded to the nickel atom. Both can be formed by the exposure of the powdered metal to carbon monoxide gas at temperatures of around 75 degrees Celsius. Both the metal carbonyls decompose near 175 °C, resulting in a vapor plated metallic coating. The thickness of the vapor plated deposit can be increased to desired thicknesses by controlling the amount of metal carbonyl used and the duration of the plating process. Vale Inco produces over 100 million pounds (ca. 45000 tonnes) of nickel metal annually by the carbonyl process. The carbonyl process has been used to produce molds in custom shapes for industry. Such molds have been used in plastic molding and other manufacturing techniques. William Jenkin developed many of the techniques and procedures used in carbonyl metallurgy.


id: castner-process-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castner_process-0.md
category: reference
title: Castner process
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castner_process
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:25.678559+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: castner-process-20260505-0
summary:
The Castner process is a process for manufacturing sodium metal by electrolysis of molten sodium hydroxide at approximately 330 °C. Below that temperature, the melt would solidify; above that temperature, the molten sodium would start to dissolve in the melt. == History == The Castner process for production of sodium metal was introduced in 1888 by Hamilton Castner. At that time (prior to the introduction in the same year of the Hall-Héroult process) the primary use for sodium metal was as a reducing agent to produce aluminium from its purified ores. The Castner process reduced the cost of producing sodium in comparison to the old method of reducing sodium carbonate at high temperature using carbon. This in turn reduced the cost of producing aluminium, although the reduction-by-sodium method still could not compete with Hall-Héroult. The Castner process continued nevertheless due to Castner's finding new markets for sodium. In 1926, the Downs cell replaced the Castner process. == Process details == The diagram shows a ceramic crucible with a steel cylinder suspended within. Both cathode (C) and anode (A) are made of iron or nickel. The temperature is cooler at the bottom and hotter at the top so that the sodium


id: castner-kellner-process-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castner–Kellner_process-0.md
category: reference
title: Castner–Kellner process
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castner–Kellner_process
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:26.853544+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: castner-kellner-process-20260505-0
summary:
The Castner–Kellner process is a method of electrolysis on an aqueous alkali chloride solution (usually sodium chloride solution) to produce the corresponding alkali hydroxide, invented by American Hamilton Castner and Austrian Carl Kellner in the 1890s. It is a type of chloralkali process, but in this role it is gradually being replaced by membrane electrolysis which has lower energy cost and fewer environmental concerns. == History == The first patent for electrolyzing brine was granted in England in 1851 to Charles Watt. His process was not an economically feasible method for producing sodium hydroxide though because it could not prevent the chlorine that formed in the brine solution from reacting with its other constituents. American chemist and engineer, Hamilton Castner, solved the mixing problem with the invention of the mercury cell and was granted a U.S. patent in 1894. Austrian chemist, Carl Kellner arrived at a similar solution at about the same time. In order to avoid a legal battle they became partners in 1895, founding the Castner-Kellner Alkali Company, which built plants employing the process throughout Europe. The mercury cell process continues in use to this day. Current-day mercury cell plant operations are criticized for environmental release of mercury


id: catalytic-chain-transfer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_chain_transfer-0.md
category: reference
title: Catalytic chain transfer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_chain_transfer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:28.072666+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: catalytic-chain-transfer-20260505-0
summary:
Catalytic chain transfer (CCT) is a process that can be incorporated into radical polymerization to obtain greater control over the resulting products. == Introduction == Radical polymerization of vinyl monomers, such as methyl (metha)acrylate or vinyl acetate is a common (industrial) method to prepare polymeric materials. One of the problems associated with this method is, however, that the radical polymerisation reaction rate is so high that even at short reaction times the polymeric chains are exceedingly long. This has several practical disadvantages, especially for polymer processing (e.g. melt-processing). A solution to this problem is catalytic chain transfer, which is a way to make shorter polymer chains in radical polymerisation processes. The method involves adding a catalytic chain transfer agent to the reaction mixture of the monomer and the radical initiator. == Historical background == Boris Smirnov and Alexander Marchenko (USSR) discovered in 1975 that cobalt porphyrins are able to reduce the molecular weight of PMMA formed during radical polymerization of methacrylates. Later investigations showed that the cobalt dimethylglyoxime complexes were as effective as the porphyrin catalysts and also less oxygen sensitive. Due to their lower oxygen sensitivity these catalysts have been investigated much more thoroughly than the porphyrin catalysts and


id: catalytic-combustion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_combustion-0.md
category: reference
title: Catalytic combustion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_combustion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:29.243349+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: catalytic-combustion-20260505-0
summary:
Catalytic combustion is a chemical process which uses a catalyst to speed desired oxidation reactions of fuel and so reduce the formation of undesired products, especially pollutant nitrogen oxide gases (NOx) far below what can be achieved without catalysts. The process was discovered in the 1950s by Catalytic Combustion LLC. == Chemical process == Catalysts may be used to control combustion reactions in the following ways: fuel preparation, such as splitting long molecules into shorter ones; fuel oxidation to release heat energy; the destruction of pollutant gases in the exhaust. == Technology == Catalytic combustion was developed by Norb Ruff in the 1950s. He founded Catalytic Combustion LLC in the 1950s where he created and patented the first metal catalyst. Other early work was carried out by researchers at Acurex, Westinghouse, NASA and the United States Air Force. The technique was revisited in the 1990s, leading to two types of catalytic system: Catalytica's fuel-lean approach, and Precision Combustion's fuel-rich approach. == See also == Gas chromatography: Detectors Lanny D. Schmidt == References ==


id: catalytic-reforming-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_reforming-0.md
category: reference
title: Catalytic reforming
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_reforming
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:30.409156+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: catalytic-reforming-20260505-0
summary:
Catalytic reforming is a chemical process used to convert naphthas from crude oil into liquid products called reformates, which are premium "blending stocks" for high-octane gasoline. The process converts low-octane linear hydrocarbons (paraffins) into branched alkanes (isoparaffins) and cyclic naphthenes, which are then partially dehydrogenated to produce high-octane aromatic hydrocarbons. The dehydrogenation also produces significant amounts of byproduct hydrogen gas, which is fed into other refinery processes such as hydrocracking and hydrodesulfurization. A side reaction is hydrogenolysis, which produces light hydrocarbons of lower value, such as methane, ethane, propane and butanes. In addition to a gasoline blending stock, reformate is the main source of aromatic bulk chemicals such as benzene, toluene, xylene and ethylbenzene, which have diverse uses, most importantly as raw materials for conversion into plastics. However, the benzene content of reformate makes it carcinogenic, which has led to governmental regulations effectively requiring further processing to reduce its benzene content. Catalytic reforming is quite different from and not to be confused with the catalytic steam reforming process used industrially to produce products such as hydrogen, ammonia, and methanol from natural gas, naphtha or other petroleum-derived feedstocks. Nor is this process to be confused with various other catalytic reforming processes


id: catalytic-reforming-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_reforming-1.md
category: reference
title: Catalytic reforming
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_reforming
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:30.409156+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: catalytic-reforming-20260505-0
summary:
== Reactions == Many chemical reactions occur in the catalytic reforming process. All require the presence of a catalyst, almost always platinum-containing, and a high partial pressure of hydrogen. Depending upon the type or version of catalytic reforming used as well as the desired reaction severity, the reaction conditions range from temperatures of about 495 to 525 °C (923 to 977 °F) and from pressures of about 5 to 45 standard atmospheres (510 to 4,560 kPa). The four major catalytic reforming reactions are: The dehydrogenation of naphthenes to convert them into aromatics as exemplified in the conversion methylcyclohexane (a naphthene) to toluene (an aromatic): The isomerization of normal paraffins to isoparaffins as exemplified in the conversion of normal octane to 2,5-dimethylhexane (an "isoparaffin"): The dehydrogenation and aromatization of paraffins to aromatics (commonly called dehydrocyclization) as exemplified in the conversion of normal heptane to toluene: The hydrocracking of paraffins into smaller molecules as exemplified by the cracking of normal heptane into isopentane and ethane: During the reforming reactions, the carbon number of the reactants remains unchanged, except for hydrocracking reactions which break down the hydrocarbons. The hydrocracking of paraffins is the only one of the above four major reforming reactions that


id: catalytic-reforming-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_reforming-2.md
category: reference
title: Catalytic reforming
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_reforming
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:30.409156+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: catalytic-reforming-20260505-0
summary:
The liquid feed (at the bottom left in the diagram) is pumped up to the reaction pressure (5–45 standard atmospheres [510–4,560 kPa]) and is joined by a stream of hydrogen-rich recycle gas. The resulting liquid–gas mixture is preheated by flowing through a heat exchanger. The preheated feed mixture is then totally vaporized and heated to the reaction temperature (495–520 °C [923–968 °F]) before the vaporized reactants enter the first reactor. As the vaporized reactants flow through the fixed bed of catalyst in the reactor, the major reaction is the dehydrogenation of naphthenes to aromatics (as described earlier herein) which is highly endothermic and results in a large temperature decrease between the inlet and outlet of the reactor. To maintain the required reaction temperature and the rate of reaction, the vaporized stream is reheated in the second fired heater before it flows through the second reactor. The temperature again decreases across the second reactor and the vaporized stream must again be reheated in the third fired heater before it flows through the third reactor. As the vaporized stream proceeds through the three reactors, the reaction rates decrease and the reactors therefore become larger. At the same time, the amount of reheat


id: catalytic-reforming-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_reforming-3.md
category: reference
title: Catalytic reforming
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_reforming
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:30.409156+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: catalytic-reforming-20260505-0
summary:
== Weaknesses and competition == The sensitivity of catalytic reforming to contamination by sulfur and nitrogen requires hydrotreating the naphtha before it enters the reformer, adding to the cost and complexity of the process. Dehydrogenation, an important component of reforming, is a strongly endothermic reaction, and as such, requires the reactor vessel to be externally heated. This contributes both to costs and the emissions of the process. Catalytic reforming has a limited ability to process naphthas with a high content of normal paraffins, e.g. naphthas from the gas-to-liquids (GTL) units. The reformate has a much higher content of benzene than is permissible by the current regulations in many countries. This means that the reformate should either be further processed in an aromatics extraction unit, or blended with appropriate hydrocarbon streams with low content of aromatics. Catalytic reforming requires a whole range of other processing units at the refinery (apart from the distillation tower, a naphtha hydrotreater, usually an isomerization unit to process light naphtha, an aromatics extraction unit, etc.) which puts it out of reach for smaller (micro-)refineries. Main licensors of catalytic reforming processes, UOP and Axens, constantly work on improving the catalysts, but the rate of improvement seems to


id: catalytic-resonance-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_resonance_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Catalytic resonance theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_resonance_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:31.645312+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: catalytic-resonance-theory-20260505-0
summary:
In chemistry, catalytic resonance theory was developed to describe the kinetics of reaction acceleration using dynamic catalyst surfaces. Catalytic reactions occur on surfaces that undergo variation in surface binding energy and/or entropy, exhibiting overall increase in reaction rate when the surface binding energy frequencies are comparable to the natural frequencies of the surface reaction, adsorption, and desorption. == History == Catalytic resonance theory is constructed on the Sabatier principle of catalysis developed by French chemist Paul Sabatier. In the limit of maximum catalytic performance, the surface of a catalyst is neither too strong nor too weak. Strong binding results in an overall catalytic reaction rate limitation due to product desorption, while weak binding catalysts are limited in the rate of surface chemistry. Optimal catalyst performance is depicted as a 'volcano' peak using a descriptor of the chemical reaction defining different catalytic materials. Experimental evidence of the Sabatier principle was first demonstrated by Balandin in 1960. The concept of catalytic resonance was proposed on dynamic interpretation of the Sabatier volcano reaction plot. As described, extension of either side of the volcano plot above the peak defines the timescales of the two rate-limiting phenomena such as surface reaction(s) or desorption. For binding


id: catalytic-resonance-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_resonance_theory-1.md
category: reference
title: Catalytic resonance theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_resonance_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:31.645312+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: catalytic-resonance-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Surface binding energy oscillation also occurs to different extent with the various chemical surface species as defined by the γi-j parameter. For any non-unity γi-j system, the asymmetry in the surface energy profile results in conducting work to bias the reaction to a steady state away from equilibrium. Similar to the controlled directionality of molecular machines, the resulting ratchet (device) energy mechanism selectively moves molecules through a catalytic reaction against a free energy gradient. Application of dynamic binding energy to a surface with multiple catalytic reactions exhibits complex behavior derived from the differences in the natural frequencies of each chemistry; these frequencies are identified by the inverse of the adsorption, desorption, and surface kinetic rate parameters. Considering a system of two parallel elementary reactions of A-to-B and A-to-C that only occur on a surface, the performance of the catalyst under dynamic conditions will result in varying capability for selecting either reaction product (B or C). For the depicted system, both reactions have the same overall thermodynamics and will produce B and C in equal amounts (50% selectivity) at chemical equilibrium. Under normal static catalyst operation, only product B can be produced at selectivities greater than 50% and product C is


id: catalytic-resonance-theory-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_resonance_theory-2.md
category: reference
title: Catalytic resonance theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_resonance_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:31.645312+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: catalytic-resonance-theory-20260505-0
summary:
== Characteristics of Dynamic Surface Reactions == Catalytic reactions on surfaces exhibit an energy ratchet that biases the reaction away from equilibrium. In the simplest form, the catalyst oscillates between two states of stronger or weaker binding, which in this example is referred to as 'green' or 'blue,' respectively. For a single elementary reaction on a catalyst oscillating between two states (green & blue), there exists four rate coefficients in total, one forward (k1) and one reverse (k−1) in each catalyst state. The catalyst switches between catalyst states (j of blue or green) with a frequency, f, with the time in each catalyst state, τj, such that the duty cycle, Dj is defined for catalyst state, j, as the fraction of the time the catalyst exists in state j. For the catalyst in the 'blue' state: D B = τ B τ t o t a l {\displaystyle D_{B}={\frac {\tau _{B}}{\tau _{total}}}} The bias of a catalytic ratchet under dynamic conditions can be predicted via a ratchet directionality metric, λ, that can be calculated from the rate coefficients, ki, and the time constants of the oscillation, τi (or the duty cycle). For a catalyst oscillating between two catalyst states (blue


id: cathodic-modification-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathodic_modification-0.md
category: reference
title: Cathodic modification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathodic_modification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:33.903492+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cathodic-modification-20260505-0
summary:
Cathodic modification within chemistry is the retardation of anodic reaction as the result of an increase in the ability of an alloy to be passivated by the introduction of an active cathode into the alloy e.g. the alloying of stainless steel and titanium with platinum group metals (1). This is one way in which corrosion resistant alloys can be produced and the resistance of alloy against electrochemical attack increased. == See also == Cathodic protection == References == 1. Potgieter J. H., Heyns A.M., Skinner W. 1990. Cathodic modification as a means of improving the corrosion resistance of alloys. Journal of Applied Electrochemistry, 20: 711 - 715.


id: cathodic-protection-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathodic_protection-0.md
category: reference
title: Cathodic protection
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathodic_protection
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:35.089302+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cathodic-protection-20260505-0
summary:
Cathodic protection (CP; ) is a technique used to control the corrosion of a metal surface by making it the cathode of an electrochemical cell. A simple method of protection connects the metal to be protected to a more easily corroded "sacrificial metal" to act as the anode. The sacrificial metal then corrodes instead of the protected metal. For structures such as long pipelines, where passive galvanic cathodic protection is not adequate, an external DC electrical power source is used to provide sufficient current. Cathodic protection systems protect a wide range of metallic structures in various environments. Common applications are: steel water or fuel pipelines and steel storage tanks such as home water heaters; steel pier piles; ship and boat hulls; offshore oil platforms and onshore oil well casings; offshore wind farm foundations and metal reinforcement bars in concrete buildings and structures. Another common application is in galvanized steel, in which a sacrificial coating of zinc on steel parts protects them from rust. Cathodic protection can, in some cases, prevent stress corrosion cracking. == History == Cathodic protection was first described by Sir Humphry Davy in a series of papers presented to the Royal Society in London in 1824. The


id: cathodic-protection-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathodic_protection-1.md
category: reference
title: Cathodic protection
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathodic_protection
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:35.089302+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cathodic-protection-20260505-0
summary:
In some cases, impressed current cathodic protection (ICCP) systems are used. These consist of anodes connected to a DC power source, often a transformer-rectifier connected to AC power. In the absence of an AC supply, alternative power sources may be used, such as solar panels, wind power or gas powered thermoelectric generators. Anodes for ICCP systems are available in a variety of shapes and sizes. Common anodes are tubular and solid rod shapes or continuous ribbons of various materials. These include high silicon, cast iron, graphite, mixed metal oxide (MMO), platinum and niobium coated wire and other materials. For pipelines, anodes are arranged in groundbeds either distributed or in a deep vertical hole depending on several design and field condition factors including current distribution requirements. Cathodic protection transformer-rectifier units are often custom manufactured and equipped with a variety of features, including remote monitoring and control, integral current interrupters and various type of electrical enclosures. The output DC negative terminal is connected to the structure to be protected by the cathodic protection system. The rectifier output DC positive cable is connected to the anodes. The AC power cable is connected to the rectifier input terminals. The output of the ICCP system


id: cathodic-protection-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathodic_protection-2.md
category: reference
title: Cathodic protection
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathodic_protection
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:35.089302+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cathodic-protection-20260505-0
summary:
Cathodic protection on ships is often implemented by galvanic anodes attached to the hull and ICCP for larger vessels. Since ships are regularly removed from the water for inspections and maintenance, it is a simple task to replace the galvanic anodes. Galvanic anodes are generally shaped to reduced drag in the water and fitted flush to the hull to also try to minimize drag. Smaller vessels, with non-metallic hulls, such as yachts, are equipped with galvanic anodes to protect areas such as outboard motors. As with all galvanic cathodic protection, this application relies on a solid electrical connection between the anode and the item to be protected. For ICCP on ships, the anodes are usually constructed of a relatively inert material such as platinized titanium. A DC power supply is provided within the ship and the anodes mounted on the outside of the hull. The anode cables are introduced into the ship via a compression seal fitting and routed to the DC power source. The negative cable from the power supply is simply attached to the hull to complete the circuit. Ship ICCP anodes are flush-mounted, minimizing the effects of drag on the ship, and located a minimum 5 ft


id: cathodic-protection-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathodic_protection-3.md
category: reference
title: Cathodic protection
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathodic_protection
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:35.089302+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cathodic-protection-20260505-0
summary:
=== Automobiles === Several companies market electronic devices claiming to mitigate corrosion for automobiles and trucks. Corrosion control professionals find they do not work. There is no peer reviewed scientific testing and validation supporting the use of the devices. In 1996 the FTC ordered David McCready, a person that sold devices claiming to protect cars from corrosion, to pay restitution and banned the names "Rust Buster" and "Rust Evader." Under section 74.01(1) (b) of the Competition Act Canada, no performance claims about a product or its effectiveness can be done unless it can be proven that they are based on adequate and proper tests. The Competition Bureau Canada proceeded to investigate several companies selling electronic corrosion devices in Canada. Some were forced to withdraw their product from the market as they could not support their claims scientifically. == Testing == Electrode potential is measured with reference electrodes. Copper–copper sulphate electrodes are used for structures in contact with soil or fresh water. Silver/silver chloride/seawater electrodes or pure zinc electrodes are used for seawater applications. The methods are described in EN 13509:2003 and NACE TM0497 along with the sources of error in the voltage that appears on the display of the meter.


id: cathodic-protection-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathodic_protection-4.md
category: reference
title: Cathodic protection
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathodic_protection
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:35.089302+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cathodic-protection-20260505-0
summary:
==== UK ==== Institute of Corrosion (ICorr), Corrosion Prevention Association (CPA), and TWI offer a Cathodic Protection, Training, Assessment, and Certification Scheme that evaluates the competence levels of cathodic protection personnel. ==== US ==== AMPP is the main certification body. Moreover, AMPP is highly active and known in the Middle East. == Standards == 49 CFR 192.451 - Requirements for Corrosion Control - Transportation of natural and other gas by pipeline: US minimum federal safety standards 49 CFR 195.551 - Requirements for Corrosion Control - Transportation of hazardous liquids by pipelines: US minimum federal safety standards AS 2832 - Australian Standards for Cathodic Protection ASME B31Q 0001-0191 ASTM G 8, G 42 - Evaluating Cathodic Disbondment resistance of coatings DNV-RP-B401 - Cathodic Protection Design - Det Norske Veritas EN 12068:1999 - Cathodic protection. External organic coatings for the corrosion protection of buried or immersed steel pipelines used in conjunction with cathodic protection. Tapes and shrinkable materials EN 12473:2000 - General principles of cathodic protection in sea water EN 12474:2001 - Cathodic protection for submarine pipelines EN 12495:2000 - Cathodic protection for fixed steel offshore structures EN 12499:2003 - Internal cathodic protection of metallic structures EN 12696:2012 - Cathodic protection of


id: charring-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charring-0.md
category: reference
title: Charring
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charring
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:36.280959+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: charring-20260505-0
summary:
Charring is a chemical process of incomplete combustion of certain solids when subjected to high heat. Heat distillation removes water vapour and volatile organic compounds (syngas) from the matrix. The residual black carbon material is char, as distinguished from the lighter colored ash. By the action of heat, charring removes hydrogen and oxygen from the solid, so that the remaining char is composed primarily of carbon. Most solid organic compounds, like wood or biological tissue, and thermoset polymers exhibit charring behaviour. In non-scientific terms, charring means partially burning so as to blacken the surface. Charring can result from naturally occurring processes like fire; it is also a deliberate and controlled reaction used in the manufacturing of certain products. The mechanism of charring is part of the normal burning of certain solid fuels like wood. During normal combustion, the volatile compounds created by charring are consumed at the flames within the fire or released to the atmosphere, while combustion of char can be seen as glowing red coals or embers which burn without the presence of flames. == Production of char == Coke and charcoal are both produced by charring, whether on an industrial scale or through normal combustion of coal


id: chemical-milling-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_milling-0.md
category: reference
title: Chemical milling
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_milling
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:37.502171+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chemical-milling-20260505-0
summary:
Chemical milling or industrial etching is the subtractive manufacturing process of using baths of temperature-regulated etching chemicals to remove material to create an object with the desired shape. Other names for chemical etching include photo etching, chemical etching, photo chemical etching and photochemical machining. It is mostly used on metals, though other materials are increasingly important. It was developed from armor-decorating and printing etching processes developed during the Renaissance as alternatives to engraving on metal. The process essentially involves bathing the cutting areas in a corrosive chemical known as an etchant, which reacts with the material in the area to be cut and causes the solid material to be dissolved; inert substances known as maskants are used to protect specific areas of the material as resists. == History == Organic chemicals such as lactic acid and citric acid have been used to etch metals and create products as early as 400 BCE, when vinegar was used to corrode lead and create the pigment ceruse, also known as white lead. Most modern chemical milling methods involve alkaline etchants; these may have been used as early as the first century CE. Armor etching, using strong mineral acids, was not developed until the


id: chemical-milling-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_milling-1.md
category: reference
title: Chemical milling
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_milling
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:37.502171+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chemical-milling-20260505-0
summary:
=== Scribing === Scribing is the removal of maskant on the areas to be etched. For decorative applications, this is often done by hand through the use of a scribing knife, etching needle or similar tool; modern industrial applications may involve an operator scribing with the aid of a template or use computer numerical control to automate the process. For parts involving multiple stages of etching, complex templates using colour codes and similar devices may be used. === Etching === Etching is the immersion of the part into the chemical bath, and the action of the chemical on the part to be milled. The time spent immersed in the chemical bath determines the depth of the resulting etch; this time is calculated via the formula: E = s t {\displaystyle E={\frac {s}{t}}} where E is the rate of etching (usually abbreviated to etch rate), s is the depth of the cut required, and t is the total immersion time. Etch rate varies based on factors such as the concentration and composition of the etchant, the material to be etched, and temperature conditions. Due to its inconstant nature, etch rate is often determined experimentally immediately prior to the etching process. A


id: chemical-vapor-deposition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_vapor_deposition-0.md
category: reference
title: Chemical vapor deposition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_vapor_deposition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:46:39.791808+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chemical-vapor-deposition-20260505-0
summary:
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) is a thin film deposition method used to produce high-quality, and high-performance, solid materials. The process is often used in the semiconductor industry to produce electrically conductive layers in the range of a few 100 nm up to a few μm. In typical CVD, the wafer (substrate) is exposed to one or more volatile precursors, which react and/or decompose on the substrate surface, in order to produce the desired deposit. Frequently, volatile by-products are also produced, which are removed by gas flow through the reaction chamber. Microfabrication processes widely use CVD to deposit materials in various forms, including: monocrystalline, polycrystalline, amorphous, and epitaxial. These materials include: silicon (dioxide, carbide, nitride, oxynitride), carbon (fiber, nanofibers, nanotubes, diamond and graphene), fluorocarbons, filaments, tungsten, titanium nitride and various high-κ dielectrics. The term chemical vapour deposition was coined in 1960 by John M. Blocher, Jr. who intended to differentiate chemical from physical vapour deposition (PVD). == Types == CVD is practiced in a variety of formats. These processes generally differ in the means by which chemical reactions are initiated. Classified by operating conditions: Atmospheric pressure CVD (APCVD) – CVD at atmospheric pressure. Low-pressure CVD (LPCVD) – CVD at sub-atmospheric pressures.


