# kb

id: international-numbering-system-for-food-additives-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Numbering_System_for_Food_Additives-0.md
category: reference
title: International Numbering System for Food Additives
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Numbering_System_for_Food_Additives
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:16.154713+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-numbering-system-for-food-additives-20260505-0
summary:
The International Numbering System for Food Additives (INS) is an international naming system for food additives, aimed at providing a short designation of what may be a lengthy actual name. It is defined by Codex Alimentarius, the international food standards organisation of the World Health Organization (WHO) and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations (UN). The information is published in the document Class Names and the International Numbering System for Food Additives, first published in 1989, with revisions in 2008 and 2011. The INS is an open list, "subject to the inclusion of additional additives or removal of existing ones on an ongoing basis". == Numbering system == INS numbers consist of three or four digits, optionally followed by an alphabetical suffix to further characterize individual additives. On packaging in the European Union (EU), approved food additives are written with a prefix of E. An additive that appears in the INS does not automatically have a corresponding E number. INS numbers are assigned by the committee to identify each food additive. INS numbers generally correspond to E numbers for the same compound, e.g. INS 102, Tartrazine, is also E102. INS numbers are not unique and, in fact,


id: list-of-gases-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gases-0.md
category: reference
title: List of gases
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gases
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:17.619086+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-gases-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of gases at standard conditions, which means substances that boil or sublime at or below 25 °C (77 °F) and 1 atm pressure and are reasonably stable. == List == This list is sorted by boiling point of gases in ascending order, but can be sorted on different values. "sub" and "triple" refer to the sublimation point and the triple point, which are given in the case of a substance that sublimes at 1 atm; "dec" refers to decomposition. "~" means approximately. Blue type items have an article available by clicking on the name. Number of entries: 550 == Known as gas == The following list has substances known to be gases, but with an unknown boiling point. Fluoroamine Trifluoromethyl trifluoroethyl trioxide CF3OOOCF2CF3 boils between 10 and 20° Bis-trifluoromethyl carbonate boils between −10 and +10° possibly +12, freezing −60° Difluoroaminosulfinyl fluoride F2NS(O)F is a gas but decomposes over several hours Trifluoromethylsulfinyl chloride CF3S(O)Cl Nitrosyl cyanide ?−20° blue-green gas 4343-68-4 Thiazyl chloride NSCl greenish yellow gas; trimerises. == Possible == This list includes substances that may be gases. However reliable references are not available. cis-1-Fluoro-1-propene trans-1-Chloropropene ? cis-1-Chloropropene ? Perfluoro-1,2-butadiene Perfluoro-1,2,3-butatriene −5 polymerizes Perfluoropent-2-ene Perfluoropent-1-ene 29-30° Trifluoromethanesulfenylfluoride


id: list-of-gasoline-additives-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gasoline_additives-0.md
category: reference
title: List of gasoline additives
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_gasoline_additives
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:18.970391+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-gasoline-additives-20260505-0
summary:
Gasoline additives may increase gasoline's octane rating, thus allowing the use of higher compression ratios for greater efficiency and power, or act as corrosion inhibitors or as lubricants. Other additives include metal deactivators, oxygenates and antioxidants. Some additives are harmful and are regulated or banned in some countries. == Fictional additives == Sugar, as seen in The Passionate Stranger (1957) and popularly believed to damage the engine. == Additives == === Oxygenates === ==== Alcohols ==== Methanol (MeOH) Ethanol (EtOH); see also common ethanol fuel mixtures Isopropyl alcohol (IPA) n-butanol (BuOH) Gasoline grade t-butanol (GTBA) ==== Ethers ==== Methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), now outlawed in many states of the U.S. for road use because of water contamination. Tertiary amyl methyl ether (TAME) Tertiary hexyl methyl ether (THEME) Ethyl tertiary butyl ether (ETBE) Tertiary amyl ethyl ether (TAEE) Diisopropyl ether (DIPE) === Antioxidants, stabilizers === Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) 2-tert-Butylphenol 3-tert-Butylphenol 4-tert-Butylphenol 2,4-Dimethyl-6-tert-butylphenol 2,6-Di-tert-butylphenol (2,6-DTBP) 2,4,6-Tri-tert-butylphenol (2,4,6-TTBP) tert-Butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) p-Phenylenediamine N,N'-Di-2-butyl-1,4-phenylenediamine Ethylenediamine === Detergents === Fuel detergents combine a low molecular weight polymer "tail" with a polar "head" group such as the amine group. Polybuteneamine (PBA), also known as polybutylene amine. Polyisobuteneamine (PIBA), also known as polyisobutylene amine. Some


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-0.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
This glossary of chemistry terms is a list of terms and definitions relevant to chemistry, including chemical laws, diagrams and formulae, laboratory tools, glassware, and equipment. Chemistry is a physical science concerned with the composition, structure, and properties of matter, as well as the changes it undergoes during chemical reactions; it features an extensive vocabulary and a significant amount of jargon. Note: All periodic table references refer to the IUPAC Style of the Periodic Table. == A == absolute zero A theoretical condition concerning a system at the lowest limit of the thermodynamic temperature scale, or zero kelvins, at which the system does not emit or absorb energy (i.e. all atoms are at rest). By extrapolating the ideal gas law, the internationally agreed-upon value for absolute zero has been determined as −273.15 °C (−459.67 °F; 0.00 K). absorbance absorption 1. The physical or chemical process by which a substance in one state becomes incorporated into and retained by another substance of a different state. Absorption differs from adsorption in that the first substance permeates the entire bulk of the second substance, rather than just adhering to the surface. 2. The process by which matter (typically electrons bound in atoms) takes


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-1.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
alkane Also paraffin. Any fully saturated acyclic hydrocarbon,An acyclic saturated hydrocarbon containing only carbon and hydrogen atoms with only single carbon–carbon bonds; alkanes generally have the formula CnH2n+2. i.e. one in which all carbon–carbon bonds are single bonds. alkene Also olefin. Any unsaturated hydrocarbon containing at least one carbon–carbon double bond. alkoxy A functional group of the form R–O–, derived from an alcohol by removal of the hydrogen atom from the hydroxyl group. alkyl The substituent form of an alkane, i.e. any alkane missing a hydrogen atom. The term may be used to broadly describe many different functional groups, e.g. a methyl, ethyl, or propyl group. alkyne Also acetylene. Any unsaturated hydrocarbon containing at least one carbon–carbon triple bond. allomer A substance that differs in chemical composition but has the same crystalline structure as another substance. allotrope Any of a variety of different structural forms of the same element, as with carbon, whose allotropes include diamonds, graphite, and fullerene. alloy A mixture of metals or of a metal and another element which in combination exhibit a metallic bonding character. Common examples include bronze, brass, and pewter. amalgam Any alloy of mercury with another metal. ambident A molecule or functional group


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-2.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
atomic number (Z) Also proton number. The number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom of a given chemical element. It is identical to the charge number of the nucleus and is used in the periodic table to uniquely identify each chemical element. atomic orbital Any region in which one or more electrons may be found in an individual atom (as opposed to that within a molecule). atomic radius atomic weight See relative atomic mass. atomicity The total number of atoms present in a single molecule of a given substance; e.g. ozone (O3) has an atomicity of 3, while benzene (C6H6) has an atomicity of 12. autoignition temperature Also kindling point. The lowest temperature at which a given substance will spontaneously ignite in a normal atmosphere without an external source of ignition such as a flame or spark, i.e. when the ambient temperature is sufficiently high to provide the activation energy needed for combustion. Substances which spontaneously ignite at naturally occurring temperatures are termed pyrophoric. Compare ignition temperature. Avogadro constant (NA) The ratio of the number of discrete constituent particles (such as molecules, atoms, or ions) to the amount of a substance, defined as exactly 6.02214076×1023 mol−1. Avogadro


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-3.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
buffered solution Also simply called a buffer. An aqueous solution consisting of a weak acid and its conjugate base or a weak base and its conjugate acid that resists changes in pH when strong acids or bases are added. bumping A phenomenon in which a homogeneous liquid raised to its boiling point becomes superheated and, upon nucleation, rapidly boils to the gas phase, resulting in a violent expulsion of the liquid from the container; in extreme cases, the container itself may shatter. Frequent stirring, the use of an appropriate container, and the use of boiling chips can help prevent bumping. bung Also stopper or cork. A cylindrical or conical plug or closure used to seal a container such as a bottle, tube, flask, or barrel. burette Also spelled buret. Glassware used to dispense specific amounts of liquid when precision is necessary (e.g. during titrations and resource-dependent reactions). butyl The alkyl functional group derived from either of the two isomers of butane, with the generic chemical formula –C4H9. It may occur as a substituent in organic compounds or exist independently as an ion or radical. In IUPAC nomenclature, the presence of a butyl substituent is indicated with the prefix butyl in


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-4.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
chemical decomposition The breakdown of a single particle or entity (such as a molecule or reactive intermediate) into two or more fragments, or a chemical reaction in which two or more products are formed from a single reactant. Contrast chemical synthesis. chemical element See element. chemical formula Any of various means of concisely displaying information about the chemical composition of a compound or molecule using letters, numbers, and/or typographical symbols. Chemical formulas, such as empirical and molecular formulas, can only indicate the identities and numerical proportions of the atoms in a compound and are therefore more limited in descriptive power than chemical names and structural formulas. chemical law A law of nature relevant to chemistry, such as the law of conservation of mass. chemical nomenclature chemical physics chemical process 1. Any method or means of changing one or more chemicals or chemical compounds in any way, either naturally or artificially, spontaneously or by the actions of external forces. 2. In chemical engineering, any method used on an industrial scale (especially in manufacturing) to change the composition of one or more chemicals or materials. chemical reaction The change of one or more substances into one or more different substances. chemical species


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-5.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
concentration The quantity or abundance of a constituent of a mixture per unit quantity of that mixture; e.g. the amount, in moles, of a dissolved solute per unit volume of a solution, a measure known as molar concentration or molarity. Several different definitions of concentration are widely used in chemistry, including molar concentration, mass concentration, and volume concentration. condensation The phase transition of a substance from a gas to a liquid. condosity A comparative measurement of the electrical conductivity of a solution defined as the molar concentration of a sodium chloride (NaCl) solution that has the same specific electrical conductance as the solution under test. It is typically expressed in units of moles per litre (or per some other unit of volume). conduction conductivity See electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity. conductor Any object or material that allows the flow of an electric current in one or more directions. Contrast insulator. conformation The spatial arrangement of atoms affording distinction between stereoisomers which can be interconverted by rotations about formally single bonds. conjugate acid conjugate base conjugated system A molecule that contains double or triple bonds separated by one single bond; e.g. the compound buta-1,3-diene, with the chemical structure H2C=CH−CH=CH2, has conjugated


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-6.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
depression of freezing point See freezing-point depression. desiccant Also drying agent. A hygroscopic substance used to induce or sustain a state of dryness or desiccation (i.e. the absence of moisture) in its vicinity by abstracting water molecules from other substances. Desiccants come in many different forms and work by many different principles, ranging from simple absorption to the chemical bonding of water molecules. desiccation deuterium Also hydrogen-2 or heavy hydrogen, and symbolized 2H or D. One of two stable isotopes of a hydrogen atom, the nucleus of which contains one proton and one neutron. Deuterium is both heavier and much less abundant in nature than the other stable isotope, known as protium (1H). deuteron The nucleus of a deuterium atom (an isotope of hydrogen), containing one proton and one neutron. Dewar flask See vacuum flask. dianion A compound or molecular entity bearing exactly two negative charges, which may be located on a single atom or on different atoms, or may be delocalized. diastereomer diatomic Composed of two atoms, of the same or different elements. Contrast monatomic and polyatomic. diatomic molecule Any molecule composed of only two atoms, of the same or different elements. diffusion The net movement of atoms or


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-7.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
electrochemical cell A device capable of either generating electrical energy from chemical reactions, in which case it is known as a galvanic or voltaic cell, or using electrical energy to cause chemical reactions, in which case it is known as an electrolytic cell. For example, a battery contains one or more galvanic cells, each of which consists of two electrodes arranged such that an oxidation–reduction reaction produces an electromotive force. electrochemistry A branch of physical chemistry concerned with the relationship between electrical potential difference and identifiable chemical change, as understood through either the chemical reactions accompanying the passage of an electric current or the potential difference that results from a particular chemical reaction. electrolyte A solution that conducts a certain amount of electric current and can be split categorically into weak and strong electrolytes. electromagnetic radiation A type of wave that can go through vacuums as well as material and is classified as a self-propagating wave. electromagnetic spectrum electromagnetism Fields with an electric charge and electrical properties that change the way that particles move and interact. electromotive force (emf) electron A type of subatomic particle with a net charge that is negative. Contrast positron. electron acceptor electron capture A type


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-8.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
environmental chemistry enzyme A biological protein catalyst that speeds up a chemical reaction. epimer Eppendorf tube A generalized and trademarked name used to refer to a microcentrifuge tube. equation of state equilibrium The condition of a system in which all competing influences are balanced. Chemical equilibrium is the state in which the concentrations of the reactants and products in a reacting system have stopped changing in time. equimolar Having an equal number of moles, or solutions of equal molar concentration. Erlenmeyer flask ester A class of organic and inorganic compounds derived from the reaction of an acid with an alcohol, in which at least one hydroxyl group (–OH) is replaced by an alkoxy group (–O–). Esters have the general formula RCO2R′, where R and R' represent any alkyl or aryl group. ether A class of organic compounds and a functional group containing an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups, which may be the same or different. Ethers have the general formula R–O–R′, where R and R′ represent the alkyl or aryl groups. ethyl The alkyl functional group derived from ethane, consisting of two carbon atoms covalently bonded to each other and fully saturated with bonds to hydrogen


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-9.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
fractional distillation The fractionation of a mixture of liquids into its component parts, or fractions, by the process of distillation, typically by using a long vertical column attached to the distillation vessel and filled with glass beads. The mixture is heated to a temperature at which one or more of the component compounds will vaporize; the vapor rises up the column until it condenses and runs back into the vessel, creating a temperature and volatility gradient and permitting various fractions to be drawn off at different points along the length of the column. Common in industrial chemistry, the technique is sensitive enough to separate compounds which have boiling points that differ by less than 25 °C (45 °F) from each other at standard pressure. fractionation A separation process in which a particular quantity of a mixture is divided during a phase transition into a number of smaller quantities, known as fractions, for which the chemical composition varies according to a gradient. Fractionation exploits subtle differences in some specific property (e.g. mass, boiling point, solubility, etc.) between the mixture's component compounds, making it possible to isolate more than two components of a mixture at the same time. There are many varieties


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-10.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
hydron (H+) Informally synonymous with proton. The cationic form of atomic hydrogen; i.e. a positively charged hydrogen nucleus of any isotopic composition. Thus the term can refer to a proton (11H+), deuteron (21H+), or triton (31H+). hydrous Having or containing water molecules, referring especially to water of hydration. Contrast anhydrous. hydroxide A diatomic anion consisting of a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to an oxygen atom, having an overall negative charge, with the chemical formula OH−; or any member of a class of organic and inorganic compounds containing a hydroxy group, e.g. sodium hydroxide (NaOH). hydroxy hygroscopy == I == ideal gas A hypothetical gas composed of many randomly moving point particles that do not participate in any interparticle interactions, thereby making it mathematically convenient to describe and predict their behavior as state variables change. The ideal gas concept is useful because it obeys the ideal gas law and can be analyzed within the framework of statistical mechanics. ideal gas constant Also universal gas constant. The proportionality constant in the ideal gas law, defined as 0.08206 L·atm/(K·mol). ideal gas law Also general gas equation. The equation of state of a hypothetical ideal gas, which states that the volume of such a


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-11.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
ketone A class of organic compounds and a functional group composed of a carbonyl group between two carbon atoms. Ketones have the general formula R2C=O, where R can be any carbon-containing substituent. kindling point See autoignition temperature. kinetics A subfield of chemistry specializing in the study of reaction rates. kinetic energy The energy of an object due to its motion. == L == lability lanthanides Also lanthanoids. The periodic series of metallic elements with atomic numbers 57 through 71, from lanthanum through lutetium. lattice The unique geometric arrangement of atoms or molecules in a crystalline liquid or solid. lattice energy The energy released upon the formation of one mole of a crystalline ionic compound from its constituent ions, which are assumed to exist initially in the gaseous state. Lattice energy can be viewed as a measure of the cohesive forces that bind ionic solids; it is therefore directly related to many other physical properties of the solid, including solubility, hardness, and volatility. law of conservation of energy law of conservation of mass law of multiple proportions laws of thermodynamics leveling effect The effect of a solvent on the chemical properties of acids or bases which are dissolved in the solvent.


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-12.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
methylene blue A heterocyclic aromatic compound with the molecular formula C16H18N3SCl. microcentrifuge tube A small plastic, sealable container that is used to store small volumes of liquid, generally less than 2 milliliters. mineral A solid chemical compound with a fairly well-defined chemical composition and a specific crystal structure that occurs naturally in pure form. miscibility The tendency or capability of two or more substances to blend uniformly when combined (most commonly liquids, though the concept is also applicable to solids and gases), i.e. to dissolve in each other, forming a homogeneous mixture that exists in a single phase, without separation of phases, regardless of the proportions of each substance. Substances that do not mix uniformly in all proportions are said to be immiscible. mixture A material made up of two or more different substances which are mixed physically but are not combined chemically (i.e. a chemical reaction has not taken place which has changed the molecules of either substance into new substances). moiety Any named characteristic group, branch, or other part of a large molecule that may be identified within other kinds of molecules as well. Functional groups are typically smaller and more generic than moieties, whereas substituents and side


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-13.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
octet rule Also Lewis octet rule. A classical rule for describing the electron configuration of atoms in certain molecules: the maximum number of electron pairs that can be accommodated in the valence shell of an element in the first row of the periodic table is four (or eight total electrons). For elements in the second and subsequent rows, there are many exceptions to this rule. olefin A trivial (non-IUPAC) name for any alkene. optical activity orbital Any region of an atom or molecule in which one or more electrons can be found. The term may refer to either an atomic orbital or a molecular orbital. orbital hybridisation Also orbital hybridization. order of reaction organic acid Any organic compound with acidic properties. Contrast organic base. organic base Any organic compound with basic properties. Contrast organic acid. organic chemistry The branch of chemistry concerned with the chemical properties and reactions of organic compounds. Contrast inorganic chemistry. organic compound Any chemical compound that contains one or more carbon atoms. Contrast inorganic compound. organic redox reaction organosulfur compound Any chemical compound which contains both carbon and sulfur atoms. osmole osmosis The spontaneous net movement or diffusion of molecules of a solvent (e.g. water) through


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-14.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
pH A logarithmic scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. The pH scale approximates the negative of the base-10 logarithm of the molar concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution. At room temperature, pure water is neutral (pH = 7); solutions with a pH less than 7 are acidic and those with a pH greater than 7 are basic. phase A region of space throughout which all physical properties of a substance are essentially uniform, or a region of material that is chemically uniform, physically distinct, and often mechanically separable. The term phase may have several different uses in chemistry contexts; colloquially, it is often used interchangeably with state of matter, but many distinct phases may exist within a single state of matter. phase diagram A graphical representation of the equilibrium relationships between thermodynamically distinct phases of a chemical compound, mixture, or solution, indicating the physical conditions (e.g. temperature and pressure) under which various phases (e.g. solid, liquid, and vapor) occur or coexist. phase transition 1. A transformation of a chemical substance between solid, liquid, and gaseous states of matter and, in rare cases, plasma. 2. The measurable values of the external conditions at which


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-15.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
pyrochemistry The study of chemical reactions that occur at high temperatures. pyrolysis The thermal decomposition of materials at elevated temperatures in an inert atmosphere such as a vacuum gas. == Q == quantum (pl.) quanta quantum mechanics The study of how atoms, molecules, subatomic particles, etc. behave and are structured. quark An elementary particle and a fundamental constituent of matter. == R == racemate An equimolar mixture of a pair of enantiomers which does not exhibit optical activity. The chemical name or formula of a racemate is distinguished from those of the enantiomers by the prefix (±)- or by the symbols RS and SR. radiation Energy released in the form of waves or subatomic particles when there is a change from high-energy to low-energy states. radical Also free radical. Any atom, molecule, or ion that has at least one unpaired valence electron. With few exceptions, such unpaired electrons make radicals highly chemically reactive, and therefore organic radicals are usually short-lived. radioactive decay The process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses excess nuclear energy by emitting radiation in any of several forms, including as gamma radiation, as alpha or beta particles, or by ejecting electrons from its atomic orbitals. radiochemistry


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-16.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
retort A laboratory apparatus used for the distillation or dry distillation of chemical substances, traditionally consisting of a spherical vessel with a long, downward-pointing neck that conducts the condensed vapors produced by distillation into a separate collection vessel. reversible reaction A chemical reaction that can proceed in either direction depending on the reaction conditions, i.e. from reactants to products or from products to reactants, especially implying one in which both conversions occur simultaneously. Contrast irreversible reaction. rotamer round-bottom flask rust == S == s-block The collective name for the elements in Groups 1 and 2 of the periodic table (the alkali and alkaline metals), as well as hydrogen and helium. saline solution A common term for a solution of sodium chloride (NaCl) dissolved in water (H2O). salt Any ionic compound composed of one or more anions and one or more cations. salt bridge A device used to connect reduction with oxidation half-cells in an electrochemical cell. saturation Schrödinger equation A quantum state equation which represents the behaviour of an electron around an atom. scintillation A burst of luminescence of short duration produced by an individual energetically excited particle as it releases energy. second-order reaction semiconductor An electrically conductive solid whose


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-17
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-17.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
stoichiometry The calculation of quantities of reactants and products in chemical reactions. Stoichiometry is based on the law of conservation of mass and the observation that quantities of reactants and products typically exist in ratios of positive integers, implying that if the amounts of the separate reactants are known, then the amounts of the products can be calculated, and vice versa. strong acid An acid that completely dissociates in solution according to the reaction HA + S ↽ − − ⇀ SH + + A − {\displaystyle {\ce {HA + S <=> SH+ + A-}}} , or to such an extent that the concentration of the undissociated species HA {\displaystyle {\ce {HA}}} is too low to be measured. Any acid with a pKa of less than approximately -2 is generally considered a strong acid; an example is hydrochloric acid (HCl). Contrast weak acid. strong base structural formula A graphical representation of the molecular structure and geometry of a particular chemical compound, showing how the atoms are arranged in real, three-dimensional space. Chemical bonding within the molecule is also shown, either implicitly or explicitly. When known with certainty, structural formulas are very useful because they allow chemists to visualize the molecules


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-18
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-18.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
triple bond A bond that involves the covalent sharing of three pairs of electrons (for example, the diatomic nitrogen molecule, N2, is composed of two nitrogen atoms linked by a triple bond). triple point The place where temperature and pressure of three phases are the same. Water has a special phase diagram. Tyndall effect The effect of light scattering by colloidal or suspended particles. == U == UN number A four-digit code used to note hazardous and flammable substances. uncertainty The notion that any measurement that involves estimation of any amount cannot be exactly reproducible. uncertainty principle Knowing the location of a particle makes the momentum uncertain, while knowing the momentum of a particle makes the location uncertain. unit cell The smallest repeating unit of a crystalline lattice. unit factor Statements used in converting between units. unpaired electron == V == vacuum flask Also Dewar flask or thermos. A storage vessel consisting of two flasks or other containers, placed one within the other and joined at the neck, and a space in between that is partially evacuated of air, creating a near-vacuum that significantly reduces the transfer of heat between the vessel's interior and its ambient environment. Vacuum flasks can


id: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-19
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms-19.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of chemistry terms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_chemistry_terms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:20.572989+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-chemistry-terms-20260505-0
summary:
zone melting Any of several methods of purifying crystalline solids which involve applying heat to a small region of a larger solid (particularly a metal ingot) until localized melting occurs, creating a molten zone which is then slowly moved along the surface to other parts of the solid by moving the target of the heating element. As it moves, the forward edge of the molten zone continuously melts new areas of impure solid, while leaving a path of purer solid behind it as previously melted areas are cooled and resolidified; because the molten liquid phase can hold a higher concentration of impurities than the solid phase, the impurities of melted areas tend to concentrate in the molten zone and be carried along as it moves, leaving behind regions with fewer impurities. The process is commonly used in the refinement of high-purity metalloids for use in semiconductors. zinc A metallic chemical element with atomic number 30 and symbol Zn. zwitterion Also inner salt and dipolar ion. Any molecule that contains an internal polarity by virtue of having an equal number of positively charged and negatively charged functional groups. == See also == Outline of chemistry Index of chemistry articles List of


id: list-of-herbicides-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_herbicides-0.md
category: reference
title: List of herbicides
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_herbicides
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:22.282288+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-herbicides-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of herbicides. These are chemical compounds which have been registered as herbicides. The names on the list are the ISO common name for the active ingredient which is formulated into the branded product sold to end-users. The University of Hertfordshire maintains a database of the chemical and biological properties of these materials, including their brand names and the countries and dates where and when they have been introduced. The industry-sponsored Herbicide Resistance Action Committee (HRAC) advises on the use of herbicides in crop protection and classifies the available compounds according to their chemical structures and mechanism of action so as to manage the risks of pesticide resistance developing. The 2024 HRAC poster of herbicide modes of action includes the majority of chemicals listed below. The British Crop Production Council also publishes information on ISO common names of new pesticides. The Weed Science Society of America also classifies herbicides by their mechanism of action using the HRAC classification system. == 0-9 == == A == == B == == C == == D == == E == == F == == G == == H == == I == == K == == L == == M


id: highly-hazardous-chemical-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highly_hazardous_chemical-0.md
category: reference
title: Highly hazardous chemical
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highly_hazardous_chemical
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:23.601936+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: highly-hazardous-chemical-20260505-0
summary:
A highly hazardous chemical, also called a harsh chemical, is a substance classified by the American Occupational Safety and Health Administration as material that is both toxic and reactive and whose potential for human injury is high if released. Highly hazardous chemicals may cause cancer, birth defects, induce genetic damage, cause miscarriage, injury and death from relatively small exposures. As of August 21st, 2025, the highly hazardous chemicals list includes: == External links == OSHA list of highly hazardous chemicals


id: list-of-highly-toxic-gases-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_highly_toxic_gases-0.md
category: reference
title: List of highly toxic gases
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_highly_toxic_gases
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:24.913057+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-highly-toxic-gases-20260505-0
summary:
Many gases have toxic properties, which are often assessed using the LC50 (median lethal concentration) measure. In the United States, many of these gases have been assigned an NFPA 704 health rating of 4 (may be fatal) or 3 (may cause serious or permanent injury), and/or exposure limits (TLV, TWA/PEL, STEL, or REL) determined by the ACGIH professional association. Some, but by no means all, toxic gases are detectable by odor, which can serve as a warning. Among the best known toxic gases are carbon monoxide, chlorine, nitrogen dioxide and phosgene. == Definitions == Toxic: a chemical that has a median lethal concentration (LC50) in air of more than 200 parts per million (ppm) but not more than 2,000 parts per million by volume of gas or vapor, or more than 2 milligrams per liter but not more than 20 milligrams per liter of mist, fume or dust, when administered by continuous inhalation for 1 hour (or less if death occurs within 1 hour) to albino rats weighing between 200 and 300 grams each. Highly Toxic: a gas that has a LC50 in air of 200 ppm or less. NFPA 704: Materials that, under emergency conditions, can cause serious or


id: infrared-spectroscopy-correlation-table-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_spectroscopy_correlation_table-0.md
category: reference
title: Infrared spectroscopy correlation table
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_spectroscopy_correlation_table
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:26.211950+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: infrared-spectroscopy-correlation-table-20260505-0
summary:
An infrared spectroscopy correlation table (or table of infrared absorption frequencies) is a list of absorption peaks and frequencies, typically reported in wavenumber, for common types of molecular bonds and functional groups. In physical and analytical chemistry, infrared spectroscopy (IR spectroscopy) is a technique used to identify chemical compounds based on the way infrared radiation is absorbed by the compound. The absorptions in this range do not apply only to bonds in organic molecules. IR spectroscopy is useful when it comes to analysis of inorganic compounds (such as metal complexes or fluoromanganates) as well. == Group frequencies == Tables of vibrational transitions of stable and transient molecules are also available. == See also == Applied spectroscopy Absorption spectroscopy == References ==


id: list-of-inorganic-compounds-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-0.md
category: reference
title: List of inorganic compounds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:27.827999+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inorganic-compounds-20260505-0
summary:
Although most compounds are referred to by their IUPAC systematic names (following IUPAC nomenclature), traditional names have also been kept where they are in wide use or of significant historical interests. == A == === Ac === Actinium(III) chloride – AcCl3 Actinium(III) fluoride – AcF3 Actinium(III) oxide – Ac2O3 Actinium(III) sulfide – Ac2S3 Actinium(III) nitrate – Ac(NO3)3 Actinium(III) bromide – AcBr3 Actinium(III) hydroxide – Ac(OH)3 Actinium(III) iodide – AcI3 Actinium(III) phosphate – AcPO4 === Al === Aluminium antimonide – AlSb Aluminium arsenate – AlAsO4 Aluminium arsenide – AlAs Aluminium diboride – AlB2 Aluminium bromide – AlBr3 Aluminium carbide – Al4C3 Aluminium iodide – AlI3 Aluminium nitride – AlN Aluminium oxide – Al2O3 Aluminium phosphide – AlP Aluminium chloride – AlCl3 Aluminium fluoride – AlF3 Aluminium hydroxide – Al(OH)3 Aluminium nitrate – Al(NO3)3 Aluminium sulfide – Al2S3 Aluminium sulfate – Al2(SO4)3 Aluminium potassium sulfate – KAl(SO4)2 Aluminium hydride – AlH3 === Am === Americium(II) bromide – AmBr2 Americium(III) bromide – AmBr3 Americium(II) chloride – AmCl2 Americium(III) chloride – AmCl3 Americium(III) fluoride – AmF3 Americium(IV) fluoride – AmF4 Americium(II) iodide – AmI2 Americium(III) iodide – AmI3 Americium dioxide – AmO2 === NH3/[NH4]+ === Ammonia – NH3 Ammonium azide – [NH4]N3 Ammonium bicarbonate


id: list-of-inorganic-compounds-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-1.md
category: reference
title: List of inorganic compounds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:27.827999+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inorganic-compounds-20260505-0
summary:
=== Cs === Caesium bicarbonate – CsHCO3 Caesium bromide – CsBr Caesium carbonate – Cs2CO3 Caesium chloride – CsCl Caesium chromate – Cs2CrO4 Caesium dichloroiodate – CsICl2 Caesium dodecaborate – Cs2B12H12 Caesium fluoride – CsF Caesium heptafluoroxenate – CsXeF7 Caesium hydride – CsH Caesium hydrogen sulfate – CsHSO4 Caesium iodide – CsI Caesium monoxide – Cs2O Caesium nitrate – CsNO3 Caesium ozonide – CsO3 Caesium perchlorate – CsClO4 Caesium peroxide – Cs2O2 Caesium sulfate – Cs2SO4 Caesium superoxide – CsO2 Caesium triiodide – CsI3 === Cf === Californium(III) bromide – CfBr3 Californium(III) carbonate – Cf2(CO3)3 Californium(III) chloride – CfCl3 Californium(III) fluoride – CfF3 Californium(III) iodide – CfI3 Californium(II) iodide – CfI2 Californium(III) nitrate – Cf(NO3)3 Californium(III) oxide – Cf2O3 Californium(III) phosphate – CfPO4 Californium(III) sulfate – Cf2(SO4)3 Californium(III) sulfide – Cf2S3 Californium oxyfluoride – CfOF Californium oxychloride – CfOCl === Ca === Calcium bromide – CaBr2 Calcium carbide – CaC2 Calcium carbonate (Precipitated Chalk) – CaCO3 Calcium chlorate – Ca(ClO3)2 Calcium chloride – CaCl2 Calcium chromate – CaCrO4 Calcium cyanamide – CaCN2 Calcium fluoride – CaF2 Calcium hydride – CaH2 Calcium hydroxide – Ca(OH)2 Calcium monosilicide – CaSi Calcium oxalate – CaC2O4 Calcium hydroxychloride – CaOCl2 Calcium perchlorate – Ca(ClO4)2


id: list-of-inorganic-compounds-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-2.md
category: reference
title: List of inorganic compounds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:27.827999+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inorganic-compounds-20260505-0
summary:
=== Cl === Actinium(III) chloride – AcCl3 Aluminium chloride – AlCl3 Americium(III) chloride – AmCl3 Ammonium chloride – [NH4]Cl Antimony(III) chloride – SbCl3 Antimony(V) chloride – SbCl5 Arsenic(III) chloride – AsCl3 Barium chloride – BaCl2 Beryllium chloride – BeCl2 Bismuth(III) chloride – BiCl3 Boron trichloride – BCl3 Bromine monochloride – BrCl Cadmium chloride – CdCl2 Caesium chloride – CsCl Calcium chloride – CaCl2 Calcium hypochlorite – Ca(ClO)2 Carbon tetrachloride – CCl4 Cerium(III) chloride – CeCl3 Chloramine – NH2Cl Chloric acid – HClO3 Chlorine azide – ClN3 Chlorine dioxide – ClO2 Chlorine dioxide – ClO2 Chlorine monofluoride – ClF Chlorine monoxide – ClO Chlorine pentafluoride – ClF5 Chlorine perchlorate – Cl2O4 Chlorine tetroxide – O3ClOOClO3 Chlorine trifluoride – ClF3 Chlorine trifluoride – ClF3 Chlorine trioxide – ClO3 Chlorine trioxide – ClO3 Chloroplatinic acid – H2[PtCl6] Chlorosulfonic acid – ClSO3H Chlorosulfonyl isocyanate – ClSO2NCO Chloryl fluoride – ClO2F Chromium(II) chloride – CrCl2 Chromium(III) chloride – CrCl3 Chromyl chloride – CrO2Cl2 Cisplatin (cis–platinum(II) chloride diamine) – [PtCl2(NH3)2] Cobalt(II) chloride – CoCl2 Copper(I) chloride – CuCl Copper(II) chloride – CuCl2 Curium(III) chloride – CmCl3 Cyanogen chloride – ClCN Dichlorine dioxide – Cl2O2 Dichlorine heptaoxide – Cl2O7 Dichlorine heptoxide – Cl2O7 Dichlorine hexoxide – Cl2O6


id: list-of-inorganic-compounds-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-3.md
category: reference
title: List of inorganic compounds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:27.827999+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inorganic-compounds-20260505-0
summary:
=== Cm === Curium(III) chloride – CmCl3 Curium(III) oxide – Cm2O3 Curium(IV) oxide – CmO2 Curium hydroxide – Cm(OH)3 === CN === Cyanogen bromide – BrCN Cyanogen chloride – ClCN Cyanogen iodide – ICN Cyanogen – (CN)2 Cyanuric chloride – C3Cl3N3 Cyanogen thiocyanate – CNSCN Cyanogen selenocyanate – CNSeCN Cyanogen azide – N3CN == D == === Dy === Dysprosium(II) chloride – DyCl2 Dysprosium(II) iodide – DyI2 Dysprosium(III) acetate – Dy(CH3COO)3 Dysprosium(III) bromide – DyBr3 Dysprosium(III) carbonate – Dy2(CO3)3 Dysprosium(III) chloride – DyCl3 Dysprosium(III) fluoride – DyF3 Dysprosium(III) iodide – DyI3 Dysprosium(III) nitrate – Dy(NO3)3 Dysprosium(III) oxalate – Dy2(C2O4)3 Dysprosium(III) oxide – Dy2O3 Dysprosium(III) phosphate – DyPO4 Dysprosium(III) selenide – Dy2Se3 Dysprosium(III) sulfide – Dy2S3 Dysprosium(III) sulfate – Dy2(SO4)3 Dysprosium(III) telluride – Dy2Te3 Dysprosium arsenide – DyAs Dysprosium bismuthide – DyBi Dysprosium iodate – Dy(IO3)3 Dysprosium monosulfide – DyS Dysprosium nitride – DyN Dysprosium phosphide – DyP Dysprosium stannate – Dy2Sn2O7 Dysprosium titanate – Dy2Ti2O7 == E == === Es === Einsteinium(III) bromide – EsBr3 Einsteinium(III) carbonate – Es2(CO3)3 Einsteinium(III) chloride – EsCl3 Einsteinium(III) fluoride – EsF3 Einsteinium(III) iodide – EsI3 Einsteinium(III) nitrate – Es(NO3)3 Einsteinium(III) oxide – Es2O3 Einsteinium(III) phosphate – EsPO4 Einsteinium(III) sulfate – Es2(SO4)3 Einsteinium(III) sulfide –


id: list-of-inorganic-compounds-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-4.md
category: reference
title: List of inorganic compounds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:27.827999+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inorganic-compounds-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ho === Holmium antimonide – HoSb Holmium arsenide – HoAs Holmium bismuthide – HoBi Holmium diantimonide – HoSb2 Holmium disilicide – HoSi2 Holmium iodate – Ho(IO3)3 Holmium monosulfide – HoS Holmium nitride – HoN Holmium oxychloride – HoOCl Holmium oxyfluoride – HoOF Holmium phosphide – HoP Holmium titanate – Ho2Ti2O7 Holmium(III) acetate – Ho(CH3COO3)3 Holmium(III) acetylacetonate – Ho(acac)3 Holmium(III) bromide – HoBr3 Holmium(III) carbonate – Ho2(CO3)3 Holmium(III) chloride – HoCl3 Holmium(III) fluoride – HoF3 Holmium(III) hydroxide – Ho(OH)3 Holmium(III) iodide – HoI3 Holmium(III) nitrate – Ho(NO3)3 Holmium(III) oxalate – Ho2(C2O4)3 Holmium(III) oxide – Ho2O3 Holmium(III) phosphate – HoPO4 Holmium(III) selenide – Ho2Se3 Holmium(III) sulfate – Ho2(SO4)3 Holmium(III) sulfide – Ho2S3 Holmium(III) telluride – Ho2Te3 === H === Hexafluorosilicic acid – H2F6Si Hydrazine – N2H4 Hydrazoic acid – HN3 Hydroiodic acid – HI Hydrogen bromide – HBr Hydrogen chloride – HCl Hydrogen cyanide – HCN Hydrogen fluoride – HF Hydrogen peroxide – H2O2 Hydrogen selenide – H2Se Hydrogen sulfide – H2S Hydrogen telluride – H2Te Hydroxylamine – NH2OH Hypobromous acid – HBrO Hypochlorous acid – HClO Hypophosphorous acid – H3PO2 Metaphosphoric acid – HPO3 Protonated molecular hydrogen – H+3 Trioxidane – H2O3 Water - H2O === He === Sodium helide


id: list-of-inorganic-compounds-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-5.md
category: reference
title: List of inorganic compounds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:27.827999+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inorganic-compounds-20260505-0
summary:
=== Hg === Mercury(I) chloride – Hg2Cl2 Mercury(I) sulfate – Hg2SO4 Mercury(II) chloride – HgCl2 Mercury(II) hydride – HgH2 Mercury(II) selenide – HgSe Mercury(II) sulfate – HgSO4 Mercury(II) sulfide – HgS Mercury(II) telluride – HgTe Mercury(II) thiocyanate – Hg(SCN)2 Mercury(IV) fluoride – HgF4 Mercury fulminate – Hg(ONC)2 === Mo === Molybdenum(II) bromide – MoBr2 Molybdenum(II) chloride – Mo6Cl12 Molybdenum(III) bromide – MoBr3 Molybdenum(III) chloride – MoCl3 Molybdenum(IV) carbide – MoC Molybdenum(IV) chloride – MoCl4 Molybdenum(IV) fluoride – MoF4 Molybdenum(V) chloride – Mo2Cl10 Molybdenum(V) fluoride – MoF5 Molybdenum diselenide – MoSe2 Molybdenum disulfide – MoS2 Molybdenum hexacarbonyl – Mo(CO)6 Molybdenum hexafluoride – MoF6 Molybdenum tetrachloride – MoCl4 Molybdenum trioxide – MoO3 Molybdic acid – H2MoO4 == N == === Nd === Neodymium acetate – Nd(CH3COO)3 Neodymium(III) arsenate – NdAsO4 Neodymium(II) chloride – NdCl2 Neodymium(III) chloride – NdCl3 Neodymium magnet – Nd2Fe14B Neodymium(II) bromide – NdBr2 Neodymium(III) bromide – NdBr3 Neodymium(III) fluoride – NdF3 Neodymium(III) hydride – NdH3 Neodymium(II) iodide – NdI2 Neodymium(III) iodide – NdI3 Neodymium molybdate – Nd2(MoO4)3 Neodymium perrhenate – Nd(ReO4)3 Neodymium(III) sulfide – Nd2S3 Neodymium tantalate – NdTaO4 Neodymium(III) vanadate – NdVO4 === Np === Neptunium(III) fluoride – NpF3 Neptunium(IV) fluoride – NpF4 Neptunium(IV) oxide – NpO2 Neptunium(VI)


id: list-of-inorganic-compounds-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-6.md
category: reference
title: List of inorganic compounds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:27.827999+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inorganic-compounds-20260505-0
summary:
=== K === Potash Alum – K2SO4·Al2(SO4)3·24H2O Potassium alum – AlK(SO4)2 Potassium aluminium fluoride – KAlF4 Potassium amide – KNH2 Potassium argentocyanide – KAg(CN)2 Potassium arsenite – KAsO2 Potassium azide – KN3 Potassium borate – K2B4O7·4H2O Potassium bromide – KBr Potassium bicarbonate – KHCO3 Potassium bifluoride – KHF2 Potassium bisulfite – KHSO3 Potassium carbonate – K2CO3 Potassium calcium chloride – KCaCl3 Potassium chlorate – KClO3 Potassium chloride – KCl Potassium chlorite – KClO2 Potassium chromate – K2CrO4 Potassium cyanide – KCN Potassium dichromate – K2Cr2O7 Potassium dithionite – K2S2O4 Potassium ferrate – K2FeO4 Potassium ferrioxalate – K3[Fe(C2O4)3] Potassium ferricyanide – K3[Fe(CN)6] Potassium ferrocyanide – K4[Fe(CN)6] Potassium heptafluorotantalate – K2[TaF7] Potassium hexafluorophosphate – KPF6 Potassium hydrogen carbonate – KHCO3 Potassium hydrogen fluoride – KHF2 Potassium hydroxide – KOH Potassium iodide – KI Potassium iodate – KIO3 Potassium manganate – K2MnO4 Potassium monopersulfate – K2SO4·KHSO4·2KHSO5 Potassium nitrate – KNO3 Potassium perbromate – KBrO4 Potassium perchlorate – KClO4 Potassium periodate – KIO4 Potassium permanganate – KMnO4 Potassium sodium tartrate – KNaC4H4O6 Potassium sulfate – K2SO4 Potassium sulfite – K2SO3 Potassium sulfide – K2S Potassium tartrate – K2C4H4O6 Potassium tetrachloroiodate(III) – KICl4 Potassium tetraiodomercurate(II) – K2HgI4 Potassium thiocyanate – KSCN Potassium titanyl phosphate –


id: list-of-inorganic-compounds-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-7.md
category: reference
title: List of inorganic compounds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:27.827999+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inorganic-compounds-20260505-0
summary:
=== Na === Sodamide – NaNH2 Sodium aluminate – NaAlO2 Sodium arsenate – H24Na3AsO16 Sodium azide – NaN3 Sodium bicarbonate – NaHCO3 Sodium biselenide – NaSeH Sodium bisulfate – NaHSO4 Sodium bisulfite – NaHSO3 Sodium borate – Na2B4O7 Sodium borohydride – NaBH4 Sodium bromate – NaBrO3 Sodium bromide – NaBr Sodium bromite – NaBrO2 Sodium carbide – Na2C2 Sodium carbonate – Na2CO3 Sodium chlorate – NaClO3 Sodium chloride – NaCl Sodium chlorite – NaClO2 Sodium cobaltinitrite – CoN6Na3O12 Sodium copper tetrachloride – Na2CuCl4 Sodium cyanate – NaCNO Sodium cyanide – NaCN Sodium dichromate – Na2Cr2O7·2H2O Sodium dioxide – NaO2 Sodium dithionite – Na2S2O4 Sodium ferrocyanide – Na4[Fe(CN)6] Sodium fluoride – NaF Sodium fluorosilicate – Na2[SiF6] Sodium formate – HCOONa Sodium hydride – NaH Sodium hydrogen carbonate (Sodium bicarbonate) – NaHCO3 Sodium hydrosulfide – NaSH Sodium hydroxide – NaOH Sodium hypobromite – NaOBr Sodium hypochlorite – NaOCl Sodium hypoiodite – NaOI Sodium hypophosphite – NaPO2H2 Sodium iodate – NaIO3 Sodium iodide – NaI Sodium manganate – Na2MnO4 Sodium molybdate – Na2MoO4 Sodium monofluorophosphate (MFP) – Na2PFO3 Sodium nitrate – NaNO3 Sodium nitrite – NaNO2 Sodium nitroprusside – Na2[Fe(CN)5NO]·2H2O Sodium oxide – Na2O Sodium perborate – NaBO3·H2O Sodium perbromate – NaBrO4 Sodium


id: list-of-inorganic-compounds-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds-8.md
category: reference
title: List of inorganic compounds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:27.827999+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inorganic-compounds-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ti === Hexafluorotitanic acid – (H3O)2[TiF6] Titanium(II) chloride – TiCl2 Titanium(II) oxide – TiO Titanium(II) sulfide – TiS Titanium(III) bromide – TiBr3 Titanium(III) chloride – TiCl3 Titanium(III) fluoride – TiF3 Titanium(III) iodide – TiI3 Titanium(III) oxide – Ti2O3 Titanium(III) phosphide – TiP Titanium(IV) bromide (titanium tetrabromide) – TiBr4 Titanium(IV) carbide – TiC Titanium(IV) chloride (titanium tetrachloride) – TiCl4 Titanium(IV) hydride – TiH4 Titanium(IV) iodide (titanium tetraiodide) – TiI4 Titanium carbide – TiC Titanium diboride – TiB2 Titanium dioxide (titanium(IV) oxide) – TiO2 Titanium diselenide – TiSe2 Titanium disilicide – TiSi2 Titanium disulfide – TiS2 Titanium nitrate – Ti(NO3)4 Titanium nitride – TiN Titanium perchlorate – Ti(ClO4)4 Titanium silicon carbide – Ti3SiC2 Titanium tetrabromide – TiBr4 Titanium tetrafluoride – TiF4 Titanium tetraiodide – TiI4 === TiO === Titanyl sulfate – TiOSO4 === W === Tungsten(VI) chloride – WCl6 Tungsten(VI) fluoride – WF6 Tungsten boride – WB2 Tungsten carbide – WC Tungstic acid – H2WO4 Tungsten hexacarbonyl – W(CO)6 == U == === U === Triuranium octaoxide (pitchblende or yellowcake) – U3O8 Uranium hexafluoride – UF6 Uranium pentafluoride – UF5 Uranium sulfate – U(SO4)2 Uranium tetrachloride – UCl4 Uranium tetrafluoride – UF4 Uranium(III) chloride – UCl3 Uranium(IV) chloride – UCl4 Uranium(V)


id: list-of-inorganic-reactions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_reactions-0.md
category: reference
title: List of inorganic reactions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_reactions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:29.087997+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inorganic-reactions-20260505-0
summary:
Well-known types of reactions that involve inorganic compounds include: Alkylation Alkyne trimerisation Alkyne metathesis Aminolysis Amination Arylation Barbier reaction Beta-hydride elimination Birch reduction Bönnemann cyclization Bromination Buchwald–Hartwig coupling Cadiot–Chodkiewicz coupling Calcination Carbometalation Carbothermal reduction Carbonation Carbonylation Castro–Stephens coupling Clemmensen reduction Chain walking Chan–Lam coupling Chlorination Comproportionation C–C coupling C–H activation Cyanation Cyclometalation Decarbonylation Decarboxylation Dehydration Dehalogenation Dehydrogenation Dehydrohalogenation Deprotonation Desilylation Dimerisation Disproportionation Dötz reaction Eder reaction Electromerism Electron transfer (inner sphere and outer sphere) Étard reaction Fenton oxidation Fischer–Tropsch process Fluorination Formylation Fowler process Fukuyama coupling Glaser coupling Gomberg–Bachmann reaction Haber–Weiss reaction Halcon process Halogenation Hay coupling Heck reaction Heck–Matsuda reaction Hiyama coupling Hofmann-Sand reaction Homolysis Huisgen cycloaddition Hydride reduction Hydroamination Hydration Hydroboration Hydrocarboxylation Hydrocyanation Hydrodesulfurization Hydroformylation Hydrogenation Hydrohalogenation Hydrolysis Hydrometalation Hydrosilylation Iodination Isomerisation Jones oxidation Kulinkovich reaction Kumada coupling Lemieux–Johnson oxidation Ley oxidation Linkage isomerization Luche reduction McMurry reaction Meerwein–Ponndorf–Verley reduction Mercuration Methylation Migratory insertion Negishi coupling Nicholas reaction Nitrosylation Noyori asymmetric hydrogenation Olefin polymerization Oppenauer oxidation Oxidation Oxidative addition Oxygenation Oxymercuration reaction Pauson–Khand reaction Photodissociation Pseudorotation Protonation Protonolysis Proton-coupled electron transfer Racemization Redox reactions (see list of oxidants and reductants) Reduction Reductive elimination Reppe synthesis Riley oxidation Salt metathesis Sarett oxidation Sharpless epoxidation Shell higher olefin process Silylation


id: list-of-chemistry-journals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_journals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of chemistry journals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_journals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:30.325768+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemistry-journals-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of scientific journals in chemistry and its various subfields. For journals mainly about materials science, see List of materials science journals. == A == == B == Beilstein Journal of Organic Chemistry Biochemical Journal Bioconjugate Chemistry Biomacromolecules Biomedical Chromatography Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry Letters Bulletin of the Chemical Society of Japan == C == == D == Dalton Transactions == E == Education in Chemistry Energy and Environmental Science Energy & Fuels Environmental Chemistry European Journal of Inorganic Chemistry European Journal of Medicinal Chemistry European Journal of Organic Chemistry == F == Faraday Discussions Faraday Transactions == G == Geostandards and Geoanalytical Research Green Chemistry == H == Helvetica Chimica Acta == I == Inorganic Chemistry International Journal of Hydrogen Energy International Journal of Quantum Chemistry Ion Exchange Letters == J == == L == Lab on a Chip Langmuir Liebigs Annalen == M == Macromolecules Magnetic Resonance in Chemistry MedChemComm Metallomics Methods in Organic Synthesis Microchimica Acta Molbank Molecular BioSystems Molecular Diversity Molecular Physics Molecules == N == Nano Letters Natural Product Reports Nature Chemical Biology Nature Chemistry Nature Materials Nature Protocols New Journal of Chemistry == O == Open Chemistry


id: list-of-insecticides-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_insecticides-0.md
category: reference
title: List of insecticides
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_insecticides
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:31.599050+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-insecticides-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of insecticides. These are chemical compounds which have been registered as insecticides. Biological insecticides are not included. The names on the list are the ISO common names. A complete list of pesticide common names is published by the BCPC. The University of Hertfordshire maintains a database of the chemical and biological properties of these materials, including their brand names and the countries and dates where and when they have been introduced. The industry-sponsored Insecticide Resistance Action Committee (IRAC) advises on the use of insecticides in crop protection and classifies the available compounds according to their chemical classes and mechanism of action so as to manage the risks of pesticide resistance developing. The 2024 IRAC poster of insecticide modes of action includes the majority of chemicals listed below. The pesticide manual provides much information on pesticides. The British Crop Production Council also publishes information on ISO common names of new insecticides. Many of the insecticides in the list are not in use. The developer of a pesticide applies for a common name when they intend to sell it, but some nevertheless do not reach the market. Many insecticides have been banned or otherwise withdrawn from the market


id: list-of-largest-aluminum-producers-by-output-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_aluminum_producers_by_output-0.md
category: reference
title: List of largest aluminum producers by output
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_aluminum_producers_by_output
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:32.839223+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-largest-aluminum-producers-by-output-20260505-0
summary:
Below is a list of the largest aluminum-producing companies by output (in 1,000,000 metric tons), accurate as of 2022 according to Statista. == See also == List of largest manufacturing companies by revenue List of public corporations by market capitalization List of largest financial services companies by revenue List of largest European manufacturing companies by revenue List of largest companies by revenue == References == == External links == statista website


id: list-of-synthetic-polymers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_synthetic_polymers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of synthetic polymers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_synthetic_polymers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:34.096439+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-synthetic-polymers-20260505-0
summary:
Some familiar household synthetic polymers include: Nylons in textiles and fabrics, Teflon in non-stick pans, Bakelite for electrical switches, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) in pipes, etc. The common PET bottles are made of a synthetic polymer, polyethylene terephthalate. The plastic kits and covers are mostly made of synthetic polymers like polythene, and tires are manufactured from polybutadienes. However, due to the environmental issues created by these synthetic polymers which are mostly non-biodegradable and often synthesized from petroleum, alternatives like bioplastics are also being considered. They are however expensive when compared to the synthetic polymers. == Inorganic polymers == Polysiloxane Polyphosphazene Polyborazyline == Organic polymers == The eight most common types of synthetic organic polymers, which are commonly found in households are: Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) High-density polyethylene (HDPE) Polypropylene (PP) Polyethylene (PE) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Polystyrene (PS) Nylon, nylon 6, nylon 6,6 Teflon (Polytetrafluoroethylene) Thermoplastic polyurethanes (TPU) == Brand names == These polymers are often better known through their brand names, for instance: == Summary Chart == == Plastic identification codes == == See also == Polymerization RAFT (chemistry) == References ==


id: list-of-biophysically-important-macromolecular-crystal-structures-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biophysically_important_macromolecular_crystal_structures-0.md
category: reference
title: List of biophysically important macromolecular crystal structures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biophysically_important_macromolecular_crystal_structures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:35.482535+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-biophysically-important-macromolecular-crystal-structures-20260505-0
summary:
Crystal structures of protein and nucleic acid molecules and their complexes are central to the practice of most parts of biophysics, and have shaped much of what we understand scientifically at the atomic-detail level of biology. Their importance is underlined by the United Nations declaring 2014 as the International Year of Crystallography, as the 100th anniversary of Max von Laue's 1914 Nobel Prize for discovering the diffraction of X-rays by crystals. This chronological list of biophysically notable protein and nucleic acid structures is loosely based on a review in the Biophysical Journal. The list includes all the first dozen distinct structures, those that broke new ground in subject or method, and those that became model systems for work in future biophysical areas of research. == Myoglobin == 1958 – Myoglobin was the very first crystal structure of a protein molecule. Myoglobin cradles an iron-containing heme group that reversibly binds oxygen for use in powering muscle fibers, and those first crystals were of myoglobin from the sperm whale, whose muscles need copious oxygen storage for deep dives. The myoglobin 3-dimensional structure is made up of 8 alpha-helices, and the crystal structure showed that their conformation was right-handed and very closely matched


id: list-of-biophysically-important-macromolecular-crystal-structures-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biophysically_important_macromolecular_crystal_structures-1.md
category: reference
title: List of biophysically important macromolecular crystal structures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_biophysically_important_macromolecular_crystal_structures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:35.482535+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-biophysically-important-macromolecular-crystal-structures-20260505-0
summary:
== Trypsin inhibitor == 1970 – Basic pancreatic trypsin inhibitor, or BPTI (PDB file 2pti), is a small, very stable protein that has been a highly productive model system for study of super-tight binding, disulfide bond (SS) formation, protein folding, molecular stability by amino-acid mutations or hydrogen-deuterium exchange, and fast local dynamics by NMR. Biologically, BPTI binds and inhibits trypsin while stored in the pancreas, allowing activation of protein digestion only after trypsin is released into the stomach. == Rubredoxin == 1970 – Rubredoxin (PDB file 2rxn) was the first redox structure solved, a minimalist protein with the iron bound by 4 Cys sidechains from 2 loops at the top of β hairpins. It diffracted to 1.2Å, enabling the first reciprocal-space refinement of a protein (4,5rxn). (NB: note that 4rxn was done without geometry restraints.) Archaeal rubredoxins account for many of the highest-resolution small structures in the PDB. == Insulin == 1971 – Insulin (PDB file 1INS) is a hormone central to the metabolism of sugar and fat storage, and important in human diseases such as obesity and diabetes. It is biophysically notable for its Zn binding, its equilibrium between monomer, dimer, and hexamer states, its ability to form crystals


id: list-of-accelerator-mass-spectrometry-facilities-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_accelerator_mass_spectrometry_facilities-0.md
category: reference
title: List of accelerator mass spectrometry facilities
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_accelerator_mass_spectrometry_facilities
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:36.747687+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-accelerator-mass-spectrometry-facilities-20260505-0
summary:
The following list of accelerator mass spectrometry facilities includes research centers that employ accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS). Accelerator mass spectrometry is a form of mass spectrometry that accelerates ions to extraordinarily high kinetic energies before mass analysis. == Facilities == === Africa === iThemba Laboratory for Accelerator Based Sciences, Johannesburg, South Africa === Oceania === 14UD The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia SSAMS The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia ANTARES 10MV, STAR 2MV, Sydney, Australia Rafter Radiocarbon Laboratory, GNS Science, New Zealand Chronos 14Carbon-Cycle Facility, UNSW, Australia. === North America === Accium BioSciences at Swedish Medical Center Cherry Hill, Seattle, WA André E. Lalonde Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Laboratory (AEL AMS) at the University of Ottawa in Ottawa, Canada Beta Analytic Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Facility in Miami, Florida Center for Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (CAMS) at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Center for Applied Isotope Studies (CAIS) at University of Georgia. DirectAMS (D-AMS) radiocarbon labs in Bothell, WA & Seattle, WA Facility for Rare Isotope Beams, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan Institute for Structure and Nuclear Astrophysics, The University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana Institute of Energy and the Environment Radiocarbon Laboratory at the Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania


id: list-of-misidentified-chemical-elements-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_misidentified_chemical_elements-0.md
category: reference
title: List of misidentified chemical elements
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_misidentified_chemical_elements
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:37.916882+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-misidentified-chemical-elements-20260505-0
summary:
Chemical elements that have been mistakenly "discovered". Further investigation showed that their discovery was either mistaken, that they have been mistaken from an already-known element, or mixture of two elements, or that they indicated a failing in theory where a new element had been assumed rather than some previously unknown behaviour. == References ==


id: list-of-chemistry-mnemonics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_mnemonics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of chemistry mnemonics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_mnemonics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:39.238127+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemistry-mnemonics-20260505-0
summary:
A mnemonic is a memory aid used to improve long-term memory and make the process of consolidation easier. Many chemistry aspects, rules, names of compounds, sequences of elements, their reactivity, etc., can be easily and efficiently memorized with the help of mnemonics. This article contains the list of certain mnemonics in chemistry. == Orbitals == === Sequence of orbitals === Sober Physicists Don't Find Giraffes Hiding In Kitchens. Note: After the k shell, they follow alphabetical order (skipping s and p as they came earlier). === Aufbau principle === The order of sequence of atomic orbitals (according to Madelung rule or Klechkowski rule) can be remembered by the following. == Periodic table == === Periods === ==== Periods 1, 2 and 3 ==== Hi Hello Little Beer Bottles Crack Nicely On Freddie's kNee. Nasties Merge All Silly 'People Suffer Clouts Arnti Happy Henry Likes Beans Brownies and Chocolate Nuts Over Friday's News. Naughty Margaret Always Sighs, "Please Stop Clowning Around." Kind Cats Scare Tiny Vicious Creatures, Might Fear Cows & Nice Cute Zebras. Happy Henry Likes Beans Brownies and Chocolate Nuts Over Friday's News. Happy Harry/Henry Listens B B C Network Over France Nevertheless Nothing More Arose So Peter Stopped


id: list-of-chemistry-mnemonics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_mnemonics-1.md
category: reference
title: List of chemistry mnemonics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_mnemonics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:39.238127+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemistry-mnemonics-20260505-0
summary:
Only Strong Athletes In College Study Past Midnight Oh, see(Si), Alfie(Fe) Cannot(Na) Kiss Meg(Mg) As they are present in trace quantities they are measured in parts per million(ppm). === Activity series of metals === Please Stop Calling Me A Cute Zebra Crab I Like Her Call Smart Goat Please Stop Calling Me A Carless Zebra Crab Instead Try Learning How Copper Miners Save Gold Pit Popular Scientists Can Make A Zoo In Low Humid Climate ... Note that carbon and hydrogen are non-metals, used as a baseline. Kangaroos Naturally Muck About in Zoos For Purple Hippos Chasing Aardvarks. Katty's Naughty Cat Mingled with Alice and Zarina; Fearlessly Plundering Her Cupboard of Gold. Papa Said Call Me After Zinc Interacts Tin Leading Hydrogen Co-operate Mr. Sylvester to Gain Popularity. Pretty(Potassium) Sally(Sodium) Could(Calcium) Marry(Magnesium) A(Aluminium) Crazy(Carbon) Zulu(Zinc) IN(Iron/Nickel) Tree(Tin) Lined(Lead) House(Hydrogen) Causing(Copper) Strangely(Silver) Glancing(Gold) People(Platinum). === Electronegativity === Pronounce: FOClN BrIS CHP. (F)irst (O)ff, (Cl)ean (N)ow; (Br)ing (I)n (S)ome (C)lothes, (H)ats, and (P)ants. (First off, clean now. Bring in some caps, hats {and} pants.) === Electrochemical series === Paddy Still Could Marry A Zulu In The Lovely Honolulu Causing Strange Gazes. Passive Sarcasm Can Mutate Angry Zombies InTo Large Hypocritical Cold Sexy


id: list-of-chemistry-mnemonics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_mnemonics-2.md
category: reference
title: List of chemistry mnemonics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_mnemonics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:39.238127+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemistry-mnemonics-20260505-0
summary:
"E" for 'enemies'. i.e. higher priority groups on opposite sides. Z form has higher priority groups on same side. "Z" means 'zame zide' (same side) i.e. high priority groups on same side. === Cis–trans isomerism === Cis starts with a C and the functional groups form a C. Trans, therefore is the other one by default. === Benzene ring: order of substitutes === From R group moving around the ring: Benzene likes to ROMP. == Biochemistry == === Nutrients === The four most common elements in living organisms – carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen – may be remembered with the acronym CHON. An extensions is CHNOPS, which adds phosphorus and sulfur. To remember the elements necessary for agriculture; C (see) Hopkins CaFe, Mighty-good Man, Cu (see your) Money, hope they are Closed or out of Business. For remembering macronutrients; C. HOPKiN'S Ca Mg (C. Hopkins coffee mug). MagiCal CKN SHOP (Magical Chicken SHOP). To remember the elements comprising the human body; Chopin's CaFe I.P. Cohn's CaFe === Essential amino acids === PVT TIM HaLL and TT HALL Very IMPortant. These Ten Valuable Acids Have Long Preserved Life In Men MATT HILL, VP LIFT HIM KIW(V)I TV FILM HW(R)K. FM TK


id: lists-of-molecules-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_molecules-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of molecules
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_molecules
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:40.586169+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-molecules-20260505-0
summary:
This is an index of lists of molecules (i.e. by year, number of atoms, etc.). Millions of molecules have existed in the universe since before the formation of Earth. Three of them, carbon dioxide, water and oxygen were necessary for the growth of life. Although humanity had always been surrounded by these substances, it has not always known what they were composed of. == By century == The following is an index of list of molecules organized by time of discovery of their molecular formula or their specific molecule in case of isomers: List of compounds == By number of carbon atoms in the molecule == List of compounds with carbon number 1 List of compounds with carbon number 2 List of compounds with carbon number 3 List of compounds with carbon number 4 List of compounds with carbon number 5 List of compounds with carbon number 6 List of compounds with carbon number 7 List of compounds with carbon number 8 List of compounds with carbon number 9 List of compounds with carbon number 10 List of compounds with carbon number 11 List of compounds with carbon number 12 List of compounds with carbon number 13 List of compounds


id: list-of-interstellar-and-circumstellar-molecules-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_interstellar_and_circumstellar_molecules-0.md
category: reference
title: List of interstellar and circumstellar molecules
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_interstellar_and_circumstellar_molecules
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:42.079611+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-interstellar-and-circumstellar-molecules-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of molecules that have been detected in the interstellar medium and circumstellar envelopes, grouped by the number of component atoms. The chemical formula is listed for each detected compound, along with any ionized form that has also been observed. == Background == The molecules listed below were detected through astronomical spectroscopy. Their spectral features arise because molecules either absorb or emit a photon of light when they transition between two molecular energy levels. The energy (and thus the wavelength) of the photon matches the energy difference between the levels involved. Molecular electronic transitions occur when one of the molecule's electrons moves between molecular orbitals, producing a spectral line in the ultraviolet, optical or near-infrared parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. Alternatively, a vibrational transition transfers quanta of energy to (or from) vibrations of molecular bonds, producing signatures in the mid- or far-infrared. Gas-phase molecules also have quantised rotational levels, leading to transitions at microwave or radio wavelengths. Sometimes a transition can involve more than one of these types of energy level e.g. ro-vibrational spectroscopy changes both the rotational and vibrational energy level. Occasionally all three occur together, as in the Phillips band of C2 (diatomic carbon), in


id: list-of-na-numbers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_NA_numbers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of NA numbers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_NA_numbers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:43.247450+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-na-numbers-20260505-0
summary:
The NA numbers (North American Numbers) are assigned by the United States Department of Transportation, supplementing the larger set of UN numbers, for identifying hazardous materials. NA numbers largely duplicate UN numbers, however a selection of additional numbers are provided for materials that are not covered by UN numbers as a hazardous material. In a couple of instances NA numbers provide an alternative description than the equivalent UN number. == See also == List of UN numbers NA/UN exceptions - List of specific conflicts between NA numbers and UN numbers. == Notes == == References == "UN/NA Datasheets". CAMEO Chemicals. Retrieved 2019-10-21. "Library - Hazardous Materials Table (HMT)". PHMSA. Retrieved 2017-08-25.


id: list-of-inorganic-compounds-named-after-people-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds_named_after_people-0.md
category: reference
title: List of inorganic compounds named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inorganic_compounds_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:44.503558+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inorganic-compounds-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
Well-known inorganic and organometallic compounds and reagents that are named after individuals include: Adams' catalyst (proposed to be PtOx) Adamsite (NH(C6H4)2AsCl) Adkins catalyst (Cu2Cr2O5) Attenburrow's Oxide (MnO2) Arduengo carbene (class of compounds) Baeyer's reagent (KMnO4(aq)) Benedict's reagent Bobbitt's salt (4-(Acetylamino)-2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-1-oxo-piperidinium tetrafluoroborate) Bertrand carbene (class of compounds) Brookhart's acid (H(OEt2)2BArF4) Buckminsterfullerene (C60) Burow's solution (Al(CH3CO2)3(aq)) Calderon catalyst (WCl6/EtAlCl2/EtOH) Caro's acid (H2SO5) Chevreul's salt (Cu3(SO3)2 • 2 H2O) Chugaev's red salt ([Pt(C(NHMe)2N2H2](CNMe)2]Cl2) Chugaev's salt ([Pt(NH3)5Cl]Cl3) Cleve's triammine ([Pt(NH3)3Cl]Cl) Collman's reagent (Na2Fe(CO)4) Collins reagent (CrO3 / py / CH2Cl2) Condy's crystals (KMnO4) Corey–Chaykovsky reagent (O=S(CH2)Me2) Cornforth reagent ([pyH]2[Cr2O7]) Crabtree's catalyst (Ir(COD)(py)(PCy3)+) Creutz–Taube complex ([(NH3)10Ru2(pyrazine)]5+) Etard's reagent (CrO2Cl2) Davy's reagent {(MeS)PS}2S2 Deacon Catalyst (CuO/CuCl2) Dimroth's reagent (B(OAc)2)2O Durrant's Salt (K2[Co2(oxalate)4(OH)2]3H2O] Fehling's solution ([Cu(C4H4O6)2]4−) Fenton's reagent (Fe2+ / H2O2) Fetizon's reagent (Ag2CO3 / celite) Fischer carbene (class of compounds related to [(CO)5Cr=C(CH3)OCH3] Folin–Ciocalteu reagent (H3PMo12O40 / H3PW12O40) Furukawa's cyclopropanation reagent (ZnEt2 / CH2I2) Frémy's salt (Na2NO(SO3)2) Gilman reagents (R2CuLi, class of compounds) Glauber's salt (Na2SO4·10H2O) Gmelin's salt (K3Fe(CN)6) Gingras reagent (Ph3SnF2.NnBu4) Grignard reagents (RMgX, class of compounds) Grubbs catalyst (RuCl2(PCy3)2(CHPh)) Hauser base (R2NMgBr) Hoveyda–Grubbs catalyst (RuCl2(PCy3)(CH(C6H4)OiPr)) Jacobsen's catalyst (derivative of Mn(salen)Cl) Jones reagent (CrO3 / H2SO4(aq) / Me2CO) Jordan's cation ((Cp)2Zr(Me)(THF)+) Kagan's reagent (SmI2) Karstedt's


id: list-of-neurosteroids-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_neurosteroids-0.md
category: reference
title: List of neurosteroids
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_neurosteroids
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:45.691264+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-neurosteroids-20260505-0
summary:
Neurosteroids are natural and synthetic steroids that are active on the mammalian nervous system through receptors other than steroid hormone receptors. It includes inhibitory, excitatory, and neurotrophic neurosteroids as well as pheromones and vomeropherines. In contrast to steroid hormones, neurosteroids have rapid, non-genomic effects through interactions with membrane steroid receptors and can quickly influence central nervous system function. == Inhibitory == === Natural === ==== Cholestanes ==== 25-Hydroxycholesterol: cholest-5-en-3β,25-diol – NMDA receptor negative allosteric modulator ==== Androstanes ==== 3α,5α-Androstanediol (3α-androstanediol): 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator 3α,5β-Androstanediol (etiocholanediol): 5β-androstane-3α,17β-diol – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator 3α-Androstenol: 5α-androst-16-en-3α-ol – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator Androsterone: 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator Etiocholanolone: 5β-androstan-3α-ol-17-one – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator The following are proneurosteroids: Dihydrotestosterone (DHT; androstanolone, stanolone): 5α-androst-17β-ol-3-one – of the above-listed inhibitory androstane neurosteroids Testosterone: androst-4-en-17β-ol-3-one – of the above-listed inhibitory androstane neurosteroids ==== Pregnanes ==== 3α-Dihydroprogesterone (3α-DHP): pregn-4-en-3α-ol-20-one – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator 5α-Dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP; allopregnanedione): 5α-pregnane-3,20-dione – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator 5β-Dihydroprogesterone (5β-DHP; pregnanedione): 5β-pregnane-3,20-dione – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator Allopregnanediol: 5α-pregnane-3α,20α-diol – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator Allopregnanolone (brexanolone; SAGE-547): 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one – GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulator Dihydrodeoxycorticosterone (DHDOC): 21-hydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one – GABAA


id: list-of-nonmetal-monographs-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nonmetal_monographs-0.md
category: reference
title: List of nonmetal monographs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nonmetal_monographs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:46.930047+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-nonmetal-monographs-20260505-0
summary:
The purpose of this annotated list is to provide a chronological, consolidated list of nonmetal monographs, which could enable the interested reader to further trace classification approaches in this area. Those marked with a ▲ classify these 14 elements as nonmetals: H, N; O, S; the 4 stable halogens; and the 6 naturally occurring noble gases. Steudel R 2020, Chemistry of the Non-metals: Syntheses - Structures - Bonding - Applications, in collaboration with D Scheschkewitz, Berlin, Walter de Gruyter, doi:10.1515/9783110578065. ▲ An updated translation of the 5th German edition of 2013, incorporating the literature up to Spring 2019. Twenty-three nonmetals, including B, Si, Ge, As, Se, Te, and At but not Sb (nor Po). The nonmetals are identified on the basis of their electrical conductivity at absolute zero putatively being close to zero, rather than finite as in the case of metals. That does not work for As however, which has the electronic structure of a semimetal (like Sb). Halka M & Nordstrom B 2010, "Nonmetals", Facts on File, New York, ISBN 978-0-8160-7367-2 A reading level 9+ book covering H, C, N, O, P, S, Se. Complementary books by the same authors examine (a) the post-transition metals (Al, Ga, In,


id: outline-of-organic-chemistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_organic_chemistry-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of organic chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_organic_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:48.210958+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-organic-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to organic chemistry: Organic chemistry is the scientific study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation (by synthesis or by other means) of carbon-based compounds, hydrocarbons, and their derivatives. These compounds may contain any number of other elements, including hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, the halogens as well as phosphorus, silicon, and sulfur. == General topics == History of organic chemistry IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry Organic reaction Organic compound Organic synthesis Retrosynthetic analysis == Current trends == Current trends in organic chemistry include (as of 2020): Biocatalysis Catalysis Chemosensors Chiral synthesis Flow chemistry Green chemistry Mechanochemistry Photoredox catalysis == Concepts == Acids and bases Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory Acid dissociation constants Lewis acids and bases Chemoselectivity Molecular structure Aromaticity Chemical bonding Covalent bonding Lewis model Molecule shapes Bond angles Resonance structures Conjugated systems Functional groups Stereochemistry Conformational isomerism Diastereomer Stereoisomerism Chirality Optical activity Enantiomers Regioselectivity Stereoselectivity Spectroscopy Infrared spectroscopy Mass spectrometry NMR spectroscopy Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy Organometallic chemistry == Chemical species == Acetals Hemiacetals Thioacetals Ketals Alcohols and diols Haloalkanes Thiols Alkanes and cycloalkanes Alkenes Alkynes Amines Amino acids, peptides, proteins Aromatics Acetophenones Anilines Anisoles Benzene Benzenesulfonic acids Benzophenones Nitrobenzenes


id: list-of-organic-reactions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_organic_reactions-0.md
category: reference
title: List of organic reactions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_organic_reactions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:49.562463+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-organic-reactions-20260505-0
summary:
Well-known reactions and reagents in organic chemistry include == 0-9 == 1,2-Wittig rearrangement 1,3-Dipolar cycloaddition 2,3-Wittig rearrangement == A == Acetalisation Acetoacetic ester condensation Achmatowicz reaction Acylation Acyloin condensation Adams' catalyst Adams decarboxylation Adkins catalyst Adkins–Peterson reaction Akabori amino acid reaction Alcohol oxidation Alder ene reaction Alder–Stein rules Aldol addition Aldol condensation Algar–Flynn–Oyamada reaction Alkylimino-de-oxo-bisubstitution Alkyne trimerisation Alkyne zipper reaction Allan–Robinson reaction Allylic rearrangement Amadori rearrangement Amine alkylation Angeli–Rimini reaction Andrussov oxidation Appel reaction Arbuzov reaction, Arbusow reaction Arens–Van Dorp synthesis, Isler modification Aromatic nitration Arndt–Eistert synthesis Aston–Greenburg rearrangement Auwers synthesis Aza-Cope rearrangement Azo coupling == B == Baeyer–Drewson indigo synthesis Baeyer–Villiger oxidation, Baeyer–Villiger rearrangement Bakeland process (Bakelite) Baker–Venkataraman rearrangement, Baker–Venkataraman transformation Baldwin's rules Bally–Scholl synthesis Balz–Schiemann reaction Bamberger rearrangement Bamberger triazine synthesis Bamford–Stevens reaction Barbier reaction Barbier–Wieland degradation Bardhan–Sengupta phenanthrene synthesis Barfoed's test Bargellini reaction Bartoli indole synthesis, Bartoli reaction Barton decarboxylation Barton reaction Barton–Kellogg reaction Barton–McCombie reaction, Barton deoxygenation Barton-Zard Synthesis Barton vinyl iodine procedure Baudisch reaction Bayer test Baylis–Hillman reaction Bechamp reaction Bechamp reduction Beckmann fragmentation Beckmann rearrangement Bellus–Claisen rearrangement Belousov–Zhabotinsky reaction Benary reaction Benedict's reagent Benkeser reaction Benzidine rearrangement Benzilic acid rearrangement Benzoin condensation Bergman cyclization Bergmann azlactone peptide synthesis Bergmann degradation Bergmann–Zervas carbobenzoxy method Bernthsen


id: list-of-organic-reactions-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_organic_reactions-1.md
category: reference
title: List of organic reactions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_organic_reactions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:49.562463+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-organic-reactions-20260505-0
summary:
== J == Jacobsen epoxidation Jacobsen rearrangement Janovsky reaction Japp–Klingemann reaction Japp–Maitland condensation Jocic reaction Johnson–Claisen rearrangement Johnson–Corey–Chaykovsky reaction Jones oxidation Jordan–Ullmann–Goldberg synthesis Julia olefination, Julia–Lythgoe olefination == K == Kabachnik–Fields reaction Kharasch–Sosnovsky reaction Keck asymmetric allylation Ketimine Mannich reaction Ketone halogenation Kiliani–Fischer synthesis Kindler reaction Kishner cyclopropane synthesis Knoevenagel condensation Knorr pyrazole synthesis Knorr pyrrole synthesis Knorr quinoline synthesis Koch–Haaf reaction Kochi reaction Koenigs–Knorr reaction Kolbe electrolysis Kolbe nitrile synthesis Kolbe–Schmitt reaction Kornblum oxidation Kornblum–DeLaMare rearrangement Kostanecki acylation Kowalski ester homologation Krapcho decarboxylation Krische allylation Kröhnke aldehyde synthesis Kröhnke oxidation Kröhnke pyridine synthesis Kucherov reaction Kuhn–Winterstein reaction Kulinkovich reaction Kumada coupling == L == Larock indole synthesis Lawesson's reagent Lebedev process Lehmstedt–Tanasescu reaction Leimgruber–Batcho indole synthesis Letts nitrile synthesis Leuckart reaction Leuckart thiophenol reaction Leuckart–Wallach reaction Leuckart amide synthesis Levinstein process Ley oxidation Lieben iodoform reaction, Haloform reaction Liebeskind–Srogl coupling Liebig melamine synthesis Lindlar catalyst Lobry de Bruyn–Van Ekenstein transformation Lombardo methylenation Lossen rearrangement Lucas' reagent Luche reduction == M == Maillard reaction Madelung synthesis Malaprade reaction, Periodic acid oxidation Malonic ester synthesis Mannich reaction Markó–Lam deoxygenation Markovnikov's rule, Markownikoff rule, Markownikow rule Marschalk reaction Martinet dioxindole synthesis McDougall monoprotection McFadyen–Stevens reaction McMurry reaction Meerwein arylation Meerwein–Ponndorf–Verley reduction Meisenheimer


id: index-of-pesticide-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_pesticide_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of pesticide articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_pesticide_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:50.801117+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-pesticide-articles-20260505-0
summary:
This is an index of articles relating to pesticides. == 0–9 == == A == == B == == C == == D == == E == == F == == G == == H == == I == == J == == K == == L == == M == == N == == P == == Q == == R == == S == == T == == U == == V == == W, X, Y, Z == == See also == List of fungicides List of herbicides List of insecticides


id: list-of-largest-selling-pharmaceutical-products-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_selling_pharmaceutical_products-0.md
category: reference
title: List of largest selling pharmaceutical products
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_largest_selling_pharmaceutical_products
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:51.992126+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-largest-selling-pharmaceutical-products-20260505-0
summary:
== Best selling pharmaceuticals of U.S. market == The top 5 best selling pharmaceuticals 2015–2019. Sales in billion USD. == Best selling pharmaceuticals of 2017/18 == The top 16 best selling pharmaceuticals of 2017/18. == Largest selling pharmaceutical products of 2015 == Drugs with sales above $5 billion in 2015 included: == Best selling pharmaceuticals of 2013 == For the fourth quarter of 2013, the largest selling drugs were: == See also == List of drugs Lists about the pharmaceutical industry == References ==


id: list-of-phenyltropanes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phenyltropanes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of phenyltropanes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phenyltropanes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:53.479705+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-phenyltropanes-20260505-0
summary:
Phenyltropanes (PTs) are a family of chemical compounds originally derived from structural modification of cocaine. The main feature differentiating phenyltropanes from cocaine is that they lack the ester functionality at the 3-position terminating in the benzene; thus, the phenyl is attached direct to the tropane skeleton (hence the name "phenyl"-tropane) with no further spacer that the cocaine benzoyloxy provided. The original purpose of phenyltropane-related research was to extirpate the cardiotoxicity inherent in the local anesthetic "numbing" capability of cocaine (which stems from the methylated benzoate ester being essential to cocaine's blockage of sodium channels, and which causes topical anesthesia) while retaining stimulant function. Phenyltropane compounds present promising avenues of research into therapeutic applications, particularly in regard to addiction treatment. These compounds' uses vary depending on their construction and structure-activity relationship ranging from the treating of cocaine dependency to understanding the dopamine reward system in the human brain to treating Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. (Since 2008 there have been continual additions to the list and enumerations of the plethora of types of chemicals that fall into the category of this substance profile.) Certain phenyltropanes can even be used as a smoking cessation aid (cf. RTI-29). Many of the compounds were first


id: list-of-phenyltropanes-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phenyltropanes-1.md
category: reference
title: List of phenyltropanes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phenyltropanes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:53.479705+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-phenyltropanes-20260505-0
summary:
==== 2β-Acyl-3β-naphthyl substituted ==== === Ester reduction === Note: p-fluorophenyl is weaker than the others. RTI-145 is not peroxy, it is a methyl carbonate. === 2-Alkane/Alkene === aKi value for displacement of WIN 35428. bIC50 value. === Irreversible covalent (cf. ionic) C2 ligands === Irreversible (phenylisothiocyanate) binding ligand (Murthy, V.; Martin, T. J.; Kim, S.; Davies, H. M. L.; Childers, S. R. (2008). "In Vivo Characterization of a Novel Phenylisothiocyanate Tropane Analog at Monoamine Transporters in Rat Brain". Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 326 (2): 587–595. doi:10.1124/jpet.108.138842. PMID 18492949. S2CID 5996473.) RTI-76: 4′-isothiocyanatophenyl (1R,2S,3S,5S)-3-(4-chlorophenyl)-8-methyl-8-azabicyclo[3.2.1]octane-2-carboxylate. Also known as: 3β-(p-chlorophenyl)tropan-2β-carboxylic acid p-isothiocyanatophenylmethyl ester. ==== C2 Acyl, N8 phenylisothiocyanate ==== HD-205 (Murthy et al., 2007) Note the contrast to the phenylisothiocyanate covalent binding site locations as compared to the one on p-Isococ, a non-phenyltropane cocaine analogue. === Benztropine based (C2-position hetero-substituted) phenyltropanes === === F&B series (Biotin side-chains etc.) === One patent claims a series of compounds with biotin-related sidechains are pesticides. === Miscellany (i.e. Misc./Miscellaneous) C2-substituents === == C2-truncated/descarboxyl (non-ecgonine w/o 2-position-replacement tropanes) == === Aryl-Tropenes === WO 2004113297, Peters, Dan; Olsen, Gunnar M. & Nielsen, Elsebet Oestergaard et al., "Aza-ring derivatives and their use as monoamine neurotransmitter re-uptake inhibitors", published


id: list-of-phenyltropanes-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phenyltropanes-2.md
category: reference
title: List of phenyltropanes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phenyltropanes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:53.479705+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-phenyltropanes-20260505-0
summary:
=== Bridged N-constrained phenyltropanes (fused/tethered) === See: Bridged cocaine derivatives & N8 Tricyclic (2β—crossed-over) N8—to—3β replaced aryl linked (expansive front-bridged) cocaine analogues ==== p-methyl aryl front & back N-bridged phenyltropanes ==== U.S. patent 6,150,376 ɑValue for displacement of [3H]WIN 35,428 binding @ DAT bValue for displacement of [3H]paroxetine binding to SERT cValue for displacement of [3H]nisoxetine from NET Fused tropane-derivatives as neurotransmitter reuptake inhibitors. Singh notes that all bridged derivatives tested displayed 2.5—104 fold higher DAT affinity than cocaine. The ones 2.8—190 fold more potent at DAT also had increased potency at the other two MAT sites (NET & SERT); NET having 1.6—78× increased activity. (+)-128 additionally exhibited 100× greater potency @ SERT, whereas 132a & 133a had 4–5.2× weaker 5-HTT (i.e. SERT) activity. Front-bridged (e.g. 128 & 129) had a better 5-HT/DA reuptake ratio in favor of SERT, while the back-bridged (e.g. 130–133) preferred placement with DAT interaction. U.S. patent 5,998,405 ==== 3,4-Cl2 aryl front-bridged phenyltropanes ==== 1-Chloroethyl chloroformate is used to remove N-methyl of trans-aryltropanes. 2° amine is reacted with Br(CH2)nCO2Et. Base used to abstract proton α- to CO2Et group and complete the tricyclic ring closure step (Dieckmann cyclization). To make a different type of analog (see Kozikowski


id: list-of-phenyltropanes-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phenyltropanes-3.md
category: reference
title: List of phenyltropanes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phenyltropanes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:53.479705+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-phenyltropanes-20260505-0
summary:
=== Transition metal complexes === These compounds include transition metals in their heteroatomic conformation, unlike non-radiolabel intended chelates where their element is chosen for intrinsic affectation to binding and function, these are tagged on by a "tail" (or similar) with a sufficient spacer to remain separated from known binding properties and instead are meant to add radioactivity enough to be easily tracked via observation methods that utilize radioactivity. As for anomalies of binding within the spectrum of the under-written kinds just mentioned: other factors not otherwise considered to account for its relatively lower potency, "compound 89c" is posited to protrude forward at the aryl place on its moiety toward the MAT ligand acceptor site in a manner detrimental to its efficacy. That is considered due to the steric bulk of the eight-position "tail" chelate substituted constituent, overreaching the means by which it was intended to be isolated from binding factors upon a tail, and ultimately nonetheless, interfering with its ability to bind. However, to broach this discrepancy, decreasing of the nitrogen tether at the eight position by a single methylene unit (89d) was shown to bring the potency of the analogous compound to the expected, substantially higher, potency: The N-methyl


id: list-of-physical-quantities-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physical_quantities-0.md
category: reference
title: List of physical quantities
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physical_quantities
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:54.673028+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-physical-quantities-20260505-0
summary:
This article consists of tables outlining a number of physical quantities. A physical quantity is a property of a material or system that can be quantified by measurement; it has a value and units. The International System of Quantities, which underlies the International System of Units, defines seven base quantities; other quantities are generally derived quantities, which can be expressed in terms of the base quantities. Neither the names nor the symbols used for the physical quantities are set by international standards, although ISO/IEC 80000 does list many of these without making them normative. Some quantities are known by several different names and symbols. The table typically lists the name and symbol that is most commonly used. The final column lists some properties and characteristics that a quantity has, such as their scaling behaviour (e.g. whether the quantity is intensive or extensive), their transformation properties (i.e. whether the quantity is a scalar, vector, matrix or tensor), and whether the quantity is conserved. == Scalar == == Vector == == Tensor == == See also == List of photometric quantities List of radiometric quantities List of dimensionless quantities List of electromagnetism quantities == References ==


id: list-of-phytochemicals-in-food-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phytochemicals_in_food-0.md
category: reference
title: List of phytochemicals in food
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phytochemicals_in_food
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:55.957913+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-phytochemicals-in-food-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of phytochemicals present in foods. == Terpenoids (isoprenoids) == === Carotenoids (tetraterpenoids) === ==== Carotenes ==== orange pigments α-Carotene – to vitamin A: carrots, pumpkins, maize, tangerine, orange β-Carotene – to vitamin A: dark, leafy greens, red, orange and yellow fruits and vegetables. γ-Carotene - to vitamin A δ-Carotene ε-carotene Lycopene: Vietnamese Gac, tomatoes, grapefruit, watermelon, guava, apricots, carrots, autumn olive. Neurosporene: tomato, pink grapefruit,watermelon Phytofluene: star fruit, sweet potato, orange Phytoene: sweet potato, orange ==== Xanthophylls ==== yellow pigments Canthaxanthin: paprika, mushrooms, crustaceans, fish and eggs . β-Cryptoxanthin to vitamin A: mango, tangerine, orange, papaya, peaches, avocado, pea, grapefruit, kiwi Zeaxanthin: wolfberry, spinach, kale, turnip greens, maize, eggs, red pepper, pumpkin, orange Astaxanthin: microalgae, yeast, krill, shrimp, salmon, lobsters, and some crabs Lutein: spinach, turnip greens, romaine lettuce, eggs, red pepper, pumpkin, mango, papaya, oranges, kiwi, peaches, squash, brassicas, prunes, sweet potatoes, honeydew melon, rhubarb, plum, avocado, pear, cilantro Rubixanthin: rose hip === Triterpenoids === Saponins: soybeans, beans, other legumes, maize, alfalfa Oleanolic acid: American pokeweed, honey mesquite, garlic, java apple, cloves, and many other Syzygium species Ursolic acid: apples, basil, bilberries, cranberries, elder flower, peppermint, lavender, oregano, thyme, hawthorn, prunes Betulinic acid: Ber


id: list-of-phytochemicals-in-food-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phytochemicals_in_food-1.md
category: reference
title: List of phytochemicals in food
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_phytochemicals_in_food
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:55.957913+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-phytochemicals-in-food-20260505-0
summary:
=== Organosulfides/ Organosulfur compounds === Polysulfides (allium compounds): garlic, onions, leeks, chives, shallots Sulfides Diallyl disulfide garlic, onions, leeks, chives, shallots Alliin garlic Allyl isothiocyanate: horseradish, mustard, wasabi Syn-propanethial-S-oxide: cut onions === Indoles === Indole-3-carbinol: cabbage, kale, brussels sprouts, rutabaga, mustard greens, broccoli 3,3'-Diindolylmethane or DIM: broccoli family, brussels sprouts, cabbage, kale Indole-3-acetic acid: Commonly occurring plant hormone, a part of the auxin family. == Betalains == Betacyanins beets, chard, Amaranthus tricolor betanin isobetanin probetanin neobetanin Betaxanthins (non glycosidic versions) Indicaxanthin: beets, sicilian prickly pear Vulgaxanthin: beets == Chlorophylls == Chlorophyllin: Dark green leafy vegetables like spinach == Other organic acids == Saturated cyclic acids Phytic acid: (inositol hexaphosphate) cereals, nuts, sesame seeds, soybeans, wheat, pumpkin, beans, almonds Quinic acid Oxalic acid: orange, spinach, rhubarb, tea and coffee, banana, ginger, almond, sweet potato, bell pepper Tartaric acid: apricots, apples, sunflower, avocado, grapes, tamarind Anacardic acid: cashews, mangoes Malic acid: apples Caftaric acid: grapes Coutaric acid: grapes Fertaric acid == Amines == Betanin: beetroot == Carbohydrates == === Monosaccharides === Hexose: wheat, barley Pentose: rye, oat === Polysaccharides === Beta-glucan Chitin: fungi includes other edible mushrooms Lentinan: fruit body of shiitake (Lentinula edodes mycelium (LEM)) and other edible mushrooms Fructan Inulins:


id: list-of-progestogens-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_progestogens-0.md
category: reference
title: List of progestogens
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_progestogens
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:57.264255+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-progestogens-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of progestogens that are or that have been used in clinical or veterinary medicine. They are steroids and include derivatives of progesterone and testosterone. == Progesterone derivatives == === Retroprogesterone derivatives === Although an active progestogen, retroprogesterone is not medically used. === 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone derivatives === 17α-hydroxyprogesterone is inactive as a progestogen and is not used medically. The 19-norprogesterone derivatives gestonorone caproate (gestronol hexanoate), nomegestrol acetate, segesterone acetate (nestorone, elcometrine), and norgestomet are also derivatives of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (see below). === 17α-Methylprogesterone derivatives === Although an active progestogen, 17α-methylprogesterone is not medically used. The 19-norprogesterone derivatives demegestone, promegestone, and trimegestone are also derivatives of 17α-methylprogesterone (see below). === Other 17α-substituted progesterone derivatives === === 19-Norprogesterone derivatives === Although an active progestogen, 19-norprogesterone is not medically used. == Testosterone derivatives == Testosterone itself does not have significant progestogenic activity. Testosterone is instead classified as an anabolic-androgenic steroid and is included here purely because it is the parent structure of this group of progestins. === 17α-Ethynyltestosterone derivatives === === 19-Nortestosterone derivatives === While nandrolone (19-nortestosterone) does have significant progestogenic activity, it is not used as a progestogen. It is instead classified as an androgenic-anabolic steroid and is included here purely


id: list-of-publications-in-chemistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_chemistry-0.md
category: reference
title: List of publications in chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:58.574449+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-publications-in-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of publications in chemistry, organized by field. Some factors that correlate with publication notability include: Topic creator – A publication that created a new topic. Breakthrough – A publication that changed scientific knowledge significantly. Influence – A publication that has significantly influenced the world or has had a massive impact on the teaching of chemistry. == Foundations == === The Sceptical Chymist === Boyle, Robert (1979) [1661]. The Sceptical Chymist. London; New York: J.M. Dent & Sons, Ltd.; E.P. Dutton & Co. OCLC 3165496. Description: Boyle, in the form of a dialogue, argued that chemical theories should be firmly grounded in experiment before their acceptance, and for the foundation of chemistry as a science separate from medicine and alchemy. Importance: Topic Creator, Influence. Boyle, in this book, became the first to argue that experiment should form the basis of all theory, a common practice in chemistry today. He also expounded on a rudimentary atomic theory and the existence of chemical elements beyond the classic earth, fire, air, and water. He is seen as the father of chemistry, and this is his most celebrated book, with continued relevance to the present day. === Traité Élémentaire de Chimie


id: list-of-publications-in-chemistry-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_chemistry-1.md
category: reference
title: List of publications in chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:58.574449+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-publications-in-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
=== Chemical Applications of Group Theory === F. Albert Cotton Wiley, John & Sons, Incorporated, 1st Ed. 1963, 3rd Ed. 1990. Description: Explains the use of symmetry groups in describing molecular symmetry and its role in determining molecular properties. Importance: Significant influence by introducing group theory to a much wider group of chemists. === Advanced Inorganic Chemistry === F. Albert Cotton and Geoffrey Wilkinson Wiley, John & Sons, Incorporated, 1st Ed. 1962, 6th Ed. 1999 Description: A classic general textbook for an undergraduate course in inorganic chemistry Importance: This book is not only a good introduction to the subject, it was very different from earlier texts and "led to a fundamental shift in the way in which inorganic chemistry was studied". It seemed to be symbolic of the renaissance in inorganic chemistry starting in the 1950s. Every new text in inorganic chemistry since this text has had to respond to it. === Inorganic and Theoretical Chemistry === F. Sherwood Taylor and H. M. N. H. Irving Heinemann, 1st Ed 1931, 10th Ed. 1960 Description: Unique very advanced and comprehensive coverage of every element known at the time by chapter describing all known compounds yet discovered or synthesised. Approaches chemistry as


id: list-of-publications-in-chemistry-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_chemistry-2.md
category: reference
title: List of publications in chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:58.574449+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-publications-in-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
=== Principles of Polymer Chemistry === Flory, Paul J. (1953) Cornell University Press. 1953, ISBN 0-8014-0134-8. Description: Discusses structure and stereochemistry of synthetic polymers, polymerization kinetics, behaviour of polymers in solution, chain dimensions. Importance: First major text on polymer chemistry; presents both organic and physical chemistry aspects. Written by a chemist who made major contributions to the physical chemistry of polymers, for which he won the Nobel prize in 1974. == Environmental chemistry == === Aquatic Chemistry, Chemical Equilibria and Rates in Natural Waters === Stumm, Werner and James J. Morgan. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1st Edition 1970, 3rd Edition 1996, ISBN 0-471-51185-4. Description. This book covers the full spectrum of the discipline including acid/base equilibria, carbonate chemistry, mass transfer, complexation, sorption phenomenon, oxidation/reduction, colloid chemistry, and flocculation/coagulation. The authors generally present the material using a ground up approach that emphasizes fundamental principles of thermodynamics and kinetics. Importance. The publication is one of the most widely cited texts in environmental chemistry. In 1999, Stumm and Morgan received the Stockholm Water Prize for their contributions in the field. The citation specifically mentioned Aquatic Chemistry where it was described as a "seminal book" that is "used in education all over the


id: list-of-purification-methods-in-chemistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_purification_methods_in_chemistry-0.md
category: reference
title: List of purification methods in chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_purification_methods_in_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:59:59.757286+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-purification-methods-in-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
Purification in a chemical context is the physical separation of a chemical substance of interest from foreign or contaminating substances. Pure results of a successful purification process are termed isolate. The following list of chemical purification methods should not be considered exhaustive. Affinity purification purifies proteins by retaining them on a column through their affinity to antibodies, enzymes, or receptors that have been immobilised on the column. Filtration is a mechanical method to separate solids from liquids or gases by passing the feed stream through a porous sheet such as a cloth or membrane, which retains the solids and allows the liquid to pass through. Centrifugation is a process that uses an electric motor to spin a vessel of fluid at high speed to make heavier components settle to the bottom of the vessel. Evaporation removes volatile liquids from non-volatile solutes, which cannot be done through filtration due to the small size of the substances. Liquid–liquid extraction removes an impurity or recovers a desired product by dissolving the crude material in a solvent in which other components of the feed material are soluble. Crystallization separates a product from a liquid feed stream, often in extremely pure form, by cooling the


id: list-of-reagents-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_reagents-0.md
category: reference
title: List of reagents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_reagents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:01.186595+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-reagents-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of inorganic and organic reagents commonly used in chemistry. == Synopsis == Reagents are "substances or compounds that are added to a system in order to bring about a chemical reaction or are added to see if a reaction occurs." Some reagents are just a single element. However, most processes require reagents made of chemical compounds. Some of the most common ones used widely for specific reactive functions are listed below, but is by no means exhaustive. == Reagent Compounds == == See also == Reagent Limiting reagent Category: Reagents for organic chemistry == References ==


id: list-of-refrigerants-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_refrigerants-0.md
category: reference
title: List of refrigerants
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_refrigerants
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:02.795048+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-refrigerants-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of refrigerants, sorted by their ASHRAE-designated numbers, commonly known as R numbers. Many modern refrigerants are human-made halogenated gases, especially fluorinated gases and chlorinated gases, that are frequently referred to as Freon (a registered trademark of Chemours). Freons are responsible for the formation of the ozone hole. The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol are international agreements that oblige signatory countries to limit the emission of ozone-depleting gases. The Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol furthermore obliges signatory countries to limit the emission of gases with high global warming potential. == Numbering scheme == According to ASHRAE standard 34, the R-number of a chemical refrigerant is assigned systematically according to its molecular structure and has between two and four digits. If there are carbon-carbon multiple bonds, there are four digits in all: the number of these bonds is the first digit and the number of carbon atoms minus one (C − 1) is next. If there is more than one carbon atom but no multiple bonds, there are three digits, and the number of carbon atoms minus one is the first digit. If there is only one carbon atom,


id: rotterdam-convention-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotterdam_Convention-0.md
category: reference
title: Rotterdam Convention
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotterdam_Convention
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:04.010688+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rotterdam-convention-20260505-0
summary:
The Rotterdam Convention (formally, the Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade) is a multilateral treaty to promote shared responsibilities in relation to importation of hazardous chemicals. The convention promotes open exchange of information and calls on exporters of hazardous chemicals to use proper labeling, include directions on safe handling, and inform purchasers of any known restrictions or bans. Signatory nations can decide whether to allow or ban the importation of chemicals listed in the treaty, and exporting countries are obliged to make sure that producers within their jurisdiction comply. In 2012, the Secretariats of the Basel and Stockholm conventions, as well as the UNEP-part of the Rotterdam Convention Secretariat, merged to a single Secretariat with a matrix structure serving the three conventions. The three conventions now hold back to back Conferences of the Parties as part of their joint synergies decisions. The ninth meeting of the Rotterdam Conference was held from 29 April to 10 May 2019 in Geneva, Switzerland. == Substances covered under the Convention == The following chemicals are listed in Annex III to the convention: 2,4,5-T and its salts and esters Alachlor Aldicarb Aldrin Asbestos –


id: list-of-saturated-fatty-acids-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_saturated_fatty_acids-0.md
category: reference
title: List of saturated fatty acids
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_saturated_fatty_acids
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:05.181126+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-saturated-fatty-acids-20260505-0
summary:
Saturated fatty acids are fatty acids that make up saturated fats. == Straight-chain == Saturated straight-chain fatty acids: == Branched-chain == Saturated branched-chain fatty acids: == See also == List of unsaturated fatty acids Carboxylic acid List of carboxylic acids Dicarboxylic acid


id: list-of-scattering-experiments-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scattering_experiments-0.md
category: reference
title: List of scattering experiments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scattering_experiments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:07.070283+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scattering-experiments-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of scattering experiments. == Specific experiments of historical significance == Davisson–Germer experiment Gold foil experiments, performed by Geiger and Marsden for Rutherford which discovered the atomic nucleus Elucidation of the structure of DNA by X-ray crystallography Discovery of the antiproton at the Bevatron Discovery of W and Z bosons at CERN Discovery of the Higgs boson at the Large Hadron Collider MINERνA == Types of experiment == === Optical methods === Compton scattering Raman scattering X-ray crystallography Biological small-angle scattering with X-rays, or Small-angle X-ray scattering Static light scattering Dynamic light scattering Polymer scattering with X-rays === Neutron-based methods === Neutron scattering Biological small-angle scattering with neutrons, or Small-angle neutron scattering Polymer scattering with neutrons === Particle accelerators === Electrostatic nuclear accelerator Linear induction accelerator Betatron Linear particle accelerator Cyclotron Synchrotron


id: list-of-schedule-1-substances-cwc-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Schedule_1_substances_(CWC)-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Schedule 1 substances (CWC)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Schedule_1_substances_(CWC)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:08.723385+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-schedule-1-substances-cwc-20260505-0
summary:
Schedule 1 substances, in the sense of the Chemical Weapons Convention, are chemicals which are feasible either to be used directly as chemical weapons or in the manufacture of chemical weapons, and which have very limited to no use outside of chemical warfare. These may be produced or used for research, medical, pharmaceutical or chemical weapon defence testing (called "protective testing" in the treaty) purposes but production above 100 grams per year must be declared to the OPCW in accordance with Part VI of the "Verification Annex". A country is limited to possessing a maximum of one tonne of these materials. Schedule 1 is divided into Part A substances, which are chemicals that can be used directly as weapons, and Part B which are precursors useful in the manufacture of chemical weapons. Examples are mustard and nerve agents, and substances which are solely used as precursor chemicals in their manufacture. A few of these chemicals have very small-scale non-military applications; for example, minute quantities of nitrogen mustard are used to treat certain cancers. The Schedule 1 list is one of three lists. Chemicals which are feasible to use as weapons, and their precursors, but which have legitimate applications as well


id: list-of-schedule-2-substances-cwc-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Schedule_2_substances_(CWC)-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Schedule 2 substances (CWC)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Schedule_2_substances_(CWC)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:10.335309+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-schedule-2-substances-cwc-20260505-0
summary:
Schedule 2 substances, in the sense of the Chemical Weapons Convention, are chemicals that are feasible to use as chemical weapons themselves (Part A), or their manufacturing precursors (Part B), and which have small-scale applications outside of chemical warfare and so can be legitimately manufactured in small quantities. An example is thiodiglycol, which can be used in the manufacture of mustard agents but is also used as a solvent in inks. Manufacture must be declared as their production is subject to declaration to the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) per Part VII of the "Verification Annex", and they may not be exported to countries that are not party to the Convention. The Schedule 2 list is one of three lists. Chemicals that can be used as weapons, or used in their manufacture, but that have no, or almost no, legitimate applications as well are listed in Schedule 1, whilst Schedule 3 is used for chemicals that also have widespread industrial uses. The use of Schedule 1, 2, or 3 chemicals as weapons is banned by the convention. == Guidelines for Schedule 2 == Schedule 2 lists toxic chemicals and precursors – not listed in Schedule 1 –


id: list-of-schedule-3-substances-cwc-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Schedule_3_substances_(CWC)-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Schedule 3 substances (CWC)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Schedule_3_substances_(CWC)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:12.650792+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-schedule-3-substances-cwc-20260505-0
summary:
Schedule 3 substances, in the sense of the Chemical Weapons Convention, are chemicals which have large-scale industrial uses, but are feasible to use as toxic chemical weapons (Part A) or manufacturing precursors (Part B). Plants which manufacture more than 30 tonnes per year must be declared and can be inspected as per Part VIII of the "Verification Annex", and there are restrictions on export to countries which are not CWC signatories. Examples of these substances are phosgene, which has been used as a chemical weapon but which is also a precursor in the manufacture of many legitimate organic compounds, and triethanolamine, used in the manufacture of nitrogen mustard but also commonly used in toiletries and detergents. The Schedule 3 list is one of three lists. Chemicals which can be used as weapons, or used in their manufacture, but which have no, or almost no, legitimate applications as well are listed in Schedule 1, whilst Schedule 2 is used for chemicals which have legitimate small-scale applications. The use of Schedule 1, 2, or 3 chemicals as weapons is banned by the Convention. == Guidelines for Schedule 3 == The criteria for including a chemical in this schedule is that it is


id: list-of-sex-hormonal-medications-available-in-the-united-states-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sex-hormonal_medications_available_in_the_United_States-0.md
category: reference
title: List of sex-hormonal medications available in the United States
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sex-hormonal_medications_available_in_the_United_States
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:14.007543+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-sex-hormonal-medications-available-in-the-united-states-20260505-0
summary:
List of sex-hormonal medications available in the United States may refer to: List of androgens/anabolic steroids available in the United States List of estrogens available in the United States List of progestogens available in the United States == See also == List of combined sex-hormonal preparations List of steroids List of steroid esters == References ==


id: list-of-chemistry-societies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_societies-0.md
category: reference
title: List of chemistry societies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemistry_societies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:15.181072+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemistry-societies-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of chemistry societies: == A == Alpha Chi Sigma (ΑΧΣ) American Association for Clinical Chemistry American Chemical Society American Crystallographic Association American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) American Institute of Chemists(AIC) American Oil Chemists' Society American Society of Brewing Chemists American Society for Mass Spectrometry Association of Analytical Communities (AOAC International) Association of Greek Chemists == B == Belgian Society of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology Biochemical Society Brazilian Chemical Society == C == Canadian Society for Chemical Technology (CSCT) Canadian Society of Clinical Chemists - (CSCC) Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) Chemical Heritage Foundation (CHF), now the Science History Institute Chemical Institute of Canada (CIC) Chemical Society Located in Taipei (CSLT) Chemical Society of Japan (CSJ) Crystallographic Society of Japan (CSJ) Chemical Society of Pakistan Chemical Society of Peru Chinese-American Chemical Society Chinese Chemical Society (Beijing) (CCS) Chinese Chemical Society (Taipei) (CSLT) Council for Chemical Research (CCR) Chemical Research Society of India == D == Danish Chemical Society == E == The Electrochemical Society European Association for Chemical and Molecular Sciences == F == Faraday Society Federation of European Biochemical Societies == G == Gesellschaft Deutscher Chemiker (GDCh) == H == Hungarian Chemical Society == I


id: list-of-chemical-engineering-societies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_engineering_societies-0.md
category: reference
title: List of chemical engineering societies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_chemical_engineering_societies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:16.445936+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chemical-engineering-societies-20260505-0
summary:
This is the list of chemical engineering societies in the world. They are sorted by continent and alphabetically. They include national or international ones, but not student societies or those otherwise restricted to a particular university or institution. == Africa == Ethiopian Society of Chemical Engineers (ESChE), Ethiopia Nigerian Society of Chemical Engineers South African Institution of Chemical Engineers (SAIChE), South Africa == Asia == Asia Pacific Confederation of Chemical Engineering (APCChE) Iranian Association of Chemical Engineering (IAChE) [1], I.R. Iran Indian Institute of Chemical Engineers (IIChe), India [2] Israel Institute of Chemical Engineers (IIChe), Israel [3] Korean Chemical Society (KCS), Korea [4] Korean Institute of Chemical Engineers (ko) (KIChE), Korea [5] Pakistan Institute of Chemical Engineers (PICHE), Pakistan [6] Philippine Institute of Chemical Engineers (PIChE), Philippines [7] Society of Chemical Engineers, Japan (SCEJ) (ja), Japan [8] Society of Chemical Engineers of Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal [9] Taiwan Institute of Chemical Engineering (TwIChE), Taiwan [10] Thai Institute of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry (TIChE), Thailand [11] == Europe == European Federation of Chemical Engineering (EFCE) (umbrella organization) Associazione Italiana Di Ingegneria Chimica (AIDIC), Italy Chamber of Chemical Engineers, Turkey [12] DECHEMA, Germany Institution of Chemical Engineers (IChemE), UK Société Française de


id: solubility-table-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solubility_table-0.md
category: reference
title: Solubility table
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solubility_table
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:17.689616+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: solubility-table-20260505-0
summary:
The tables below provides information on the variation of solubility of different substances (mostly inorganic compounds) in water with temperature, at one atmosphere pressure. Units of solubility are given in grams of substance per 100 millilitres of water (g/100 ml), unless shown otherwise. The substances are listed in Latin alphabetical order. == Tables == === A === === B === === C === === D and E === === F and G === === H === === I === === L === === M === === N and O === === P === === R === === S === === T === === U, V, and X === === Y === === Z === == References == Chemicalc v4.0 - software that includes data on solubility Learning, Food resources Kaye and Laby Online ChemBioFinder.com(registration required) == External links == Solubility Database - International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry / National Institute of Standards and Technology CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics - Online resource that includes solubility data (requires subscription)


id: standard-electrode-potential-data-page-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_electrode_potential_(data_page)-0.md
category: reference
title: Standard electrode potential (data page)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_electrode_potential_(data_page)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:19.093695+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: standard-electrode-potential-data-page-20260505-0
summary:
The data below tabulates standard electrode potentials (E°), in volts relative to the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE), at: Temperature 298.15 K (25.00 °C; 77.00 °F); Effective concentration (activity) 1 mol/L for each aqueous or amalgamated (mercury-alloyed) species; Unit activity for each solvent and pure solid or liquid species; and Absolute partial pressure 101.325 kPa (1.00000 atm; 1.01325 bar) for each gaseous reagent — the convention in most literature data but not the current standard state (100 kPa). Variations from these ideal conditions affect measured voltage via the Nernst equation. Electrode potentials of successive elementary half-reactions cannot be directly added. However, the corresponding Gibbs free energy changes (∆G°) can be added. Those free energy changes satisfy ∆G° = –zFE°, where z electrons are transferred, and the Faraday constant F is the conversion factor describing Coulombs transferred per mole electrons. For example, from Fe2+ + 2 e− ⇌ Fe(s) (−0.44 V), the energy to form one neutral atom of Fe(s) from one Fe2+ ion and two electrons is 2 × 0.44 eV = 0.88 eV, or 84 907 J/(mol e−). That value is also the standard formation energy (∆Gf°) for an Fe2+ ion, since e− and Fe(s) both have zero formation energy.


id: table-of-standard-reduction-potentials-for-half-reactions-important-in-biochemistry-20260505-0
category: reference
title: Table of standard reduction potentials for half-reactions important in biochemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:20.666557+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: table-of-standard-reduction-potentials-for-half-reactions-important-in-biochemistry-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_standard_reduction_potentials_for_half-reactions_important_in_biochemistry-0.md

summary:
The values below are standard apparent reduction potentials (E°') for electro-biochemical half-reactions measured at 25 °C, 1 atmosphere and a pH of 7 in aqueous solution. The actual physiological potential depends on the ratio of the reduced (Red) and oxidized (Ox) forms according to the Nernst equation and the thermal voltage. When an oxidizer (Ox) accepts a number z of electrons ( e−) to be converted in its reduced form (Red), the half-reaction is expressed as: Ox + z e− → Red The reaction quotient (Qr) is the ratio of the chemical activity (ai) of the reduced form (the reductant, aRed) to the activity of the oxidized form (the oxidant, aox). It is equal to the ratio of their concentrations (Ci) only if the system is sufficiently diluted and the activity coefficients (γi) are close to unity (ai = γi Ci): Q r = a Red a Ox = C Red C Ox {\displaystyle Q_{r}={\frac {a_{\text{Red}}}{a_{\text{Ox}}}}={\frac {C_{\text{Red}}}{C_{\text{Ox}}}}} The Nernst equation is a function of Qr and can be written as follows: E red = E red ⊖ − R T z F ln ⁡ Q r = E red ⊖ − R T z F ln ⁡ a Red a

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_standard_reduction_potentials_for_half-reactions_important_in_biochemistry


id: table-of-standard-reduction-potentials-for-half-reactions-important-in-biochemistry-20260505-1
category: reference
title: Table of standard reduction potentials for half-reactions important in biochemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:20.666557+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: table-of-standard-reduction-potentials-for-half-reactions-important-in-biochemistry-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_standard_reduction_potentials_for_half-reactions_important_in_biochemistry-1.md

summary:
== Formal standard reduction potential combined with the pH dependency == To obtain the reduction potential as a function of the measured concentrations of the redox-active species in solution, it is necessary to express the activities as a function of the concentrations. E h = E red = E red ⊖ − 0.05916 z log ⁡ ( { C } c { D } d { A } a { B } b ) − 0.05916 h z pH {\displaystyle E_{h}=E_{\text{red}}=E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus }-{\frac {0.05916}{z}}\log \left({\frac {\{C\}^{c}\{D\}^{d}}{\{A\}^{a}\{B\}^{b}}}\right)-{\frac {0.05916\,h}{z}}{\text{pH}}} Given that the chemical activity denoted here by { } is the product of the activity coefficient γ by the concentration denoted by [ ]: ai = γi·Ci, here expressed as {X} = γx [X] and {X}x = (γx)x [X]x and replacing the logarithm of a product by the sum of the logarithms (i.e., log (a·b) = log a + log b), the log of the reaction quotient ( Q r {\displaystyle Q_{r}} ) (without {H+} already isolated apart in the last term as h pH) expressed here above with activities { } becomes: log ⁡ ( { C } c { D } d { A } a { B } b )

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_standard_reduction_potentials_for_half-reactions_important_in_biochemistry


id: table-of-standard-reduction-potentials-for-half-reactions-important-in-biochemistry-20260505-2
category: reference
title: Table of standard reduction potentials for half-reactions important in biochemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:20.666557+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: table-of-standard-reduction-potentials-for-half-reactions-important-in-biochemistry-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_standard_reduction_potentials_for_half-reactions_important_in_biochemistry-2.md

summary:
E red = E red ⊖ ′ {\displaystyle E_{\text{red}}=E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus '}} , when C red C ox = 1 {\displaystyle {\frac {C_{\text{red}}}{C_{\text{ox}}}}=1} , because ln ⁡ 1 = 0 {\displaystyle \ln {1}=0} , and that the term γ red γ ox {\displaystyle {\frac {\gamma _{\text{red}}}{\gamma _{\text{ox}}}}} is included in E red ⊖ ′ {\displaystyle E_{\text{red}}^{\ominus '}} . The formal reduction potential makes possible to more simply work with molar or molal concentrations in place of activities. Because molar and molal concentrations were once referred as formal concentrations, it could explain the origin of the adjective formal in the expression formal potential. The formal potential is thus the reversible potential of an electrode at equilibrium immersed in a solution where reactants and products are at unit concentration. If any small incremental change of potential causes a change in the direction of the reaction, i.e. from reduction to oxidation or vice versa, the system is close to equilibrium, reversible and is at its formal potential. When the formal potential is measured under standard conditions (i.e. the activity of each dissolved species is 1 mol/L, T = 298.15 K = 25 °C = 77 °F, Pgas = 1 bar) it becomes de facto a

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_standard_reduction_potentials_for_half-reactions_important_in_biochemistry


id: list-of-steroid-abbreviations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroid_abbreviations-0.md
category: reference
title: List of steroid abbreviations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroid_abbreviations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:22.145662+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-steroid-abbreviations-20260505-0
summary:
The steroid hormones are referred to by various abbreviations in the biological literature. The purpose of this list is to give commonly used abbreviations for steroid hormones, with supporting references to the literature. == Table of abbreviations == == References ==


id: list-of-steroid-esters-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroid_esters-0.md
category: reference
title: List of steroid esters
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroid_esters
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:23.375391+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-steroid-esters-20260505-0
summary:
List of steroid esters may refer to: List of androgen esters – androgen esters List of estrogen esters – estrogen esters List of progestogen esters – progestogen esters List of corticosteroid esters – corticosteroid esters == See also == List of steroids List of sex-hormonal medications available in the United States List of combined sex-hormonal preparations == References ==


id: list-of-steroidal-antiandrogens-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroidal_antiandrogens-0.md
category: reference
title: List of steroidal antiandrogens
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroidal_antiandrogens
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:24.645895+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-steroidal-antiandrogens-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of steroidal antiandrogens. == Progesterone derivatives == 11α-Hydroxyprogesterone = 11α-hydroxyprogesterone Chlormadinone acetate = 17α-acetoxy-6-chloro-δ6-progesterone Clometerone (L-38000) = 6α-chloro-16α-methylprogesterone Cyproterone (SH-80881) = 1,2α-methylene-6-chloro-δ6-17α-hydroxyprogesterone Cyproterone acetate = 1,2α-methylene-6-chloro-δ6-17α-acetoxyprogesterone Edogestrone (PH-218) = 17α-acetoxy-3,3-ethylenedioxy-6-methylpregn-5-en-20-one Medrogestone = 6,17α-dimethyl-δ6-progesterone Megestrol acetate = 17α-acetoxy-δ6-6-methylprogesterone Nomegestrol acetate = 17α-acetoxy-δ6-6-methyl-19-norprogesterone Osaterone acetate (TZP-4238) = 17α-acetoxy-6-chloro-2-oxa-δ6-progesterone == Testosterone derivatives == Abiraterone (CB-7598) = 17-(3-pyridinyl)androsta-5,16-dien-3β-ol Abiraterone acetate = 17-(3-pyridinyl)androsta-5,16-dien-3β-ol acetate Benorterone (SKF-7690, FC-612) = 17α-methyl-B-nortestosterone BOMT (Ro 7-2340) = 6α-bromo-4-oxa-17α-methyl-4,5α-dihydrotestosterone Delanterone (GBR-21162) = 17β-dehydroxy-1α-methyl-δ16-testosterone Dienogest = 17α-cyanomethyl-19-nor-δ9(10)-testosterone Epitestosterone = 17α-epitestosterone Galeterone (TOK-001, VN/124-1) = 17-(1H-benzimidazol-1-yl)androsta-5,16-dien-3β-ol Metogest (SC-14207) = 16,16-dimethyl-19-nortestosterone Mifepristone = 11β-[p-(dimethylamino)phenyl]-17-(1-propynyl)-δ9-19-nortestosterone Oxendolone (TSAA-291) = 16β-ethyl-19-nortestosterone Rosterolone (SH-434, 17α-propylmesterolone) = 1α-methyl-17α-propyl-4,5α-dihydrotestosterone Topterone (WIN-17665) = 17α-propyltestosterone Trimethyltrienolone (R-2956, RU-2956) = 2α,2β,17α-trimethyl-19-nor-δ9,11-testosterone Zanoterone (WIN-49596) = (5α,17α)-1'-(methylsulfonyl)-1'-H-pregn-20-yno[3,2-c]pyrazol-17-ol == Spirolactone derivatives == SC-5233 (spirolactone) = 17α-(2-carboxyethyl)testosterone γ-lactone SC-8109 = 19-norspirolactone Canrenone (aldadiene) = Δ6-spirolactone Dicirenone (SC-26304) = 7α-carboxyisopropylspirolactone Drospirenone = 6β,7β:15β,16β-dimethylenespirolactone Mespirenone (ZK-94679) = Δ1-7α-acetylthio-15β,16β-methylenespirolactone Mexrenone (ZK-32055, SC-25152) = 7α-(methoxycarbonyl)spirolactone Prorenone (SC-23133) = 6α,7α-methylenespirolactone Spironolactone = 7α-acetylthiospirolactone Spirorenone (ZK-35973) = Δ1-6β,7β:15β,16β-dimethylenespirolactone Spiroxasone = 7α-acetylthiospirolactone with the ketone group removed from the C17α spirolactone ring == Cortisol derivatives == 9,11-Dehydrocortexolone 17α-butyrate (CB-03-04) = 17α-(butyryloxy)-9,11-didehydrodeoxycorticosterone Clascoterone (CB-03-01; cortexolone 17α-propionate, 11-deoxycortisol 17α-propionate) = 17α-(propionyloxy)deoxycorticosterone == Others == Guggulsterone = pregna-4,17-diene-3,16-dione Nordinone = 11α-hydroxy-17,17-dimethyl-18-norandrosta-4,13-dien-3-one ==


id: list-of-steroids-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroids-0.md
category: reference
title: List of steroids
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroids
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:26.110615+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-steroids-20260505-0
summary:
List of steroids may refer to: List of androgens/anabolic steroids – steroidal androgens/anabolic steroids List of androgens/anabolic steroids (alternate) – steroidal androgens/anabolic steroids List of steroidal antiandrogens – steroidal antiandrogens List of estrogens – estrogens List of progestogens – progestogens List of corticosteroids – corticosteroids, including both glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids List of neurosteroids – excitatory, inhibitory, mixed, neurotrophic, antineurotrophic, and other neurosteroids, as well as pheromones and pherines List of steroidogenesis inhibitors – steroidogenesis inhibitors, or inhibitors of steroid biosynthesis and metabolism As well as lists of steroid esters, including: List of androgen esters – androgen esters List of estrogen esters – estrogen esters List of progestogen esters – progestogen esters List of corticosteroid esters – corticosteroid esters == See also == List of steroid esters List of steroid medications available in the United States


id: list-of-sgt-cannabinoids-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_SGT_cannabinoids-0.md
category: reference
title: List of SGT cannabinoids
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_SGT_cannabinoids
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:27.341275+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-sgt-cannabinoids-20260505-0
summary:
Many synthetic cannabinoids were designed by Stargate International, a now defunct New Zealand company in the 2000s and 2010s, and feature an alphanumeric code beginning with the prefix "SGT". PB-22 (SGT-21) is credited with being the first synthetic cannabinoid to feature a quinoline substructure with an ester linker at the indole 3-position. The mainly N-cumyl-indazole-3-carboxamide derivatives are best known. Many SGT compounds are banned as designer drugs in various jurisdictions, such as Japan. == Chemical structures of SGT cannabinoid compounds == == See also == List of AM cannabinoids List of CP cannabinoids List of HU cannabinoids List of JWH cannabinoids List of miscellaneous designer cannabinoids == External links == Cannabinoid collection, isomerdesign.com == References ==


id: list-of-stoffs-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_stoffs-0.md
category: reference
title: List of stoffs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_stoffs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:28.497127+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-stoffs-20260505-0
summary:
During World War II, Germany fielded many aircraft and rockets whose fuels, and oxidizers, were designated (letter)-Stoff (pronounced [ʃtɔf]). The following list of stoffs refers to the World War II aerospace meanings if not noted otherwise. == Meaning of stoff == The German word Stoff (plural Stoffe), like the English word stuff, derives from Old French estoffe, however the meanings are somewhat different. Stoff has a fairly broad range of meanings, including "chemical substance" or "matter", "fuel" and "cloth", depending on the context. The German names of the common elements hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen are Wasserstoff, Sauerstoff and Stickstoff ("hydrogen" being a scientific Greek neologism for "constituent of water", "oxygen" for "constituent of acids", "nitrogen" for "constituent of nitre", i.e. saltpeter - although the German root stick- is derived from ersticken, "to smother, suffocate", referring to its property of not supporting combustion and respiration). Stoff was used in chemical code names in both world wars. Some code names were reused between the wars and had different meanings at different times; for example, T-Stoff meant a rocket propellant in World War II, but a tear gas (xylyl bromide) in World War I. == List == A-Stoff (World War I): chloroacetone (tear


id: table-of-explosive-detonation-velocities-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_explosive_detonation_velocities-0.md
category: reference
title: Table of explosive detonation velocities
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_explosive_detonation_velocities
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:29.781547+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: table-of-explosive-detonation-velocities-20260505-0
summary:
This is a compilation of published detonation velocities for various high explosive compounds. Detonation velocity is the speed with which the detonation shock wave travels through the explosive. It is a key, directly measurable indicator of explosive performance, but depends on density which must always be specified, and may be too low if the test charge diameter is not large enough. Especially for little studied explosives there may be divergent published values due to charge diameter issues. In liquid explosives, like nitroglycerin, there may be two detonation velocities, one much higher than the other. The detonation velocity values presented here are typically for the highest practical density which maximizes achievable detonation velocity. The velocity of detonation is an important indicator for overall energy and power of detonation, and in particular for the brisance or shattering effect of an explosive which is due to the detonation pressure. The pressure can be calculated using Chapman–Jouguet theory from the velocity and density. == See also == TNT equivalent RE factor == References ==


id: list-of-unsaturated-fatty-acids-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsaturated_fatty_acids-0.md
category: reference
title: List of unsaturated fatty acids
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsaturated_fatty_acids
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:31.224086+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsaturated-fatty-acids-20260505-0
summary:
== Fatty acid molecular species == === Mono-unsaturated fatty acid === The following fatty acids have one unsaturated bond. == See also == List of saturated fatty acids Carboxylic acid List of carboxylic acids Dicarboxylic acid == References ==


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-chemistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_chemistry-0.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:32.399241+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of unsolved problems in chemistry. Problems in chemistry are considered unsolved when an expert in the field considers it unsolved or when several experts in the field disagree about a solution to a problem. == Physical chemistry problems == Can the transition temperature of high-temperature superconductors be brought up to room temperature? How do the spin–orbit coupling, other relativistic corrections, and inter-electron effects modify the chemistry of the trans-actinides? Is it possible to create a practically useful lithium–air battery? == Organic chemistry problems == What is the origin of homochirality in biomolecules? Why are accelerated kinetics observed for some organic reactions at the water-organic interface? Do replacement reactions of aryl diazonium salts (dediazotizations) predominantly undergo SN1 or a radical mechanism? Can an electrochemical cell reliably perform organic redox reactions? Which "classic organic chemistry" reactions admit chiral catalysts? Is it possible to construct a quaternary carbon atom with arbitrary (distinguishable) substituents and stereochemistry? Can artificial enzymes replace the need for protecting groups when modifying sensitive compounds? == Inorganic chemistry problems == Are there any molecules that certainly contain a phi bond? Is there a less labor- or energy-intensive technique for titanium refinement than the Kroll process? Does


id: list-of-vegetable-oils-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils-0.md
category: reference
title: List of vegetable oils
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:33.641143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-vegetable-oils-20260505-0
summary:
Vegetable oils are triglycerides extracted from plants. Some of these oils have been part of human culture for millennia. Edible vegetable oils are used in food, both in cooking and as supplements. Many oils, edible and otherwise, are burned as fuel, such as in oil lamps and as a substitute for petroleum-based fuels. Some of the many other uses include wood finishing, oil painting, and skin care. == Definition == The term "vegetable oil" can be narrowly defined as referring only to substances that are liquid at room temperature, or broadly defined without regard to a substance's state (liquid or solid) at a given temperature. While a large majority of the entries in this list fit the narrower of these definitions, some do not qualify as vegetable oils according to all understandings of the term. == Classification == Vegetable oils can be classified in several ways. For instance, by their use or by the method used to extract them. In this article, vegetable oils are grouped in common classes of use. === Extraction method === There are several types of plant oils, distinguished by the method used to extract the oil from the plant. The relevant part of the plant


id: list-of-vegetable-oils-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils-1.md
category: reference
title: List of vegetable oils
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:33.641143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-vegetable-oils-20260505-0
summary:
=== Citrus oils === A number of citrus plants yield pressed oils. Some, such as lemon and orange oil, are used as essential oils, which is uncommon for pressed oils. The seeds of many if not most members of the citrus family yield usable oils. Grapefruit seed oil, extracted from the seeds of grapefruit (Citrus × paradisi). Grapefruit seed oil was extracted experimentally in 1930 and was shown to be suitable for making soap. Lemon oil, similar in fragrance to the fruit. One of a small number of cold pressed essential oils. Used as a flavoring agent and in aromatherapy. Orange oil, like lemon oil, cold pressed rather than distilled. Consists of 90% d-Limonene. Used as a fragrance, in cleaning products and in flavoring foods. === Oils from melon and gourd seeds === Members of the Cucurbitaceae include gourds, melons, pumpkins, and squashes. Seeds from these plants are noted for their oil content, but little information is available on methods of extracting the oil. In most cases, the plants are grown as food, with dietary use of the oils as a byproduct of using the seeds as food. Bitter gourd oil, from the seeds of Momordica charantia. High in α-Eleostearic


id: list-of-vegetable-oils-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils-2.md
category: reference
title: List of vegetable oils
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:33.641143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-vegetable-oils-20260505-0
summary:
Coriander seed oil, from coriander seeds, used in a wide variety of flavoring applications, including gin and seasoning blends. Recent research has shown promise for use in killing food-borne bacteria, such as E. coli. Date seed oil, extracted from date pits. Its low extraction rate and lack of other distinguishing characteristics make it an unlikely candidate for major use. Dika oil, from Irvingia gabonensis seeds, native to West Africa. Used to make margarine, soap and pharmaceuticals, where is it being examined as a tablet lubricant. Largely underdeveloped. False flax oil made of the seeds of Camelina sativa. One of the earliest oil crops, dating back to the 6th millennium B.C. Produced in modern times in Central and Eastern Europe; fell out of production in the 1940s. Considered promising as a food or fuel oil. Grape seed oil, a cooking and salad oil, also sprayed on raisins to help them retain their flavor. Hemp oil, a high quality food oil also used to make paints, varnishes, resins and soft soaps. Kapok seed oil, from the seeds of Ceiba pentandra, used as an edible oil, and in soap production. Kenaf seed oil, from the seeds of Hibiscus cannabinus. An edible oil similar


id: list-of-vegetable-oils-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils-3.md
category: reference
title: List of vegetable oils
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:33.641143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-vegetable-oils-20260505-0
summary:
A number of oils are used for biofuel (biodiesel and Straight Vegetable Oil) in addition to having other uses. Other oils are used only as biofuel. Although diesel engines were invented, in part, with vegetable oil in mind, diesel fuel is almost exclusively petroleum-based. Vegetable oils are evaluated for use as a biofuel based on: Suitability as a fuel, based on flash point, energy content, viscosity, combustion products and other factors Cost, based in part on yield, effort required to grow and harvest, and post-harvest processing cost === Multipurpose oils also used as biofuel === The oils listed immediately below are all (primarily) used for other purposes – all but tung oil are edible – but have been considered for use as biofuel. Castor oil, lower cost than many candidates. Kinematic viscosity may be an issue. Coconut oil (copra oil), promising for local use in places that produce coconuts. Colza oil, from Brassica rapa, var. oleifera (turnip) is closely related to rapeseed (or canola) oil. It is a major source of biodiesel in Germany. Corn oil, appealing because of the abundance of maize as a crop. Cottonseed oil, the subject of study for cost-effectiveness as a biodiesel feedstock. False flax


id: list-of-vegetable-oils-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils-4.md
category: reference
title: List of vegetable oils
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:33.641143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-vegetable-oils-20260505-0
summary:
Amur cork tree fruit oil, pressed from the fruit of the Phellodendron amurense. It has been studied for insecticidal use. Artichoke oil, extracted from the seeds of the artichoke fruit, is an unsaturated semi-drying oil with potential applications in making soap, shampoo, alkyd resin and shoe polish. Astrocaryum murumuru butter is employed in lotions, creams, soaps hair conditioners, facial masks, shampoo, oils and emulsions, skin moisturizer, products for the nutrition of the hair and restore damaged hair, depilatory waxes. Balanos oil, pressed from the seeds of Balanites aegyptiaca, was used in ancient Egypt as the base for perfumes. Bladderpod oil, pressed from the seeds of Physaria fendleri, native to North America. Rich in lesquerolic acid, which is chemically similar to the ricinoleic acid found in castor oil. Many industrial uses. Possible substitute for castor oil as it requires much less moisture than castor beans. Brucea javanica oil, extracted from the seeds of the Brucea javanica. The oil has been shown to be effective in treating certain cancers. Burdock oil (Bur oil) extracted from the root of the burdock. Used as an herbal remedy for scalp conditions. Buriti oil, extracted from the Mauritia flexuosa fruit, is high in carotenoids and monounsaturated


id: list-of-vegetable-oils-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils-5.md
category: reference
title: List of vegetable oils
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vegetable_oils
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:33.641143+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-vegetable-oils-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == "Fats and Cholesterol: Out with the Bad, In with the Good". The Nutrition Source. Harvard School of Public Health. Retrieved 2011-10-22. "Bulk Oil Trading". Retrieved 2006-07-25.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link) An older version of this site was very helpful in making this list more comprehensive. "Vegetable Oil Yields and Characteristics". Retrieved 2011-10-24. Compiles useful information on vegetable oils from a number of sources. "Castor Oil". Archived from the original on 2006-07-15. Retrieved 2006-07-25. The site contains a large set of resources on castor oil and many other oils, particularly those used to make biodiesel. Botanical Garden of Indian Republic (BGIR) (April 5, 2004). "Database of Oil Yielding Plants" (PDF). Botanical Survey of India. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-21. Retrieved 2010-10-19. List of about 300 plants that grow in India, and that yield oil. Also includes common names in languages spoken in India. Macmillan, H.F. (1989). "Oils and Vegetable Fats". Handbook of Tropical Plants. Herbdata New Zealand. ISBN 978-81-7041-177-2. Archived from the original on 2011-07-21. Old reference with basic information on an unusually large variety of plant oils. Ashurst, P. R. (1999). Food Flavorings. Springer. ISBN 978-0-8342-1621-1. Retrieved 2014-10-05. Comprehensive information on


id: list-of-viscosities-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_viscosities-0.md
category: reference
title: List of viscosities
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_viscosities
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:35.037462+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-viscosities-20260505-0
summary:
Dynamic viscosity is a material property which describes the resistance of a fluid to shearing flows. It corresponds roughly to the intuitive notion of a fluid's 'thickness'. For instance, honey has a much higher viscosity than water. Viscosity is measured using a viscometer. Measured values span several orders of magnitude. Of all fluids, gases have the lowest viscosities, and thick liquids have the highest. There is evidence of solid flow as result of Brownian motion in condition of extremes such as high temperature, high pressure, and extremely long time scales as theorized for the motion of the Earth's solid metal core. The values listed in this article are representative estimates only, as they do not account for measurement uncertainties, variability in material definitions, or non-Newtonian behavior. Kinematic viscosity is dynamic viscosity divided by fluid mass density. This page lists only dynamic viscosity. == Units and conversion factors == For dynamic viscosity, the SI unit is Pascal-second. In engineering, the unit is usually Poise or centiPoise, with 1 Poise = 0.1 Pascal-second, and 1 centiPoise = 0.01 Poise. For kinematic viscosity, the SI unit is m^2/s. In engineering, the unit is usually Stoke or centiStoke, with 1 Stoke = 0.0001 m^2/s,


id: list-of-water-miscible-solvents-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_water-miscible_solvents-0.md
category: reference
title: List of water-miscible solvents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_water-miscible_solvents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:36.279272+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-water-miscible-solvents-20260505-0
summary:
The following compounds are liquid at room temperature and are completely miscible with water; they are often used as solvents. Many of them are hygroscopic. == Organic compounds == == Inorganic compounds == == See also == Category:Alcohol solvents == External links == Solvent miscibility table [1] Diethylenetriamine [2] Hydrazine [3]


id: women-in-chemistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_chemistry-0.md
category: reference
title: Women in chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:37.588580+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of women chemists. It should include those who have been important to the development or practice of chemistry. Their research or application has made significant contributions in the area of basic or applied chemistry. == Nobel laureates == Source: 1911 – Marie Sklodowska-Curie – discovery of radium & polonium 1935 – Irène Joliot-Curie – artificial radioactivity 1964 – Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin – protein crystallography 2009 – Ada E. Yonath – structure & function of the ribosome 2018 – Frances Arnold – directed evolution to engineer enzymes 2020 – Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna – for CRISPR gene editing 2022 - Carolyn R. Bertozzi - for bioorthogonal chemistry Eight women have won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (listed above), awarded annually since 1901 by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Marie Curie was the first woman to receive the prize in 1911, which was her second Nobel Prize (she also won the prize in physics in 1903, along with Pierre Curie and Henri Becquerel – making her the only woman to be award two Nobel prizes). Her prize in chemistry was for her "discovery of the elements radium and polonium, by the isolation of radium and the


id: women-in-chemistry-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_chemistry-1.md
category: reference
title: Women in chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:37.588580+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
=== 20th century === Elly Agallidis (1914–2006), Greek physical chemist Nancy Allbritton, American analytical and biochemist Marianne Angermann (1904-1977), German-Spanish-New Zealand biochemist Valerie Ashby, American chemist Barbara Askins (born 1939), American chemist Kim K. Baldridge, American computational chemist Alice Ball (1892–1916), American chemist Carolyn Bertozzi (born 1966), American biochemist Cynthia Burrows, American physical organic chemist Asima Chatterjee (1917–2006), Indian organic chemist Astrid Cleve (1875–1968), Swedish chemist Mildred Cohn (1913–2009), American chemist Janine Cossy (born 1950), French organic chemist Maria Skłodowska-Curie (1867–1934), Polish-French physicist and chemist (discoverer of polonium and radium, pioneer in radiology); Nobel laureate in physics 1903, and in chemistry 1911 Jillian Lee Dempsey (born 1983), American chemist Vy M. Dong, American organic chemist Abigail Doyle (born 1980), American organic chemist Odile Eisenstein (born 1949), French, theoretical chemist Gertrude B. Elion (1918–1999), American biochemist (Nobel prize in Physiology or Medicine 1988 for drug development) Margaret Faul, Irish/American organic chemist Mary Peters Fieser (1909–1997), American organic chemist Marye Anne Fox (1947–2021), American physical organic chemist Rosalind Franklin (1920–1957), British physical chemist and crystallographer Helen Murray Free (1923–2021), American chemist Gunda I. Georg, German-trained medicinal chemist, professor of medicinal chemistry in the US Ellen Gleditsch (1879–1968), Norwegian radiochemist Paula T. Hammond


id: women-in-chemistry-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_chemistry-2.md
category: reference
title: Women in chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:37.588580+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
=== 21st century === Heather C. Allen, American chemist whose research focuses air-liquid interfaces Rommie Amaro, American chemist focusing on development of computational methods in biophysics for applications to drug discovery. Emily Balskus, American organic and biological chemist, and microbiologist. Recipient of the 2020 Alan T. Waterman Award for her work on understanding the chemistry of metabolic processes. Professor at Harvard University. Natalie Banerji, Swiss chemist and Professor of Chemistry at the University of Bern who studies organic and hybrid materials using ultrafast spectroscopies. Jane P. Chang, chemical engineer, materials scientist and professor at UCLA known for her research developing advanced atomic layer deposition (ALD) and etching techniques with applications in microelectronics and energy storage devices. Sherry Chemler, American Organic Chemist. Professor University at Buffalo. ACS Cope Scholar Award recipient (2017). Paulette Clancy, British chemist focusing on computational and machine learning methods, particularly chemistry-informed Bayesian optimization, to model the behavior of semiconductor materials. Sheila Hobbs DeWitt, American chemist. Chair, President, CEO, Cofounder of DeuteRx which has developed PXL065 a Deuterated drug. ACS Kathryn C. Hach Award for Entrepreneurial Success (2025). She is a pioneer of Combinatorial Chemistry. Elena Galoppini, Italian chemist and professor at Rutgers University–Newark whose research focuses on


id: list-of-yttrium-compounds-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_yttrium_compounds-0.md
category: reference
title: List of yttrium compounds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_yttrium_compounds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:38.884803+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-yttrium-compounds-20260505-0
summary:
This list of yttrium compounds shows compounds of yttrium. Inclusion criteria: those that have applications, academic significance, single crystal structures or have their own Wikipedia articles. == References ==


id: glossary-of-climate-change-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change-0.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:40.546594+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
This glossary of climate change is a list of definitions of terms and concepts relevant to climate change, global warming, and related topics. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) use tens of acronyms and initialisms in documents relating to climate change policy. == 0–9 == 100,000-year problem The apparent discrepancy between the climate response and the forcing from the amount of incoming solar radiation. == A == adaptation Any adjustment in natural or human systems in response to a changing or changed climate. additionality In the context of a project funded by carbon offsets, the additionality is the reduction in greenhouse gas emissions that is in addition to what would have resulted in the absence of the carbon offset funding. albedo An index of the "reflectiveness" of a surface; a way of quantifying how much radiation is reflected back, as opposed to absorbed. Objects or surfaces with low albedo (closer to 0) absorb most of the radiation directed toward them, and those with high albedo (closer to 1) reflect most of it. anoxic event A period when the Earth's oceans have no oxygen below the surface layer. Antarctic bottom


id: glossary-of-climate-change-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change-1.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:40.546594+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
climate change feedback A natural phenomenon that may increase or decrease the warming that eventually results from a change in radiative forcing. climate change mitigation approaches to limit global warming, primarily by the substitution of fossil fuels with low-carbon sources of energy climate commitment How much future warming is "committed", even if greenhouse gas levels do not rise, due to thermal inertia, mainly of the oceans. Climate crisis Term used to show a sense of emergency and urgency about climate change. climate cycle See climate oscillation. climate ethics An area of research that focuses on the ethical dimensions of climate change. climate forcing Also called radiative forcing - an energy imbalance imposed on the climate system either externally or by human activities. climate inertia The tendency of a climate system to resist changes. climate justice A term used for viewing climate change as an ethical issue, and considering how its causes and effects relate to social and political concepts of justice. climate legislation Legislation dealing with regulation of greenhouse gas emissions. climate model An imperfect representation of a climate system that is constructed, validated, studied, and often improved upon in order to gain a knowingly limited amount of useful information.


id: glossary-of-climate-change-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change-2.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:40.546594+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
global dimming The observed decrease in surface insolation, that may have recently reversed. global warming (GW) Usually: the warming trend over the past century or so; also: any period in which the temperature of the Earth's atmosphere increases; also the theory of such changes. global warming controversy Socio-political issues surrounding the theory of global warming. global warming denial See climate change denial. global warming period Any period in which the temperature of the Earth's atmosphere increases. global warming potential A measure of how much a given mass of greenhouse gas is estimated to contribute to global warming. greenhouse debt greenhouse effect greenhouse gas Any gas that causes or contributes to greenhouse effect. greenhouse gas inventory A type of emission inventory that includes greenhouse gas emissions from source categories as well as removal by carbon sinks. Gulf Stream A powerful, warm, and swift Atlantic Ocean current that originates in the Gulf of Mexico, exits through the Strait of Florida, and follows the eastern coastlines of the United States and Newfoundland before crossing the Atlantic Ocean. GCM General circulation model or global climate model GFDL Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory GHG Greenhouse gas GWP Global warming potential == H == historical temperature record


id: glossary-of-climate-change-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change-3.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:40.546594+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
polar amplification Greater temperature increases in the Arctic than in the earth as a whole is a result of the collective effect of positive feedback loops and other processes. Despite its name, polar amplification only applies to the Arctic, and not to the Antarctic, because the Southern Ocean acts as a heat sink. polar city A proposed human refuge located in northern regions of the Earth, and in Tasmania, New Zealand, and Antarctica, where people might have to live in order to survive major global warming "events" in the far distant future. Also dubbed "Lovelock Retreats". proxy A variable that can be related to one of interest (e.g. tree rings can be proxies for temperature variations). == R == radiative forcing A quantifiable driver of change to Earth's energy balance. regime shift removal unit A tradable carbon credit or "Kyoto unit" representing an allowance to emit one tonne of greenhouse gases absorbed by a removal or carbon sink activity in an Annex I country. runaway greenhouse effect A somewhat ill-defined term associated with the idea of large irreversible temperature rises. RCP Representative Concentration Pathway REDD Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation mechanisms use market/financial incentives to reduce the emission


id: index-of-climate-change-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_climate_change_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of climate change articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_climate_change_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:41.722626+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-climate-change-articles-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of climate change topics. == 0-9 == 100% renewable energy - 100,000-year problem - 1500-Year climate cycle - 4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference == A == Abrupt climate change - The Age of Stupid - Albedo - An Inconvenient Truth - An Inconvenient Book - Antarctica cooling controversy - Antarctic Bottom Water - Antarctic Cold Reversal - Antarctic oscillation - Anthropocene extinction - Arctic amplification - Arctic Climate Impact Assessment - Arctic geoengineering - Arctic shrinkage - Arctic oscillation - Atlantic oscillation - Arctic Climate Impact Assessment - Arctic methane release - Arctic sea ice decline - Arctic shrinkage - Argo (oceanography) - ARkStorm - Athabasca oil sands - Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation - Atmospheric circulation - Atmospheric sciences - Atmospheric window - Attribution of recent climate change - Aviation and climate change - Aviation and the environment - Avoiding dangerous climate change == B == Bali Communiqué - Bali Road Map - Bezos Earth Fund - Biochar - Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage - Bio-geoengineering - Black carbon - Blytt–Sernander system - Broad spectrum revolution - Business action on climate change == C == Callendar effect - Cap and Share - Carbon bubble


id: index-of-climate-change-articles-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_climate_change_articles-1.md
category: reference
title: Index of climate change articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_climate_change_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:41.722626+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-climate-change-articles-20260505-0
summary:
== S == Sahara pump theory - Satellite temperature measurements - Scientific opinion on climate change - Scientific consensus - Scientific skepticism - Sea level rise - Shutdown of thermohaline circulation - Sixth extinction - Slash and burn - Snowball Earth - Solar Radiation Management - Solar shade - Solar variation - Space sunshade - Stratospheric Particle Injection for Climate Engineering - Stratospheric sulfur aerosols - Stratospheric sulfur aerosols (geoengineering) - Sunspot - Surveys of scientists' views on climate change - Sustainable energy == T == Table of Historic and Prehistoric Climate Indicators - Temperature record of the past 1000 years - Temperature record since 1880 - Thermohaline circulation - Timeline of glaciation - TEX-86 - Thermocline - The Deniers - The Great Global Warming Swindle - The Republican War on Science - Timeline of environmental history - Tipping point (climatology) == U == Urban heat island - UN climate change conference 2009 - The Uninhabitable Earth == W == Warming stripes - Waste heat - Water World - West Antarctic Ice Sheet - World climate research programme - World Climate Report == Y == Yamal Peninsula == See also == Glossary of climate change Scientific opinion on climate change


id: list-of-areas-depopulated-due-to-climate-change-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_areas_depopulated_due_to_climate_change-0.md
category: reference
title: List of areas depopulated due to climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_areas_depopulated_due_to_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:43.016588+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-areas-depopulated-due-to-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
This article lists several areas, regions, and municipalities that have either been completely or markedly depopulated, or are involved in plans for depopulation or relocation due to anthropogenic climate change. Several factors created or worsened by climate change can be responsible for necessitating managed retreat or the relocation of people and/or infrastructure. These include rising sea levels, increased flooding risk, changes to the makeup of the land (e.g. a habitable area becoming a wetland), coastal erosion, increased susceptibility to dangerous cyclones, droughts, water shortages, wildfires, and other factors, all of which can overlap with each other to enhance the risk of danger or inhabitability of a formerly populated region. The lists contain a general number of the number of people moved or at risk of being moved due to climate change-related causes, as well as rough dates for when programs to relocate were first created or for when a climate disaster first caused significant forcible displacement of a population. == Lists == === Completely depopulated === === Significantly impacted === == Gallery == == See also == Climate migration Environmental migrant Extreme event attribution Great Filter Managed retreat List of landmarks destroyed or damaged by climate change == References ==


id: list-of-climate-change-books-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_change_books-0.md
category: reference
title: List of climate change books
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_climate_change_books
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:44.352085+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-climate-change-books-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of climate change books that describe, as a major theme, the effects of human activity on climate change. == Non-fiction == Non-fiction is an account or representation of a subject that is presented as fact. This presentation may be accurate or not; that is, it can give either a true or a false account of the subject in question. However, it is generally assumed that the authors of such accounts believe them to be truthful at the time of their composition. == Fiction == == See also == Climate change in literature List of environmental books == References == Books on Global Warming, Climate Change Books, Climate Change Education.org


id: list-of-countries-by-carbon-dioxide-emissions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions-0.md
category: reference
title: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:00:45.541574+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-countries-by-carbon-dioxide-emissions-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of sovereign states and territories by carbon dioxide emissions due to certain forms of human activity, based on the EDGAR database created by the European Commission and Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency. The following table lists the annual CO2 emissions estimates (in kilotons of CO2 per year) for the year 2023, as well as the change from the year 2000. The data only consider carbon dioxide emissions from the burning of fossil fuels and cement manufacture, but not emissions from land use, land-use change and forestry. Over the last 150 years, estimated cumulative emissions from land use and land-use change represent approximately one-third of total cumulative anthropogenic CO2 emissions. Emissions from international shipping or bunker fuels are also not included in national figures, which can make a large difference for small countries with important ports. In 2023, global GHG emissions reached 53.0 GtCO2eq (without Land Use, land Use Change and Forestry). The 2023 data represent the highest level recorded and experienced an increase of 1.9% or 994 MtCO2eq compared to the levels in 2022. The majority of GHG emissions consisted of fossil CO2 accounting for 73.7% of total emissions. China, the United States, India, the European Union,


