# kb

id: scientist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:16.107210+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientist-20260505-0
summary:
A scientist is an expert who conducts scientific research to advance knowledge in science. In classical antiquity, there was no real ancient analog of a modern scientist. Instead, philosophers engaged in the philosophical study of nature called natural philosophy. Though Thales (c. 624–545 BC) was arguably the first scientist for describing how cosmic events may be seen as natural, not necessarily caused by gods, it was not until the 19th century that the term scientist came into regular use: it was coined by the theologian, philosopher, and historian of science Wang Zhenyi and William Whewell to describe Mary Somerville. == History == The roles of "scientists", and their predecessors before the emergence of modern scientific disciplines, have evolved considerably over time. Scientists of different eras (and before them, natural philosophers, mathematicians, natural historians, natural theologians, engineers, and others who contributed to the development of science) have had widely different places in society, and the social norms, ethical values, and epistemic virtues associated with scientists—and expected of them—have changed over time as well. Accordingly, many different historical figures can be identified as early scientists, depending on which characteristics of modern science are taken to be essential. Some historians point to the


id: scientist-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:16.107210+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientist-20260505-0
summary:
=== 19th century === Until the late 19th or early 20th century, scientists were commonly referred to as "natural philosophers" or "men of science". English philosopher and historian of science William Whewell coined the term scientist in 1833. It first appeared in print in his anonymous 1834 review of Mary Somerville's On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences, published in the Quarterly Review. In the review, Whewell discussed what he described as an increasing tendency toward specialization within the sciences. As highly specific terms such as chemist, mathematician, and naturalist became common, the broader term philosopher no longer adequately described those engaged in scientific study. Whewell contrasted this trend with Somerville's aim of demonstrating how distinct branches of science had historically been unified through general principles. Whewell reported that members of the British Association for the Advancement of Science had expressed concern over the absence of a suitable collective term for "students of the knowledge of the material world." Referring indirectly to himself, he noted that "some ingenious gentleman" had proposed the word scientist by analogy with artist, arguing that similar formations such as economist and atheist were already in use. The suggestion, however, was not immediately well received. Whewell


id: scientist-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist-2.md
category: reference
title: Scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:16.107210+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientist-20260505-0
summary:
==== Research interests ==== Scientists include experimentalists who mainly perform experiments to test hypotheses, and theoreticians who mainly develop models to explain existing data and predict new results. There is a continuum between the two activities and the division between them is not clear-cut, with many scientists performing both tasks. Those considering science as a career often look to the frontiers. These include cosmology and biology, especially molecular biology and the human genome project. Other areas of active research include the exploration of matter at the scale of elementary particles as described by high-energy physics, and materials science, which seeks to discover and design new materials. Others choose to study brain function and neurotransmitters, which is considered by many to be the "final frontier". There are many important discoveries to make regarding the nature of the mind and human thought, much of which still remains unknown. === By specialization === ==== Natural science ==== ===== Physical science ===== ===== Life science ===== ==== Social science ==== ==== Formal science ==== ==== Applied ==== ==== Interdisciplinary ==== === By employer === Academic Independent scientist Industrial/applied scientist Citizen scientist Government scientist == Demography == === By country === The number of scientists


id: astronaut-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut-0.md
category: reference
title: Astronaut
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:17.448137+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronaut-20260505-0
summary:
An astronaut (from the Ancient Greek ἄστρον (astron), meaning 'star', and ναύτης (nautes), meaning 'sailor') is a person trained, equipped, and deployed by a human spaceflight program to serve as a commander or crew member of a spacecraft. Although generally reserved for professional space travelers, the term is sometimes applied to anyone who travels into space, including scientists, politicians, journalists, and space tourists. In the United States, it is a designated term used by three agencies: NASA, the FAA, and the military. The term is also used for people who are trained to fly in a spacecraft after passing certain training courses, regardless of their experience of space travel. "Astronaut" technically applies to all human space travelers regardless of nationality. However, astronauts fielded by Russia or the Soviet Union are typically known instead as cosmonauts (from the Russian "kosmos" (космос), meaning "space", also borrowed from Greek κόσμος). Comparatively recent developments in crewed spaceflight made by China have led to the rise of the term taikonaut (from the Mandarin "tàikōng" (太空), meaning "space"), although its use is somewhat informal and its origin is unclear. In China, the People's Liberation Army Astronaut Corps astronauts and their foreign counterparts are all officially called


id: astronaut-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut-1.md
category: reference
title: Astronaut
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:17.448137+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronaut-20260505-0
summary:
A professional space traveler is called an astronaut. The first known use of the term "astronaut" in the modern sense was by Neil R. Jones in his 1930 short story "The Death's Head Meteor". The word itself had been known earlier; for example, in Percy Greg's 1880 book Across the Zodiac, "astronaut" referred to a spacecraft. In Les Navigateurs de l'infini (1925) by J.-H. Rosny aîné, the word astronautique (astronautics) was used. The word may have been inspired by "aeronaut", an older term for an air traveler first applied in 1784 to balloonists. An early use of "astronaut" in a non-fiction publication is Eric Frank Russell's poem "The Astronaut", appearing in the November 1934 Bulletin of the British Interplanetary Society. The first known formal use of the term astronautics in the scientific community was the establishment of the annual International Astronautical Congress in 1950, and the subsequent founding of the International Astronautical Federation the following year. NASA applies the term astronaut to any crew member aboard NASA spacecraft bound for Earth orbit or beyond. NASA also uses the term as a title for those selected to join its Astronaut Corps. The European Space Agency similarly uses the term astronaut for


id: astronaut-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut-2.md
category: reference
title: Astronaut
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:17.448137+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronaut-20260505-0
summary:
one who flies in a vehicle above 50 miles (80 km) for NASA or the military is considered an astronaut (with no qualifier) one who flies in a vehicle to the International Space Station in a mission coordinated by NASA and Roscosmos is a spaceflight participant one who flies above 50 miles (80 km) in a non-NASA vehicle as a crewmember and demonstrates activities during flight that are essential to public safety, or contribute to human space flight safety, is considered a commercial astronaut by the Federal Aviation Administration one who flies to the International Space Station as part of a "privately funded, dedicated commercial spaceflight on a commercial launch vehicle dedicated to the mission ... to conduct approved commercial and marketing activities on the space station (or in a commercial segment attached to the station)" is considered a private astronaut by NASA (as of 2020, nobody has yet qualified for this status) On July 20, 2021, the FAA issued an order redefining the eligibility criteria to be an astronaut in response to the private suborbital spaceflights of Jeff Bezos and Richard Branson. The new criteria states that one must have "[d]emonstrated activities during flight that were essential to public


id: astronaut-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut-3.md
category: reference
title: Astronaut
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:17.448137+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronaut-20260505-0
summary:
=== Civilian and non-government milestones === The first civilian in space was Valentina Tereshkova aboard Vostok 6 (she also became the first woman in space on that mission). Tereshkova was only honorarily inducted into the USSR's Air Force, which did not accept female pilots at that time. A month later, Joseph Albert Walker became the first American civilian in space when his X-15 Flight 90 crossed the 100 kilometers (54 nautical miles) line, qualifying him by the international definition of spaceflight. Walker had joined the US Army Air Force but was not a member during his flight. The first people in space who had never been a member of any country's armed forces were both Konstantin Feoktistov and Boris Yegorov aboard Voskhod 1. The first non-governmental space traveler was Byron K. Lichtenberg, a researcher from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology who flew on STS-9 in 1983. In December 1990, Toyohiro Akiyama became the first paying space traveler and the first journalist in space for Tokyo Broadcasting System, a visit to Mir as part of an estimated $12 million (USD) deal with a Japanese TV station, although at the time, the term used to refer to Akiyama was "Research Cosmonaut". Akiyama


id: astronaut-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut-4.md
category: reference
title: Astronaut
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:17.448137+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronaut-20260505-0
summary:
Astronauts are susceptible to a variety of health risks including decompression sickness, barotrauma, immunodeficiencies, loss of bone and muscle, loss of eyesight, orthostatic intolerance, sleep disturbances, and radiation injury. A variety of large scale medical studies are being conducted in space via the National Space Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI) to address these issues. Prominent among these is the Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity Study in which astronauts (including former ISS commanders Leroy Chiao and Gennady Padalka) perform ultrasound scans under the guidance of remote experts to diagnose and potentially treat hundreds of medical conditions in space. This study's techniques are now being applied to cover professional and Olympic sports injuries as well as ultrasound performed by non-expert operators in medical and high school students. It is anticipated that remote guided ultrasound will have application on Earth in emergency and rural care situations, where access to a trained physician is often rare. A 2006 Space Shuttle experiment found that Salmonella typhimurium, a bacterium that can cause food poisoning, became more virulent when cultivated in space. More recently, in 2017, bacteria were found to be more resistant to antibiotics and to thrive in the near-weightlessness of space. Microorganisms have been observed to


id: astronaut-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut-5.md
category: reference
title: Astronaut
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:17.448137+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronaut-20260505-0
summary:
As of 2020, eighteen astronauts (fourteen men and four women) have died during four space flights. By nationality, thirteen were American, four were Russian (Soviet Union), and one was Israeli. As of 2020, eleven people (all men) have died training for spaceflight: eight Americans and three Russians. Six of these were in crashes of training jet aircraft, one drowned during water recovery training, and four were due to fires in pure oxygen environments. Astronaut David Scott left a memorial consisting of a statuette titled Fallen Astronaut on the surface of the Moon during his 1971 Apollo 15 mission, along with a list of the names of eight of the astronauts and six cosmonauts known at the time to have died in service. The Space Mirror Memorial, which stands on the grounds of the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex, is maintained by the Astronauts Memorial Foundation and commemorates the lives of the men and women who have died during spaceflight and during training in the space programs of the United States. In addition to twenty NASA career astronauts, the memorial includes the names of an X-15 test pilot, a U.S. Air Force officer who died while training for a then-classified military


id: astronaut-training-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut_training-0.md
category: reference
title: Astronaut training
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut_training
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:18.749528+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronaut-training-20260505-0
summary:
Astronaut training describes the complex process of preparing astronauts in regions around the world for their space missions before, during and after the flight, which includes medical tests, physical training, extra-vehicular activity (EVA) training, wilderness survival training, water survival training, robotics training, procedure training, rehabilitation process, as well as training on experiments they will perform during their stay in space. Virtual and physical training facilities have been integrated to familiarize astronauts with the conditions they will encounter during all phases of flight and prepare astronauts for a microgravity environment. Special considerations must be made during training to ensure a safe and successful mission, which is why the Apollo astronauts received training for geology field work on the Lunar surface and why research is being conducted on best practices for future extended missions, such as trips to Mars. == Purpose of training == === Training flow === The selection and training of astronauts are integrated processes to ensure the crew members are qualified for space missions. The training is categorized into five objectives to train the astronauts on the general and specific aspects: basic training, advanced training, mission-specific training, onboard training, and proficiency maintenance training. The trainees must learn medicine, language,


id: astronaut-training-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut_training-1.md
category: reference
title: Astronaut training
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut_training
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:18.749528+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronaut-training-20260505-0
summary:
=== Science experiments === Scientific experimentation are the primary focus of the International Space Station, and is a mandatory part of training. Once on-orbit, communication between astronauts and scientists on the ground can be limited, so astronauts must be familiar with their assigned experiments. For missions to the ISS, each astronaut is required to become proficient at one hundred or more experiments. During training, the scientists responsible for the experiments do not have direct contact with the astronauts who will be carrying them out. Instead, scientists instruct trainers who in turn prepare the astronauts for carrying out the experiment. Much of this training is done at the European Astronaut Center. For human experiments, scientists describe their experiments to astronauts who then choose whether to participate on board the ISS. For these experiments, the astronauts will be tested before, during, and after the mission to establish a baseline and determine when the astronaut returned to the baseline. == Training by region == === United States === At NASA, following the selection phase, the so-called "AsCans" (Astronaut candidates) have to undergo up to two years of training to become fully qualified astronauts. Initially, all AsCans must go through basic training to learn


id: astronaut-training-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut_training-2.md
category: reference
title: Astronaut training
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut_training
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:18.749528+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronaut-training-20260505-0
summary:
For all ESA selected astronauts, Basic Training begins at the EAC headquarters. This section of the training cycle has four separate training blocks that last 16 months. Astronauts will receive an orientation on the major spacefaring nations, their space agencies, and all major crewed and uncrewed space programs. Training in this phase also looks into applicable laws and policies of the space sector. Technical (including engineering, astrodynamics, propulsion, orbital mechanics, etc.) and scientific (including human physiology, biology, earth observation, and astronomy) basics are introduced, to ensure that all new astronauts have the required base level of knowledge. Training is done on ISS operations and facilities, including an introduction to all major operating systems on board the ISS that are required for its functionality as a crewed space research laboratory. This phase also covers in-depth systems operations for all spacecraft that service the ISS (e.g. Soyuz, Progress, Automatic Transfer Vehicle (ATV), and the H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV)), as well as ground control and launch facility training. This training phase also focuses on skills such as robotic operations, rendezvous and docking, Russian language courses, human behavior and performance, and finally a PADI open water scuba diving course. This scuba course provides basic


id: astronaut-training-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut_training-3.md
category: reference
title: Astronaut training
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut_training
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:18.749528+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronaut-training-20260505-0
summary:
=== China === Although official details of the selection process for the Shenzhou program are not available, what is known is that candidates are chosen by the Chinese National Space Administration from the Chinese air force and must be between 25 and 30 years of age, with a minimum of 800 hours flying time, and a degree-level education. Candidates must be between 160 cm and 172 cm in height, and between 50 kg and 70 kg in weight. For China's Shenzhou astronauts, training begins with a year-long program of education in the basics of spaceflight. During this period, candidates are also introduced to human physiology and psychology. The second phase of training, lasting nearly 3 years involves extensive training in piloting the Shenzhou vehicle in nominal and emergency modes. The third and final stage of training is mission specific training, and lasts approximately 10 months. During this phase of training, astronauts are trained in the high fidelity Shenzhou trainer, as well as the Neutral Buoyancy Facility located at the Astronaut Center of China (ACC), in Beijing. As well as time spent in the Neutral Buoyancy Facility (NBF), training for EVA takes place in a high vacuum, low temperature chamber that


id: astronaut-training-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut_training-4.md
category: reference
title: Astronaut training
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut_training
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:18.749528+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronaut-training-20260505-0
summary:
Virtual reality technologies first came to a commercial release in the 1990s. It is not until then did people realize that VR can be used in training astronauts. The earlier VR gears for astronaut training are dedicated to enhance the communication between robot arm operators and the astronaut during Extravehicular Activities (EVA). It brings EVA crew members and robot arm operators together, in live, even when they are on board a spacecraft. It is also used to replace some of the oversized models that cannot fit in the Neutral Buoyancy Lab (NBL). In 1993, astronauts were trained and evaluated on working on the Hubble Space Telescope through a virtual reality training tool, Research in Human Factors Aspects of Enhanced Virtual Environments for EVA Training and Simulation (RAVEN). However, the aim of RAVEN was not to train astronauts but to evaluate the efficacy of training using virtual reality versus underwater and other setup. Virtual reality can be used for mission planning, cooperative and interactive designing, and engineering problem-solving, among other use cases. === Current virtual reality training === While the extravehicular activities (EVAs) training facility can simulate the space conditions, including pressure and lighting, the Micro-g environment cannot be fully reconstructed


id: astronaut-training-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut_training-5.md
category: reference
title: Astronaut training
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronaut_training
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:18.749528+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronaut-training-20260505-0
summary:
=== Advantages of virtual reality training === Visual reorientation is a phenomenon that happens when the perception of an object changes because of the changing visual field and cues. This illusion will alter the astronaut's perception of the orienting force of gravity and then lose spatial direction. The astronauts must develop good spatial awareness and orientation to overcome visual reorientation. In the traditional disorientation training, for instance, the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center trains the astronaut by simulating a microgravity environment through a centrifuge. In contrast, VR training requires less gear, training the astronauts more economically. Virtual reality training utilizes the mix-realistic interaction devices, such as cockpits in flight simulators can reduce the simulation sickness and increase user movement. Compared to traditional training, VR training performs better to minimize the effects of space motion sickness and spatial disorientation. Astronauts who received VR training can perform the task 12% faster, with a 53% decrease in nausea symptoms. While VR is used in astronaut training on the ground, immersive technology also contributes to on-orbit training. VR head-mounted display can help the astronaut maintain physical well-being as part of proficiency maintenance training. Moreover, VR systems are used to ensure the mental health of


id: astronomer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomer-0.md
category: reference
title: Astronomer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:20.108435+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: astronomer-20260505-0
summary:
An astronomer is a scientist in the field of astronomy who focuses on a specific question or field outside the scope of Earth. Astronomers study astronomical objects, such as stars, planets, moons, comets and galaxies, by some combination of observation and the application of astrophysical models. Examples of topics or fields astronomers study include planetary science, solar astronomy, the origin or evolution of stars, or the formation of galaxies. A related but distinct subject is physical cosmology, which studies the universe as a whole. == Character of work == Astronomers cannot typically perform experiments: the objects of interest in the field are far away. Consequently they rely primarily on observations, collecting electromagnetic radiation, gravitational waves, or particles such as cosmic rays. Some experiments on planets in the solar system are now possible via remote controlled spacecraft. Some of the measurements astronomers perform include astrometry (positions of celestial bodies), photometry (light flux), spectroscopy (intensity vs wavelength), and imaging. == Subfields == Astronomy includes astrometry, planetary astronomy, astrophysics, astrochemistry astrobiology, stellar astronomy, galactic astronomy, extragalactic astronomy, and physical cosmology. Astronomers can also specialize in certain specialties of observational astronomy, such as infrared astronomy, neutrino astronomy, x-ray astronomy, and gravitational-wave astronomy. == Academic


id: bacteriologist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteriologist-0.md
category: reference
title: Bacteriologist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteriologist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:22.330619+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bacteriologist-20260505-0
summary:
A bacteriologist is a microbiologist, or similarly trained professional, in bacteriology— a subdivision of microbiology that studies bacteria, typically pathogenic ones. Bacteriologists are interested in studying and learning about bacteria, as well as using their skills in clinical settings. This includes investigating properties of bacteria such as morphology, ecology, genetics and biochemistry, phylogenetics, genomics and many other areas related to bacteria like disease diagnostic testing. Alongside human and animal healthcare providers, they may carry out various functions as medical scientists, veterinary scientists, pathologists, or diagnostic technicians in locations like clinics, blood banks, hospitals, laboratories and animal hospitals. Bacteriologists working in public health or biomedical research help develop vaccines for public use as well as public health guidelines for restaurants and businesses. == Education == Because bacteriology is a sub-field of microbiology, most careers in bacteriology require an undergraduate degree in microbiology or a closely related field. Graduate degrees in microbiology or disciplines like it are common for bacteriologists because graduate degree programs provide more in-depth and specific education on topics related to bacteriology. They also often include research and lab experience. Graduate studies also provide opportunities for practical experience in applying bacteriological concepts to a work environment. If someone wants


id: biochemist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemist-0.md
category: reference
title: Biochemist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:23.586309+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biochemist-20260505-0
summary:
Biochemists are scientists who are trained in biochemistry. They study chemical processes and chemical transformations in living organisms. Biochemists study DNA, proteins and cell parts. The word "biochemist" is a portmanteau of "biological chemist." Biochemists also research how certain chemical reactions happen in cells and tissues and observe and record the effects of products in food additives and medicines. Biochemist researchers focus on planning and constructing research experiments, mainly for developing new products, updating existing products and analyzing said products. It is also the responsibility of a biochemist to present their research findings and create grant proposals to obtain funds for future research. Biochemists study aspects of the immune system, the expressions of genes, isolating, analyzing, and synthesizing different products, mutations that lead to cancers, and manage laboratory teams and monitor laboratory work. Biochemists also have to have the capabilities of designing and building laboratory equipment and devise new methods of producing correct results for products. The most common industry role is the development of biochemical products and processes. Identifying substances' chemical and physical properties in biological systems is of great importance, and can be carried out by doing various types of analysis. Biochemists must also prepare technical reports after


id: biologist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologist-0.md
category: reference
title: Biologist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:24.716492+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biologist-20260505-0
summary:
A biologist is a scientist who conducts research in biology. Biologists are interested in studying life on Earth, whether it is an individual cell, a multicellular organism, or a community of interacting populations. They usually specialize in a particular branch (e.g., molecular biology, zoology, and evolutionary biology) of biology and have a specific research focus (e.g., studying malaria or cancer). Biologists who are involved in basic research have the aim of advancing knowledge about the natural world. They conduct their research using the scientific method, which is an empirical method for testing hypotheses. Their discoveries may have applications for some specific purpose such as in biotechnology, which has the goal of developing medically useful products for humans. In modern times, most biologists have one or more academic degrees such as a bachelor's degree, as well as an advanced degree such as a master's degree or a doctorate. Like other scientists, biologists can be found working in different sectors of the economy such as in academia, nonprofits, private industry, or government. == History == Francesco Redi, the founder of experimental biology, is recognized to be one of the greatest biologists of all time. Robert Hooke, an English natural philosopher, coined the


id: biologist-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologist-1.md
category: reference
title: Biologist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:24.716492+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biologist-20260505-0
summary:
Geneticists study genetics, the science of genes, heredity, and variation of organisms. Neuroscientists study the nervous system. Developmental biologists study the process of development and growth of organisms Biochemists study the chemical composition of living things. They analyze the complex chemical combinations and reactions involved in metabolism, reproduction, and growth. Molecular biologists study the biological activity between biomolecules. Microbiologists investigate the growth and characteristics of microscopic organisms such as bacteria, algae, or fungi. Physiologists study life functions of plants and animals, in the whole organism and at the cellular or molecular level, under normal and abnormal conditions. Physiologists often specialize in functions such as growth, reproduction, photosynthesis, respiration, or movement, or in the physiology of a certain area or system of the organism. Biophysicists use experimental methods traditionally employed in physics to answer biological questions . Computational biologists apply the techniques of computer science, applied mathematics and statistics to address biological problems. The main focus lies on developing mathematical modeling and computational simulation techniques. By these means it addresses scientific research topics with their theoretical and experimental questions without a laboratory. Zoologists and wildlife biologists study animals and wildlife—their origin, behavior, diseases, and life processes. Some experiment with live animals


id: biomedical-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: Biomedical sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:26.013113+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biomedical-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
Biomedical sciences are a set of sciences applying portions of natural science or formal science, or both, to develop knowledge, interventions, or technology that are of use in healthcare or public health. Such disciplines as medical microbiology, clinical virology, clinical epidemiology, genetic epidemiology, and biomedical engineering are medical sciences. In explaining physiological mechanisms operating in pathological processes, however, pathophysiology can be regarded as basic science. Biomedical Sciences, as defined by the UK Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education Benchmark Statement in 2015, includes those science disciplines whose primary focus is the biology of human health and disease and ranges from the generic study of biomedical sciences and human biology to more specialised subject areas such as pharmacology, human physiology and human nutrition. It is underpinned by relevant basic sciences including anatomy and physiology, cell biology, biochemistry, microbiology, genetics and molecular biology, pharmacology, immunology, mathematics and statistics, and bioinformatics. As such the biomedical sciences have a much wider range of academic and research activities and economic significance than that defined by hospital laboratory sciences. Biomedical Sciences are the major focus of bioscience research and funding in the 21st century. == Roles within biomedical science == A sub-set of biomedical sciences is


id: biomedical-sciences-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_sciences-1.md
category: reference
title: Biomedical sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:26.013113+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biomedical-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
=== 1940s === During and after World War II, the field of biomedical science saw a new age of technology and treatment methods. For instance in 1941 the first hormonal treatment for prostate cancer was implemented by Urologist and cancer researcher Charles B. Huggins. Huggins discovered that if you remove the testicles from a man with prostate cancer, the cancer had nowhere to spread, and nothing to feed on thus putting the subject into remission. This advancement lead to the development of hormonal blocking drugs, which is less invasive and still used today. At the tail end of this decade, the first bone marrow transplant was done on a mouse in 1949. The surgery was conducted by Dr. Leon O. Jacobson, he discovered that he could transplant bone marrow and spleen tissues in a mouse that had both no bone marrow and a destroyed spleen. The procedure is still used in modern medicine today and is responsible for saving countless lives. === 1950s === In the 1950s, we saw innovation in technology across all fields, but most importantly there were many breakthroughs which led to modern medicine. On 6 March 1953, Dr. Jonas Salk announced the completion of the first


id: biomedical-scientist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_scientist-0.md
category: reference
title: Biomedical scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:27.370205+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biomedical-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
A biomedical scientist is a scientist trained in biology, particularly in the context of medical laboratory sciences or laboratory medicine. These scientists work to gain knowledge on the main principles of how the human body works and to find new ways to cure or treat disease by developing advanced diagnostic tools or new therapeutic strategies. The research of biomedical scientists is referred to as biomedical research. == Description == The specific activities of the biomedical scientist can differ in various parts of the world and vary with the level of education. Generally speaking, biomedical scientists conduct research in a laboratory setting, using living organisms as models to conduct experiments. These can include cultured human or animal cells grown outside of the whole organism, small animals such as flies, worms, fish, mice, and rats, or, rarely, larger animals and primates. Biomedical scientists may also work directly with human tissue specimens to perform experiments as well as participate in clinical research. Biomedical scientists employ a variety of techniques in order to carry out laboratory experiments. These include: Molecular and biochemical techniques Electrophoresis and blotting Immunostaining Chromatography Mass spectrometry PCR and sequencing Microarrays Imaging technologies Light, fluorescence, and electron microscopy MRI PET X-ray


id: biomedical-scientist-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_scientist-1.md
category: reference
title: Biomedical scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:27.370205+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biomedical-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
=== United Kingdom === Biomedical Sciences, as defined by the UK Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education Benchmark Statement in 2015 includes those science disciplines whose primary focus is the biology of human health and disease and ranges from the generic study of biomedical sciences and human biology to more specialised subject areas such as pharmacology, human physiology and human nutrition. It is underpinned by relevant basic sciences including anatomy and physiology, cell biology, biochemistry, microbiology, genetics and molecular biology, immunology, mathematics and statistics, and bioinformatics. "Biomedical scientist" is the protected title used by professionals qualified to work unsupervised within the pathology department of a hospital. The biomedical sciences are made up of the following disciplines; biochemistry, haematology, immunology, microbiology, histology, cytology, and transfusion services. These professions are regulated within the United Kingdom by the Health and Care Professions Council. Anyone who falsely claims to be a biomedical scientist commits an offence and could be fined up to £5000. Each department specialises in aiding the diagnosis and treatment of disease. Entry to the profession requires an Institute of Biomedical Science (IBMS) accredited BSc honours degree followed by a minimum of 12 months laboratory training in one of the pathology disciplines,


id: biomedical-scientist-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_scientist-2.md
category: reference
title: Biomedical scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomedical_scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:27.370205+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biomedical-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
Biochemistry: studies the chemical composition of cells, and in serum/plasma, and the chemistry behind biological processes Molecular biology: studies the molecular makeup and processes of living organisms Biophysics: studies mechanical and electrical energy in living cells and tissues Cell biology: studies cell-level organization and processes Cytopathology: Studies cell obtained by different means from human and sometimes animal bodies, using microscope and recent technologies to evaluate morphology, molecular pathology changes by molecular diagnostics. Also cytopathology involves cancer screening such cervical, breast, colon and prostate cancers. Computational biology and Bioinformatics: uses computer modeling and data analysis to understand biological systems Developmental biology: studies the growth and development of organisms and focuses on diseases of abnormal development Epidemiology: studies the incidence and transmission of diseases in a population and population characteristics (behaviors, environment, etc.) that associate with diseases Genetics: studies DNA and genes of humans and animals, as well as diseases caused by abnormal or mutated DNA. Haematology: studies of the blood, such as blood cells, and mechanisms of coagulation. Blood transfusion: studies of transfusion science (although frequently linked to haematology, it is however a specialist discipline in its own right). Histopathology: Studies tissues for disease diagnosis, using histological, histochemical, immunohistochemical analysis or


id: chemist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemist-0.md
category: reference
title: Chemist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:28.548712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chemist-20260505-0
summary:
A chemist (from Greek chēm(ía) alchemy; replacing chymist from Medieval Latin alchemist) is a graduated scientist trained in the study of chemistry, or an officially enrolled student in the field. Chemists study the composition of matter and its properties. Chemists carefully describe the properties they study in terms of quantities, with detail on the level of molecules and their component atoms. Chemists carefully measure substance proportions, chemical reaction rates, and other chemical properties. In Commonwealth English, pharmacists are often called chemists. Chemists use their knowledge to learn the composition and properties of unfamiliar substances, as well as to reproduce and synthesize large quantities of useful naturally occurring substances and create new artificial substances and useful processes. Chemists may specialize in any number of subdisciplines of chemistry. Materials scientists and metallurgists share much of the same education and skills with chemists. The work of chemists is often related to the work of chemical engineers, who are primarily concerned with the proper design, construction and evaluation of the most cost-effective large-scale chemical plants and work closely with industrial chemists on the development of new processes and methods for the commercial-scale manufacture of chemicals and related products. == History of chemistry == The


id: chemist-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemist-1.md
category: reference
title: Chemist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:28.548712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chemist-20260505-0
summary:
In addition to all the training usually given to chemical technologists in their respective degree (or one given via an associate degree), a chemist is also trained to understand more details related to chemical phenomena so that the chemist can be capable of more planning on the steps to achieve a distinct goal via a chemistry-related endeavor. The higher the competency level achieved in the field of chemistry (as assessed via a combination of education, experience and personal achievements), the higher the responsibility given to that chemist and the more complicated the task might be. Chemistry, as a field, has so many applications that different tasks and objectives can be given to workers or scientists with these different levels of education or experience. The specific title of each job varies from position to position, depending on factors such as the kind of industry, the routine level of the task, the current needs of a particular enterprise, the size of the enterprise or hiring firm, the philosophy and management principles of the hiring firm, the visibility of the competency and individual achievements of the one seeking employment, economic factors such as recession or economic depression, among other factors, so this makes


id: chemist-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemist-2.md
category: reference
title: Chemist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:28.548712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chemist-20260505-0
summary:
=== Subdisciplines === Chemistry is typically organised into several major subdisciplines — including organic, inorganic, physical, analytical, and biochemistry — and encompasses numerous specialised and interdisciplinary fields. Many of these areas overlap with one another and with related sciences, and chemical research often intersects with disciplines such as biology, medicine, physics, materials science, and engineering. Analytical chemistry is the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure. Analytical chemistry incorporates standardized experimental methods in chemistry. These methods may be used in all subdisciplines of chemistry, excluding purely theoretical chemistry. Biochemistry is the study of the chemicals, chemical reactions and chemical interactions that take place in living organisms. Biochemistry and organic chemistry are closely related, for example, in medicinal chemistry. Inorganic chemistry is the study of the properties and reactions of inorganic compounds. The distinction between organic and inorganic disciplines is not absolute and there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of organometallic chemistry. The Inorganic chemistry is also the study of atomic and molecular structure and bonding. Medicinal chemistry is the science involved with designing, synthesizing and developing pharmaceutical drugs. Medicinal chemistry involves the identification, synthesis and development of new chemical entities


id: chief-experimental-officer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_experimental_officer-0.md
category: reference
title: Chief experimental officer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_experimental_officer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:29.698212+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chief-experimental-officer-20260505-0
summary:
A chief experimental officer (CEO) is the head of an experimental organization, especially in the military or civil service. Chief Experimental Officer has been the topmost class in the Experimental Officer Class of the British Civil Service. == See also == Chief executive officer (CEO) Chief innovation officer (CINO) Chief scientific officer (CSO) Chief technology officer (CTO) Government scientist == References ==


id: chief-scientific-officer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_scientific_officer-0.md
category: reference
title: Chief scientific officer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_scientific_officer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:30.954876+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chief-scientific-officer-20260505-0
summary:
A chief scientific officer (CSO) is a position at the head of scientific research operations at organizations or companies performing significant scientific research projects. == Description == A CSO is typically responsible for envisioning and developing research capabilities (human, methodological, and technological) for developing evidence of the validity and utility of research products, and for communicating with the scientific and customer communities concerning capabilities and scientific product offerings. In some organizations, the same person may hold this title along with that of chief technology officer (CTO). Alternatively, a company could have one or the other, or both occupied by separate people. Often, CSOs exist in heavily research-oriented companies; while CTOs exist in product development focused companies. The typical category of research and development that exists in many science and technology companies can be led by either post, depending upon which area is the organization's primary focus. A CSO almost always has a pure science background and an advanced degree, whereas a CTO often has a background in engineering or business development. Some academic research organizations, such as the Fox Chase Cancer Center, Dana–Farber Cancer Institute, and the San Diego Supercomputer Center have adopted a similar title of CSO. Typically, their


id: clinical-technologist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_technologist-0.md
category: reference
title: Clinical technologist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_technologist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:33.368380+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: clinical-technologist-20260505-0
summary:
A clinical technologist, also known as a healthcare science practitioner, is a medical professional involved in the practical delivery of medical physics and clinical engineering services. In some locations there is considerable overlap in closely related terms, for example in many countries technologist and radiographer are synonyms, while in the United Kingdom they are considered separate professions. Clinical technologists can be found in nuclear medicine, radiotherapy, radiation protection, and rehabilitation engineering departments, and they are often described by their scope of practice (for example as a nuclear medicine technologist). == Roles and responsibilities == Depending on local practices, in radiology and radiotherapy technologist may be a synonym for radiographer or a separate position. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) uses technologist primarily to refer to the staff involved in the practical clinical delivery of radiotherapy, radiology and nuclear medicine. There is no single European Union definition or minimum training level for technologists, and the use of the term varies between member states. In radiotherapy, the European SocieTy for Radiotherapy and Oncology (ESTRO) previously referred to the staff carrying out the practical elements of treatment as Radiation Technologists (RTT), however they have since revised this to Radiation TherapisTs. In the United


id: demographic-marketer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographic_marketer-0.md
category: reference
title: Demographic marketer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographic_marketer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:35.835323+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: demographic-marketer-20260505-0
summary:
Demographic marketers use demographics in marketing research, and the assessment of the changing trends of consumer behavior. Demographics can be called a science, and demographic marketers can be called scientists. A demographic is used to describe individuals who are from a particular area. It can also be used to describe individuals who would rely on purchasing a particular product or service. Using demographics, a marketing manager can try to grasp what certain people think and what they are willing to buy. By understanding how various characteristics of the population reflect their tastes, demographic marketers get an idea of the probability of the sales returns of a launched product in a given area. For any type of business, knowing who the customers are most likely to be through demographic analysis will make it easier to market effectively. == References == == External links == Demographics Reports


id: engineering-technician-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_technician-0.md
category: reference
title: Engineering technician
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_technician
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:40.661747+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: engineering-technician-20260505-0
summary:
An engineering technician is a professional trained in skills and techniques related to a specific branch of technology, with a practical understanding of the relevant engineering concepts. Engineering technicians often assist in projects relating to research and development, or focus on post-development activities like implementation or operation. The Dublin Accord was signed in 2002 as an international agreement recognizing engineering technician qualifications. The Dublin Accord is analogous to the Washington Accord for engineers and the Sydney Accord for engineering technologists. == Nature of work == Engineering technicians help solve technical problems in many ways. They build or set up equipment, conduct experiments, collect data, and calculate results. They might also help to make a model of new equipment. Some technicians work in quality control, checking products, tests, and collecting data. In manufacturing, they help to design and develop products. They also find ways to produce things efficiently. There are multiple fields in this job such as; software design, repair, etc. They may also be people who produce technical drawings or engineering drawings. Engineering technicians are responsible for using the theories and principles of science, engineering, and mathematics to solve problems and come up with solutions in the research, design, development,


id: engineering-technologist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_technologist-0.md
category: reference
title: Engineering technologist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_technologist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:41.853196+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: engineering-technologist-20260505-0
summary:
An engineering technologist is a professional trained in certain aspects of development and implementation of a respective area of technology. An education in engineering technology concentrates more on application and less on theory than does an engineering education. Engineering technologists often assist engineers; but after years of experience, they can also become engineers. Like engineers, areas where engineering technologists can work include product design, fabrication, and testing. Engineering technologists sometimes rise to senior management positions in industry or become entrepreneurs. Engineering technologists are more likely than engineers to focus on post-development implementation, product manufacturing, or operation of technology. The American National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE) makes the distinction that engineers are trained in conceptual skills, to "function as designers", while engineering technologists "apply others' designs". The mathematics and sciences, as well as other technical courses, in engineering technology programs, are taught with more application-based examples, whereas engineering coursework provides a more theoretical foundation in math and science. Moreover, engineering coursework tends to require higher-level mathematics including calculus and calculus-based theoretical science courses, as well as more extensive knowledge of the natural sciences, which serves to prepare students for research (whether in graduate studies or industrial R&D) as opposed to


id: engineering-technologist-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_technologist-1.md
category: reference
title: Engineering technologist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_technologist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:41.853196+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: engineering-technologist-20260505-0
summary:
=== Canada === In Canada, the new occupational category of "technologist" was established in the 1960s, in conjunction with an emerging system of community colleges and technical institutes. It was designed to effectively bridge the gap between the increasingly theoretical nature of engineering degrees and the predominantly practical approach of technician and trades programs. Provincial associations may certify individuals as a professional technologist (P.Tech.), certified engineering technologist (C.E.T.), registered engineering technologist (R.E.T.), applied science technologist (AScT), or technologue professionel (T.P.). These provincial associations are constituent members of Technology Professionals Canada (TPC), which accredits technology programs across Canada, through its Technology Accreditation Canada (TAC). Nationally accredited engineering technology programs range from two to three years in length, depending on the province, and often require as many classroom hours as a 4-year degree program. === United States === In the United States, the U.S. Department of Education or the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA) are at the top of the educational accreditation hierarchy. The U.S. Department of Education acknowledges regional and national accreditation and CHEA recognizes specialty accreditation. One technology accreditation is currently recognized by CHEA: The Association of Technology, Management and Applied Engineering (ATMAE). CHEA recognizes ATMAE for accrediting associate,


id: engineering-technologist-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_technologist-2.md
category: reference
title: Engineering technologist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_technologist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:41.853196+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: engineering-technologist-20260505-0
summary:
writing a technical report, based upon their experience and demonstrate their knowledge and understanding of engineering principles; earning the City and Guilds graduate diploma (bachelors level) and a postgraduate diploma (masters level) accredited by the Institution of Mechanical Engineers (IMechE), Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET) and Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE); following a work-based learning program; or taking an academic program specified by the institution to which they are applying. === Germany – European Union === ==== Engineering technologist / state-certified engineer ==== The engineering technologist (state-certified technician; German: Staatlich geprüfter Techniker) are vocational (non-academic) qualifications at the tertiary level in Germany. The degree is governed by the framework agreement of trade and technical schools (resolution of the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the states in the Federal Republic of Germany of 7 November 2002 in its respective applicable version) and is recognised by all states of the Federal Republic of Germany. It is awarded after passing state examinations at state or state-recognised technical school or academies (German: Fachschule/Fachakademie). Through the Vocational Training Modernisation Act (12.12.2019), state-certified engineers are also allowed to hold the title Bachelor Professional in Technik as of 1 January


id: geneticist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneticist-0.md
category: reference
title: Geneticist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneticist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:43.065721+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geneticist-20260505-0
summary:
A geneticist is a biologist or physician who studies genetics, the science of genes, heredity, and variation of organisms. A geneticist can be employed as a scientist or a lecturer. Geneticists may perform general research on genetic processes or develop genetic technologies to aid in the pharmaceutical or and agriculture industries. Some geneticists perform experiments in model organisms such as Drosophila, C. elegans, zebrafish, rodents or humans and analyze data to interpret the inheritance of biological traits. A basic science geneticist is a scientist who usually has earned a PhD in genetics and undertakes research and/or lectures in the field. A medical geneticist is a physician who has been trained in medical genetics as a specialization and evaluates, diagnoses, and manages patients with hereditary conditions or congenital malformations; and provides genetic risk calculations and mutation analysis. == Education == Geneticists participate in courses from many areas, such as biology, chemistry, physics, microbiology, cell biology, bioinformatics, and mathematics. They also participate in more specifie genetics courses such as molecular genetics, transmission genetics, population genetics, quantitative genetics, ecological genetics, epigenetics, and genomics. == Careers == Geneticists can work in many different fields, doing a variety of jobs. There are many careers for


id: geologist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologist-0.md
category: reference
title: Geologist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:45.660060+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geologist-20260505-0
summary:
A geologist is a scientist who studies the structure, composition, and history of Earth. Geologists incorporate techniques from physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics, and geography to perform research in the field and the laboratory. Geologists work in the energy and mining sectors to exploit natural resources. They monitor environmental hazards such as earthquakes, volcanoes, tsunamis and landslides. Geologists are also important contributors to climate change discussions. == History == James Hutton is often viewed as the first modern geologist. In 1785 he showed a paper titled Theory of the Earth to the Royal Society of Edinburgh. In his paper, he explained his theory that the Earth must be much older than had previously been supposed to allow enough time for mountains to be eroded and for sediments to form new rocks at the bottom of the sea, which in turn were raised up to become dry land. Hutton published a two-volume version of his ideas in 1795 (Vol. 1, Vol. 2). Followers of Hutton were known as Plutonists because they believed that some rocks were formed by vulcanism, which is the deposition of lava from volcanoes, as opposed to the Neptunists, led by Abraham Werner, who believed that all rocks had


id: geologist-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologist-1.md
category: reference
title: Geologist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:45.660060+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geologist-20260505-0
summary:
Economic geology: the study of ore genesis, and the mechanisms of ore creation, geostatistics. Engineering geology: application of the geologic sciences to engineering practice for the purpose of assuring that the geologic factors affecting the location, design, construction, operation and maintenance of engineering works are recognized and adequately provided for; Geophysics: the applied branch deals with the application of physical methods such as gravity, seismicity, electricity, magnetic properties to study the earth. Geochemistry: the applied branch deals with the study of the chemical makeup and behaviour of rocks, and the study of the behaviour of their minerals. Geochronology: the study of isotope geology specifically toward determining the date within the past of rock formation, metamorphism, mineralization and geological events (notably, meteorite impacts). Geomorphology: the study of landforms and the processes that create them. Hydrogeology: the study of the origin, occurrence and movement of groundwater water in a subsurface geological system. Igneous petrology: the study of igneous processes such as igneous differentiation, fractional crystallization, intrusive and volcanological phenomena. Isotope geology: the case of the isotopic composition of rocks to determine the processes of rock and planetary formation. Metamorphic petrology: the study of the effects of metamorphism on minerals and rocks. Marine


id: geoprofessions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoprofessions-0.md
category: reference
title: Geoprofessions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoprofessions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:56.503946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geoprofessions-20260505-0
summary:
"Geoprofessions" is a term coined by the Geoprofessional Business Association to connote various technical disciplines that involve engineering, earth and environmental services applied to below-ground ("subsurface"), ground-surface, and ground-surface-connected conditions, structures, or formations. The principal disciplines include, as major categories: geomatics engineering geotechnical engineering; geology and engineering geology; geological engineering; geophysics; geophysical engineering; environmental science and environmental engineering; construction-materials engineering and testing; and other geoprofessional services. Each discipline involves specialties, many of which are recognized through professional designations that governments and societies or associations confer based upon a person's education, training, experience, and educational accomplishments. In the United States, engineers must be licensed in the state or territory where they practice engineering. Most states license geologists and several license environmental "site professionals." Several states license engineering geologists and recognize geotechnical engineering through a geotechnical-engineering titling act. == Geotechnical-engineering specialties == Although geotechnical engineering is applied for a variety of purposes, it is essential to foundation design. As such, geotechnical engineering is applicable to every existing or new structure on the planet; every building and every highway, bridge, tunnel, harbor, airport, water line, reservoir, or other public work. Commonly, the geotechnical-engineering service comprises a study of subsurface conditions using various sampling,


id: geoprofessions-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoprofessions-1.md
category: reference
title: Geoprofessions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoprofessions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:56.503946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geoprofessions-20260505-0
summary:
Engineering geologist. (a) Elements of the engineering geologist specialty. The practice of engineering geology involves the interpretation, evaluation, analysis, and application of geological information and data to civil works. Geotechnical soil and rock units are designated, characterized, and classified, using standard engineering soil and rock classification systems. Relationships are interpreted between landform development, current and past geologic processes, ground and surface water, and the strength characteristics of soil and rock. Processes evaluated include both surficial processes (for example, slope, fluvial, and coastal processes), and deep-seated processes (for example, volcanic activity and seismicity). Geotechnical zones or domains are designated based on soil and rocked geological strength characteristics, common landforms, related geologic processes, or other pertinent factors. Proposed developmental modifications are evaluated and, where appropriate, analyzed to predict potential or likely changes in types and rates of surficial geologic processes. Proposed modifications may include such things as vegetation removal, using various types of earth materials in construction, applying loads to shallow or deep foundations, constructing cut or fill slopes and other grading, and modifying ground and surface water flow. The effects of surficial and deep-seated geologic processes are evaluated and analyzed to predict their potential effect on public health, public safety, land


id: geoprofessions-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoprofessions-2.md
category: reference
title: Geoprofessions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoprofessions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:56.503946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geoprofessions-20260505-0
summary:
Environmental science and environmental engineering are the geoprofessions commonly associated with the identification, remediation, and prevention of environmental contamination. These services range from phase-one and phase-two environmental site-assessments – research designed to assess the likelihood that a property is contaminated and subsurface exploration conducted to identify the nature and extent of contamination, respectively – up through the design of processes and systems to remediate contaminated sites for the protection of human health and the environment. Environmental geology is one of the principal geoprofessions engaged in assessing and remediating contaminated sites. Environmental geologists help identify the subsurface stratigraphy in which contaminants are located and through which they migrate. Environmental chemistry is the geoprofession that encompasses the study of chemical compounds in the soil. These compounds are categorized as pollutants or contaminants when introduced into the environment by human factors (e.g., waste, mining processes, radioactive release) and are not of natural origin. Environmental chemistry assesses interactions or these compounds with soil, rock, and water to determine their fate and transport, the techniques to measure the levels of contaminants in the environment, and technologies to destroy or reduce the toxicity of contaminants in wastes or compounds that have been released to the environment.


id: geoprofessions-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoprofessions-3.md
category: reference
title: Geoprofessions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoprofessions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:56.503946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geoprofessions-20260505-0
summary:
== Construction-materials engineering and testing (CoMET) == Construction-materials engineering and testing (CoMET) comprises an array of licensed-engineer-directed professional services applied principally for purposes of construction quality assurance and quality control. CoMET services commonly are provided as a separate discipline by firms that also practice geotechnical engineering, possibly among other geoprofessional disciplines. The geoprofessional-service industry has evolved in this manner because geotechnical engineering employs the observational method. Karl von Terzaghi and Ralph B. Peck – the creators of modern geotechnical engineering – used the observational method and multiple working hypotheses to expedite and economize the subsurface-exploration process, by using sampling and testing to form a judgment about subsurface conditions, and then observing excavated conditions and materials to confirm or modify those judgments and related recommendations, and then finalize them. To economize still further, geoprofessionals educated and trained paraprofessionals to represent them on site (hence the term "field representative"), especially to apply their judgment (much as a geotechnical engineer would) in comparing observed conditions with those the geotechnical engineer believed would exist. Over time, geotechnical engineers expanded their CoMET services by providing the additional education and training their field representatives needed to evaluate constructors' attainment of conditions commonly specified by geoprofessionals; e.g.,


id: geoprofessions-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoprofessions-4.md
category: reference
title: Geoprofessions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoprofessions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:56.503946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geoprofessions-20260505-0
summary:
Many of the CoMET services performed for construction projects are performed for environmental projects as well, but requirements tend to be less rigid because they involve fewer licensing and related requirements. For example, individuals may perform federally mandated all-appropriate inquiries – typically a phase-one environmental site assessment – without a license of any kind.


id: geoprofessions-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoprofessions-5.md
category: reference
title: Geoprofessions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoprofessions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:56.503946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geoprofessions-20260505-0
summary:
== Other geoprofessional services == To the extent that archeology and paleontology require systematic subsurface excavation to recover artifacts, they, too, are considered geoprofessions. Many geoprofessional-services firms offer these services to those of their clients that need to satisfy federal and/or state regulations that require paleontological and/or archeological inquiry before site development or redevelopment activities can proceed. == See also == List of geology journals List of mining journals == References == Bates and Jackson. (1980) Glossary of Geology. 2nd ed., American Geological Institute. ISBN 0-913312-15-0. Bowles, J. (1988) Foundation Analysis and Design. McGraw-Hill Publishing Company. ISBN 0-07-006776-7. Burger, H. Robert, Sheehan, Anne F., and Jones, Craig H. (2006) Introduction to Applied Geophysics : Exploring the Shallow Subsurface. New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-92637-0. Cedergren, Harry R. (1977) Seepage, Drainage, and Flow Nets. Wiley. ISBN 0-471-14179-8. Chen, W-F and Scawthorn, C. (2003) Earthquake Engineering Handbook. CRC Press, ISBN 0-8493-0068-1 Das, Braja M. (2006) Principles of Geotechnical Engineering. England: THOMSON LEARNING (KY). ISBN 0-534-55144-0. Fang, H.-Y. and Daniels, J. (2005) Introductory Geotechnical Engineering: an Environmental Perspective. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 0-415-30402-4. Faure, Gunter. (1998) Principles and Applications of Geochemistry: a Comprehensive Textbook for Geology Students. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. ISBN


id: government-scientist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_scientist-0.md
category: reference
title: Government scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:57.823899+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: government-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
A government scientist is a scientist employed by a country's government, either in a research-driven job (for example J. Robert Oppenheimer on the Manhattan Project), or for another role that requires scientific training and methods. In some countries other terms, such as Technical officers, is also used for scientists. == Australia == In Australia, most government scientists are employed by the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation. A Chief Scientist is appointed to advise the government through the Office of the Chief Scientist. == Singapore == In Singapore, government scientists are classified according to the Departmental Titles (Alteration) (Amendment) Act 1996, which amended the Departmental Titles (Alteration) Ordinance of 1950. == United Kingdom == In the United Kingdom, government scientists are part of the Scientific Civil Service. However, that was not always the case. Before the Second World War, government scientists were recruited and employed by the Civil Service on an ad hoc basis, with grades, job titles, and organizations that varied between departments. In 1930, the Carpenter Committee was appointed to investigate the organization of civil service scientific and technical staff, and its report proposed a reorganization that covered the entire Service. This report was endorsed by the Tomlin


id: healthcare-scientist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthcare_scientist-0.md
category: reference
title: Healthcare scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthcare_scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:30:59.129604+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: healthcare-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
A healthcare scientist (HCS), or medical scientist, is a scientist working in any of a number of health related disciplines. Healthcare scientists may work directly for health service providers, or in academia or industry. Healthcare scientists typically refers to those contributing directly to clinical services, and not scientists working solely in health related research and development. == Disciplines == Boundaries between healthcare science and other related fields are not strictly defined. There are more than 50 different specialisms. Healthcare scientists work in clinical bioinformatics, life sciences, physical sciences and physiological sciences. A non-exhaustive list of healthcare science roles is below. Medical physicist Biomedical scientist Audiologist Clinical cytogeneticist Clinical embryologist Neurophysiological scientist Vascular scientist Cardiac scientist == Organization == Regulation and organization of healthcare scientists varies significantly from country to country, and from discipline to discipline. === Europe === ==== United Kingdom ==== There are over 50,000 healthcare scientists working in the NHS. Biomedical Scientist and Clinical scientist are a protected title in the United Kingdom, requiring state registration. The Health and Care Professions Council holds the register and regulates the profession. The main routes to registration and training are through courses run by the Institute of Biomedical Science or the


id: laboratory-manager-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_manager-0.md
category: reference
title: Laboratory manager
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_manager
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:01.555582+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: laboratory-manager-20260505-0
summary:
A laboratory manager (alternatively laboratory supervisor) is an individual who supervises personnel and operations in a laboratory environment; the position is senior to that of a laboratory technician or laboratory technologist, and is considered a middle-management occupation. == Nature of work == While the duties of laboratory managers depend on their particular field or industry, they generally direct or coordinate scientific research and related activities such as quality control, along with ensuring laboratories have the necessary equipment and materials to sustain operations. Depending on the size of the company or academic institution, the scope of a manager's responsibilities also varies. At a senior level, a laboratory manager may be an administrator primarily responsible for budgets, hiring and supervising scientific and technical personnel, and working with senior management to develop goals and strategies for the organization. Laboratory managers or supervisors at this level may be responsible for managing large teams. Some laboratory managers are current or former scientists who are sometimes called "working managers," and who participate in conducting research in addition to administrative duties, mentoring students, and assisting other researchers. Managers in this category are commonly known as staff scientists. Chemistry laboratory managers may also be chemical hygiene officers responsible


id: laboratory-technician-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_technician-0.md
category: reference
title: Laboratory technician
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laboratory_technician
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:02.821136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: laboratory-technician-20260505-0
summary:
A laboratory technician or (informally) lab tech is a person who works in a laboratory performing analytical or experimental procedures, maintaining laboratory equipment. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the first use of the term laboratory technician was in 1896:It [sc. a therapeutic property] is now totally abandoned by the advanced laboratory technicians.The term is now widely accepted. Laboratory technicians are found in a wide range of scientific fields, including forensic science, pathology, chemistry, biomedical science and physics. Laboratory technicians may hold a range of formal academic qualifications, such as associate degrees, often obtained through vocational education. They are usually supervised by laboratory managers. == References ==


id: medical-laboratory-scientist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_laboratory_scientist-0.md
category: reference
title: Medical laboratory scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_laboratory_scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:04.177988+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-laboratory-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
A medical laboratory scientist (MLS), clinical laboratory scientist (CLS), or medical technologist (MT) is a licensed healthcare professional who performs diagnostic testing of body fluids, examples: blood, urine, sputum and other body tissue. The medical technologist is tasked with releasing the patient's results to aid in further treatment. The scope of a medical laboratory scientist's work begins with the receipt of patient or client specimens, and finishes with the delivery of test results to physicians and other healthcare providers. The utility of clinical diagnostic testing relies squarely on the validity of test methodology. To this end, much of the work done by medical laboratory scientists involves ensuring specimen quality, interpreting test results, data-logging, testing control products, performing calibration, maintenance, validation, and troubleshooting of instrumentation as well as performing statistical analyses to verify the accuracy and repeatability of testing. Medical laboratory scientists may also assist healthcare providers with test selection and specimen collection and are responsible for prompt verbal delivery of critical lab results. Medical laboratory scientists in healthcare settings also play an important role in clinical diagnosis; some estimates suggest that up to 70% of medical decisions are based on laboratory test results and MLS contributions affect 95% of a


id: medical-laboratory-scientist-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_laboratory_scientist-1.md
category: reference
title: Medical laboratory scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_laboratory_scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:04.177988+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-laboratory-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
== Specialty areas == Many medical laboratory scientists are generalists, skilled in most areas of the clinical laboratory. However, some are specialists, qualified by unique undergraduate education or additional training to perform more complex analyses than usual within a specific field. Specialties include clinical biochemistry, hematology, coagulation, microbiology, bacteriology, toxicology, virology, parasitology, mycology, immunology, immunohematology (blood bank), histopathology, histocompatibility, cytopathology, genetics, cytogenetics, electron microscopy, and IVF labs. Medical technologists specialty may use additional credentials, such as "SBB" (specialist in blood banking), "SM" (Ssecialist in microbiology), "SC" (specialist in chemistry), or "SH" (specialist in hematology) from the American Society for Clinical Pathology (ASCP). These additional notations may be appended to the base credential, for example, "MLS (ASCP), SBB (ASCP)". Additional information can be found in the ASCP Procedures for Examination & Certification. Andrology laboratory scientist, embryology laboratory scientist, and molecular diagnostics technologist certifications are provided by the American Association of Bioanalysts; those with the certifications are classified as ALS (AAB), ELS (AAB), and MDxT (AAB), respectively. Certified histocompatibility associate, certified histocompatibility technologist, certified histocompatibility specialist, and diplomate of the ABHI are titles granted by the American Board of Hisocompatibility and Immunogenetics after meeting education and experience requirements and passing the required


id: medical-laboratory-scientist-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_laboratory_scientist-2.md
category: reference
title: Medical laboratory scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_laboratory_scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:04.177988+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-laboratory-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
=== Pakistan === In Pakistan, the National Institute of Health (NIH) in Islamabad is the pioneer in laboratory sciences. The College of Medical Lab Technology (CMLT) of the NIH offers a two-year F.Sc degree in Medical Lab Technology (MLT). The previous two-year B.Sc. in MLT was discontinued and replaced by the four-year Bachelor Program in Medical Lab Sciences (MLS). The University of Health Sciences in Lahore also offers a four-year Bachelor program in MLS through approved colleges. The University of Lahore, University of Faisalabad, University of Sargodha, and Superior University in Lahore all offer a five-year Doctor of Medical Lab Sciences (DMLS) Program. Eligibility criteria for the four-year B.Sc. in MLS and the five-year Doctor of Medical Lab Sciences (DMLS) is the F.Sc. Pre-Medical. === United States === In the United States, a medical laboratory scientist (MLS), medical technologist (MT), or a clinical laboratory scientist (CLS) typically earns a bachelor's degree in medical laboratory science, clinical laboratory science, or medical technology. Other routes include attaining a degree in biomedical science or in a life / biological science (biology, biochemistry, microbiology, etc.). Both routes typically requires the MLS/MT/CLS to obtain certification from a national certifying board (AAB, AMT, or ASCP) as


id: medical-laboratory-scientist-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_laboratory_scientist-3.md
category: reference
title: Medical laboratory scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_laboratory_scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:04.177988+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-laboratory-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
=== United Kingdom === In the United Kingdom (UK) there are two varieties of registered healthcare scientist in hospitals - Clinical Scientists and Biomedical Scientists (BMS). There is a strict and formal post graduate training programme for both careers followed by statutory registration for each with the Health & Care Professions Council UK (HCPC), for the safety and assurance of the customers - the patients. They are two similar but distinct careers with parallel but different training paths and different entry requirements. The role of Clinical Scientists is to improve the health and well-being of patients and the public by practising alongside doctors, nurses, and other health and social care professionals in the delivery of healthcare. Their aim is to provide expert scientific and clinical advice to clinician colleagues, to aid in the diagnosis, treatment and management of patient care. Examples of the type of work they undertake include: Advising, diagnosing, interpreting, and treating patients Advising health and social care professionals in the diagnosis and treatment of patients Researching the science, technology, and practise used in healthcare to innovate and improve services Designing, building, and operating technology for diagnosing and treating patients Ensuring the safety and reliability of tests and


id: medical-laboratory-scientist-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_laboratory_scientist-4.md
category: reference
title: Medical laboratory scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_laboratory_scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:04.177988+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-laboratory-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
=== United States === There are currently three major certification agencies in the United States of America for clinical laboratory scientists. They are the American Association of Bioanalysts (AAB), the American Medical Technologists (AMT), and the American Society for Clinical Pathology (ASCP). Clinical Laboratory Science programs have the option to be accredited by the National Accrediting Agency for Clinical Laboratory Science (NAACLS). NAACLS accreditation allows students to sit for their certification at the completion of their program in addition to being a stamp of program quality. All the three national accrediting agencies will certify scientists in the clinical laboratory as generalist (chemistry, hematology, immunology, immunohematology/blood bank, and microbiology). The American Association of Bioanalysts and the American Medical Technologists certifications continue to use the traditional designation medical technologist (MT), while the American Society for Clinical Pathology has adopted the designation of medical laboratory scientist (MLS). Regardless of terminology, these highly qualified individuals serve as scientists in the clinical laboratory. Two other organizations have previously provided proficiency examinations to clinical laboratory scientists: the US Department of Health and Human Services, and the National Credentialing Agency for Laboratory Personnel (NCA). The NCA was absorbed by the American Society for Clinical Pathology in 2009


id: medical-laboratory-scientist-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_laboratory_scientist-5.md
category: reference
title: Medical laboratory scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_laboratory_scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:04.177988+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-laboratory-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
Master of Science, Master of Business Administration, Master of Health Administration, Doctor of medical laboratory science for specialization, education and management roles. Doctor of Philosophy for management and directorship roles in the clinical laboratory as well as for academic research and professorship. Doctors of Philosophy holding a degree in a biological science, and who are board certified by a CLIA-approved entity, are qualified as a medical laboratory director. Doctor of Medicine or Doctor of clinical laboratory Science - this is the position that qualifies an individual to oversee or direct almost all types of clinical laboratories. Under U.S. CLIA laws, a requirement of at least year of clinical laboratory experience (any MD) or pathology residency must be met. In the United Kingdom the Modernising Scientific Careers (MSC) programme sets out for the first time a comprehensive training and career framework for the whole healthcare science workforce inclusive of the more than 50 different scientific professional specialisms. In its conception it aimed to provide a coherent framework that was accessible, affordable and designed specifically to both capture scientific and technological advances and to provide improved outcomes for patients, the service and professionals. A key aspect of the framework from the start


id: medical-laboratory-scientist-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_laboratory_scientist-6.md
category: reference
title: Medical laboratory scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_laboratory_scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:04.177988+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-laboratory-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
== Labor shortage == Medical facilities throughout the United States have gradually been experiencing a shortage in medical laboratory science professionals. The current projectory of medical laboratory personnel through 2030 is insufficient to serve medical services effectively. Reasons for the shortage include current professionals retiring, a modern increase in medical laboratory scientist and technician demand, changes in the practice caused by new technological advances (which need training to learn to use), and vacancy and retirement rates being greater than the number of graduates from medical laboratory programs. Lack of funding, low salaries, lack of a developed career ladder, and a lack of clear job requirements has made recruitment and the hiring process difficult. Newer recruiting attempts have increased the number of graduated professionals in the last five years, but not enough to meet the growing demand. Some clinical organizations suggest that professional-development programs for the allied health fields should be improved to cultivate interest in younger professionals and students. The Institute of Medicine is actively working on re-viewing policy reforms and new plans and recommendations to increase medical professional turnout among younger people. The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the medical laboratory shortage in the medical field. Organizations such as the American


id: meteorologist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorologist-0.md
category: reference
title: Meteorologist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorologist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:05.372158+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: meteorologist-20260505-0
summary:
A meteorologist is a scientist who studies and works in the field of meteorology aiming to understand or predict Earth's atmospheric phenomena including the weather. Those who study meteorological phenomena are meteorologists in research, while those using mathematical models and knowledge to prepare daily weather forecasts are called weather forecasters or operational meteorologists. Meteorologists work in government agencies, private consulting and research services, industrial enterprises, utilities, radio and television stations, and in education. They are not to be confused with weather presenters, who present the weather forecast in the media and range in training from journalists having just minimal training in meteorology to full-fledged meteorologists. == Description == Meteorologists study the Earth's atmosphere and its interactions with the Earth's surface, the oceans and the biosphere. Their knowledge of applied mathematics and physics allows them to understand the full range of atmospheric phenomena, from snowflake formation to the Earth's general climate. Research meteorologists are specialized in areas like: Climatology to estimate the various components of the climate and their variability to determine, for example, the wind potential of a given region or global warming. Air quality where they are interested in the phenomena of transport, transformation and dispersion of atmospheric pollutants


id: microbiologist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbiologist-0.md
category: reference
title: Microbiologist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbiologist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:06.614260+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: microbiologist-20260505-0
summary:
A microbiologist (from Greek μῑκρος) is a scientist who studies microscopic life forms and processes. This includes study of the growth, interactions and characteristics of microscopic organisms such as bacteria, algae, fungi, and some types of parasites and their vectors. Most microbiologists work in offices and/or research facilities, both in private biotechnology companies and in academia. Most microbiologists specialize in a given topic within microbiology such as bacteriology, parasitology, virology, or immunology. == Duties == Microbiologists generally work in some way to increase scientific knowledge or to utilise that knowledge in a way that improves outcomes in medicine or some industry. For many microbiologists, this work includes planning and conducting experimental research projects in some kind of laboratory setting. Others may have a more administrative role, supervising scientists and evaluating their results. Microbiologists working in the medical field, such as clinical microbiologists, may see patients or patient samples and do various tests to detect disease-causing organisms. For microbiologists working in academia, duties include performing research in an academic laboratory, writing grant proposals to fund research, as well as some amount of teaching and designing courses. Microbiologists in industry roles may have similar duties except research is performed in industrial labs


id: neuroscientist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscientist-0.md
category: reference
title: Neuroscientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:07.915738+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuroscientist-20260505-0
summary:
A neuroscientist (or neurobiologist) is a scientist specializing in neuroscience that deals with the anatomy and function of neurons, neural circuits, and glia, and their behavioral, biological, and psychological roles in health and disease. Neuroscientists generally work as researchers within a college, university, government agency, or private industry setting. In research-oriented careers, neuroscientists design and conduct scientific experiments on the nervous system and its functions. They can engage in basic or applied research. Basic research seeks to expand current understanding of the nervous system, whereas applied research seeks to address a specific problem, such as developing a treatment for a neurological disorder. Neuroscientists have numerous career opportunities outside of academic research, including careers in industry, science writing, government program management, science advocacy, and education. A neuroscientist commonly holds a doctorate in a medical science. == Job overview == === Job description === Neuroscientists focus primarily on the study and research of the nervous system. The nervous system is composed of the brain, spinal cord and nerve cells. Studies of the nervous system may focus on the cellular level, as in studies of the ion channels, or instead may focus on a systemic level as in behavioural or cognitive studies. A


id: neuroscientist-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscientist-1.md
category: reference
title: Neuroscientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:07.915738+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuroscientist-20260505-0
summary:
=== Medieval European beliefs and Andreas Vesalius === Medieval beliefs generally held true the proposals of Galen, including the attribution of mental processes to specific ventricles in the brain. Functions of regions of the brain were defined based on their texture and composition: memory function was attributed to the posterior ventricle, a harder region of the brain and thus a good place for memory storage. Andreas Vesalius redirected the study of neuroscience away from the anatomical focus; he considered the attribution of functions based on location to be crude. Pushing away from the superficial proposals made by Galen and medieval beliefs, Vesalius did not believe that studying anatomy would lead to any significant advances in the understanding of thinking and the brain. == Current and developing research topics == Research in neuroscience is expanding and becoming increasingly interdisciplinary. Many current research projects involve the integration of computer programs in mapping the human nervous system. The National Institutes of Health (NIH) sponsored Human Connectome Project, launched in 2009, hopes to establish a highly detailed map of the human nervous system and its millions of connections. Detailed neural mapping could lead the way for advances in the diagnosis and treatment of neurological


id: neuroscientist-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscientist-2.md
category: reference
title: Neuroscientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroscientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:07.915738+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuroscientist-20260505-0
summary:
Camillo Golgi and Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1906) for the development of the silver staining method, revealing what would later be determined as individual neurons. Cajal's interpretations of the images produced by Golgi's staining technique led to the adoption of the neuron doctrine. Charles Sherrington and Edgar Adrian (1932) for their discoveries of the general function of neurons, including excitatory and inhibitory signals, and the all-or-nothing response of nerve fibers. Sir Henry Dale and Otto Loewi (1936) for the discovery of neurotransmitters and identification of acetylcholine. Joseph Erlanger and Herbert Gasser (1944) for discoveries illustrating the varied timing exhibited by single nerve fibers. Walter Rudolf Hess and António Caetano Egas Moniz (1949) for discovery of the functional organization of the midbrain and for the controversial therapeutic value of leucotomy respectively. Alan Hodgkin, Andrew Huxley, and Sir John Eccles (1963) for discovering the ionic basis of the action potential and macroscopic currents through their use of the squid giant axon. Sir Bernard Katz, Ulf von Euler and Julius Axelrod (1970) for the discovery of the mechanisms responsible for neurotransmitter storage, release, and inactivation. Their work included the discovery of the synaptic vesicle and quantal neurotransmitter release. Roger Guillemin and Andrew V.


id: petroleum-geologist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_geologist-0.md
category: reference
title: Petroleum geologist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_geologist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:10.355704+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: petroleum-geologist-20260505-0
summary:
A petroleum geologist is an earth scientist who works in the field of petroleum geology, which involves all aspects of the discovery and production of oil and gas. Petroleum geologists are usually linked to the actual discovery of oil and gas and the identification of possible new oil deposits or gas fields. It can be a very labor-intensive task involving several different fields of science and elaborate equipment. Petroleum geologists look at the structural and sedimentary aspects of the stratum/strata to identify possible oil traps or tight shale plays. == Profile == Petroleum geologists make the decision of where to drill for petroleum. This is done by locating prospects within a sedimentary basin. Petroleum geologists determine a prospect's viability looking at seven main aspects in conventional petroleum geology: Source: the presence of an organic-rich source rock capable of generating hydrocarbons during deep burial. Reservoir: the usually porous rock and permeable unit that collects the hydrocarbons expelled from the source rock and holds them inside a trap. Seal: the rock unit that inhibits the oil or gas from escaping from a hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir rock. Trap: structural or stratigraphic feature that captures migrating hydrocarbons into an economically producible accumulation. Timing: geologic events


id: physician-scientist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physician-scientist-0.md
category: reference
title: Physician-scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physician-scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:11.669918+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: physician-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
A physician-scientist (in North American English) or clinician-scientist (in British English and Australian English) is a physician who divides their professional time between direct clinical practice with patients and scientific research. Physician-scientists traditionally hold both a medical degree and a Doctor of Philosophy, also known as an MD-PhD or DO-PhD. Compared to other clinicians, physician-scientists invest significant time and professional effort in scientific research, with ratios of research to clinical time ranging from 50/50 to 80/20. Physician-scientists are often employed by academic or research institutions where they drive innovation across a wide range of medical specialties and may also use their extensive training to focus their clinical practices on specialized patient populations, such as those with rare genetic diseases or cancers. Although they are a minority of both practicing physicians and active research scientists, physician-scientists are often cited as playing a critical role in translational medicine and clinical research by adapting biomedical research findings to health care applications. Over time, the term physician scientist has expanded to holders of other clinical degrees—such as nurses, dentists, and veterinarians—who are also included by the United States National Institutes of Health (NIH) in its studies of the physician-scientist workforce (PSW). == History ==


id: principal-investigator-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principal_investigator-0.md
category: reference
title: Principal investigator
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principal_investigator
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:16.466887+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: principal-investigator-20260505-0
summary:
In many countries, the term principal investigator (PI) refers to the holder of an independent grant and the lead researcher for the grant project, usually in the sciences, such as a laboratory study or a clinical trial. The phrase is also often used as a synonym for "head of the laboratory" or "research group leader". While the expression is common in the sciences, it is used widely for the person or persons who make final decisions and supervise funding and expenditures on a given research project. A co-investigator (Co-I) assists the principal investigator in the management and leadership of the research project. There may be a number of co-investigators supporting a PI. == Federal funding == In the context of United States federal funding from agencies such as the National Institutes of Health (NIH) or the National Science Foundation (NSF), the PI is the person who takes direct responsibility for completion of a funded project, directing the research and reporting directly to the funding agency. For small projects (which might involve 1–5 people) the PI is typically the person who conceived the investigation, but for larger projects the PI may be selected by a team to obtain the best strategic


id: school-science-technician-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_science_technician-0.md
category: reference
title: School science technician
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_science_technician
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:17.612001+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: school-science-technician-20260505-0
summary:
In schools, the science technician is the person who prepares the practical equipment and makes up the solutions used in school science labs. The role also includes instructing and assisting teachers with practical skills, including class demonstrations, for advanced techniques across all disciplines. Many are very well qualified and have degrees, such as a Bachelor's degree (B.A. or B.Sc), Master's degree (M.Sc.) or even a Doctorate (Dr) and/or other professional qualifications such as the HNC, HND and NVQ. Their main duties include: Care of living organisms Making up solutions School science experiments and demonstrations Inventory Budget and Accounts Repairing and constructing laboratory equipment In December 2002 CLEAPSS commissioned a survey into the Specific Job roles of Science Technicians. The pdf Document G228 - Technicians and their jobs which can be freely downloaded was released and later updated in 2009. The guide was written to help promote a professional technician service in schools and colleges. == See also == Science education == References == == External links == CLEAPSS - The School Science Advisory Service providing practical advice & help on safety in Science ASE - Professional Organisation for Teachers and Technicians


id: science-attach-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_attaché-0.md
category: reference
title: Science attaché
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_attaché
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:18.826155+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-attach-20260505-0
summary:
A science attaché (also known as a scientific attaché or a technical attaché) is a member of a diplomatic mission, usually an embassy. A science attaché traditionally had three primary functions: advise the ambassador on scientific and technical matters, report on scientific and technological events, and represent their country in scientific and technical matters to foreign scientific and technical academies; to industry; to intergovernmental organizations and agencies; and to international non-governmental organizations. In 1998, the National Academy of Sciences called for the appointment of more science-savvy diplomats to the State Department to improve the quality of the scientific advice available to foreign policymakers. The panel also emphasized the need to encourage general foreign service staff to acquire scientific skills. Science attachés could help scientists understand the host nation's science culture and practices. Formerly, being appointed science attaché was viewed as the "kiss of death" for advancement within the foreign service. Though the perception may change from scientific issues such as global warming, global infectious diseases, and bioterrorism to foreign policymaking and diplomacy. == Historical functions == The role of science attachés of the United States was first outlined in 1950 in a report entitled Science and Foreign Relations, issued by


id: science-technician-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_technician-0.md
category: reference
title: Science technician
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_technician
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:20.201458+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-technician-20260505-0
summary:
Science technician is a profession involving working as a member of support staff in any science disciplines. The Science Council defines a technician as “a person who is skilled in the use of particular techniques and procedures to solve practical problems, often in ways that require considerable ingenuity and creativity. Technicians typically work with complex instruments and equipment, and require specialised training, as well as considerable practical experience, in order to do their job effectively”. Science technicians are frequently based in laboratories, but they also perform roles in workshops, studios, the field, or in any location where scientific work is being carried out. As a group, science technicians have been referred to as "Invisible"; members of the scientific workforce whose role in the process for forming new scientific knowledge has been poorly acknowledged and insufficiently studied. However, more recently their role has been studied in some detail. == Profession == Professional training for science technicians varies between countries. In Germany, where science technicians are a subset of the "technical assistant" class of professions, state-certified technician training is a vocational training that lasts between two and three years. It allows specializations in, for instance, physics, chemistry, pharmacy, medicine and computer science,


id: scientific-glassblowing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_glassblowing-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific glassblowing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_glassblowing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:21.548872+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-glassblowing-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific glassblowing is a specialty field of lampworking used in industry, science, art and design used in research and production. Scientific glassblowing has been used in chemical, pharmaceutical, electronic and physics research including Galileo's thermometer, Thomas Edison's light bulb, and vacuum tubes used in early radio, TV and computers. More recently, the field has helped advance fiber optics, lasers, atomic and subatomic particle research, advanced communications development and semiconductors. The field combined hand skills using lathes and torches with modern computer assisted furnaces, diamond grinding and lapping machines, lasers and ultra-sonic mills. == Scientific glassblowing schools == === Degree programs === Salem Community College in Carney's Point, New Jersey offers the only degree program in the United States, an Associate in Applied Science, with a focus on the construction of scientific glass apparatus. Students come from throughout the United States and from around the world to develop this specialized skill at Salem Community College. Alfred University offers a masters program in glass science and a PhD with a blend of theoretical and applied studies similar to degree programs in materials science and engineering. === Universities offering courses === The following is the list of recognized universities that provide courses in


id: technician-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technician-0.md
category: reference
title: Technician
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technician
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:22.702446+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technician-20260505-0
summary:
A technician is a worker in a field of technology who is proficient in the relevant skill and technique, with a relatively practical understanding of the theoretical principles. == Specialisation == The term technician covers many different specialisations. These include: Work safety technician Systems technician Sciences technician Data systems technician Data processing technician Information systems technician Cryptologic technician Sonar technician Engineering technician Laboratory technician Digital imaging technician Machinery Technician Machines technician Electricity technician Electronics technician Computer repair technician Automation technician Pharmacy technician Nail technician Theatrical technician Emergency Medical Technician == Campaigns == In the UK, a shortage of skilled technicians in the science, engineering and technology sectors has led to various campaigns to encourage more people to become technicians and to promote the role of technician. == See also == Career and Technical Education History of technology Technical education Grey-collar worker == References == == External links == Media related to Technicians at Wikimedia Commons


id: volcanologist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanologist-0.md
category: reference
title: Volcanologist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanologist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:24.004233+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: volcanologist-20260505-0
summary:
A volcanologist, or volcano scientist, is a geologist who focuses on understanding the formation and eruptive activity of volcanoes. Volcanologists frequently visit volcanoes, sometimes active ones, to observe and monitor volcanic eruptions, collect eruptive products including tephra (such as ash or pumice), rock and lava samples. One major focus of inquiry in recent times is the prediction of eruptions to alleviate the impact on surrounding populations and monitor natural hazards associated with volcanic activity. Geologists who research volcanic materials that make up the solid Earth are referred to as igneous petrologists. == Etymology == The word volcanologist (or vulcanologist) is derived from the English volcanology (volcano + -logy), which was derived from the French volcanologie (or vulcanologie), which was further derived from the French word volcan (volcano), which was even further derived from Vulcanus, the Latin name of the Roman god of fire and metalworking. The Latin word is of Etruscan origin, but unknown meaning. == Job overview == === Job Description === Volcanologists research many aspects of volcanic processes to better understand planetary formation or to monitor current and future volcanic eruptions in order to protect citizens living in volcanic hazard zones. Volcanologists work at universities, museums or other


id: africarxiv-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AfricArXiv-0.md
category: reference
title: AfricArXiv
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AfricArXiv
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:29.489369+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: africarxiv-20260505-0
summary:
AfricArXiv is an open-access repository for preprints of academic publications which are either about Africa or by African scientists. The platform was established in 2018. It was established to make preprint servers more available in various fields and regions. Its establishment happen during trends to provide more digital services to support science in Africa. From its founding the platform welcomed publications in any African language. In July 2020 the platform began hosting audio and video files. The Center for Open Science hosts the platform. The cost of operating the servers is significant and that organization takes a fee to cover its costs. Preprints can be submitted to AfricArXiv via ScienceOpen. Users need to have a verified ORCID digital identifier and should include in their manuscripts a short summary translation in a traditional African language. After a member of the AfricArXiv team has checked the submission for formal criteria and approved the manuscript, it will be posted with a Crossref DOI and CC BY 4.0 attribution license. == See also == List of preprint repositories == References == == Further consideration == Ahinon, Justin Sègbédji; Arafat, Hisham; Ahmad, Umar; Achampong, Joyce; Aldirdiri, Osman; Ayodele, Obasegun Tekena; Okelo, Luke; Bezuidenhout, Louise; Cary,


id: allen-brain-atlas-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_Brain_Atlas-0.md
category: reference
title: Allen Brain Atlas
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_Brain_Atlas
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:30.624975+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: allen-brain-atlas-20260505-0
summary:
The Allen Mouse and Human Brain Atlases are projects within the Allen Institute for Brain Science which seek to combine genomics with neuroanatomy by creating gene expression maps for the mouse and human brain. They were initiated in September 2003 with a $100 million donation from Paul G. Allen and the first atlas went public in September 2006. As of May 2012, seven brain atlases have been published: Mouse Brain Atlas, Human Brain Atlas, Developing Mouse Brain Atlas, Developing Human Brain Atlas, Mouse Connectivity Atlas, Non-Human Primate Atlas, and Mouse Spinal Cord Atlas. There are also three related projects with data banks: Glioblastoma, Mouse Diversity, and Sleep. It is the hope of the Allen Institute that their findings will help advance various fields of science, especially those surrounding the understanding of neurobiological diseases. The atlases are free and available for public use online. == History == In 2001, Paul Allen gathered a group of scientists, including James Watson and Steven Pinker, to discuss the future of neuroscience and what could be done to enhance neuroscience research (Jones 2009). During these meetings David Anderson from the California Institute of Technology proposed the idea that a three-dimensional atlas of gene expression in


id: allen-brain-atlas-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_Brain_Atlas-1.md
category: reference
title: Allen Brain Atlas
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_Brain_Atlas
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:30.624975+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: allen-brain-atlas-20260505-0
summary:
== Brain explorer == The Allen Brain Atlas website contains a downloadable 3-D interactive Brain explorer. The explorer is essentially a search engine for locations of gene expression; this is particularly useful in finding regions that express similar genes. Users can delineate networks and pathways using this application by connecting regions that co-express a certain gene. The explorer uses a multicolor scale and contains multiple planes of the brain that let viewers see differences in density and expression level. The images are a composite of many averaged samples so it is useful when comparing to individuals with abnormally low gene expression. == Atlases == === Mouse Brain === The Allen Mouse Brain Atlas is a comprehensive genome-wide map of the adult mouse brain that reveals where each gene is expressed. The mouse brain atlas was the original project of the Allen Brain Atlas and was finished in 2006. The purpose of the atlas is to aid in the development of neuroscience research. The hope of the project is that it will allow scientists to gain a better understanding of brain diseases and disorders such as autism and depression. === Human Brain === The Allen Human Brain Atlas was made public


id: allen-institute-for-brain-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_Institute_for_Brain_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Allen Institute for Brain Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_Institute_for_Brain_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:31.866751+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: allen-institute-for-brain-science-20260505-0
summary:
The Allen Institute for Brain Science is a division of the Allen Institute, based in Seattle, Washington, that focuses on bioscience research. Founded in 2003, it is dedicated to accelerating the understanding of how the human brain works. With the intent of catalyzing brain research in different areas, the Allen Institute provides free data and tools to scientists. Started with $100 million in seed money from Microsoft co-founder and philanthropist Paul Allen in 2003, the institute tackles projects at the leading edge of science—far-reaching projects at the intersection of biology and technology. The resulting data create free, publicly available resources that fuel discovery for countless researchers. Hongkui Zeng is the current director of the institute. == History and funding == The Allen Institute for Brain Science is a scientific division of the Allen Institute, a nonprofit research organization that also includes the Allen Institute for Cell Science, launched in 2014. The Paul G. Allen Frontiers Group was launched in 2016 while the Allen Institute for Immunology was launched in 2018. All four divisions of the Allen Institute are housed in the same building in Seattle's South Lake Union neighborhood. The institute employs a business model that combines the operational agility


id: allen-institute-for-brain-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_Institute_for_Brain_Science-1.md
category: reference
title: Allen Institute for Brain Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_Institute_for_Brain_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:31.866751+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: allen-institute-for-brain-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Allen Brain Observatory === The Allen Brain Observatory was launched in 2016 to capture cellular-level activity of neurons in the mouse visual cortex. Experiments through the observatory use visual or electrical readouts of neural activity as animals see visual stimuli, ranging from natural images to black and white grid lines to a clip from the Orson Welles film noir, Touch of Evil. In 2018, the institute opened the observatory for research projects proposed by scientists from the broader community through a program called OpenScope, which was modeled after large-scale shared physics observatories such as the Hubble Space Telescope. === Other online resources === In addition to the atlas resources, the Allen Institute has generated several other online research tools, including: The Ivy Glioblastoma Atlas Project (Ivy GAP), a platform for exploring the anatomic and genetic basis of glioblastoma at the cellular and molecular levels. The BrainSpan Atlas of the Developing Human Brain, a resource for studying human brain development developed by a consortium of scientific partners and funded by awards from the National Institutes of Health. == Awards == Forbes – 30 Under 30 Rising Stars Transforming Science and Health to Allen Institute scientist Adrian Cheng (2012) Cajal Club


id: amsterdam-call-for-action-on-open-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amsterdam_Call_for_Action_on_Open_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Amsterdam Call for Action on Open Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amsterdam_Call_for_Action_on_Open_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:34.425599+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: amsterdam-call-for-action-on-open-science-20260505-0
summary:
The Amsterdam Call for Action on Open Science is a document that advocates for "full open access for all scientific publications", and endorses an environment where "data sharing and stewardship is the default approach for all publicly funded research". == History == The Amsterdam Call for Action on Open Science was first produced as a draft at an Open Science meeting that was organized by the Dutch Presidency of the Council of the European Union on April 4 and 5, 2016, in Amsterdam. The draft presented to meeting participants in the morning of the 5th had twelve actions. These were commented on by participants, split up in various parallel sessions, and refined during the afternoon. The edits were not completed during the meeting and unlike the meeting schedule suggested, the Call text was not released on the 5th. Nevertheless, the draft was symbolically presented to Sander Dekker and the Dutch Presidency. On April 6, the updated version was released for public commenting on a wiki. In a mail which participants received it was stated that comments could be placed until 14 April. The finalised Call for Action was input to the Competitiveness Council on 27 May, led by the Dutch


id: arxiv-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv-0.md
category: reference
title: ArXiv
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:35.617982+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: arxiv-20260505-0
summary:
arXiv (pronounced as "archive"—the X represents the Greek letter chi ⟨χ⟩) is an open-access repository of electronic preprints and postprints (known as e-prints) approved for posting after moderation, but not peer reviewed. It consists of scientific papers in the fields of mathematics, physics, astronomy, electrical engineering, computer science, quantitative biology, statistics, mathematical finance, and economics, which can be accessed online. In many fields of mathematics and physics, almost all scientific papers are self-archived on the arXiv repository before publication in a peer-reviewed journal. Some publishers also grant permission for authors to archive the peer-reviewed postprint. Begun on August 14, 1991, arxiv.org passed the half-million-article milestone on October 3, 2008. By the end of 2014, it had surpassed one million articles, and it reached two million by the end of 2021. As of November 2024, the submission rate is about 24,000 articles per month. == History == arXiv was made possible by the compact TeX file format, which allowed scientific papers to be easily transmitted over the Internet and rendered client-side. Around 1990, Joanne Cohn began emailing physics preprints to colleagues as TeX files, but the number of papers being sent soon filled mailboxes to capacity. Paul Ginsparg recognized the need


id: arxiv-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv-1.md
category: reference
title: ArXiv
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:35.617982+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: arxiv-20260505-0
summary:
== Moderation process and endorsement == Although arXiv is not peer reviewed, a collection of moderators for each area review the submissions; they may recategorize any that are deemed off-topic, or reject submissions that are not scientific papers, or sometimes for undisclosed reasons. The lists of moderators for many sections of arXiv are publicly available, but moderators for most of the physics sections remain unlisted. In addition to human moderators, all submissions are checked via an automated quality control process, ensuring a baseline standard of professionalism. Additionally, an "endorsement" system was introduced in 2004 as part of an effort to ensure content is relevant and of interest to current research in the specified disciplines. Under the system, for categories that use it, an author must be endorsed by an established arXiv author before being allowed to submit papers to those categories. Endorsers are not asked to review the paper for errors but to check whether the paper is appropriate for the intended subject area. New authors from recognized academic institutions generally receive automatic endorsement, which in practice means that they do not need to deal with the endorsement system at all. However, the endorsement system has attracted criticism for allegedly


id: bgee-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bgee-0.md
category: reference
title: Bgee
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bgee
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:38.088134+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bgee-20260505-0
summary:
Bgee is a database maintained by the SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics and the University of Lausanne for retrieval and comparison of gene expression patterns from RNA-Seq, scRNA-Seq, Microarray, In situ hybridization and EST studies, across multiple animal species. Bgee provides an intuitive answer to the question where is a gene expressed? and supports research in cancer and agriculture, as well as evolutionary biology. Bgee is based exclusively on curated, healthy wild-type, expression data (i.e., no gene knock-out, no treatment, no disease), to provide a comparable reference of healthy wild-type gene expression. Bgee produces calls of presence/absence of expression, and of differential over-/under-expression, integrated along with information of gene orthology, and of homology between organs. This allows comparisons of expression patterns between species. Bgee allows searches by gene, organ / tissue / cell type and developmental stage. Bgee is a part of Global Core Biodata Resources (GCBRs) and ELIXIR Core Data Resources representing "critical components for ensuring the reproducibility and integrity of life sciences research." Bgee is also an ELIXIR Recommended Interoperability Resources that facilitate the FAIR-supporting activities in scientific research. == References == == Further reading == == External links == "Bgee is a new ELIXIR Recommended Interoperability Resources".


id: binder-project-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binder_Project-0.md
category: reference
title: Binder Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binder_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:39.320312+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: binder-project-20260505-0
summary:
The Binder Project is a software project to package and share interactive, reproducible environments. A Binder or "Binder-ready repository" is a code repository that contains both code and content to run, and configuration files for the environment needed to run it. Since 2017, when the Binder Project was merged into the JupyterHub project, the development communities share many people in common. A common use of Binder is for sharing a Jupyter notebook in a way that the recipient can immediately execute in a browser. The Binder project maintains core libraries and documentation for running Binder services, which make those projects available, as well as BinderHub, a tool for deploying such services via common cloud computing environments. A public BinderHub portal is hosted by the community at mybinder.org. == BinderHub == A BinderHub lets you launch a publicly executable version of a Binder repository. Given a URL to a repository, it generates a new URL that anyone can visit in a browser to interact with a running version of the code in that repository. The public BinderHub, mybinder.org, load-balances Binder instances across a federation of contributing institutions, each of which is running its own BinderHub instance. == See also == Project


id: bioinformatics-research-network-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatics_Research_Network-0.md
category: reference
title: Bioinformatics Research Network
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatics_Research_Network
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:40.463374+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bioinformatics-research-network-20260505-0
summary:
Bioinformatics Research Network (BRN) is a non-profit open-science research-based organization aiming to provide volunteer opportunities and bioinformatics research training that is free and open to everyone. It is a community-driven 501(c)(3) non-profit organization that aims to establish a worldwide network that is open to anyone interested in bioinformatics irrespective of academic background and to provide bioinformatics training, mentorship and the opportunity to collaborate on exciting research projects. == Training and projects == BRN provides free training workshops through its partner group Bioinformatics Interest Group. BIG is a student club of The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio established to promote the development of student bioinformaticians and encourage the growth of bioinformatics skills in the community. BRN is open to academic labs to host projects for open collaboration. These projects are then available for everyone to contribute. To work on a project, a volunteer has to complete the required skill assessments for the specific project and apply to the respected team. The decision to allow the volunteer to work depends on the team of the respective project. == Publication == BRN has published its projects in BioRxiv and in peer-reviewed journals. == References == == External links ==


id: blue-obelisk-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Obelisk-0.md
category: reference
title: Blue Obelisk
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Obelisk
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:41.807038+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: blue-obelisk-20260505-0
summary:
Blue Obelisk is an informal group of chemists who promote open data, open source, and open standards; it was initiated by Peter Murray-Rust and others in 2005. Multiple open source cheminformatics projects associate themselves with the Blue Obelisk, among which, in alphabetical order, Avogadro, Bioclipse, cclib, Chemistry Development Kit, GaussSum, JChemPaint, JOELib, Kalzium, Openbabel, OpenSMILES, and UsefulChem. The project has handed out personal awards for achievements in promoting Open Data, Open Source and Open Standards. Among those who received a Blue Obelisk Award are: Christoph Steinbeck (2006) Geoff Hutchinson (2006) Bob Hanson (2006), Egon Willighagen (2007) Jean-Claude Bradley (2007) Ola Spjuth (2007) Noel O'Boyle (2010) Rajarshi Guha (2010) Cameron Neylon (2010) Alex Wade (2010) Nina Jeliazkova (2010) Henry Rzepa (2011) Dan Zaharevitz (2011) Sam Adams (2011) Jens Thomas (2011) Marcus Hanwell (2011) Roger Sayle (2011) the Environmental Molecular Sciences Laboratory (2012) Saulius Gražulis (2014) Antony Williams (2014) Daniel Lowe (2014) Andrew Lang (2014) Matthew H. Todd (2014) Greg Landrum (2016) Mark Forster (2016) John Mayfield (2017) == See also == Cheminformatics == References == == External links == Official website Twitter account


id: jean-claude-bradley-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Claude_Bradley-0.md
category: reference
title: Jean-Claude Bradley
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Claude_Bradley
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:43.088187+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jean-claude-bradley-20260505-0
summary:
Jean-Claude Bradley was a chemist who actively promoted Open Science in chemistry, including at the White House, for which he was awarded the Blue Obelisk award in 2007. He coined the term "Open Notebook science". He died in May 2014. A memorial symposium was held July 14, 2014 at Cambridge University, UK. One outcome of his Open Notebook work is the collection of physicochemical properties of organic compounds he was studying. All of this data he made available as Open data under the CCZero license. For example, in 2009 Bradley et al. published their work on making solubility data of organic compounds available as Open data. Later, the melting point data set he collaborated on with Andrew Lang and Antony Williams was published with Figshare. Both data sets were also made available as books via the Lulu.com self-publishing platform. He blogged extensively and contributed to at least 25 individual blogs. In an interview in 2008 with Bora Zivkovic titled "Doing Science Publicly", he spoke of his work and online presence. In 2010, he gave an extensive interview about the impact of Open Notebook science with Richard Poynder. == References == == External links == Jean-Claude Bradley's Google Scholar Citations Page


id: creative-commons-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Commons-0.md
category: reference
title: Creative Commons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Commons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:50.632103+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creative-commons-20260505-0
summary:
Creative Commons (CC) is an American nonprofit organization and international network devoted to educational access and expanding the range of creative works available for others to build upon legally and to share. The organization has released several copyright licenses, known as Creative Commons licenses, free of charge to the public, to allow authors of creative works to communicate which rights they reserve and which rights they waive for the benefit of recipients or other creators. Content owners still maintain their copyright, but Creative Commons licenses give standard releases that replace the individual negotiations for specific rights between copyright owner (licensor) and licensee, that are necessary under an "all rights reserved" copyright management. As of 2019, there were "nearly 2 billion" works licensed under the various Creative Commons licenses. Wikipedia and its sister projects use one of these licenses. According to a 2017 report, Flickr alone hosted over 415 million cc-licensed photos, along with around 49 million works in YouTube, 40 million works in DeviantArt and 37 million works in Wikimedia Commons. The licenses are also used by Stack Exchange, MDN, Internet Archive, Khan Academy, LibreTexts, OpenStax, MIT OpenCourseWare, WikiHow, TED, OpenStreetMap, GeoGebra, Doubtnut, Fandom, Arduino, ccmixter.org, and Ninjam, among others,


id: creative-commons-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Commons-1.md
category: reference
title: Creative Commons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Commons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:50.632103+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creative-commons-20260505-0
summary:
=== Bassel Khartabil === Bassel Khartabil was a Palestinian Syrian open source software developer who served as a project lead and public affiliate for Creative Commons Syria. On March 15, 2012, he was detained by the Syrian government in Damascus at Adra Prison for no crime. On October 17, 2015, the Creative Commons Board of Directors passed a resolution calling for Bassel Khartabil's release. In 2017, Bassel's wife received confirmation that Bassel had been killed shortly after she lost contact with him in 2015. == Evolution of CC licenses == All current CC licenses (except the CC0 Public Domain Dedication tool) require attribution (attributing the authors of the original creative works), which can be inconvenient for works based on multiple other works. Critics feared that Creative Commons could erode the copyright system over time, or allow "some of our most precious resources – the creativity of individuals – to be simply tossed into the commons to be exploited by whomever has spare time and a magic marker." Critics also worried that the lack of rewards for content producers would dissuade artists from publishing their work, and questioned whether Creative Commons would enable the commons that it aimed to create. Creative


id: creative-commons-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Commons-2.md
category: reference
title: Creative Commons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Commons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:50.632103+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creative-commons-20260505-0
summary:
Various commentators have reported confusion in understanding what "noncommercial" use means. Creative Commons issued a report in 2009, "Defining noncommercial", which presented research and various perspectives. The report claimed that noncommercial to many people means "no exchange of money or any commerce". Beyond that simple statement, many people disagree on whether noncommercial use permits publishing on websites supported with advertising, sharing noncommercial media through nonprofit publishing for a fee, and many other practices in contemporary media distribution. Creative Commons has not sought to resolve the confusion, in part because of high consumer demand for the noncommercial license as is with its ambiguity. === Personality rights === In 2007, Virgin Mobile Australia launched a bus stop advertising campaign which promoted its mobile phone text messaging service using the work of amateur photographers who uploaded their work to the photo-sharing site Flickr using a Creative Commons by Attribution license. Users licensing their images this way freed their work for use by any other entity, as long as the original creator was attributed credit, without any other compensation being required. Virgin upheld this single restriction by printing a URL, leading to the photographer's Flickr page, on each of their ads. However, one picture


id: creative-commons-india-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Commons_India-0.md
category: reference
title: Creative Commons India
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_Commons_India
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:51.894516+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: creative-commons-india-20260505-0
summary:
Creative Commons India Chapter is the country-level Chapter of Creative Commons in India. It organises online and offline events on various aspects related to open content, Open Educational Resources, Creative Commons licensed publishing and the use of Open Access textbooks in schools. == History == CC India Chapter was set up under its current team on September 1, 2018. Its Chapter Lead is Savithri Singh. Subhashish Panigrahi is representative to the Global Network Council. Earlier, the India Chapter was relaunched in 2013. It was originally launched in India in 2007, and by 2013, the Creative Commons had been tailor-made for India law. Wikimedia India, the Acharya Narendra Dev College, and the Centre for Internet and Society (India) were the key organisations were the key part of the Chapter with a focus respectively on outreach, open educational research, and legal support. The CC India network was initially housed at IIT Bombay. Its goals have included "raising awareness on licenses and open education resources, connecting with photography communities, content donation and participating in affiliate network." == Initiatives == Among the initiatives taken up in India on the Creative Commons front are: In 2019, the Indian State of Odisha (earlier Orissa), announced that


id: aled-edwards-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aled_Edwards-0.md
category: reference
title: Aled Edwards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aled_Edwards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:31:59.388204+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aled-edwards-20260505-0
summary:
Aled Morgan Edwards (born June 1, 1962) is the founder and Chief Executive of the Structural Genomics Consortium, a charitable public-private partnership. He is Professor of Medical Genetics and Medical Biophysics at the University of Toronto, Visiting Professor of Chemical Biology at the University of Oxford, and adjunct professor at McGill University. == Early life == Born in Holyhead, Wales, Edwards moved to Canada in 1965 with his parents Undeg and Iwan Edwards, a choral conductor who was awarded the Order of Canada in 1995 for his contributions to Canadian music. == Education == Edwards earned his bachelor's degree (1983) and his Ph.D. (1988) in biochemistry from McGill University supervised by Peter Braun. He carried out post-doctoral studies at Stanford University in the laboratory of Roger Kornberg, where he first crystallized RNA polymerase II, a structure for which Kornberg was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2006. == Research contributions == From 1992 to 1997, while a professor at McMaster University, Edwards became interested in developing structural biology methods and was among the first to use mass spectrometry to identify regions of proteins prone to crystallization. He used this technique to facilitate the crystallography of key proteins involved in


id: european-open-science-cloud-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Open_Science_Cloud-0.md
category: reference
title: European Open Science Cloud
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Open_Science_Cloud
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:00.674939+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: european-open-science-cloud-20260505-0
summary:
The European Open Science Cloud (EOSC) is a European Commission initiative aiming at developing an infrastructure providing its users with services promoting open science practices. Besides being open science oriented, the envisaged infrastructure is built by aggregating services provided by several providers following a System of systems approach. Its goal is to establish a federation of infrastructures facilitating effortless access to interoperable research assets and enhanced services spanning geographical boundaries and diverse academic fields. The initiative started in 2015 with the plan that its organizers finish it by 2020. A European Union committee on research endorsed a plan for the cloud's development in May 2018. The European Open Science Cloud officially launched in November 2018, starting to provide access to services via their EOSC Portal. Public meetings about the project have emphasized the ideological motivations for promoting open science. == EOSC Governance == The development of EOSC is governed by three bodies: An executive board tasked to ensure implementation and accountability; a Governance board, working as an institutional group gathering representatives from the Member States and Associated Countries and from the Commission to ensure effective supervision of the EOSC implementation; and a Stakeholder Forum working as the community actively contributing


id: expression-atlas-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expression_Atlas-0.md
category: reference
title: Expression Atlas
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expression_Atlas
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:01.863682+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expression-atlas-20260505-0
summary:
The Expression Atlas is a database maintained by the European Bioinformatics Institute that provides information on gene expression patterns from RNA-Seq and Microarray studies, and protein expression from Proteomics studies. The Expression Atlas allows searches by gene, splice variant, protein attribute, disease, treatment or organism part (cell types/tissues). Individual genes or gene sets can be searched for. All datasets in Expression Atlas have its metadata manually curated and its data analysed through standardised analysis pipelines. There are two components to the Expression Atlas, the Baseline Atlas and the Differential Atlas: == Baseline Atlas == The Baseline Atlas provides information about which gene products are present (and at what abundance) under "normal" conditions. This component of the Expression Atlas consists of RNA-seq experiments from ArrayExpress repositories. It aims to answer questions such as: Which genes are specifically expressed in kidney? What is the expression pattern for gene SAA4 in normal tissues? == Differential Atlas == The Differential Atlas allows users to identify genes that are up- or down-regulated in different experimental conditions. == See also == Human Protein Atlas The Cancer Genome Atlas == References == == Further reading == == External links == "About Expression Atlas". European Molecular Biology Laboratory


id: harking-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HARKing-0.md
category: reference
title: HARKing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HARKing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:07.982349+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: harking-20260505-0
summary:
HARKing (hypothesizing after the results are known) is an acronym coined by social psychologist Norbert Kerr that refers to the questionable research practice of "presenting a post hoc hypothesis in the introduction of a research report as if it were an a priori hypothesis". Hence, a key characteristic of HARKing is that post hoc hypothesizing is falsely portrayed as a priori hypothesizing. HARKing may occur when a researcher tests an a priori hypothesis but then omits that hypothesis from their research report after they find out the results of their test. Post hoc analysis or post hoc theorizing then may lead to a post hoc hypothesis. == Types == Several types of HARKing have been distinguished, including: THARKing Transparently hypothesizing after the results are known, rather than the secretive, undisclosed, HARKing that was first proposed by Kerr. In this case, researchers openly declare that they developed their hypotheses after they observed their research results. CHARKing (or Pure HARKing) CHARKing or "pure HARKing" refers to the practice of constructing new hypotheses after the results are known and presenting them as a priori hypotheses. CHARKing is often regarded as the prototypical form of HARKing. RHARKing RHARKing refers to retrieving old hypotheses from


id: initiative-for-open-citations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initiative_for_Open_Citations-0.md
category: reference
title: Initiative for Open Citations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initiative_for_Open_Citations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:09.275513+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: initiative-for-open-citations-20260505-0
summary:
The Initiative for Open Citations (I4OC) is a project launched publicly in April 2017, that describes itself as: "a collaboration between scholarly publishers, researchers, and other interested parties to promote the unrestricted availability of scholarly citation data and to make these data available." It is intended to facilitate improved citation analysis. == Methodology == The citations are stored in Crossref and are made available through the Crossref REST API. They are also available from the OpenCitations Corpus, a database that harvests citation data from Crossref and other sources. The data are considered by those involved in the Initiative to be in the public domain, and so a CC0 licence is used. The stated benefits of this approach are: 1. discoverability of published content; 2. the building of new services, and 3. creation of a public citation graph to explore connections between knowledge fields. The Royal Society of Chemistry earmarked the I4OC as a feature of excellence in publishing, and IOP Publishing participates to implement their commitment to the San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment. == Launch == The initiative was established in response to a paper on citations in Wikidata, Citations needed for the sum of all human knowledge: Wikidata


id: international-hapmap-project-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_HapMap_Project-0.md
category: reference
title: International HapMap Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_HapMap_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:10.444935+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-hapmap-project-20260505-0
summary:
The International HapMap Project is an organization that aimed to develop a haplotype map (HapMap) of the human genome, to describe the common patterns of human genetic variation. HapMap is used to find genetic variants affecting health, disease and responses to drugs and environmental factors. The information produced by the project is made freely available for research. The International HapMap Project is a collaboration among researchers at academic centers, non-profit biomedical research groups and private companies in Canada, China (including Hong Kong), Japan, Nigeria, the United Kingdom, and the United States. It officially started with a meeting on October 27 to 29, 2002, and was expected to take about three years. It comprises three phases; the complete data obtained in Phase I were published on 27 October 2005. The analysis of the Phase II dataset was published in October 2007. The Phase III dataset was released in spring 2009 and the publication presenting the final results published in September 2010. == Background == Unlike with the rarer Mendelian diseases, combinations of different genes and the environment play a role in the development and progression of common diseases (such as diabetes, cancer, heart disease, stroke, depression, and asthma), or in the


id: international-hapmap-project-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_HapMap_Project-1.md
category: reference
title: International HapMap Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_HapMap_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:10.444935+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-hapmap-project-20260505-0
summary:
== Scientific strategy == It was expensive in the 1990s to sequence patients' whole genomes. So the National Institutes of Health embraced the idea for a "shortcut", which was to look just at sites on the genome where many people have a variant DNA unit. The theory behind the shortcut was that, since the major diseases are common, so too would be the genetic variants that caused them. Natural selection keeps the human genome free of variants that damage health before children are grown, the theory held, but fails against variants that strike later in life, allowing them to become quite common (In 2002 the National Institutes of Health started a $138 million project called the HapMap to catalog the common variants in European, East Asian and African genomes). For the Phase I, one common SNP was genotyped every 5,000 bases. Overall, more than one million SNPs were genotyped. The genotyping was carried out by 10 centres using five different genotyping technologies. Genotyping quality was assessed by using duplicate or related samples and by having periodic quality checks where centres had to genotype common sets of SNPs. The Canadian team was led by Thomas J. Hudson at McGill University in


id: metanetx-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MetaNetX-0.md
category: reference
title: MetaNetX
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MetaNetX
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:13.053336+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: metanetx-20260505-0
summary:
MetaNetX is a database maintained by the SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics for the automated model construction, and the genome annotation for large-scale metabolic networks. MetaNetX provides a number of tools to access, analyse and manipulate metabolic networks. MetaNetX provides a bunch of pre-mapped metabolic models. To ease model comparison, MetaNetX has developed a resource to unify metabolites and biochemical reactions in the context of metabolic models. This unified namespace is called MetaNetX/MNXref. MNXref reconciles chemical compounds by structural similarity and biochemical reaction context. Then reconciles biochemical reactions on the basis of the chemical compound reconciliation in an iterative way. Each reconciled group of chemical compounds, biochemical reactions and cellular compartments is a bag of similar items. MNXref sets a referent for each group. MetaNetX allows search in MNXref by chemical compounds, biochemical reactions and cellular compartments. Currently, MetaNetX/MNXref reconciles those resources: BiGG ChEBI enviPath HMDB GO KEGG LipidMaps MetaCyc Reactome Rhea SABIO-RK SwissLipids The SEED VMH == References ==


id: mixed-signals-preprocessing-psychophysiological-data-in-brain-vision-analyzer-20260505-0
category: reference
title: Mixed Signals: Preprocessing Psychophysiological Data in Brain Vision Analyzer
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:14.245514+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mixed-signals-preprocessing-psychophysiological-data-in-brain-vision-analyzer-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixed_Signals:_Preprocessing_Psychophysiological_Data_in_Brain_Vision_Analyzer-0.md

summary:
Mixed Signals: Preprocessing Psychophysiological Data in Brain Vision Analyzer is a psychophysiology manual for experimental psychologists. Originally compiled by Paul Pfaff at the Experimental Psychopathology and Clinical Psychology lab at Utrecht University, the updated edition of the manual was printed in 2025. The manual covers the preprocessing of a wide range of psychophysiological data types common in experimental psychology. Specific sections are dedicated to skin conductance response, facial electromyography (EMG), startle EMG, smiling/frowning EMG, and postural sway. Preprocessing steps outlined include baseline correction, filtering, artifact rejection, and signal standardization. Recommendations are provided based on reviews of the latest literature in the field. The publication is part of ongoing open science initiatives in psychology to standardize research procedures in the aftermath of the replication crisis and has received positive reviews. == Further reading == Cacioppo, J. T., Tassinary, L. G., & Berntson, G. (Eds.). (2007). Handbook of psychophysiology. Cambridge University Press. Brain Vision Analyzer User Manual Version 1.05 accessible at: https://www.linguistik.hu-berlin.de/de/institut/professuren/psycholinguistik/psyling/archiv/files/ekp/Analyzer.pdf/@@download/file/Analyzer.pdf == References ==

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixed_Signals:_Preprocessing_Psychophysiological_Data_in_Brain_Vision_Analyzer


id: peter-murray-rust-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Murray-Rust-0.md
category: reference
title: Peter Murray-Rust
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Murray-Rust
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:15.433003+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: peter-murray-rust-20260505-0
summary:
Peter Murray-Rust is a chemist currently working at the University of Cambridge. As well as his work in chemistry, Murray-Rust is also known for his support of open access and open data. == Education == He was educated at Bootham School, a private school in York, and at Balliol College, Oxford. After obtaining a Doctor of Philosophy with a thesis entitled A structural investigation of some compounds showing charge-transfer properties, he became lecturer in chemistry at the (new) University of Stirling and was first warden of Andrew Stewart Hall of Residence. In 1982, he moved to Glaxo Group Research at Greenford to head Molecular Graphics, Computational Chemistry and later protein structure determination. He was Professor of Pharmacy in the University of Nottingham from 1996 to 2000, setting up the Virtual School of Molecular Sciences. He is now Reader Emeritus in Molecular Informatics at the University of Cambridge and Senior Research Fellow Emeritus at Churchill College, Cambridge. == Research == His research interests have involved the automated analysis of data in scientific publications, creation of virtual communities, e.g. The Virtual School of Natural Sciences in the Globewide Network Academy, and the Semantic Web. With Henry Rzepa, he has extended this to


id: open-research-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_research-0.md
category: reference
title: Open research
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_research
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:23.013033+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-research-20260505-0
summary:
Open research is research that is openly accessible by others. Those who publish research in this way are often concerned with making research more transparent, more collaborative, more wide-reaching, and more efficient. Open research aims to make both research methods and the resulting data freely available, often via the internet, in order to support reproducibility and, potentially, massively distributed research collaboration. In this regard, it is related to both open source software and citizen science. Especially for research that is scientific in nature, open research may be referred to as open science. However, the term can also implicate research done in fields as varied as the social sciences, the humanities, mathematics, engineering and medicine. == Types of open projects == Important distinctions exist between different types of open projects. Projects that provide open data but don't offer open collaboration are referred to as "open access" rather than open research. Providing open data is a necessary but not sufficient condition for open research, because although the data may be used by anyone, there is no requirement for subsequent research to take place openly. For example, though there have been many calls for more open collaborative research in drug discovery and the


id: open-science-award-for-open-source-research-software-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Science_Award_for_Open_Source_Research_Software-0.md
category: reference
title: Open Science Award for Open Source Research Software
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Science_Award_for_Open_Source_Research_Software
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:24.164140+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-award-for-open-source-research-software-20260505-0
summary:
The Open Science Award for Open Source Research Software (French: Prix science ouverte du logiciel libre de la recherche) is a French scientific award given since 2022. The prize is part of the second National Plan for open science and rewards projects, teams and young researchers engaged in exemplary practices of management, dissemination and reuse of research data. It is awarded by the French Ministry of Higher Education and Research and Space. The prize has four categories: The "Scientific and Technical" (Scientifique et technique) category rewards software that stands out for its scientific quality, methodological rigour and technical excellence. The "Community" (Communauté) category highlights projects that have successfully built and nurtured an active community of users and contributors. The "Documentation" category recognises software that offers exemplary documentation facilitating use, adoption and contribution to the project. The "Jury's Favourite" (Coup de cœur du jury) category rewards an exemplary project combining several of these dimensions. In each category, the jury awards a main prize as well as a "rising star" (espoir) award for promising projects, typically started less than five years ago. == Winners == == Notes and references == == See also == Open science Open Science Award for Research Data


id: open-science-monitor-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science_monitor-0.md
category: reference
title: Open science monitor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science_monitor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:26.766487+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-monitor-20260505-0
summary:
An open science monitor or open access monitor is a scientific framework that aims to assess the spread of open practices in a scientific context. Open science monitors or dashboards are built at different scales: from institutional to national or international. They require an accurate assessment of the total scientific output and a further breakdown between open and closed content. They rely on a variety of data sources and methodologies to achieve this end. Consequently, open science monitors have also become relevant tools for bibliometric analysis. While initially conceived to track publications in academic journals, open science monitor have diversify their scopes and indicators. A recent trend has been to map other major outputs of open science research such as datasets, software or clinical trials. == Definition == Open science monitor are a scientific infrastructure that provide a "good knowledge of the state" of scientific outputs and their "open access rate". They are also a policy tool that aims to better assess the discrepancy between actual practices and long-term objectives: they "can inform future strategies at institutional and national levels, provides guidance for policy development and review, helps to assess the effects of funding mechanisms and is crucial to negotiate


id: open-science-monitor-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science_monitor-1.md
category: reference
title: Open science monitor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science_monitor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:26.766487+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-monitor-20260505-0
summary:
The first open science monitors were created in the 2000s and the early 2010s. They were usually conceived as a natural outgrowth of new national and international policy in favor of open access and open science. The Berlin Declaration from 2003 especially introduced the concept of a global "transition of scientific publishing toward an open access system" which require "information on publication output and on subscription and publication fees." Additionally the diversification of open science publishing into various publication venues (journals, repositories, overlay journals...) and formats (articles, conferences, datasets...) created unprecedented challenges. One of the earliest form of open science monitor was the Dutch project NARCIS ("National Academic Research and Collaborations Information System") that started operating in December 2005. NARCIS is primarily a national scientific portal that aims to integrate "all kinds of types of information from scientific institutes in the Netherlands." Yet it also has a special focus on "academic OAI repositories" and publishes global statistics on the rate of open restricted and embargoed scientific works since 2000. By 2013, Finland pioneered the influential Jyväskylä Model through its national portal JUULI. First experimented at the Open Science Centre of the University of Jyväskyl this approach aims "to centralize all


id: open-science-monitor-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science_monitor-2.md
category: reference
title: Open science monitor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science_monitor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:26.766487+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-monitor-20260505-0
summary:
=== Local infrastructures and repositories === Local infrastructures include Current Research Information Systems directly managed by scientific institutions and universities that "help manage, understand, and evaluate research activities". At the institutional level they can bring the most extensive coverage of scientific output, especially taking into account locally published journals that would not necessarily be indexed in global scientific infrastructures. Due to their direct connections with scientific communities, local infrastructures can incentivize researchers to "enter their publications into those systems" and implement a more various range of indicators than what is commonly available in international databases. Local infrastructures are managed in a decentralized way, with varying levels of coverage and information depending on the institutions. In some cases, local repository are "fed solely by the large commercial databases" and will not have any added value. The integration of diverse local sources of data into a common and standardized schemes is a major challenge for open science monitors. The preexistence of ambitious funding policy considerably ease this process, as institutions will be already encouraged to adopt specific norms and metadata requirements. While local infrastructures are generally thoughts as providers of data for an open science monitor, the relationship can go both way.


id: open-science-monitor-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science_monitor-3.md
category: reference
title: Open science monitor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_science_monitor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:26.766487+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-science-monitor-20260505-0
summary:
=== Tracking open science adoption === The French Open Science Monitor was conceived from the start to capture "open access dynamic". This has significant implication in terms of design and data flow as the "OA status of a publication evolves over time" due to embargo policies as well retrospective opening of past content. Despite significant differences in regards to methodologies or to data source, Pierre Mounier underlined in 2022 that "we observe the same dynamic" in the open access monitors of "three different European countries": the French, German and Dutch monitor all convege to show that slightly more than 60% of research is published in open access. === Economic analysis === Open science monitors aim to facilitate the estimation of scientific publishing costs. Without any aggregation of publication data, "information on expenditure for open access publication fees and especially for non-open access publication fees is often not available centrally" The monitor can also contribute to better assess the economic impact of open science across the entire academic ecosystem. While it is generally assumed that the conversion to open access publishing should not be costlier than the existing system, there can still be significant variations, especially with an APC-based model: institutions


id: open-synthetic-biology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_synthetic_biology-0.md
category: reference
title: Open synthetic biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_synthetic_biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:30.654380+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-synthetic-biology-20260505-0
summary:
Open synthetic biology is the idea that scientific knowledge and data should be openly accessible through common rights licensing to enable the rapid development of safe, effective and commercially viable synthetic biology applications. == Concepts == Its foundational concepts are open science and the Bermuda Principles. Open science is the idea that scientific research should be openly shared to enable massive collaboration (e.g., the Polymath Project). The Bermuda Principles is a private accord declaring that all DNA sequence data should be released in publicly accessible databases within 24 hours after generation. Open synthetic biology is a theoretical framework supporting a global ecosystem of responsible and capable research scientists working collaboratively on synthetic biology application development projects to reduce cost, time, and risks of developing new synthetic biology applications (including open synthetic biology therapeutics) from the inception of primary science to applications reaching market readiness and commercial viability. Its general principle is that participating research scientists agree to share research, data, findings and results with the open synthetic biology community and the public generally. The Open SynBio community will set standards and expectations of the participants and their "science to market" process and the community will work collaboratively with downstream stakeholders


id: openbci-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenBCI-0.md
category: reference
title: OpenBCI
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenBCI
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:33.094024+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: openbci-20260505-0
summary:
OpenBCI is an open-source brain–computer interface platform created by Joel Murphy and Conor Russomanno, after a successful Kickstarter campaign in late 2013. The company's headquarters is based in Brooklyn, NY. OpenBCI boards are low-cost biometric amplifiers used to measure and record electrical activity produced by the brain (EEG), muscles (EMG), and heart (EKG). The boards are compatible with standard EEG electrodes. They can be used with the open-source OpenBCI GUI software, or they can be integrated with other open-source EEG signal processing tools. OpenBCI boards have been scientifically validated in numerous research studies. == Hardware == The OpenBCI 32-bit board uses the ADS1299, an IC developed by Texas Instruments for biopotential measurements. The OpenBCI uses a microcontroller for on-board processing — the 8bit version (now deprecated) uses an Arduino-compatible ATmega328P IC, while the 32bit board uses a PIC microcontroller — and can write the EEG data to an SD card, or transmit it to software on a computer over a bluetooth link. In 2015, OpenBCI announced the Ganglion board with a 2nd Kickstarter campaign. It has 4 input channels for measuring EEG, EMG, and EKG, and is also Bluetooth enabled. Initially it was offered on Kickstarter at $99, before later


id: openneuro-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenNeuro-0.md
category: reference
title: OpenNeuro
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenNeuro
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:35.584424+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: openneuro-20260505-0
summary:
OpenNeuro (originally OpenfMRI) is an open-science neuroinformatics database storing datasets from human brain imaging research studies. The database is available online. OpenNeuro accepts datasets formatted from brain imaging research according to a community-developed standard, and uploaded datasets are made available with minimal restrictions to the public at large. The Research Resource Identifier for OpenNeuro is SCR_005031. Datasets that cannot be shared openly are not currently supported. The research group that runs OpenNeuro described the system in a Frontiers in Neuroinformatics article in 2013 and a NeuroImage article in 2015. As of 2025, the National Institutes of Health has awarded OpenNeuro over 8 million dollars in research funding, and researchers have mentioned OpenNeuro in over 200 articles in open access literature. == History == The Neuroimaging Informatics Tools and Resources Clearinghouse made available two other online neuroimaging databases, which both predated OpenNeuro. One was the fMRI Data Center (fMRIDC), which collected similar data but distributed via physical media. The fMRIDC no longer accepts data submissions. The other repository was the 1000 Functional Connectomes Project, which collected data from resting-state fMRI studies. In February 2018, the research group behind OpenfMRI renamed the database to OpenNeuro to reflect broader range of accepted data


id: openworm-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenWorm-0.md
category: reference
title: OpenWorm
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenWorm
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:46.933571+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: openworm-20260505-0
summary:
OpenWorm is an international open science project for the purpose of simulating the roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans at the cellular level. Although the long-term goal is to model all 959 cells of the C. elegans, the first stage is to model the worm's locomotion by simulating the 302 neurons and 95 muscle cells. This bottom up simulation is being pursued by the OpenWorm community. As of 2014, a physics engine called Sibernetic has been built for the project and models of the neural connectome and a muscle cell have been created in NeuroML format. A 3D model of the worm anatomy can be accessed through the web via the OpenWorm browser. The OpenWorm project is also contributing to develop Geppetto, a web-based multi-algorithm, multi-scale simulation platform engineered to support the simulation of the whole organism. == Background: C. elegans == The roundworm Caenorhabditis elegans is a free-living, transparent nematode, about 1 mm in length, that lives in temperate soil environments. It is the type species of its genus. C. elegans has one of the simplest nervous systems of any organism - its hermaphrodite type possesses only 302 neurons. Furthermore, the structural connectome of these neurons is fully mapped. There are fewer


id: panton-principles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panton_Principles-0.md
category: reference
title: Panton Principles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panton_Principles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:48.243612+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: panton-principles-20260505-0
summary:
The Panton Principles are a set of principles which were written to promote open science. They were first drafted in July 2009 at the Panton Arms pub in Cambridge. == History == The principles were written by Peter Murray-Rust, Cameron Neylon, Rufus Pollock, and John Wilbanks. They were then refined by the Open Knowledge Foundation and officially launched in February 2010. == The Principles == 1. Where data or collections of data are published it is critical that they be published with a clear and explicit statement of the wishes and expectations of the publishers concerning the re-use and re-purposing of individual data elements, the whole data collection, and subsets of the collection. This statement should be precise, irrevocable, and based on an appropriate and recognized legal statement in the form of a waiver or license. When publishing data make an explicit and robust statement of your wishes. 2. Many widely recognized licenses are not intended for, and are not appropriate for, data or collections of data. A variety of waivers and licenses that are designed for and appropriate for the treatment of data are described here. Creative Commons licenses (apart from CCZero), GFDL, GPL, BSD, etc. are NOT appropriate


id: polymath-project-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymath_Project-0.md
category: reference
title: Polymath Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymath_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:49.406721+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: polymath-project-20260505-0
summary:
The Polymath Project is a collaboration among mathematicians to solve important and difficult mathematical problems by coordinating many mathematicians to communicate with each other on finding the best route to the solution. The project began in January 2009 on Timothy Gowers's blog when he posted a problem and asked his readers to post partial ideas and partial progress toward a solution. This experiment resulted in a new answer to a difficult problem, and since then the Polymath Project has grown to describe a particular crowdsourcing process of using an online collaboration to solve any math problem. == Origin == In January 2009, Gowers chose to start a social experiment on his blog by choosing an important unsolved mathematical problem and issuing an invitation for other people to help solve it collaboratively in the comments section of his blog. Along with the math problem itself, Gowers asked a question which was included in the title of his blog post, "is massively collaborative mathematics possible?" This post led to his creation of the Polymath Project. == Projects for high school and college == Since its inception, it has now sponsored a "Crowdmath" project in collaboration with MIT PRIMES program and the Art


id: polymath-project-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymath_Project-1.md
category: reference
title: Polymath Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymath_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:49.406721+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: polymath-project-20260505-0
summary:
== Publications == Polymath, D. H. J. (2010), "Density Hales-Jewett and Moser numbers", An irregular mind, Bolyai Soc. Math. Stud., vol. 21, János Bolyai Math. Soc., Budapest, pp. 689–753, arXiv:1002.0374, doi:10.1007/978-3-642-14444-8_22, ISBN 978-3-642-14443-1, MR 2815620, S2CID 15547977. From the Polymath1 project. Polymath, D. H. J. (2012), "A new proof of the density Hales-Jewett theorem", Annals of Mathematics, Second Series, 175 (3): 1283–1327, arXiv:0910.3926, doi:10.4007/annals.2012.175.3.6, MR 2912706, S2CID 60078. From the Polymath1 project. Tao, Terence; Croot, Ernest III; Helfgott, Harald (2012), "Deterministic methods to find primes", Mathematics of Computation, 81 (278): 1233–1246, arXiv:1009.3956, doi:10.1090/S0025-5718-2011-02542-1, MR 2869058. From the Polymath4 project. Although the journal editors required the authors to use their real names, the arXiv version uses the Polymath pseudonym. Polymath, D. H. J. (2014), "New equidistribution estimates of Zhang type", Algebra & Number Theory, 9 (8): 2067–2199, arXiv:1402.0811, Bibcode:2014arXiv1402.0811P, doi:10.2140/ant.2014.8.2067. From the Polymath8 project. Polymath, D.H.J. (2014), "Variants of the Selberg sieve, and bounded intervals containing many primes", Research in the Mathematical Sciences, 1 (12) 12, arXiv:1407.4897, Bibcode:2014arXiv1407.4897P, doi:10.1186/s40687-014-0012-7, MR 3373710, S2CID 119699189 From the Polymath8 project. Polymath, D. H. J. (2014), "The "bounded gaps between primes" Polymath project: A retrospective analysis" (PDF), Newsletter of the European Mathematical Society, 94: 13–23,


id: preprints-org-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preprints.org-0.md
category: reference
title: Preprints.org
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preprints.org
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:50.642260+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preprints-org-20260505-0
summary:
Preprints.org is an open-access platform of electronic preprints approved for posting after moderation. Research in various areas can be posted as preprints on Preprints.org, including manuscripts from all fields of research. Preprints was established by MDPI in 2016. As of March 2026, Preprints.org contains more than 124,000 preprints. == Abstracting and indexing == As of May 2023, preprints posted on Preprints.org appear in: Web of Science (Preprint Citation Index) Europe PMC Crossref Google Scholar PrePubMed Portico == See also == List of academic databases and search engines List of academic journals by preprint policy Open-access repository List of preprint repositories == References ==


id: registry-of-research-data-repositories-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Registry_of_Research_Data_Repositories-0.md
category: reference
title: Registry of Research Data Repositories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Registry_of_Research_Data_Repositories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:55.399002+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: registry-of-research-data-repositories-20260505-0
summary:
The Registry of Research Data Repositories (re3data.org) is an open science tool that offers researchers, funding organizations, libraries, and publishers an overview of existing international repositories for research data. == Background == re3data.org is a global registry of research data repositories from all academic disciplines. It provides an overview of existing research data repositories in order to help researchers to identify a suitable repository for their data and thus comply with requirements set out in data policies. The registry went live in autumn 2012. == Content == In 2023 the registry lists over 3000 research data repositories from around the world covering all academic disciplines. They are described in detail using the re3data.org schema. The service makes all metadata in the registry available for open use under the Creative Commons deed CC0. == Features == The majority of the listed research data repositories are described in detail by a comprehensive schema, namely the re3data.org Schema for the Description of Research Data Repositories. Information icons support researchers to identify an adequate repository for the storage and reuse of their data. == Inclusion criteria == A repository is indexed when the minimum requirements for inclusion in re3data.org are met: the repository has


id: reinventing-discovery-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinventing_Discovery-0.md
category: reference
title: Reinventing Discovery
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinventing_Discovery
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:56.609380+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: reinventing-discovery-20260505-0
summary:
Reinventing Discovery: The New Era of Networked Science is a book written by Michael Nielsen and released in October 2011. It argues for the benefits of applying the philosophy of open science to research. == Summary == The following is a list of major topics in the book's chapters. Reinventing Discovery Online Tools Make Us Smarter Kasparov versus the World, The Wisdom of Crowds, various online collaborative projects Restructuring Expert Attention InnoCentive, collective intelligence, Paul Seabright's economic theory, online chat Patterns of Online Collaboration History of Linux, Open Architecture Network, Wikipedia, MathWorks' computer programming contest The Limits and the Potential of Collective Intelligence communication in small groups, particularly as studied by Stasser and Titus; praxis of science; a discussion of communication among scientists All the World's Knowledge Don R. Swanson and Literature-based discovery, predicting influenza with Google searches, Sloan Digital Sky Survey, Allen Institute for Brain Science, Ocean Observatories Initiative, Human Genome Project, Google Translate, playchess.com Tournaments Democratizing Science Galaxy Zoo, Foldit, citizen science, eBird, open access, arXiv, PLoS The Challenge of Doing Science in the Open Complexity Zoo, academic publishing, Bayh–Dole Act The Open Science Imperative Open science, academic journal publishing reform, SPIRES appendix - The problem solved by


id: research-square-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_Square-0.md
category: reference
title: Research Square
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_Square
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:57.892642+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: research-square-20260505-0
summary:
Research Square is an open-access platform of electronic preprints approved for posting after moderation, but not peer review. The predecessor of Research Square was American Journal Experts. The platform, Research Square, was established in 2013 and acquired by Springer Nature in 2022. The server accepts submissions from all fields of research, such as physical, biomedical, and social sciences. As of May 2023, Research Square contains more than 223,000 preprints. Pre-prints uploaded to Research Square must have a CC-BY license. If it was uploaded elsewhere under a different license (eg. CC-BY-SA) it would violate the terms of that license. == See also == List of academic databases and search engines List of academic journals by preprint policy Open-access repository List of preprint repositories == References ==


id: research-transparency-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_transparency-0.md
category: reference
title: Research transparency
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_transparency
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:59.107697+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: research-transparency-20260505-0
summary:
Research transparency is a major aspect of scientific research. It covers a variety of scientific principles and practices: reproducibility, data and code sharing, citation standards or verifiability. The definitions and norms of research transparency significantly differ depending on the disciplines and fields of research. Due to the lack of consistent terminology, research transparency has frequently been defined negatively by addressing non-transparent usages (which are part of questionable research practices). After 2010, recurrent issues of research methodology have been increasingly acknowledged as structural crisis, that involve deep changes at all stages of the research process. Transparency has become a key value of the open science movement, which evolved from an initial focus on publishing to encompass a large diversity of research outputs. New common standards for research transparency, like the TOP Guidelines, aims to build and strengthen open research culture across disciplines and epistemic cultures. == Definitions == === Confused terminologies === There is no widespread consensus on the definition of research transparency. Differences between disciplines and epistemic cultures has largely contributed to different acceptions. The reproduction of past research has been a leading source of dissent. In an experimental setting, reproduction relies on the same set-up and apparatus, while replication


id: research-transparency-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_transparency-1.md
category: reference
title: Research transparency
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_transparency
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:59.107697+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: research-transparency-20260505-0
summary:
=== A new dimension of open science? === Transparency has been increasingly acknowledged as an important component of open science. Until the 2010s, definitions of open science have been mostly focused on technical access and enhanced participation and collaboration between academics and non-academics. In 2016, Liz Lyon identified transparency as a "third dimension" of open science, due to the fact that "the concept of transparency and the associated term 'reproducibility', have become increasingly important in the current interdisciplinary research environment." According to Kevin Elliott, the open science movement "encompasses a number of different initiatives aimed at somewhat different forms of transparency." First drafted in 2014, the TOP guidelines have significantly contributed to bring transparency on the agenda of the open science movements. They aim to promote an "open research culture" and implement "strong incentives to be more transparent". They rely on eight standards, with different levels of compliance. While the standards are modular, they also aim to articulate a consistent ethos of science as "they also complement each other, in that commitment to one standard may facilitate adoption of others.". This open science framework of transparency has been in turn coopted by leading contributors and institutions on the topic of


id: research-transparency-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_transparency-2.md
category: reference
title: Research transparency
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_transparency
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:59.107697+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: research-transparency-20260505-0
summary:
=== Preconditions of the transparency crisis (1945–2000) === The development of big science after the Second World War has created unprecedented challenges for research transparency. The generalization of statistical methods across a large number of fields, as well as the increasing breadth and complexity of research projects, entailed a series of concerns about the lack of proper documentation of the scientific process. Due to the expansion of the published research output, new quantitative methods for literature surveys have been developed under the label of meta-analysis or meta-science. These rely on the assumption that quantitative results and the details of the experimental and observational framework are sound (such as the size or the composition of the sample). In 1966, Stanley Schor and Irving Karten published one of the first generic evaluation of statistical methods in 67 leading medical journals. While few outright problematic papers were found, "in almost 73% of the reports read (those needing revision and those which should have been rejected), conclusions were drawn when the justification for these conclusions was invalid" In the 1970s and the 1980s, scientific misconducts gradually ceased to be presented as individual misconducts and became collective problems that need to be addressed by scientific


id: research-transparency-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_transparency-3.md
category: reference
title: Research transparency
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_transparency
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:59.107697+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: research-transparency-20260505-0
summary:
=== Research transparency and open science (2015–) === Since 2000, the open science movement has expanded beyond access to scientific outputs (publication, data or software) to encompass the entire process of scientific production. In 2018, Vicente-Saez and Martinez-Fuentes have attempted to map the common values shared by the standard definitions of open science in the English-speaking scientific literature indexed on Scopus and the Web of Science. Access is no longer the main dimension of open science, as it has been extended by more recent commitments toward transparency, collaborative work and social impact. Through this process, open science has been increasingly structured over a consisting set of ethical principles: "novel open science practices have developed in tandem with novel organising forms of conducting and sharing research through open repositories, open physical labs, and transdisciplinary research platforms. Together, these novel practices and organising forms are expanding the ethos of science at universities." The global scale of the open science movement and its integration in a large variety of technical tools, standards and regulations makes it possible to overcome the "classic collective action problem" embodied by research transparency: there is a structural discrepancy between the stated objective of scientific institutions and the lack


id: research-transparency-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_transparency-4.md
category: reference
title: Research transparency
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_transparency
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:59.107697+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: research-transparency-20260505-0
summary:
==== Result reproducibility ==== Goodman, Fanelli and Ioannidis define result reproducibility as "obtaining the same results from the conduct of an independent study whose procedures are as closely matched". Result reproducibility is comparable to replication in an experimental context and reproducibility in a computational context. The definition of replicability retained in the National Academies of Science, largely applies to it: "obtaining consistent results across studies aimed at answering the same scientific question, each of which has obtained its own data.". The reproducibility crisis met in experimental disciplines like psychology or medicine is mostly a crisis of "result reproducibility", since it concerns research that cannot been simply re-executed, but involve the independent recreation of the experimental design. As such it is arguably the most debated form of research transparency in the recent years. Result reproducibility is harder to achieve than other forms of research transparency. It involve a variety of issues that may include computational reproducibility, accuracy of scientific measurement and diversity of methodological approaches. There are no universal standard to determine how close are the original procedures matched and criterium may vary depending on the disciplines or, even on the field of research. Consequently, meta-analysis of reproducibility have faced significant


id: research-transparency-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_transparency-5.md
category: reference
title: Research transparency
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_transparency
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:32:59.107697+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: research-transparency-20260505-0
summary:
=== Sharing of research outputs === Data sharing has been early on identified as major potential solution to the reproducibility crisis and the lack of solid guidelines for statistical indicators. In 2005, John Ioannidis hypothesized that "some kind of registration or networking of data collections or investigators within fields may be more feasible than registration of each and every hypothesis-generating experiment." The sharing of research outputs is covered by three standards of the TOPs guidelines: on Data transparency (2), Analytic/code methods transparency (3) and Research materials transparency (4). All the relevant data, code and research materials are to be stored on a "trusted repository" and all analysis being already reproduced independently prior to publication. === Extended citation standards === While citation standards are commonly applied to academic reference, there is much less formalization for all the other research output, such as data, code, primary sources or qualitative assessments. In 2012, the American Political Science Association adopted new policies for open qualitative research. They covered three dimensions of transparency: data transparency (in the sense of precise bibliographic data to the original sources), analytic transparency (in regards to claims extrapolated from the cited sources) and production transparency (in reference to the editorial


id: sage-bionetworks-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sage_Bionetworks-0.md
category: reference
title: Sage Bionetworks
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sage_Bionetworks
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:00.313654+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sage-bionetworks-20260505-0
summary:
Sage Bionetworks is a nonprofit organization in Seattle that promotes open science and patient engagement in the research process. It is led by Luca Foschini. It was co-founded by Stephen Friend and Eric Schadt. == Open science == Sage Bionetworks is notable for being an early advocate of open science. The company operates a software platform for collaborative data analysis called Synapse that allows researchers to work together on data curation and computational modeling asynchronously in a manner inspired by GitHub. Synapse also serves as the software infrastructure for running computational challenges. Sage is also developing a citizen-science platform called Bridge. == Research == The bulk of Sage's scientific results emerge from cancer and neurosciences, with notable contributions to the Cancer Genome Atlas Pan-Cancer project. Another Sage initiative, The Resilience Project describes itself as a search for individuals who have genetic changes expected to cause severe illness but who remain perfectly healthy. The hope is to yield insight into factors that protect these individuals from disease. In 2019 Sage Bionetworks has joined Open-AD Drug Discovery Center, which aims to find new Alzheimer's drugs. “This project stitches together open science approaches in computational and experimental research,” Sage president Dr. Lara Mangravite


id: science-commons-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Commons-0.md
category: reference
title: Science Commons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Commons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:04.192543+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-commons-20260505-0
summary:
Science Commons (SC) was a Creative Commons project for designing strategies and tools for faster, more efficient web-enabled scientific research. The organization's goals were to identify unnecessary barriers to research, craft policy guidelines and legal agreements to lower those barriers, and develop technology to make research data and materials easier to find and use. Its overarching goal was to speed the translation of data into discovery and thereby the value of research. Science Commons was located at the MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory in the Ray and Maria Stata Center at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge, Massachusetts. == History == Creative Commons launched the Science Commons project in early 2005. The project sought to achieve for science what Creative Commons had achieved for the world of culture, art and educational material: to ease unnecessary legal and technical barriers to sharing, to promote innovation, and to provide easy, high quality tools that let individuals and organizations specify the terms under which they wished to share their material. In 2009, Creative Commons terminated the Science Commons project. == Projects == === Biological Materials Transfer Project === The Biological Materials Transfer Project, a Material transfer agreement (MTA), developed and


id: studierfenster-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Studierfenster-0.md
category: reference
title: Studierfenster
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Studierfenster
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:05.404143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: studierfenster-20260505-0
summary:
Studierfenster or StudierFenster (SF) is a free, non-commercial open science client/server-based medical imaging processing online framework. It offers capabilities, like viewing medical data (computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), etc.) in two- and three-dimensional space directly in the standard web browsers, like Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Safari, and Microsoft Edge. Other functionalities are the calculation of medical metrics (dice score and Hausdorff distance), manual slice-by-slice outlining of structures in medical images (segmentation), manual placing of (anatomical) landmarks in medical image data, viewing medical data in virtual reality, a facial reconstruction and registration of medical data for augmented reality, one click showcases for COVID-19 and veterinary scans, and a Radiomics module. Other features of Studierfenster are the automatic cranial implant design with a neural network, the inpainting of aortic dissections with a generative adversarial network, an automatic aortic landmark detection with deep learning in computed tomography angiography scans, and a GrowCut algorithm implementation for image segmentation. Studierfenster is currently hosted on a server at the Graz University of Technology in Austria, and expanded jointly with the Institute for Artificial Intelligence in Medicine (IKIM) in Essen, Germany. == History == Studierfenster was initiated within two bachelor theses during the summer bachelor


id: synapse-org-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synapse.org-0.md
category: reference
title: Synapse.org
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synapse.org
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:06.609837+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: synapse-org-20260505-0
summary:
Synapse.org is an open source platform for collaborative scientific data analysis. It can store data, code, results, and descriptions research work. It is operated by nonprofit organization Sage Bionetworks. The Synapse web portal is an online registry of research projects that allows data scientists to discover and share data, models, and analysis methods. == References ==


id: target-2035-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Target_2035-0.md
category: reference
title: Target 2035
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Target_2035
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:07.777814+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: target-2035-20260505-0
summary:
Target 2035 is a global effort or movement to discover open science, pharmacological modulator(s) for every protein in the human proteome by the year 2035. The effort is led by the Structural Genomics Consortium with the intention that this movement evolves organically. Target 2035 has been borne out of the success that chemical probes have had in elevating or de-prioritizing the therapeutic potential of protein targets. The availability of open access pharmacological tools is a largely unmet aspect of drug discovery especially for the dark proteome. The first five years will include building mechanisms (Phase 1 below) which allow researchers to find collaborators with like-minded goals towards discovering a pharmacological tool for a specific protein or protein family, and make it open access (without encumbrances due to intellectual property). One strategic goal is seeding new open science programs on components of the drug discovery pipeline with the goal to bring medicines to the bedside equitably, affordably and rapidly. Phase 1 will also build a framework that welcomes new and (re-)emerging enabling technologies in hit-finding and characterization. An update on the progress was published. Target 2035 will draw on successes from past and current publicly-funded programs including National Institutes of Health


id: jon-tennant-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jon_Tennant-0.md
category: reference
title: Jon Tennant
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jon_Tennant
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:08.968108+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jon-tennant-20260505-0
summary:
Jonathan Tennant (6 May 1988 – 9 April 2020) was an English open science activist, science communicator and vertebrate paleontologist. == Early life and paleontology == Tennant was born in 1988 in Kirby Muxloe, Leicestershire. His first 18 years were in Leicester with his parents and two sisters, Rebecca and Sarah. Jon attended Granby Primary School, Bushloe High School and then Beauchamp College. He obtained a PhD from Imperial College London in 2017, on a potential extinction event at the Jurassic-Cretaceous boundary. He also published research on atoposaurids, an extinct group of small early crocodilian relatives. As a science communicator, Jon was a regular contributor to Discover on paleontology. == Open Science movement == A key advocate, speaker and activist in the Open Science movement, he was a supporter of open access to knowledge and cultural change within the scientific community. He was an Editor for the PLOS Paleo Community, executive editor for Geoscience Communication, part of the Mozilla Open Leadership Cohort, and worked as Communications Director for ScienceOpen. With Jennifer Beamer, Jeroen Bosman, Björn Brembs, Neo Christopher Chung, Gail Clement, and others, he wrote an influential guide and strategy on open access and open research. He was a panelist


id: uses-of-open-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_open_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Uses of open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:10.280854+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: uses-of-open-science-20260505-0
summary:
The open science movement has expanded the uses of scientific output beyond specialized academic circles. Open science enables broader communities to learn from each other , and inform practice and learning across diverse fields . Non-academic audience of journals and other scientific outputs has always been significant but was not recorded by the leading metrics of scientific reception, which favor citation data. In the late 1990s, the first open-access online publications started to attract a large number of individual visits. This transformation has renewed the theories of scientific dissemination, as direct access to publications curtailed the classic model of scientific popularization. Social impact and potential uses by lay readers have become focal points of discussion in the development of open science platforms and infrastructures. Analysis of open science uses has required the development of new methods, including log analysis, crosslinking analysis or altmetrics, as the standard bibliometric approach failed to record the non-academic reception of scientific productions. In the 2010s, several detailed studies were devoted to the reception of specific open science platforms due to the increasing availability of use data. Log analysis and surveys showed that professional academics do not make up the majority of the audience, as recurrent


id: uses-of-open-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_open_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Uses of open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:10.280854+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: uses-of-open-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Non-academic audience === Academic journals have always had a significant non-academic audience, be they students, professionals, or amateurs. In 2000, one-third of these readers had never authored a scientific publication. This rate may be higher for social science journals, which may also act as intellectual periodicals. During the second half of the 20th century, the non-academic audience may have continuously expanded in Western countries, along with the increasing prevalence of high school education: "the percentage of U.S. adults with a minimal level of understanding of the meaning of scientific study has increased from 12 percent in 1957 to 21 percent in 1999". The prevalence of non-academic audience raises additional issues on the relevance and scope of classic bibliometric measures, as they would "never appear in citation data". The infrastructures and business models put in place by leading scientific publishers do not consider non-academic uses. Following the periodical crisis of the 1980s and the inflation of subscription prices, major journals have largely become unattainable for lay readers or independent researchers not affiliated with a large research institution. Search engines and bibliographic databases developed since the 1960s and the 1970s were meant to be used by professional librarians. Leading scientific publishers


id: uses-of-open-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_open_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Uses of open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:10.280854+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: uses-of-open-science-20260505-0
summary:
I turn our attention to these alternative, public forms of research impact and reach by examining the Latin American case. In this study, impact will be assessed through evidence of the research literature being saved, discussed, forwarded, recommended, mentioned, or cited, both within and beyond the academic community (…) Reach refers, in this study, to the extent to which the research literature is viewed or downloaded by members of various audiences, beginning with the traditional academic readership and extending outward through related professions, and perhaps journalists, teachers, enthusiasts, and members of the public (…) By looking at a broad range of indicators of impact and reach, far beyond the typical measures of one article citing another, I argue, it is possible to gain a sense of the people that are using Latin American research, thereby opening the door for others to see the ways in which it has touched those individuals and communities. The unprecedented focus on the social impact of science fits with alternative models of scientific popularization. In 2009, Alesia Zuccala introduced a radiant model of open science dissemination with a variety of mediated and unmediated connections between non-academic audience and academic production: "Sometimes [research] engages the lay


id: uses-of-open-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_open_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Uses of open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:10.280854+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: uses-of-open-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Log Analysis === Academic publications have been among the earliest corpora used for log analysis. The first applied studies in the area long predate the web, as interconnected scientific infrastructures were already widely used in North America and Europe by the 1970s and 1980s. In 1983, several studies, pioneered by the Online Computer Library Center, analyzed "transaction logs" left by database users. Logs were stored on magnetic tapes at the time, and a large part of the analysis was devoted to the reformatting and standardization of the data. Standard methods of log analysis were already implemented in these early studies, such as the use of probabilistic approaches based on Markov Chains, in order to identify the more regular patterns of user behavior or the comparison with more user surveys. The use of logs and other reader metrics to measure the reception of academic work has remained marginal. Large commercial databases, like the Web of Science and Scopus, had no incentives to divulge reading statistics and mostly use them for internal purposes. Bibliometric indices based on aggregated citation counts, like the impact factor or the h-index, have been favored as the leading measures of academic impact. Beyond the restrictions imposed


id: uses-of-open-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_open_science-4.md
category: reference
title: Uses of open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:10.280854+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: uses-of-open-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Altmetrics === During the 2000s and 2010s, the web was increasingly dominated by very large social media platforms that curate and shape a significant part of the digital public sphere. The public reception of scientific literature has also largely migrated to these platforms. This evolution has prompted the development of new metrics and quantitative methods aiming to map the circulation of publications on social media: the altmetrics. The concept of alt-metrics was introduced in 2009 by Cameron Neylon and Shirly Wu as article-level metrics. In contrast with the focus of leading metrics on journals (impact factor) or, more recently, on individual researchers (h-index), the article-level metrics makes it possible to track the circulation of individual publications: "article that used to live on a shelf now lives in Mendeley, CiteULike, or Zotero – where we can see and count it" As such they are more compatible with the diversity of publication strategies that has characterized open science: preprints, reports or even non-textual outputs like dataset or software may also have associated metrics. In their original research proposition, Neylon and Wu favored the use of data from reference management software like Zotero or Mendeley. The concept of altmetrics evolved and came


id: uses-of-open-science-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_open_science-5.md
category: reference
title: Uses of open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:10.280854+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: uses-of-open-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== User practices and motivations === Studies of user practices have mostly focused on specific user profiles. Few general surveys have been undertaken. In Japan, a 2011 poll of 800 adults showed that a "majority of respondents (55%) claimed that Open Access is useful or slightly useful to them", which suggests a rather large awareness of open science in a population with a significant share of high school education. The issues facing medical patients have been especially highlighted. An important field of research on health-information-seeking behavior (HISB) emerged prior to the development of open science. In a 2003 survey, half of American Internet users had attempted to find qualified information about their health, but regularly faced access issues: "Many current Internet health users want to expand access to information-laden sites that are currently closed to non-subscribers". A qualitative research on English medical patients, subscription paywalls were cited as the main barrier to access to scientific knowledge, along with the complexity of scientific terminology. While the specific needs patients make a strong case for open science, they have also overshadowed the variety of potential uses of academic research: "open access is not just a public health matter: It has a much


id: uses-of-open-science-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_open_science-6.md
category: reference
title: Uses of open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:10.280854+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: uses-of-open-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Book & thesis === Matthews, Joseph R.; Lawrence, Gary S.; Ferguson, Douglas K. (1983). Using Online Catalogs: A Nationwide Survey: a Report of a Study Sponsored by the Council on Library Resources. Neal-Schuman. ISBN 978-0-918212-76-4. Tenopir, Carol; King, Donald W (2000). Towards electronic journals: realities for scientists, librarians, and publishers. Washington, DC: Special Libraries Association. ISBN 978-0-87111-507-2. Willinsky, John (2006). The access principle: the case for open access to research and scholarship. Digital libraries and electronic publishing. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-23242-5. Bellis, Nicola De (2009-03-09). Bibliometrics and Citation Analysis: From the Science Citation Index to Cybermetrics. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-6714-7. Montgomery, Scott L. (2013-05-06). Does Science Need a Global Language?: English and the Future of Research. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-01004-5. Hogan, A. (2014-04-09). Reasoning Techniques for the Web of Data. IOS Press. ISBN 978-1-61499-383-4. Alperin, Juan Pablo (2015). The public impact of Latin America's approach to open access (Thesis). Stanford University. Sugimoto, Cassidy R.; Larivière, Vincent (2018). Measuring Research: What Everyone Needs to Know. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-064011-8. Gillespie, Tarleton (2018). Custodians of the internet: platforms, content moderation, and the hidden decisions that shape social media. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-17313-0. ===


id: uses-of-open-science-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_open_science-7.md
category: reference
title: Uses of open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:10.280854+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: uses-of-open-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Academic articles & chapters === Miller, Jon D. (July 2004). "Public Understanding of, and Attitudes toward, Scientific Research: What We Know and What We Need to Know". Public Understanding of Science. 13 (3): 273–294. doi:10.1177/0963662504044908. ISSN 0963-6625. S2CID 144736762. van Raan, Anthony F. J. (March 2004). "Sleeping Beauties in science". Scientometrics. 59 (3): 467–472. doi:10.1023/B:SCIE.0000018543.82441.f1. ISSN 1588-2861. S2CID 189864678. Johnson, Richard K. (2006-09-13). "Will Research Sharing Keep Pace with the Internet?". The Journal of Neuroscience. 26 (37): 9349–9351. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3130-06.2006. ISSN 0270-6474. PMC 6674599. PMID 16971518. Davis, Philip M.; Price, Jason (July 2006). "eJournal interface can influence usage statistics: implications for libraries, publishers, and Project COUNTER". Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology. 57 (9): 1243–1248. arXiv:cs/0602060. doi:10.1002/asi.20405. ISSN 1532-2882. S2CID 261212798. Retrieved 2022-05-07. Duy, Joanna; Vaughan, Liwen (September 2006). "Can electronic journal usage data replace citation data as a measure of journal use? An empirical examination1" (PDF). The Journal of Academic Librarianship. 32 (5): 512–517. doi:10.1016/j.acalib.2006.05.005. ISSN 0099-1333. Warwick, Claire; Terras, Melissa; Huntington, Paul; Pappa, Nikoleta (April 2008). "If You Build It Will They Come? The LAIRAH Study: Quantifying the Use of Online Resources in the Arts and Humanities through Statistical Analysis of User Log Data".


id: uses-of-open-science-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_open_science-8.md
category: reference
title: Uses of open science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uses_of_open_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:10.280854+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: uses-of-open-science-20260505-0
summary:
"Does open access to academic research help small, science-based companies?". Journal of Industry-University Collaboration. 2 (3): 95–109. doi:10.1108/JIUC-04-2020-0004. ISSN 2631-357X. Tunger, Dirk; Meier, Andreas (2020-12-07). "4.1 The Future Has Already Begun: Origin, Classification, and Applications of Altmetrics in Scholarly Communication". In Ball, Rafael (ed.). Handbook Bibliometrics. De Gruyter Saur. pp. 181–190. doi:10.1515/9783110646610-019. ISBN 978-3-11-064661-0. S2CID 235879114. Pölönen, Janne; Syrjämäki, Sami; Nygård, Antti-Jussi; Hammarfelt, Björn (October 2021). "Who are the users of national open access journals? The case of the Finnish Journal.fi platform". Learned Publishing. 34 (4): 585–592. doi:10.1002/leap.1405. ISSN 1741-4857. Hicks, Diana; Zullo, Matteo; Doshi, Ameet; Asensio, Omar I. (March 2022). "Widespread use of National Academies consensus reports by the American public". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 119 (9): –2107760119. Bibcode:2022PNAS..11907760H. doi:10.1073/pnas.2107760119. PMC 8892306. PMID 35193972. Ross-Hellauer, Tony; Reichmann, Stefan; Cole, Nicki Lisa; Fessl, Angela; Klebel, Thomas; Pontika, Nancy (2022). "Dynamics of cumulative advantage and threats to equity in open science: a scoping review". Royal Society Open Science. 9 (1) 211032. Bibcode:2022RSOS....911032R. doi:10.1098/rsos.211032. PMC 8767192. PMID 35116143. === Conference === Tolle, John E. (1983). "Transaction log analysis online catalogs". Proceedings of the 6th annual international ACM SIGIR conference on Research and development in information retrieval - SIGIR '83.


id: john-wilbanks-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wilbanks-0.md
category: reference
title: John Wilbanks
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wilbanks
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:11.588462+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: john-wilbanks-20260505-0
summary:
John Wilbanks is a Senior Fellow at the Datasphere Initiative, former Head of Data at Biogen Digital Health, former Chief Commons Officer at Sage Bionetworks, and Executive Director at Science Commons. He served as a Senior Fellow at the Ewing Marion Kauffman Foundation and at FasterCures. He is known for his work on informed consent, open science and research networks. Wilbanks led a We the People petition supporting the free access of taxpayer-funded research data, which gained over 65,000 signatures. In February 2013, the White House responded, detailing a plan to freely publicize taxpayer-funded research data. Scientific American featured Wilbanks in "The Machine That Would Predict The Future" in 2011. Seed magazine named Wilbanks among their Revolutionary Minds of 2008, as a "Game Changer" and the Utne Reader named him in 2009 as one of "50 visionaries who are changing your world". He frequently campaigns for wider adoption of open access publishing in science and the increased sharing of data by scientists. == Education and career == Wilbanks grew up in Knoxville, Tennessee, US. He attended Tulane University and received a Bachelor of Arts in philosophy in 1994. He also studied modern letters at the Sorbonne in Paris. From 1994


id: florimontane-academy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florimontane_Academy-0.md
category: reference
title: Florimontane Academy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florimontane_Academy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:15.606686+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: florimontane-academy-20260505-0
summary:
The Florimontane Academy, originally established as the Florimontane Society, is a learned society founded in Annecy in 1606–1607. The society ceased to operate in 1610 and was reestablished in 1851. == History == === Foundation === During the winter of 1606–1607, the Florimontane Academy was established in Annecy, taking inspiration from the Italian academies of the 16th century. The society was founded by two prominent Savoyards: Antoine Favre, Baron of Pérouges and President of the State Council of Genevois, and François de Sales, Prince-Bishop of Geneva. The academy sought to encourage and develop activity across theological, philosophical, scientific, and literary fields. Meetings were held at the Hôtel Bagnoréa on Rue Sainte-Claire in Annecy, the residence of Antoine Favre, which Galeazzo Gegald had constructed. The first Florimontane Academy benefited from the prominence of its founders and enjoyed considerable prestige. It was one of the earliest French-speaking academies, predating the French Academy by 29 years. The society comprised 40 members and operated under the patronage of Henri I of Savoy-Nemours, Duke of Geneva. The name “Florimontane” was selected to reflect the idea that “the muses flourished among the mountains of Savoy.” In 1610, the Florimontane Academy ceased to function following the departure


id: florimontane-academy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florimontane_Academy-1.md
category: reference
title: Florimontane Academy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florimontane_Academy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:15.606686+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: florimontane-academy-20260505-0
summary:
==== Notable figures of the Academy ==== Baron and Doctor Charles-Humbert-Antoine Despine (1777–1852) Alphonse-Louis-Joseph Despine (1818–1872), lawyer and professor of law in Annecy, author of several works on regional history and literature, member of the Société des Antiquaires de France Camille Dunant (1819–1909) Venance Payot (1826–1902), guide, collector, scholar, editor, and naturalist in Chamonix Aimé Constantin (1832–1900), scholar, philologist, writer; his work led to the first dictionary of the Savoyard dialect Jean-François Gonthier (1847–1913), priest of the Diocese of Annecy and historian of Savoy, honorary president of the Salésian Academy Léon Marès (1854–1916), collector Louis Balleydier (1856–1927), professor of law, Dean of the Faculty of Law of Grenoble, father-in-law of Louis Aussedat Charles Buttin (1856–1933), scholar and collector, author of 140 works for 286 publications, mainly on ancient arms, including the Catalogue de la Collection d'armes anciennes, européennes et orientales (1933) Aimé Vaschy (1857–1899), telegraph engineer and mathematician René Payot (1894–1970), Swiss journalist Georges Chapier (1906–1975), historian of Savoy, member of the Florimontane Academy in 1973, correspondent of the Academy of Philately, and honorary president of the Lyon circle for philatelic and numismatic studies (1974) == See also == Learned society History of Savoy == Notes == == References ==


id: learned-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learned_society-0.md
category: reference
title: Learned society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learned_society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:16.838312+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: learned-society-20260505-0
summary:
A learned society ( LEHRN-id; also scholarly, intellectual, or academic society) is an organization that exists to promote an academic discipline, profession, or a group of related disciplines such as the arts and sciences. Membership may be open to all, may require possession of some qualification, or may be an honour conferred by election. Most learned societies are non-profit organizations, and many are professional associations. Their activities typically include holding regular conferences for the presentation and discussion of new research results, and publishing or sponsoring academic journals in their discipline. Some also act as professional bodies, regulating the activities of their members in the public interest or the collective interest of the membership. == History == Some of the oldest learned societies are the Académie des Jeux floraux (founded 1323), Sodalitas Litterarum Vistulana (founded 1488), Accademia della Crusca (founded 1583), Accademia dei Lincei (founded 1603), Académie Française (founded 1635), German National Academy of Sciences Leopoldina (founded 1652), Royal Society (founded 1660) and French Academy of Sciences (founded 1666). == Significance == Scholars in the sociology of science argue that learned societies are of key importance and their formation assists in the emergence and development of new disciplines or professions. In


id: mircen-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIRCEN-0.md
category: reference
title: MIRCEN
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIRCEN
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:19.205545+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mircen-20260505-0
summary:
MIRCEN (Microbial Resources Centers) is an international network of microbiology and biotechnology centres established with support from UNESCO. == See also == UNESCO World Federation for Culture Collections Culture collection Biotechnology == References ==


id: research-site-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_site-0.md
category: reference
title: Research site
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_site
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:22.868634+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: research-site-20260505-0
summary:
CHALLENGES of MATHEMATICS LEARNING In joining extracurricular activities == Clinical research == In clinical research a research site conducts all or part of a clinical trial. For clinical trials which recruit research participants in multiple locations, often the research will have a headquarters then multiple regional research sites to conduct the research in that region. In a network of research sites where all are recruiting study participants, sites with low recruitment benefit from coaching from sites with high recruitment. Characteristics of good clinical research sites include setting good timelines, early participant recruitment, and having a management plan for efficiency. Researchers in nursing have reported challenges accessing the facilities designated for conventional medical research. The design of a research site should have a means of detecting fraud. == Ethnographic research == Researchers who do not have a cultural tie to a research population may have difficulty doing ethnographic research with that community. == References == == External links == Basic Requirements for Starting a Research Site from American Society of Clinical Oncology


id: virtual-scientific-community-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_scientific_community-0.md
category: reference
title: Virtual scientific community
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_scientific_community
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:24.104832+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: virtual-scientific-community-20260505-0
summary:
A virtual scientific community is a group of people, often researchers and students, who share multiple resources related to the scientific field, and whose main medium of communication is the internet. Examples of such communities include the Computational Intelligence and Machine Learning Portal or the Biomedical Informatics Research Network. There are numerous scientific repositories and websites in existence that, while useful, do not meet the definition of a virtual scientific community. Examples of such are data and scientific literature repositories as well as open access journals. == Further reading == Jacek M. Zurada, Janusz Wojtusiak, Maciej A. Mazurowski, Devendra Mehta, Khalid Moidu, Steve Margolis, Toward Multidisciplinary Collaboration in the CIML Virtual Community, Proceedings of the 2008 Workshop on Building Computational Intelligence and Machine Learning Virtual Organizations, pp. 62–66 == See also == Science Community CIML community portal == External links == The Computational Intelligence and Machine Learning Virtual Community Archived 2009-10-04 at the Wayback Machine What is BIRN? == References ==


id: list-of-effects-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-0.md
category: reference
title: List of effects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:26.080445+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-effects-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of names for observable phenomena that contain the word “effect”, amplified by reference(s) to their respective fields of study. == A == Abscopal effect (cancer treatments) (immune system) (medical treatments) (radiation therapy) Accelerator effect (economics) Accordion effect (physics) (waves) Acousto-optic effect (nonlinear optics) (waves) Additive genetic effects (genetics) Aharonov–Bohm effect (quantum mechanics) Al Jazeera effect (Al Jazeera) (media issues) Alienation effect (acting techniques) (Bertolt Brecht theories and techniques) (film theory) (metafictional techniques) (theatre) Allais effect (fringe physics) Allee effect (biology) Ambiguity effect (cognitive biases) Anrep effect (cardiology) (medicine) Antenna effect (digital electronics) (electronic design automation) Anti-greenhouse effect (atmospheric dynamics) (atmospheric science) (astronomy) (planetary atmospheres) Askaryan effect (particle physics) Asymmetric blade effect (aerodynamics) Audience effect (psychology) (social psychology) Auger effect (atomic physics) (foundational quantum physics) Aureole effect (atmospheric optical phenomena) (scientific terminology) Autler–Townes effect (atomic, molecular, and optical physics) (atomic physics) (quantum optics) Autokinetic effect (vision) Avalanche effect (cryptography) Averch–Johnson effect (economics) == B == Baader-Meinhof effect / Baader-Meinhof phenomenon (psychology) Balassa–Samuelson effect (economics) Baldwin effect (evolutionary biology) (selection) Balloon-carried light effect (balloons) (culture) (entertainment) Bambi effect (hunting) (psychology stubs) Bandwagon effect (cognitive biases) (crowd psychology) (economics effects) (metaphors) (propaganda techniques) Bank effect (marine propulsion) (nautical terms)


id: list-of-effects-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-1.md
category: reference
title: List of effects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:26.080445+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-effects-20260505-0
summary:
== F == Fahraeus–Lindquist effect (blood) (fluid dynamics) (molecular and cellular biology) False consensus effect (cognitive biases) (futurology) (group processes) (psychological theories) (sustainability) Faraday effect (magnetism) (optics) Ferroelectric effect (condensed matter physics) (electrical phenomena) Fink effect (anesthesia) (diffusion) Floating body effect (electronics) (semiconductors) Floodgate effect (social phenomena) (sociology) Floor effect (statistics) Florence Nightingale effect (Florence Nightingale) (love) (psychology) Flutie effect (student sport) Flux pinning (Physics) Flynn effect (futurology) (intelligence) (psychological theories) (psychometrics) (race and intelligence controversy) Focusing effect (cognitive biases) Forbush effect (cosmic rays) (solar phenomena) Forer effect (cognitive biases) (history of astrology) (psychological theories) Founder effect (ecology) (population genetics) Fractional quantum Hall effect (physics) Franssen effect (acoustics) (sound perception) Franz–Keldysh effect (condensed matter) (electronic engineering) (electronics) (optics) (optoelectronics) Free surface effect (fluid mechanics) Front projection effect (film production) Fujiwhara effect (tropical cyclone meteorology) (vortices) Full screen effect (computer graphics) (demo effects) == G == Garshelis effect (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (magnetism) (physics) Gauche effect (stereochemistry) Gell-Mann amnesia effect (journalism) Generation effect (cognitive biases) (memory biases) (psychological theories) Geodetic effect (general relativity) Gerschenkron effect (economic development) (economic systems) (economics and finance) (econometrics) (index numbers) (national accounts)r Giant magnetoresistive effect (condensed matter physics) (electric and magnetic fields in matter)


id: list-of-effects-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-2.md
category: reference
title: List of effects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:26.080445+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-effects-20260505-0
summary:
== M == Magali effect Magneto-optic effect (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (optical phenomena) Magneto-optic Kerr effect (condensed matter physics) (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (optical phenomena) magnetocaloric effect (physical phenomena) (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (thermodynamics) Magnus effect (fluid dynamics) Malmquist effect (astronomy) Malter effect (physics) Mandela effect (psychology) (paranormal) Marangoni effect (fluid dynamics) (fluid mechanics) (physical phenomena) Marchywka effect (electrochemistry) (ultraviolet sensor production) Mark Twain effect (economics and finance) (stock market) Martha Mitchell effect (psychological theories) (psychosis) Massenerhebung effect (trees) Maternal age effect (developmental biology) Maternal effect (developmental biology) Matthew effect (education) (education) Matilda effect (Research) Matthew effect (sociology) (adages) (social phenomena) (sociology of scientific knowledge) McClintock effect (menstruation) McCollough effect (optical illusions) McGurk effect (auditory illusions) (perception) (psychological theories) Meissner effect (levitation) (magnetism) (superconductivity) Meitner–Hupfeld effect (particle physics) Mellanby effect (health) (alcohol intoxication) Memory effect (electric batteries) Mesomeric effect (chemical bonding) Microwave auditory effect (cognitive neuroscience) (espionage) (hearing) (human psychology) (less-lethal weapons) (mind control) (sound) Mid-domain effect (macroecology) (biogeography) (biodiversity) Mikheyev–Smirnov–Wolfenstein effect (particle physics) Milky seas effect (aquatic biology) (biological oceanography) (bioluminescence) Miller effect (electrical engineering) (electronics terms) Miniature effect (film and video technology) (film techniques) (scale modeling) (scientific modeling) (special effects) (visual effects)


id: list-of-effects-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-3.md
category: reference
title: List of effects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:26.080445+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-effects-20260505-0
summary:
== S == Sabattier effect (solarization) (photographic processes) (science of photography) Sachs–Wolfe effect (astronomy) (physical cosmology) Sagnac effect (optics) (relativity) Sailing Ship Effect (business) (economics) Samba effect (Brazil) (economy of Brazil) (history of Brazil) Sandbox effect (Internet technology) (search engine optimization) Scharnhorst effect (quantum field theory) Schottky effect (diodes) Schwinger effect (particle physics) (hypothetical processes) (quantum electrodynamics) Screen-door effect (display technology) (technology) Second gas effect (anesthesia) Second-system effect (software development) Seeliger effect (astronomy) (observational astronomy) Serial position effect (cognitive biases) (psychological theories) (psychologicy) Shaft effect (motorcycle) Shapiro effect (effects of gravitation) Shielding effect (atomic, molecular, and optical physics) (atomic physics) (chemistry) (quantum chemistry) Shower-curtain effect (fluid dynamics) Shubnikov–de Haas effect (science) Side effect (computer science) (computer programming) Side effect (disambiguation) Signor–Lipps effect (extinction) (fossils) (paleontology) Silk screen effect (technology) Silo effect (management) (systems theory) Simon effect (psychology) Simpson's paradox aka Yule–Simpson effect (probability) (statistics) Skin effect (electronics) Slashdot effect (denial-of-service attacks)(Internet terminology) (Slashdot) Sleeper effect (social psychology) Smith–Purcell effect (physics) (quantum optics) Snackwell effect (consumer behaviour) (psychology) Snob effect (consumer theory) (economics and finance) Snowball effect (language) (metaphors) Somogyi effect (diabetes) Sound effect (film techniques) (sound effects) (sound production) (special effects) Soap opera effect (film techniques) (television terminology) (filming) (film


id: intrinsic-and-extrinsic-properties-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrinsic_and_extrinsic_properties-0.md
category: reference
title: Intrinsic and extrinsic properties
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrinsic_and_extrinsic_properties
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:27.376868+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intrinsic-and-extrinsic-properties-20260505-0
summary:
In science and engineering, an intrinsic property is a property of a specified subject that exists itself or within the subject. An extrinsic property is not essential or inherent to the subject that is being characterized. For example, mass is an intrinsic property of any physical object, whereas weight is an extrinsic property that depends on the strength of the gravitational field in which the object is placed. == Applications == In materials science, an intrinsic property is independent of how much of a material is present and is independent of the form of the material, e.g., one large piece or a collection of small particles. Intrinsic properties are dependent mainly on the fundamental chemical composition and structure of the material. Extrinsic properties are differentiated as being dependent on the presence of avoidable chemical contaminants or structural defects. In biology, intrinsic effects originate from inside an organism or cell, such as an autoimmune disease or intrinsic immunity. In electronics and optics, intrinsic properties of devices (or systems of devices) are generally those that are free from the influence of various types of non-essential defects. Such defects may arise as a consequence of design imperfections, manufacturing errors, or operational extremes and


id: jos-miguel-camacho-gonz-lez-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/José_Miguel_Camacho_González-0.md
category: reference
title: José Miguel Camacho González
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/José_Miguel_Camacho_González
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:33.134511+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jos-miguel-camacho-gonz-lez-20260505-0
summary:
José Miguel Camacho González (born 17 January 1951) is a Spanish ophthalmologist, medical director, and pioneer on intraocular lens. He was born in Cúllar, Granada. He studied at Universidad de Granada, in 1976 he got a bachelor's degree in Medicine and in 1979 he specialized on Surgery. In 1970s he worked as ophthalmologist at Bola Azul and Hospital Torrecárdenas in Almería, and he cooperated with Instituto de Oftalmología Barraquer. He opened Vista Camacho, which works with the latest and innovated ophthalmological technologies, including VisX STAR S4 IR CustomVue laser with the Wave Scan aberrometer, and the Spectralis(R) platform, which is a tomograph to make micro-thousandth eye studies. He is one of the most rated ophthalmologist in the province of Almería by Doctoralia. Manuel Camacho Sampelayo, his son, who followed his steps and also studied at Universidad de Granada and Instituto de Oftalmología Barraquer, holds the eighth place in the ranking, and his brother José Miguel holds the ninth place. In 2010 he got the 3rd Videofestival Secoir Cádiz Award alongside Jaime Campello Lluch and José Miguel Camacho Sampelayo. In March 2022 he provided free services to Ukrainian refugees in Almería due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine, and he was


id: list-of-pioneers-in-computer-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_pioneers_in_computer_science-0.md
category: reference
title: List of pioneers in computer science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_pioneers_in_computer_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:34.408972+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-pioneers-in-computer-science-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of people who made transformative breakthroughs in the creation, development and imagining of what computers could do. == Pioneers == ~ Items marked with a tilde are circa dates. == See also == Computer Pioneer Award IEEE John von Neumann Medal Grace Murray Hopper Award History of computing History of computing hardware History of computing hardware (1960s–present) History of software List of computer science awards List of computer science journals List of computer scientists List of Internet pioneers List of pioneers in computer science List of people considered father or mother of a field § Computing The Man Who Invented the Computer (2010 book) List of Russian IT developers List of Women in Technology International Hall of Fame inductees Timeline of computing Turing Award Women in computing == References == === Sources === Hamming, Richard W. (1950). "Error detecting and error correcting codes" (PDF). Bell System Technical Journal. 29 (2): 147–160. Bibcode:1950BSTJ...29..147H. doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1950.tb00463.x. hdl:10945/46756. MR 0035935. S2CID 61141773. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-05-25. Ling, San; Xing, Chaoping (2004). Coding Theory: a First Course. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-82191-9. Pless, Vera (1982). Introduction to the Theory of Error-Correcting Codes. New York: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-08684-0.


id: birds-in-a-truck-riddle-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birds_in_a_truck_riddle-0.md
category: reference
title: Birds in a truck riddle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birds_in_a_truck_riddle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:35.886305+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: birds-in-a-truck-riddle-20260505-0
summary:
The birds in a truck riddle is a riddle that asks whether a container or a truck carrying birds changes in weight when the birds inside are flying. The television series MythBusters investigated the question in a 2007 episode, testing it both with a box of pigeons and again with a model helicopter. They concluded that the contents being in flight made no difference to the weight, and theorised that the downdraft of air from the wings or rotors pressed down against the base of the box with the same force as the resting bird or helicopter. A drone research team from Stanford University measured the forces involved in a bird's hovering and found that it created "double the lift during the downstroke [of the wings] so that the birds did not have to lift their weight during the upstroke", with the amount of lift on the upstroke being "almost none". They concluded that a truck containing a few birds would fluctuate in weight over time, but a larger flock flapping at random would cancel one another and leave the truck's weight unaffected. == References ==


id: magmatic-water-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magmatic_water-0.md
category: reference
title: Magmatic water
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magmatic_water
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:38.510236+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: magmatic-water-20260505-0
summary:
Magmatic water, also known as juvenile water, is an aqueous phase in equilibrium with minerals that have been dissolved by magma deep within the Earth's crust and is released to the atmosphere during a volcanic eruption. It plays a key role in assessing the crystallization of igneous rocks, particularly silicates, as well as the rheology and evolution of magma chambers. Magma is composed of minerals, crystals and volatiles in varying relative natural abundance. Magmatic differentiation varies significantly based on various factors, most notably the presence of water. An abundance of volatiles within magma chambers decreases viscosity and leads to the formation of minerals bearing halogens, including chloride and hydroxide groups. In addition, the relative abundance of volatiles varies within basaltic, andesitic, and rhyolitic magma chambers, leading to some volcanoes being exceedingly more explosive than others. Magmatic water is practically insoluble in silicate melts but has demonstrated the highest solubility within rhyolitic melts. An abundance of magmatic water has been shown to lead to high-grade deformation, as a result of altering the composition of hydrogen isotope biogeochemistry (δ2H) and stable oxygen isotope ratios (δ18O) within host rocks. == Composition == Magma exists in three main forms that vary in composition. When


id: origin-of-water-on-earth-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth-0.md
category: reference
title: Origin of water on Earth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:39.727831+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: origin-of-water-on-earth-20260505-0
summary:
The origin of water on Earth is the subject of a body of research in the fields of planetary science, astronomy, and astrobiology. Earth is unique among known planets in having oceans of liquid water on its surface. Liquid water, which is necessary for all known forms of life, continues to exist on the surface of Earth because the planet is at a far enough distance (known as the habitable zone) from the Sun that it does not lose its water, but not so far that low temperatures cause all water on the planet to freeze. It was long thought that Earth's water did not originate from the planet's region of the protoplanetary disk. Instead, it was hypothesized water and other volatiles must have been delivered to Earth from the outer Solar System later in its history. Recent research, however, indicates that hydrogen inside the Earth played a role in the formation of the ocean. The two ideas are not mutually exclusive, as there is also evidence that water was delivered to Earth by impacts from icy planetesimals similar in composition to asteroids in the outer edges of the asteroid belt. == History of water on Earth == One factor


id: origin-of-water-on-earth-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth-1.md
category: reference
title: Origin of water on Earth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:39.727831+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: origin-of-water-on-earth-20260505-0
summary:
While the majority of Earth's surface is covered by oceans, those oceans make up just a small fraction of the mass of the planet. The mass of Earth's oceans is estimated to be 1.37 × 1021 kg, which is 0.023% of the total mass of Earth, 6.0 × 1024 kg. An additional 5.0 × 1020 kg of water is estimated to exist in ice, lakes, rivers, groundwater, and atmospheric water vapor. A significant amount of water is also stored in Earth's crust, mantle, and core. Unlike molecular H2O that is found on the surface, water in the interior exists primarily in hydrated minerals or as trace amounts of hydrogen bonded to oxygen atoms in anhydrous minerals. Hydrated silicates on the surface transport water into the mantle at convergent plate boundaries, where oceanic crust is subducted underneath continental crust. While it is difficult to estimate the total water content of the mantle due to limited samples, approximately three times the mass of the Earth's oceans could be stored there. Similarly, the Earth's core could contain four to five oceans' worth of hydrogen. While not considered to be one of the major sources of water on the planet, it should also be


id: origin-of-water-on-earth-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth-2.md
category: reference
title: Origin of water on Earth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:39.727831+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: origin-of-water-on-earth-20260505-0
summary:
One problem with this hypothesis is that the noble gas isotope ratios of Earth's atmosphere are different from those of its mantle, which suggests they were formed from different sources. To explain this observation, a so-called "late veneer" theory has been proposed in which water was delivered much later in Earth's history, after the Moon-forming impact. However, the current understanding of Earth's formation allows for less than 1% of Earth's material accreting after the Moon formed, implying that the material accreted later must have been very water-rich. Models of early Solar System dynamics have shown that icy asteroids could have been delivered to the inner Solar System (including Earth) during this period if Jupiter migrated closer to the Sun. Jupiter's relatively quick development, however, made it difficult for the inner solar system to receive matter from the outer solar system, limiting the accumulation of water on the terrestrial planets. This is in addition to other factors, such as the conditions for the goldilocks zone, where liquid water, and by extension life as we know it, can exist, as opposed to solid ice forming snowball planets or gaseous water vapor forming gas giants. Yet a third hypothesis, supported by evidence from


id: origin-of-water-on-earth-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth-3.md
category: reference
title: Origin of water on Earth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:39.727831+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: origin-of-water-on-earth-20260505-0
summary:
=== Comets === Comets are kilometer-sized bodies made of dust and ice that originate from the Kuiper belt (20-50 AU) and the Oort cloud (>5,000 AU), but have highly elliptical orbits which bring them into the inner solar system. Their icy composition and trajectories which bring them into the inner solar system make them a target for remote and in situ measurements of D/H ratios. It is implausible that Earth's water originated only from comets, since isotope measurements of the deuterium to hydrogen (D/H) ratio in comets Halley, Hyakutake, Hale–Bopp, 2002T7, and Tuttle, yield values approximately twice that of oceanic water. This is also supported by analysis using the comparison of isotopic ratios for both carbon and nitrogen isotopes, which attribute only a few percent of the water present on earth to comet sources, indicating a much higher reliance on incoming asteroid matter. Using the cometary D/H ratio, models predict that less than 10% of Earth's water was supplied from comets. Other, shorter period comets (<20 years) called Jupiter family comets likely originate from the Kuiper belt, but have had their orbital paths influenced by gravitational interactions with Jupiter or Neptune. 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko is one such comet that was the subject


id: scientific-school-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_school-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific school
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_school
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:41.471477+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-school-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific school (school of scientific traditions) is an established system of scientific views, as well as a scientific community adhering to these views. The formation of a scientific school occurs under the influence of a leader, whose erudition, range of interests, and working style are decisive for attracting new collaborators. Relationships within such a scientific team facilitate the exchange of information at the level of ideas (rather than final research results), which significantly increases the efficiency of creative scientific work. == History == At the stage of protoscience, the schools that existed at that time could act as independent centers or institutes. Later, scientific schools came to be understood as real informal collectives of scientists. In antiquity, schools of arts and philosophical thought arose, such as the Aristotelian Peripatetics. In the Middle Ages, the printing press created an important technical prerequisite for the emergence of schools of thought spanning several geographical centers. This facilitated the process of learning and disseminating the ideas of different schools. Each of them acquired a propaganda tool - periodically published collections, journals, bulletins, and other scientific periodicals. Its own printed organ is a significant feature of a school of scientific thought. It is reflected in


id: center-of-excellence-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_of_excellence-0.md
category: reference
title: Center of excellence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_of_excellence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:42.668168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: center-of-excellence-20260505-0
summary:
A center of excellence (COE or CoE), also called an excellence center, is a team, a shared facility or an entity that provides leadership, best practices, research, support, or training for a focus area. Due to its broad usage and vague legal precedent, a "center of excellence", in one context, may have completely different characteristics from another. The focus area might be a technology (such as the Java software platform), a business concept (such as business process management), a skill (such as negotiation) or a broad area of study (such as women's health). A center of excellence may also be formed to revitalize stalled initiatives. The term may also refer to a network of institutions collaborating with each other to pursue excellence in a particular area. (e.g. the Rochester Area Colleges Center for Excellence in Math and Science). == Organizations == Within an organization, a center of excellence may refer to a group of people, a department or a shared facility. It may also be known as a competency center, or as a capability center, or as an excellence center. Stephen Jenner and Craig Kilford, in Management of Portfolios, mention COE as a coordinating function which ensures that change initiatives


id: center-of-excellence-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_of_excellence-1.md
category: reference
title: Center of excellence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_of_excellence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:42.668168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: center-of-excellence-20260505-0
summary:
=== Europe === In the European defense community, the European Centre of Excellence for Countering Hybrid Threats is a response to hybrid warfare on its periphery; the COE seeks to inform, and also protect its non-NATO components, as well as its non-PESCO members. The US Department of Defense (DoD) intends to use CoEs that focus on key technologies, such as drones, and commercial satellite imagery. === United States Army === The Army maintains numerous Centers of Excellence (CoE) at major universities, training installations, and other locations: Acquisition COE - Huntsville, Alabama Aviation COE - Fort Novosel, Alabama Cyber COE - Fort Gordon, Georgia Fires COE - Fort Sill, Oklahoma Human Resource COE - Fort Knox, Kentucky Initial Military Training COE - Fort Eustis, Virginia Intelligence COE - Fort Huachuca, Arizona Maneuver COE - Fort Moore, Georgia Maneuver Support COE Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri Medical COE - Joint Base San Antonio (JBSA), Texas Mission Command COE - Fort Leavenworth, Kansas NCO Leadership COE - Fort Bliss, Texas Space and Missile Defense CoE - Peterson Space Force Base, Colorado Special Operations COE - Fort Bragg, North Carolina Sustainment COE - Fort Gregg-Adams, Virginia TRADOC oversees ten of these Centers of Excellence, each


id: chandler-scientific-school-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandler_Scientific_School-0.md
category: reference
title: Chandler Scientific School
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandler_Scientific_School
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:43.941788+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chandler-scientific-school-20260505-0
summary:
Abiel Chandler School of Science and the Arts was established in 1852 by Abiel Chandler, a Boston commission merchant and New Hampshire native. The school was as a separate undergraduate college at Dartmouth College comparable to the earlier Lawrence Scientific School (1847) at Harvard University and the later Sheffield Scientific School (1854) at Yale University. Chandler students established their own fraternities: Phi Zeta Mu (later Eta Eta chapter of Sigma Chi, now The Tabard) and Sigma Delta Pi (later Beta Theta Pi); sat in their own pews for morning services in the Old Chapel in Dartmouth Hall; and had their own sports teams. Classes took place in Chandler Hall, which stood between Parkhurst Hall and the Blunt Alumni Center. The building, built by Moor's Charity School in 1835 and designed by Ammi B. Young, was remodeled with a Mansard roof by Chandler mathematics professor Frank Asbury Sherman in 1871 and received a rear addition in 1898, designed by Charles Alonzo Rich, a Chandler graduate of 1876 and designing partner of the New York architects Lamb & Rich. Dartmouth absorbed the Chandler Scientific School in 1893 and continued as the Departments of Zoology, Botany, and Geology. The Chandler Fund continues to


id: sheffield-scientific-school-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheffield_Scientific_School-0.md
category: reference
title: Sheffield Scientific School
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheffield_Scientific_School
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:45.137184+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sheffield-scientific-school-20260505-0
summary:
Sheffield Scientific School was founded in 1847 as a school of Yale College in New Haven, Connecticut, for instruction in science and engineering. Originally named the Yale Scientific School, it was renamed in 1861 in honor of Joseph E. Sheffield, a railroad executive. The school was incorporated in 1871. The Sheffield Scientific School helped establish a model of American higher education which incorporated both the sciences and the liberal arts. Following World War I, its curriculum gradually became completely integrated with Yale College. "The Sheff" ceased to function as a separate entity in 1956. == History == After technological developments in the early nineteenth century, such as the electric telegraph, an interest was fostered in teaching applied science at universities. Harvard established the Lawrence Scientific School in 1846 and Dartmouth began the Chandler Scientific School in 1852. The stage was set at Yale for the transition in education beginning in 1846, when professorships of agricultural chemistry (John Pitkin Norton) and practical chemistry (Benjamin Silliman Jr.) were established. In 1847, the School of Applied Chemistry became part of a newly created Department of Philosophy and the Arts (later, the Yale Graduate School). Classes and labs were hosted in the Second President's


id: sheffield-scientific-school-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheffield_Scientific_School-1.md
category: reference
title: Sheffield Scientific School
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheffield_Scientific_School
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:45.137184+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sheffield-scientific-school-20260505-0
summary:
During the 1918-1919 reorganization of the educational structure of Yale University, the three years "select" course at Sheffield Scientific School was eliminated and a four-year course of study for those studying "professional science" and "engineering" was approved, while graduate courses were transferred to the Graduate School, leaving only undergraduate courses taught at Sheffield Scientific School from 1919 to 1945, coexisting with Yale College's science programs. The centennial was celebrated in 1947 with the Silliman lectures given by Ernest O. Lawrence, Linus Pauling, W. M. Stanley and George Wells Beadle. The first degree of Bachelor of Science was awarded in 1922 to the graduating class of the Sheffield Scientific School. In 1932, the School of Engineering was reestablished and Sheffield Scientific School engineering classes were transferred to the new school. In 1945, the Sheffield Scientific School resumed its original function of graduate level instruction in science. Undergraduate courses for the Bachelor of Science degree were transferred to Yale College, and undergraduate courses for a Bachelor of Science in industrial administration were transferred to the School of Engineering. This transition occurred gradually, through the influence of "aggressive, powerful alumni" (including Edwin Oviatt, editor of the Yale Alumni Weekly) who "took control out


id: artificial-gravity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_gravity-0.md
category: reference
title: Artificial gravity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_gravity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:46.652149+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: artificial-gravity-20260505-0
summary:
Artificial gravity is the creation of an inertial force that mimics the effects of a gravitational force, usually by rotation. Artificial gravity, or rotational gravity, is thus the appearance of a centrifugal force in a rotating frame of reference (the transmission of centripetal acceleration via normal force in the non-rotating frame of reference), as opposed to the force experienced in linear acceleration, which by the equivalence principle is indistinguishable from gravity. In a more general sense, "artificial gravity" may also refer to the effect of linear acceleration, e.g. by means of a rocket engine. Rotational simulated gravity has been used in simulations to help astronauts train for extreme conditions. Rotational simulated gravity has been proposed as a solution in human spaceflight to the adverse health effects caused by prolonged weightlessness. However, there are no current practical outer space applications of artificial gravity for humans due to concerns about the size and cost of a spacecraft necessary to produce a useful centripetal force comparable to the gravitational field strength on Earth (g). Scientists are concerned about the effect of such a system on the inner ear of the occupants. The concern is that using centripetal force to create artificial gravity will


id: artificial-gravity-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_gravity-1.md
category: reference
title: Artificial gravity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_gravity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:46.652149+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: artificial-gravity-20260505-0
summary:
Artificial gravity has been suggested as a solution to various health risks associated with spaceflight. In 1964, the Soviet space program believed that a human could not survive more than 14 days in space for fear that the heart and blood vessels would be unable to adapt to the weightless conditions. This fear was eventually discovered to be unfounded as spaceflights have now lasted up to 437 consecutive days, with missions aboard the International Space Station commonly lasting 6 months. However, the question of human safety in space did launch an investigation into the physical effects of prolonged exposure to weightlessness. In June 1991, the Spacelab Life Sciences 1 on the Space Shuttle flight STS-40 flight performed 18 experiments on two men and two women over nine days. In an environment without gravity, it was concluded that the response of white blood cells and muscle mass decreased. Additionally, within the first 24 hours spent in a weightless environment, blood volume decreased by 10%. Long periods of weightlessness can cause brain swelling and eyesight problems. Upon return to Earth, the effects of prolonged weightlessness continue to affect the human body as fluids pool back to the lower body, the heart rate


id: artificial-gravity-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_gravity-2.md
category: reference
title: Artificial gravity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_gravity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:46.652149+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: artificial-gravity-20260505-0
summary:
==== Issues with implementation ==== Some of the reasons that artificial gravity remains unused today in spaceflight trace back to the problems inherent in implementation. One of the realistic methods of creating artificial gravity is the centrifugal effect caused by the centripetal force of the floor of a rotating structure pushing up on the person. In that model, however, issues arise in the size of the spacecraft. As expressed by John Page and Matthew Francis, the smaller a spacecraft (the shorter the radius of rotation), the more rapid the rotation that is required. As such, to simulate gravity, it would be better to utilize a larger spacecraft that rotates slowly. The requirements on size about rotation are due to the differing forces on parts of the body at different distances from the axis of rotation. If parts of the body closer to the rotational axis experience a force that is significantly different from parts farther from the axis, then this could have adverse effects. Additionally, questions remain as to what the best way is to initially set the rotating motion in place without disturbing the stability of the whole spacecraft's orbit. At the moment, there is not a ship massive


id: artificial-gravity-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_gravity-3.md
category: reference
title: Artificial gravity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_gravity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:46.652149+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: artificial-gravity-20260505-0
summary:
Linear acceleration is another method of generating artificial gravity, by using the thrust from a spacecraft's engines to create the illusion of being under a gravitational pull. A spacecraft under constant acceleration in a straight line would have the appearance of a gravitational pull in the direction opposite to that of the acceleration, as the thrust from the engines would cause the spacecraft to "push" itself up into the objects and persons inside of the vessel, thus creating the feeling of weight. This is because of Newton's third law: the weight that one would feel standing in a linearly accelerating spacecraft would not be a true gravitational pull, but simply the reaction of oneself pushing against the craft's hull as it pushes back. Similarly, objects that would otherwise be free-floating within the spacecraft if it were not accelerating would "fall" towards the engines when it started accelerating, as a consequence of Newton's first law: the floating object would remain at rest, while the spacecraft would accelerate towards it, and appear to an observer within that the object was "falling". To emulate artificial gravity on Earth, spacecraft using linear acceleration gravity may be built similar to a skyscraper, with its engines


id: breakthrough-propulsion-physics-project-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakthrough_Propulsion_Physics_Project-0.md
category: reference
title: Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakthrough_Propulsion_Physics_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:47.990993+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: breakthrough-propulsion-physics-project-20260505-0
summary:
The Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Project (BPP) was a research project funded by NASA from 1996 to 2002 to study various proposals for revolutionary methods of spacecraft propulsion that would require breakthroughs in physics before they could be realized. The project ended in 2002, when the Advanced Space Transportation Program was reorganized and all speculative research (less than Technology readiness level 3) was cancelled. During its six years of operational funding, this program received a total investment of $1.2 million. The Breakthrough Propulsion Physics project addressed a selection of "incremental and affordable" research questions towards the overall goal of propellantless propulsion, hyperfast travel, and breakthrough propulsion methods. It selected and funded five external projects, two in-house tasks and one minor grant. At the end of the project, conclusions into fourteen topics, including these funded projects, were summarized by program manager Marc G. Millis. Of these, six research avenues were found to be nonviable, four were identified as opportunities for continued research, and four remain unresolved. == Non-viable approaches == One in-house experiment tested the Schlicher thruster antenna, claimed by Schlicher to generate thrust. No thrust was observed. Another experiment examined a gravity shielding mechanism claimed by Podkletnov and Nieminen. Experimental investigation


id: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry-0.md
category: reference
title: Hypothetical types of biochemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:53.278681+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
summary:
Several forms of biochemistry are agreed to be scientifically viable, but are not proven to exist at this time. The kinds of living organisms known on Earth, as of 2026, all use carbon compounds for basic structural and metabolic functions, water as a solvent, and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or ribonucleic acid (RNA) to define and control their form. If life exists on other celestial bodies (planets, moons), it may be chemically similar, though it is also possible that there are organisms with quite different chemistries – for instance, involving other classes of carbon compounds, compounds of another element, and/or another solvent in place of water. The possibility of life-forms being based on "alternative" biochemistries is the topic of an ongoing scientific discussion, informed by what is known about extraterrestrial environments and about the chemical behaviour of various elements and compounds. It is of interest in synthetic biology and is also a common subject in science fiction. The element silicon has been much discussed as a hypothetical alternative to carbon. Silicon is in the same group as carbon on the periodic table and, like carbon, it is tetravalent. Hypothetical alternatives to water include ammonia, which, like water, is a polar molecule,


id: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry-1.md
category: reference
title: Hypothetical types of biochemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:53.278681+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
summary:
The silicon atom has been much discussed as the basis for an alternative biochemical system, because silicon has many chemical similarities to carbon and is in the same group of the periodic table. Like carbon, silicon can create molecules that are sufficiently large to carry biological information. However, silicon has several drawbacks as a carbon alternative. Carbon is ten times more cosmically abundant than silicon, and its chemistry appears naturally more complex. By 1998, astronomers had identified 84 carbon-containing molecules in the interstellar medium, but only 8 containing silicon, of which half also include carbon. Even though Earth and other terrestrial planets are exceptionally silicon-rich and carbon-poor (silicon is roughly 925 times more abundant in Earth's crust than carbon), terrestrial life bases itself on carbon. This might be due to the comparatively lower diversity of functional groups observed in naturally-occurring Silicon-based polymers. Relative to carbon, silicon has a much larger atomic radius, and forms much weaker covalent bonds to atoms — except oxygen and fluorine, with which it forms very strong bonds. Almost no multiple bonds to silicon are stable, although silicon does exhibit varied coordination number. Silanes, silicon analogues to the alkanes, react rapidly with water, and long-chain silanes


id: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry-2.md
category: reference
title: Hypothetical types of biochemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:53.278681+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
summary:
== Non-water solvents == In addition to carbon compounds, all currently known terrestrial life also requires water as a solvent. This has led to discussions about whether water is the only liquid capable of filling that role. The idea that an extraterrestrial life-form might be based on a solvent other than water has been taken seriously in recent scientific literature by the biochemist Steven Benner, and by the astrobiological committee chaired by John A. Baross. Solvents discussed by the Baross committee include ammonia, sulfuric acid, formamide, hydrocarbons, and (at temperatures much lower than Earth's) liquid nitrogen, or hydrogen in the form of a supercritical fluid. Water as a solvent limits the forms biochemistry can take. For example, Steven Benner, proposes the polyelectrolyte theory of the gene that claims that for a genetic biopolymer such as DNA to function in water, it requires repeated ionic charges. If water is not required for life, these limits on genetic biopolymers are removed. Carl Sagan once described himself as both a carbon chauvinist and a water chauvinist; however, on another occasion he said that he was a carbon chauvinist but "not that much of a water chauvinist". He speculated on hydrocarbons, hydrofluoric acid, and


id: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry-3.md
category: reference
title: Hypothetical types of biochemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:53.278681+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ammonia === The ammonia molecule (NH3), like the water molecule, is abundant in the universe, being a compound of hydrogen (the simplest and most common element) with another very common element, nitrogen. The possible role of liquid ammonia as an alternative solvent for life is an idea dating back to 1954 at least, when J. B. S. Haldane raised the topic at a symposium about life's origin. Many chemical reactions can occur in an ammonia solution, and liquid ammonia has chemical similarities with water. Ammonia dissolves most organic molecules at least as well as water does, and many elemental metals. Haldane indicated that various common water-related organic compounds have ammonia-related analogues; for instance, the ammonia-related amine group (−NH2) is analogous to the water-related hydroxyl group (−OH). Ammonia, like water, can either accept or donate an H+ ion. When ammonia accepts an H+, it forms the ammonium cation (NH4+), analogous to hydronium (H3O+). When it donates an H+ ion, it forms the amide anion (NH2−), analogous to the hydroxide anion (OH−). Compared to water, however, ammonia is more inclined to accept an H+ ion, and less inclined to donate one; it is a stronger nucleophile. Ammonia added to water functions


id: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry-4.md
category: reference
title: Hypothetical types of biochemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:53.278681+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
summary:
=== Methane and other hydrocarbons === Methane (CH4) is a simple hydrocarbon: that is, a compound of two of the most common elements in the cosmos: hydrogen and carbon. It has a cosmic abundance comparable with ammonia. Hydrocarbons could act as a solvent over a wide range of temperatures but would lack polarity. Isaac Asimov, the biochemist and science fiction writer, suggested in 1981 that poly-lipids could form a substitute for proteins in a non-polar solvent such as methane. Lakes composed of a mixture of hydrocarbons, including methane and ethane, have been detected on the surface of Titan by the Cassini spacecraft. There is debate about the effectiveness of methane and other hydrocarbons as a solvent for life compared to water or ammonia. Water is a stronger solvent than the hydrocarbons, enabling easier transport of substances in a cell. However, water is also more chemically reactive and can break down large organic molecules through hydrolysis. A life-form which solvent was a hydrocarbon would not face the threat of its biomolecules being destroyed in this way. Also, the water molecule's tendency to form strong hydrogen bonds can interfere with internal hydrogen bonding in complex organic molecules. Life with a hydrocarbon solvent


id: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry-5.md
category: reference
title: Hypothetical types of biochemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:53.278681+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
summary:
=== Silicon dioxide and silicates === Silicon dioxide, also known as silica and quartz, is very abundant in the universe and has a large temperature range where it is liquid. However, its melting point is 1,600 to 1,725 °C (2,912 to 3,137 °F), so it would be impossible to make organic compounds in that temperature, because all of them would decompose. Silicates are similar to silicon dioxide and some have lower melting points than silica. Feinberg and Shapiro have suggested that molten silicate rock could serve as a liquid medium for organisms with a chemistry based on silicon, oxygen, and other elements such as aluminium. === Other solvents or cosolvents === Other solvents sometimes proposed: Supercritical fluids: supercritical carbon dioxide and supercritical hydrogen. Simple hydrogen compounds: hydrogen chloride. More complex compounds: sulfuric acid, formamide, methanol. Very-low-temperature fluids: liquid nitrogen and hydrogen. High-temperature liquids: sodium chloride. Sulfuric acid in liquid form is strongly polar. It remains liquid at higher temperatures than water, its liquid range being 10 °C to 337 °C at a pressure of 1 atm, although above 300 °C it slowly decomposes. Sulfuric acid is known to be abundant in the clouds of Venus, in the form of aerosol


id: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry-6.md
category: reference
title: Hypothetical types of biochemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:53.278681+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
summary:
== Scientists who have published on this topic == Scientists who have considered possible alternatives to carbon-water biochemistry include: J. B. S. Haldane (1892–1964), a geneticist noted for his work on abiogenesis. V. Axel Firsoff (1910–1981), British astronomer. cited in Ammonia-based Life. Isaac Asimov (1920–1992), biochemist and science fiction writer. Fred Hoyle (1915–2001), astronomer, science fiction writer, panspermia proponent. Norman Horowitz (1915–2005), Caltech geneticist who devised the first experiments done to detect life on Mars. George C. Pimentel (1922–1989), American chemist, University of California, Berkeley. Peter Sneath (1923–2011), microbiologist, author of the book Planets and Life. Gerald Feinberg (1933–1992), physicist and Robert Shapiro (1935–2011), chemist, co-authors of the book Life Beyond Earth. Carl Sagan (1934–1996), astronomer, science popularizer, and SETI proponent. Jonathan Lunine (born 1959), American planetary scientist and physicist. Robert Freitas (born 1952), specialist in nanotechnology and nanomedicine.This work is acknowledged the partial basis of the article Ammonia-based Life. John Baross (born 1940), oceanographer and astrobiologist, who chaired a committee of scientists under the United States National Research Council that published a report on life's limiting conditions in 2007. == See also == == References == == Further reading == Bains, William (2004). "Many Chemistries Could Be Used to


id: discrete-time-and-continuous-time-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_time_and_continuous_time-0.md
category: reference
title: Discrete time and continuous time
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_time_and_continuous_time
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:55.043011+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: discrete-time-and-continuous-time-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematical dynamics, discrete time and continuous time are two alternative frameworks within which variables that evolve over time are modeled. == Discrete time == Discrete time views values of variables as occurring at distinct, separate "points in time", or equivalently as being unchanged throughout each non-zero region of time ("time period")—that is, time is viewed as a discrete variable. Thus a non-time variable jumps from one value to another as time moves from one time period to the next. This view of time corresponds to a digital clock that gives a fixed reading of 10:37 for a while, and then jumps to a new fixed reading of 10:38, etc. In this framework, each variable of interest is measured once at each time period. The number of measurements between any two time periods is finite. Measurements are typically made at sequential integer values of the variable "time". A discrete signal or discrete-time signal is a time series consisting of a sequence of quantities. Unlike a continuous-time signal, a discrete-time signal is not a function of a continuous argument; however, it may have been obtained by sampling from a continuous-time signal. When a discrete-time signal is obtained by sampling a sequence


id: discrete-time-and-continuous-time-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_time_and_continuous_time-1.md
category: reference
title: Discrete time and continuous time
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_time_and_continuous_time
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:55.043011+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: discrete-time-and-continuous-time-20260505-0
summary:
== Relevant contexts == Discrete time is often employed when empirical measurements are involved, because normally it is only possible to measure variables sequentially. For example, while economic activity actually occurs continuously, there being no moment when the economy is totally in a pause, it is only possible to measure economic activity discretely. For this reason, published data on, for example, gross domestic product will show a sequence of quarterly values. When one attempts to empirically explain such variables in terms of other variables and/or their own prior values, one uses time series or regression methods in which variables are indexed with a subscript indicating the time period in which the observation occurred. For example, yt might refer to the value of income observed in unspecified time period t, y3 to the value of income observed in the third time period, etc. Moreover, when a researcher attempts to develop a theory to explain what is observed in discrete time, often the theory itself is expressed in discrete time in order to facilitate the development of a time series or regression model. On the other hand, it is often more mathematically tractable to construct theoretical models in continuous time, and often


id: return-period-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Return_period-0.md
category: reference
title: Return period
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Return_period
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:56.339637+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: return-period-20260505-0
summary:
A return period, also known as a recurrence interval or repeat interval, is an average time or an estimated average time between events such as earthquakes, floods, landslides, or river discharge flows to occur. The reciprocal value of return period is called the frequency of occurrence. It is a statistical measurement typically based on historic data over an extended period, and is used usually for risk analysis. Examples include deciding whether a project should be allowed to go forward in a zone of a certain risk or designing structures to withstand events with a certain return period. The following analysis assumes that the probability of the event occurring does not vary over time and is independent of past events. == Estimating a return period == Recurrence interval = n + 1 m {\displaystyle ={n+1 \over m}} n number of years on record; m is the rank of observed occurrences when arranged in descending order For floods, the event may be measured in terms of m3/s or height; for storm surges, in terms of the height of the surge, and similarly for other events. This is Weibull's Formula. == Return period as the reciprocal of expected frequency == The theoretical return


id: return-period-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Return_period-1.md
category: reference
title: Return period
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Return_period
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:56.339637+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: return-period-20260505-0
summary:
== Binomial == In a given period of n × τ {\displaystyle n\times \tau } for a unit time τ {\displaystyle \tau } (e.g. τ = 1 year {\displaystyle \tau =1{\text{year}}} ), the probability of a given number r of events of a return period μ {\displaystyle \mu } is given by the binomial distribution as follows. P ( X = r ) = ( n r ) μ r ( 1 − μ ) n − r . {\displaystyle P(X=r)={n \choose r}\mu ^{r}(1-\mu )^{n-r}.} This is valid only if the probability of more than one occurrence per unit time τ {\displaystyle \tau } is zero. Often that is a close approximation, in which case the probabilities yielded by this formula hold approximately. If n → ∞ , μ → 0 {\displaystyle n\rightarrow \infty ,\mu \rightarrow 0} in such a way that n μ → λ {\displaystyle n\mu \rightarrow \lambda } then n ! ( n − r ) ! r ! μ r ( 1 − μ ) n − r → e − λ λ r r ! . {\displaystyle {\frac {n!}{(n-r)!r!}}\mu ^{r}(1-\mu )^{n-r}\rightarrow e^{-\lambda }{\frac {\lambda ^{r}}{r!}}.} Take μ = 1 T = m n + 1


id: world-line-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_line-0.md
category: reference
title: World line
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_line
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:57.681268+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-line-20260505-0
summary:
The world line (or worldline) of an object is the path that an object traces in 4-dimensional spacetime. It is an important concept of modern physics, and particularly theoretical physics. The concept of a "world line" is distinguished from concepts such as an "orbit" or a "trajectory" (e.g., a planet's orbit in space or the trajectory of a car on a road) by inclusion of the dimension time, and typically encompasses a large area of spacetime wherein paths which are straight perceptually are rendered as curves in spacetime to show their (relatively) more absolute position states—to reveal the nature of special relativity or gravitational interactions. The idea of world lines was originated by physicists and was pioneered by Hermann Minkowski. The term is now used most often in the context of relativity theories (i.e., special relativity and general relativity). == Usage in physics == A world line of an object (generally approximated as a point in space, e.g., a particle or observer) is the sequence of spacetime events corresponding to the history of the object. A world line is a special type of curve in spacetime. Below an equivalent definition will be explained: A world line is either a time-like


id: world-line-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_line-1.md
category: reference
title: World line
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_line
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:57.681268+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-line-20260505-0
summary:
defining a world line, are real number functions of a real variable τ {\displaystyle \tau } and can simply be differentiated by the usual calculus. Without the existence of a metric (this is important to realize) one can imagine the difference between a point p {\displaystyle p} on the curve at the parameter value τ 0 {\displaystyle \tau _{0}} and a point on the curve a little (parameter τ 0 + Δ τ {\displaystyle \tau _{0}+\Delta \tau } ) farther away. In the limit Δ τ → 0 {\displaystyle \Delta \tau \to 0} , this difference divided by Δ τ {\displaystyle \Delta \tau } defines a vector, the tangent vector of the world line at the point p {\displaystyle p} . It is a four-dimensional vector, defined in the point p {\displaystyle p} . It is associated with the normal 3-dimensional velocity of the object (but it is not the same) and therefore termed four-velocity v → {\displaystyle {\vec {v}}} , or in components: v → = ( v 0 , v 1 , v 2 , v 3 ) = ( d x 0 d τ , d x 1 d τ , d x 2 d τ ,


id: world-line-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_line-2.md
category: reference
title: World line
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_line
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:57.681268+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-line-20260505-0
summary:
=== Simultaneous hyperplane === Since a world line w ( τ ) ∈ R 4 {\displaystyle w(\tau )\in R^{4}} determines a velocity 4-vector v = d w d τ {\displaystyle v={\frac {dw}{d\tau }}} that is time-like, the Minkowski form η ( v , x ) {\displaystyle \eta (v,x)} determines a linear function R 4 → R {\displaystyle R^{4}\rightarrow R} by x ↦ η ( v , x ) . {\displaystyle x\mapsto \eta (v,x).} Let N be the null space of this linear functional. Then N is called the simultaneous hyperplane with respect to v. The relativity of simultaneity is a statement that N depends on v. Indeed, N is the orthogonal complement of v with respect to η. When two world lines u and w are related by d u d τ = d w d τ , {\displaystyle {\frac {du}{d\tau }}={\frac {dw}{d\tau }},} then they share the same simultaneous hyperplane. This hyperplane exists mathematically, but physical relations in relativity involve the movement of information by light. For instance, the traditional electro-static force described by Coulomb's law may be pictured in a simultaneous hyperplane, but relativistic relations of charge and force involve retarded potentials. == World lines in general relativity


id: world-line-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_line-3.md
category: reference
title: World line
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_line
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:33:57.681268+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-line-20260505-0
summary:
He stepped up to one of the reporters. "Suppose we take you as an example. Your name is Rogers, is it not? Very well, Rogers, you are a space-time event having duration four ways. You are not quite six feet tall, you are about twenty inches wide and perhaps ten inches thick. In time, there stretches behind you more of this space-time event, reaching to perhaps nineteen-sixteen, of which we see a cross-section here at right angles to the time axis, and as thick as the present. At the far end is a baby, smelling of sour milk and drooling its breakfast on its bib. At the other end lies, perhaps, an old man someplace in the nineteen-eighties. "Imagine this space-time event that we call Rogers as a long pink worm, continuous through the years, one end in his mother's womb, and the other at the grave..." Heinlein's Methuselah's Children uses the term, as does James Blish's The Quincunx of Time (expanded from "Beep"). A visual novel named Steins;Gate, produced by 5pb., tells a story based on the shifting of world lines. Steins;Gate is a part of the "Science Adventure" series. World lines and other physical concepts like the Dirac


id: beyond-bias-and-barriers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Bias_and_Barriers-0.md
category: reference
title: Beyond Bias and Barriers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Bias_and_Barriers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:34:02.036068+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: beyond-bias-and-barriers-20260505-0
summary:
Beyond Bias and Barriers: Fulfilling the Potential of Women in Academic Science and Engineering (ISBN 0309100429) is a major report about the status of women in science from the United States National Academy of Sciences. Published in 2006, the report closely examines the data, proposed explanations, and possible responses to the relative dearth of women in science and engineering higher education in the United States. == History == The report was written by the "Committee on Maximizing the Potential of Women in Academic Science and Engineering", a panel at the National Academy of Sciences. The committee was chaired by Donna Shalala, and included college presidents, provosts, professors, scientists, and policy analysts. Committee members included: Alice M. Agogino, Lotte Bailyn, Robert J. Birgeneau, Ana Mari Cauce, Catherine D. DeAngelis, Denice Denton (who committed suicide before the release of the report), Barbara Grosz, Jo Handeslman, Nan Keohane, Shirley Malcom, Geraldine Richmond, Alice M. Rivlin, Ruth Simmons, Elizabeth Spelke, Joan Steitz, Elaine Weyuker, and Maria T. Zuber. As is typical with NAS reports, after the Committee drafted the report, it underwent a peer review process within the NAS, in this case reviewed by another Committee of nineteen members. == Conclusions == The report


id: finkbeiner-test-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finkbeiner_test-0.md
category: reference
title: Finkbeiner test
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finkbeiner_test
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:34:03.194855+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: finkbeiner-test-20260505-0
summary:
The Finkbeiner test, named for the science journalist Ann Finkbeiner, is a checklist to help science journalists avoid gender bias in articles about women in science. It asks writers to avoid describing women scientists in terms of stereotypically feminine traits, such as their family arrangements. The Finkbeiner test has been linked to affirmative action, because writing can cause readers to view women in science as different from men in negative or unfair ways. The test helps avoid gender bias in science reporting similarly to various tests that focus on under-representation of marginalized groups in different career fields. == Checklist == The Finkbeiner test is a checklist proposed by freelance journalist Christie Aschwanden to help journalists avoid gender bias in media articles about women in science. To pass the test, an article about a female scientist must not mention: That she is a woman Her husband's job Her childcare arrangements How she nurtures her underlings How she was taken aback by the competitiveness in her field How she is a role model for other women How she's the "first woman to ..." == History == Aschwanden formulated the test in a 2013 article for the online magazine Double X Science. She


id: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women-0.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions and discoveries by women
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:34:04.448265+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-0
summary:
This page aims to list inventions and discoveries in which women played a major role. == Medicine == === Pharmaceuticals === Aciclovir Gertrude B. Elion contributed to the development of aciclovir, an antiviral drug used for the treatment of herpes simplex virus infections, chickenpox, and shingles. Artemisinin and dihydroartemisinin Tu Youyou discovered artemisinin and dihydroartemisinin, both now standard treatments for malaria. Artemisinin is isolated from the plant Artemisia annua, sweet wormwood, a herb employed in Chinese traditional medicine. Azathioprine Azathioprine is an Immunosuppressive drug used in rheumatoid arthritis, granulomatosis with polyangiitis, Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, and in kidney transplants to prevent rejection first synthesized by George H. Hitchings and Gertrude B. Elion in 1957 . AZT Flossie Wong-Staal was the first scientist to clone HIV and map its genes. Gertrude Elion made foundational contributions to the development of AZT, one of the first antiretroviral medications used in the prevention and treatment of HIV/AIDS. Chemotherapy Jane C. Wright was the first to identify methotrexate, one of the foundational chemotherapy drugs, as an effective tool against cancerous tumors. feeding tube Bessie Blount Griffin used plastic, boiling water to mold the material, a file, ice pick, hammer, and some dishes to create the


id: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women-1.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions and discoveries by women
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:34:04.448265+00:00
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parent: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-0
summary:
Chien-Shiung Wu was the first scientist to confirm Enrico Fermi’s theory of radioactive beta decay. She also overturned the theory of parity in physics. Radon In 1901, Harriet Brooks and Ernest Rutherford contributed to the discovery of the element radon by finding evidence that the "emanation" emitted by thorium compounds was likely to be a gas. This follows work in 1899 by Pierre and Marie Curie, who observed that the gas emitted by radium remained radioactive for a month. Kinetic energy Emilie du Châtelet (born Gabrielle Émilie Le Tonnelier de Breteuil) translated Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica from Latin to French during the 18th century. She carried out physics experiments, popularizing the work of Leibniz. She demonstrated that the kinetic energy of an object was proportional to its mass and the square of its velocity, and postulated a conservation law for the total energy of a system. Heavy elements in cosmic radiation As a graduate student, Phyllis S. Freier found evidence for the existence of elements heavier than helium in cosmic radiation. Her work was published in Physical Review in 1948 with co-authors Edward J. Lofgren, Edward P. Ney, and Frank Oppenheimer. Beta particles are electrons. Gertrude Scharff Goldhaber and her


id: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women-2.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions and discoveries by women
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:34:04.448265+00:00
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parent: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-0
summary:
== Chemistry == Catalysis The concept of catalysis invented by Scottish chemist Elizabeth Fulhame Kevlar A powerful para-aramid synthetic fiber, developed by Stephanie Kwolek at DuPont in 1965 Polonium and radium The discoveries of elements radium and polonium were made by Polish chemist Marie Curie through the deep study of their nature and their compounds. Rhenium Rhenium, a d-block transition metal with Atomic number 75, was first isolated by Ida Noddack and her husband. The existence of this element was predicted by Dmitri Mendeleev. Ida Noddack was nominated three times for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Seaborgium Carol Alonso was a co-discoverer of seaborgium, a synthetic chemical element with symbol Sg and atomic number 106. Scotchgard This stain repellent and durable water repellent was co-invented by chemists Patsy Sherman and Samuel Smith while working for 3M. Langmuir–Blodgett film The technique for making Langmuir–Blodgett film, which involves immersing a substrate into a solution to deposit a monolayer of molecules onto a substrate, was co-invented by Katharine Burr Blodgett and Irving Langmuir while working for General Electric. Earlier work by Agnes Pockels influenced the development of the trough. Zeolite Y Zeolite Y, a molecular sieve used to catalyse fractional distillation in petroleum


id: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women-3.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions and discoveries by women
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:34:04.448265+00:00
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parent: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-0
summary:
== Household == Square-bottom paper bag In 1868, Margaret E. Knight invented a machine that folded and glued flat-bottomed brown paper bags familiar to shoppers today. She obtained 87 US patents that include lid-removing pliers, a numbering machine, a window frame and sash, and variants on rotary engines. Dishwasher Josephine Cochrane developed in 1887 the first commercially successful dishwasher, together with mechanic George Butters. Home security system Marie VanBrittan Brown, mid 1960's. Electric refrigerator Florence Parpart, 1914. Pedal bin Lillian Gilbreth invented the pedal bin in 1914 for the disposal of kitchen waste. The foot pedal enables the user to open the lid without touching it with their hands. Improved ironing board In 1892, Sarah Boone obtained a patent in the United States for improvements to the ironing board, allowing for better quality ironing for shirt sleeves. Central heating In 1919, Alice Parker invented a system of gas-powered central heating. While her particular design was never built, it was the first time an inventor had conceived of using natural gas to heat a personal home, which inspired the future central heating systems. Automatic Rotimaker In 2008, Pranoti Nagarkar-Israni invented a kitchen robot called Rotimatic, which makes rotis, tortillas, pizza crusts


id: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women-4.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions and discoveries by women
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:34:04.448265+00:00
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parent: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-0
summary:
== Mathematics == Daubechies wavelet Ingrid Daubechies introduced the Daubechies wavelet and contributed to the development of the CDF wavelet, important tools in image compression. You can't hear the shape of a drum. In 1966, Mark Kac asked whether the shape of a drum could be determined by the sound it makes (whether a Riemannian manifold is determined by the spectrum of its Laplace–Beltrami operator). John Milnor observed that a theorem due to Witt implied the existence of a pair of 16-dimensional tori that have the same spectrum but different shapes. However, the problem in two dimensions remained open until 1992, when Carolyn S. Gordon with coauthors Webb and Wolpert, constructed a pair of regions in the Euclidean plane that have different shapes but identical eigenvalues (see figure on right). Cauchy–Kovalevskaya theorem In mathematics, the Cauchy–Kowalevski theorem (also written as the Cauchy–Kovalevskaya theorem) is the main local existence and uniqueness theorem for analytic partial differential equations associated with Cauchy initial value problems. A special case was proven by Augustin Cauchy (1842), and the full result by Sophia Kovalevskaya (1875). Kovalevskaya top In classical mechanics, the precession of a rigid body such as a top under the influence of gravity is


id: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women-5.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions and discoveries by women
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:34:04.448265+00:00
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parent: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-0
summary:
That is, two moments of inertia are equal, the third is half as large, and the center of gravity is located in the plane perpendicular to the symmetry axis (parallel to the plane of the two equal points). QR algorithm In numerical linear algebra, the QR algorithm is an eigenvalue algorithm: that is, a procedure to calculate the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a matrix. The QR algorithm was developed in the late 1950s by John G. F. Francis and by Vera N. Kublanovskaya, working independently. The basic idea is to perform a QR decomposition, writing the matrix as a product of an orthogonal matrix and an upper triangular matrix, multiply the factors in the reverse order, and iterate. Navier–Stokes equations Olga Ladyzhenskaya provided the first rigorous proofs of the convergence of a finite difference method for the Navier–Stokes equations. Ladyzhenskaya was on the shortlist for potential recipients for the 1958 Fields Medal, ultimately awarded to Klaus Roth and René Thom. Braid groups are linear Ruth Lawrence's 1990 paper, "Homological representations of the Hecke algebra", in Communications in Mathematical Physics, introduced, among other things, certain novel linear representations of the braid group — known as Lawrence–Krammer representation. In papers published in


id: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women-6.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions and discoveries by women
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:34:04.448265+00:00
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parent: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-0
summary:
Van der Waerden credited lectures by Noether on group theory and Emil Artin on algebra, as well as a seminar conducted by Artin, Wilhelm Blaschke, Otto Schreier, and van der Waerden himself on ideals as the main references. The three isomorphism theorems, called homomorphism theorem, and two laws of isomorphism when applied to groups, appear explicitly. Lasker–Noether theorem In mathematics, the Lasker–Noether theorem states that every Noetherian ring is a Lasker ring, which means that every ideal can be decomposed as an intersection, called primary decomposition, of finitely many primary ideals (which are related to, but not quite the same as, powers of prime ideals). The theorem was first proven by Emanuel Lasker (1905) for the special case of polynomial rings and convergent power series rings, and was proven in its full generality by Emmy Noether (1921). The Lasker–Noether theorem is an extension of the fundamental theorem of arithmetic, and more generally the fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian groups to all Noetherian rings. The Lasker–Noether theorem plays an important role in algebraic geometry, by asserting that every algebraic set may be uniquely decomposed into a finite union of irreducible components. Albert–Brauer–Hasse–Noether theorem In algebraic number theory, the Albert–Brauer–Hasse–Noether theorem


id: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women-7.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions and discoveries by women
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:34:04.448265+00:00
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parent: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-0
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== Wireless transmission == Torpedoes Radio guidance device Austrian-American Hollywood actress Hedy Lamarr, together with musician and author George Antheil, developed a mechanism for radio guidance system for Allied torpedoes which used spread spectrum and frequency hopping technology to defeat the threat of jamming by the Axis powers. Though the US Navy did not adopt frequency-hopping until the 1960s, the principles of it are now incorporated into modern Wi-Fi, CDMA and Bluetooth technology. == Food and food appliances == Chocolate-chip cookies Invented by Ruth Graves Wakefield in 1938. Pizza saver Patented in 1985 by Carmela Vitale of Dix Hills, New York. Mint chocolate chip Invented by Marilyn Ricketts in 1973. Ice cream maker Invented by Nancy M. Johnson in 1843. Coffee filter Invented by Melitta Bentz, 1908. == Biology == DNA structure Rosalind Franklin was a British molecular biologist who was instrumental in the discovery of the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in 1951. At King's College London where she applied X-ray diffraction to the study of biological materials, she performed several X-ray radiographs of the DNA. Sex chromosomes Nettie Maria Stevens is credited with the discovery of sex chromosomes. The Cori cycle (lactic acid cycle) Gerty Cori, together with


id: muslim-women-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_women_in_science_and_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: Muslim women in science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_women_in_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:34:05.645755+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: muslim-women-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Since the Islamic Golden Age, Muslims, including women, have been actively participating in various sciences. Despite being involved in politics throughout Islamic history, women have experienced—and still continue to experience—gender-based discrimination in many Muslim countries because of the belief that certain discriminatory practices have a basis in Islam even though the Quran, hadiths, and sunnah advocate for the equal rights of men and women to seek knowledge. == Individuals == === Rufayda al-Aslamiyyah === Also known as the first nurse in Islamic history, Rufayda al-Aslamiyyah led a team of volunteer nurses in the battles of Badr, Uhud, Ditch, Khaybar, and other conflicts to take care of the wounded and dying. She further played a role in the development of the first mobile medical units to satisfy the requirements of the community for medical care. Through assisting her father, Saad Al-Aslamy, Rufayda learnt most of her knowledge. She became a healer after devoting her time to nursing and taking care of the ill. She used to practice her skills in her tent during the battles. Muhammad used to demand that all casualties be sent to her tent as she had high expertise in the field. The Aga Khan University named the


id: alphonse-rebi-re-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphonse_Rebière-0.md
category: reference
title: Alphonse Rebière
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphonse_Rebière
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:34:06.874077+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alphonse-rebi-re-20260505-0
summary:
Alphonse Michel Rebière (Tulle, 1842 – Paris, 1900) was a nineteenth-century advocate for women's scientific abilities. He wrote the book Les Femmes dans la science, published in 1894. Rebière's piece followed the encyclopedia format, listing the woman alphabetically, giving their names, dates of birth, the social conditions under which they had lived, their contributions and publications. He included "professional and amateur" scientists and those who aided in contributions in "the progress of science." Included in Rebière's book was a section of appended works filled with opinions of famous people on the question "whether or not woman is capable of scientific pursuits." His work was revolutionary in that other works with similar information were never published, and he was one of the first to include women in the field of science. == Les Femmes dans la science == Translated: Women in Science Rebière's work Les Femmes dans la science was inspired by the women's movement and renewed interest in women's scientific abilities. == Mathématiques et mathématiciens: Pensées et curiosities == According to R. C. Archibald: ... A. M. Rebière published ... a pioneer work entitled: Mathématiques et mathématiciens. Pensées et curiosities. ... The second edition (in later editions there is practically


id: safe13-study-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAFE13_study-0.md
category: reference
title: SAFE13 study
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAFE13_study
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:34:08.155053+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: safe13-study-20260505-0
summary:
The Survey of Academic Field Experiences study, also known as the SAFE13 study, was a survey conducted between February and May 2013 in order to characterize experiences of scientists working at field sites as they relate to sexual harassment and sexual assault. It has had a significant impact on collective responses to sexual harassment and sexual assault in Western academic science. Published in 2014 by a team of anthropologists, Kathryn B. H. Clancy, Robin G. Nelson, Julienne N. Rutherford and Katie Hinde, the SAFE13 study is the first empirical investigation into scientists' experiences of harassment during fieldwork. The researchers identify three key takeaways from their work. First, women scientists are targeted more often than men, and junior scientists are also more likely to be harassed relative to senior scientists. Second, women are more likely to be harassed by senior staff, while men are harassed by their peers. Third, the majority of field scientists do not know how to report harassment. == Methods == The study included responses from 666 field scientists (77.5% were women and 85.9% of participants identified as heterosexual). The survey was conducted in two waves. The first wave ran from February 21 to April 12, 2013, and


id: safe13-study-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAFE13_study-1.md
category: reference
title: SAFE13 study
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAFE13_study
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:34:08.155053+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: safe13-study-20260505-0
summary:
== SAFE2 == In 2017, the qualitative findings of SAFE13 were published. Authored by Nelson, Rutherford, Hinde and Clancy, the study focused on the experiences of 26 interviewees, who were mostly anthropologists or archaeologists (23 of 26 interviewees), women (23 of 26), and white (21 of 26). Some participants described incidents of sexual harassment in multiple fieldwork sites, so fifty-four field contexts are represented in their narratives. Twelve participants recalled working at field sites with clear anti-harassment rules (representing 18 fieldwork sites). These sites had training, explicit conversations, and senior researchers modelled proactive behaviour to redress sexual harassment. Actively enforced anti-harassment policies were associated with positive fieldwork experiences where scientists felt safe, valued and equal. These sites were categorised by the researchers as "green" contexts where best practice was enforced by senior members of the research team. As a result there were fewer negative experiences, and transgressions were acted upon by leaders. The rest of the participants described ambiguity or lack of clarity about codes of conduct. Even if they had some rules, sexual harassment still took place because were no consequences. Ambiguity led to repercussions for scientists who resisted sexual coercion, such as being alienated from colleagues and being


id: sylvia-m-stoesser-lecturer-in-chemistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sylvia_M._Stoesser_Lecturer_in_Chemistry-0.md
category: reference
title: Sylvia M. Stoesser Lecturer in Chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sylvia_M._Stoesser_Lecturer_in_Chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:34:10.632655+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sylvia-m-stoesser-lecturer-in-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
The Sylvia M. Stoesser Lecture series was established in 2000 by the Department of Chemistry at the University of Illinois. It is supported by alumna Yulan Tong and by Dow AgroSciences. It is named after the first woman chemist to work at Dow, Sylvia M. Stoesser. The lectureship is given every two years to "an individual who has made outstanding contributions to the chemical community and provides new perspectives in the chemical field outside academia." == Lecturers == == References ==


id: tai-s-model-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tai's_model-0.md
category: reference
title: Tai's model
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tai's_model
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:34:11.854848+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tai-s-model-20260505-0
summary:
In 1994, nutrition scholar Mary M. Tai published a paper in the journal Diabetes Care entitled "A Mathematical Model for the Determination of Total Area Under Glucose Tolerance and Other Metabolic Curves". In the paper, Tai proposes "Tai's model" as a method of estimating the area under a curve by dividing the area into simple polygons and summing their totals. Apparently unbeknownst to Tai, and not noted by peer reviewers or the journal's editors, her method is in fact the trapezoidal rule, a basic method of calculus used by Babylonian astronomers before 50 BCE and later independently by English and French astronomers in the 14th century. Several scholars replied to the paper in letters to the journal, objecting to the naming of "Tai's model" and the treatment of a method "used in undergraduate calculus courses" as a novel discovery in the field of diabetes care. A letter entitled "Tai's Formula is the Trapezoidal Rule" pointed out errors in Tai's representation of the underlying mathematics (such as referring to a count of square units below the curve as the "true value" of the area, against which to measure the accuracy of Tai's model) and problems with the method's applicability to glucose


id: technofeminism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technofeminism-0.md
category: reference
title: Technofeminism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technofeminism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:34:13.030408+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technofeminism-20260505-0
summary:
Technofeminism is a theoretical and practical framework that explores the intersections between technology, gender, and power. Rooted in feminist thought, it critically examines how technology shapes, reinforces, or disrupts gender inequalities and seeks to envision more equitable futures through technological design and use. The term is widely attributed to Judy Wajcman, a sociologist and feminist scholar. Wajcman introduced the concept in her influential 2004 book, TechnoFeminism. Historically, technofeminism is closely linked to cyberfeminism, a concept which emerged in the early 1990s. The origins of cyber- and technofeminism are strongly attributed to the references of Donna Haraway's A Cyborg Manifesto. Since the 1990s, numerous feminist movements developed, addressing feminism and technology in various ways, and through different perspectives. Networks, ideas and concepts can overlap. Technofeminism is often examined in conjunction with intersectionality, a term coined by Kimberlé Crenshaw which analyzes the relationships among various identities, such as race, socioeconomic status, sexuality, gender, and more. == TechnoFeminism book == === Overview === TechnoFeminism is a book by academic sociologist Judy Wajcman which reframes the relationship between gender and technologies, and presents a feminist reading of the woman-machine relationship. It argues against a technocratic ideology, posing instead a thesis of society and technology


id: woman-in-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woman_in_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Woman in Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woman_in_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:34:15.569779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: woman-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
Woman in Science is a book written by John Augustine Zahm (under the pen name H. J. Mozans) in 1913. It is an account of women who have contributed to the sciences, up to the time when it was published. == Themes == The comprehensive theme that is depicted throughout Woman in Science is that of women's equal biological capacity. It is asserted that women being less prominent than men in science is due to the lack of educational and career opportunities available rather than the biological aspects of brain size or structure. In addition, the book encompasses the many developments of science throughout history. The main objective of the author/book was for women to become more involved and gain a respected position in the scientific field, in addition to increasing educational and career opportunities for women interested in science. It was one of the first collaborations of women's contributions to the scientific community, and it "explored the barriers to women's participation in science." == Quotations == "H. J. Mozans, in his Woman in Science, gives us a most comprehensive survey of the scientific activity and attainments of women. Primarily inspired to his investigation by extensive travels in Greece and


id: women-of-outstanding-achievement-photographic-exhibition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_of_Outstanding_Achievement_Photographic_Exhibition-0.md
category: reference
title: Women of Outstanding Achievement Photographic Exhibition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_of_Outstanding_Achievement_Photographic_Exhibition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:34:16.805565+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-of-outstanding-achievement-photographic-exhibition-20260505-0
summary:
The Women of Outstanding Achievement Photographic Exhibition was an annual event organised by the UKRC between 2006 and 2012, when it was subsumed into the WISE Campaign awards. It comprised creative photographs of outstanding women within science, engineering and technology (SET). Between four and seven women were chosen each year to be photographed by Robert Taylor. Nominations occurred in the Autumn of each year and the recipients were announced at a ceremony in March of the following year. Many of the portraits are on permanent loan to institutions such as the University of Oxford and The Royal Society;those of Joanna Kennedy, Julia King and Wendy Hall were hung in the Royal Academy of Engineering. The portrait of Nancy Rothwell was purchased by the National Portrait Gallery. == Award Recipients == Recipients were (with job titles at the time): 2012 Maggie Philbin, BBC Journalist and CEO TeenTech Belinda Swain, Chief Airworthiness Engineer at Rolls-Royce Angela Brady, President of the Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) and founder of Women in Architecture Fiona Marshall, Founder and Chief Scientific Officer at Heptares Therapeutics Ltd 2011 Dame Ann Dowling, Head of Engineering department at the University of Cambridge Dame Athene Donald, Professor at the


id: abenics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABENICS-0.md
category: reference
title: ABENICS
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABENICS
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:34:20.741579+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: abenics-20260505-0
summary:
ABENICS (Active Ball Joint Mechanism With Three-DoF Based on Spherical Gear Meshings) is a ball joint system which uses a cross-spherical gear in conjunction with a monopole gear in order to be able to manipulate the spherical gear in three dimensions of freedom (pitch, roll, and yaw). Adding a second monopole gear makes the system more robust and capable of highly accurate movement with high torque. The spherical gear is essentially a pair of 2D gears which have been rotated around their axes, resulting in something resembling a golf ball. Potential uses include any situation requiring accurate, powerful control over three degrees of freedom, such as in replication human joints. The design was published in IEEE Transactions on Robotics in October 2021. The mechanism has been replicated using 3D printing by enthusiasts. == References == == External links == Kazuki Abe; Kenjiro Tadakuma; Riichiro Tadakuma (October 2021). "ABENICS: Active Ball Joint Mechanism With Three-DoF Based on Spherical Gear Meshings". IEEE Transactions on Robotics. 37 (5). Video from Tadakuma Laboratory, Yamagata University, Japan


id: aesthetics-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics_of_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Aesthetics of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:34:21.908262+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aesthetics-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Aesthetics of science is the study of beauty and matters of taste within the scientific endeavour. Aesthetic features like simplicity, elegance and symmetry are sources of wonder and awe for many scientists, thus motivating scientific pursuit. Conversely, theories that have been empirically successful may be judged to lack aesthetic merit, which contributes to the desire to find a new theory that subsumes the old. The topic has been addressed by several publications discussing how aesthetic values are related to scientific experiments and theories. == See also == Aesthetics Mathematical beauty == References ==


id: agbiotechnet-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AgBiotechNet-0.md
category: reference
title: AgBiotechNet
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AgBiotechNet
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:34:24.314888+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: agbiotechnet-20260505-0
summary:
AgBiotechNet is a searchable online database of scientific literature on topics related to agricultural biotechnology. Its target audience consists of biotechnology researchers and policymakers. Though some features on the site are available for free, others can only be accessed by paid subscribers. First launched in January 1999, AgBiotechNet is run by the Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International (also known as CABI), which founded it along with Michigan State University's Agricultural Biotechnology Support Project. == References == == External links == Official website


id: antweb-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AntWeb-0.md
category: reference
title: AntWeb
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AntWeb
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:34:25.568499+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: antweb-20260505-0
summary:
AntWeb is the leading online database on ants: storing specimens images and records, and natural history information, and documenting over 490,000 specimens across over 35,000 taxa of ants in its open source and community driven repository as of November 2014. It was set up by Brian L. Fisher in 2002, and cost US$30,000 to build. == References == == External links == Website


id: apec-youth-science-festival-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APEC_Youth_Science_Festival-0.md
category: reference
title: APEC Youth Science Festival
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APEC_Youth_Science_Festival
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:34:26.799863+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: apec-youth-science-festival-20260505-0
summary:
APEC Youth Science Festival is a science fair run by the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC). It is for 15–18-year-olds with an interest in science–technology, and seeks to break down cultural barriers for learning. It began in 1998 in Seoul. The president of the Republic of Korea proposed to host the APEC Youth Science Festival at the 2nd APEC Science and Technology Ministers' Conference on November 13, 1996. == List of festivals == == References == == External links == https://web.archive.org/web/20100917232134/http://apec.org/apec/news___media/2004_media_releases/050804_youthsciencefest.html


id: brassboard-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brassboard-0.md
category: reference
title: Brassboard
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brassboard
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:34:29.342938+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: brassboard-20260505-0
summary:
A brassboard or brass board is an experimental or demonstration test model, intended for field testing outside the laboratory environment. A brassboard follows an earlier prototyping stage called a breadboard. A brassboard contains both the functionality and approximate physical configuration of the final operational product. Unlike breadboards, brassboards typically recreate geometric and dimensional constraints of the final system which are critical to its performance, as is the case in radio frequency systems. While representative of the physical layout of the production-grade product, a brassboard will not necessarily incorporate all final details, nor represent the physical size and quality level of the final deliverable product. Exact definition of a brassboard depends on the industry and has changed with time. A 1992 guide book on proposal preparation defined a brassboard or a breadboard as "a laboratory or shop working model that may or may not look like the final product or system, but that will operate in the same way as the final system". The definition of a breadboard was further narrowed to purely electronic systems, while a brassboard was treated as "a similar arrangement for hydraulic, pneumatic or mechanically interconnected components". In modern system-on-a-chip prototyping, brassboard is defined as a second


id: cambridge-science-festival-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_Science_Festival-0.md
category: reference
title: Cambridge Science Festival
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_Science_Festival
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:34:30.656567+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cambridge-science-festival-20260505-0
summary:
The Cambridge Science Festival was a series of events typically held annually in March in Cambridge, England and was the United Kingdom's largest free science festival. In 2019 it was announced that the Cambridge Science Festival and the Cambridge Festival of Ideas would be combined into one festival. The Cambridge Festival took place for the first time in March 2021. The festival attracts more than 30,000 visitors to over 250 events. University researchers and students open their lecture halls and laboratories to the general public, and hold Talks, Exhibitions and Demonstrations, mostly free of charge. Started in 1994 by scientists of the University of Cambridge and backed by local businesses, the festival was inspired by National Science Week and is aimed making science and engineering more accessible, showcasing research performed at Cambridge University, and encouraging young people to pursue careers in engineering and science. == Gallery == == References == == External links == Official website 2016 planner


id: chemrxiv-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ChemRxiv-0.md
category: reference
title: ChemRxiv
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ChemRxiv
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:34:35.727425+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chemrxiv-20260505-0
summary:
ChemRxiv (pronounced "chem archive"—the X represents the Greek letter chi [χ]) is an open access preprint archive for chemistry. It is operated by the American Chemical Society, Royal Society of Chemistry and German Chemical Society. The new preprint server was announced already in 2016, but was only opened online in 2017. Initially, editors of ACS journals were skeptical and only 80% of the editors allowed submissions to be uploaded to the preprint server in 2017. In 2019 the Chinese Chemical Society and the Chemical Society of Japan joined as co-owners of the preprint server. The initial reception of ChemRxiv was one of hesitation, with several major journals of the founding organizations initially unsupportive: Angewandte Chemie gave support in March 2018 and JACS only gave support in August 2018. However, ChemRxiv received more than 1,000 submissions in the first eighteen months, growing to 2,314 in 2019. Like other preprint servers, it saw a surge in COVID-19 preprints in 2020. == See also == List of preprint repositories == References == == External links == Official website


id: chief-scientist-of-south-australia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Scientist_of_South_Australia-0.md
category: reference
title: Chief Scientist of South Australia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Scientist_of_South_Australia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:34:37.032328+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chief-scientist-of-south-australia-20260505-0
summary:
The Chief Scientist of South Australia is an independent advisory role to the Government of South Australia, providing advice to the Premier and Cabinet on matters of science, technology, innovation and research. The Chief Scientist chairs the South Australian Science Council and recommends to the government new members for the Council. == Incumbents == == References ==


id: china-hi-tech-fair-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_Hi-Tech_Fair-0.md
category: reference
title: China Hi-Tech Fair
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_Hi-Tech_Fair
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:34:38.239330+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: china-hi-tech-fair-20260505-0
summary:
The Shenzhen High-Tech Fair (Chinese: 深圳高交会, 高交会), officially known as the China Hi-Tech Fair (中国国际高新技术成果交易会, CHTF), is one of the most influential technology fairs in Shenzhen, China. It is jointly organized by Chinese National and Shenzhen municipal government departments and research institutions. == Description == Since its inception in 1999, the fair has been held annually in Shenzhen, usually at the Shenzhen Convention and Exhibition Center in mid-November. The fair serves not only as a platform for technological exchange but also as an important venue for connecting innovative startups with capital. The fair covers multiple fields, including but not limited to electronic information, environmental protection, new energy, biotechnology, and advanced manufacturing. Additionally, the CHTF includes forums, technical seminars, product launches, and international cooperation exchanges, attracting numerous domestic and international enterprises, research institutions, and investors. == References ==


id: color-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Color science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:34:40.829140+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: color-science-20260505-0
summary:
Color science is the scientific study of color including lighting and optics; measurement of light and color; the physiology, psychophysics, and modeling of color vision; and color reproduction. It is the modern extension of traditional color theory. == Organizations == International Commission on Illumination (CIE) Illuminating Engineering Society (IES) Inter-Society Color Council (ISCC) Society for Imaging Science and Technology (IS&T) International Colour Association (AIC) Optica, formerly the Optical Society of America (OSA) The Colour Group Society of Dyers and Colourists (SDC) American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists (AATCC) Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology (ARVO) ACM SIGGRAPH Vision Sciences Society (VSS) Council for Optical Radiation Measurements (CORM) == Journals == The preeminent scholarly journal publishing research papers in color science is Color Research and Application, started in 1975 by founding editor-in-chief Fred Billmeyer, along with Gunter Wyszecki, Michael Pointer and Rolf Kuehni, as a successor to the Journal of Colour (1964–1974). Previously most color science work had been split between journals with broader or partially overlapping focus such as the Journal of the Optical Society of America (JOSA), Photographic Science and Engineering (1957–1984), and the Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists (renamed Coloration Technology in 2001).


id: community-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_of_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Community of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:34:42.062577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: community-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Community of Science was a collection of online databases, providing research information to both the public and subscribers, and services for the research community. It is owned by ProQuest. == History == Community of Science was founded in 1988 by Johns Hopkins University. The Community of Science databases were originally hosted online at http://cos.gdb.org/, on the webserver of the GDB Human Genome Database. Community of Science was also accessible via U.S. Department of Agriculture CRIS, National Science Foundation, and Department of Health and Human Services. As of 1997 the CEO and president was Huntington Williams, and the organisation was located in Baltimore, Maryland. == Databases == Community of Science Expertise Community of Science Funding Opportunities – categorised according to a standardised list of keywords Canadian editions of these databases also existed. == Services == Community of Science Funding Alert Community of Science Funding News – published biweekly == Access == The following organisations are subscribed: Association of Commonwealth Universities == See also == List of funding opportunity databases == References ==


id: compressorium-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compressorium-0.md
category: reference
title: Compressorium
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compressorium
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:34:43.219671+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: compressorium-20260505-0
summary:
The compressorium (plural: compressoria) is a scientific apparatus for applying pressure to a sample for examination with a microscope. Widely used by microscopists in the 19th century, they were produced by companies such as Bausch and Lomb. Many versions of compressoria were developed over the years, with one of the first attributed to the famous histologist Jan Evangelista Purkyně, see picture. Compressoria were still used in the twenty-first century for the identification of Trichinella worms in samples. == References ==


id: computational-representational-understanding-of-mind-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational-representational_understanding_of_mind-0.md
category: reference
title: Computational-representational understanding of mind
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational-representational_understanding_of_mind
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:34:44.523306+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: computational-representational-understanding-of-mind-20260505-0
summary:
Computational representational understanding of mind (CRUM) is a hypothesis in cognitive science which proposes that thinking is performed by computations operating on representations. This hypothesis assumes that the mind has mental representations analogous to data structures and computational procedures analogous to algorithms, such that computer programs using algorithms applied to data structures can model the mind and its processes. CRUM takes into consideration several theoretical approaches of understanding human cognition, including logic, rule, concept, analogy, image, and connectionist-based systems based on artificial neural networks. These serve as the representation aspects of CRUM theory which are then acted upon to simulate certain aspects of human cognition, such as the use of rule-based systems in neuroeconomics. There is much disagreement on this hypothesis, but CRUM has high regard among some researchers. Philosopher Paul Thagard called it "the most theoretically and experimentally successful approach to mind ever developed". == See also == Cognitive science Computational neuroscience == References == == External links == Glossary for Cognitive Science at the University of Waterloo Paul Thagard


id: conical-refiner-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conical_refiner-0.md
category: reference
title: Conical refiner
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conical_refiner
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:34:45.779468+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conical-refiner-20260505-0
summary:
The conical refiner is a machine used in the refining of pulp in the papermaking process. It may also be referred to as a Jordan refiner, after the American inventor Joseph Jordan who patented the device in 1858. The conical refiner is a chamber with metal bars mounted around the inside of the container. The material to be refined is pumped into the chamber at high-pressure rate in order to create an abrasive effect as the material is forced through the machine, abraided by the metal bars. At the opposite end of the chamber the resulting pulp is pumped out. == References ==


id: curie-s-principle-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curie's_principle-0.md
category: reference
title: Curie's principle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curie's_principle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:34:59.435236+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: curie-s-principle-20260505-0
summary:
Curie's principle, or Curie's symmetry principle, is a maxim about cause and effect formulated by Pierre Curie in 1894: the symmetries of the causes are to be found in the effects. The idea was based on the ideas of Franz Ernst Neumann and Bernhard Minnigerode. Thus, it is sometimes known as the Neumann–Minnigerode–Curie principle. Later physicists have interpreted Curie's principle in the context of thermodynamics. Dynamics close to equilibrium are described by a set of transport coefficients whose symmetries must match the symmetries of the system, according to Curie's principle. == References ==


id: data-clarification-form-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_clarification_form-0.md
category: reference
title: Data clarification form
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_clarification_form
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:35:00.631829+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: data-clarification-form-20260505-0
summary:
A data clarification form (DCF) or data query form is a questionnaire specifically used in clinical research. The DCF is the primary data clarification tool from the trial sponsor or contract research organization (CRO) towards the investigator to clarify discrepancies and ask the investigator for clarification. The DCF is part of the data validation process in a clinical trial. == See also == == References == == Further reading == Celine Clive (2004), Handbook of SOPs for Good Clinical Practice, CRC, ISBN 0-8493-2181-6 == External links == DCF entry in Clinical Research Dictionary


id: degree-of-frost-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degree_of_frost-0.md
category: reference
title: Degree of frost
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degree_of_frost
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:35:01.810963+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: degree-of-frost-20260505-0
summary:
A degree of frost is a non-standard unit of measure for air temperature meaning degrees below melting point (also known as "freezing point") of water (0 degrees Celsius or 32 degrees Fahrenheit). "Degree" in this case can refer to degree Celsius or degree Fahrenheit. When based on Celsius, 0 degrees of frost is the same as 0 °C, and any other value is simply the negative of the Celsius temperature. When based on Fahrenheit, 0 degrees of frost is equal to 32 °F. Conversion formulas: T [degrees of frost] = 32 °F − T [°F] T [°F] = 32 °F − T [degrees of frost] The term "degrees of frost" was widely used in accounts of the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration in the early 20th century. The term appears frequently in Ernest Shackleton's books South and Heart of the Antarctic, Apsley Cherry-Garrard's account of his Antarctic adventures in The Worst Journey in the World (wherein he recorded 109.5 degrees [Fahrenheit] of frost, −77.5 °F or −60.8 °C), in Jack London's "To Build A Fire", as well as Admiral Richard E. Byrd's book Alone. == References ==


id: degrees-of-freedom-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degrees_of_freedom-0.md
category: reference
title: Degrees of freedom
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degrees_of_freedom
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:35:03.133537+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: degrees-of-freedom-20260505-0
summary:
In many scientific fields, the degrees of freedom of a system is the number of parameters of the system that may vary independently. For example, a point in the plane has two degrees of freedom for translation: its two coordinates; a non-infinitesimal object on the plane might have additional degrees of freedoms related to its orientation. In mathematics, this notion is formalized as the dimension of a manifold or an algebraic variety. When degrees of freedom is used instead of dimension, this usually means that the manifold or variety that models the system is only implicitly defined. See: Degrees of freedom (mechanics), number of independent motions that are allowed to the body or, in case of a mechanism made of several bodies, number of possible independent relative motions between the pieces of the mechanism Degrees of freedom (physics and chemistry), a term used in explaining dependence on parameters, or the dimensions of a phase space Degrees of freedom (statistics), the number of values in the final calculation of a statistic that are free to vary Degrees of freedom problem, the problem of controlling motor movement given abundant degrees of freedom == See also == Six degrees of freedom == References


id: dematerialization-products-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dematerialization_(products)-0.md
category: reference
title: Dematerialization (products)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dematerialization_(products)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:35:04.255018+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dematerialization-products-20260505-0
summary:
The dematerialization of a product literally means less, or better yet, no material is used to deliver the same level of functionality to the user. Sharing, borrowing and the organization of group services that facilitate and cater for communities needs could alleviate the requirement of ownership of many products. In his book In The Bubble: Designing In A Complex World, John Thakara states that "the average consumer power tool is used for ten minutes in its entire life—but it takes hundreds of times its own weight to manufacture such an object". A product service system with shared tools could simply offer access to them when needed. This shift from a reliance on products to services is the process of dematerialization. Digital music distribution systems, car clubs, bike hire schemes and laundry services all can be examples of dematerialization. == References == == External links == Dematerialization pattern from the Liberating Voices pattern language discusses problems and solutions related to dematerialization


id: distinguished-professor-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distinguished_professor-0.md
category: reference
title: Distinguished professor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distinguished_professor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:35:05.589661+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: distinguished-professor-20260505-0
summary:
Distinguished professor is an academic title given to some top tenured professors in American universities, schools, or departments. Some distinguished professors may have endowed chairs. Often specific to one institution, titles such as "president's professor", "university professor", "distinguished professor", "distinguished research professor", "distinguished teaching professor", "distinguished university professor", or "regents professor" are granted to a small percentage of the top tenured faculty who are regarded as particularly important in their respective fields of research. Some institutions grant more university-specific, formal titles such as M.I.T.'s "Institute Professor", Yale University's "Sterling Professor", or Duke University's "James B. Duke Professor". Some academic and/or scholarly organizations may also bestow the title "distinguished professor" in recognition of achievement over the course of an academic career. For example, the Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture annually recognizes up to five faculty members at architecture schools in the United States and Canada with the ACSA Distinguished Professor Award. == References ==


id: elicitation-technique-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elicitation_technique-0.md
category: reference
title: Elicitation technique
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elicitation_technique
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:35:06.849138+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: elicitation-technique-20260505-0
summary:
An elicitation technique is any of a number of data collection techniques used in anthropology, cognitive science, counseling, education, knowledge engineering, linguistics, management, philosophy, psychology, or other fields to gather knowledge or information from people. Recent work in behavioral economics has purported that elicitation techniques can be used to control subject misconceptions and mitigate errors from generally accepted experimental design practices. Elicitation, in which knowledge is sought directly from human beings, is usually distinguished from indirect methods such as gathering information from written sources. A person who interacts with human subjects in order to elicit information from them may be called an elicitor, an analyst, experimenter, or knowledge engineer, depending on the field of study. Elicitation techniques include interviews, observation of either naturally occurring behavior (including as part of participant observation) or behavior in a laboratory setting, or the analysis of assigned tasks. == List of elicitation techniques == Interviews Existing System Project Scope Brain Storming Focus Groups Exploratory Prototypes User Task Analysis Observation Surveys Questionnaire Story Board == References == Elisitasi: Proses dan Metode untuk Merancang Sistem Baru yang Efektif


id: ergonomic-glove-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergonomic_glove-0.md
category: reference
title: Ergonomic glove
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergonomic_glove
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:35:08.042421+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ergonomic-glove-20260505-0
summary:
An ergonomic glove, also known as a computer glove or support glove, is a stiff glove worn to try to prevent or remedy carpal tunnel syndrome by holding the wrist in a certain position while typing. == References ==


id: experiment-website-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiment_(website)-0.md
category: reference
title: Experiment (website)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiment_(website)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:35:10.616652+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: experiment-website-20260505-0
summary:
Experiment, formerly called Microryza, is a US website for crowdfunding science-based research projects. Researchers can post their research projects to solicit pledges. Experiment works on the all-or-nothing funding model. The backers are only charged if the research projects reach their funding target during a set time frame. In February 2014, the site changed its name from Microryza to Experiment.com. == History == It was founded in 2012 by Denny Luan and Cindy Wu, former University of Washington students. The former name Microryza is inspired by Mycorrhizae and symbiotic fungi that lives in the roots of plants. Unlike the popular crowdfunding site Kickstarter, backers of Experiment projects do not get tangible rewards for backing. Researchers share the scientific process directly with the backers and become a part of the project.Additionally, all proposals are subject to review and approval by the site's staff, and any work involving human or animal subjects must by supported by an institutional review board. Experiment charges 11-13% in fees (8% for platform fees and 3-5% for payment processing) only if the campaign is successful. If the campaign does not reach the funding goal, no one is charged. As of Aug 7, 2015, more than 5,000 projects were


id: expert-elicitation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expert_elicitation-0.md
category: reference
title: Expert elicitation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expert_elicitation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:35:11.862082+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expert-elicitation-20260505-0
summary:
In science, engineering, and research, expert elicitation is the synthesis of opinions of authorities of a subject where there is uncertainty due to insufficient data or when such data is unattainable because of physical constraints or lack of resources. Expert elicitation is essentially a scientific consensus methodology. It is often used in the study of rare events. Expert elicitation allows for parametrization, an "educated guess", for the respective topic under study. Expert elicitation generally helps quantify uncertainty. Expert elicitation tends to be multidisciplinary as well as interdisciplinary, with practically universal applicability, and is used in a broad range of fields. Prominent recent expert elicitation applications include climate change, modeling seismic hazard and damage, association of tornado damage to wind speed in developing the Enhanced Fujita scale, risk analysis for nuclear waste storage. In performing expert elicitation certain factors need to be taken into consideration. The topic must be one for which there are people who have predictive expertise. Furthermore, the objective should be to obtain an experts' carefully considered judgment based on a systematic consideration of all relevant evidence. For this reason one should take care to adopt strategies designed to help the expert being interviewed to avoid overlooking relevant


id: extinction-cross-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_cross-0.md
category: reference
title: Extinction cross
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_cross
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:35:13.052102+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: extinction-cross-20260505-0
summary:
The extinction cross is an optical phenomenon that is seen when trying to extinguish a laser beam or non-planar white light using crossed polarizers. Ideally, crossed (90° rotated) polarizers block all light, because light that is polarized along the polarization axis of the first polarizer is perpendicular to the polarization axis of the second. When the beam is not perfectly collimated, however, a characteristic fringing pattern is produced. == See also == Polarization (waves) == Further reading == Mineralogy notes 6 See "6.3.5. Review of Uniaxial Optical Properties" Nikon MicroscopyU See Figure 1a


id: forced-convection-in-porous-media-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forced_convection_in_porous_media-0.md
category: reference
title: Forced convection in porous media
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forced_convection_in_porous_media
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:35:14.280436+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: forced-convection-in-porous-media-20260505-0
summary:
Forced convection is type of heat transport in which fluid motion is generated by an external source like a (pump, fan, suction device, etc.). Heat transfer through porus media is very effective and efficiently. Forced convection heat transfer in a confined porous medium has been a subject of intensive studies during the last decades because of its wide applications. The basic problem in heat convection through porous media consists of predicting the heat transfer rate between a deferentially heated, solid impermeable surface and a fluid-saturated porous medium. Beginning with constant wall temperature. In 2D steady state system ∂ u / ∂ x + ∂ v / ∂ y = 0 {\displaystyle \partial u/\partial x+\partial v/\partial y=0} According to Darcy's law u = − ( K / μ ) ∂ P / ∂ x {\displaystyle u=-(K/\mu )\partial P/\partial x} v = − ( K / μ ) ∂ P / ∂ y {\displaystyle v=-(K/\mu )\partial P/\partial y} u ∂ T / ∂ x + v ∂ T / ∂ y = α ∂ 2 ∂ x 2 T {\displaystyle u\partial T/\partial x+v\partial T/\partial y={\boldsymbol {\alpha }}{\partial ^{2} \over \partial x^{2}}T} u = {\displaystyle u=} U ∞ {\displaystyle U_{\infty }} v =


id: free-fall-machine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_fall_machine-0.md
category: reference
title: Free fall machine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_fall_machine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:35:15.505852+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: free-fall-machine-20260505-0
summary:
A free fall machine (FFM) is a mechanism designed to permit the development of small biological samples, such as cell cultures, with a simulated effect of micro-gravity under free fall conditions. == Description == The free fall machine (FFM) addresses some of the problems of the simple horizontal clinostat or random positioning machines (RPM). In a typical machine samples are allowed to cycle between free fall for about a metre down a column (micro-gravity simulation, near "0 g") and a "bounce" back to the top of the column that is intended to be so fast (c. 20 g for 20 ms) that it is undetected by the biological sample. The sample therefore experiences an average gravity of near 0 g. Long duration of hyper-gravity is often simulated by machines such as the large diameter centrifuge (LDC) at ESA. To simulate partial-gravity (between simulated 0 and Earth's gravity, 1, such as Mars or Moon gravitational strengths) conditions, an RPM can also be used. == See also == Clinostat Gravitropism Large Diameter Centrifuge Random Positioning Machine == References == == External links == ETH Space Biology Free Fall Machine


id: genome-news-network-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome_News_Network-0.md
category: reference
title: Genome News Network
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome_News_Network
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:35:16.714591+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genome-news-network-20260505-0
summary:
The Genome News Network (abbreviated GNN) is an online magazine that publishes news articles and educational resources about genomics and medicine. It was founded in 1999, with Barbara Culliton as the founding editor-in-chief. It was originally published by Celera Genomics. In 2001, the Institute for Genomic Research became the magazine's new publisher. An article published in the Lancet Oncology that year stated that the magazine "...offers news, original articles, the online reference book, What’s a genome?, and primers on sequencing and assembling the genome – all well written and illustrated". As of 2010, new issues of the magazine were published biweekly. == References == == External links == Official website


id: gikii-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GikII-0.md
category: reference
title: GikII
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GikII
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:35:17.972449+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gikii-20260505-0
summary:
GikII is a series of European conferences on the intersections between law, technology and popular culture. It is hosted at a different institution every year. The first conference was in 2006 and was held in Edinburgh, and was organised by Lilian Edwards and Andres Guadamuz. The conference has been held in several European universities and institutions, including University College London, University of Oxford, University of Edinburgh, University of Amsterdam, Alexander von Humboldt Institute for Internet and Society, University of Vienna and University of Sussex. Spin-off workshops are regularly held in addition to the main yearly conference in other parts of the world or as tracks in other conferences, such as at TILTing 2019 at Tilburg University and SoGikII 2009 at the University of New South Wales. The conference deals with what the organisers describe as "geek law", studying the intersection of law, regulation, popular culture and technology. The covered topics include artificial intelligence, cryptocurrencies, virtual worlds, games, tattoos, 3D printing, fan fiction, digital privacy, avatar rights, augmented reality, and robots. == Name == The Call for Papers of the first workshop gave the following explanation: Geeks are the people who contribute to this knowledge: fellow travellers on the digital omnibus,


id: gustatory-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustatory_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: Gustatory technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustatory_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:35:19.255186+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gustatory-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Gustatory technology is the engineering discipline dealing with gustatory representation. == Description == Virtual taste refers to a taste experience generated by a digital taste simulator. Electrodes are used to simulate the taste and feel of real food in the mouth. In 2012, Dr. Nimesha Ranasinghe and a team of researchers at the National University of Singapore developed the digital lollipop, an electronic device capable of transmitting four major taste sensations (salty, sour, sweet and bitter) to the tongue. In 2016 the same team created a square with thermoelectric elements to simulate the sensation of sweetness through changes in temperature. If this system is implemented in mugs or drinking glasses, it could make low-sugar drinks taste sweeter helping people reduce sugar intake. A team from the University of Tokyo created a device that simulates the different textures of food through electricity. The device uses electrodes place on the masseter muscle (a jaw muscle used for chewing) and simulates the texture by changing this muscle frequency. For example, a higher frequency gives the food a harder texture. == References ==


id: high-altitude-research-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-altitude_research-0.md
category: reference
title: High-altitude research
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-altitude_research
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:35:21.797119+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: high-altitude-research-20260505-0
summary:
There are a wide range of potential applications for research at high altitude, including medical, physiological, and cosmic physics research. == High-altitude medical research == The most obvious and direct application of high-altitude research is to understand altitude illnesses such as acute mountain sickness, and the rare but rapidly fatal conditions, high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) and high-altitude cerebral edema (HACE). Research at high altitude is also an important way to learn about sea level conditions that are caused or complicated by hypoxia such as chronic lung disease and sepsis. Patients with these conditions are very complex and usually suffer from several other diseases at the same time, so it is virtually impossible to work out which of their problems is caused by lack of oxygen. Altitude research gets round this by studying the effects of oxygen deprivation on otherwise healthy people. Travelling to high altitude is often used as a way of studying the way the body responds to a shortage of oxygen. It is difficult and prohibitively expensive to conduct some of this research at sea level. Although the shortage of air contributes to the effects on the human body, research has found that most altitude sicknesses can be


id: infrared-science-archive-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_Science_Archive-0.md
category: reference
title: Infrared Science Archive
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_Science_Archive
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:35:24.306793+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: infrared-science-archive-20260505-0
summary:
The Infrared Science Archive (IRSA) is the primary archive for the infrared and submillimeter astronomical projects of NASA, the space agency of the United States. IRSA curates the science products of over 15 missions, including the Spitzer Space Telescope, the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE), the Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS), and the Two Micron All-Sky Survey (2MASS). It also serves data from infrared and submillimeter European Space Agency missions with NASA participation, including the Infrared Space Observatory (ISO), Planck, and the Herschel Space Observatory. As of 2019, IRSA provides access to more than 1 petabyte of data consisting of roughly 1 trillion astronomical measurements, which span wavelengths from 1 micron to 10 millimeters and include all-sky coverage in 24 bands. Approximately 10% of all refereed astronomical journal articles cite data sets curated by IRSA. IRSA is part of the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center (IPAC) and is located on the campus of the California Institute of Technology. It is one of NASA's Astrophysics Data Centers, along with the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center (HEASARC), the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST), and others. == References == == External links == Infrared Science Archive Infrared Processing and Analysis Center


id: infrastructure-bias-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure_bias-0.md
category: reference
title: Infrastructure bias
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure_bias
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:35:25.506623+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: infrastructure-bias-20260505-0
summary:
In economics and social policy, infrastructure bias is the influence of the location and availability of pre-existing infrastructure, such as roads and telecommunications facilities, on social and economic development. In science, infrastructure bias is the influence of existing social or scientific infrastructure on scientific observations. In astronomy and particle physics, where the availability of particular kinds of telescopes or particle accelerators acts as a constraint on the types of experiments that can be done, the data that can be retrieved is biased towards that which can be obtained by the equipment. Procedural bias, related to infrastructure bias, is shown by a case of irregular genetic sampling of Bolivian wild potatoes. A 2000 report of previous studies' sampling found that 60% of samples had been taken near towns or roads, where 22% would be the average, had the samples been taken at random (or from equidistant points, or at specifically varying distances from towns, representative of the average terrain density). == References ==


id: instructional-manipulation-check-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_manipulation_check-0.md
category: reference
title: Instructional manipulation check
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_manipulation_check
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:35:26.715401+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: instructional-manipulation-check-20260505-0
summary:
An instructional manipulation check, often abbreviated IMC, is a special kind of question inserted in a questionnaire among the regular questions, designed to check whether respondents are paying attention to the instructions. Discarding responses by participants who fail to read the instructions increases the signal-to-noise ratio and can thereby increase the statistical power of an experiment. The tool was developed by Oppenheimer et al. Eliminating random responses this way before performing statistical hypothesis testing may be considered a legitimate form of data manipulation, but should be duly mentioned in publications reporting on the outcome of the experiment in question. == Blue-dot task == Among several forms an IMC can take, a popular one is the so-called blue-dot task, suitable for on-line questionnaires. A number of larger blue circles are arranged according to a Likert scale from (say) "very rarely" to "very frequently". Participants who ignore the instructions and merely want to finish the task will just click any one of these circles. The instructions, however, ask the participants to ignore the larger circles and instead click a little blue dot at the bottom of the screen. Oppenheimer et al. report that in a large sample of undergraduate participants, approximately 7%


id: instrument-effect-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrument_effect-0.md
category: reference
title: Instrument effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrument_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:35:27.959628+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: instrument-effect-20260505-0
summary:
The instrument effect is an issue in experimental methodology meaning that any change during the measurement, or, the instrument, may influence the research validity. For example, in a control group design experiment, if the instruments used to measure the performance of the experiment group and the control group are different, a wrong conclusion about the experiment would be reached, the research result would be invalid. == References ==


id: the-internet-pilot-to-physics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Internet_Pilot_to_Physics-0.md
category: reference
title: The Internet Pilot to Physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Internet_Pilot_to_Physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:35:30.495366+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-internet-pilot-to-physics-20260505-0
summary:
TIPTOP (fully known as The Internet Pilot to Physics) was a web site operated in collaboration between Kenneth Bodin-Holmlund at Umeå University, Mikko Karttunen at McGill University and Guenther Nowotny at the Technical University of Vienna during 1994–1998, and it was originally derived from Physics Around the World (PAW) that was initiated by Karttunen at McGill University. In a historical perspective, PAW was one of the first web directories, listing various physics related resources. TIPTOP utilized (at the time) new technologies to handle a news system, a job database, a conference database, and an improved web directory for physics. TIPTOP was the first major site to use PHP with mySQL, today a highly popular combination. Already in 1995, TIPTOP also had one of the first embryos of a wiki, called the Living Encyclopedia of Physics, that offered community based-editing, an editorial system and peer review, as well as automatic cross linking. == References == == Further reading == A page entitled "About PhysicsWeb", that mentions TIPTOP A position paper in Journal of Physics C from 1996, by the creators of TIPTOP, that describes the initiative.


id: light-ergonomics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_ergonomics-0.md
category: reference
title: Light ergonomics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_ergonomics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:35:31.773346+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: light-ergonomics-20260505-0
summary:
Light ergonomics is the relationship between the light source and the individual. Poor light can be divided into the following: Individual or socio-cultural expectations Insufficient light Poor distribution of light Improper contrast Glare Flicker Thermal heating (over or under) Acoustic noise (especially fluorescents) Color spectrum (full-spectrum light, color temperature, etc.) == Effects of poor light == The effects of poor light can include the following: low productivity high human error rates inability to match or select correct colors eyestrain headache a reduction in mental alertness general malaise low employee morale == Types of light sources == == See also == Ergonomics Full-spectrum light Artificial sunlight == References ==


id: lilian-date-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lilian_date-0.md
category: reference
title: Lilian date
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lilian_date
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:35:33.127443+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lilian-date-20260505-0
summary:
A Lilian date is a day numbering system that counts the number of days elapsed since 15 October 1582, the first day of the Gregorian calendar, which is designated as Lilian date 1. The system was introduced in 1986 by Bruce G. Ohms, an engineer at IBM, to simplify date calculations in computing environments. Named after Aloysius Lilius, the principal author of the Gregorian Calendar reform, the Lilian date represents calendar dates as continuous integers rather than as year–month–day components. It is currently used by date conversion routines that are part of IBM Language Environment (LE) software and in IBM AIX COBOL. Lilius’s reform addressed accumulated drift in the Julian calendar and was promulgated by Pope Gregory XIII. In the first countries to implement the reform, Thursday 4 October 1582 (Julian) was followed by Friday 15 October 1582 (Gregorian). The Lilian epoch aligns with this first Gregorian day. == Definition == The Lilian date represents a calendar day as a single integer: 1 corresponds to 15 October 1582 (Gregorian), 2 to 16 October 1582, and so on, increasing by one each day. IBM documentation describes 14 October 1582 as day 0 for internal calculations, while public interfaces typically accept and


id: malta-2021-stratospheric-balloon-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malta_2021_Stratospheric_Balloon-0.md
category: reference
title: Malta 2021 Stratospheric Balloon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malta_2021_Stratospheric_Balloon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:35:34.342490+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: malta-2021-stratospheric-balloon-20260505-0
summary:
The Malta 2021 Stratospheric Balloon was a stratospheric upper-atmosphere weather balloon launched on 13 August 2021 from the Esplora Complex in the small, island-nation of Malta. A false-advertising campaign before the launch stated that the balloon would be a "space balloon" despite the fact the stratospheric balloon only climbed to 37 kilometres (23 mi), 63 kilometres (39 mi) short of the Kármán line. The launch succeeded an earlier, failed launch in which the balloon detached from its sensory payload due to an imbalance of forces acting on the balloon. == References ==


id: microbalance-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbalance-0.md
category: reference
title: Microbalance
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbalance
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:35:36.906226+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: microbalance-20260505-0
summary:
A microbalance is an instrument capable of making precise measurements of weight of objects of relatively small mass: of the order of a million parts of a gram. In comparison, a standard analytical balance is 100 times less sensitive; i.e. it is limited in precision to 0.1 milligrams. Microbalances are generally used in a laboratory as standalone instruments but are also incorporated into other instruments, such as thermogravimetry, sorption/desorption systems, and surface property instruments. It is the precision of the microbalance that distinguishes it from other weighing devices. == Types == A quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) is a very sensitive mass deposition sensor based on the piezoelectric properties of the quartz crystal. This technique uses the changes in resonance frequency of the crystal to measure the mass on the surface because the resonance frequency is highly dependent on any changes of the crystal mass. A quartz crystal microbalance is capable of measuring mass deposition down to 0.1 nanograms. The sensitivity of the microbalance is lessened the closer the fulcrum is to the middle. A tapered element oscillating microbalance (TEOM) is an instrument used for real-time detection of aerosol particles by measuring their mass concentration. It makes use of a small


id: microparticle-performance-rating-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microparticle_performance_rating-0.md
category: reference
title: Microparticle performance rating
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microparticle_performance_rating
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:35:38.191537+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: microparticle-performance-rating-20260505-0
summary:
The Microparticle Performance Rating (MPR) is an air filter rating system created by the company 3M. It rates the ability of an air filter to filter out micro particles. Because MPR was created by 3M, it only applies to filters produced by the 3M brand. The higher the MPR, the better the filter's ability to capture particles from the air as it passes through the filter. MPR is different from MERV, the Minimum Efficiency Reporting Value. The MERV system measures a filter's ability to capture large particles. The MPR only takes into account the microscopic particles between 0.3 and 1 μm. == References == == External links == MPR vs. MERV, a piece of 3M promotional material giving some minimum capture rates for rating levels.


id: multiple-classification-ripple-down-rules-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple-classification_ripple-down_rules-0.md
category: reference
title: Multiple-classification ripple-down rules
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple-classification_ripple-down_rules
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:35:40.764264+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: multiple-classification-ripple-down-rules-20260505-0
summary:
Multiple-classification ripple-down rules (MCRDR) is an incremental knowledge acquisition technique which preserves the benefits and essential strategy of ripple-down rules (RDR) in handling the multiple classifications. MCRDR, the extension of RDR, is based on the assumption that the knowledge an expert provides is essentially a justification for a conclusion in a particular context. == Implementations == Below is a list of implementations of MCRDR The alpha version of RDR(MCRDR) Framework was developed by UNSW and UTAS Research Team and funded by ARC (System available at BESTRDR) RDR(MCRDR) document classifier was developed by Dr.Yang Sok Kim and AProf.Byeong Ho Kang (System available at BESTRDR) RDR(MCRDR) smart expert system was developed by UTAS Research Team and funded by Hyundai Steel. Pacific Knowledge Systems (PKS) uses a commercial product called RippleDown Expert that is based on Multiple Classification Ripple Down Rules Medscope Medication Review Mentor uses Multiple Classification Ripple Down Rules to identify adverse drug interactions with a patient's medicines regimen == BEST RDR Warehouse == BEST-RDR (Best Expert System Technique – Ripple Down Rule) website is freely accessible RDR publication and system warehouse that helps you to find programs and publications about RDR. A great amount of publications and programs based on


id: multistability-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multistability-0.md
category: reference
title: Multistability
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multistability
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:35:42.001396+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: multistability-20260505-0
summary:
In a dynamical system, multistability is the property of having multiple stable equilibrium points in the vector space spanned by the states in the system. By mathematical necessity, there must also be unstable equilibrium points between the stable points. Points that are stable in some dimensions and unstable in others are termed unstable, as is the case with the first three Lagrangian points. == Bistability == Bistability is the special case with two stable equilibrium points. It is the simplest form of multistability, and can occur in systems with only one state variable, as it only takes a one-dimensional space to separate two points. == Initial instability == Near an unstable equilibrium, any system will be sensitive to noise, initial conditions and system parameters, which can cause it to develop in one of multiple divergent directions. In economics and social sciences, path dependence gives rise to divergent directions of development. Some path dependent processes are adequately described by multistability, by being initially sensitive to input, before reaching a stagnant state – for example market share instability, which can develop into a stable monopoly for one of multiple possible vendors. == External links == Definition of multistability from icbm.de


id: natcarb-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NatCarb-0.md
category: reference
title: NatCarb
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NatCarb
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:35:43.174452+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natcarb-20260505-0
summary:
The NatCarb geoportal provides access to geospatial information and tools concerning carbon sequestration in the United States. == External links == National Energy Technology Laboratory Carbon Sequestration Regional Partnerships == References == Carr, T.R., P.M. Rich, and J.D. Bartley. 2007. The NATCARB geoportal: linking distributed data from the Carbon Sequestration Regional Partnerships. Journal of Map and Geography Libraries (Geoscapes), "Special Issue on Department of Energy (DOE) Geospatial Science Innovations". In Press.


id: nurse-scientist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nurse_scientist-0.md
category: reference
title: Nurse scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nurse_scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:35:44.464163+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nurse-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
A nurse scientist is a nurse with advanced preparation such as a Ph.D. in nursing or related field including research principles and methodology, who also has expert content knowledge in a specific clinical area. The primary focus of the role is to provide leadership in the development, coordination and management of clinical research studies; provide mentorship for nurses in research; lead evaluation activities that improve outcomes for patients participating in research studies; contribute to the overall health sciences literature. Nurse scientists have been regarded as knowledge brokers. They participate in nursing research. == See also == Biomedical scientist == References ==


id: oil-bath-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_bath-0.md
category: reference
title: Oil bath
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_bath
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:35:45.874781+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: oil-bath-20260505-0
summary:
An oil bath is a type of heated bath used in a laboratory, most commonly used to heat up chemical reactions. It is a container of oil that is heated by a hot plate or (in rare cases) a Bunsen burner. == Use == These baths are commonly used to heat reaction mixtures more evenly than would be possible with a hot plate alone, as the entire outside of the reaction flask is heated. Generally, silicone oil is used in modern oil baths, although mineral oil, cottonseed oil and even phosphoric acid have been used in the past. == Hazards == Overheating the oil bath can result in a fire hazard, especially if mineral oil is being used. Generally, the maximum safe operating temperature of a mineral oil bath is approximately 160 °C (320 °F), the oil's flash point. Mineral oil cannot be used above 310 °C (590 °F) due to the compound's boiling point. If higher temperatures are needed, a silicone oil or a sand bath may be used instead. Silicone oil baths are effective in the 25 °C (77 °F) - 230 °C (446 °F) range. Sand baths are effective from 25 °C (77 °F) to above 500


id: open-assessment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_assessment-0.md
category: reference
title: Open assessment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_assessment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:35:47.183177+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-assessment-20260505-0
summary:
Open assessment is a method for making impact assessments where anyone can participate and contribute. Most open assessments have been made in Opasnet, which is a wiki-based web-workspace specifically designed for this purpose. The open assessment method has been developed in the Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare (THL, Finnish: Terveyden ja hyvinvoinnin laitos) in Finland originally for providing guidance in complex environmental health problems. So far, it has been applied on e.g. air pollution and pollutants in fish. Opasnet has won the World Summit Award Finland competition, the eGovernment and Institutions category. == See also == Opasnet Health impact assessment Risk assessment Environmental health == References == == External links == Description of open assessment in Opasnet


id: openwetware-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenWetWare-0.md
category: reference
title: OpenWetWare
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenWetWare
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:35:48.537581+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: openwetware-20260505-0
summary:
OpenWetWare is a wiki whose mission is "to support open research, education, publication, and discussion in biological sciences and engineering." OpenWetWare was created by graduate students at MIT on April 20, 2005. Initially, it served as a private lab wiki for the labs of Drew Endy and Tom Knight at MIT. The site was opened up to allow any lab to join on June 22, 2005. As of April 6, 2007, the site hosted 100 research laboratories from over 40 institutions, including Boston University, Brown University, Caltech, University of Cambridge, CNRS, Duke University, and many others. The server was shut down on April 15, 2025 due to a lack of funding, but returned on October 27th. In addition to laboratories, a number of scientific communities are based on the site, including synthetic biology, Mimulus, and the BioBricks Foundation. One scientific community is the iGEM community with over 60 different teams represented on June 28, 2013, including the NRP-UEA-Norwich team and the Groningen team. OpenWetWare runs on MediaWiki software on Linux servers. All content is available under free content licenses, specifically the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) and the Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike (CC-BY-SA) license. == External links == OpenWetWare ==


id: output-radio-frequency-spectrum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Output_Radio_Frequency_Spectrum-0.md
category: reference
title: Output Radio Frequency Spectrum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Output_Radio_Frequency_Spectrum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:35:49.804204+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: output-radio-frequency-spectrum-20260505-0
summary:
ORFS stands for Output RF Spectrum, where 'RF' stands for Radio Frequency. The acronym ORFS is used in the context of mobile communication systems, e.g., GSM. It stands for the relationship between (a) the frequency offset from the carrier and (b) the power, measured in a specific bandwidth and time, produced by the mobile station due to effects in modulation and power ramping and switching. ORFS measurements are defined and required in order to prove conformance by various institutions, e.g., the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) or ETSI. == References ==


id: palaeos-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palaeos-0.md
category: reference
title: Palaeos
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palaeos
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:35:50.999696+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: palaeos-20260505-0
summary:
Palaeos.com is a web site on biology, paleontology, phylogeny and geology and which covers the history of Earth. The site is well respected and has been used as a reference by professional paleontologists such as Michael J. Benton, the professor of vertebrate palaeontology in the Department of Earth Sciences at the University of Bristol. It is frequently cited in Science Online. Palaeos.com was started by Toby White and Alan Kazlev; the pair were later joined by Chris Taylor, Mikko Haaramo of the Department of Geology at the University of Helsinki, and Chris Clowes. It features professional-level, yet readable articles about: Palaeontology, evolution and systematics Geochronology, earth systems and time scale Diversity of life and ecology The site's developers have started a wiki, Palaeos.org, which uses MediaWiki software to provide conventional voluntary membership. Some pages use images from websites run by David Peters, whose works sometimes considered as highly unreliable. == References == == External links == Palaeos.com Palaeos.org (wiki)


id: pen-tilt-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pen_tilt-0.md
category: reference
title: Pen tilt
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pen_tilt
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:35:53.558235+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pen-tilt-20260505-0
summary:
Pen tilt refers to the angle of a writing instrument during handwriting and drawing, which can vary over time. In a coordinate system which is determined by the writing surface plane { X , Y } {\displaystyle \{X,Y\}} and the vertical pen-tip movement along the { Z } {\displaystyle \{Z\}} axis, all three two-dimensional planes can be discerned, and the angular signals can be delivered by a digitizer. It is part of the ISO/IEC standard 19794-7 for biometric data in signatures. == See also == Graphonomics == References ==


id: phenom-electron-microscope-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenom_(electron_microscope)-0.md
category: reference
title: Phenom (electron microscope)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenom_(electron_microscope)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:35:54.735894+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: phenom-electron-microscope-20260505-0
summary:
Phenom is a small, table-top sized scanning electron microscope (SEM) originally developed by Philips and FEI and further developed by Phenom-World. == Features == The microscope features a combination of optical and electron-optical images; the optical image enables a "Neverlost" function so operators may navigate to any point on the sample. Sample loading takes place in four seconds (to obtain the CMOS overview image) and 30 seconds into the vacuum space via rapid transfer technology (no conventional load lock). The Phenom system user interface is controlled with a touch screen. It achieves magnifications of up to 100,000 times with a resolution of down to 15 nm. An optional fully integrated X-ray analysis (EDS) system shows the composition of the sample in a few seconds.. == Gallery == == References == == External links == US Patent #7906762 - Compact scanning electron microscope Publication in: Systems Research Forum (SRF) Vol. 1 (2006) of the Stevens Institute of technology


