# kb

id: cardiac-shunt-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiac_shunt-0.md
category: reference
title: Cardiac shunt
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiac_shunt
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:47.861966+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cardiac-shunt-20260505-0
summary:
In cardiology, a cardiac shunt is a pattern of blood flow in the heart that deviates from the normal circuit of the circulatory system. It may be described as right-left, left-right or bidirectional, or as systemic-to-pulmonary or pulmonary-to-systemic. The direction may be controlled by left and/or right heart pressure, a biological or artificial heart valve or both. The presence of a shunt may also affect left and/or right heart pressure either beneficially or detrimentally. == Terminology == The left and right sides of the heart are named from a dorsal view, i.e., looking at the heart from the back or from the perspective of the person whose heart it is. There are four chambers in a heart: an atrium (upper) and a ventricle (lower) on both the left and right sides. In mammals and birds, blood from the body goes to the right side of the heart first. Blood enters the upper right atrium, is pumped down to the right ventricle and from there to the lungs via the pulmonary artery. Blood going to the lungs is called the pulmonary circulation. When the blood returns to the heart from the lungs via the pulmonary vein, it goes to the left


id: carnoy-s-solution-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnoy's_solution-0.md
category: reference
title: Carnoy's solution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnoy's_solution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:50.446534+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: carnoy-s-solution-20260505-0
summary:
Carnoy's solution is a fixative composed of 60% ethanol, 30% chloroform and 10% glacial acetic acid, 1 gram of ferric chloride. Carnoy's solution is also the name of a different fixation composed of ethanol and glacial acetic acid (3:1). The invention of Carnoy's solution is attributed to Jean-Baptiste Carnoy, a pioneering 19th century cytologist. == Uses == Some of the uses of Carnoy's solution are: Enhancing lymph node detection during dissection of cadavers. Immunohistochemical fixation and detection of NMDA receptors within the murine hippocampus. Applied directly following enucleation for the treatment of odontogenic keratocysts. Direct application following enucleation (Cuba) for certain kinds of unicystic ameloblastomas. This appears to decrease the likelihood of recurrence over enucleation alone. Protein coagulation is thought to limit uptake of these toxic materials by surrounding tissues, however it is this fact that limits its usefulness as a treatment agent in general. As a fixative for pap smear samples. As a fixative agent for both nuclear and mitochondrial DNA in various tissues. As a fixative agent to preserve mucus, useful for tissue preparation before staining with periodic acid-Schiff base. == References ==


id: case-presentation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_presentation-0.md
category: reference
title: Case presentation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_presentation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:51.626584+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: case-presentation-20260505-0
summary:
A case presentation is a formal communication between health care professionals such as doctors and nurses regarding a patient's clinical information. Essential parts of a case presentation include: Identification Reason for consultation/admission Chief complaints (CC) - what made patients seek medical attention. History of present illness (HPI) - circumstances relating to chief complaints. Past medical history (PMHx) Past surgical history Current medications Allergies Family history (FHx) Social history (SocHx) Physical examination (PE) Laboratory results (Lab) Other investigations (imaging, biopsy etc.) Case summary and impression Management plans follow up in clinic or hospital Adherence of the patient to treatment success of the treatment or failure. causes of success or failure. == See also == Case report Case series == References ==


id: case-report-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_report-0.md
category: reference
title: Case report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:52.887502+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: case-report-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, a case report is a detailed report of the symptoms, signs, diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up of an individual patient. Case reports may contain a demographic profile of the patient, but usually describe an unusual or novel occurrence. Some case reports also contain a literature review of other reported cases. Case reports are professional narratives that provide feedback on clinical practice guidelines and offer a framework for early signals of effectiveness, adverse events, and cost. They can be shared for medical, scientific, or educational purposes. == Types == Most case reports are on one of six topics: An unexpected association between diseases or symptoms. An unexpected event in the course of observing or treating a patient. Findings that shed new light on the possible pathogenesis of a disease or an adverse effect. Unique or rare features of a disease. Unique therapeutic approaches. A positional or quantitative variation of the anatomical structures. == Roles in research and education == A case report is generally considered a type of anecdotal evidence. Given their intrinsic methodological limitations, including lack of statistical sampling, case reports are placed at the bottom of the hierarchy of clinical evidence, together with case series. Nevertheless, case reports


id: cause-of-death-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cause_of_death-0.md
category: reference
title: Cause of death
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cause_of_death
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:54.150733+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cause-of-death-20260505-0
summary:
In law, medicine, and statistics, cause of death is an official determination of the conditions resulting in a human's death, which may be recorded on a death certificate. A cause of death is determined by a medical examiner. In rare cases, an autopsy needs to be performed by a pathologist. The cause of death is a specific disease or injury, in contrast to the manner of death, which is a small number of categories like "natural", "accident", "suicide", and "homicide", each with different legal implications. The standards for cause of death recording and reporting are set by WHO. All death certificates typically include a medical certificate of cause of death collecting information for disease prevention and health policy. The recommended international format for this certificate is established by the World Health Organization (WHO) and applies uniformly across member states. The World Health Organization's ICD-11 Reference Guide provides the authoritative specification for its design and completion. Extensive detail is also available in the format of a manual for medical certification. International Classification of Disease (ICD) codes are used to record manner and cause of death in a systematic way that makes it easy to compile statistics and more feasible to compare


id: central-venous-pressure-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_venous_pressure-0.md
category: reference
title: Central venous pressure
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_venous_pressure
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:55.347879+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: central-venous-pressure-20260505-0
summary:
Central venous pressure (CVP) is the blood pressure in the venae cavae, near the right atrium of the heart. CVP reflects the amount of blood returning to the heart and the ability of the heart to pump the blood back into the arterial system. CVP is often a good approximation of right atrial pressure (RAP), although the two terms are not identical, as a pressure differential can sometimes exist between the venae cavae and the right atrium. CVP and RAP can differ when arterial tone is altered. This can be graphically depicted as changes in the slope of the venous return (VR) plotted against right atrial pressure (where central venous pressure (CVP) increases, but right atrial pressure (RAP) stays the same; VR = CVP − RAP). CVP has been, and often still is, used as a surrogate for preload, and changes in CVP in response to infusions of intravenous fluid have been used to predict volume-responsiveness (i.e. whether more fluid will improve cardiac output). However, there is increasing evidence that CVP, whether as an absolute value or in terms of changes in response to fluid, does not correlate with ventricular volume (i.e. preload) or volume-responsiveness, and so should not be


id: cerebellar-degeneration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebellar_degeneration-0.md
category: reference
title: Cerebellar degeneration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebellar_degeneration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:56.519839+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cerebellar-degeneration-20260505-0
summary:
Cerebellar degeneration is a condition in which cerebellar cells, otherwise known as neurons, become damaged and progressively weaken in the cerebellum. There are two types of cerebellar degeneration; paraneoplastic cerebellar degeneration, and alcoholic or nutritional cerebellar degeneration. As the cerebellum contributes to the coordination and regulation of motor activities, as well as controlling equilibrium of the human body, any degeneration to this part of the organ can be life-threatening. Cerebellar degeneration can result in disorders in fine movement, posture, and motor learning in humans, due to a disturbance of the vestibular system. This condition may not only cause cerebellar damage on a temporary or permanent basis, but can also affect other tissues of the central nervous system, those including the cerebral cortex, spinal cord and the brainstem (made up of the medulla oblongata, midbrain, and pons). Cerebellar degeneration can be attributed to a plethora of hereditary and non-hereditary conditions. More commonly, cerebellar degeneration can also be classified according to conditions that an individual may acquire during their lifetime, including infectious, metabolic, autoimmune, paraneoplastic, nutritional or toxic triggers. == Signs and symptoms == Patients with cerebellar degeneration experience a progressive loss of nerve cells (Purkinje cells) throughout the cerebellum. As well


id: cerebellar-degeneration-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebellar_degeneration-1.md
category: reference
title: Cerebellar degeneration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebellar_degeneration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:56.519839+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cerebellar-degeneration-20260505-0
summary:
To select an appropriate and accurate diagnostic test for cerebellar degeneration, it is crucial that a range of factors specific to each patient are taken into consideration. These include; the patient's age, acuity of their signs and symptoms, associated neurological conditions, and family history of hereditary forms of cerebellar degeneration. A diagnosis for cerebellar degeneration is regarded after any of the aforementioned signs and symptoms surface. For genetically classified forms of cerebellar degeneration, genetic testing can be carried out in order to confirm or deny the diagnosis, where this form of testing is only possible if the gene responsible for the cause of the condition is recognised. In saying this, for most conditions the genetic cause of cerebellar degeneration is unidentified, hence these patients cannot proceed with genetic testing. In cases where cerebellar degeneration is acquired, a diagnosis can be established using imaging methods such as computerised tomography (CT scans) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), necessary to detect brain abnormalities in patients with cerebellar degeneration. == Treatment == Like any other disease, treatment for cerebellar degeneration is contingent on the underlying cause, unique to each patient. As of present time, hereditary forms of cerebellar degeneration are incurable, though they can


id: cerebral-perfusion-pressure-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebral_perfusion_pressure-0.md
category: reference
title: Cerebral perfusion pressure
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebral_perfusion_pressure
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:57.755648+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cerebral-perfusion-pressure-20260505-0
summary:
Cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP) is the net pressure gradient causing cerebral blood flow to the brain (brain perfusion). It must be maintained within narrow limits because too little pressure could cause brain tissue to become ischemic (having inadequate blood flow), and too much could raise intracranial pressure (ICP). == Definitions == The cranium encloses a fixed-volume space that holds three components: blood, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and very soft tissue (the brain). While both the blood and CSF have poor compression capacity, the brain is easily compressible. Every increase of ICP can cause a change in tissue perfusion and an increase in stroke events. === From resistance === CPP can be defined as the pressure gradient causing cerebral blood flow (CBF) such that C B F = C P P / C V R {\displaystyle CBF=CPP/CVR} where: CVR is cerebrovascular resistance === By intracranial pressure === An alternative definition of CPP is: C P P = M A P − I C P {\displaystyle CPP=MAP-ICP} where: MAP is mean arterial pressure ICP is intracranial pressure JVP is jugular venous pressure This definition may be more appropriate if considering the circulatory system in the brain as a Starling resistor, where an external


id: cervical-conization-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervical_conization-0.md
category: reference
title: Cervical conization
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervical_conization
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:59.084677+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cervical-conization-20260505-0
summary:
Cervical conization refers to an excision of a cone-shaped portion of tissue from the mucous membrane of the cervix. Conization is used for diagnostic purposes as part of a biopsy and for therapeutic purposes to remove pre-cancerous cells (cervical intraepithelial neoplasia) or early stage cervical cancer. Ablative treatments are also available to treat abnormal cervical cells. The decision to perform a cervical conization procedure is made with consideration of a patient's pap smear, colposcopy, and HPV test results. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) recommends that decisions regarding excision should be based on the risk of CIN3+. A conization can be performed in the office or the operating room, depending on the type of conization performed. This procedure carries few risks, with the most common one being bleeding after the procedure. == History == Before the introduction of the speculum, cervical cancer was only found once it was advanced. With the invention and use of a speculum, changes in the cervix could be appreciated. First, they were evaluated macroscopically and eventually were also assessed using a microscope. In 1927, H. Hinselmann discovered the transformation zone, where metaplastic squamous epithelium is found between the columnar epithelium of the endocervix


id: cervical-conization-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervical_conization-1.md
category: reference
title: Cervical conization
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervical_conization
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:26:59.084677+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cervical-conization-20260505-0
summary:
The vagina is prepped using antimicrobial scrub or iodine. Draping is placed to maintain a sterile surgical field. Some physicians may choose to drain the bladder using a catheter. The speculum will be placed, and the cervix visualized. The tissue is then excised from the cervix. The tissue will include the transformation zone and will be shaped like a cone, as the procedure name suggests. The physician will ensure hemostasis has been achieved before removing the speculum and ending the procedure. Typically, the physician will place a suture at the 12 o'clock position of the excised tissue to serve as a reference point during histological examination. The main difference between cold knife conization and LEEP is the instrument used to excise the tissue. In a LEEP, a thin wire loop electrode is used to remove the cone-shaped surgical specimen. During a cold knife cone, a scalpel is used to excise the tissue. Both LEEP and cold knife cone have shown equal effectiveness, so the decision for which procedure is often based on the physician's comfort with each procedure or other clinical considerations. Cold knife cone is performed with a scalpel, and one advantage of this procedure is that the margins


id: cervical-dislocation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervical_dislocation-0.md
category: reference
title: Cervical dislocation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervical_dislocation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:00.313128+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cervical-dislocation-20260505-0
summary:
Cervical dislocation is a common method of animal euthanasia. It refers to a technique used in physical euthanasia of small animals by applying pressure to the neck and dislocating the spinal column from the skull or brain. The aim is to quickly separate the spinal cord from the brain so as to provide the animal with a fast, painless, and easy death. == Technique == Firm pressure is applied at the base of the skull, along with a sharp pinching and twisting of the thumb and forefinger. At the same time, the tail is pulled backward. This severs the spinal cord at the base of the brain or within the cervical spine area (the upper third of the neck). According to the Canadian Council on Animal Care (CCAC), cervical dislocation is normally only conducted on small animals. == Ethics == The University of Iowa and some veterinary associations consider the technique to be an ethically acceptable method for killing small rodents such as rats, mice, squirrels, etc. == See also == Cervical fracture Blunt trauma Slaughter (livestock) == References ==


id: chain-of-survival-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chain_of_survival-0.md
category: reference
title: Chain of survival
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chain_of_survival
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:01.490920+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chain-of-survival-20260505-0
summary:
The chain of survival refers to a series of actions that, properly executed, reduce the mortality associated with sudden cardiac arrest. Like any chain, the chain of survival is only as strong as its weakest link. The six interdependent links in the chain of survival are early recognition of sudden cardiac arrest and access to emergency medical care, early CPR, early defibrillation, early advanced cardiac life support, and physical and emotional recovery. The first three links in the chain can be performed by lay bystanders, while the second three links are designated to medical professionals. Currently, between 70 and 90% of cardiac arrest patients die before they reach the hospital. However, a cardiac arrest does not have to be lethal if bystanders can take the right steps immediately. == Background == According to the American Heart Association, out-of-hospital cardiac arrest can affect more than 300,000 people in the United States each year. Three minutes after the onset of cardiac arrest, a lack of blood flow starts to damage the brain, and 10 minutes after, the chances of survival are low. Therefore, bystanders have only a few minutes to act to optimize a person's chances of survival and recovery. To improve


id: chain-of-survival-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chain_of_survival-1.md
category: reference
title: Chain of survival
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chain_of_survival
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:01.490920+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chain-of-survival-20260505-0
summary:
== Early advanced care == Early advanced cardiac life support by paramedics is another critical link in the chain of survival. In communities with survival rates > 20%, a minimum of two of the rescuers are trained to the advanced level. Some ACLS ambulance providers will administer medications to manage pain, arrhythmias, shock, and pulmonary congestion; monitor the heart rhythm to identify any potentially lethal cardiac arrhythmias; or initiate transcutaneous pacing. ACLS ambulance providers use the mnemonic "MONA" (morphine, oxygen, nitroglycerin, and aspirin) to reflect the out-of-hospital therapies they will use for cardiac arrest. Often, ACLS ambulance providers will attach an electrocardiogram to the patient and transmit its findings to the receiving hospital or care facility, which leads to earlier diagnosis of a heart attack, and significantly reduces time to treatment at the hospital. This prearrival ECG and notification has been shown to improve patient outcomes. In the event of a complication at the scene of the event or on the way to the hospital, ACLS ambulance providers can administer life saving therapies, including CPR, rapid defibrillation, airway management, and intravenous medications. == Recovery == In October 2020, the American Heart Association added the recovery phase as the sixth link


id: cheesewiring-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheesewiring-0.md
category: reference
title: Cheesewiring
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheesewiring
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:02.729782+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cheesewiring-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, the term cheesewiring or cheesewire effect (used interchangeably) describes any process in which cells or intercellular matrix are dissected or extruded either by the material being pressed through a taut element, or by the tension of a taut element pulling through tissue. The procedure is typically conducted in a surgical setting. Cheesewiring or the cheesewire effect can also describe the process of suture material cutting or tearing through viscera at the time of suture anastomosis and tension. == As a complication == Cheesewiring can be a complication or part of a negative outcome of a procedure. Examples include tumor growth penetrating the openings in a bowel stent that was placed to open an obstructed bowel, sutures used to hold a transplanted cornea in place, and treatment of tendon rupture, when sutures pull through the tendon. Evidence that the cheesewire effect has occurred is most clearly seen after surgery has been completed. Postoperatively as wound margins begin to swell, a suture can drag through the thin portion of tissue present near the surface. This suture drag is most often the result of tension being reduced in tying or placing the suture. It is apparent that cheesewiring has occurred if


id: chemoprophylaxis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemoprophylaxis-0.md
category: reference
title: Chemoprophylaxis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemoprophylaxis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:03.934272+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chemoprophylaxis-20260505-0
summary:
Chemoprevention or chemoprophylaxis refers to the administration of a medication for the purpose of preventing disease or infection. Antibiotics, for example, may be administered to patients with disorders of immune system function to prevent bacterial infections (particularly opportunistic infection). Antibiotics may also be administered to healthy individuals to limit the spread of an epidemic, or to patients who have repeated infections (such as urinary tract infections) to prevent recurrence. It may also refer to the administration of heparin to prevent deep venous thrombosis in hospitalized patients. In some cases, chemoprophylaxis is initiated to prevent the spread of an existing infection in an individual to a new organ system, as when intrathecal chemotherapy is administered in patients with malignancy to prevent further infection. The use of chemoprophylaxis is limited primarily by two factors: risk and financial costs. All medications have the potential to cause side effects. In general, chemoprophylaxis should be initiated only when the benefits of treatment outweigh the risks. The cost associated with chemoprophylaxis may be prohibitive, particularly when the cost of treatment is high or the incidence of the target disease is low. Many forms of chemoprophylaxis are therefore not cost-effective. == Specific diseases == Using chemoprophylaxis as


id: chief-complaint-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_complaint-0.md
category: reference
title: Chief complaint
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_complaint
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:05.058536+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chief-complaint-20260505-0
summary:
The chief complaint, formally known as CC in the medical field, or termed presenting complaint (PC) in Europe and Canada, forms the second step of medical history taking. It is sometimes also referred to as reason for encounter (RFE), presenting problem, problem on admission or reason for presenting. The chief complaint is a concise statement describing the symptom, problem, condition, diagnosis, physician-recommended return, or other reason for a medical encounter. In some instances, the nature of a patient's chief complaint may determine if services are covered by health insurance. When obtaining the chief complaint, medical students are advised to use open-ended questions. Once the presenting problem is elucidated, a history of present illness can be done using acronyms such as SOCRATES or OPQRST to further analyze the severity, onset and nature of the presenting problem. The patient's initial comments to a physician, nurse, or other health care professionals are important for formulating differential diagnoses. == Prevalence == The collection of chief complaint data may be useful in addressing public health issues. Certain complaints are more common in certain settings and among certain populations. Fatigue has been reported as one of the ten most common reasons for seeing a physician. In


id: children-with-special-healthcare-needs-in-the-united-states-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children_with_Special_Healthcare_Needs_in_the_United_States-0.md
category: reference
title: Children with Special Healthcare Needs in the United States
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children_with_Special_Healthcare_Needs_in_the_United_States
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:06.242840+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: children-with-special-healthcare-needs-in-the-united-states-20260505-0
summary:
Children with Special Healthcare Needs (CSHCN) are defined by the Maternal and Child Health Bureau as: "Those who have one or more chronic physical, developmental, behavioral, or emotional conditions and who also require health and related services of a type or amount beyond that required by children generally" == Types of special healthcare needs == There are a wide variety of physical, mental, and psychological health conditions considered to be special healthcare needs in the United States. They range from relatively mild to chronic and severe. The functional impairments of CSHCN include problems with one or more of the following criteria: breathing, swallowing/digestion/metabolism, blood circulation, chronic pain, hearing even with corrective devices, seeing even with corrective devices, taking care of self, coordination/moving around, learning/understanding/paying attention, speaking/communicating, making/keeping friends, and behavior. The list below states health conditions considered to be special healthcare needs. Attention deficit disorder (ADD) Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) Depression Anxiety problems Behavioral problems Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) Diabetes Developmental disability Intellectual disability (ID) Epilepsy Migraines Traumatic brain injury (TBI) Heart problems Blood problems Cystic fibrosis Cerebral palsy Muscular dystrophy Down syndrome Arthritis Joint problems Allergies == Population == As of 2009, 15.1% of all children in the


id: children-with-special-healthcare-needs-in-the-united-states-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children_with_Special_Healthcare_Needs_in_the_United_States-1.md
category: reference
title: Children with Special Healthcare Needs in the United States
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children_with_Special_Healthcare_Needs_in_the_United_States
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:06.242840+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: children-with-special-healthcare-needs-in-the-united-states-20260505-0
summary:
Inpatient/outpatient hospital resources Transportation for non-emergency medical care Home health services Laboratory procedures Physician services Family planning Nursing facilities Early Periodic Screening, Diagnosis, and Treatment (EPDST) program Tobacco cessation programs for pregnant women Medicaid requires no co-payment or deductibles. To be eligible for the program one must be in one of four categories. The first is income level, the second is disability criteria, the third is eligibility for institutional level of care, and the fourth is out of home placement. Many CSHCN qualify for Medicaid based on low income level, but some children qualify independently of income level due to their disabilities. Medicaid has a more restrictive definition of disabilities and special healthcare needs than the Maternal and Children's Health Bureau (MCHB), and defines special needs as needs that must impede daily functioning. Medicaid accepts children who need to receive Supplemental Security Income program money, and children who are defined as medically needy. Medically needy children are those whose families have above the maximum income to receive Medicaid, but due to health expenditures their income is lowered to the level required. 40 states currently offer this program. Medicaid programs in each state are administered differently, and federal dollars go to


id: children-with-special-healthcare-needs-in-the-united-states-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children_with_Special_Healthcare_Needs_in_the_United_States-2.md
category: reference
title: Children with Special Healthcare Needs in the United States
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Children_with_Special_Healthcare_Needs_in_the_United_States
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:06.242840+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: children-with-special-healthcare-needs-in-the-united-states-20260505-0
summary:
=== Therapy for CSHCN === Therapies for children with special healthcare needs can be accessed via public schools or private therapists. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) includes occupational and physical therapy as well as other therapies, as part of the special education that should be offered in all public schools to CSHCN. This act states that all children with disabilities should have access to education that suits their SHCN, including needed therapies. Out of school therapies can also be used be employed by children with SHCN but only 3.2% of CSHCN qualify for uses of special therapy under their insurance programs. One type of therapy for children with SHCN is occupational therapy. Occupational therapists work with CSHCN by supporting them and their families to learn how to participate in everyday routines and daily activities. They encourage children with physical, cognitive, communication and behavior challenges to develop ways to live, play, learn and make friends despite their special needs. Occupational therapists can work with these children and their schools to create more accommodating learning environments. Another skill these professionals teach to children with SHCN is how to use adaptive equipment such as wheelchairs, eating aids and braces in daily


id: chronic-condition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_condition-0.md
category: reference
title: Chronic condition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_condition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:07.415511+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chronic-condition-20260505-0
summary:
A chronic condition, also known as chronic disease or chronic illness, is a health condition or disease that is persistent or otherwise long-lasting in its effects. The term chronic is often applied when the course of the disease lasts for more than three months. Common chronic diseases include diabetes, functional gastrointestinal disorder, eczema, arthritis, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, autoimmune diseases, genetic disorders and some viral diseases such as acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Chronic illnesses are sometimes contrasted with terminal illnesses, which will end the affected person’s life. It is possible for an illness to change in definition from terminal to chronic as medicine progresses. For example, type 1 diabetes and HIV were once terminal, but are now considered chronic illnesses due to the availability of daily medications which allow these individuals to live while managing symptoms. In medicine, chronic conditions are distinguished from those that are acute. An acute condition typically affects a person for a few days to several weeks. On the other hand, a chronic condition persists for an extended period of time or is lifelong, even with treatment. Chronic conditions may have periods of remission, where a person has few or no symptoms, and relapse, where symptoms


id: chronic-condition-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_condition-1.md
category: reference
title: Chronic condition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_condition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:07.415511+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chronic-condition-20260505-0
summary:
While risk factors vary, many common chronic diseases are caused by dietary, lifestyle, and metabolic risk factors. Therefore, these conditions might be prevented by behavioral changes, such as quitting smoking, adopting a healthy diet, and increasing physical activity. Social determinants are important risk factors for chronic diseases. Social factors, e.g., socioeconomic status, education level, and race/ethnicity, are a major cause for the disparities observed in the care of chronic disease. Lack of access and delay in receiving care result in worse outcomes for patients from minorities and underserved populations. Those barriers to medical care complicate patients monitoring and continuity in treatment. In the US, minorities and low-income populations are less likely to seek, access and receive preventive services necessary to detect conditions at an early stage. The majority of US health care and economic costs associated with medical conditions are incurred by chronic diseases and conditions and associated health risk behaviors. Eighty-four percent of all health care spending in 2006 was for the 50% of the population who have one or more common chronic medical conditions (CDC, 2014). There are several psychosocial risk and resistance factors among children with chronic illness and their family members. Adults with chronic illness were


id: chronic-condition-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_condition-2.md
category: reference
title: Chronic condition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_condition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:07.415511+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chronic-condition-20260505-0
summary:
== Prevention == A growing body of evidence supports that prevention is effective in reducing the effect of chronic conditions; in particular, early detection results in less severe outcomes. Clinical preventive services include screening for the existence of the disease or predisposition to its development, counseling and immunizations against infectious agents. Despite their effectiveness, the utilization of preventive services is typically lower than for regular medical services. In contrast to their apparent cost in time and money, the benefits of preventive services are not directly perceived by patient because their effects are on the long term or might be greater for society as a whole than at the individual level. Public health programs are important in educating the public, and promoting healthy lifestyles and awareness about chronic diseases. While those programs can benefit from funding at different levels (state, federal, private) their implementation is mostly in charge of local agencies and community-based organizations. Studies have shown that public health programs are effective in reducing mortality rates associated to cardiovascular disease, diabetes and cancer, but the results are somewhat heterogeneous depending on the type of condition and the type of programs involved. For example, results from different approaches in cancer prevention


id: chronic-condition-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_condition-3.md
category: reference
title: Chronic condition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_condition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:07.415511+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chronic-condition-20260505-0
summary:
=== United States === As of 2003, there are a few programs which aim to gain more knowledge on the epidemiology of chronic disease using data collection. The hope of these programs is to gather epidemiological data on various chronic diseases across the United States and demonstrate how this knowledge can be valuable in addressing chronic disease. In the United States, as of 2004 nearly one in two Americans (133 million) has at least one chronic medical condition, with most subjects (58%) between the ages of 18 and 64. The number is projected to increase by more than one percent per year by 2030, resulting in an estimated chronically ill population of 171 million. The most common chronic conditions are high blood pressure, arthritis, respiratory diseases like emphysema, and high cholesterol. Based on data from 2014 Medical Expenditure Panel Survey (MEPS), about 60% of adult Americans were estimated to have one chronic illness, with about 40% having more than one; this rate appears to be mostly unchanged from 2008. MEPS data from 1998 showed 45% of adult Americans had at least one chronic illness, and 21% had more than one. According to research by the CDC, chronic disease is also


id: chronic-condition-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_condition-4.md
category: reference
title: Chronic condition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_condition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:07.415511+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chronic-condition-20260505-0
summary:
=== Canada === The Public Health Agency of Canada states that chronic disease has a negative impact on the labor force participant of individuals. In particular, people with chronic diseases "are likely to have recurrent sick leave, long-term absences from work, and often face an early retirement from the labour force." In 2000, the Public Health Agency of Canada stated that the total economic burden of arthritis totaled 6.4 billion Canadian dollars per year, representing 28.9% of all musculoskeletal disease expenditures. 65% of the total economic cost was incurred by those aged 35-64 years old. It is anticipated that people aged 55 and older will most significantly contribute to the prevalence of arthritis. This is projected to result in reduced labor force participant and a substantial increase in morbidity costs. The Public Health Agency of Canada recommends focusing on prevention strategies, minimizing costs by improving health and reducing disability, and providing support to people with arthritis to remain active in the workforce. === Japan === As of 2004, the estimated economic burden of Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is 805.5 billion yen per year. Direct costs, which include inpatient care, outpatient care, and home oxygen therapy, account for 645.1 billion


id: chronic-condition-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_condition-5.md
category: reference
title: Chronic condition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_condition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:07.415511+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chronic-condition-20260505-0
summary:
=== Gender === Gender influences how chronic disease is viewed and treated in society. Women's chronic health issues are often considered to be most worthy of treatment or most severe when the chronic condition interferes with a woman's fertility. Historically, there is less of a focus on a woman's chronic conditions when it interferes with other aspects of her life or well-being. Many women report feeling less than or even "half of a woman" due to the pressures that society puts on the importance of fertility and health when it comes to typically feminine ideals. These kinds of social barriers interfere with women's ability to perform various other activities in life and fully work toward their aspirations. === Socioeconomic class and race === Race is also implicated in chronic illness, although there may be many other factors involved. Racial minorities are 1.5-2 times more likely to have most chronic diseases than white individuals. Non-Hispanic blacks are 40% more likely to have high blood pressure that non-Hispanic whites, diagnosed diabetes is 77% higher among non-Hispanic blacks, and American Indians and Alaska Natives are 60% more likely to be obese than non-Hispanic whites. Some of this prevalence has been suggested to be


id: chronic-care-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_care-0.md
category: reference
title: Chronic care
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_care
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:08.631564+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chronic-care-20260505-0
summary:
Chronic care refers to medical care which addresses pre-existing or long-term illness, as opposed to acute care which is concerned with short term or severe illness of brief duration. Chronic medical conditions include asthma, diabetes, emphysema, chronic bronchitis, congestive heart disease, cirrhosis of the liver, hypertension and depression. Without effective treatment chronic conditions may lead to disability. The incidence of chronic disease has increased as mortality rates have decreased. It is estimated that by 2030 half of the population of the USA will have one or more chronic conditions. According to the CDC, 6 out of 10 adults in the U.S. are managing at least one chronic disease and 42% of adults have two or more chronic conditions. Conditions, injuries and diseases which were previously fatal can now be treated with chronic care. Chronic care aims to maintain wellness by keeping symptoms in remission while balancing treatment regimes and quality of life. Many of the core functions of primary health care are central to chronic care. Chronic care is complex in nature because it may extend over a pro-longed period of time, requires input from a diverse set of health professionals, various medications and possibly monitoring equipment. == Policy making


id: clinical-formulation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_formulation-0.md
category: reference
title: Clinical formulation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_formulation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:09.793793+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: clinical-formulation-20260505-0
summary:
A clinical formulation, also known as case formulation, case conceptualisation, and problem formulation, is a theoretically based explanation or conceptualisation of the information obtained from a clinical assessment. It offers a hypothesis about the cause and nature of the presenting problems and is considered an adjunct or alternative approach to the more categorical approach of psychiatric diagnosis. In clinical practice, formulations are used to communicate a hypothesis and provide a framework for developing the most suitable treatment approach. It is most commonly used by mental health professionals and is deemed to be a core component of that profession. Clinical psychologists, mental health nurses, social workers, and some psychiatrists use this formulation based on specific psychological frameworks. == Types of formulation == Different psychological schools or models utilize clinical formulations, including cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and related therapies: systemic therapy, psychodynamic therapy, and applied behavior analysis. The structure and content of a clinical formulation is determined by the psychological model. Most systems of formulation contain the following broad categories of information: symptoms and problems; precipitating stressors or events; predisposing life events or stressors; and an explanatory mechanism that links the preceding categories together and offers a description of the precipitants and


id: clinical-pathway-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_pathway-0.md
category: reference
title: Clinical pathway
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_pathway
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:10.961778+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: clinical-pathway-20260505-0
summary:
A clinical pathway, also known as care pathway, integrated care pathway, critical pathway, or care map, is one of the main tools used to manage the quality in healthcare concerning the standardisation of care processes. It has been shown that their implementation reduces the variability in clinical practice and improves outcomes. Clinical pathways aim to promote organised and efficient patient care based on evidence-based medicine, and aim to optimise outcomes in settings such as acute care and home care. A single clinical pathway may refer to multiple clinical guidelines on several topics in a well specified context. == Definition == A clinical pathway is a multidisciplinary management tool based on evidence-based practice for a specific group of patients with a predictable clinical course, in which the different tasks (interventions) by the professionals involved in the patient care are defined, optimized and sequenced either by hour (ED), day (acute care) or visit (homecare). Outcomes are tied to specific interventions. The concept of clinical pathways may have different meanings to different stakeholders. Managed care organizations often view clinical pathways in a similar way as they view care plans, in which the care provided to a patient is definitive and deliberate. Clinical pathways


id: clinical-research-center-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_research_center-0.md
category: reference
title: Clinical research center
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_research_center
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:12.161397+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: clinical-research-center-20260505-0
summary:
The term "Clinical research center" (CRC) or "General clinical research center" (GCRC) refers to any designated medical facility used to conduct clinical research, such as at a hospital or medical clinic. They have been used to perform clinical trials of various medical procedures. The medical profession has had specific uses for CRC facilities, including awarding grants to support various types of research. For example, the U.S. National Institutes of Health had, for years, issued GCRC grants, but later changed to awarding a Clinical and Translational Science Award (CTSA). Many hospitals or clinics have included a wing, ward, or other area titled as "Clinical Research Center" (with capitalized words). == Example facilities == Some examples of CRC facilities are: Harvard-Thorndike General Clinical Research Center in Massachusetts. Mallinckrodt General Clinical Research Center in Massachusetts. Mark O. Hatfield Clinical Research Center in Maryland. UCLA General Clinical Research Center in California. == References ==


id: clinical-supervision-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_supervision-0.md
category: reference
title: Clinical supervision
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_supervision
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:13.366942+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: clinical-supervision-20260505-0
summary:
Supervision is used in counselling, psychotherapy, and other mental health disciplines as well as many other professions engaged in working with people. Supervision may be applied as well to practitioners in somatic disciplines for their preparatory work for patients as well as collateral with patients. Supervision is a replacement instead of formal retrospective inspection, delivering evidence about the skills of the supervised practitioners. It consists of the practitioner meeting regularly with another professional, not necessarily more senior, but normally with training in the skills of supervision, to discuss casework and other professional issues in a structured way. This is often known as clinical or counselling supervision (consultation differs in being optional advice from someone without a supervisor's formal authority). The purpose is to assist the practitioner to learn from his or her experience and progress in expertise, as well as to ensure good service to the client or patient. Learning shall be applied to planning work as well as to diagnostic work and therapeutic work. Derek Milne defined clinical supervision as: "The formal provision, by approved supervisors, of a relationship-based education and training that is work-focused and which manages, supports, develops and evaluates the work of colleague/s". The main methods


id: clinical-supervision-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_supervision-1.md
category: reference
title: Clinical supervision
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_supervision
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:13.366942+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: clinical-supervision-20260505-0
summary:
== Models or approaches == There are many different ways of developing supervision skills which can be helpful to the clinician or practitioner in their work. Specific models or approaches to both counselling supervision and clinical supervision come from different historical strands of thinking and beliefs about relationships between people. A few examples are given below. Peter Hawkins (1985) developed an integrative process model which is used internationally in a variety of helping professions. His "Seven Eyed model of Supervision" was further developed by Peter Hawkins along with Robin Shohet, Judy Ryde and Joan Wilmot in "Supervision in the Helping Professions" (1989, 2000 and 2006 and 2012) and with Nick Smith in "Coaching, Mentoring and organisational Consultancy: Supervision and Development" (2006 and 2013) and is taught on the courses of the Centre for Supervision and Team Development as well as many other supervision training courses. S. Page and V. Wosket describe a cyclical structure. F. Inskipp and B. Proctor (1993, 1995) developed an approach based on the normative, formative and restorative elements of the relationship between supervisor and supervisee. The Brief Therapy practice teaches a solution focused approach based on the work of Steve de Shazer and Insoo Kim Berg


id: clinophilia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinophilia-0.md
category: reference
title: Clinophilia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinophilia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:14.564316+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: clinophilia-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, clinophilia is a sleep disorder described as the tendency of a patient to remain in bed in a reclined position without sleeping for prolonged periods of time. == Etymology and consequences == The word clinophilia means "liking to lie down" (from the Greek clino- 'lying down' and -philia 'love'). It is one of the first symptoms of depression or schizophrenia, but is not in itself a disease. Clinophiliacs generally experience feelings of isolation and repressed sadness. == Description == This is a psychologically based disorder sometimes found in depression or certain forms of schizophrenia. Clinophiles generally feel lonely. Care must be taken not to confuse this disorder with true hypersomnia, since in the latter patients sleep genuinely and very deeply, whereas in clinophilia, the long sleep times patients may describe are not objectively present. In clinophilia, if patients complain of oversleeping, this is due to psychic problems and not to a physiological defect in the wake/sleep system, as in idiopathic hypersomnia or narcolepsy. Similarly, it should not be confused with dysania, which describes a difficulty in getting out of bed, whereas clinophilia does not describe an "impediment" to getting up, but rather a "willingness" to lie down. Clinophilia


id: cluttering-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cluttering-0.md
category: reference
title: Cluttering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cluttering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:15.816505+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cluttering-20260505-0
summary:
Cluttering is a speech and communication disorder characterized by a rapid rate of speech, erratic rhythm, and poor syntax or grammar, making speech difficult to understand. == Classification == Cluttering is a speech and communication disorder that has also been described as a fluency disorder. It is defined as: Cluttering is a fluency disorder characterized by a rate that is perceived to be abnormally rapid, irregular, or both for the speaker (although measured syllable rates may not exceed normal limits). These rate abnormalities further are manifest in one or more of the following symptoms: (a) an excessive number of disfluencies, the majority of which are not typical of people with stuttering; (b) the frequent placement of pauses and use of prosodic patterns that do not conform to syntactic and semantic constraints; and (c) inappropriate (usually excessive) degrees of coarticulation among sounds, especially in multisyllabic words. == Signs and symptoms == Cluttering is sometimes confused with stuttering. Both communication disorders break the normal flow of speech, but they are distinct. A stutterer has a coherent pattern of thoughts, but may have a difficult time vocally expressing those thoughts; in contrast, a clutterer has no problem putting thoughts into words, but those


id: combination-therapy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combination_therapy-0.md
category: reference
title: Combination therapy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combination_therapy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:17.093860+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: combination-therapy-20260505-0
summary:
Combination therapy or polytherapy is therapy that uses more than one medication or modality. Typically, the term refers to using multiple therapies to treat a single disease, and often all the therapies are pharmaceutical (although it can also involve non-medical therapy, such as the combination of medications and talk therapy to treat depression). 'Pharmaceutical' combination therapy may be achieved by prescribing/administering separate drugs, or, where available, dosage forms that contain more than one active ingredient (such as fixed-dose combinations). Polypharmacy is a related term, referring to the use of multiple medications (without regard to whether they are for the same or separate conditions/diseases). Sometimes "polymedicine" is used to refer to pharmaceutical combination therapy. Most of these kinds of terms lack a universally consistent definition, so caution and clarification are often advisable. == Uses == Conditions treated with combination therapy include tuberculosis, leprosy, cancer, malaria, and HIV/AIDS. One major benefit of combination therapies is that they reduce development of drug resistance since a pathogen or tumor is less likely to have resistance to multiple drugs simultaneously. Artemisinin-based monotherapies for malaria are explicitly discouraged to avoid the problem of developing resistance to the newer treatment. Combination therapy may seem costlier than monotherapy


id: communicans-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicans-0.md
category: reference
title: Communicans
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communicans
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:18.216211+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: communicans-20260505-0
summary:
Communicans is a Latin word meaning "communicating". It is most commonly used in medical or biological terminology. The rami communicans are connective spinal nerves that attach to the ganglion of the sympathetic trunk. The two branches of the nerves are termed the White ramus communicans. The arteria comminicans are the three arteries in the brain that form the circle of Willis. Communicating artery is a synonym for this term. The macula communicans (or zonula communicans) is a synonym for a gap junction. These are locations on the cellular membrane that lie 2–4 nm from an adjacent cell and are penetrated by a connexon. A ductus communicans is a constriction of a swim bladder between the anterior and posterior chambers.


id: complication-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complication_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Complication (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complication_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:19.410220+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: complication-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
A complication in medicine, or medical complication, is an unfavorable result of a disease, health condition, or treatment. Complications may adversely affect the prognosis, or outcome, of a disease. Complications generally involve a worsening in the severity of the disease or the development of new signs, symptoms, or pathological changes that may become widespread throughout the body and affect other organ systems. Thus, complications may lead to the development of new diseases resulting from previously existing diseases. Complications may also arise as a result of various treatments. The development of complications depends on a number of factors, including the degree of vulnerability, susceptibility, age, health status, and immune system condition. Knowledge of the most common and severe complications of a disease, procedure, or treatment allows for prevention and preparation for treatment if they should occur. Complications are not to be confused with sequelae, which are residual effects that occur after the acute (initial, most severe) phase of an illness or injury. Sequelae can appear early in the development of disease or weeks to months later and are a result of the initial injury or illness. For example, a scar resulting from a burn or dysphagia resulting from a stroke would


id: complication-medicine-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complication_(medicine)-1.md
category: reference
title: Complication (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complication_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:19.410220+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: complication-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Cardiovascular disease. Adults with diabetes are significantly more likely to die from heart disease than are those without diabetes. Diabetes is associated with risk factors for various cardiovascular diseases including obesity, insulin resistance, high blood cholesterol and triglyceride content, and high blood pressure. These conditions increase risk of thrombosis, atherosclerosis (blockage of coronary arteries leading to inadequate supply of oxygen to parts of the heart), and hypertension which can lead to myocardial infarction, coronary artery disease (CAD), and others. Diabetic neuropathy. Hyperglycemia can eventually cause damage to nerves in the distal extremities (peripheral neuropathy), thighs and hips (radiculoplexus neuropathy), face (mononeuropathy), and internal organs (autonomic neuropathy). Initial symptoms may present as numbness, tingling, pain, muscular weakness, loss of reflexes or proper bodily functions, and many others. Diabetic nephropathy. Excessive amounts of certain solutes passing through the kidneys for prolonged periods of time can lead to kidney damage. Diabetic nephropathy is specifically characterized by abnormally high levels of urinary albumin excretion. This affects approximately 40% of patients with type I or type II diabetes. Diabetic retinopathy. Chronic or prolonged type I and type II diabetes can lead to damage in the blood vessels of the retina due to hyperglycemia (excessive blood


id: complication-medicine-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complication_(medicine)-2.md
category: reference
title: Complication (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complication_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:19.410220+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: complication-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Streptococcal pharyngitis, also known as strep throat, is an infection of the respiratory tract caused by group A Strep, Streptococcus pyogenes, a gram-positive, cocci, beta-hemolytic (lyses blood cells) bacteria. It is primarily spread by direct contact and the transfer of fluids via oral or other secretions and manifests largely in children. Common symptoms associated with streptococcal pharyngitis include sore throat, fever, white excretions at the back of the mouth, and cervical adenopathy (swollen lymph nodes underneath the chin and around the neck area). Streptococcal pharyngitis can lead to various complications and recurrent infection can increase the likelihood. In many of these, lack of treatment and the body's immune response is responsible for the additional adverse reactions. These include: Scarlet fever. In addition to the symptoms of strep throat, individuals may experience increased a red rash, increased red tone, and strawberry tongue. The prominent rash generally fades after a few days and may peel for a few weeks. Treatment is the same as for strep throat. Rheumatic fever. Rheumatic fever generally develops a few weeks after symptoms of strep throat have passed and is less likely to develop if prompt treatment (antibiotics) is given. Typical symptoms can include polyarthritis (temporary joint


id: computerized-physician-order-entry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerized_physician_order_entry-0.md
category: reference
title: Computerized physician order entry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerized_physician_order_entry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:20.608307+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: computerized-physician-order-entry-20260505-0
summary:
Computerized physician order entry (CPOE), sometimes referred to as computerized provider order entry or computerized provider order management (CPOM), is a process of electronic entry of medical practitioner instructions for the treatment of patients (particularly hospitalized patients) under his or her care. The entered orders are communicated over a computer network to the medical staff or to the departments (pharmacy, laboratory, or radiology) responsible for fulfilling the order. CPOE reduces the time it takes to distribute and complete orders, while increasing efficiency by reducing transcription errors including preventing duplicate order entry, while simplifying inventory management and billing. CPOE is a form of patient management software. == Required data == In a graphical representation of an order sequence, specific data should be presented to CPOE system staff in cleartext, including: identity of the patient role of required member of staff resources, materials and medication applied procedures to be performed operational sequence to be obeyed feedback to be noted case specific documentation to build Some textual data can be reduced to simple graphics. == CPOE related terminology == CPOE systems use terminology familiar to medical and nursing staff, but there are different terms used to classify and concatenate orders. The following items


id: computerized-physician-order-entry-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerized_physician_order_entry-1.md
category: reference
title: Computerized physician order entry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerized_physician_order_entry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:20.608307+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: computerized-physician-order-entry-20260505-0
summary:
== Patient safety benefits == In the past, physicians have traditionally hand-written or verbally communicated orders for patient care, which are then transcribed by various individuals (such as unit clerks, nurses, and ancillary staff) before being carried out. Handwritten reports or notes, manual order entry, non-standard abbreviations and poor legibility lead to errors and injuries to patients, . A follow-up IOM report in 2001 advised use of electronic medication ordering, with computer- and internet-based information systems to support clinical decisions. Prescribing errors are the largest identified source of preventable hospital medical error. A 2006 report by the Institute of Medicine estimated that a hospitalized patient is exposed to a medication error each day of his or her stay. While further studies have estimated that CPOE implementation at all nonrural hospitals in the United States could prevent over 500,000 serious medication errors each year. Studies of computerized physician order entry (CPOE) has yielded evidence that suggests the medication error rate can be reduced by 80%, and errors that have potential for serious harm or death for patients can be reduced by 55%, and other studies have also suggested benefits. Further, in 2005, CMS and CDC released a report that showed only


id: computerized-physician-order-entry-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerized_physician_order_entry-2.md
category: reference
title: Computerized physician order entry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerized_physician_order_entry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:20.608307+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: computerized-physician-order-entry-20260505-0
summary:
== Implementation == CPOE systems can take years to install and configure. Despite ample evidence of the potential to reduce medication errors, adoption of this technology by doctors and hospitals in the United States has been slowed by resistance to changes in physician's practice patterns, costs and training time involved, and concern with interoperability and compliance with future national standards. According to a study by RAND Health, the US healthcare system could save more than 81 billion dollars annually, reduce adverse medical events and improve the quality of care if it were to widely adopt CPOE and other health information technology. As more hospitals become aware of the financial benefits of CPOE, and more physicians with a familiarity with computers enter practice, increased use of CPOE is predicted. Several high-profile failures of CPOE implementation have occurred, so a major effort must be focused on change management, including restructuring workflows, dealing with physicians' resistance to change, and creating a collaborative environment. An early success with CPOE by the United States Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) is the Veterans Health Information Systems and Technology Architecture or VistA. A graphical user interface known as the Computerized Patient Record System (CPRS) allows health care


id: conservative-treatment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_treatment-0.md
category: reference
title: Conservative treatment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_treatment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:21.793562+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conservative-treatment-20260505-0
summary:
Conservative treatment is a type of medical treatment defined by the avoidance of invasive procedures, such as surgery, usually with the intent to preserve function or body parts, maintain quality of life, or avoid the risk of complications from surgery. The effectiveness of a conservative treatment plan depends on patient/provider goals as well as the stage and type of disease or injury. == Effectiveness of conservative treatment == === Kidney failure === In patients with advanced kidney failure, Conservative Kidney Management (CKM), or Comprehensive Conservative Care (CCC), is an alternative to dialysis or transplant. CKM includes management of pain and other symptoms, nutrition, and preservation of kidney function through noninvasive methods with an emphasis on quality of life. Studies of treatment strategies among elderly patients show that while more aggressive treatments such as dialysis may increase life expectancy, this effect diminishes among patients over 80, while patients who choose conservative treatment report a higher quality of life. One barrier to establishing strong provider-patient communication about CKM is disagreement among providers over the specific terms used, including "conservative treatment," "conservative care," "supportive care," "palliative care," "Conservative Kidney Management," and "Comprehensive Conservative Care." === Appendicitis === Conservative treatment of acute appendicitis has


id: contraindication-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contraindication-0.md
category: reference
title: Contraindication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contraindication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:23.038235+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: contraindication-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, a contraindication is a condition (a situation or factor) that serves as a reason not to take a certain medical treatment due to the harm that it would cause the patient. Contraindication is the opposite of indication, which is a reason to use a certain treatment. Absolute contraindications are contraindications for which there are no reasonable circumstances for undertaking a course of action (that is, overriding the prohibition). For example: Children and teenagers with viral infections should not be given aspirin because of the risk of Reye syndrome. A person with an anaphylactic food allergy should never eat the food to which they are allergic. A person with hemochromatosis should not be administered iron preparations. Some medications are so teratogenic that they are absolutely contraindicated in pregnancy; examples include thalidomide and isotretinoin. Relative contraindications are contraindications for circumstances in which the patient is at higher risk of complications from treatment, but these risks may be outweighed by other considerations or mitigated by other measures. For example, pregnant individuals should normally avoid getting X-rays, but the risk from radiography may be outweighed by the benefit of diagnosing (and then treating) a serious condition such as tuberculosis. Another principal pair


id: convulsion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convulsion-0.md
category: reference
title: Convulsion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convulsion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:24.230938+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: convulsion-20260505-0
summary:
A convulsion is a medical condition where the body muscles contract and relax rapidly and repeatedly, resulting in uncontrolled shaking. Because epileptic seizures typically include convulsions, the term convulsion is often used as a synonym for seizure. However, not all epileptic seizures result in convulsions, and not all convulsions are caused by epileptic seizures. Non-epileptic convulsions have no relation with epilepsy, and are caused by non-epileptic seizures. Convulsions can be caused by epilepsy, infections (including a severe form of listeriosis which is caused by eating food contaminated by Listeria monocytogenes), brain trauma, or other medical conditions. They can also occur from an electric shock or improperly enriched air for scuba diving. The word fit is sometimes used to mean a convulsion or epileptic seizure. == Signs and symptoms == A person having a convulsion may experience several different symptoms, such as a brief blackout, confusion, drooling, loss of bowel or bladder control, sudden shaking of the entire body, uncontrollable muscle spasms, or temporary cessation of breathing. Symptoms usually last from a few seconds to several minutes, although they can last longer. Convulsions in children are not necessarily benign, and may lead to brain damage if prolonged. In these patients, the


id: corpulence-index-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpulence_index-0.md
category: reference
title: Corpulence index
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpulence_index
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:25.492049+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: corpulence-index-20260505-0
summary:
The Corpulence Index (CI) (also Ponderal Index (PI), Rohrer's Index, Tri-ponderal Mass Index, or Triponderal Mass Index (TMI)) is a measure of corpulence, or of leanness in other variants, of a person calculated as a relationship between mass and height. It was first proposed in 1921 as the "Corpulence measure" by Swiss physician Fritz Rohrer and hence is also known as Rohrer's Index. It is similar to the body mass index, but the mass is normalized with the third power of body height rather than the second power. C I = m a s s h e i g h t 3 {\displaystyle \mathrm {CI} ={\frac {\mathrm {mass} }{\mathrm {height} ^{3}}}} with m a s s {\displaystyle \mathrm {mass} } in kilograms and h e i g h t {\displaystyle \mathrm {height} } in metres, giving a measure with the same dimensions as density. The corpulence index yields valid results even for very short and very tall persons, which is a problem with BMI — for example, an ideal body weight for a person 152.4 cm tall (48 kg) will render BMI of 20.7 and CI of 13.6, while for a person 200 cm tall (99 kg), the BMI will


id: cosmesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Cosmesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:26.654274+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cosmesis-20260505-0
summary:
Cosmesis is the preservation, restoration, or bestowing of bodily beauty. In the medical context, it usually refers to the surgical correction of a disfiguring defect, or the cosmetic improvements made by a surgeon following incisions. Its use is generally limited to the additional, usually minor, steps that the surgeon (who is generally operating for noncosmetic indications) takes to improve the aesthetic appearance of the scars associated with the operation. Typical actions include removal of damaged tissue, mitigation of tension on the wound, and/or using fine (thin) sutures to close the outer layer of skin. Cosmetic surgery is the portion of plastic surgery that concerns itself with the elective improvement of cosmesis. == Prosthetic limbs == The practice of cosmesis, the creation of lifelike limbs made from silicone or PVC, has grown in popularity. Such prosthetics, such as artificial hands, can now be made to mimic the appearance of real limbs, complete with freckles, veins, hair, fingerprints, and even tattoos. Custom-made silicone cosmeses are generally more expensive, costing thousands of US dollars depending on the level of detail. Standard cosmeses come ready-made in various sizes, though they are often not as realistic as their custom-made counterparts. Another option is the custom-made


id: counterstimulation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterstimulation-0.md
category: reference
title: Counterstimulation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterstimulation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:27.843943+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: counterstimulation-20260505-0
summary:
Counterstimulation is a treatment for pain based on distraction. A basic example is the practice of rubbing a fresh bruise, so that attention is paid to the sense of touch and pressure, rather than to the pain of the injury. Liniment and "medicated" products containing menthol work in the same way, producing sensations such as heat or cold or strong odors. Counterstimulation can also be applied to a remote part of the body. Pain control can also be achieved by the use of electronic media, such as television or virtual reality. == See also == Counterirritant == References == A definition of counterstimulation Virtual reality for pain management


id: course-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Course_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Course (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Course_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:29.002187+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: course-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine the term course generally takes one of two meanings, both reflecting the sense of "path that something or someone moves along...process or sequence or steps": A course of medication is a period of continual treatment with drugs, sometimes with variable dosage and in particular combinations. For instance treatment with some drugs should not end abruptly. Instead, their course should end with a tapering dosage. Antibiotics: Taking the full course of antibiotics is important to prevent reinfection and/or development of drug-resistant bacteria. Steroids: For both short-term and long-term steroid treatment, when stopping treatment, the dosage is tapered rather than abruptly ended. This permits the adrenal glands to resume the body's natural production of cortisol. Abrupt discontinuation can result in adrenal insufficiency; and/or steroid withdrawal syndrome (a rebound effect in which exaggerated symptoms return). The course of a disease, also called its natural history, is the development of the disease in a patient, including the sequence and speed of the stages and forms they take. Typical courses of diseases include: chronic recurrent or relapsing subacute: somewhere between an acute and a chronic course acute: beginning abruptly, intensifying rapidly, not lasting long fulminant or peracute: particularly acute, especially if unusually violent


id: craniocervical-instability-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craniocervical_instability-0.md
category: reference
title: Craniocervical instability
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craniocervical_instability
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:30.316146+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: craniocervical-instability-20260505-0
summary:
Craniocervical instability (CCI) is a medical condition characterized by excessive movement of the vertebra at the atlanto-occipital joint and the atlanto-axial joint located between the skull and the top two vertebra, known as C1 and C2. The condition can cause neural injury and compression of nearby structures, including the brain stem, spinal cord, vagus nerve, and vertebral artery, resulting in a constellation of symptoms. Craniocervical instability is more common in people with a connective tissue disease, including Ehlers–Danlos syndromes, osteogenesis imperfecta, and rheumatoid arthritis. It is frequently co-morbid with atlanto-axial joint instability, Chiari malformation, or tethered spinal cord syndrome. The condition can be brought on by physical trauma, including whiplash, laxity of the ligaments surrounding the joint, or other damage to the surrounding connective tissue. == Symptoms and signs == The experience of craniocervical instability can range from minor symptoms to severe disability, in which patients are bedbound. The constellation of symptoms caused by craniocervical instability is known as cervico-medullary syndrome, which may include: Anxiety disorders Bobble-head doll syndrome – a sensation that the skull may fall off the cervical spine Clumsiness and motor delay Cognitive and memory decline Double or blurred vision Dysphagia – a sensation of choking Dyspnea


id: culture-conversion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_conversion-0.md
category: reference
title: Culture conversion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_conversion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:31.571045+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: culture-conversion-20260505-0
summary:
Culture conversion is a diagnostic criteria indicating the point at which samples taken from a person infected with a tuberculosis can no longer produce tuberculosis cell cultures. Culture conversion is a positive prognostic marker indicating that a person is cured of, or is recovering from, tuberculosis. == References ==


id: cure-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cure-0.md
category: reference
title: Cure
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cure
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:32.738778+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cure-20260505-0
summary:
A cure is a substance or procedure that resolves a medical condition. This may include a medication, a surgical operation, a lifestyle change, or even a philosophical shift that alleviates a person's suffering or achieves a state of healing. The medical condition can be a disease, mental illness or genetic disorder. An incurable disease is not necessarily a terminal illness, and conversely, a curable illness can still be fatal. The cure fraction or cure rate—the proportion of people with a disease who are cured by a given treatment—is determined by comparing disease-free survival in treated individuals against a matched control group without the disease. Another method for determining the cure fraction and/or "cure time" involves measuring when the hazard rate in a diseased group returns to the hazard rate observed in the general population. The concept of a cure inherently implies the permanent resolution of a specific instance of a disease. For example, a person who recovers from the common cold is considered cured, even though they may contract another cold in the future. Conversely, a person who effectively manages a disease like diabetes mellitus to prevent undesirable symptoms without permanently eliminating it is not considered cured. Related concepts with


id: dead-on-arrival-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_on_arrival-0.md
category: reference
title: Dead on arrival
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_on_arrival
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:34.005679+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dead-on-arrival-20260505-0
summary:
Dead on arrival (DOA) indicates that a patient is unsalvageable, i.e. cannot be resuscitated, upon arrival at a medical facility or the arrival of paramedics at the scene. Dead in the field, brought in dead (BID), and dead right there (DRT) are terms which similarly indicate that a patient was found to be already clinically dead upon the arrival of professional medical assistance, often in the form of first responders such as emergency medical technicians, paramedics, firefighters, or police. In some jurisdictions, first responders must consult verbally with a physician before officially pronouncing a patient deceased, but once cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is initiated, it must be continued until a physician can pronounce the patient dead. == Medical DOA == When presented with a patient, medical professionals are required to perform cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) unless specific conditions are met that allow them to pronounce the patient as deceased. In most places, these are examples of such criteria: Injuries that are incompatible with life. These include but are not necessarily limited to decapitation, catastrophic brain trauma, incineration, gross dismemberment, or injuries that do not permit effective administration of CPR. If a patient has sustained such injuries, it should be intuitively obvious that


id: dead-space-physiology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_space_(physiology)-0.md
category: reference
title: Dead space (physiology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_space_(physiology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:35.255677+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dead-space-physiology-20260505-0
summary:
Dead space is the volume of air that is inhaled that does not take part in the gas exchange, because it either remains in the conducting airways or reaches alveoli that are not perfused or poorly perfused. It means that not all the air in each breath is available for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Mammals breathe in and out of their lungs, wasting that part of the inhalation which remains in the conducting airways where no gas exchange can occur. == Components == Total dead space (also known as physiological dead space) is the sum of the anatomical dead space and the alveolar dead space. Benefits do accrue to a seemingly wasteful design for ventilation that includes dead space. Carbon dioxide is retained, making a bicarbonate-buffered blood and interstitium possible. Inspired air is brought to body temperature, increasing the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen, improving O2 uptake. Particulate matter is trapped on the mucus that lines the conducting airways, allowing its removal by mucociliary transport. Inspired air is humidified, improving the quality of airway mucus. In humans, about a third of every resting breath has no change in O2 and CO2 levels. In adults, it is usually


id: dead-space-physiology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_space_(physiology)-1.md
category: reference
title: Dead space (physiology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_space_(physiology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:35.255677+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dead-space-physiology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Anatomic dead space === A different maneuver is employed in measuring anatomic dead space: the test subject breathes all the way out, inhales deeply from a 0% nitrogen gas mixture (usually 100% oxygen) and then breathes out into equipment that measures nitrogen and gas volume. This final exhalation occurs in three phases. The first phase (phase 1) has no nitrogen as that is gas that is 100% oxygen in the anatomic dead space. The nitrogen concentration then rapidly increases during the brief second phase (phase 2) and finally reaches a plateau in the third phase (phase 3). The anatomic dead space is equal to the volume exhaled during the first phase plus the volume up to the mid-point of the transition from phase 1 to phase 3. == Ventilated patient == The depth and frequency of our breathing is determined by chemoreceptors and the brainstem, as modified by a number of subjective sensations. When mechanically ventilated using a mandatory mode, the patient breathes at a rate and tidal volume that is dictated by the machine. Because of dead space, taking deep breaths more slowly (e.g. ten 500 ml breaths per minute) is more effective than taking shallow breaths quickly


id: death-by-misadventure-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_by_misadventure-0.md
category: reference
title: Death by misadventure
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_by_misadventure
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:36.467338+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: death-by-misadventure-20260505-0
summary:
In the United Kingdom, death by misadventure is the recorded manner of death for an accidental death caused by a risk taken voluntarily. Misadventure in English law, as recorded by coroners and on death certificates and associated documents, is a death that is primarily attributed to an accident that occurred due to a risk that was taken voluntarily. In contrast, when the manner of death is given as an accident, the coroner has determined that the decedent had taken no unreasonable willful risk. "Misadventure may be the right conclusion when a death arises from some deliberate human act which unexpectedly and unintentionally goes wrong." Legally defined manner of death: a way by which an actual cause of death (trauma, exposure, etc.) was allowed to occur. For example, a death caused by an illicit drug overdose may be ruled a death by misadventure, as the user took the risk of drug usage voluntarily. Misadventure is a form of unnatural death, a category that also includes accidental death, suicide, and homicide. In the case of R v Wolverhampton Coroner, it was held that the coroner must establish death by misadventure on the balance of probabilities, commonly known as "more likely than not".


id: decompensation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompensation-0.md
category: reference
title: Decompensation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decompensation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:37.741951+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: decompensation-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, decompensation is the functional deterioration of a structure or system that had been previously working with the help of compensation. Decompensation may occur due to fatigue, stress, illness, or old age. When a system is "compensated", it is able to function despite stressors or defects. Decompensation describes an inability to compensate for these deficiencies. It is a general term commonly used in medicine to describe a variety of situations. == Medical term == For example, cardiac decompensation may refer to the failure of the heart to maintain adequate blood circulation, after long-standing (previously compensated) vascular disease (see heart failure). Short-term treatment of cardiac decompensation can be achieved through administration of dobutamine, resulting in an increase in heart contractility via an inotropic effect. Kidney failure can also occur following a slow degradation of kidney function due to an underlying untreated illness; the symptoms of the latter can then become much more severe due to the lack of efficient compensation by the kidney. Some of the signs of chronic liver disease detectable on clinical examination are associated with decompensation. == Psychology == In psychology, the term refers to an individual's loss of healthy defense mechanisms in response to stress, resulting


id: deficiency-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deficiency_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Deficiency (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deficiency_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:39.068236+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: deficiency-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, a deficiency is a lack or shortage of a functional entity, by less than normal or necessary supply or function. A person can have chromosomal deficiencies, mental deficiencies, nutritional deficiencies, complement deficiencies, or enzyme deficiencies. == Nutritional deficiency == Protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) is a condition where people consume very little in the way of energy, proteins, or both in their diets; as a result, it is common in developing nations. The two main illnesses associated with this condition are kwashiorkor, which is characterized by severe protein deficiency, and marasmus, which is total food deprivation with abnormally low amounts of protein and energy. === Carbohydrates deficiency === Certain human body cells, such as neurons, require high glucose concentrations. When there are insufficient carbohydrates in the diet, the breakdown of body proteins, dietary proteins, and glycerol from fats is what drives gluconeogenesis. Most gluconeogenesis occurs in the liver. A condition known as ketosis (increased ketones production), which is characterized by a strangely sweet-smelling patient, may result from a prolonged shortage of carbohydrates. === Essential fatty acids deficiency === The essential fatty acids (EFA) omega-3 and omega-6 are polyunsaturated. Clinical signs of an EFA deficiency include stunted growth in kids and


id: degeneration-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degeneration_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Degeneration (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degeneration_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:40.395082+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: degeneration-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Degeneration is deterioration in the medical sense. Generally, it is the change from a higher to a lower form. More specifically, it is the change of tissue to a lower or less functionally active form. True degeneration: when there is actual chemical change of the tissue itself. Infiltration: when the change consists of the deposit of abnormal matter in the tissues Degenerative disease == See also == Dysgenics Macular degeneration Neurodegenerative disease Social degeneration == References == Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary (Twenty-sixth Edition) (ISBN 0-7216-1645-3)


id: dense-breast-tissue-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dense_breast_tissue-0.md
category: reference
title: Dense breast tissue
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dense_breast_tissue
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:41.578373+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dense-breast-tissue-20260505-0
summary:
Dense breast tissue, also known as dense breasts, is a condition of the breasts where a higher proportion of the breasts are made up of glandular tissue and fibrous tissue than fatty tissue. Around 40–50% of women have dense breast tissue and one of the main medical components of the condition is that mammograms are unable to differentiate tumorous tissue from the surrounding dense tissue. This increases the risk of late diagnosis of breast cancer in women with dense breast tissue. Additionally, women with such tissue have a higher likelihood of developing breast cancer in general, though the reasons for this are poorly understood. == Definition and prevalence == Dense breast tissue is defined based on the amount of glandular and fibrous tissue as compared to the percentage of fatty tissue. The current mammography classifications split up the density of breasts into four categories. Approximately 10% of women have almost entirely fatty breasts, 40% with small pockets of dense tissue, 40% with even distribution of dense tissue throughout, and 10% with extremely dense tissue. The latter two groups are those included under the definition of dense breasts. These categories were officially determined as a part of the American College of


id: dense-breast-tissue-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dense_breast_tissue-1.md
category: reference
title: Dense breast tissue
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dense_breast_tissue
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:41.578373+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dense-breast-tissue-20260505-0
summary:
==== United States ==== The issues of diagnosing breast cancer for such affected women are required to be a part of the information given and the suggestion of additional testing using alternative methods. Most legislation also has any mammograms taken be given to the patient's physician and made a part of their medical record. The first state legislation on dense breast notifications was passed in 2009 in Connecticut after advocacy by breast cancer survivor Nancy Cappello, who had been diagnosed with stage 3 cancer owing to the failure of mammograms to detect the growing tumor. Other states have passed their own legislation, with Texas, for example, passing Henda's Law in 2011. By 2015, 19 states had legal notification statutes for dense breast tissue. A federal law titled the Mammography Quality Standards Act (MQSA) already covers and regulates how mammography reports are handled and requires sending dense breast identification to physicians. But the law did not include notifying the patient; state-level laws have sought to account for this gap in regulation since 2009. A federal bill to expand the MQSA was presented to Congress in October of 2011, but was not passed. Subsequent federal bills were signed into law in February


id: dental-abrasion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental_abrasion-0.md
category: reference
title: Dental abrasion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental_abrasion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:42.908553+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dental-abrasion-20260505-0
summary:
Abrasion is the non-carious, mechanical wear of tooth from interaction with objects other than tooth-tooth contact. It most commonly affects the premolars and canines, usually along the cervical margins. Based on clinical surveys, studies have shown that abrasion is the most common but not the sole aetiological factor for development of non-carious cervical lesions (NCCL) and is most frequently caused by incorrect toothbrushing technique. Abrasion frequently presents at the cemento-enamel junction and can be caused by many contributing factors, all with the ability to affect the tooth surface in varying degrees. The appearance may vary depending on the cause of abrasion, however most commonly presents in a V-shaped caused by excessive lateral pressure whilst tooth-brushing. The surface is shiny rather than carious, and sometimes the ridge is deep enough to see the pulp chamber within the tooth itself. Non-carious cervical loss due to abrasion may lead to consequences and symptoms such as increased tooth sensitivity to hot and cold, increased plaque trapping which will result in caries and periodontal disease, and difficulty of dental appliances such as retainers or dentures engaging the tooth. It may also be aesthetically unpleasant to some people. For successful treatment of abrasion, the cause first


id: dental-abrasion-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental_abrasion-1.md
category: reference
title: Dental abrasion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental_abrasion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:42.908553+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dental-abrasion-20260505-0
summary:
== Treatment == There are several reasons to treat abrasion lesion(s) (also known as 'Class V cavity') such as: Sensitivity. Presence of carious lesion. Aesthetically unpleasant. Arresting the progression of the lesion. Reducing potential onset of caries or periodontal disease as these lesions can present as a plaque retention factor. Where there is a risk of pulpal exposure if lesion depth is severe enough. When retention of a removable appliance is interfered, i.e. denture To improve denture clasp(s) retention. Overall integrity of tooth structure is compromised. In order for successful treatment of abrasion to occur, the aetiology first needs to be identified. The most accurate way of doing so is completing a thorough medical, dental, social and diet history. All aspects need to be investigated as in many cases the cause of abrasion can be multi-factorial. Once a definitive diagnosis is completed the appropriate treatment can commence. Treatment for abrasion can present in varying difficulties depending on the current degree or progress caused by the abrasion. Abrasion often presents in conjunction with other dental conditions such as attrition, decay and erosion. Evidence suggest there is a decrease in the effect of dental abrasion with dental erosion when fluoride varnish is


id: dentomandibular-sensorimotor-dysfunction-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dentomandibular_sensorimotor_dysfunction-0.md
category: reference
title: Dentomandibular sensorimotor dysfunction
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dentomandibular_sensorimotor_dysfunction
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:44.166953+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dentomandibular-sensorimotor-dysfunction-20260505-0
summary:
Dentomandibular sensorimotor dysfunction (DMSD) is a medical condition involving the mandible (lower jaw), upper three cervical (neck) vertebrae, and the surrounding muscle and nerve areas. There is a concentrated nerve center in this area called the trigeminal nucleus. This major pathway of nerves controls pain signals from the teeth, face, head, and neck, and carries them to the brain. DMSD is a condition in which an individual experiences chronic pain or stiffness from these nerve inputs as a result of dental force imbalances. == Signs and symptoms == There are many symptoms associated with DMSD conditions. The most commonly reported are: Headache/Migraine Chronic daily headache Tension-type headache Myofascial pain Tinnitus Temporomandibular joint disorder (TMJD) Pulpitis Poor airway control Sleep/arousal disorder Changes in brain chemistry and neurotransmitter balance Bruxism Abfraction Tooth fracture/damage Unstable dental arch form Restricted range of motion and postural adaptations Clenching with or without torus formation Abnormal tooth wear patterns Malocclusion Parafunction Degenerative joint disease This condition affects all ages and both genders. However, females are more likely to suffer from DMSD. Individuals who have experienced chronic headaches and/or migraines without finding lasting relief through traditional medicine can be assessed for DMSD through a combination of objective tests,


id: dentomandibular-sensorimotor-dysfunction-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dentomandibular_sensorimotor_dysfunction-1.md
category: reference
title: Dentomandibular sensorimotor dysfunction
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dentomandibular_sensorimotor_dysfunction
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:44.166953+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dentomandibular-sensorimotor-dysfunction-20260505-0
summary:
==== Range-of-motion (ROM) assessment ==== This test digitally measures an individual's cervical range of motion from a standing position and displays the results in terms of flexion and extension, left and right lateral flexion, and left and right rotation. Limited cervical range of motion is a disability, and being able to understand what is normal—and where their own mouth, head and neck are during the examination—helps people see how this disability is affecting their condition. This is also when the amount a person can open their mouth is measured. Along with normal opening movement, the jaw should slide symmetrically from left to right at least 25% of the total mouth opening distance. Finally, during the range of motion assessment, a record of jaw joint vibrations and sounds are made. Normal jaw joints glide without noise or vibrations. Depending on the assessment findings, patients are classified as needing 1 of 4 levels of care (see Table 1: Levels of Dental Headache Care) to treat and manage their pain and balance their dental foundation. Every level has a regimented therapy protocol designed to provide the most effective, long-lasting care for each individual. Once the type of headache pain and extent of dental


id: depression-physiology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_(physiology)-0.md
category: reference
title: Depression (physiology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_(physiology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:45.334730+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: depression-physiology-20260505-0
summary:
In physiology and medicine, depression refers to a lowering, in particular a reduction in a specific biological variable or the functions of an organ. It is the opposite of elevation. For example, it is possible to refer to "depressed thyroid function" or to a depression of blood flow in a particular area. Further examples: Depression of the central nervous system of an animal may be expressed as drowsiness or sleep, lack of coordination and unconsciousness. Respiratory depression or hypoventilation. == References ==


id: developmental-origins-of-health-and-disease-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_origins_of_health_and_disease-0.md
category: reference
title: Developmental origins of health and disease
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_origins_of_health_and_disease
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:46.543071+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: developmental-origins-of-health-and-disease-20260505-0
summary:
Developmental origins of health and disease (DOHaD) is an approach to medical research factors that can lead to the development of human diseases during early life development. These factors include the role of prenatal and perinatal exposure to environmental factors, such as undernutrition, stress, environmental chemical, etc. This approach includes an emphasis on epigenetic causes of adult chronic non-communicable diseases. As well as physical human disease, the psychopathology of the foetus can also be predicted by epigenetic factors. == Origin == DOHaD has evolved into its modern understanding from several precursor concepts. In the 19th century the idea of "maternal impressions" was popular. Maternal impression is the idea that anything the mother did before giving birth could affect her offspring. Our modern understanding of DOHaD was developed by several studies by David Barker and his colleagues, which showed a strong relationship between infant mortality rates from 1921 to 1925 and ischemic heart disease rates from 1968 to 1978. This led to the fetal origins hypothesis of the origins of adult diseases, which proposed that this relationship was caused by differences in early life nutrition, with a supporting theory that birthweight is connected to the development of chronic disease. During the


id: developmental-origins-of-health-and-disease-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_origins_of_health_and_disease-1.md
category: reference
title: Developmental origins of health and disease
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_origins_of_health_and_disease
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:46.543071+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: developmental-origins-of-health-and-disease-20260505-0
summary:
=== Environmental mismatch hypothesis === This is also referred to as the mismatch theory. Foetal malnutrition followed by excess nutrition in adults is a key example of environmental mismatches. This is very common among people born in impoverished societies. For pregnant women who are living in this type of circumstance the foetuses which are in utero are more likely to sense a low-protein condition and alter their development to survive. Therefore, the foetus will predict that getting food will be very difficult which then will set its metabolism for a "thrifty phenotype". By doing this it will use every calorie to its most efficient use for survival. This can be the same cause for a society with plenty of food available. The embryo will develop insulin resistance and enzyme levels will convert the food that is not being used into fat, which in later life can lead to obesity and diabetes. Overall the environmental mismatch hypothesis is an advantage for human development but not without some disadvantage in later life. == Mechanisms == Epigenetic alterations of gene expression are closely related with developmental origins of the health and disease hypothesis. DNA methylation, histone modifications and non-coding RNAs are altered by


id: developmental-origins-of-health-and-disease-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_origins_of_health_and_disease-2.md
category: reference
title: Developmental origins of health and disease
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_origins_of_health_and_disease
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:46.543071+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: developmental-origins-of-health-and-disease-20260505-0
summary:
=== Metabolic diseases === A study done at UC Irvine looked at the impact that maternal stress has on foetal development and overall foetal health. The researchers determined that a mother's stress and adverse pregnancy outcomes (APOs) related to the length of gestation and growth of the foetus along with impacts on the endocrine and immune systems of the foetus. Early life influences, both prenatal and postnatal, have important effects on children later in life. It was determined that breastfed infants have significantly lower risks of obesity later in life than infants that were formula-fed. Nutrition and growth during the early years of life can be related to the growth of diseases in humans later in their lives. For example, a study done in Jamaica showed that the blood pressure of children was associated with the mother's hemoglobin levels and body fat during pregnancy. Another example of this is shown in an article from the New England Journal of Medicine which took place during the Dutch famine. This study concluded that those who were in utero at the time of the famine were at a greater risk of obesity, hypertension, and heart disease than those who were born before or


id: developmental-origins-of-health-and-disease-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_origins_of_health_and_disease-3.md
category: reference
title: Developmental origins of health and disease
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_origins_of_health_and_disease
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:46.543071+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: developmental-origins-of-health-and-disease-20260505-0
summary:
=== Schizophrenia === Large-scale famines offer insights into the effects prenatal malnutrition has on developing foetuses. A team led by Mingqing Xu investigated this possible connection between prenatal malnutrition and schizophrenia by analyzing medical records of people born between 1960 and 1961 during the Great Chinese Famine. This study found that there was a two-fold risk for someone who was born in a rural area during this period of famine to later develop schizophrenia than someone who was born either before or after. However, being born in an urban area during this time was not associated with an increased risk of schizophrenia. This is probably due to factors that exacerbated the impact of the famine in rural areas such as grain procurement and lack of large-scale grain storage. Similar results have been found in studying the effects of the Dutch famine from 1944 to 1945. A study by Hoek compared the levels of schizophrenia for those born between August 15 and December 31, 1945, to those born after the famine had ended. This study found that those born during the time period were between two and two and a half times more likely to have schizophrenia than those born after


id: diadochokinesia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diadochokinesia-0.md
category: reference
title: Diadochokinesia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diadochokinesia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:47.860542+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: diadochokinesia-20260505-0
summary:
Diadochokinesia or diadochokinesis is the ability to make antagonistic movements in quick succession, alternately bringing a limb into opposite positions, as of flexion and extension or of pronation and supination. Speech-language pathology defines it as the speed necessary to stop a determined motor impulse and substitute it with its opposite. The relative timing of this kind of movements is also called alternate motion rates (AMR) or sequential motor rates (SMR). Loss of this ability, called dysdiadochokinesia, is a characteristic sign of cerebellar diseases. Many clinical tests may be employed to test for such disturbances. Alternating movements: Patient is told e.g. to pronate and supinate their hands in rapid succession, holding forearms vertically. In cerebellar diseases, the movements are irregular and inaccurate; in case of the pyramidal tract lesion the motion may be slowed or incomplete. Stewart-Holmes rebound sign: Patient tries to flex the elbow against applied resistance. When physician's grip is suddenly released, the patient should be able to deter it from rebounding. With cerebellar disease, the forearm may sway in several cycles. The patient may even strike themself if not guarded. Various instrumental techniques can be used to investigate speech motor skills, such as imaging movement transduction and point


id: diagnosis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnosis-0.md
category: reference
title: Diagnosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:48.997079+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: diagnosis-20260505-0
summary:
Diagnosis (pl.: diagnoses) is the identification of the nature and cause of a certain phenomenon. Diagnosis is used in a lot of different disciplines, with variations in the use of logic, analytics, and experience, to determine "cause and effect". In systems engineering and computer science, it is typically used to determine the causes of symptoms, mitigations, and solutions. == Computer science and networking == Bayesian network Complex event processing Diagnosis (artificial intelligence) Event correlation Fault management Fault tree analysis Grey problem RPR problem diagnosis Remote diagnostics Root cause analysis Troubleshooting Unified Diagnostic Services == Mathematics and logic == Bayesian probability Block Hackam's dictum Occam's razor Regression diagnostics Sutton's law == Medicine == Medical diagnosis Molecular diagnostics === Methods === CDR computerized assessment system Computer-aided diagnosis Differential diagnosis Retrospective diagnosis === Tools === DELTA (taxonomy) DXplain List of diagnostic classification and rating scales used in psychiatry == Organizational development == Organizational diagnostics == Systems engineering == Five whys Eight disciplines problem solving Fault detection and isolation Problem solving == References == == External links == The dictionary definition of diagnosis at Wiktionary


id: diagnosis-of-exclusion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnosis_of_exclusion-0.md
category: reference
title: Diagnosis of exclusion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnosis_of_exclusion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:50.188477+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: diagnosis-of-exclusion-20260505-0
summary:
A diagnosis of exclusion or by exclusion (per exclusionem) is a diagnosis of a medical condition reached by a process of elimination, which may be necessary if presence cannot be established with complete confidence from history, examination or testing. Such elimination of other reasonable possibilities is a major component in performing a differential diagnosis. Diagnosis by exclusion tends to occur where scientific knowledge is scarce, specifically where the means to verify a diagnosis by an objective method is absent. It can also commonly occur where objective diagnostic tests do exist, but extensive diagnostic testing or sufficient exploration of differential diagnosis by a multidisciplinary team is not undertaken due to financial constraints or assessment bias (health inequity). The largest category of diagnosis by exclusion is seen among psychiatric disorders where the presence of physical or organic disease must be excluded as a prerequisite for making a functional diagnosis. == Examples == An example of such a diagnosis is "fever of unknown origin": to explain the cause of elevated temperature the most common causes of unexplained fever (infection, neoplasm, or collagen vascular disease) must be ruled out. Other examples include: Fibromyalgia Adult-onset Still's disease Behçet's disease Bell's palsy Burning mouth syndrome Chronic


id: diagnosis-related-group-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnosis-related_group-0.md
category: reference
title: Diagnosis-related group
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnosis-related_group
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:51.426194+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: diagnosis-related-group-20260505-0
summary:
Diagnosis-related group (DRG) is a system to classify hospital cases into one of originally 467 groups, with the last group (currently coded as 999) being "Ungroupable". This system of classification was developed in the 1970s as a collaborative project by Robert B Fetter, PhD, of the Yale School of Management, and John D. Thompson, MPH, of the Yale School of Public Health. The system is also referred to as "the DRGs", and its intent was to identify the "products" that a hospital provides. Examples include appendectomy, normal newborn (vaginal delivery), heart failure or psychoses. The system was developed in anticipation of convincing Congress to use it for reimbursement, to replace "cost based" reimbursement that had been used up to that point. DRGs are assigned by a "grouper" program based on ICD (International Classification of Diseases) diagnoses, procedures, age, sex, discharge status, and the presence of complications or comorbidities. DRGs have been used in the US since 1982 to determine how much Medicare pays the hospital for each "product", since patients within each category are clinically similar and are expected to use the same level of hospital resources. DRGs may be further grouped into Major Diagnostic Categories (MDCs). DRGs are also


id: diagnosis-related-group-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnosis-related_group-1.md
category: reference
title: Diagnosis-related group
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnosis-related_group
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:51.426194+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: diagnosis-related-group-20260505-0
summary:
...the single most influential postwar innovation in medical financing: Medicare's prospective payment system (PPS). Inexorably rising medical inflation and deep economic deterioration forced policymakers in the late 1970s to pursue radical reform of Medicare to keep the program from insolvency. Congress and the Reagan administration eventually turned to the one alternative reimbursement system that analysts and academics had studied more than any other and had even tested with apparent success in New Jersey: prospective payment with diagnosis-related groups (DRGs). Rather than simply reimbursing hospitals whatever costs they charged to treat Medicare patients, the new model paid hospitals a predetermined, set rate based on the patient's diagnosis. The most significant change in health policy since Medicare and Medicaid's passage in 1965 went virtually unnoticed by the general public. Nevertheless, the change was nothing short of revolutionary. For the first time, the federal government gained the upper hand in its financial relationship with the hospital industry. Medicare's new prospective payment system with DRGs triggered a shift in the balance of political and economic power between the providers of medical care (hospitals and physicians) and those who paid for it - power that providers had successfully accumulated for more than half a century.


id: diagnostic-greed-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnostic_greed-0.md
category: reference
title: Diagnostic greed
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagnostic_greed
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:52.629258+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: diagnostic-greed-20260505-0
summary:
Diagnostic greed is a medical term coined by physician Maurice Pappworth to describe the rigidity of physicians in insisting on every classic symptom and physical sign be present before making a diagnosis. Pappworth explained that “overwhelming evidence is not essential for correct diagnosis, and the absence of some expected symptom or sign often does not invalidate an otherwise reasonable diagnosis.” Where a diagnosis may have considerable impact, additional tests providing supporting evidence might be required, making diagnostic greed advantageous. == Origin and definition == The term "diagnostic greed" was coined by physician Maurice Pappworth to describe the rigidity of physicians in insisting on every classic symptom and physical sign be present before making a diagnosis. Pappworth explained that “overwhelming evidence is not essential for correct diagnosis, and the absence of some expected symptom or sign often does not invalidate an otherwise reasonable diagnosis.” He recorded that the correct question was "wherefore is this disease different from all other disease?" Coming to a correct diagnosis "is not like a jury's verdict. It does not have to be proved beyond a reasonable doubt." == Examples == Where a person presents with a classic history associated with clearly recognisable symptoms and signs of


id: diastasis-physiology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diastasis_(physiology)-0.md
category: reference
title: Diastasis (physiology)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diastasis_(physiology)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:53.849340+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: diastasis-physiology-20260505-0
summary:
In physiology, diastasis is the middle stage of diastole during the cycle of a heartbeat, where the initial passive filling of the heart's ventricles has slowed, but before the atria contract to complete the active filling. Diastasis is the longest phase of cardiac cycle. == See also == Compare diastasis (pathology) == References ==


id: diathesis-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diathesis_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Diathesis (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diathesis_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:55.158526+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: diathesis-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine and allied fields, diathesis (from Greek διάθεσις) is a hereditary or constitutional predisposition to a group of diseases, an allergy, or other disorder. There are many types of diathesis. Some including strumous diathesis, sthenic diathesis, and many more. Atopic diathesis is a predisposition to develop one or more of hay fever, allergic rhinitis, bronchial asthma, or atopic dermatitis. == Types == Lupus diathesis Strumous diathesis Sthenic diathesis == See also == Bleeding diathesis Diathesis–stress model == References == == External links == Media related to Diathesis (medicine) at Wikimedia Commons


id: differential-diagnosis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_diagnosis-0.md
category: reference
title: Differential diagnosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_diagnosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:56.437702+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: differential-diagnosis-20260505-0
summary:
In healthcare, a nomothetic (DDx) is a method of analysis that distinguishes a particular disease or condition from others that present with similar clinical features. Differential diagnostic procedures are used by clinicians to diagnose the specific disease in a patient, or, at least, to consider any imminently life-threatening conditions. Often, each possible disease is called a differential diagnosis (e.g., acute bronchitis could be a differential diagnosis in the evaluation of a cough, even if the final diagnosis is common cold). More generally, a differential diagnostic procedure is a systematic diagnostic method used to identify the presence of a disease entity where multiple alternatives are possible. This method may employ algorithms, akin to the process of elimination, or at least a process of obtaining information that decreases the "probabilities" of candidate conditions to negligible levels, by using evidence such as symptoms, patient history, and medical knowledge to adjust epistemic confidences in the mind of the diagnostician (or, for computerized or computer-assisted diagnosis, the software of the system). Differential diagnosis can be regarded as implementing aspects of the hypothetico-deductive method, in the sense that the potential presence of candidate diseases or conditions can be viewed as hypotheses that clinicians further determine as


id: differential-diagnosis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_diagnosis-1.md
category: reference
title: Differential diagnosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_diagnosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:56.437702+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: differential-diagnosis-20260505-0
summary:
Pr(Presentation is caused by condition in individual) is the probability that the presentation is caused by condition in the individual; condition without further specification refers to any candidate condition Pr(Presentation has occurred in individual) is the probability that the presentation has occurred in the individual, which can be perceived and thereby set at 100% Pr(Presentation WHOIFPI by condition) is the probability that the presentation Would Have Occurred in the First Place in the Individual by condition Pr(Presentation WHOIFPI) is the probability that the presentation Would Have Occurred in the First Place in the Individual When an individual presents with a symptom or sign, Pr(Presentation has occurred in individual) is 100% and can therefore be replaced by 1, and can be ignored since division by 1 does not make any difference: Pr ( Presentation is caused by condition in individual ) = Pr ( Presentation WHOIFPI by condition ) Pr ( Presentation WHOIFPI ) {\displaystyle \Pr({\text{Presentation is caused by condition in individual}})={\frac {\Pr({\text{Presentation WHOIFPI by condition}})}{\Pr({\text{Presentation WHOIFPI}})}}} The total probability of the presentation to have occurred in the individual can be approximated as the sum of the individual candidate conditions: Pr ( Presentation WHOIFPI ) = Pr ( Presentation WHOIFPI by


id: differential-diagnosis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_diagnosis-2.md
category: reference
title: Differential diagnosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_diagnosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:56.437702+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: differential-diagnosis-20260505-0
summary:
Pr ( PH in population ) = 0.5 years ⋅ 1 4000 per year = 1 8000 {\displaystyle \Pr({\text{PH in population}})=0.5{\text{ years}}\cdot {\frac {1}{\text{4000 per year}}}={\frac {1}{8000}}} With the relative risk conferred from the family history, the probability that primary hyperparathyroidism (PH) would have occurred in the first place in the individual given from the currently available information becomes: Pr ( PH WHOIFPI ) ≈ R R P H ⋅ Pr ( PH in population ) = 10 ⋅ 1 8000 = 1 800 = 0.00125 {\displaystyle \Pr({\text{PH WHOIFPI}})\approx RR_{PH}\cdot \Pr({\text{PH in population}})=10\cdot {\frac {1}{8000}}={\frac {1}{800}}=0.00125} Primary hyperparathyroidism can be assumed to cause hypercalcemia essentially 100% of the time (rPH → hypercalcemia = 1), so this independently calculated probability of primary hyperparathyroidism (PH) can be assumed to be the same as the probability of being a cause of the presentation: Pr ( Hypercalcemia WHOIFPI by PH ) = Pr ( PH WHOIFPI ) ⋅ r PH → hypercalcemia = 0.00125 ⋅ 1 = 0.00125 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\Pr({\text{Hypercalcemia WHOIFPI by PH}})&=\Pr({\text{PH WHOIFPI}})\cdot r_{{\text{PH}}\rightarrow {\text{hypercalcemia}}}\\&=0.00125\cdot 1=0.00125\end{aligned}}} For cancer, the same time-at-risk is assumed for simplicity, and let's say that the incidence of cancer in the area is estimated at 1 in 250 per


id: differential-diagnosis-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_diagnosis-3.md
category: reference
title: Differential diagnosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_diagnosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:56.437702+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: differential-diagnosis-20260505-0
summary:
Pr ( hypercalcemia is present despite no disease in individual ) = Pr ( hypercalcemia WHOIFPI by no disease ) Pr ( hypercalcemia WHOIFPI ) = 0.0014 0.00335 = 0.418 = 41.8 % {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&\Pr({\text{hypercalcemia is present despite no disease in individual}})\\=&{\frac {\Pr({\text{hypercalcemia WHOIFPI by no disease}})}{\Pr({\text{hypercalcemia WHOIFPI}})}}\\=&{\frac {0.0014}{0.00335}}=0.418=41.8\%\end{aligned}}} For clarification, these calculations are given as the table in the method description: Thus, this method estimates that the probability that the hypercalcemia is caused by primary hyperparathyroidism, cancer, other conditions or no disease at all are 37.3%, 6.0%, 14.9%, and 41.8%, respectively, which may be used in estimating further test indications. This case is continued in the example of the method described in the next section. === Likelihood ratio-based method === The procedure of differential diagnosis can become extremely complex when fully taking additional tests and treatments into consideration. One method that is somewhat a tradeoff between being clinically perfect and being relatively simple to calculate is one that uses likelihood ratios to derive subsequent post-test likelihoods. ==== Theory ==== The initial likelihoods for each candidate condition can be estimated by various methods, such as: By epidemiology as described in the previous section. By clinic-specific pattern recognition, such as statistically


id: differential-diagnosis-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_diagnosis-4.md
category: reference
title: Differential diagnosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_diagnosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:56.437702+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: differential-diagnosis-20260505-0
summary:
Odds ⁡ ( PostBT P H ) = Odds ⁡ ( PreBT P H ) ⋅ L H ( B T ) = 0.595 ⋅ 7 = 4.16 , {\displaystyle \operatorname {Odds} ({\text{PostBT}}_{PH})=\operatorname {Odds} ({\text{PreBT}}_{PH})\cdot LH(BT)=0.595\cdot 7=4.16,} where: Odds(PostBTPH) is the odds for primary hyperparathyroidism after the blood test for parathyroid hormone Odds(PreBTPH is the odds in favor of primary hyperparathyroidism before the blood test for parathyroid hormone LH(BT) is the likelihood ratio positive for the blood test for parathyroid hormone An Odds(PostBTPH) of 4.16 is again converted to the corresponding probability by: Pr ( PostBT P H ) = Odds ⁡ ( PostBT P H ) Odds ⁡ ( PostBT P H ) + 1 = 4.16 4.16 + 1 = 0.806 = 80.6 % {\displaystyle \Pr({\text{PostBT}}_{PH})={\frac {\operatorname {Odds} ({\text{PostBT}}_{PH})}{\operatorname {Odds} ({\text{PostBT}}_{PH})+1}}={\frac {4.16}{4.16+1}}=0.806=80.6\%} The sum of the probabilities for the rest of the candidate conditions should therefore be: Pr ( PostBT r e s t ) = 100 % − 80.6 % = 19.4 % {\displaystyle \Pr({\text{PostBT}}_{rest})=100\%-80.6\%=19.4\%} Before the blood test for parathyroid hormone, the sum of their probabilities were: Pr ( PreBT rest ) = 6.0 % + 14.9 % + 41.8 % = 62.7 % {\displaystyle \Pr({\text{PreBT}}_{\text{rest}})=6.0\%+14.9\%+41.8\%=62.7\%}


id: differential-diagnosis-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_diagnosis-5.md
category: reference
title: Differential diagnosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_diagnosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:56.437702+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: differential-diagnosis-20260505-0
summary:
== Combinations == If two conditions get high post-test probabilities, especially if the sum of the probabilities for conditions with known likelihood ratios becomes higher than 100%, then the actual condition is a combination of the two. In such cases, that combined condition can be added to the list of candidate conditions, and the calculations should start over from the beginning. To continue the example used above, let's say that the history and physical examination were indicative of cancer as well, with a likelihood ratio of 3, giving an Odds(PostH&E) of 0.057, corresponding to a P(PostH&E) of 5.4%. This would correspond to a "Sum of known P(PostH&E)" of 101.5%. This is an indication for considering a combination of primary hyperparathyroidism and cancer, such as, in this case, a parathyroid hormone-producing parathyroid carcinoma. A recalculation may therefore be needed, with the first two conditions being separated into "primary hyperparathyroidism without cancer", "cancer without primary hyperparathyroidism" as well as "combined primary hyperparathyroidism and cancer", and likelihood ratios being applied to each condition separately. In this case, however, tissue has already been resected, wherein a histopathologic examination can be performed that includes the possibility of parathyroid carcinoma in the examination (which may entail


id: disease-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease-0.md
category: reference
title: Disease
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:57.596378+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disease-20260505-0
summary:
A disease is a particular abnormal condition that adversely affects the structure or function of all or part of an organism and is not immediately due to any external injury. Diseases are often known to be medical conditions that are associated with specific signs and symptoms. A disease may be caused by external factors such as pathogens or by internal dysfunctions. For example, internal dysfunctions of the immune system can produce a variety of different diseases, including various forms of immunodeficiency, hypersensitivity, allergies, and autoimmune disorders. In humans, disease is often used more broadly to refer to any condition that causes pain, dysfunction, distress, social problems, or death to the person affected, or similar problems for those in contact with the person. In this broader sense, it sometimes includes injuries, disabilities, disorders, syndromes, infections, isolated symptoms, deviant behaviors, and atypical variations of structure and function, while in other contexts and for other purposes these may be considered distinguishable categories. Diseases can affect people not only physically but also mentally, as contracting and living with a disease can alter the affected person's perspective on life. Death due to disease is called death by natural causes. There are four main types of


id: disease-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease-1.md
category: reference
title: Disease
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:57.596378+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disease-20260505-0
summary:
Disease The term disease broadly refers to any condition that impairs the normal functioning of the body. For this reason, diseases are associated with the dysfunction of the body's normal homeostatic processes. Commonly, the term is used to refer specifically to infectious diseases, which are clinically evident diseases that result from the presence of pathogenic microbial agents, including viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, multicellular organisms, and aberrant proteins known as prions. An infection or colonization that does not and will not produce clinically evident impairment of normal functioning, such as the presence of the normal bacteria and yeasts in the gut, or of a passenger virus, is not considered a disease. By contrast, an infection that is asymptomatic during its incubation period, but expected to produce symptoms later, is usually considered a disease. Non-infectious diseases are all other diseases, including most forms of cancer, heart disease, and genetic disease. Acquired disease An acquired disease is one that began at some point during one's lifetime, as opposed to disease that was already present at birth, which is congenital disease. Acquired sounds like it could mean "caught via contagion", but it simply means acquired sometime after birth. It also sounds like it could


id: disease-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease-2.md
category: reference
title: Disease
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:57.596378+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disease-20260505-0
summary:
Some health insurance policies also define a medical condition as any illness, injury, or disease except for psychiatric illnesses. As it is more value-neutral than terms like disease, the term medical condition is sometimes preferred by people with health issues that they do not consider deleterious. However, by emphasizing the medical nature of the condition, this term is sometimes rejected, such as by proponents of the autism rights movement. The term medical condition is also a synonym for medical state, in which case it describes an individual patient's current state from a medical standpoint. This usage appears in statements that describe a patient as being in critical condition, for example. Morbidity Morbidity (from Latin morbidus 'sick, unhealthy') is a diseased state, disability, or poor health due to any cause. The term may refer to the existence of any form of disease, or to the degree that the health condition affects the patient. Among severely ill patients, the level of morbidity is often measured by ICU scoring systems. Comorbidity, or co-existing disease, is the simultaneous presence of two or more medical conditions, such as schizophrenia and substance abuse. In epidemiology and actuarial science, the term morbidity (also morbidity rate or morbidity


id: disease-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease-3.md
category: reference
title: Disease
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:57.596378+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disease-20260505-0
summary:
=== Types by body system === Mental Mental illness is a broad, generic label for a category of illnesses that may include affective or emotional instability, behavioral dysregulation, cognitive dysfunction or impairment. Specific illnesses known as mental illnesses include major depression, generalized anxiety disorders, and schizophrenia, to name a few. Mental illness can be of biological (e.g., anatomical, chemical, or genetic) or psychological (e.g., trauma or conflict) origin. It can impair the affected person's ability to work or study and can harm interpersonal relationship. Organic An organic disease is one caused by a physical or physiological change to some tissue or organ of the body. The term sometimes excludes infections. It is commonly used in contrast with mental disorders. It includes emotional and behavioral disorders if they are due to changes to the physical structures or functioning of the body (such as after a stroke or a traumatic brain injury — organic brain disease is a dated term for such cases) but not if they are due to psychosocial issues. === Stages === In an infectious disease, the incubation period is the time between infection and the appearance of symptoms. The latency period is the time between infection and the


id: disease-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease-4.md
category: reference
title: Disease
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:57.596378+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disease-20260505-0
summary:
Diseases can be caused by any number of factors and may be acquired or congenital. Microorganisms, genetics, the environment or a combination of these can contribute to a diseased state. Only some diseases such as influenza are contagious and commonly believed infectious. The microorganisms that cause these diseases are known as pathogens and include varieties of bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and fungi. Infectious diseases can be transmitted, e.g. by hand-to-mouth contact with infectious material on surfaces, by bites of insects or other carriers of the disease, and from contaminated water or food (often via fecal contamination), etc. Also, there are sexually transmitted diseases. In some cases, microorganisms that are not readily spread from person to person play a role, while other diseases can be prevented or ameliorated with appropriate nutrition or other lifestyle changes. Some diseases, such as most (but not all) forms of cancer, heart disease, and mental disorders, are non-infectious diseases. Many non-infectious diseases have a partly or completely genetic basis (see genetic disorder) and may thus be transmitted from one generation to another. Social determinants of health are the social conditions in which people live that determine their health. Illnesses are generally related to social, economic, political, and


id: disease-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease-5.md
category: reference
title: Disease
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:57.596378+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disease-20260505-0
summary:
Epidemiology is the study of the factors that cause or encourage diseases. Some diseases are more common in certain geographic areas, among people with certain genetic or socioeconomic characteristics, or at different times of the year. Epidemiology is considered a cornerstone methodology of public health research and is highly regarded in evidence-based medicine for identifying risk factors for diseases. In the study of communicable and non-communicable diseases, the work of epidemiologists ranges from outbreak investigation to study design, data collection, and analysis including the development of statistical models to test hypotheses and the documentation of results for submission to peer-reviewed journals. Epidemiologists also study the interaction of diseases in a population, a condition known as a syndemic. Epidemiologists rely on a number of other scientific disciplines such as biology (to better understand disease processes), biostatistics (the current raw information available), Geographic Information Science (to store data and map disease patterns) and social science disciplines (to better understand proximate and distal risk factors). Epidemiology can help identify causes as well as guide prevention efforts. In studying diseases, epidemiology faces the challenge of defining them. Especially for poorly understood diseases, different groups might use significantly different definitions. Without an agreed-on definition, different


id: disease-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease-6.md
category: reference
title: Disease
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:57.596378+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disease-20260505-0
summary:
How a society responds to diseases is the subject of medical sociology. A condition may be considered a disease in some cultures or eras but not in others. For example, obesity was associated with prosperity and abundance, and this perception persists in many African regions, especially since the beginning of the HIV/AIDS. Epilepsy is considered a sign of spiritual gifts among the Hmong people. Sickness confers the social legitimization of certain benefits, such as illness benefits, work avoidance, and being looked after by others. The person who is sick takes on a social role called the sick role. A person who responds to a dreaded disease, such as cancer, in a culturally acceptable fashion may be publicly and privately honored with higher social status. In return for these benefits, the sick person is obligated to seek treatment and work to become well once more. As a comparison, consider pregnancy, which is not interpreted as a disease or sickness, even if the mother and baby may both benefit from medical care. Most religions grant exceptions from religious duties to people who are sick. For example, one whose life would be endangered by fasting on Yom Kippur or during the month of


id: disease-registry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_registry-0.md
category: reference
title: Disease registry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_registry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:58.923750+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disease-registry-20260505-0
summary:
Disease or patient registries are collections of secondary data related to patients with a specific diagnosis, condition, or procedure. In its simplest form, a disease registry could consist of a collection of paper cards kept inside "a shoe box" by an individual physician. Most frequently registries vary in sophistication from simple spreadsheets that only can be accessed by a small group of physicians to very complex databases that are accessed online across multiple institutions. Registries are different from indexes in that they contain more extensive data. They can help to hypothesize risk factors and allow scientific research. They provide health care providers (or patients) with reminders to check certain tests in order to reach certain quality goals. They play a role in epidemiological research, drug safety and post marketing surveillance of pharmaceuticals and devices. == Definition == A disease registry is a data collection related to persons with a specific diagnosis, condition, or procedure. Registries can be sponsored by a government agency, nonprofit organization, health care facility, or private company. Data ownerhip and data access as well as goals vary accordingly. Registries have traditionally been less complex and simpler to set up than electronic medical records, which according to a


id: disease-registry-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_registry-1.md
category: reference
title: Disease registry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_registry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:27:58.923750+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disease-registry-20260505-0
summary:
=== Pay-for-performance (P4P) === Registries can be associated with pay-for-performance (P4P) quality based contracts for individualhealth care providers, groups of or even all doctors in a country. For example, the United Kingdom, rewards physicians according to 146 quality measures related with 10 chronic diseases that are tracked electronically. In 2017 in the United States, Medicare started a 1.5% P4P contract based on health measures that can be tracked by disease registries. == Technical aspects of data tracking == The quality of a disease registry is contingent on the quality of its data and all the processes involved in updating it and keeping its integrity. In every registry there is always a risk of "garbage in, garbage out". Issues that can affect a registry and its acceptance by a physician group: Is the registry only updated centrally or can a physician update or correct it? For example, a physician does not want to get reminders from a registry regarding diabetes patients that died, moved to another state or left her/his practice. Most frequently, a list of patients with a certain condition (e.g. diabetes) is generated based on certain criteria. In the U.S., Healthcare Effectiveness Data and Information Set (HEDIS) criteria are


id: disease-modifying-treatment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease-modifying_treatment-0.md
category: reference
title: Disease-modifying treatment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease-modifying_treatment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:01.433151+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disease-modifying-treatment-20260505-0
summary:
A disease-modifying drug, or disease-modifying therapy, is a treatment that delays, slows or reverses the progression of a disease by targeting its underlying cause. They are distinguished from symptomatic treatments that treat the symptoms of a disease but do not address its underlying cause. == Examples == Disease-modifying osteoarthritis drug Disease-modifying antirheumatic drug == References ==


id: disseminated-disease-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disseminated_disease-0.md
category: reference
title: Disseminated disease
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disseminated_disease
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:02.635093+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: disseminated-disease-20260505-0
summary:
Disseminated disease can refer to disseminated cancer which is the movement of cancerous cells from the original tumor to other areas of the body, or disseminated infection which is the pathogen's entry into the host, growth, and dissemination, which results in illness. After exiting the main tumor, cancer cells circulate throughout the body. They are known as circulating tumor cells once they are in the blood. Few circulating tumor cells can disseminate to distant locations and remain tumor cells. The amount of disseminated tumor cells that can develop into metastases is even lower. == See also == Metastasis Localized disease == References == == Further reading == Albert, WH; Hauch, S; Zieglschmid, V (2005). "Detection of Disseminated Cancer Cells in Blood". EJIFCC. 16 (2). International Federation of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine: 81–85. PMC 6008966. PMID 29942243. Ramamoorthi, Ganesan; Kodumudi, Krithika; Gallen, Corey; Zachariah, Nadia Nocera; Basu, Amrita; Albert, Gabriella; Beyer, Amber; Snyder, Colin; Wiener, Doris; Costa, Ricardo L.B.; Czerniecki, Brian J. (2022). "Disseminated cancer cells in breast cancer: Mechanism of dissemination and dormancy and emerging insights on therapeutic opportunities". Seminars in Cancer Biology. 78. Elsevier BV: 78–89. doi:10.1016/j.semcancer.2021.02.004. ISSN 1044-579X. PMID 33626407. == External links ==


id: distress-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distress_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Distress (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distress_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:03.912155+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: distress-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, distress is an aversive state in which a person is unable to completely adapt to difficult situations and their resulting effects and shows maladaptive behaviors. It can be evident in the presence of various phenomena, such as inappropriate social interaction (e.g., aggression, passivity, or withdrawal). Distress is the opposite of eustress, a positive emotion that motivates people. == Risk factors == Stress can be created by influences such as work, school, peers or co-workers, family and death. Other influences vary by age. People under constant distress are more likely to become sick, mentally or physically. There is a clear response association between psychological distress and major causes of mortality across the full range of distress. Higher education has been linked to a reduction in psychological distress in both men and women, and these effects persist throughout the aging process, not just immediately after receiving education. However, this link does lessen with age. The major mechanism by which higher education plays a role on reducing stress in men is more so related to labor-market resources rather than social resources as in women. In the clinic, distress is a patient reported outcome that has a huge impact on patient's quality


id: divaricate-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divaricate-0.md
category: reference
title: Divaricate
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divaricate
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:05.077629+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: divaricate-20260505-0
summary:
Divaricate means branching, or having separation or a degree of separation. The angle between branches is wide. == In botany == In botany, the term is often used to describe the branching pattern of plants. Plants are said to be divaricating when their growth form is such that each internode diverges widely from the previous internode, producing an often tightly interlaced shrub or small tree. Of the 72 small leaved shrubs found on the Banks Peninsula, for example, some 38 are divaricating. == See also == Diastasis (pathology), a medical term for separation of parts Laciniate == References ==


id: diverticulum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diverticulum-0.md
category: reference
title: Diverticulum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diverticulum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:06.331221+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: diverticulum-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine or biology, a diverticulum is an outpouching of a hollow (or a fluid-filled) structure in the body. Depending upon which layers of the structure are involved, diverticula are described as being either true or false. In medicine, the term usually implies the structure is not normally present, but in embryology, the term is used for some normal structures arising from others, as for instance the thyroid diverticulum, which arises from the tongue. The word comes from Latin dīverticulum, "bypath" or "byway". == Classification == Diverticula are described as being true or false depending upon the layers involved: False diverticula (also known as "pseudodiverticula") do not involve muscular layers or adventitia. False diverticula, in the gastrointestinal tract for instance, involve only the submucosa and mucosa, such as Zenker's diverticulum. False diverticula are typically synonymous with pulsion diverticula, which describes the mechanism of formation as increased intraluminal pressure. True diverticula involve all layers of the structure, including muscularis propria and adventitia, such as Meckel's diverticulum. True diverticula are typically synonymous with traction diverticula, which describes the mechanism of formation as pulling forces external to the structure. == Embryology == The kidneys are originally diverticula in the development of the urinary


id: dose-area-product-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dose_area_product-0.md
category: reference
title: Dose area product
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dose_area_product
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:07.646252+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dose-area-product-20260505-0
summary:
Dose area product (DAP) is a quantity used in assessing the radiation risk from diagnostic X-ray radiography examinations and interventional procedures, like angiography. It is defined as the absorbed dose multiplied by the area irradiated, expressed in gray-centimetres squared (Gy·cm2 – sometimes the prefixed units dGy·cm2, mGy·cm2 or cGy·cm2 are also used). Gray (Gy) is the SI unit of absorbed dose of ionizing radiation, while the milligray (mGy) is its subunit, numerically equivalent to the millisievert (mSv) as used to quantify equivalent and effective doses for gamma (γ) and X-rays. Manufacturers of DAP meters usually calibrate them in terms of absorbed dose to air. DAP reflects not only the dose within the radiation field but also the area of tissue irradiated. Therefore, it may be a better indicator of the overall risk of inducing cancer than the dose within the field. It also has the advantage of being easily measured, with the permanent installation of a DAP meter on the X-ray set. Due to the divergence of a beam emitted from a "point source", the area irradiated (A) increases with the square of distance from the source (A ∝ d2), while radiation intensity (I) decreases according to the inverse square


id: drop-attack-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drop_attack-0.md
category: reference
title: Drop attack
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drop_attack
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:08.814933+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: drop-attack-20260505-0
summary:
A drop attack is a sudden fall without loss of consciousness. A drop attack has been defined as "a collapse or fall with little warning, following which the patient lies motionless or nearly motionless for a variable time, but often with rapid recovery to their normal state". However, the understanding of what constitutes a drop attack varies widely between authors. Drop attacks stem from diverse mechanisms, including orthopedic causes (for example, leg weakness and knee instability), hemodynamic causes (for example, transient vertebrobasilar insufficiency, a type of interruption of blood flow to the brain), and neurologic causes (such as epileptic seizures or unstable vestibular function). The term "drop attack", also known as "cryptogenic drop attack" or "La maladie des genoux bleus"; is used to categorize otherwise unexplained falls from a wide variety of causes and is considered ambiguous medical terminology; drop attacks are currently reported much less often than in the past, possibly as a result of better diagnostic precision. The common cardiovascular causes of drop attacks include syncope (a sudden transient loss of awareness due to reduced blood flow to the brain), orthostatic hypotension (which is often precipitated by medications), and arrhythmias (abnormalities of the heart beat). A drop of


id: dyscopia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyscopia-0.md
category: reference
title: Dyscopia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyscopia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:10.105316+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dyscopia-20260505-0
summary:
Dyscopia consists of the Latin root copia, which means abundance or plenty (see cornucopia), and the Greek prefix dys-, which means "bad", "abnormal", "difficult" or "impaired". This word has assumed two meanings, both of which are essentially a play on words based on the phonic similarity of the words "copy" and "cope" with copia. In the field of neurology, dyscopia is used to describe a type of developmental coordination disorder related to dyslexia and dysgraphia (inability to read or write). Specifically, it is taken to mean difficulty with coping. Sometimes a similar word, "acopia", is mistaken to mean the same, although this is not a medical term and has no basis in Latin. The term "dyscopia" has also made its way into general medical parlance as a tongue-in-cheek shorthand notation for patients who, after being examined and found to have no specific medical condition, are deemed to be not coping with certain aspects of their lives, and are presumed to be seeking treatment as a form of comfort from the medical profession. More recently, and controversially, the term has been used in this context as a diagnosis for admission to hospital. The words have also been used in medical notes


id: dyscrasia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyscrasia-0.md
category: reference
title: Dyscrasia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyscrasia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:11.461150+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dyscrasia-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, both ancient and modern, a dyscrasia is any of various disorders. The word has ancient Greek roots meaning "bad mixture". The concept of dyscrasia was developed by the Greek physician Galen (129–216 AD), who elaborated a model of health and disease as a structure of elements, qualities, humors, organs, and temperaments (based on earlier humorism). Health was understood in this perspective to be a condition of harmony or balance among these basic components, called eucrasia. Disease was interpreted as the disproportion of bodily fluids or four humours: phlegm, blood, yellow bile, and black bile. The imbalance was called dyscrasia. In modern medicine, the term is still occasionally used in medical context for an unspecified disorder of the blood, such as a plasma cell dyscrasia. == Ancient use == To the Greeks, it meant an imbalance of the four humors: blood, black bile, yellow bile, and water (phlegm). These humors were believed to exist in the body, and any change in the balance among the four of them was the direct cause of all disease. This is similar to the concepts of bodily humors in the Tibetan medical tradition and the Indian Ayurvedic system, which both relate health and


id: dysdiadochokinesia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysdiadochokinesia-0.md
category: reference
title: Dysdiadochokinesia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dysdiadochokinesia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:12.737219+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dysdiadochokinesia-20260505-0
summary:
Dysdiadochokinesia (DDK) is the medical term for an impaired ability to perform rapid, alternating movements (i.e., diadochokinesia). Complete inability is called adiadochokinesia. The term is from Greek δυς dys "bad", διάδοχος diadochos "working in turn", κίνησις kinesis "movement". The term was first described by neurologist Joseph Francois Félix Babinski in 1902. Impaired pronation/supination of the upper extremities, hand/finger tapping, and heel-to-shin test are some clinical ways to test for dysdiadochokinesia. Causes can either be from cerebellar or extrapyramidal origin. Management includes treating the underlying cause and neurorehabilitation therapies. == History of name and origin == The term dysdiadochokinesia came into fruition in 1902 after the neurologist Joseph Francois Félix Babinski observed patients with cerebellar lesions. He noticed that these patients could not perform rapid, alternating movements of agonist and antagonist muscles. During this time period, neurophysiologists discovered that voluntary movements came from the cerebellum. The term has the Greek roots, "dys", "diadochos", "kinesis", meaning impaired, succeeding, and movement, respectively. == Signs and symptoms == Abnormalities in dysdiadochokinesia can be seen in the upper extremity, lower extremity, and in speech. These deficits can greatly impact activities of daily living through motor movements. The deficits become visible in the rate of alternation,


id: dystrophy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dystrophy-0.md
category: reference
title: Dystrophy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dystrophy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:13.930063+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dystrophy-20260505-0
summary:
Dystrophy is the degeneration of tissue, due to disease or malnutrition, most likely due to heredity. == Types == Muscular dystrophy Duchenne muscular dystrophy Becker's muscular dystrophy Myotonic dystrophy Reflex neurovascular dystrophy Retinal dystrophy Cone dystrophy Corneal dystrophy Lipodystrophy Nail dystrophy == See also == Muscle weakness Muscle atrophy Myotonia List of biological development disorders


id: e-patient-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-patient-0.md
category: reference
title: E-patient
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-patient
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:15.181300+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: e-patient-20260505-0
summary:
An e-patient is a health consumer who participates fully in their own medical care, primarily by gathering information about medical conditions that impact them and their families, using the Internet and other digital tools. The term encompasses those who seek guidance for their own ailments, and the friends and family members who research on their behalf. E-patients report two effects of their health research: "better health information and services, and different, but not always better, relationships with their doctors." E-patients are active in their care and demonstrate the power of the participatory medicine or Health 2.0 / Medicine 2.0. model of care. The "e" can stand for "electronic" but has also been used to refer to other terms, such as "equipped", "enabled", "empowered" and "expert". The current state of knowledge on the impact of e-patients on the healthcare system and the quality of care received indicates: A growing number of people say the internet played a crucial or important role as they helped another person cope with a major illness. Many clinicians underestimated the benefits and overestimated the risks of online health resources for patients. Medical online support groups are an important healthcare resource. "The net friendliness of clinicians and


id: early-pregnancy-loss-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_pregnancy_loss-0.md
category: reference
title: Early pregnancy loss
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_pregnancy_loss
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:16.369257+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: early-pregnancy-loss-20260505-0
summary:
Early pregnancy loss is a medical term that when referring to humans can variously be used to mean: Death of an embryo or fetus during the first trimester. This can happen by implantation failure, miscarriage, embryo resorption, early fetal resorption or vanishing twin syndrome. Death of an embryo or fetus before 20 weeks gestation, as in all pregnancy loss before it becomes considered stillbirth. == Causes of early pregnancy loss == Pregnancy loss, in many cases, occurs for unknown reasons, often involving random chromosome issues during conception. Miscarriage is not caused by everyday activities like working, exercising, or having sex. Even falls or blows are rarely to blame. Research on the effects of alcohol, tobacco, and caffeine on miscarriage is inconclusive, so it's not something you could have prevented. It's crucial not to blame yourself for a miscarriage, as it's not the result of anything you did or didn't do. == Symptoms of early pregnancy loss == The most prevalent indication of pregnancy loss is vaginal bleeding. In the later stages of pregnancy, a woman experiencing a stillbirth may cease to sense fetal movements. However, it's important to note that each type of pregnancy loss presents distinct symptoms, so it's


id: ebullism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebullism-0.md
category: reference
title: Ebullism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebullism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:17.583213+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ebullism-20260505-0
summary:
Ebullism is the formation of water vapour bubbles in bodily fluids due to reduced environmental pressure, usually at extreme high altitude. It occurs because a system of liquid and gas at equilibrium will see a net conversion of liquid to gas as pressure lowers; for example, liquids reach their boiling points at lower temperatures when the pressure on them is lowered. The injuries and disorder caused by ebullism is also known as ebullism syndrome. Ebullism will expand the volume of the tissues, but the vapour pressure of water at temperatures in which a human can survive is not sufficient to rupture skin or most other tissues encased in skin. Ebullism produces predictable injuries, which may be survivable if treated soon enough, and is often accompanied by complications caused by rapid decompression, such as decompression sickness and a variety of barotrauma injuries. Persons at risk are astronauts and high altitude aviators, for whom it is an occupational hazard. == Symptoms == Symptoms of ebullism include bubbles in the membranes of the mouth and eyes, swelling of the soft tissues with possible bruising, and bubbles in the blood. Blood circulation and breathing may be impaired or stopped by cardiac vapour lock. The


id: ebullism-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebullism-1.md
category: reference
title: Ebullism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebullism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:17.583213+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ebullism-20260505-0
summary:
== Treatment and outcomes == Ebullism produces secondary tissue damage which, when extensive, has generally been considered fatal due to limited availability of treatment options on site. Immediate recompression to a pressure at minimum pressure for effective oxygenation is necessary for survival in whole-body exposure, along with re-oxygenation. Continued or additional pressurisation where necessary to prevent or treat decompression sickness is also indicated. High-frequency percussive ventilation is recommended by Murray et al (2013) for respiratory support as atelectasis is likely. Initial field evaluation would be similar to trauma assessment. It may be necessary to remove a pressure suit to give access for primary and secondary surveys. Airway, breathing, and circulation are immediate priorities, followed by assessment of level of consciousness. Intubation is indicated if unconscious and deteriorating. If a pulse cannot be distinguished, and the person is unresponsive, cardiopulmonary resuscitation should be started immediately, with advanced cardiac life support and cardiovascular monitoring as soon as possible. Little information is available on the effectiveness of conventional treatment, such as hyperbaric oxygen, or adjunctive therapies, for injuries due to ebullism. Spontaneous recovery has occurred in cases where recompression was applied with minimal delay, or the damage was restricted to parts of the


id: economic-credentialing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_credentialing-0.md
category: reference
title: Economic credentialing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_credentialing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:18.753617+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: economic-credentialing-20260505-0
summary:
Economic credentialing is a term of disapproval used by the American Medical Association (AMA). The association defines the term as "the use of economic criteria unrelated to quality of care or professional competence in determining a physician's qualifications for initial or continuing hospital medical staff membership or privileges." Traditionally, physicians applied for hospital staff membership based on education, medical licensure and a record of quality care. Privileges are requests to perform certain procedures or use certain skills based on training and experience. For example, an obstetrician and a family practitioner might request privileges for both routine deliveries and caesarean sections. Typically an obstetrician could demonstrate enough experience and be granted those privileges. The FP might obtain both procedures or be restricted to routine deliveries only, or none at all, based on hospital policy. As medical costs have increased and reimbursement has declined or been stagnant, both hospitals and physicians have come under increasing financial pressure. One response by physicians has been the formation of specialty hospitals or diagnostic centers with physician ownership. Some hospitals have seen this as a threat to their economic interests and have denied or revoked membership and privileges of the physician owners. == External links ==


id: efficacy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efficacy-0.md
category: reference
title: Efficacy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efficacy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:19.923293+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: efficacy-20260505-0
summary:
Efficacy is the ability to perform a task to a satisfactory or expected degree. The word comes from the same roots as effectiveness, and it has often been used synonymously, although in pharmacology a distinction is now often made between efficacy and effectiveness. The word efficacy is used in pharmacology and medicine to refer both to the maximum response achievable from a pharmaceutical drug in research settings, and to the capacity for sufficient therapeutic effect or beneficial change in clinical settings. == Pharmacology == In pharmacology, efficacy (Emax) is the maximum response achievable from an applied or dosed agent, for instance, a small molecule drug. Intrinsic activity is a relative term for a drug's efficacy relative to a drug with the highest observed efficacy. It is a purely descriptive term that has little or no mechanistic interpretation. In order for a drug to have an effect, it needs to bind to its target, and then to affect the function of this target. The target of a drug is commonly referred to as a receptor, but can in general be any chemically sensitive site on any molecule found in the body. The nature of such binding can be quantified by characterising


id: elective-surgery-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elective_surgery-0.md
category: reference
title: Elective surgery
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elective_surgery
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:21.091015+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: elective-surgery-20260505-0
summary:
Elective surgery or elective procedure is surgery that is scheduled in advance because it does not involve a medical emergency. Semi-elective surgery is a surgery that must be done to preserve the patient's life, but does not need to be performed immediately. Most surgeries are elective, scheduled at a time to suit the surgeon, hospital, and patient. By contrast, an urgent surgery is one that can wait until the patient is medically stable, but should generally be done within 2 days, and an emergency surgery is one that must be performed without delay; the patient has no choice other than immediate surgery if permanent disability or death is to be avoided. Many surgeries can be performed as either elective or emergency surgeries, depending on the patient's needs. == Description == An elective surgery or elective procedure (from the Latin: eligere, meaning to choose) is a surgery that does not involve a medical emergency and is scheduled in advance. Semi-elective surgery is a surgery that must be done to preserve the patient's life, but does not need to be performed immediately. == Types == === Elective === Most surgical medical treatments are elective, that is, scheduled at a time to suit


id: electronic-prescribing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_prescribing-0.md
category: reference
title: Electronic prescribing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_prescribing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:22.279053+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: electronic-prescribing-20260505-0
summary:
Electronic prescription (e-prescribing or e-Rx) is the computer-based electronic generation, transmission, and filling of a medical prescription, taking the place of paper and faxed prescriptions. E-prescribing allows a physician, physician assistant, pharmacist, or nurse practitioner to use digital prescription software to electronically transmit a new prescription or renewal authorization to a community or mail-order pharmacy. It outlines the ability to send error-free, accurate, and understandable prescriptions electronically from the healthcare provider to the pharmacy. E-prescribing is meant to reduce the risks associated with traditional prescription script writing. It is also one of the major reasons for the push for electronic medical records. By sharing medical prescription information, e-prescribing seeks to connect the patient's team of healthcare providers to facilitate knowledgeable decision making. == Functions == An e-prescribing system used in the United States must be capable of performing all of the following functions: Patient's identification Generating a complete active medication list, possibly incorporating electronic data received from an insurance provider Access to patient historical data Prescribe or add new medication and select the pharmacy where the prescription will be filled. Work with an existing medication within the practice, this can involve viewing details of a medication, remove a medication from


id: electronic-prescribing-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_prescribing-1.md
category: reference
title: Electronic prescribing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_prescribing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:22.279053+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: electronic-prescribing-20260505-0
summary:
=== Improving patient safety and quality of care === Illegibility from handwritten prescriptions is eliminated, decreasing the risk of medication errors while simultaneously decreasing risks related to liability. Oral miscommunications regarding prescriptions can be reduced, as e-prescribing should decrease the need for phone calls between prescribers and dispensers. Causes of medication errors include mistakes by the pharmacist incorrectly interpreting illegible handwriting or ambiguous nomenclature, and lapses in the prescriber's knowledge of desired dosage of a drug or undesired interactions between multiple drugs. Electronic prescribing has the potential to eliminate most of these types of errors. Warning and alert systems are provided at the point of care. E-prescribing systems can enhance an overall medication management process through clinical decision support systems that can perform checks against the patient's current medications for drug-drug interactions, drug-allergy interactions, diagnoses, body weight, age, drug appropriateness, and correct dosing. Based on these algorithms, the system can alert prescribers to contradictions, adverse reactions, and duplicate therapies. The computer can also ensure that clear and unambiguous instructions are encoded in a structured message to the pharmacist, and decision support systems can flag lethal dosages and lethal combinations of drugs. E-prescribing allows for increased access to the patient's medical


id: electronic-prescribing-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_prescribing-2.md
category: reference
title: Electronic prescribing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_prescribing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:22.279053+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: electronic-prescribing-20260505-0
summary:
Financial Cost and Return on Investment (ROI) - The costs associated with purchasing, implementing, supporting and maintaining such a system may be beyond the means of most small clinical practices, and noted to be one of the greatest implementation barriers. Health care workers who are responsible for medical prescription, especially those in small practices, inner-city areas, or remote rural settings, may bear more than their fair share of the cost associated with e-prescribing. This is in response to the various other stakeholders that may reap the benefits from such a system, without having to financially support it, disseminating their risk substantially. Clinical practices therefore need to invest significantly in both hardware and software, with varying costs based on system specifications (stand alone system or entire EHR system). Even clinics that receive free e-prescribing systems may face financial costs pertaining to management of the interface, customization due to flexibility, training, maintenance, and upgrades. On top of this, the clinic must also take into consideration the lost time and efficiency during the transition period of implementation. As a result, large urban areas may see the greatest ROI when compared to those in rural areas. Change management - Many underestimate the challenges pertaining


id: electronic-prescribing-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_prescribing-3.md
category: reference
title: Electronic prescribing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_prescribing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:22.279053+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: electronic-prescribing-20260505-0
summary:
=== Canada === On March 22, 2016, the Government of Canada allocated funds to Canada Health Infoway to develop an e-prescribing service. Infoway is working with Health Canada, the provinces and territories and industry stakeholders to create PrescribeIT, a multi-jurisdiction e-prescribing service. Infoway will create, operate and maintain the service, along with its partners. The service will be financially self-sustaining and is designed to be scaled across the country and will enable prescribers to electronically transmit a prescription to a patient's pharmacy of choice. Physicians, physician assistants, nurse practitioners and other prescribers will be able to use the system either through their existing electronic medical record or through a standalone application. Health Canada included supporting better prescribing practices, including e-prescribing, as part of its Action on Opioid Misuse plan. Until recently in Canada, it was the position of Health Canada that, to allow for e-prescribing, amendments to Part C of the Food and Drugs Regulations made under the Food and Drugs Act, regulations made under the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act and possibly regulations made under Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act would be required. After further review, Health Canada has concluded that there are currently no regulatory impediments


id: electronic-prescribing-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_prescribing-4.md
category: reference
title: Electronic prescribing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_prescribing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:22.279053+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: electronic-prescribing-20260505-0
summary:
About 420 million repeat prescriptions are generated in the UK each year - about 200 for each general practitioner each week. They account for about 80% of the cost of medication in primary care. Paper based Repeat Dispensing Services were introduced by the NHS in 1991, and in 1992 it became possible to use the NHS Electronic Prescription Service for this purpose. In 2017 awareness of the scheme among patients was low. In October 2017 Keith McNeil, NHS England's chief clinical information officer demanded that NHS hospitals should be moved rapidly onto electronic prescribing in the light of research showing it would cut serious prescribing errors by more than half. There was no information about the extent to which it is happening in hospitals. After successful pilots in London and the East Midlands it was agreed in April 2018 that electronic prescribing should be introduced in all urgent care settings in England, including NHS 111 and other Out-of-hours services so that dispensed medication can be ready for collection at a pharmacy when patients arrive. £78 million was allocated in December 2018 to encourage progress with implementing electronic prescribing in NHS organisations which were struggling. Electronic prescribing is to start in


id: electronic-visit-verification-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_visit_verification-0.md
category: reference
title: Electronic visit verification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_visit_verification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:23.527598+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: electronic-visit-verification-20260505-0
summary:
Electronic visit verification (EVV) is a method used in the United States to verify home healthcare visits to ensure patients are not neglected and to cut down on fraudulently documented home visits. Beginning January 1, 2020, home care agencies that provide personal care services must have an EVV solution in place or risk having their Medicaid claims denied, under a mandate included in the 21st Century Cures Act. While the federal mandate sets key data points that must be collected and electronically verified, states create their own systems. State governments decide how to gather and report data that EVV vendors use, and whether to include additional EVV compliance rules. == History == Electronic visit verification was created to help cut down on fraud and ensure that people receive the documented care they need. EVV was designed to help verify that services billed for home healthcare are for actual visits made. The passing of the Affordable Care Act signed into law in 2010 made provisions for the cut down of fraud and over-payments, requiring states to stop Medicaid payments to providers when there is credible evidence of fraud. At least 10 states implemented an office of inspector general to oversee Medicaid


id: electuary-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electuary-0.md
category: reference
title: Electuary
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electuary
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:24.853354+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: electuary-20260505-0
summary:
An electuary is a medicine consisting of a powder or other ingredient mixed with something sweet such as honey to make it more palatable. In German and Swiss cultures, electuary (German: Latwerge or Latwerg) is also more generally a thickened juice and honey preparation with a thick, viscous consistency that is used in for culinary purposes, such as a (bread) spread or as a sauce ingredient. In the Indian Ayurveda tradition, electuaries are called Lēhya (लेह्य) (literally, "lickable"). == Types == There are several different types of electuary: laxative electuary, joyful electuary, etc. The fermentation of mixed herbs in honey and their effects on each other are said to increase the medical properties already present and to create new ones. == Famous electuaries in medicine == Chyawanprash Diasenna Mithridate Faroug Figra Sootira == References == Avicenna (1999). The Canon of Medicine (al-Qānūn fī'l-ṭibb), vol. 5. translate by Abdurrahman Sharafkandi.


id: hospital-emergency-codes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital_emergency_codes-0.md
category: reference
title: Hospital emergency codes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital_emergency_codes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:26.202116+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hospital-emergency-codes-20260505-0
summary:
Hospital emergency codes are coded messages often announced over a public address system of a hospital to alert staff to various classes of on-site emergencies. The use of codes is intended to convey essential information quickly and with minimal misunderstanding to staff while preventing stress and panic among visitors to the hospital. Such codes are sometimes posted on placards throughout the hospital or are printed on employee identification badges for ready reference. Hospital emergency codes have varied widely by location, even between hospitals in the same community. Confusion over these codes has led to the proposal for and sometimes adoption of standardised codes. In many American, Canadian, and Australian hospitals, for example "code blue" indicates a patient has entered cardiac arrest, while "code red" indicates that a fire has broken out somewhere in the hospital. In order for a code call to be useful in activating the response of specific hospital personnel to a given situation, it is usually accompanied by a specific location description (e.g., "Code red, second floor, corridor three, room two-twelve"). Other codes, however, only signal hospital staff generally to prepare for the consequences of some external event such as a natural disaster. == Summary == This


id: hospital-emergency-codes-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital_emergency_codes-1.md
category: reference
title: Hospital emergency codes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital_emergency_codes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:26.202116+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hospital-emergency-codes-20260505-0
summary:
Code black: bomb threat Code blue: cardiac or respiratory arrest Code brown: hazardous material Code gold: earthquake (Yukon has the highest seismic activity rate in Canada) Code green stage 1: partial evacuation to a safe area within the building Code green stage 2: complete evacuation of the building Code grey: shelter in place/air exclusion Code orange: mass casualty Code red: fire Code white: aggressive behaviour Lockdown: violent situation/hostage taking Code yellow: missing patient === United Kingdom === In the UK, hospitals have standardised codes across individual NHS trusts (England and Wales) and health boards (Scotland), but there are not many standardised codes across the entire NHS. This allows for differences in demands on hospitals in different areas, and also for hospitals of different roles to communicate different alerts according to their needs (e.g., a major trauma centre like St. George's Hospital in South London has different priority alert needs to a rural community hospital like West Berkshire Community Hospital). Some more standardised codes are as follows: Code black: hospital at capacity – no available beds for new admissions from A&E. A code black is declared by the hospital's general bed manager, who then relays this to the local ambulance service


id: hospital-emergency-codes-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital_emergency_codes-2.md
category: reference
title: Hospital emergency codes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital_emergency_codes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:26.202116+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hospital-emergency-codes-20260505-0
summary:
Code white: paediatric medical emergency, combative person without a weapon, or emergency operating procedures dependent on the state. Code gold: bomb threat Code brown: missing adult patient Code violet: combative person Code triage: mass casualty Code walker: missing adult patient ==== Plain-language alerts ==== In 2015, the South Carolina Hospital Association formed a work group to develop plain language standardisation code recommendations. Abolishing all colour codes was suggested. In 2016, the Texas Hospital Association encouraged the use of standardised plain language emergency alerts at all Texas hospitals. The only colour code that was still recommended was "code blue," meaning a cardiac arrest. Plain language alerts are announced using the following format: Alert type + description + location (general to specific) + instructions (if applicable). For example, if a patient in ICU Bed 4 went into cardiac arrest, the alert would be "Medical alert + code blue + second floor + intensive care unit + bed 4." In January 2025, the Washington State Hospital Association (WSHA) recommended plain-language codes, although it advised keeping the legacy colour codes of "Code Blue" and "Amber Alert." The new system, which is "strongly recommend[ed]" but not required, classifies alerts into "Facility," "Medical," and "Security" alerts.


id: empyema-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empyema-0.md
category: reference
title: Empyema
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empyema
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:32.131529+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: empyema-20260505-0
summary:
An empyema (; from Ancient Greek ἐμπύημα (empúēma) 'abscess') is a collection or gathering of pus within a naturally existing anatomical cavity. The term is most commonly used to refer to pleural empyema, which is empyema of the pleural cavity. It is similar to or the same as abscess in meaning, but the context of use may sometimes be different. For instance, an appendicular empyema is in medicine now generally called an abscess. Empyema most commonly occurs as a complication of pneumonia but can also result from other infections or conditions that lead to the collection of infected fluid in a body cavity. == Classification == Empyema occurs in: the pleural cavity (pleural empyema also known as pyothorax) the thoracic cavity the uterus (pyometra) the appendix (appendicitis) the meninges (subdural empyema) the joints (septic arthritis) the gallbladder == Diagnosis == Chest X-rays or computed tomography (CT) scans can reveal the presence of fluid within the pleural space and help assess its characteristics. Once a fluid-filled cavity has been identified, it is often partially or fully drained with a needle, so that the fluid may be analyzed. This helps determine whether the fluid is infected and allows for the identification of


id: end-organ-damage-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End_organ_damage-0.md
category: reference
title: End organ damage
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End_organ_damage
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:33.470549+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: end-organ-damage-20260505-0
summary:
End organ damage is severe impairment of major body organs due to systemic disease. Commonly this is referred to in diabetes, high blood pressure, or states of low blood pressure or low blood volume. This can present as a heart attack or heart failure, pulmonary edema, neurologic deficits including a stroke, or acute kidney failure. == Pathophysiology == End organ damage typically occurs where systemic disease causes cell death in most or all organs. === Hypertensive === When blood pressures are critically high (>180/120 mm Hg) or the rate of rise in blood pressure is rapid, a large volume of blood circulating in a small space creates turbulence and can damage the inner lining of blood vessels. The body’s repair systems are activated by damage and circulating blood components, like platelets, work on repair. The deposition of platelets can clutter the vessel space and impair the body’s natural ability to produce nitrous oxide, which would dilate blood vessels and help lower blood pressure. When high pressure is pushing on the walls of narrowed blood vessels, fluid leaves the inside of blood vessels and moves to the space just outside. This impairs necessary blood flow and cuts off circulating oxygen, which


id: end-organ-damage-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End_organ_damage-1.md
category: reference
title: End organ damage
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/End_organ_damage
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:33.470549+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: end-organ-damage-20260505-0
summary:
== Management == === Hypertensive === When there is concern for the presence or development of end organ damage, blood pressure should be lowered emergently with intravenous antihypertensive medications. Patients should be admitted to the hospital to be closely monitored for complications of end organ damage, notably strokes. Blood pressure should be lowered a maximum of 10% over the first hour and 25% over the first two hours as rapid lowering of blood pressure can lead to decreased blood flow in the brain and cause the development of an ischemic stroke. Once blood pressure is stabilized, patients can be changed from intravenous medications to oral. For patients with long-standing hypertension, patient education on the importance of consistently taking prescribed medications and keeping blood pressure well-controlled is critical. Additionally, future treatments may focus not only on blood pressure control but also the reduction of local inflammation that can lead to end organ damage. In pregnant patients where there is concern for pre-eclampsia, patients should be given magnesium sulfate and admitted. Urine output, breathing, and reflexes should be monitored closely with concern for the development of worsening kidney function and magnesium toxicity. Systolic blood pressure should be treated with antihypertensive medications only


id: endaural-phenomena-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endaural_phenomena-0.md
category: reference
title: Endaural phenomena
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endaural_phenomena
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:34.761333+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: endaural-phenomena-20260505-0
summary:
Endaural phenomena are sounds that are heard without any external acoustic stimulation. Endaural means "in the ear". Phenomena include transient ringing in the ears (that sound like sine tones), white noise-like sounds, and subjective tinnitus. Endaural phenomena need to be distinguished from otoacoustic emissions, in which a person's ear emits sounds. The emitter typically cannot hear the sounds made by his or her ear. Endaural phenomena also need to be distinguished from auditory hallucinations, which are sometimes associated with psychosis. == See also == Bruit Entoptic phenomenon == References ==


id: endogenous-agonist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endogenous_agonist-0.md
category: reference
title: Endogenous agonist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endogenous_agonist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:36.017714+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: endogenous-agonist-20260505-0
summary:
In pharmacology, an endogenous agonist for a particular receptor is a compound naturally produced by the body which binds to and activates that receptor. For example, the primary endogenous agonist for serotonin receptors is serotonin, and the primary endogenous agonist for dopamine receptors is dopamine. In general, receptors for small molecule neurotransmitters such as serotonin will have only one endogenous agonist, but often have many different receptor subtypes (e.g. 13 different receptors for serotonin). On the other hand, neuropeptide receptors tend to have fewer subtypes, but may have several different endogenous agonists. This allows for a high degree of complexity in the body's signalling system, with different tissues often showing quite distinct responses to a particular ligand. Some endogenous antagonists and inverse agonists are also known (e.g., kynurenic acid at the NMDA receptor), but these are much less common. == References ==


id: endotype-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endotype-0.md
category: reference
title: Endotype
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endotype
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:37.256928+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: endotype-20260505-0
summary:
An endotype is a subtype of a health condition, which is defined by a distinct functional or pathobiological mechanism. This is distinct from a phenotype, which is any observable characteristic or trait of a disease, such as development, biochemical or physiological properties without any implication of a mechanism. It is envisaged that patients with a specific endotype present themselves within phenotypic clusters of diseases. One example is asthma, which is considered to be a syndrome, consisting of a series of endotypes. This is related to the concept of disease entity. == Disease entity == The main concept in nosology is the disease entity. Normally there are two ways to define a disease entity: Manifestational criteria and causal criteria. Manifestational criteria. These are a set of criteria based on signs, symptoms and laboratory findings that define a disease. They define a disease by its symptoms and medical findings. Causal criteria. These are a causal chain of events that defines the disease describing how it develops. They describe the disease by its etiology. Following Fred Gifford, these criteria lead one to view any disease entity in three different forms: Disease as symptoms: The disease is defined by the symptoms and signs that


id: engel-classification-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engel_classification-0.md
category: reference
title: Engel classification
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engel_classification
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:38.574402+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: engel-classification-20260505-0
summary:
To classify postoperative outcomes for epilepsy surgery, Jerome Engel proposed the following scheme, the Engel Epilepsy Surgery Outcome Scale, which has become the de facto standard when reporting results in the medical literature: Class I: Free of disabling seizures Class II: Rare disabling seizures ("almost seizure-free") Class III: Worthwhile improvement Class IV: No worthwhile improvement == History == Surgery for epilepsy patients has been used for over a century, but due to technological restrictions and insufficient knowledge of brain surgery, this treatment approach was relatively rare until the 1980s and 90s. Prior to the 1980s, no classification system existed due to the lack of operations performed up until the time. As surgery as a treatment grew more prevalent, a classification system became a necessity. The appropriate evaluation of patients following epilepsy surgery is extremely important, as medical professionals must know the appropriate course of action to follow in order to achieve seizure freedom for patients. Accordingly, the Engel classification guidelines were devised by UCLA neurologist Jerome Engel Jr. in 1987 and made public at the 1992 Palm Desert Conference on Epilepsy Surgery. The Engel classification system has since become the standard in reporting postoperative outcomes of epilepsy surgery. == Overview


id: epiphenomenon-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epiphenomenon-0.md
category: reference
title: Epiphenomenon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epiphenomenon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:39.920298+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: epiphenomenon-20260505-0
summary:
An epiphenomenon (plural: epiphenomena) is a secondary phenomenon that occurs alongside or in parallel to a primary phenomenon. The word has two senses: one that connotes known causation and one that connotes absence of causation or reservation of judgment about it. == Examples == === Metaphysics === In the philosophy of causality, an epiphenomenon is any effect of a cause apart from the effect under primary consideration. In situations in which an event of interest E is caused by (or, is said to be caused by) an event C, which also causes (or, is said to cause) an event F, then F is an epiphenomenon. The problem of epiphenomena is often a counterexample to theories of causation. For example, take a simplified Lewisian counterfactual analysis of causation that the meaning of propositions about causal relationships between two events A and B can be explained in terms of counterfactual conditionals of the form "if A had not occurred then B would not have occurred". Suppose that C causes E and that C has an epiphenomenon F. We then have that if E had not occurred, then F would not have occurred, either. But then according to the counterfactual analysis of causation,


id: equianalgesic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equianalgesic-0.md
category: reference
title: Equianalgesic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equianalgesic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:41.388174+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: equianalgesic-20260505-0
summary:
An equianalgesic chart is a conversion chart that lists equivalent doses of analgesics (drugs used to relieve pain). Equianalgesic charts are used for calculation of an equivalent dose (a dose which would offer an equal amount of analgesia) between different analgesics. Tables of this general type are also available for NSAIDs, benzodiazepines, depressants, stimulants, anticholinergics and others. When using oral morphine as a baseline, the comparison of strengths of opioid analgesics is referred to as oral morphine equivalent. == Format == Equianalgesic tables are available in different formats, such as pocket-sized cards for ease of reference. A frequently-seen format has the drug names in the left column, the route of administration in the center columns and any notes in the right column. == Purpose == There are several reasons for switching a patient to a different pain medication. These include practical considerations such as lower cost or unavailability of a drug at the patient's preferred pharmacy, or medical reasons such as lack of effectiveness of the current drug or to minimize adverse effects. Some patients request to be switched to a different narcotic due to stigma associated with a particular drug (e.g. a patient refusing methadone due to its association


id: eskape-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESKAPE-0.md
category: reference
title: ESKAPE
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESKAPE
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:42.622581+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eskape-20260505-0
summary:
ESKAPE is an acronym comprising the scientific names of six highly virulent and antibiotic resistant bacterial pathogens including: Enterococcus faecium, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterobacter spp. The acronym is sometimes extended to ESKAPEE to include Escherichia coli. This group of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria can evade or 'escape' commonly used antibiotics due to their increasing multi-drug resistance (MDR). As a result, throughout the world, they are the major cause of life-threatening nosocomial or hospital-acquired infections in immunocompromised and critically ill patients who are most at risk.== Training and awareness manuals == In addition to primary research literature, structured training materials have been developed to support understanding of ESKAPE pathogens in public health and biosecurity contexts. One such manual is Demystifying ESKAPE Pathogens (2017), published by the Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Allied Sciences (INMAS), a laboratory of the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), India. The manual provides an overview of multidrug-resistant pathogens, including their epidemiology, mechanisms of resistance, transmission, clinical features, and control strategies, and is used in training and awareness programmes in India. P. aeruginosa and S. aureus are some of the most ubiquitous pathogens in biofilms found in healthcare. P. aeruginosa is


id: eskape-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESKAPE-1.md
category: reference
title: ESKAPE
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESKAPE
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:42.622581+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eskape-20260505-0
summary:
== Clinical threats == Due to their heightened resistance to frequently used antibiotics, these pathogens pose an additional threat to the safety of the general population, particularly those who frequently interact with hospital environments, as they most commonly contribute to hospital-acquired infections (HAI). The increased antimicrobial resistance profile of these pathogens varies, however they arise from similar causes. One common cause of antibiotic resistance is due to incorrect dosing. When a sub-therapeutic dose is prescribed, or a patient chooses to use less of their prescribed antibiotic, bacteria are given the opportunity to adapt to the treatment. At lower doses, or when a course of antibiotics is not completed, certain strains of the bacteria develop drug-resistant strains through the process of natural selection. This is due to the random genetic mutations that are constantly occurring in many forms of living organisms, bacteria and humans included. Natural selection supports the persistence of strains of bacteria that have developed a certain mutation that allows them to survive. Some strains are also able to participate in inter-strain horizontal gene transfer, allowing them to pass resistance genes from one pathogen to another. This can be particularly problematic in nosocomial infections, where bacteria are constantly exposed


id: exacerbation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exacerbation-0.md
category: reference
title: Exacerbation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exacerbation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:43.829883+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: exacerbation-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, an exacerbation is the worsening of a disease or an increase in its symptoms. Examples includes an acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and acute exacerbation of congestive heart failure. == See also == Flare-up == References ==


id: excavation-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excavation_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Excavation (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excavation_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:45.147921+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: excavation-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, excavation has two meanings: the act of hollowing out (e.g., to remove damaged or infected tissue) the space hollowed out, or a natural cavity or pouch == In anatomy == Examples of naturally hollow spaces that are considered excavations include: Rectouterine pouch or excavation, between the uterus and the rectum Rectovesical excavation, between the rectum and the male bladder Vesicouterine excavation, between the bladder and the uterus in a female == In medical and dental procedures == The tool used to create an excavation (e.g., to remove damaged areas before filling dental caries) is an excavator. Excavation is also the technique used to remove granulation tissue when necessary. == References ==


id: exercise-capacity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exercise_capacity-0.md
category: reference
title: Exercise capacity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exercise_capacity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:46.378462+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: exercise-capacity-20260505-0
summary:
Exercise capacity is defined as "the maximum amount of physical exertion that a patient can sustain". == References ==


id: extracorporeal-procedure-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extracorporeal_procedure-0.md
category: reference
title: Extracorporeal procedure
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extracorporeal_procedure
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:47.590410+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: extracorporeal-procedure-20260505-0
summary:
An extracorporeal procedure is a medical procedure which is performed outside the body. Extracorporeal devices are the artificial organs that remain outside the body while treating a patient. Extracorporeal devices are useful in hemodialysis and cardiac surgery. == Circulatory procedures == A procedure in which blood is taken from a patient's circulation to have a process applied to it before it is returned to the circulation. All of the apparatuses carrying the blood outside the body are collectively termed the extracorporeal circuit. Intra-surgical cell salvage (aspiration, washing and Autotransfusion) Apheresis Plasmapheresis vs cytapheresis centrifugal apheresis vs filtration apheresis vs adsorption cascade apheresis Hemoadsorption/Hemoperfusion Plasma Adsorption Aquapheresis Hemodialysis Hemofiltration Hemodiafiltration Renal replacement therapy Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy (CRRT) Extracorporeal carbon dioxide removal Extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) Cardiopulmonary bypass during open heart surgery Liver support system Biospleen and other extracorporeal bionic or non bionic spleen-like blood cleansing device == Other procedures == Extracorporeal shockwave lithotripsy (ESWL), which is unrelated to other extracorporeal therapies, in that the device used to break up the kidney stones is held completely outside the body, whilst the lithotripsy itself occurs inside the body. Extracorporeal radiotherapy, where a large bone with a tumour is removed


id: extravasation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extravasation-0.md
category: reference
title: Extravasation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extravasation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:48.772379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: extravasation-20260505-0
summary:
Extravasation is the leakage of a fluid out of its contained space into the surrounding area, especially blood or blood cells from vessels. In the case of inflammation, it refers to the movement of white blood cells through the capillary wall, into the surrounding tissues. This is known as leukocyte extravasation, also called diapedesis. In the case of cancer metastasis, it refers to cancer cells exiting the capillaries and entering other tissues, where secondary tumors may form. The term is commonly used in a medical context. More specifically, extravasation can refer to: Extravasation (intravenous) Extravasation of infusates Extravasation of irrigation fluid Extravasation of urine Leukocyte extravasation Angiopellosis (non-leukocyte cell extravastion) == Irrigation fluid == Extravasation of irrigation fluid is the unintended migration of irrigation fluid (e.g., saline) introduced into a human body. This may occur in several types of endoscopic surgery, such as minimally invasive orthopedic surgery, i.e., arthroscopy, TURP (trans-urethral resection of the prostate), and TCRE (trans-cervical resection of the endometrium). In arthroscopy, fluid under pressure is used to inflate and distend a joint and make a working surgical space. An arthroscopy is typically performed on shoulder and knee joints; however, hip arthroscopy is becoming more popular. An arthroscopy


id: extravasation-intravenous-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extravasation_(intravenous)-0.md
category: reference
title: Extravasation (intravenous)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extravasation_(intravenous)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:50.074837+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: extravasation-intravenous-20260505-0
summary:
Extravasation is the leakage of intravenously (IV) infused, and potentially damaging, medications into the extravascular tissue around the site of infusion. The leakage can occur through brittle veins in the elderly, through previous venipuncture access, or through direct leakage from wrongly positioned venous access devices. When the leakage is not of harmful consequence it is known as infiltration. Extravasation of medication during intravenous therapy is an adverse event related to therapy that, depending on the medication, amount of exposure, and location, can potentially cause serious injury and permanent harm, such as tissue necrosis. Milder consequences of extravasation include irritation, characterized by symptoms of pain and inflammation, with the clinical signs of warmth, erythema (redness), or tenderness. == Medications == Complications related to extravasation are possible with any medication. Since vesicants are blistering agents, extravasation may lead to irreversible tissue injury. Extravasation is particularly serious during chemotherapy, since chemotherapy medications are highly toxic. == Treatment == The best "treatment" of extravasation is prevention. Depending on the medication that has extravasated, there are potential management options and treatments that aim to minimize damage, although the effectiveness of many of these treatments has not been well studied. In cases of tissue necrosis, surgical


id: family-history-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_history_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Family history (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_history_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:51.322749+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: family-history-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, a family history (FH or FHx) consists of information about disorders of direct blood relatives of the patient. Genealogy typically includes very little of the medical history of the family, but the medical history could be considered a specific subset of the total history of a family. Accurate knowledge of a patient's family history may identify a predisposition to developing certain illnesses, which can inform clinical decisions and allow effective management or even prevention of conditions. == Eugenic origins and applications == Early mentions of family medical histories in medical literature date from the 1840s. Henry Ancell mentioned inquiring about the family history of a patient in a medical case study in 1842, noting that the patient's presenting concern appears to be present in relatives and remarking on the prolific reproduction of her female relatives. In 1849, W.H. Walshe argued in a lecture at University College London Hospital that in addition to a history of the presenting disease itself, a physician should also collect family history. Walshe's lecture does not define or justify the family history, which may suggest that taking one was already in common practice. However, later 19th-century physicians did provide a specific apologia for family


id: fascia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascia-0.md
category: reference
title: Fascia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:52.647635+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fascia-20260505-0
summary:
A fascia (; pl.: fasciae or fascias; adjective fascial; from Latin fascia 'band') is a generic term for macroscopic membranous bodily structures. Fasciae are classified as superficial, visceral or deep, and further designated according to their anatomical location. The knowledge of fascial structures is essential in surgery, as they create borders for infectious processes (for example Psoas abscess) and haematoma. An increase in pressure may result in a compartment syndrome, where a prompt fasciotomy may be necessary. For this reason, profound descriptions of fascial structures are available in anatomical literature from the 19th century. == Function == Fasciae were traditionally thought of as passive structures that transmit mechanical tension generated by muscular activities or external forces throughout the body. An important function of muscle fasciae is to reduce friction of muscular force. In doing so, fasciae provide a supportive and movable wrapping for nerves and blood vessels as they pass through and between muscles. In the tradition of medical dissections it has been common practice to carefully clean muscles and other organs from their surrounding fasciae in order to study their detailed topography and function. However, this practice tends to ignore that many muscle fibers insert into their fascial envelopes


id: fascia-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascia-1.md
category: reference
title: Fascia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:52.647635+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fascia-20260505-0
summary:
==== Superficial ==== Superficial fascia is the lowermost layer of the skin in nearly all of the regions of the body, that blends with the reticular dermis layer. It is present on the face, over the upper portion of the sternocleidomastoid, at the nape of the neck and overlying the breastbone. It consists mainly of loose areolar and fatty adipose connective tissue and is the layer that primarily determines the shape of a body. In addition to its subcutaneous presence, superficial fascia surrounds organs, glands and neurovascular bundles, and fills otherwise empty space at many other locations. It serves as a storage medium of fat and water; as a passageway for lymph, nerve and blood vessels; and as a protective padding to cushion and insulate. Superficial fascia is present, but does not contain fat, in the eyelid, ear, scrotum, penis and clitoris. Due to its viscoelastic properties, superficial fascia can stretch to accommodate the deposition of adipose that accompanies both ordinary and prenatal weight gain. After pregnancy and weight loss, the superficial fascia slowly reverts to its original level of tension. ==== Visceral ==== Visceral fascia (also called subserous fascia) suspends the organs within their cavities and wraps them in


id: fibrosis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibrosis-0.md
category: reference
title: Fibrosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibrosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:54.008675+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fibrosis-20260505-0
summary:
Fibrosis, also known as fibrotic scarring, is the development of fibrous connective tissue in response to an injury. Fibrosis can be a normal connective tissue deposition or excessive tissue deposition caused by a disease. Repeated injuries, chronic inflammation and repair are susceptible to fibrosis, where an accidental excessive accumulation of extracellular matrix components, such as collagen, is produced by fibroblasts, leading to the formation of a permanent fibrotic scar. In response to injury, this is called scarring, and if fibrosis arises from a single cell line, this is called a fibroma. Physiologically, fibrosis acts to deposit connective tissue, which can interfere with or totally inhibit the normal architecture and function of the underlying organ or tissue. Fibrosis can be used to describe the pathological state of excess deposition of fibrous tissue, as well as the process of connective tissue deposition in healing. Defined by the pathological accumulation of extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins, fibrosis results in scarring and thickening of the affected tissue — it is in essence a natural wound healing response which interferes with normal organ function. == Physiology == Fibrosis is similar to the process of scarring, in that both involve stimulated fibroblasts laying down connective tissue, including


id: five-year-survival-rate-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five-year_survival_rate-0.md
category: reference
title: Five-year survival rate
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five-year_survival_rate
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:55.293134+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: five-year-survival-rate-20260505-0
summary:
The five-year survival rate is a type of survival rate for estimating the prognosis of a particular disease, normally calculated from the point of diagnosis. Lead time bias from earlier diagnosis can affect interpretation of the five-year survival rate. There are absolute and relative survival rates, but the latter are more useful and commonly used. == Relative and absolute rates == Five-year relative survival rates are more commonly cited in cancer statistics. Five-year absolute survival rates may sometimes also be cited. Five-year absolute survival rates describe the percentage of patients alive five years after the disease is diagnosed. Five-year relative survival rates describe the percentage of patients with a disease alive five years after the disease is diagnosed, divided by the percentage of the general population of corresponding sex and age alive after five years. Typically, cancer five-year relative survival rates are well below 100%, reflecting excess mortality among cancer patients compared to the general population. In contrast to five-year absolute survival rates, five-year relative survival rates may also equal or even exceed 100% if cancer patients have the same or even higher survival rates than the general population. The pattern may occur if cancer patients can generally be cured,


id: fomite-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fomite-0.md
category: reference
title: Fomite
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fomite
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:56.412800+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fomite-20260505-0
summary:
A fomite () or fomes () is any inanimate object that, when contaminated with or exposed to infectious agents (such as pathogenic bacteria, viruses or fungi), can transfer disease to a new host. == Transfer of pathogens by fomites == A fomite is any inanimate object (also called passive vector) that, when contaminated with or exposed to infectious agents (such as pathogenic bacteria, viruses or fungi), can transfer disease to a new host. Contamination can occur when one of these objects comes into contact with bodily secretions, like nasal fluid, vomit or feces from toilet plume. Many common objects can sustain a pathogen until a person comes in contact with the pathogen, increasing the chance of infection. The likely objects are different in a hospital environment than at home or in a workplace. Fomites such as splinters, barbed wire or farmyard surfaces, including soil, feeding troughs or barn beams, have been implicated as sources of virus. === Hospital fomites === For humans, common hospital fomites are skin cells, hair, clothing, and bedding. Fomites are associated particularly with hospital-acquired infections (HAIs), as they are possible routes to pass pathogens between patients. Stethoscopes and neckties are common fomites associated with health care


id: fomite-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fomite-1.md
category: reference
title: Fomite
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fomite
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:56.412800+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fomite-20260505-0
summary:
=== Transmission of specific viruses === Researchers have discovered that smooth (non-porous) surfaces like door knobs transmit bacteria and viruses better than porous materials like paper money because porous, especially fibrous, materials absorb and trap the contagion, making it harder to contract through simple touch. Nonetheless, fomites may include soiled clothes, towels, linens, handkerchiefs, and surgical dressings. SARS-CoV-2 was found to be viable on various surfaces from 4 to 72 hours under laboratory conditions. On porous surfaces, studies report inability to detect viable virus within minutes to hours; on non-porous surfaces, viable virus can be detected for days to weeks. However, further research called into question the relevance of such tests, instead finding fomite transmission of SARS-Cov-2 in real world settings is extremely rare when standard cleaning procedure are followed. Contact with aerosolized virus (large droplet spread) generated via talking, sneezing, coughing, or vomiting, toilet flushing & produced toilet plume or contact with airborne virus that settles after disturbance of a contaminated fomite (e.g. shaking a contaminated blanket). During the first 24 hours, the risk can be reduced by increasing ventilation and waiting as long as possible before entering the space (at least several hours, based on documented airborne transmission


id: frax-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FRAX-0.md
category: reference
title: FRAX
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FRAX
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:57.594597+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: frax-20260505-0
summary:
FRAX (fracture risk assessment tool) is a diagnostic tool used to evaluate the 10-year probability of bone fracture risk. It was developed by the University of Sheffield. FRAX integrates clinical risk factors and bone mineral density at the femoral neck to calculate the 10-year probability of hip fracture and the 10-year probability of a major osteoporotic fracture (clinical spine, forearm, hip or shoulder fracture). The models used to develop the FRAX diagnostic tool were derived from studying patient populations in North America, Europe, Latin America, Asia and Australia. == Components == The parameters included in a FRAX assessment, many being yes/no questions, are: Country Age Sex Weight Height Previous fracture Hip fracture of a patient's parent Current smoking Glucocorticoid treatment Rheumatoid arthritis Disease strongly associated with osteoporosis, including type I diabetes, osteogenesis imperfecta in adults, untreated long-standing hyperthyroidism, hypogonadism, menopause before age 45, chronic malnutrition or malabsorption, chronic renal failure (dialysis-independent) and chronic liver disease Alcohol intake of 30 ml per day or more (three standard drinks) Bone mineral density (BMD) of the femoral neck if known Trabecular bone score (optional) == Availability and usage == FRAX is available free of charge online, and commercially as a desktop application, in


id: fremitus-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fremitus-0.md
category: reference
title: Fremitus
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fremitus
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:28:58.816310+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fremitus-20260505-0
summary:
Fremitus is a vibration transmitted through the body. In common medical usage, it usually refers to assessment of the lungs by either the vibration intensity felt on the chest wall (tactile fremitus) and/or heard by a stethoscope on the chest wall with certain spoken words (vocal fremitus), although there are several other types. == Types == === Vocal fremitus === When a person speaks, the vocal cords create vibrations (vocal fremitus) in the tracheobronchial tree and through the lungs and chest wall, where they can be felt (tactile fremitus). This is usually assessed with the healthcare provider placing the flat of their palms on the chest wall and then asking a patient to repeat a phrase containing low-frequency vowels such as "blue balloons" or "toys for tots" (the original diphthong used was the German word neunundneunzig but the translation to the English 'ninety-nine' was a higher-frequency diphthong and thus not as effective in eliciting fremitus). An increase in tactile fremitus indicates denser or inflamed lung tissue, which can be caused by diseases such as pneumonia. A decrease suggests air or fluid in the pleural spaces or a decrease in lung tissue density, which can be caused by diseases such as


id: fulminant-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulminant-0.md
category: reference
title: Fulminant
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulminant
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:00.136142+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fulminant-20260505-0
summary:
Fulminant () is a medical descriptor for any event or process that occurs suddenly and escalates quickly, and is intense and severe to the point of lethality, i.e., it has an explosive character. The word comes from Latin fulmināre, to strike with lightning. There are several diseases described by this adjective: Fulminant liver failure Fulminant (Marburg variant) multiple sclerosis Fulminant colitis Fulminant pre-eclampsia Fulminant meningitis Purpura fulminans Fulminant hepatic venous thrombosis (Budd-Chiari syndrome) Fulminant jejunoileitis Fulminant myocarditis Beyond these particular uses, the term is used more generally as a descriptor for sudden-onset medical conditions that are immediately threatening to life or limb. Some viral hemorrhagic fevers, such as Ebola, Lassa fever, and Lábrea fever, may kill in as little as two to five days. Diseases that cause rapidly developing lung edema, such as some kinds of pneumonia, may kill in a few hours. It was said of the "black death" (pneumonic bubonic plague) that some of its victims would die in a matter of hours after the initial symptoms appeared. Other pathologic conditions that may be fulminating in character are acute respiratory distress syndrome, asthma, acute anaphylaxis, septic shock, Sweating sickness, and disseminated intravascular coagulation. The term is generally not


id: functional-disorder-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_disorder-0.md
category: reference
title: Functional disorder
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_disorder
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:01.456201+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: functional-disorder-20260505-0
summary:
Functional disorders are a group of recognisable medical conditions which are due to changes to the functioning of the systems of the body rather than due to a disease affecting the structure of the body. Functional disorders are common and complex phenomena that pose challenges to medical systems. Traditionally in medicine, the body is thought of as consisting of different organ systems, but it is less well understood how the systems interconnect or communicate. Functional disorders can affect the interplay of several organ systems (for example gastrointestinal, respiratory, musculoskeletal or neurological) leading to multiple and variable symptoms. Less commonly there is a single prominent symptom or organ system affected. Most symptoms that are caused by structural disease can also be caused by a functional disorder. Because of this, individuals often undergo many medical investigations before the diagnosis is clear. Though research is growing to support explanatory models of functional disorders, structural scans such as MRIs, or laboratory investigation such as blood tests do not usually explain the symptoms or the symptom burden. This difficulty in 'seeing' the processes underlying the symptoms of functional disorders has often resulted in these conditions being misunderstood and sometimes stigmatised within medicine and society. Despite


id: functional-disorder-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_disorder-1.md
category: reference
title: Functional disorder
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_disorder
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:01.456201+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: functional-disorder-20260505-0
summary:
The diagnosis of functional disorders is usually made in the healthcare setting most often by a doctor — this could be a primary care physician or family doctor, hospital physician or specialist in the area of psychosomatic medicine or a consultant-liaison psychiatrist. The primary care physician or family doctor will generally play an important role in coordinating treatment with a secondary care clinician if necessary. The diagnosis is essentially clinical, whereby the clinician undertakes a thorough medical and mental health history and physical examination. Diagnosis should be based on the nature of the presenting symptoms, and is a "rule in" as opposed to "rule out" diagnosis — this means it is based on the presence of positive symptoms and signs that follow a characteristic pattern. There is usually a process of clinical reasoning to reach this point and assessment might require several visits, ideally with the same doctor. In the clinical setting, there are no laboratory or imaging tests that can consistently be used to diagnose the conditions; however, as is the case with all diagnoses, often additional diagnostic tests (such as blood tests, or diagnostic imaging) will be undertaken to consider the presence of underlying disease. There are however


id: functional-disorder-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_disorder-2.md
category: reference
title: Functional disorder
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_disorder
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:01.456201+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: functional-disorder-20260505-0
summary:
=== Precipitating factors === These are the factors that for some patients appear to trigger the onset of a functional disorder. Typically, these involve either an acute cause of physical or emotional stress, for example an operation, a viral illness, a car accident, a sudden bereavement, or a period of intense and prolonged overload of chronic stressors (for example relationship difficulties, job or financial stress, or caring responsibilities). Not all affected individuals will be able to identify obvious precipitating factors and some functional disorders develop gradually over time. === Perpetuating factors === These are the factors that contribute to the development of functional disorder as a persistent condition and maintaining symptoms. These can include the condition of the physiological systems including the immune and neuroimmune systems, the endocrine system, the musculoskeletal system, the sleep-wake cycle, the brain and nervous system, the person's thoughts and experience, their experience of the body, social situation and environment. All these layers interact with each other. Illness mechanisms are important therapeutically as they are seen as potential targets of treatment. The exact illness mechanisms that are responsible for maintaining an individual's functional disorder should be considered on an individual basis. However, various models have been


id: functional-disorder-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_disorder-3.md
category: reference
title: Functional disorder
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_disorder
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:01.456201+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: functional-disorder-20260505-0
summary:
== Controversies and stigma == Despite some progress in the last decade, people with functional disorders continue to suffer subtle and overt forms of discrimination by clinicians, researchers and the public. Stigma is a common experience for individuals who present with functional symptoms and is often driven by historical narratives and factual inaccuracies. Given that functional disorders do not usually have specific biomarkers or findings on structural imaging that are typically undertaken in routine clinical practice, this leads to potential for symptoms to be misunderstood, invalidated, or dismissed, leading to adverse experiences when individuals are seeking help. Part of this stigma is also driven by theories around "mind body dualism", which frequently surfaces as an area of importance for patients, researchers and clinicians in the realm of functional disorders. Artificial separation of the mind/brain/body (for example the use of phrases such as; "physical versus psychological" or "organic versus non-organic") furthers misunderstanding and misconceptions around these disorders, and only serves to hinder progress in scientific domain and for patients seeking treatment. Some patient groups have fought to have their illnesses not classified as functional disorders, because in some insurance based health-care systems these have attracted lower insurance payments. Current research is


id: functional-symptom-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_symptom-0.md
category: reference
title: Functional symptom
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_symptom
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:02.778512+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: functional-symptom-20260505-0
summary:
A functional symptom is a medical symptom with no known physical cause. In other words, there is no structural or pathologically defined disease to explain the symptom. The use of the term 'functional symptom' does not assume psychogenesis, only that the body is not functioning as expected. Functional symptoms are increasingly viewed within a framework in which 'biological, psychological, interpersonal and healthcare factors' should all be considered to be relevant for determining the aetiology and treatment plans. Historically, there has often been fierce debate about whether certain problems are predominantly related to an abnormality of structure (disease) or are psychosomatic in nature (secondary gain), and what are at one stage posited to be functional symptoms are sometimes later reclassified as organic, as investigative techniques improve. It is well established that psychosomatic symptoms are a real phenomenon, so this potential explanation is often plausible, however the commonality of a range of psychological symptoms and functional weakness does not imply that one causes the other. For example, symptoms associated with migraine, epilepsy, schizophrenia, multiple sclerosis, stomach ulcers, myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS), Lyme disease and many other conditions have all tended historically at first to be explained largely as physical manifestations of


id: gliosis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliosis-0.md
category: reference
title: Gliosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:06.365369+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gliosis-20260505-0
summary:
Gliosis is a nonspecific reactive change of glial cells in response to damage to the central nervous system (CNS). In most cases, gliosis involves the proliferation or hypertrophy of several different types of glial cells, including astrocytes, microglia, and oligodendrocytes. In its most extreme form, the proliferation associated with gliosis leads to the formation of a glial scar. The process of gliosis involves a series of cellular and molecular events that occur over several days. Typically, the first response to injury is the migration of macrophages and local microglia to the injury site. This process, which constitutes a form of gliosis known as microgliosis, begins within hours of the initial CNS injury. Later, after 3–5 days, oligodendrocyte precursor cells are also recruited to the site and may contribute to remyelination. The final component of gliosis is astrogliosis, the proliferation of surrounding astrocytes, which are the main constituents of the glial scar. Gliosis has historically been given a negative connotation due to its appearance in many CNS diseases and the inhibition of axonal regeneration caused by glial scar formation. However, gliosis has been shown to have both beneficial and detrimental effects, and the balance between these is due to a complex


id: gliosis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliosis-1.md
category: reference
title: Gliosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:06.365369+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gliosis-20260505-0
summary:
== Microgliosis == Microglia, another type of glial cell, act as macrophage-like cells in the CNS when activated. Unlike other glial cell types, microglia are extremely sensitive to even small changes in the cellular environment, allowing for a rapid response to inflammatory signals and prompt destruction of infectious agents before sensitive neural tissue can be damaged. Due to their fast response time, microgliosis, or the activation of microglia, is commonly the first observed stage of gliosis. Microgliosis following a CNS insult most commonly involves the development of an altered cellular morphology, specifically the enlargement of cellular processes. The microglial immunological surface receptor CR3 is also upregulated within 24 hours after the initial injury. Within the first week following the injury, microglia begin to proliferate abnormally and while doing so exhibit several immunophenotypic changes, particularly an increased expression of MHC antigens. The population of activated microglia at the site of a CNS injury includes not only endogenous microglia of the CNS but also exogeneous perivascular cells originating in the bone marrow that migrate to the area and transform into microglia to supplement the microgliosis response. While in their activated state, microglia may serve a variety of beneficial functions. For example, active


id: gliosis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliosis-2.md
category: reference
title: Gliosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:06.365369+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gliosis-20260505-0
summary:
== Triggers of gliosis == In general after any CNS insult, gliosis begins after the blood brain barrier is disrupted, allowing non-CNS molecules, such as blood and serum components, to enter the brain. These components, along with activated macrophages they carry, are known to have a role in beginning the formation of the glial scar by inducing the disconnection of axons, also called secondary axotomy, and the upregulation of fibrous extracellular matrix components which eventually form the scar tissue. The specific molecular triggers responsible for this action, however, remain unknown. One potential trigger is transforming growth factor β (TGF-β). TGF-β2, whose expression is gradually increased as gliosis occurs, has been shown to increase astrocyte production of scar-forming proteoglycans. Experimental reduction of both TGF-β2 and TGF-β1, which is expressed immediately after injury, has resulted in reduced glial scarring. The interleukins are another potential molecular trigger of gliosis. These molecules, notably IL-1, initiate an inflammatory response in various cells including astrocytes that contributes to the gliosis reaction. Finally, interactions between the inflammatory cytokines interferon-γ (IFN-γ) and fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2) may also be responsible for the induction of gliosis. In culture, both molecules act as mitogens, prompting the proliferation of astrocytes.


id: gliosis-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliosis-3.md
category: reference
title: Gliosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:06.365369+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gliosis-20260505-0
summary:
== Potential therapeutic targets in gliosis == The implications of gliosis in various neuropathologies and injury conditions has led to the investigation of various therapeutic routes which would regulate specific aspects of gliosis in order to improve clinical outcomes for both CNS trauma and a wide range of neurological disorders. Because gliosis is a dynamic process which involves a spectrum of changes depending on the type and severity of the initial insult, to date, no single molecular target has been identified which could improve healing in all injury contexts. Rather, therapeutic strategies for minimizing the contribution of astrogliosis to CNS pathologies must be designed to target specific molecular pathways and responses. One promising therapeutic mechanism is the use of β-lactam antibiotics to enhance the glutamate uptake of astrocytes in order to reduce excitotoxicity and provide neuroprotection in models of stroke and ALS. Other proposed targets related to astrogliosis include manipulating AQP4 channels, diminishing the action of NF-kB, or regulating the STAT3 pathway in order to reduce the inflammatory effects of reactive astrocytes. Astrogliosis may also be attenuated by inhibiting the microgliosis response. One notable microglial activation inhibitor is minocycline, which is a known suppressor of astrogliosis. The cell cycle inhibitor


id: habit-tic-deformity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habit-tic_deformity-0.md
category: reference
title: Habit-tic deformity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habit-tic_deformity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:07.695050+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: habit-tic-deformity-20260505-0
summary:
Habit-tic deformity is a condition of the nail caused by external trauma to the nail matrix. The condition is characterized by ridges which run horizontally across the entire nail, most often occurring on the thumbs, as well as marked damage to or absence of cuticles. == Signs and symptoms == Habit-tic deformity is recognizable for its horizontal ridges that create a fir-tree shape. Discoloration along the affected area of the nail is also common. The condition is not to be confused with median nail dystrophy, a similar but rarer condition which additionally includes a canal-like vertical ridge. The deformity is most commonly seen on the thumbs, but is also less commonly seen on other nails. == Causes == Habit-tic deformity is caused by long-term external trauma to the nail matrix as a result of skin-picking around the affected nail. The underlying cause is habitual skin picking as a body-focused repetitive behavior which often worsens during times of stress, boredom, or inactivity. In the past, habit-tic deformity has been linked to anxiety, tic disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. However, there is no preceding anxiety and subsequent relief felt by an individual after picking, differentiating it from compulsions associated with OCD. == Treatment


id: head-twitch-response-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head-twitch_response-0.md
category: reference
title: Head-twitch response
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head-twitch_response
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:09.145592+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: head-twitch-response-20260505-0
summary:
The head-twitch response (HTR), also sometimes known as wet dog shakes (WDS) in rats, is a rapid side-to-side head movement that occurs in mice and rats in association with serotonin 5-HT2A receptor activation. Serotonergic psychedelics like lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and psilocybin consistently induce the HTR in rodents, whereas non-hallucinogenic serotonin 5-HT2A receptor agonists do not. Because of this, the HTR is widely employed in scientific research as an animal behavioral model of hallucinogen effects and in the discovery of new psychedelic drugs. The HTR is one of the only behavioral paradigms for assessment of psychedelic-like effects in animals, with the other most notable test being drug discrimination. However, the HTR is far less costly and time-consuming than drug discrimination and hence has become much more popular in recent years. Limitations of the HTR include the fact that various other drugs besides serotonin 5-HT2A receptor agonists, such as NMDA receptor antagonists and muscarinic acetylcholine receptor antagonists, also induce the HTR, and certain indirect non-hallucinogenic serotonin 5-HT2A receptor activators, like 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP) and serotonin releasers, induce the response as well. While a useful test, it should not be regarded as a definitive predictor of human psychedelic potential. The HTR was first


id: head-twitch-response-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head-twitch_response-1.md
category: reference
title: Head-twitch response
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head-twitch_response
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:09.145592+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: head-twitch-response-20260505-0
summary:
== Procedure == The HTR method is reliable, straightforward, and simple to perform in that it merely involves direct behavioral observation following drug administration. No animal training or expensive equipment are necessarily required. The HTR can be measured in a single animal or a group of animals and can be observed in real-time or via video-recording and later observation. It can also be recorded via a magnet attached to the head or ear. DOI is the most commonly used psychedelic to induce the HTR. DOI and other psychedelics show a biphasic or inverted U-shaped dose–response curve in terms of HTR induction. For example, no HTR is observed at 0.1 mg/kg DOI, maximal HTR is observed at 1 to 10 mg/kg, and lesser HTR is observed at 3 to 20 mg/kg in rodents. The doses can vary depending on the rodent species and strain. Hence, based on the preceding, proper drug dosing is important for induction of the HTR. A drawback of the HTR assay is that manual observation can be very laborious and time-consuming. More recently however, semi- and fully-automated forms of the assay, notably allowing for the possibility of high-throughput screening, have been developed. == Mechanisms == The HTR


id: head-twitch-response-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head-twitch_response-2.md
category: reference
title: Head-twitch response
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head-twitch_response
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:09.145592+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: head-twitch-response-20260505-0
summary:
== Scientific validity == Head twitches do not occur with psychedelics in humans or many other species. In addition, they lack face validity as an animal behavioral proxy of psychedelic effects, in that they bear little resemblance to the human psychedelic experience. In any case, it has been said that head twitches might be a behavioral response to sensory disturbances during hallucinogenic experiences. On the other hand, many drugs that are not hallucinogenic in humans also induce the HTR. Despite the preceding limitations, the assay has strong predictive validity for hallucinogenic effects of serotonin 5-HT2A receptor agonists in humans. There is a strong correlation between the capacity of serotonergic psychedelics to induce head twitches in rodents and their reported potency in inducing hallucinogenic effects in humans. The HTR is easily quantifiable and there is high agreement in counts between independent observers. In addition, there is a low level of within-subject and between-subject variability in induction of the HTR in animals. Nonetheless, while the HTR assay is useful in assessing target engagement, it should not be regarded as a definitive predictor of psychedelic potential. == Exceptions == === Psychedelics lacking head twitches in animals === There are few or no known


id: head-twitch-response-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head-twitch_response-3.md
category: reference
title: Head-twitch response
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head-twitch_response
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:09.145592+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: head-twitch-response-20260505-0
summary:
Some serotonin 5-HT2A receptor agonists, including lisuride, 2-bromo-LSD (bromolysergide; BOL-148), ergotamine, 6-fluoro-DET, 6-MeO-DMT, Ariadne, zalsupindole (DLX-001; AAZ-A-154), ITI-1549, 25N-N1-Nap, and IHCH-7086 among others, are either non-hallucinogenic or are thought to be non-hallucinogenic in spite of activating the serotonin 5-HT2A receptor. The HTR is among the only animal behavioral tests that can reliably distinguish between hallucinogenic and non-hallucinogenic serotonin 5-HT2A receptor agonists. Although lisuride and other non-hallucinogenic serotonin 5-HT2A receptor agonists do not produce the HTR in rodents, lisuride does produce the HTR in the least shrew, a non-rodent species that is said to be highly sensitive to serotonin 5-HT2A receptor agonists. In any case, it is thought that partial agonism with sufficiently low efficacy for specific intracellular signaling pathways underlies the lack of HTR and psychedelic effects with non-hallucinogenic serotonin 5-HT2A receptor agonists. However, other findings suggest that ergotamine may be non-hallucinogenic due to inability to efficiently cross the blood–brain barrier and peripheral selectivity, while lisuride and 2-bromo-LSD may actually be variably hallucinogenic at sufficiently high doses. Serotonin administered by intracerebroventricular injection at high doses produces the HTR in animals. However, serotonin itself has been considered to be non-hallucinogenic in humans. This would be in accordance with the lack of


id: head-twitch-response-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head-twitch_response-4.md
category: reference
title: Head-twitch response
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head-twitch_response
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:09.145592+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: head-twitch-response-20260505-0
summary:
The HTR was first described as an effect induced by LSD, independently by Winter and Flataker and by Keller and Umbreit, in 1956. Subsequently, it was described as an effect of large doses of 5-HTP, by Corne, Pickering, and Warner, in 1963. At first, the HTR was just a pharmacological curiosity and was not used as a tool in scientific research. In 1967 however, Corne and Pickering demonstrated the influence of a wide range of drugs on the HTR and proposed the HTR as a behavioral predictor of hallucinogenic effects in humans. The reliability of the HTR for identifying psychedelics is said to have been established by the mid-1970s. However, it has been said that the HTR test did not become widely used in studying serotonin 5-HT2A receptor activation until the mid-2000s. Studies published in the 1960s and 1970s had shown that serotonin receptor antagonists, such as cinanserin, methysergide, and cyproheptadine, blocked the hallucinogen-like effects of psychedelics in animals. Mediation of the HTR specifically via serotonin 5-HT2 receptor agonism was first proposed by Peroutka, Lebovitz, and Snyder in 1981, followed by supporting studies by Ortmann and colleagues in 1982 and Leysen and colleagues also in 1982. Richard Glennon and colleagues


id: health-assessment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_assessment-0.md
category: reference
title: Health assessment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_assessment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:10.384453+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: health-assessment-20260505-0
summary:
A health assessment is a plan of care that identifies the specific needs of a person and how those needs will be addressed by the healthcare system or skilled nursing facility. Health assessment is the evaluation of the health status by performing a physical exam after taking a health history. It is done to detect diseases early in people that may look and feel well. Evidence does not support routine health assessments in otherwise healthy people. Health assessment is the evaluation of the health status of an individual along the health continuum. The purpose of the assessment is to establish where on the health continuum the individual is because this guides how to approach and treat the individual. The health care approaches range from preventive, to treatment, to palliative care in relation to the individual's status on the health continuum. It is not the treatment or treatment plan. The plan related to findings is a care plan which is preceded by the specialty such as medical, physical therapy, nursing, etc. == Corporate health assessments == Research by Data Bridge Market Research shows that the market for corporate health assessments which was USD 2,91,272.4 million in 2023, is likely to reach


id: health-sciences-descriptors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_Sciences_Descriptors-0.md
category: reference
title: Health Sciences Descriptors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_Sciences_Descriptors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:11.640069+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: health-sciences-descriptors-20260505-0
summary:
DeCS – Health Sciences Descriptors is a structured and trilingual thesaurus created by BIREME – Latin American and Caribbean Center on Health Sciences Information – in 1986 for indexing scientific journal articles, books, proceedings of congresses, technical reports and other types of materials, as well as for searching and recovering scientific information in LILACS, MEDLINE and other databases. In the VHL, Virtual Health Library, DeCS is the tool that permits the navigation between records and sources of information through controlled concepts and organized in Portuguese, Spanish and English. It was developed from MeSH – Medical Subject Headings from the NLM – U.S. National Library of Medicine – in order to permit the use of common terminology for searching in three languages, providing a consistent and unique environment for information retrieval regardless of the language. In addition to the original MeSH terms, four specific areas were developed: Public Health (1986), Homeopathy (1991), Health Surveillance (2005), and Science and Health (2005). The concepts that compose the DeCS vocabulary are organized in a hierarchical structure permitting searches in broader or more specific terms or all the terms that belong to a single hierarchy. Its main purpose is to serve as a unique language


id: healthcare-error-proliferation-model-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthcare_error_proliferation_model-0.md
category: reference
title: Healthcare error proliferation model
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthcare_error_proliferation_model
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:12.835146+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: healthcare-error-proliferation-model-20260505-0
summary:
The healthcare error proliferation model is an adaptation of James Reason’s Swiss Cheese Model designed to illustrate the complexity inherent in the contemporary healthcare delivery system and the attribution of human error within these systems. The healthcare error proliferation model explains the etiology of error and the sequence of events typically leading to adverse outcomes. This model emphasizes the role organizational and external cultures contribute to error identification, prevention, mitigation, and defense construction. == Introduction == Healthcare systems are complex in that they are diverse in both structure (e.g. nursing units, pharmacies, emergency departments, operating rooms) and professional mix (e.g. nurses, physicians, pharmacists, administrators, therapists) and made up of multiple interconnected elements with adaptive tendencies in that they have the capacity to change and learn from experience. The term complex adaptive systems (CAS) was coined at the interdisciplinary Santa Fe Institute (SFI), by John H. Holland, and Murray Gell-Mann. Subsequently, scholars such as Ruth A. Anderson, Rubin McDaniels, and Paul Cilliers have extended CAS theory and research to the social sciences such as education and healthcare. == Model overview == The healthcare error proliferation model (HEPM) adapts the Swiss Cheese Model to the complexity of healthcare delivery systems and integrated


id: healthcare-proxy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthcare_proxy-0.md
category: reference
title: Healthcare proxy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthcare_proxy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:13.973480+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: healthcare-proxy-20260505-0
summary:
In the field of medicine, a healthcare proxy (commonly referred to as HCP) is a document (legal instrument) with which a patient (primary individual) appoints an agent to legally make healthcare decisions on behalf of the patient, when the patient is incapable of making and executing the healthcare decisions stipulated in the proxy. Once the healthcare proxy is effective, the agent continues making healthcare decisions as long as the primary individual is legally competent to decide. Moreover, in legal-administrative functions, the healthcare proxy is a legal instrument akin to a "springing" healthcare power of attorney. The proxy must declare the healthcare agent who will gain durable power attorney. This document also notifies of the authority given from the principal to the agent and states the limitations of this authority. Those over the age of 18 are allowed to have a healthcare proxy, and these documents are useful in situations that render a person unable to communicate their wishes such as being in a persistent vegetative state, having a form of dementia or an illness that takes away one's ability to effectively communicate, or being under anesthesia when a decision needs to be made. Healthcare proxies are one of three ways


id: heent-examination-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HEENT_examination-0.md
category: reference
title: HEENT examination
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HEENT_examination
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:15.188681+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: heent-examination-20260505-0
summary:
A HEENT examination is a portion of a physical examination that principally concerns the head, eyes, ears, nose, and throat. == Steps == IPPA Inspection of scars or skin changes Palpation of temporomandibular joint, thyroid, and lymph nodes Percussion may involve the skin above the frontal sinuses and paranasal sinuses to detect any signs of pain Auscultation for carotid bruits Tests specific to HEENT examination Eyes: eye examination and acuity (including ophthalmoscope) Ears: hearing examination and evaluation of tympanic membrane (TM) (otoscope used in evaluation of ears, nose, and mouth) A neurological examination is usually considered separate from the HEENT evaluation, although there can be some overlap in some cases. == Sample write-up == == References ==


id: herd-immunity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_immunity-0.md
category: reference
title: Herd immunity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_immunity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:16.564067+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: herd-immunity-20260505-0
summary:
Herd immunity (also called herd effect, community immunity, population immunity, or mass immunity) is a form of indirect protection that applies only to contagious diseases. It occurs when a sufficient percentage of a population has become immune to an infection, whether through previous infections or vaccination, that the communicable pathogen cannot maintain itself in the population, its low incidence thereby reducing the likelihood of infection for individuals who lack immunity. Once the herd immunity has been reached, disease gradually disappears from a population and may result in eradication or permanent reduction of infections to zero if achieved worldwide. Herd immunity created via vaccination has contributed to the reduction of many diseases. == Effects == === Protection of those without immunity === Some individuals either cannot develop immunity after vaccination or for medical reasons cannot be vaccinated. Newborn infants are too young to receive many vaccines, either for safety reasons or because passive immunity renders the vaccine ineffective. Individuals who are immunodeficient due to HIV/AIDS, lymphoma, leukemia, bone marrow cancer, an impaired spleen, chemotherapy, or radiotherapy may have lost any immunity that they previously had, and vaccines may not be of any use for them because of their immunodeficiency. A portion


id: herd-immunity-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_immunity-1.md
category: reference
title: Herd immunity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_immunity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:16.564067+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: herd-immunity-20260505-0
summary:
If herd immunity has been established and maintained in a population for a sufficient time, the disease is inevitably eliminated – no more endemic transmissions occur. If elimination is achieved worldwide and the number of cases is permanently reduced to zero, then a disease can be declared eradicated. Eradication can thus be considered the final effect or end-result of public health initiatives to control the spread of contagious disease. In cases in which herd immunity is compromised, on the contrary, disease outbreaks among the unvaccinated population are likely to occur. The benefits of eradication include ending all morbidity and mortality caused by the disease, financial savings for individuals, health care providers, and governments, and enabling resources used to control the disease to be used elsewhere. To date, two diseases have been eradicated using herd immunity and vaccination: rinderpest and smallpox. Eradication efforts that rely on herd immunity are currently underway for poliomyelitis, though civil unrest and distrust of modern medicine have made this difficult. Mandatory vaccination may be beneficial to eradication efforts if not enough people choose to get vaccinated. == Free riding == Herd immunity is vulnerable to the free rider problem. Individuals who lack immunity, including those who


id: herd-immunity-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_immunity-2.md
category: reference
title: Herd immunity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_immunity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:16.564067+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: herd-immunity-20260505-0
summary:
With p being by itself on the left side of the equation, it can be renamed as pc, representing the critical proportion of the population needed to be immune to stop the transmission of disease, which is the same as the HIT. R0 functions as a measure of contagiousness, so low R0 values are associated with lower HITs, whereas higher R0s result in higher HITs. For example, the HIT for a disease with an R0 of 2 is theoretically only 50%, whereas a disease with an R0 of 10, the theoretical HIT is 90%. When the effective reproduction number Re of a contagious disease is reduced to and sustained below 1 new individual per infection, the number of cases occurring in the population gradually decreases until the disease has been eliminated. If a population is immune to a disease in excess of that disease's HIT, the number of cases reduces at a faster rate, outbreaks are even less likely to happen, and outbreaks that occur are smaller than they would be otherwise. If the population immunity falls below the herd immunity threshold, where the effective reproduction number increases to above 1, the population is said to have an "immunity gap",


id: herd-immunity-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_immunity-3.md
category: reference
title: Herd immunity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herd_immunity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:16.564067+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: herd-immunity-20260505-0
summary:
As seen from this equation, all other things being equal ("ceteris paribus"), any increase in either vaccine coverage or vaccine effectiveness, including any increase in excess of a disease's HIT, further reduces the number of cases of a disease. The rate of decline in cases depends on a disease's R0, with diseases with lower R0 values experiencing sharper declines. Vaccines usually have at least one contraindication for a specific population for medical reasons, but if both effectiveness and coverage are high enough, then herd immunity can protect these individuals. Vaccine effectiveness is not always adversely affected by passive immunity, so additional doses are recommended for some vaccines, while others are not administered until after an individual has lost his or her passive immunity. === Passive immunity === Individual immunity can also be gained passively, when antibodies to a pathogen are transferred from one individual to another. This can occur naturally, whereby maternal antibodies, primarily immunoglobulin G antibodies, are transferred across the placenta and in colostrum to fetuses and newborns. Passive immunity can also be gained artificially, when a susceptible person is injected with antibodies from the serum or plasma of an immune person. Protection generated from passive immunity is immediate,


id: hickam-s-dictum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hickam's_dictum-0.md
category: reference
title: Hickam's dictum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hickam's_dictum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:17.717107+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hickam-s-dictum-20260505-0
summary:
Hickam's dictum is a medical principle that a patient's symptoms could be caused by several diseases. It is a counterargument to misapplying Occam's razor in the medical profession. A common version of Hickam's dictum states: "A man can have as many diseases as he damn well pleases." The principle is attributed to an apocryphal physician named Hickam, possibly John Bamber Hickam, MD. When he began saying this is uncertain. Occam's razor is frequently misinterpreted to mean that the simplest explanation is most likely. Applying this in health care, it purports that diagnosticians should assume a single cause for multiple symptoms. Hickam's dictum admits multiple causes can produce the result confronting the diagnostician. == John Hickam, MD == In 1946, John Bamber Hickam was a housestaff member in medicine at Grady Memorial Hospital in Atlanta, Georgia. Later, in the 1950s, he was a faculty member at Duke University in Durham, North Carolina. He subsequently was chairman of medicine at Indiana University in Bloomington, Indiana from 1958 to 1970. == See also == Zebra (medicine) == References == == External links ==


id: history-of-the-present-illness-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_present_illness-0.md
category: reference
title: History of the present illness
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_present_illness
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:18.910705+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: history-of-the-present-illness-20260505-0
summary:
Following the chief complaint in medical history taking, a history of the present illness (abbreviated HPI) (termed history of presenting complaint (HPC) in the UK) refers to a detailed interview prompted by the chief complaint or presenting symptom (for example, pain). == Questions to include == Different sources include different questions to be asked while conducting an HPI. Several acronyms have been developed to categorize the appropriate questions to include. The Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services has published criteria for what constitutes a reimbursable HPI. A "brief HPI" constitutes one to three of these elements. An "extended HPI" includes four or more of these elements. Also usable is SOCRATES. For chronic pain, the Stanford Five may be assessed to understand the pain experience from the patient's primary belief system. == See also == Medical record Medical history Pain scale == References == == External links == Overview at medicine.ucsd.edu Overview at medinfo.ufl.edu


id: hiv-remission-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV_remission-0.md
category: reference
title: HIV remission
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV_remission
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:20.169498+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hiv-remission-20260505-0
summary:
HIV remission is a clinical state in which an individual diagnosed with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) maintains plasma viral loads below the limit of detection without the ongoing administration of antiretroviral therapy (ART). In the context of HIV/AIDS research, remission is frequently distinguished from a "sterilizing cure," which requires the total elimination of the virus from all anatomical compartments. Instead, remission is often characterized as a "functional cure", wherein the host immune system or external interventions suppress viral replication and prevent disease progression in the absence of medication. The primary barrier to achieving durable remission is the latent HIV reservoir. During the early stages of infection, the virus establishes a persistent pool of integrated proviral DNA within long-lived resting CD4+ T cells and other cellular reservoirs. While ART effectively arrests active replication, it has no impact on these dormant cells. Consequently, the cessation of treatment typically results in a viral rebound (the rapid re-emergence of detectable viremia) as the latent virus reactivates. == Mechanisms and clinical pathways == Historically, instances of sustained HIV remission have emerged through three distinct pathways involving genetic resistance, intensive clinical intervention, or exceptional host immune responses. === 1. Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation === The most


id: homicidal-ideation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homicidal_ideation-0.md
category: reference
title: Homicidal ideation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homicidal_ideation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:21.488054+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: homicidal-ideation-20260505-0
summary:
Homicidal ideation is a common medical term for thoughts about homicide. There is a range of homicidal thoughts which spans from vague and fleeting to detailed and fully formulated plans without the act itself. Most people who have homicidal ideation do not commit homicide. 50–91% of people surveyed on university grounds in various places in the United States admit to having had a homicidal fantasy. Homicidal ideation accounts for 2–5% of patient presentations to psychiatric facilities in the United States. Homicidal ideation is not a disease itself, but may result from other illnesses such as delirium and psychosis. Psychosis, which accounts for 89% of admissions with homicidal ideation in one US study, includes substance-induced psychosis (e.g. amphetamine psychosis) and the psychoses related to schizophreniform disorder and schizophrenia. Delirium is often drug induced or secondary to general medical illness(es). Homicidal ideation is also a possible side effect of many psychiatric medications. It may arise in association with personality disorders or it may occur in people who do not have any detectable illness. In fact, surveys have shown that the majority of people have had homicidal fantasies at some stage in their life. Many theories have been proposed to explain this. ==


id: host-factor-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Host_factor-0.md
category: reference
title: Host factor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Host_factor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:22.754558+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: host-factor-20260505-0
summary:
Host factor (sometimes known as risk factor) is a medical term referring to the traits of an individual person or animal that affect susceptibility to disease, especially in comparison to other individuals. The term arose in the context of infectious disease research, in contrast to "organism factors", such as the virulence and infectivity of a microbe. Host factors that may vary in a population and affect disease susceptibility can be innate or acquired. Some examples: general health psychological characteristics and attitude nutritional state social ties previous exposure to the organism or related antigens haplotype or other specific genetic differences of immune function substance abuse race The term is now used in oncology and many other medical contexts related to individual differences of disease vulnerability. == See also == Vulnerability index Epidemiology Immunology == References ==


id: human-body-temperature-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_body_temperature-0.md
category: reference
title: Human body temperature
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_body_temperature
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:23.993847+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: human-body-temperature-20260505-0
summary:
Normal human body temperature (normothermia, euthermia) is the typical temperature range found in humans. The normal human body temperature range is typically stated as 36.5–37.5 °C (97.7–99.5 °F). Human body temperature varies. It depends on sex, age, time of day, exertion level, health status (such as illness and menstruation), what part of the body the measurement is taken at, state of consciousness (waking, sleeping, sedated), and emotions. Body temperature is kept in the normal range by a homeostatic function known as thermoregulation, in which adjustment of temperature is triggered by the central nervous system. == Methods of measurement == Taking a human's temperature is an initial part of a full clinical examination. There are various types of medical thermometers, as well as sites used for measurement, including: Under the armpit (axillary temperature) In the mouth (oral temperature) In the rectum (rectal temperature) In the ear (tympanic temperature) On the skin of the forehead over the temporal artery Using heat flux sensors === Variations === Temperature control (thermoregulation) is a homeostatic mechanism that keeps the organism at optimum operating temperature, as the temperature affects the rate of chemical reactions. In humans, the average internal temperature is widely accepted to be 37


id: human-body-temperature-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_body_temperature-1.md
category: reference
title: Human body temperature
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_body_temperature
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:23.993847+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: human-body-temperature-20260505-0
summary:
=== Natural rhythms === Body temperature normally fluctuates over the day following circadian rhythms, with the lowest levels around 4 a.m. and the highest in the late afternoon, between 4:00 and 6:00 p.m. (assuming the person sleeps at night and stays awake during the day). Therefore, an oral temperature of 37.3 °C (99.1 °F) would, strictly speaking, be a normal, healthy temperature in the afternoon but not in the early morning. An individual's body temperature typically changes by about 0.5 °C (0.9 °F) between its highest and lowest points each day. Body temperature is sensitive to many hormones, so women have a temperature rhythm that varies with the menstrual cycle, called a circamensal rhythm. A woman's basal body temperature rises sharply after ovulation, as estrogen production decreases and progesterone increases. Fertility awareness programs use this change to identify when a woman has ovulated to achieve or avoid pregnancy. During the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, both the lowest and the average temperatures are slightly higher than during other parts of the cycle. However, the amount that the temperature rises during each day is slightly lower than typical, so the highest temperature of the day is not very much higher


id: human-body-temperature-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_body_temperature-2.md
category: reference
title: Human body temperature
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_body_temperature
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:23.993847+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: human-body-temperature-20260505-0
summary:
Hyperthermia occurs when the body produces or absorbs more heat than it can dissipate. It is usually caused by prolonged exposure to high temperatures. The heat-regulating mechanisms of the body eventually become overwhelmed and unable to deal effectively with the heat, causing the body temperature to climb uncontrollably. Hyperthermia at or above about 40 °C (104 °F) is a life-threatening medical emergency that requires immediate treatment. Common symptoms include headache, confusion, and fatigue. If sweating has resulted in dehydration, then the affected person may have dry, red skin. In a medical setting, mild hyperthermia is commonly called heat exhaustion or heat prostration; severe hyperthermia is called heat stroke. Heatstroke may come on suddenly, but it usually follows the untreated milder stages. Treatment involves cooling and rehydrating the body; fever-reducing drugs are useless for this condition. This may be done by moving out of direct sunlight to a cooler and shaded environment, drinking water, removing clothing that might keep heat close to the body, or sitting in front of a fan. Bathing in tepid or cool water, or even just washing the face and other exposed areas of the skin, can be helpful. With fever, the body's core temperature rises to


id: human-body-temperature-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_body_temperature-3.md
category: reference
title: Human body temperature
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_body_temperature
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:23.993847+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: human-body-temperature-20260505-0
summary:
=== Normal === 36.5–37.5 °C (97.7–99.5 °F) is a typically reported range for normal body temperature. === Cold === 35.5 °C (95.9 °F) – Feeling cold, mild to moderate shivering. This can be a normal body temperature for sleeping. 35 °C (95 °F) – Threshold for hypothermia. Intense shivering, numbness and bluish/grayness of the skin. There is the possibility of heart irritability. 34 °C (93.2 °F) – Severe shivering, loss of movement of fingers, blueness, and confusion. Some behavioral changes may take place. 33 °C (91.4 °F) – Moderate to severe confusion, sleepiness, depressed reflexes, progressive loss of shivering, slow heartbeat, shallow breathing. Shivering may stop. The subject may be unresponsive to certain stimuli. 32 °C (89.6 °F) – (Medical emergency) – Hallucinations, delirium, complete confusion, extreme sleepiness that is progressively becoming comatose. Shivering is absent. Reflex may be absent or very slight. 31 °C (87.8 °F) – Comatose, very rarely conscious. No or slight reflexes. Very shallow breathing and slow heart rate. Possibility of serious heart rhythm problems. 28 °C (82.4 °F) – Severe heart rhythm disturbances are likely and breathing may stop at any time. The person may appear to be dead. 24–26 °C (75.2–78.8 °F) or less


id: human-equivalent-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_equivalent-0.md
category: reference
title: Human equivalent
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_equivalent
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:25.201027+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: human-equivalent-20260505-0
summary:
The term human equivalent is used in a number of different contexts. This term can refer to human equivalents of various comparisons of animate and inanimate things. == Animal models in chemistry and medicine == Animal models are used to learn more about a disease, its diagnosis and its treatment, with animal models predicting human toxicity in up to 71% of cases. The human equivalent dose (HED) or human equivalent concentration (HEC) is the quantity of a chemical that, when administered to humans, produces an effect equal to that produced in test animals by a smaller dose. Calculating the HED is a step in carrying out a clinical trial of a pharmaceutical drug. == Human energy usage and conversion == The concept of human-equivalent energy (H-e) assists in understanding of energy flows in physical and biological systems by expressing energy units in human terms: it provides a “feel” for the use of a given amount of energy by expressing it in terms of the relative quantity of energy needed for human metabolism, assuming an average human energy expenditure of 12,500 kJ per day and a basal metabolic rate of 80 watts. A light bulb running at 100 watts is running


id: hyperkatifeia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperkatifeia-0.md
category: reference
title: Hyperkatifeia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperkatifeia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:26.364618+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hyperkatifeia-20260505-0
summary:
Hyperkatifeia is defined as hypersensitivity to emotional distress in the context of opioid abuse. Hyperkatifeia and opioid-induced hyperalgesia can be seen with long-term use of illicit street opioids e.g. heroin, and prescription opioids e.g. hydrocodone and oxycodone during withdrawal. == References ==


id: hypoplasia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypoplasia-0.md
category: reference
title: Hypoplasia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypoplasia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:27.587927+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hypoplasia-20260505-0
summary:
Hypoplasia (from Ancient Greek ὑπo- (hypo-) 'under' and πλάσις (plasis) 'formation'; adjective form hypoplastic) is underdevelopment or incomplete development of a tissue or organ. Although the term is not always used precisely, it properly refers to an inadequate or below-normal number of cells. Hypoplasia is similar to aplasia, but less severe. It is technically not the opposite of hyperplasia (too many cells). Hypoplasia is a congenital condition, while hyperplasia generally refers to excessive cell growth later in life. (Atrophy, the wasting away of already existing cells, is technically the direct opposite of both hyperplasia and hypertrophy.) Hypoplasia can be present in any tissue or organ. It is descriptive of many medical conditions, including underdevelopment of organs such as: Breasts during puberty Testes in Klinefelter's syndrome Ovaries in Fanconi anemia, gonadal dysgenesis, trisomy X Thymus in DiGeorge syndrome Labia majora in popliteal pterygium syndrome Corpus callosum, connecting the two sides of the brain, in agenesis of the corpus callosum Cerebellum caused by mutation in the reelin gene Tooth caused by oral pathology, such as Turner's hypoplasia Chambers of the heart in hypoplastic left heart syndrome and hypoplastic right heart syndrome Optic nerve in optic nerve hypoplasia Sacrum in sacral agenesis Facial


id: idiopathic-disease-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idiopathic_disease-0.md
category: reference
title: Idiopathic disease
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idiopathic_disease
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:28.918087+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: idiopathic-disease-20260505-0
summary:
An idiopathic disease is any disease with an unknown cause or mechanism of apparent spontaneous origin. For some medical conditions, one or more causes are somewhat understood, but in a certain percentage of instances, the cause may not be readily apparent or characterized. In these cases, the origin of the condition is said to be idiopathic. With some other medical conditions, the root cause for a large percentage of all cases has not been established—for example, focal segmental glomerulosclerosis or ankylosing spondylitis; the majority of these cases are deemed idiopathic. Certain medical conditions, when idiopathic, notably some forms of epilepsy and stroke, are preferentially described by the synonymous term of cryptogenic. == Derivation == The term 'idiopathic' derives from Greek ἴδιος idios "one's own" and πάθος pathos "suffering", so idiopathy means approximately "a disease of its own kind". == Examples == Diseases where the cause is seen as wholly or partly idiopathic include: Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis Idiopathic pulmonary haemosiderosis Idiopathic intracranial hypertension Idiopathic chronic fatigue Granulomatous prostatitis == Medical advances and this term == Advances in medical science improve the understanding of causes of diseases and the classification of diseases; thus, regarding any particular condition or disease, as more root


id: idiosyncrasy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idiosyncrasy-0.md
category: reference
title: Idiosyncrasy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idiosyncrasy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:30.459804+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: idiosyncrasy-20260505-0
summary:
An idiosyncrasy is a unique feature of something. The term is often used to express peculiarity. == Etymology == The term "idiosyncrasy" originates from Greek ἰδιοσυγκρασία idiosynkrasía, "a peculiar temperament, habit of body" (from ἴδιος idios, "one's own", σύν syn, "with" and κρᾶσις krasis, "blend of the four humors" (temperament) or literally "particular mingling". Idiosyncrasy is sometimes used as a synonym for eccentricity, as these terms "are not always clearly distinguished when they denote an act, a practice, or a characteristic that impresses the observer as strange or singular." Eccentricity, however, "emphasizes the idea of divergence from the usual or customary; idiosyncrasy implies a following of one's particular temperament or bent especially in trait, trick, or habit; the former often suggests mental aberration, the latter, strong individuality and independence of action". == Linguistics == The term can also be applied to symbols or words. Idiosyncratic symbols mean one thing for a particular person, as a blade could mean war, but to someone else, it could symbolize a surgery. === Idiosyncratic property === In phonology, an idiosyncratic property contrasts with a systematic regularity. While systematic regularities in the sound system of a language are useful for identifying phonological rules during analysis


id: idiosyncratic-drug-reaction-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idiosyncratic_drug_reaction-0.md
category: reference
title: Idiosyncratic drug reaction
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idiosyncratic_drug_reaction
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:31.620982+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: idiosyncratic-drug-reaction-20260505-0
summary:
Idiosyncratic drug reactions, also known as type B reactions, are drug reactions that occur rarely and unpredictably amongst the population. This is not to be mistaken with idiopathic, which implies that the cause is not known. They frequently occur with exposure to new drugs, as they have not been fully tested and the full range of possible side-effects have not been discovered; they may also be listed as an adverse drug reaction with a drug, but are extremely rare. Some patients have multiple-drug intolerance. Patients who have multiple idiopathic effects that are nonspecific are more likely to have anxiety and depression. Idiosyncratic drug reactions appear to not be concentration dependent. A minimal amount of drug will cause an immune response, but it is suspected that at a low enough concentration, a drug will be less likely to initiate an immune response. == Mechanism == In adverse drug reactions involving overdoses, the toxic effect is simply an extension of the pharmacological effect (Type A adverse drug reactions). On the other hand, clinical symptoms of idiosyncratic drug reactions (Type B adverse drug reactions) are different from the pharmacological effect of the drug. The proposed mechanism of most idiosyncratic drug reactions is immune-mediated


id: imaging-biomarker-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imaging_biomarker-0.md
category: reference
title: Imaging biomarker
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imaging_biomarker
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:33.011316+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: imaging-biomarker-20260505-0
summary:
An imaging biomarker, is a biologic feature, or biomarker detectable in an image. In medicine, an imaging biomarker is a feature of an image relevant to a patient's diagnosis. It is also referred to as radiomics in medical diagnostics. For example, a number of biomarkers are frequently used to determine risk of a lung nodule for lung cancer. First, a simple lesion in the lung detected by X-ray, CT, or MRI can lead to the suspicion of a neoplasm. The lesion itself serves as a biomarker, but the minute details of the lesion serve as biomarkers as well, and can collectively be used to assess the risk of neoplasm. Some of the imaging biomarkers used in lung nodule assessment include size, spiculation, calcification, cavitation, location within the lung, rate of growth, and rate of metabolism. Each piece of information from the image represents a probability. Spiculation increases the probability of the lesion being cancer. A slow rate of growth indicates benignity. These variables can be added to the patient's history, physical exam, laboratory tests, and pathology to reach a proposed diagnosis. Imaging biomarkers can be measured using several techniques, such as CT, PET, SPECT, ultrasound, electroencephalography, magnetoencephalography, and MRI. ==


id: imaging-biomarker-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imaging_biomarker-1.md
category: reference
title: Imaging biomarker
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imaging_biomarker
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:33.011316+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: imaging-biomarker-20260505-0
summary:
== Qualification and validation == Developing an understanding of clinical significance for specific biomarkers can be a difficult process. There are two steps of certification for a surrogate endpoint to be fully established: Qualification and Validation. For a biomarker to become qualified it must go through a somewhat formal qualification process. A request must be submitted to IPRG to qualify an imaging biomarker for a specific use. The Biomarker Qualification Review Team, recruited from nonclinical and clinical review divisions, assesses the context and available data regarding the biomarker. They also evaluate the qualification study strategy methods and results and ultimately make a decision to accept or reject. After qualification, a biomarker may have limited use as a surrogate endpoint. They may be used in phase I and II clinical trials, but can only be used in phase III trials for early futility analyses. There are two steps to validation, probable validation and known validation. "Probable validation" requires widespread agreement in the medical or scientific community as to its efficacy. "Known validation" requires a scientific framework or body of evidence that appears to elucidate the marker's efficacy. For full validation, a biomarker must demonstrate that the treatment versus control differences are


id: immune-dysregulation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_dysregulation-0.md
category: reference
title: Immune dysregulation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_dysregulation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:34.278736+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: immune-dysregulation-20260505-0
summary:
Immune dysregulation is any proposed or confirmed breakdown or maladaptive change in molecular control of immune system processes. For example, dysregulation is a component in the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases and some cancers. Immune system dysfunction, as seen in IPEX syndrome leads to immune dysfunction, polyendocrinopathy, enteropathy, X-linked (IPEX). IPEX typically presents during the first few months of life with diabetes mellitus, intractable diarrhea, failure to thrive, eczema, and hemolytic anemia. unrestrained or unregulated immune response. == IPEX syndrome == IPEX (Immune dysregulation, polyendocrinopathy, enteropathy, X-linked syndrome) is a syndrome caused by a genetic mutation in the FOXP3 gene, which encodes a major transcription factor of regulatory T cells (Tregs). Such a mutation leads to dysfunctional Tregs and, as a result, autoimmune diseases. The classic clinical manifestations are enteropathy, type I diabetes mellitus and eczema. Various other autoimmune diseases or hypersensitivity are common in other individuals with IPEX syndrome. In addition to autoimmune diseases, individuals experience higher immune reactivity (e.g. chronic dermatitis) and susceptibility to infections. Individuals also develop autoimmune diseases at a young age. == Other genetic syndromes associated with immune dysregulation == === APECED === Autoimmune polyendocrinopathy-candidiasis-endodermal dystrophy (APECED) is a syndrome caused by a mutation in AIRE


id: immune-dysregulation-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_dysregulation-1.md
category: reference
title: Immune dysregulation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_dysregulation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:34.278736+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: immune-dysregulation-20260505-0
summary:
== Aging of the immune system == Dysregulation of the immune system is also associated with immunosenescence, which arises due to aging. Immunosenescence is manifested by a decrease in reactivity to vaccination or infection, an impaired ability of T and B lymphocytes to activate and proliferate, or a lower ability of antigen presentation by dendritic cells. In immunosenescence, memory and effector T cells accumulate at the expense of naïve T cells. The lack of naïve T lymphocytes is the cause of low plasticity of the immune system in the elderly. In aging of the immune system is also a decrease in central tolerance and an increase in the number of autoreactive T cells. B cells also have a decreased repertoire of naïve cells and an increase in memory B cells. They also have reduced the production of antibodies against antigens. In immunosenescence, here is a change in the individual subtypes of immunoglobulins. IgM and IgD levels decrease while IgG1, IgG2, and IgG3 levels increase. IgA is higher in the form of monomers in serum but lower as a dimer on the mucosal surface. The overall accumulation of both effector T and B cells is due to the presence of chronic


id: immune-dysregulation-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_dysregulation-2.md
category: reference
title: Immune dysregulation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_dysregulation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:34.278736+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: immune-dysregulation-20260505-0
summary:
== Allergy == Allergic reactions are misdirected reactions of the immune system to substances commonly found in the environment. Allergens elicit a The immune response, including the involvement of IgE, mast cells, Innate lymphoid cells 2 (ILC2), eosinophils, and basophils. Allergy symptoms are often related to the body's efforts to expel the allergen from the body and to protect it from further exposure to the allergen. Allergic reactions increase the production of mucus by goblet cells on the mucosa. The production of mucus is promoted by IL-13 from ILC2 and Th2 cells. Higher mucus production then creates stronger barrier protection and supports runny nose, coughing, or sneezing. Removal of the allergen from the body by sneezing, coughing, vomiting, or diarrhea is enabled by the activation of peristalsis and contractions of the smooth muscles of the digestive and respiratory systems. Activation of smooth muscles occurs after the action of histamine, which is released by mast cells. Manifestations of allergies generally aim to eliminate the body's allergen. This is also related to hearing the flushing of antigens in the eyes or to attempts to achieve mechanical removal of the surface of the organism. Allergies can be caused by genetic and environmental factors.


id: implementability-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implementability_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Implementability (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implementability_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:35.410890+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: implementability-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, implementability is a property of clinical practice guidelines. It refers to a set of characteristics that predict ease of (and obstacles to) guideline adaptations by clinicians. There is a journal Implementation Science, which "aims to publish research relevant to the scientific study of methods to promote the uptake of research findings into routine healthcare in clinical, organisational or policy contexts". == See also == Implementation == References ==


id: incidental-medical-findings-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incidental_medical_findings-0.md
category: reference
title: Incidental medical findings
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incidental_medical_findings
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:36.664763+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: incidental-medical-findings-20260505-0
summary:
Incidental medical findings are previously undiagnosed medical or psychiatric conditions that are discovered unintentionally and during evaluation for a medical or psychiatric condition. Such findings may occur in a variety of settings, including routine medical care, during biomedical research, during post-mortem autopsy, or during genetic testing. == Medical imaging == An incidentaloma is a tumor found by coincidence which is often benign and does not cause any clinically significant symptoms; however a small percentage do turn out to be malignant. Incidentalomas are common, with up to 7% of all patients over 60 harboring a benign growth, often of the adrenal gland, which is detected when diagnostic imaging is used for the analysis of unrelated symptoms. As 37% of patients receiving whole-body CT scan may have abnormal findings that need further evaluation and with the increase of "whole-body CT scanning" as part of health screening programs, the chance of finding incidentalomas is expected to increase. === Neuroimaging === Incidental findings in neuroimaging are common, with the prevalence of neoplastic incidental brain findings increasing with age. Even in healthy subjects acting as controls in research incidental findings are not rare. As most neuroimaging studies are performed in adults, less is known about


id: indication-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indication_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Indication (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indication_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:37.986964+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: indication-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, an indication is a valid reason to use a certain test, medication, procedure, or surgery. There can be multiple indications to use a procedure or medication. An indication can commonly be confused with the term diagnosis. A diagnosis is the assessment that a particular medical condition is present while an indication is a reason for use. The opposite of an indication is a contraindication, a reason to withhold a certain medical treatment because the risks of treatment clearly outweigh the benefits. In the US, indications for prescription drugs are approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Indications are included in the Indications and Usage section of the Prescribing Information. The primary role of this section of labeling is to enable health care practitioners to readily identify appropriate therapies for patients by clearly communicating the drug's approved indication(s). The Indications and Usage section states the disease or condition, or manifestation or symptoms thereof, for which the drug is approved, as well as whether the drug is indicated for the treatment, prevention, mitigation, cure, relief, or diagnosis of that disease or condition. Additionally, the Indications and Usage section should contain the approved age groups as well as other information


id: indication-medicine-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indication_(medicine)-1.md
category: reference
title: Indication (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indication_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:37.986964+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: indication-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
=== Effect on drug pricing === Indications can impact the pricing of medications through Value-based Pricing, also known as indication specific pricing or indication value-based pricing. Since drugs can be used for different indications, this form of pricing would set different prices for each indication based on the value the drug offers for whatever it is being used to treat. This pricing scheme is often discussed in relation to oncology drugs, which are costly. Oncology drugs can be used for multiple different types of cancers so by applying indication-specific pricing, the drug would be priced based on how effective it is for treating each type of cancer. If the drug is more effective for Cancer A than Cancer B, then the patient taking the drug to treat Cancer A will pay more than the person using it for Cancer B because they receive more value from it. Currently, most medications in the United States are priced the same regardless of what they're being used for or how effective they are at improving outcomes. Concerns were therefore raised that patients and insurers may be paying too high prices for indications with a relatively low clinical value. Thereby pharmaceutical companies could realize


id: indirect-agonist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indirect_agonist-0.md
category: reference
title: Indirect agonist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indirect_agonist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:39.159830+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: indirect-agonist-20260505-0
summary:
In pharmacology, an indirect agonist or indirect-acting agonist is a substance that enhances the release or action of an endogenous neurotransmitter but has no specific agonist activity at the neurotransmitter receptor itself. Indirect agonists work through varying mechanisms to achieve their effects, including transporter blockade, induction of transmitter release, and inhibition of transmitter breakdown. == Mechanisms of indirect agonism == === Reuptake inhibition === Cocaine is a monoamine transporter blocker and, thus, an indirect agonist of dopamine receptors. Cocaine binds the dopamine transporter (DAT), blocking the protein's ability to uptake dopamine from the synaptic cleft and also blocking DAT from terminating dopamine signaling. Blockage of DAT increases the extracellular concentration of dopamine, therefore increasing the amount of dopamine receptor binding and signaling. Dipyridamole inhibits reuptake of adenosine, resulting in greater extracellular concentrations of adenosine. Dipyridamole also inhibits the enzyme adenosine deaminase, the enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of adenosine. === Evoking transmitter release === Fenfluramine is an indirect agonist of serotonin receptors. Fenfluramine binds to the serotonin transporter, blocking serotonin reuptake. However, fenfluramine also acts to induce non-exocytotic serotonin release; in a mechanism similar to that of methamphetamine in dopamine neurons, fenfluramine binds to VMAT2, disrupting the compartmentalization of serotonin


id: individualized-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individualized_medicine-0.md
category: reference
title: Individualized medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individualized_medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:40.475433+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: individualized-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Individualized medicine tailors treatment to a single patient. The term refers to an individual, truly personalized medicine that strives to treat each patient on the basis of his own individual biology. Individualized medicine represents a further individualization of personalized medicine. While the latter is aimed at a specific group of patients, individualized medicine deals with the individual circumstances of a single person. Thus, individualized medicine goes one step further and can be considered as an increase in personalized medicine. Individualized medicine seeks to derive tailored therapies for individuals by taking into account a person's genes as well as the full range of that person's unique nature, including biological, physiological and anatomical information. == Background == Individualized medicine was first mentioned in the literature in 2003 and described the individual drug metabolism in pharmacogenomics. Subsequently, the term was used to improve diagnosis based on genetic differences and physiological information and to better tailor the treatment to the needs of a single patient. More recently, a second context has been introduced that relates to therapeutic approaches that use a person's own cell material to develop a treatment that is unique to the patient from whom the material originated. Examples are stem-cell therapies


id: ineffective-erythropoiesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ineffective_erythropoiesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Ineffective erythropoiesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ineffective_erythropoiesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:41.755016+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ineffective-erythropoiesis-20260505-0
summary:
Ineffective erythropoiesis a condition in which the bone marrow produces red blood cells (erythrocytes) that are unable to mature properly and are pre-maturely destroyed due to various causes. Erythropoiesis is the overall process that the body goes through to produce red blood cells. The red blood cell's main function is to carry and transport oxygen from the lungs to tissues throughout the body. If the red blood cells are unable to mature properly or are destroyed pre-maturely, this can lead to anemia. This mechanism is principally responsible for the anemia seen in acquired conditions such as certain subtypes of myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) and inherited disorders such as β-thalassemia, inherited sideroblastic anemias, as well as congenital dyserythropoietic anemias. == See also == Congenital dyserythropoietic anemias List of hematologic conditions == References == == Further reading == Ribeil, Jean-Antoine; Arlet, Jean-Benoit; Dussiot, Michael; Cruz Moura, Ivan; Courtois, Geneviève; Hermine, Olivier (28 March 2013). "Ineffective Erythropoiesis in β-Thalassemia". The Scientific World Journal. 2013 e394295. doi:10.1155/2013/394295. ISSN 2356-6140. PMC 3628659. PMID 23606813. Tanno, Toshihiko; Miller, Jeffery L. (11 May 2010). "Iron Loading and Overloading due to Ineffective Erythropoiesis". Advances in Hematology. 2010 e358283. doi:10.1155/2010/358283. ISSN 1687-9104. PMC 2868182. PMID 20467559. Rivella, Stefano (2013). "Ineffective


id: infiltration-medical-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infiltration_(medical)-0.md
category: reference
title: Infiltration (medical)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infiltration_(medical)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:43.013528+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: infiltration-medical-20260505-0
summary:
Infiltration in a medical context is the process of cells or substances moving across a barrier, typically a tissue barrier, into a place they are not normally found, or in which they are typically found in lower concentrations. Infiltration may refer to normal physiological processes, such as the infiltration of certain immune cells into peripheral tissues. Infiltration may also refer to infiltrative disorders, pathological processes such as malignant tumor cells infiltrating new areas of the human body, or small particles infiltrating tissues, where they may cause damage or inflammation. == Types of Infiltration == The term 'infiltration' is frequently used to describe various pathologic and physiologic processes, including but not limited to: === Immune Infiltration === This occurs when immune cells like lymphocytes and macrophages migrate into tissues in response to infection, injury, or inflammation, aiding in defense and healing but potentially contributing to autoimmune diseases if misdirected. Immune cells (especially lymphocytes) also infiltrate into malignant tumors and other neoplasms. === Malignant Infiltration === Malignant infiltration involves cancerous cells invading surrounding healthy tissues by breaching normal cellular boundaries, which allows tumors to grow locally and facilitates metastasis to distant organs. This is especially relevant for cancers that cross the blood-brain


id: insufflation-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insufflation_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Insufflation (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insufflation_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:44.313706+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: insufflation-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Insufflation (Latin: insufflare, lit. 'to blow into') is the act of blowing something (such as a gas, powder, or vapor) into a body cavity. Insufflation has many medical uses, most notably as a route of administration for various drugs. == Medical uses == === Surgery === Gases are often insufflated into a body cavity to inflate the cavity for more workroom, e.g. during laparoscopic surgery. The most common gas used in this manner is carbon dioxide, because it is inexpensive, non-flammable, colorless, and dissolves readily in blood. === Diagnostics === Gases can be insufflated into parts of the body to enhance radiological imaging or to gain access to areas for visual inspection (e.g. during colonoscopy). === Respiratory assistance === Oxygen can be insufflated into the nose by nasal cannulae to assist in respiration. Mechanical insufflation-exsufflation simulates a cough and assists airway mucus clearance. It is used with patients with neuromuscular disease and muscle weakness due to central nervous system injury. Glossopharyngeal insufflation is a breathing technique that consists of gulping boluses of air into the lungs. It is also used by breath-hold divers to increase their lung volumes. Positive airway pressure is a mode of mechanical or artificial ventilation based


id: insult-medical-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insult_(medical)-0.md
category: reference
title: Insult (medical)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insult_(medical)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:45.452002+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: insult-medical-20260505-0
summary:
In medical terms, an insult is the cause of some kind of physical or mental injury. For example, a burn on the skin (the injury) may be the result of a thermal, chemical, radioactive, or electrical event (the insult). Likewise, sepsis and trauma are examples of foreign insults, and encephalitis, multiple sclerosis, and brain tumors are examples of insults to the brain. Clinicians may use the term cerebrovascular insult (CVI) as a synonym for a stroke. Insults may be categorized as either genetic or environmental. == References ==


id: integumentary-system-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integumentary_system-0.md
category: reference
title: Integumentary system
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integumentary_system
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:47.772667+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: integumentary-system-20260505-0
summary:
The integumentary system is the set of organs forming the outermost layer of an animal's body, comprising the skin, hair, scales, feathers, hooves, claws, and nails. It acts as a protective physical barrier between the external environment and the internal environment. Additionally, it maintains water balance, protects the deeper tissues, excretes waste, regulates body temperature, and contains the sensory receptors that detect pain, sensation, pressure, and temperature. The skin (integument) is a composite organ, made up of at least two major layers of tissue: the outermost epidermis and the inner dermis, which are separated by a basement membrane (comprising basal lamina and reticular lamina). The epidermis comprises five layers: the stratum corneum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum and stratum basale. Where the skin is thicker, such as in the palms and soles, there is an extra layer of skin between the stratum corneum and the stratum granulosum known as the stratum lucidum. The dermis comprises two sections, the papillary and reticular layers, and contains connective tissues, blood vessels, glands, follicles, hair roots, sensory nerve endings, and muscular tissue. Between the integument and the deep body musculature there is a transitional subcutaneous zone, the hypodermis. == Structure == === Skin === The


id: integumentary-system-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integumentary_system-1.md
category: reference
title: Integumentary system
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integumentary_system
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:47.772667+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: integumentary-system-20260505-0
summary:
The hypodermis, otherwise known as the subcutaneous layer, is a layer beneath the skin. It invaginates into the dermis and is attached to the latter, immediately above it, by collagen and elastin fibers. It is essentially composed of a type of cell known as adipocytes, which are specialized in accumulating and storing fats. These cells are grouped together in lobules separated by connective tissue. The hypodermis acts as an energy reserve. The fats contained in the adipocytes can be put back into circulation, via the venous route, during intense effort or when there is a lack of energy-providing substances, and are then transformed into energy. The hypodermis participates, passively at least, in thermoregulation since fat is a heat insulator. == Functions == The integumentary system has multiple roles in maintaining the body's equilibrium. All body systems work in an interconnected manner to maintain the internal conditions essential to the function of the body. The skin has an important job of protecting the body and acts as the body's first line of defense against infection, temperature change, and other challenges to homeostasis. Its main functions include: Protect the body's internal living tissues and organs Protect against invasion by foreign organisms, including


id: international-health-terminology-standards-development-organisation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Health_Terminology_Standards_Development_Organisation-0.md
category: reference
title: International Health Terminology Standards Development Organisation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Health_Terminology_Standards_Development_Organisation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:49.113431+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-health-terminology-standards-development-organisation-20260505-0
summary:
The International Health Terminology Standards Development Organisation (IHTSDO), trading as SNOMED International, is private company limited by guarantee and established under the laws of England that owns SNOMED CT, a leading clinical terminology used in electronic health records. IHTSDO was founded in 2007 by 9 charter member countries (Australia, Canada, Denmark, Lithuania, Sweden, the Netherlands, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States) in order to acquire the rights of SNOMED CT from the College of American Pathologists (CAP) and make the development of a global clinical language for healthcare an international, collaborative effort. == Governance == IHTSDO governance is defined in the IHTSDO Articles of Association. The organization is headquartered in the United Kingdom (London). Since 2007 the number of member countries has increased from 9 to 29. The members were (as of December 2016): Australia, Belgium, Brunei, Canada, Chile, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Hong Kong, Iceland, India, Ireland, Israel, Lithuania, Malaysia, Malta, Netherlands, New Zealand, Poland, Portugal, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, the United States and Uruguay. The member countries provide the bulk of the institutional financing through payment of yearly member fees, which are based on gross national income. Members of IHTSDO


id: intertriginous-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intertriginous-0.md
category: reference
title: Intertriginous
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intertriginous
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:50.397041+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intertriginous-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, an intertriginous area is where two skin areas may touch or rub together. Examples of intertriginous areas are the axilla of the arm, the anogenital region, skin folds of the breasts and between digits. Intertriginous areas are known to harbor large amounts of aerobic cocci and aerobic coryneform bacteria, which are both parts of normal skin flora. == See also == Intertrigo == References == == Bibliography == Leyden J. Pathophysiology of certain bacterial diseases. In: Soter N, Baden H, eds. Pathophysiology of Dermatologic diseases. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991:427-51


id: intracorporeal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intracorporeal-0.md
category: reference
title: Intracorporeal
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intracorporeal
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:51.626835+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intracorporeal-20260505-0
summary:
Intracorporeal or intracorporal is an adjective that means within (intra-) the body (corpus). Its antonym is extracorporeal. It is used frequently in medicine to describe medical procedures that occur within the body, or within a corpus, as opposed to extracorporeal procedures (e.g. extracorporeal membrane oxygenation). In a medical or surgical context, it may refer to: Intracorporeal anastomosis Intracorporeal circulation Intracorporeal energy harvesting, harvesting energy from the body, and storing it, to sustain a medical device (e.g. a pacemaker). Intracorporeal injection Intracorporeal microrobotics Intracorporeal reconstruction Intracorporeal suturing Intracorporeal urinary diversion Lithotripsy: Intracorporeal electrohydraulic lithotripsy Intracorporeal laser lithotripsy Intracorporeal pneumatic lithotripsy Intracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy == See also == The dictionary definition of intracorporeal at Wiktionary The dictionary definition of intracorpuscular at Wiktionary Human body (corpus humanum) In vivo == References ==


id: involution-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Involution_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Involution (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Involution_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:52.820238+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: involution-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
Involution is the shrinking or return of an organ to a former size. At a cellular level, involution is characterized by the process of proteolysis of the basement membrane (basal lamina), leading to epithelial regression and apoptosis, with accompanying stromal fibrosis. The consequent reduction in cell number and reorganization of stromal tissue leads to the reduction in the size of the organ. == Examples == === Thymus === The thymus continues to grow between birth and sexual maturity and then begins to atrophy, a process directed by the high levels of circulating sex hormones. Proportional to thymic size, thymic activity (T cell output) is most active before maturity. Upon atrophy, the size and activity are dramatically reduced, and the organ is primarily replaced with fat. The atrophy is due to the increased circulating level of sex hormones, and chemical or physical castration of an adult results in the thymus increasing in size and activity. === Uterus === Involution is the process by which the uterus is transformed from pregnant to non-pregnant state. This period is characterized by the restoration of ovarian function in order to prepare the body for a new pregnancy. It is a physiological process occurring after parturition;


id: ketolysis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketolysis-0.md
category: reference
title: Ketolysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketolysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:54.044756+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ketolysis-20260505-0
summary:
Ketolysis is the process of catabolizing ketones, the opposite of ketogenesis which is the process of synthesizing ketones. Ketolysis provides more energy for ATP synthesis than fatty acid oxidation (beta oxidation). Ketogenesis occurs primarily in the liver, whereas ketolysis occurs in non-liver cells, especially in the heart, brain, and skeletal muscle. The SCOT enzyme (aka thiophorase) is required for ketolysis, and is present in the mitochondria of all mammalian cells except for hepatocytes. Although type II cells of the pulmonary alveolus possess monocarboxylate transporters to transport of beta hydroxybutyrate precursors into the cytoplasm, the absence of ketolytic enzymes results in the cells being unable to catabolize the beta hydroxybutyrate. The cardioprotective effects of SGLT2 inhibitors have been attributed to the elevated ketone levels and increased ketolysis. == The Ketolytic Pathway == == References ==


id: kissing-contusion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kissing_contusion-0.md
category: reference
title: Kissing contusion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kissing_contusion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:55.379094+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kissing-contusion-20260505-0
summary:
Contusions of both surfaces of the knee joint are known as kissing contusions. These contusions are generally found by magnetic resonance imaging and most cases are associated with ligamentous or meniscal injuries. == References ==


id: lateral-flow-test-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_flow_test-0.md
category: reference
title: Lateral flow test
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_flow_test
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:56.678548+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lateral-flow-test-20260505-0
summary:
A lateral flow test (LFT), is an assay also known as a lateral flow immunochromatographic test (ICT). It is a simple device intended to detect the presence of a target substance in a liquid sample without the need for specialized and costly equipment. LFTs are widely used in medical diagnostics in the home, at the point of care, and in the laboratory. For instance, the home pregnancy test is an LFT that detects a specific hormone. These tests are simple and economical and generally show results in around five to thirty minutes. Many lab-based applications increase the sensitivity of simple LFTs by employing additional dedicated equipment. Many LFTs are called rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs), though this term also includes other formats such as the vertical-flow tests. LFTs operate on the same principles of affinity chromatography as the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA). In essence, these tests run the liquid sample along the surface of a pad with reactive molecules that show a visual positive or negative result. The pads are based on a series of capillary beds, such as pieces of porous paper, microstructured polymer, or sintered polymer. Each of these pads has the capacity to transport fluid (e.g., urine, blood,


id: lateral-flow-test-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_flow_test-1.md
category: reference
title: Lateral flow test
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_flow_test
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:56.678548+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lateral-flow-test-20260505-0
summary:
Most tests will incorporate a second line which contains a further antibody (one which is not specific to the analyte) that binds some of the remaining colored particles which did not bind to the test line. This confirms that fluid has passed successfully from the sample-application pad, past the test line. By giving confirmation that the sample has had a chance to interact with the test line, this increases confidence that a visibly-unchanged test line can be interpreted as a negative result (or that a changed test line can be interpreted as a negative result in a competitive assay). === Blood plasma extraction === Because the intense red color of hemoglobin interferes with the readout of colorimetric or optical detection-based diagnostic tests, blood plasma separation is a common first step to increase diagnostic test accuracy. Plasma can be extracted from whole blood via integrated filters or via agglutination. === Speed and simplicity === Time to obtain the test result is a key driver for these products. Tests results can be available in as little as a few minutes. Generally there is a trade off between time and sensitivity: more sensitive tests may take longer to develop. The other key advantage


id: lateral-flow-test-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_flow_test-2.md
category: reference
title: Lateral flow test
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_flow_test
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:56.678548+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lateral-flow-test-20260505-0
summary:
Lateral flow assays have played a critical role in COVID-19 testing as they have the benefit of delivering a result in 15–30 minutes. The systematic evaluation of lateral flow assays during the COVID-19 pandemic was initiated at Oxford University as part of a UK collaboration with Public Health England. A study that started in June 2020 in the United Kingdom, FALCON-C19, confirmed the sensitivity of some lateral flow devices (LFDs) in this setting. Four out of 64 LFDs tested had desirable performance characteristics according to these early tests; the Innova SARS-CoV-2 Antigen Rapid Qualitative Test performed moderately in viral antigen detection/sensitivity with excellent specificity, although kit failure rates and the impact of training were potential issues. The Innova test's specificity is more widely publicised, but sensitivity in phase 4 trials was 50.1%. This describes a device for which one out of every two patients infected with COVID-19 and tested in real-world conditions would receive a false-negative result. After closure of schools in January 2021, biweekly LFTs were introduced in England for teachers, pupils, and households of pupils when schools re-opened on March 8, 2021 for asymptomatic testing. Biweekly LFT were made universally available to everyone in England on April 9,


id: left-without-being-seen-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Left_without_being_seen-0.md
category: reference
title: Left without being seen
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Left_without_being_seen
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:57.931077+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: left-without-being-seen-20260505-0
summary:
Left Without Being Seen (LWBS) is a healthcare term often used by emergency departments (ED) to designate a patient encounter that ended with the patient leaving the healthcare setting before the patient could be seen by a certified physician. Often the inclusion of this phrase in a medical record is the result of ED overcrowding (i.e. the patient could no longer wait in the ED to be seen by a physician, so they left without alerting a healthcare professional). Typically, those patients who leave an emergency department without being seen are not at an increased risk of death, and often do not require inpatient hospital admission. An increase in LWBS patients may be reflective of systemic public healthcare logistical issues. == References ==


id: length-of-stay-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Length_of_stay-0.md
category: reference
title: Length of stay
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Length_of_stay
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:29:59.189346+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: length-of-stay-20260505-0
summary:
Length of stay (LOS) is the duration of a single episode of hospitalization. Inpatient days are calculated by subtracting day of admission from day of discharge. == Analysis == A common statistic associated with length of stay is the average length of stay (ALOS), a mean calculated by dividing the sum of inpatient days by the number of patients admissions with the same diagnosis-related group classification. A variation in the calculation of ALOS can be to consider only length of stay during the period under analysis. Length of stay is typically highly skewed and so statistical approaches taking that into account are recommended. While the mean length of stay is useful from the point of view of costs, it may be a poor statistic in terms of representing a typical length of stay, and the median may be preferred. It is useful to be able to predict an individual's expected length of stay or to model length of stay to determine factors that affect it. Various analyses have sought to model length of stay in different condition contexts. This has usually been done with regression models, but Markov chain methods have also been applied. Within regression approaches, linear, log-normal and


id: lightwood-s-law-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightwood's_law-0.md
category: reference
title: Lightwood's law
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightwood's_law
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:00.416124+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lightwood-s-law-20260505-0
summary:
Lightwood's law is the principle that, in medicine, bacterial infections will tend to localise while viral infections will tend to spread. This is based on the observation that while bacterial sepsis tends, despite affecting the whole body, to have a clear site of origin or 'focus', the opposite may be true of viral infections. There may be multiple sites across the body which are affected including dermatological manifestations, respiratory symptoms and gastrointestinal symptoms. It is named for Reginald Cyril Lightwood. This principle is by no means infallible and in clinical practice a variety of diagnostic tests are used to distinguish between bacterial and viral infections. == References ==


id: list-of-bones-of-the-human-skeleton-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_bones_of_the_human_skeleton-0.md
category: reference
title: List of bones of the human skeleton
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_bones_of_the_human_skeleton
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:01.691476+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-bones-of-the-human-skeleton-20260505-0
summary:
An adult human skeleton is commonly quoted as consisting of 206 bones. Reports on the typical number of bones have varied historically depending on how different sources choose to count features such as fused bones (for example, the sternum). The actual number of bones in any individual skeleton varies depending on factors such as age and anatomical variation. The list of 206 bones in the adult skeleton can be subdivided into the axial skeleton (80 bones) and the appendicular skeleton (126 bones). 172 of 206 bones are part of a pair and the remaining 34 are unpaired. Many small accessory bones, such as sesamoid bones, are not included in the standard list. == Introduction == Infants are born with an estimated 270 bones. During the course of normal human development, many bones fuse, a process that is active throughout childhood and puberty but typically continues until sometime within the third decade of life. Therefore, the number of bones in an individual may be evaluated differently throughout a lifetime. In addition, the bones of the skull and face are counted as separate bones, despite being fused naturally. Some reliable sesamoid bones such as the pisiform are counted, while others, such as


id: list-of-medical-abbreviations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_medical_abbreviations-0.md
category: reference
title: List of medical abbreviations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_medical_abbreviations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:03.077429+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-medical-abbreviations-20260505-0
summary:
Abbreviations are used very frequently in medicine. They boost efficiency as long as they are used intelligently. The advantages of brevity should be weighed against the possibilities of obfuscation (making the communication harder for others to understand) and ambiguity (having more than one possible interpretation). Certain medical abbreviations are avoided to prevent mistakes, according to best practices (and in some cases regulatory requirements); these are flagged in the list of abbreviations used in medical prescriptions. == Orthographic styling == === Periods (stops) === Periods (stops) are often used in styling abbreviations. Prevalent practice in medicine today is often to forgo them as unnecessary. Example: Less common: The diagnosis was C.O.P.D. [chronic obstructive pulmonary disease] More common: The diagnosis was COPD === Plurals === The prevalent way to represent plurals for medical acronyms and initialisms is simply to affix a lowercase s (no apostrophe). Example: one OCP, two OCPs [oral contraceptive pills]. === Possessives === Possessive forms are not often needed, but can be formed using apostrophe + s. Often the writer can also recast the sentence to avoid it. Example: BP's effect on risk of MI is multifaceted. The effect of BP on MI risk is multifaceted. === Arrows ===


id: list-of-skeletal-muscles-of-the-human-body-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_skeletal_muscles_of_the_human_body-0.md
category: reference
title: List of skeletal muscles of the human body
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_skeletal_muscles_of_the_human_body
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:04.336896+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-skeletal-muscles-of-the-human-body-20260505-0
summary:
This is a table of skeletal muscles of the human anatomy, with muscle counts and other information. == Table == == Table explanation and summary == The muscles are described using anatomical terminology. The columns are as follows: For Origin, Insertion and Action please name a specific Rib, Thoracic vertebrae or Cervical vertebrae, by using C1-7, T1-12 or R1-12. === Summary in numbers === There does not appear to be a definitive source counting all skeletal muscles. Different sources group muscles differently, regarding physical features as different parts of a single muscle or as several muscles. There are also vestigial muscles that are present in some people but absent in others, such as the palmaris longus muscle. There are between 600 and 840 muscles within the typical human body, depending on how they are counted. In the present table, using statistical counts of the instances of each muscle, and ignoring gender-specific muscles, there are 753 skeletal muscles. Sometimes male and females have the same muscle but with different purposes ==== Numbers based on the list above ==== === Agonistic and antagonistic relationships === Muscles are often paired as agonistic and antagonistic muscles. This can be a bit misleading as, in


id: lists-of-medical-eponyms-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_medical_eponyms-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of medical eponyms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_medical_eponyms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:20.105318+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-medical-eponyms-20260505-0
summary:
Medical eponyms are diseases, disorders, or syndromes named after people, and occasionally places or things. Eponyms are widely used and new ones continue to be coined, although some physicians argue against their use. Eponyms are most typically named after the physician or researcher who first described the condition, such as Parkinson's disease, after James Parkinson (1755-1824) or Alzheimer's disease, after Alois Alzheimer (1864–1915). Some diseases are commonly known by a famous patient's name, such as Lou Gehrig disease, although amyotrophic lateral sclerosis is the clinical name. A few clinical names come from a patient's name, such as Hartnup disease (formally pellagra-like dermatosis with transitory cerebellar ataxia), named for a family with this hereditary disease. Sometimes conditions are named after multiple physicians or scientists, such as Waterhouse–Friderichsen syndrome. Lyme disease is named for two towns where the symptoms were first identified. The eponym may even be a fictional character with no direct relationship to the disease. For example, Munchausen syndrome was coined because, like Baron von Munchausen, "the persons affected have always travelled widely, and their stories, like those attributed to him, are both dramatic and untrue." Eponyms are widely used in medicine and continue to be coined. There are no


id: localized-disease-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Localized_disease-0.md
category: reference
title: Localized disease
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Localized_disease
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:21.591704+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: localized-disease-20260505-0
summary:
A localized disease is an infectious or neoplastic process that originates in and is confined to one organ system or general area in the body, such as a sprained ankle, a boil on the hand, an abscess of finger. A localized cancer that has not extended beyond the margins of the organ involved can also be described as localized disease, while cancers that extend into other tissues are described as invasive. Tumors that are non-hematologic in origin but extend into the bloodstream or lymphatic system are known as metastatic. Localized diseases are contrasted with disseminated diseases and systemic diseases. Some diseases are capable of changing from local to disseminated diseases. Pneumonia, for example, is generally confined to one or both lungs but can become disseminated through sepsis, in which the microorganism responsible for the pneumonia "seeds" the bloodstream or lymphatic system and is transported to distant sites in the body. When that occurs, the process is no longer described as a localized disease, but rather as a disseminated disease. == See also == Disease Nosology == References ==


id: medical-logistics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_logistics-0.md
category: reference
title: Medical logistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_logistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:22.898880+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-logistics-20260505-0
summary:
Medical logistics is the logistics of pharmaceuticals, medical and surgical supplies, medical devices and equipment, and other products needed to support doctors, nurses, and other health and dental care providers. Because its final customers are responsible for the lives and health of their patients, medical logistics is unique in that it seeks to optimize effectiveness rather than efficiency. Medical logistics functions comprise an important part of the health care system: after staff costs, medical supplies are the single most expensive component of health care. To drive costs out of the health-care sector, medical logistics providers are adopting supply chain management theories. This organizational chart is as follows and separated into three key areas. Medical Materiel Facilities Management. Biomedical Engineering (BMET) or Clinical Engineering These areas are managed by a qualified Director of Logistics. The Director of Logistics' educational background holds some type of accredited graduate degree (MBA or M.S.) == See also == Medical device == References ==


id: long-term-care-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_care-0.md
category: reference
title: Long-term care
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_care
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:24.445699+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: long-term-care-20260505-0
summary:
Long-term care (LTC) is a variety of services which help meet both the medical and non-medical needs of people with a chronic illness or disability who cannot care for themselves for long periods. Long-term care is focused on individualized and coordinated services that promote independence, maximize patients' quality of life, and meet patients' needs over a period of time. It is common for long-term care to provide custodial and non-skilled care, such as assisting with activities of daily living like dressing, feeding, using the bathroom, meal preparation, functional transfers and safe restroom use. Increasingly, long-term care involves providing a level of medical care that requires the expertise of skilled practitioners to address the multiple long-term conditions associated with older populations. Long-term care can be provided at home, in the community, in assisted living facilities or in nursing homes. Long-term care may be needed by people of any age, although it is a more common need for senior citizens. == Types of long-term care == Long-term care can be provided formally or informally. Facilities that offer formal LTC services typically provide living accommodation for people who require on-site delivery of around-the-clock supervised care, including professional health services, personal care, and services


id: long-term-care-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_care-1.md
category: reference
title: Long-term care
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_care
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:24.445699+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: long-term-care-20260505-0
summary:
== Long-term services and supports == "Long-term services and supports" (LTSS) is the modernized term for community services, which may obtain health care financing (e.g., home and community-based Medicaid waiver services), and may or may not be operated by the traditional hospital-medical system (e.g., physicians, nurses, nurse's aides). The Consortium of Citizens with Disabilities (CCD) which works with the U. S. Congress, has indicated that while hospitals offer acute care, many non-acute, long-term services are provided to assist individuals to live and participate in the community. An example is the group home international emblem of community living and deinstitutionalization, and the variety of supportive services (e.g., supported housing, supported employment, supported living, supported parenting, family support), supported education. The term is also common with aging groups, such as the American Association of Retired Persons (AARP), which annually surveys the US states on services for elders (e.g., intermediate care facilities, assisted living, home-delivered meals). The new US Support Workforce includes the Direct Support Professional, which is largely non-profit or for-profit, and the governmental workforces, often unionized, in the communities in US states. Core competencies (Racino-Lakin, 1988) at the federal-state interface for the aides "in institutions and communities" were identified in aging


id: long-term-care-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_care-2.md
category: reference
title: Long-term care
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_care
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:24.445699+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: long-term-care-20260505-0
summary:
Life expectancy is going up in most countries, meaning more people are living longer and entering an age when they may need care. Meanwhile, birth rates are generally falling. Globally, 70 percent of all older people now live in low or middle-income countries. Countries and health care systems need to find innovative and sustainable ways to cope with the demographic shift. As reported by John Beard, director of the World Health Organization's Department of Ageing and Life Course, "With the rapid ageing of populations, finding the right model for long-term care becomes more and more urgent." The demographic shift is also being accompanied by changing social patterns, including smaller families, different residential patterns, and increased female labour force participation. These factors often contribute to an increased need for paid care. In many countries, the largest percentages of older persons needing LTC services still rely on informal home care, or services provided by unpaid caregivers (usually nonprofessional family members, friends or other volunteers). Estimates from the OECD of these figures often are in the 80 to 90 percent range; for example, in Austria, 80 percent of all older citizens. The similar figure for dependent elders in Spain is 82.2 percent. The


id: long-term-care-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_care-3.md
category: reference
title: Long-term care
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_care
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:24.445699+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: long-term-care-20260505-0
summary:
== Long-term care funding == Governments around the world have responded to growing long-term care needs to different degrees and at different levels. These responses by governments, are based in part, upon a public policy research agenda on long-term care which includes special population research, flexible models of services, and managed care models to control escalating costs and high private pay rates. === Europe === Most Western European countries have put in place a mechanism to fund formal care and, in a number of Northern and Continental European countries, arrangements exist to at least partially fund informal care as well. Some countries have had publicly organized funding arrangements in place for many years: the Netherlands adopted the Exceptional Medical Expenses Act (ABWZ) in 1967, and in 1988 Norway established a framework for municipal payments to informal caregivers (in certain instances making them municipal employees). Other countries have only recently put in place comprehensive national programs: in 2004, for example, France set up a specific insurance fund for dependent older people and in 2006, Portugal created a public funded national network for long-term care. Some countries (Spain and Italy in Southern Europe, Poland and Hungary in Central Europe) have not yet


id: long-term-care-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_care-4.md
category: reference
title: Long-term care
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-term_care
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:24.445699+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: long-term-care-20260505-0
summary:
==== United States ==== Long-term care is typically funded using a combination of sources including but not limited to family members, Medicaid, long-term care insurance and Medicare. All of these include out-of-pocket spending, which often becomes exhausted once an individual requires more medical attention throughout the aging process and might need in-home care or be admitted into a nursing home. For many people, out-of-pocket spending for long-term care is a transitional state before eventually being covered by Medicaid, which requires impoverishment for eligibility. Personal savings can be difficult to manage and budget and often deplete rapidly. In addition to personal savings, individuals can also rely on an Individual retirement account, Roth IRA, Pension, Severance package or the funds of family members. These are essentially retirement packages that become available to the individual once certain requirements have been met. In 2008, Medicaid and Medicare accounted for approximately 71% of national long-term care spending in the United States. Out-of-pocket spending accounted for 18% of national long-term care spending, private long-term care insurance accounted for 7%, and other organizations and agencies accounted for the remaining expenses. Moreover, 67% of all nursing home residents used Medicaid as their primary source of payment. Private Long-Term


id: maculopapular-rash-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maculopapular_rash-0.md
category: reference
title: Maculopapular rash
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maculopapular_rash
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:25.719082+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maculopapular-rash-20260505-0
summary:
A maculopapular rash is a type of rash characterized by a flat, red area on the skin that is covered with small confluent bumps. It may only appear red in lighter-skinned people. The term "maculopapular" is a compound: macules are small, flat discolored spots on the surface of the skin; and papules are small, raised bumps. It is also described as erythematous, or red. This type of rash is common in several diseases and medical conditions, including scarlet fever, measles, Ebola virus disease, rubella, HIV, secondary syphilis (congenital syphilis, which is asymptomatic, the newborn may present this type of rash), erythrovirus (parvovirus B19), chikungunya (alphavirus), Zika fever, smallpox (which has been eradicated), varicella (when vaccinated persons exhibit symptoms from the modified form), heat rash, and sometimes dengue fever. It is also a common manifestation of a skin reaction to the antibiotic amoxicillin or chemotherapy drugs. Cutaneous infiltration of leukemic cells may also have this appearance. Maculopapular rash is seen in graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) developed after a hematopoietic stem cell transplant (bone marrow transplant), which can be seen within one week or several weeks after the transplant. In the case of GVHD, the maculopapular lesions may progress to a condition similar


id: malacia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malacia-0.md
category: reference
title: Malacia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malacia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:27.021333+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: malacia-20260505-0
summary:
Malacia is abnormal softening of a biological tissue, most often cartilage. The word is derived from Greek μαλακός, malakos = soft. Usually the combining form -malacia suffixed to another combining form that denotes the affected tissue assigns a more specific name to each such disorder, as follows: Osteomalacia (rickets), a bone disorder from vitamin D deficiency Chondromalacia, softening of cartilage (often refers to chondromalacia patellae when mentioned without further specification) Chondromalacia patellae, a disorder of cartilage under the kneecap Bronchomalacia, a disorder of the bronchial tubes' cartilage Laryngomalacia, a disorder of the larynx's cartilage Tracheomalacia, a disorder of the trachea's cartilage Keratomalacia, an eye disorder from vitamin A deficiency Myelomalacia, a disorder of the spinal cord Cerebral softening (encephalomalacia), localized softening of brain tissue == References == == External links == Definition at MedineNet.com


id: malignancy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malignancy-0.md
category: reference
title: Malignancy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malignancy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:28.374982+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: malignancy-20260505-0
summary:
Malignancy (from Latin male 'badly' and -gnus 'born') is the tendency of a medical condition to become progressively worse; the term is most familiar as a characterization of cancer. A malignant tumor contrasts with a non-cancerous benign tumor in that a malignancy is not self-limited in its growth, is capable of invading into adjacent tissues, and may be capable of spreading to distant tissues. A benign tumor has none of those properties, but may still be harmful to health. The term benign in more general medical use characterizes a condition or growth that is not cancerous, i.e. does not spread to other parts of the body or invade nearby tissue. Sometimes the term is used to suggest that a condition is not dangerous or serious, although this is not always the case. Malignancy in cancers is characterized by anaplasia, invasiveness, and metastasis. Malignant tumors are also characterized by genome instability: cancers, as assessed by whole genome sequencing, frequently have between 10,000 and 100,000 mutations in their entire genomes. Cancers usually show tumour heterogeneity, containing multiple subclones. They also frequently have reduced expression of DNA repair enzymes due to epigenetic methylation of DNA repair genes or altered microRNAs that control DNA


id: malignancy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malignancy-1.md
category: reference
title: Malignancy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malignancy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:28.374982+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: malignancy-20260505-0
summary:
=== Surgery === Surgery can help manage or treat malignancy by either removing the tumour, localising it and/or determining whether there has been a spread to other organs. When undertaking surgery for malignancy, there are six major objectives which are considered. These include "prevention of cancer, diagnosis and staging of disease, disease cure, tumour debulking, symptom palliation and patient rehabilitation". Surgical prevention of cancer largely consists of removing the organ at risk of developing malignancy. This would occur if an individual is predisposed to the formation of malignant cells as a result of inherited genetic mutations and acquired diseases. Surgical diagnosis of malignancy involves completing a biopsy. This process requires a sufficient amount of tissue to make a confident diagnosis, and the handling of specimen to expand information provided from testing. Biopsies are categorised into four different processes: "fine-needle aspirate (FNA), core needle, incisional, and excisional". Curative surgery (also known as primary surgery) can be conducted when the malignant tumour has only invaded one area of the body. The objective is to remove the entirety of the malignant cells without violating the tumour; if the tumour is violated, the risk of both tumour spillage and wound implantation would increase. The


id: mammoplasia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammoplasia-0.md
category: reference
title: Mammoplasia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammoplasia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:29.680473+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mammoplasia-20260505-0
summary:
Mammoplasia is the normal or spontaneous enlargement of human breasts. Mammoplasia occurs normally during puberty and pregnancy in women, as well as during certain periods of the menstrual cycle. When it occurs in males, it is called gynecomastia and is considered to be pathological. When it occurs in females and is extremely excessive, it is called macromastia (also known as gigantomastia or breast hypertrophy) and is similarly considered to be pathological. Mammoplasia may be due to breast engorgement, which is temporary enlargement of the breasts caused by the production and storage of breast milk in association with lactation and/or galactorrhea (excessive or inappropriate production of milk). Mastodynia (breast tenderness/pain) frequently co-occurs with mammoplasia. During the luteal phase (latter half) of the menstrual cycle, due to increased mammary blood flow and/or premenstrual fluid retention caused by high circulating concentrations of estrogen and/or progesterone, the breasts temporarily increase in size, and this is experienced by women as fullness, heaviness, swollenness, and a tingling sensation. Mammoplasia can be an effect or side effect of various drugs, including estrogens, antiandrogens such as spironolactone, cyproterone acetate, bicalutamide, and finasteride, growth hormone, and drugs that elevate prolactin levels such as D2 receptor antagonists like antipsychotics (e.g.,


id: manner-of-death-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manner_of_death-0.md
category: reference
title: Manner of death
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manner_of_death
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:31.066625+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: manner-of-death-20260505-0
summary:
In many legal jurisdictions, the manner of death is a determination, typically made by the coroner, medical examiner, police, or similar officials, and recorded as a vital statistic. Within the United States and the United Kingdom, a distinction is made between the cause of death, which is a specific disease or injury, such as a gunshot wound or cancer, versus manner of death, which is primarily a legal determination, versus the mechanism of death (also called the mode of death), which does not explain why the person died or the underlying cause of death and is usually not specific to the cause or manner of death, such as asphyxiation, arrhythmia or exsanguination. Different categories are used in different jurisdictions, but manner of death determinations include everything from very broad categories like "natural" and "homicide" to specific manners like "traffic accident" or "gunshot wound". In some cases an autopsy is performed, either due to general legal requirements, because the medical cause of death is uncertain, upon the request of family members or guardians, or because the circumstances of death were suspicious. International Classification of Disease codes are sometimes used to record manner and cause of death in a systematic way that


id: manner-of-death-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manner_of_death-1.md
category: reference
title: Manner of death
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manner_of_death
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:31.066625+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: manner-of-death-20260505-0
summary:
=== United Kingdom === In the United Kingdom, when people die, either a doctor writes an acceptable natural cause of death medical certificate, or a coroner (procurator fiscal in Scotland) investigates the case. Coroners are independent judicial officers who investigate deaths reported to them, and subsequently whatever inquiries are necessary to discover the cause of death, this includes ordering a post-mortem examination, obtaining witness statements and medical records, or holding an inquest. In the unified legal jurisdiction of England and Wales, most deaths are certified by doctors without autopsy or coroner involvement. Almost all deaths certified by the coroner involve an autopsy but most do not involve a formal inquest. In England and Wales, a specific list of choices for verdicts is not mandated, and "narrative verdicts" are allowed, which are not specifically classified. The verdicts aggregated by the Ministry of Justice are: Homicide Killed unlawfully Killed lawfully Suicide Attempted or self-induced abortion Cause of death aggravated by lack of care, or self-neglect Dependence on drugs Non-dependent abuse of drugs Want of attention at birth Death from industrial diseases Death by accident or misadventure Stillborn Death from natural causes Open verdict Disaster === Other jurisdictions === Some jurisdictions place deaths


id: mass-effect-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_effect_(medicine)-0.md
category: reference
title: Mass effect (medicine)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_effect_(medicine)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:32.354081+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mass-effect-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
In medicine, a mass effect is the effect of a growing mass that results in secondary pathological effects by pushing on or displacing surrounding tissue. In oncology, the mass typically refers to a tumor. For example, cancer of the thyroid gland may cause symptoms due to compressions of certain structures of the head and neck; pressure on the laryngeal nerves may cause voice changes, narrowing of the windpipe may cause stridor, pressure on the gullet may cause dysphagia and so on. Surgical removal or debulking is sometimes used to palliate symptoms of the mass effect even if the underlying pathology is not curable. In neurology, a mass effect is the effect exerted by any mass, including, for example, hydrocephalus (cerebrospinal fluid buildup) or an evolving intracranial hemorrhage (bleeding within the skull) presenting with a clinically significant hematoma. The hematoma can exert a mass effect on the brain, increasing intracranial pressure and potentially causing midline shift or deadly brain herniation. In the past this effect held additional diagnostic importance since prior to the invention of modern tomographic soft-tissue imaging utilizing MRI or CT it was not possible to directly image many kinds of primary intracranial lesions. Therefore, in those days, the


id: maternal-death-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death-0.md
category: reference
title: Maternal death
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:33.740084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maternal-death-20260505-0
summary:
Maternal death or maternal mortality is defined in slightly different ways by several different health organizations. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines maternal death as the death of a pregnant mother due to complications related to pregnancy, underlying conditions worsened by the pregnancy or management of these conditions. This can occur either while she is pregnant or within six weeks of resolution of the pregnancy. The CDC definition of pregnancy-related deaths extends the period of consideration to include one year from the resolution of the pregnancy. Pregnancy associated death, as defined by the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG), are all deaths occurring within one year of a pregnancy resolution. Identification of pregnancy associated deaths is important for deciding whether or not the pregnancy was a direct or indirect contributing cause of the death. There are two main measures used when talking about the rates of maternal mortality in a community or country. These are the maternal mortality ratio and maternal mortality rate, both abbreviated as "MMR". By 2017, the world maternal mortality rate had declined 44% since 1990; however, every day 808 women die from pregnancy or childbirth related causes. According to the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA)


id: maternal-death-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death-1.md
category: reference
title: Maternal death
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:33.740084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maternal-death-20260505-0
summary:
When abortion is legal and accessible, it is widely regarded as safer for the mother than carrying a pregnancy to term and delivery. In fact, a study published in the journal Obstetrics & Gynecology reported that in the United States, carrying a pregnancy to term and delivering a baby comes with a 14 times increased risk of death for the mother as compared to a legal abortion. However, in many regions of the world, abortion is not legal and can be unsafe for the mother. Maternal deaths caused by improperly performed procedures are preventable and contribute 13% to the maternal mortality rate worldwide. This number is increased to 25% in countries where other causes of maternal mortality are low, such as in Eastern European and South American countries. This makes unsafe abortion practices the leading cause of maternal death worldwide. Unsafe abortion is another major cause of maternal death worldwide. In regions where abortion is legal and accessible, abortion is safe and does not contribute greatly to overall rates of maternal death. However, in regions where abortions are not legal, available, or regulated, unsafe abortion practices can cause significant rates of maternal death. According to the World Health Organization in


id: maternal-death-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death-2.md
category: reference
title: Maternal death
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:33.740084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maternal-death-20260505-0
summary:
=== Risk factors === According to a 2004 WHO publication, sociodemographic factors such as age, access to resources, and income level are significant indicators of maternal outcomes. Young mothers face higher risks of complications and death during pregnancy than older mothers, especially adolescents aged 15 years or younger. Adolescents have higher risks for postpartum hemorrhage, endometritis, operative vaginal delivery, episiotomy, low birth weight, preterm delivery, and small-for-gestational-age infants, all of which can lead to maternal death. The leading cause of death for girls at the age of 15 in developing countries is complications during pregnancy and childbirth. They have more pregnancies, on average, than women in developed countries, and it has been shown that 1 in 180 15-year-old girls in developing countries who become pregnant will die due to complications during pregnancy or childbirth. This is compared to women in developed countries, where the likelihood is 1 in 4900 live births. However, in the United States, as many women of older age continue to have children, the maternal mortality rate has risen in some states, especially among women over 40 years old. Women in low-income countries face a lifetime risk of maternal death—defined as the probability that a 15-year-old girl


id: maternal-death-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death-3.md
category: reference
title: Maternal death
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:33.740084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maternal-death-20260505-0
summary:
=== Trends === The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA; formerly known as the United Nations Fund for Population Activities) has established programs that support efforts in reducing maternal death. These efforts include education and training for midwives, supporting access to emergency services in obstetric and newborn care networks, and providing essential drugs and family planning services to pregnant women or those planning to become pregnant. They also support efforts for review and response systems regarding maternal deaths. According to the 2010 United Nations Population Fund report, low-resource nations account for ninety-nine percent of maternal deaths, with the majority of those deaths occurring in Sub-Saharan Africa and Southern Asia. Globally, high and middle-income countries experience lower maternal deaths than low-income countries. The Human Development Index (HDI) accounts for between 82 and 85 percent of the maternal mortality rates among countries. In most cases, high rates of maternal deaths occur in the same countries that have high rates of infant mortality. These trends reflect that higher-income countries have stronger healthcare infrastructure, more doctors, use more advanced medical technologies, and have fewer barriers to accessing care than low-income countries. In low-income countries, the most common cause of maternal death is obstetrical hemorrhage, followed


id: maternal-death-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death-4.md
category: reference
title: Maternal death
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:33.740084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maternal-death-20260505-0
summary:
=== Prenatal care === It was estimated that in 2015, a total of 303,000 women died due to causes related to pregnancy or childbirth. The majority of these were due to severe bleeding, sepsis or infections, eclampsia, obstructed labor, and consequences from unsafe abortions. Most of these causes are either preventable or have highly effective interventions. An important factor that contributes to the maternal mortality rate is access and opportunity to receive prenatal care. Women who do not receive prenatal care are between three and four times more likely to die from complications resulting from pregnancy or delivery than those who receive prenatal care. Even in high-resource countries, many women do not receive the appropriate preventative or prenatal care. For example, 25% of women in the United States do not receive the recommended number of prenatal visits. This number increases for women among traditionally marginalized populations—32% of African American women and 41% for American Indian and Alaska Native women do not receive the recommended preventative health services before delivery. In 2023, a study reported that deaths among Native American women were three-and-a-half times that of white women. The report attributed the high rate in part to the fact that Native


id: maternal-death-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death-5.md
category: reference
title: Maternal death
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:33.740084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maternal-death-20260505-0
summary:
A public health approach to addressing maternal mortality includes gathering information on the scope of the problem, identifying key causes, and implementing interventions, both before pregnancy and during pregnancy, to combat those causes and prevent maternal mortality. Public health has a role to play in the analysis of maternal death. One important aspect in the review of maternal death and its causes are Maternal Mortality Review Committees or Boards. The goal of these review committees is to analyze each maternal death and determine its cause. After this analysis, the information can be combined to determine specific interventions that could prevent future maternal deaths. These review boards are generally comprehensive in their analysis of maternal deaths, examining details that include mental health factors, public transportation, chronic illnesses, and substance use disorders. All of this information can be combined to give a detailed picture of what is causing maternal mortality and help determine recommendations to reduce its impact. Many states in the US are taking Maternal Mortality Review Committees a step further and are collaborating with various professional organizations to improve the quality of perinatal care. These teams of organizations form a "perinatal quality collaborative" (PQC) and include state health departments, the


id: maternal-death-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death-6.md
category: reference
title: Maternal death
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:33.740084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maternal-death-20260505-0
summary:
=== Policy === The largest global policy initiative for maternal health came from the United Nations' Millennium Declaration, which created the Millennium Development Goals. In 2012, this evolved at the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development to become the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) with a target year of 2030. The SDGs are 17 goals that call for global collaboration to tackle a wide variety of recognized problems. Goal 3 focuses on ensuring health and well-being for women of all ages. A specific target is to achieve a global maternal mortality ratio of less than 70 per 100,000 live births. So far, specific progress has been made in births attended by a skilled provider, now at 80% of births worldwide compared with 62% in 2005. Countries and local governments have taken political steps to reduce maternal deaths. Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute studied maternal health systems in four apparently similar countries: Rwanda, Malawi, Niger, and Uganda. In comparison to the other three countries, Rwanda has an excellent record of improving maternal death rates. Based on their investigation of these varying country case studies, the researchers conclude that improving maternal health depends on three key factors: reviewing all maternal health-related policies


id: maternal-death-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death-7.md
category: reference
title: Maternal death
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:33.740084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maternal-death-20260505-0
summary:
==== Policies in the United States ==== Additionally, in the United States, Black women are more likely to die during and from childbirth than any other demographic. While researchers have documented the higher rate of maternal mortality in black women, they have not extensively researched the ways to improve the outcomes of maternal mortality in black mothers positively. In 2022, President Joe Biden signed the “Data Mapping to Save Moms’ Lives Act” into law, just before Christmas, and with the support of the AMA (American Medical Association). The law called for the Federal Communications Commission—in consultation with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) to incorporate publicly available data on maternal mortality and severe maternal morbidity for at least one year postpartum into its Mapping Broadband Health in America platform Regardless, a concerted study on the policy outcome on black women’s mortality rate is a rarity. Additionally, in February of 2021, Senator Cory Booker and Representatives Lauren Underwood and Alma Adams reintroduced the Black Maternal Health Momnibus Act. It consisted of thirteen bills aimed at improving maternal health. Six of the bills specifically target Black maternal health or related factors that impact it. The legislation aimed to save lives,


id: maternal-death-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death-8.md
category: reference
title: Maternal death
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:33.740084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maternal-death-20260505-0
summary:
In the United States, women who are black and non-Hispanic experience pregnancy-related death at a significantly higher rate. They are three to four times as likely to succumb to maternal mortality than non-Hispanic white women. In the United States between the years of 2007 and 2014, women who identify as non-Hispanic and black had a significant increase in death related to pregnancy. In the United States, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the maternal mortality rate in 2021 was 32.9 deaths per 100,000 live births. This is significantly higher than the rates in 2020, defined as 23.8 deaths per 100,000 live births and 20.1 in 2019. In 2021, the maternal mortality rate for non-Hispanic Black women was 69.9 deaths per 100,000 live births, which is 2.6 times higher than non-Hispanic White women. The mortality rate for women over the age of 40 was 6.8 times higher than the rate for women under the age of 25. Research indicates that these disparities in the U.S. are not due to genetic differences, but rather systemic factors, including racial bias in healthcare, inadequate access to high-quality maternity care, and higher rates of chronic conditions like hypertension and preeclampsia. Implicit


id: maternal-death-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death-9.md
category: reference
title: Maternal death
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternal_death
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:33.740084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maternal-death-20260505-0
summary:
=== Severe maternal morbidity === Severe maternal morbidity (SMM) is an unanticipated acute or chronic health outcome after labor and delivery that detrimentally affects a woman's health. Severe Maternal Morbidity (SMM) includes any unexpected outcomes from labor or delivery that cause both short and long-term consequences to the mother's overall health. There are nineteen total indicators used by the CDC to help identify SMM, with the most prevalent indicator being a blood transfusion. Other indicators include an acute myocardial infarction ("heart attack"), aneurysm, and kidney failure. All of this identification is done by using ICD-10 codes, which are disease identification codes found in hospital discharge data. Using these definitions that rely on these codes should be used with careful consideration since some may miss some cases, have a low predictive value, or may be difficult for different facilities to operationalize. There are certain screening criteria that may be helpful and are recommended through the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists as well as the Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine (SMFM). These screening criteria for SMM are for transfusions of four or more units of blood and admission of a pregnant woman or a postpartum woman to an ICU facility or unit.


id: mayer-waves-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayer_waves-0.md
category: reference
title: Mayer waves
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayer_waves
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:35.053060+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mayer-waves-20260505-0
summary:
Mayer waves are cyclic changes or waves in arterial blood pressure brought about by oscillations in the baroreceptor reflex control system. The waves are seen both in the ECG and in continuous blood pressure curves and have a frequency about 0.1 Hz (10-second waves). These waves were originally described by Siegmund Mayer, Ewald Hering and Ludwig Traube hence originally called "Traube–Hering–Mayer waves". Mayer waves can be defined as arterial blood pressure (AP) oscillations at frequencies slower than respiratory frequency and which show the strongest, significant coherence (strength of linear coupling between fluctuations of two variables in the frequency domain) with efferent sympathetic nervous activity (SNA). In humans, AP oscillations which meet these properties have a characteristic frequency of approx. 0.1 Hz; 0.3 Hz in rabbits and 0.4 Hz in rats. The hemodynamic basis of Mayer waves are oscillations of the sympathetic vasomotor tone of arterial blood vessels, because Mayer waves are abolished or at least strongly attenuated by pharmacological blockade of alpha-adrenoreceptors. Within a given biological species, their frequency is fairly stable; in humans it has been shown that this frequency does not depend on gender, age or posture. It has been suggested that Mayer waves trigger the liberation of


id: me-too-drug-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Me-too_drug-0.md
category: reference
title: Me-too drug
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Me-too_drug
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:36.255172+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: me-too-drug-20260505-0
summary:
The term "me-too drug" or "follow-on drug" refers to a medication that is similar to a pre-existing drug, usually by making minor modifications to the prototype, reflected in slight changes in the profiles of side effects or activity, and used to treat conditions for which drugs already exist. While pharmaceutical companies have justified the development of me-toos as offering incremental improvements in efficacy, side-effects, compliance and cost, critics have questioned the increasing marketing of me-toos, their absorption of research and development resources and their impact on the innovation of new treatments. In 1956, Louis S. Goodman, co‐editor of Goodman and Gilman, referred to “the problem of the introduction of ‘me too’ drugs, that is, drugs without signal advantage of any sort”. However, me-too drugs can be novel compounds themselves. They are commonly used and include several beta blockers, antidepressants and stomach acid reducing and cholesterol lowering drugs. == History == The term "me‐too drugs" was coined in the 1950s. In 1956, Louis S. Goodman, co‐editor of Goodman and Gilman, referred to “the problem of the introduction of ‘me too’ drugs, that is, drugs without signal advantage of any sort”. Once a new drug class was discovered, other major drug companies


id: me-too-drug-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Me-too_drug-1.md
category: reference
title: Me-too drug
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Me-too_drug
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:36.255172+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: me-too-drug-20260505-0
summary:
== Debate == In 2005, a report by the International Policy Network defended me-toos, describing their development as "incremental improvements on already existing drugs". The report stated: ... this often represent(s) advances in safety and efficacy, along with providing new formulations and dosing options that significantly increase patient compliance. From an economic standpoint, expanding drug classes represent the possibility of lower drug prices as competition between manufacturers is increased. Additionally, pharmaceutical companies depend on incremental innovations to provide the revenue that will support the development of more risky “block-buster” drugs. Policies aimed at curbing incremental innovation will ultimately lead to a reduction in the overall quality of existing drug classes and may ultimately curb the creation of novel drugs. This incremental innovation has led to some referring to me-toos as "me-betters". Many physicians are unaware that me-toos are compared to placebos rather than pre-existing drugs. Me-toos are seen as patentable new drugs and therefore substantial profit makers, where innovative drugs may be more risky to develop. == Statistics == Between 1998 and 2003, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved 487 drugs, of which 78 per cent appeared to have similar characteristics to pre-existing marketed drugs. More than 60%


id: medical-advice-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_advice-0.md
category: reference
title: Medical advice
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_advice
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:37.668231+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-advice-20260505-0
summary:
Medical advice is the provision of a formal professional opinion regarding what a specific individual should or should not do to restore or preserve health. Typically, medical advice involves giving a diagnosis and/or prescribing a treatment for medical condition. Medical advice is not the same as personal advice even if the advice concerns medical care. == Doctor–patient relationship == In industrializd countries, medical advice is given in the context of a doctor–patient relationship. A licensed health care professional can be held legally liable for the advice he or she gives to a patient. Giving bad advice may be considered medical malpractice under specified circumstances. The doctor–patient relationship is one factor in determining the patient's compliance with medical advice. Patients adhere more closely to medical advice when the healthcare provider is friendly, doesn't interrupt the patient, or has good verbal communication skills. Patients are less likely to comply with medical advice if the advice is not what the patients expected, if the patients do not agree with the proposed treatment, if the patient is not confident in the provider's competence, or if the patient cannot understand what the provider says due to language barriers or overuse of medical jargon. Patients are


id: medical-case-management-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_case_management-0.md
category: reference
title: Medical case management
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_case_management
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:38.918494+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-case-management-20260505-0
summary:
Medical case management is a collaborative process that facilitates recommended treatment plans to assure the appropriate medical care is provided to disabled, ill or injured individuals. It is a role frequently overseen by patient advocates. It refers to the planning and coordination of health care services appropriate to achieve the goal of medical rehabilitation. Medical case management may include, but is not limited to, care assessment, including personal interview with the injured employee, and assistance in developing, implementing and coordinating a medical care plan with health care providers, as well as the employee and his/her family and evaluation of treatment results. Medical case management requires the evaluation of a medical condition, developing and implementing a plan of care, coordinating medical resources, communicated healthcare needs to the individual, monitors an individual's progress and promotes cost-effective care. The term also has usage in the USA health care system, referring to the case management coordination in the managed care environment. == See also == Case management (mental health) Disease management (health) Case management (US healthcare system) == References == == External links == Case Management at the U.S. National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) "Medical case management do's & dont's". michigan.gov.


id: medical-consensus-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_consensus-0.md
category: reference
title: Medical consensus
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_consensus
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:40.055733+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-consensus-20260505-0
summary:
Medical consensus is a public statement on a particular aspect of medical knowledge at the time the statement is made that a representative group of experts agree to be evidence-based and state-of-the-art (state-of-the-science) knowledge. Its main objective is to counsel physicians on the best possible and acceptable way to diagnose and treat certain diseases or how to address a particular decision-making area. It is usually, therefore, considered an authoritative, community-based expression of a consensus decision-making and publication process. == Methods == There are many ways of producing medical consensus, but the most usual way is to convene an independent panel of experts, either by a medical association or by a governmental authority. Since consensus statements provide a "snapshot in time" of the state of knowledge in a particular topic, they must periodically be re-evaluated and published again, replacing the previous consensus statement. Consensus statements differ from medical guidelines, another form of state-of-the-science public statements. According to the NIH, "Consensus statements synthesize new information, largely from recent or ongoing medical research, that has implications for reevaluation of routine medical practices. They do not give specific algorithms or guidelines for practice." == History == From 1977 to 2013, the National Institutes of


id: medical-diagnosis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_diagnosis-0.md
category: reference
title: Medical diagnosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_diagnosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:41.364881+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-diagnosis-20260505-0
summary:
Medical diagnosis (abbreviated as Dx, Dx, or Ds) is the process of determining which disease or condition explains a person's symptoms and signs. It is most often referred to as a diagnosis with the medical context being implicit. The information required for a diagnosis is typically collected from a history and physical examination of the person seeking medical care. Often, one or more diagnostic procedures, such as medical tests, are also done during the process. Sometimes the posthumous diagnosis is considered a kind of medical diagnosis. Diagnosis is often challenging because many signs and symptoms are nonspecific. For example, redness of the skin (erythema), by itself, is a sign of many disorders and thus does not tell the healthcare professional what is wrong. Thus differential diagnosis, in which several possible explanations are compared and contrasted, must be performed. This involves the correlation of various pieces of information followed by the recognition and differentiation of patterns. Occasionally the process is made easy by a sign or symptom (or a group of several) that is pathognomonic. Diagnosis is a major component of the procedure of a doctor's visit. From the point of view of statistics, the diagnostic procedure involves classification tests. The


id: medical-diagnosis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_diagnosis-1.md
category: reference
title: Medical diagnosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_diagnosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:41.364881+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-diagnosis-20260505-0
summary:
=== Pattern recognition === In a pattern recognition method the provider uses experience to recognize a pattern of clinical characteristics. It is mainly based on certain symptoms or signs being associated with certain diseases or conditions, not necessarily involving the more cognitive processing involved in a differential diagnosis. This may be the primary method used in cases where diseases are "obvious", or the provider's experience may enable him or her to recognize the condition quickly. Theoretically, a certain pattern of signs or symptoms can be directly associated with a certain therapy, even without a definite decision regarding what is the actual disease, but such a compromise carries a substantial risk of missing a diagnosis which actually has a different therapy so it may be limited to cases where no diagnosis can be made. === Diagnostic criteria === The term diagnostic criteria designates the specific combination of signs and symptoms, and test results that the clinician uses to attempt to determine the correct diagnosis. Some examples of diagnostic criteria, also known as clinical case definitions, are: Amsterdam criteria for hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer McDonald criteria for multiple sclerosis ACR criteria for systemic lupus erythematosus Centor criteria for strep throat === Clinical


id: medical-diagnosis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_diagnosis-2.md
category: reference
title: Medical diagnosis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_diagnosis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:41.364881+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-diagnosis-20260505-0
summary:
=== Social context === Diagnosis can take many forms. It might be a matter of naming the disease, lesion, dysfunction or disability. It might be a management-naming or prognosis-naming exercise. It may indicate either degree of abnormality on a continuum or kind of abnormality in a classification. It is influenced by non-medical factors such as power, ethics and financial incentives for patient or doctor. It can be a brief summation or an extensive formulation, even taking the form of a story or metaphor. It might be a means of communication such as a computer code through which it triggers payment, prescription, notification, information or advice. It might be pathogenic or salutogenic. It is generally uncertain and provisional. Once a diagnostic opinion has been reached, the provider is able to propose a management plan, which will include treatment as well as plans for follow-up. From this point on, in addition to treating the patient's condition, the provider can educate the patient about the etiology, progression, prognosis, other outcomes, and possible treatments of her or his ailments, as well as providing advice for maintaining health. A treatment plan is proposed which may include therapy and follow-up consultations and tests to monitor the


id: medical-guideline-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_guideline-0.md
category: reference
title: Medical guideline
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_guideline
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:30:42.677693+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: medical-guideline-20260505-0
summary:
A medical guideline (also called a clinical guideline, standard treatment guideline, or clinical practice guideline) is a document with the aim of guiding decisions and criteria regarding diagnosis, management, and treatment in specific areas of healthcare. Such documents have been in use for thousands of years during the entire history of medicine. However, in contrast to previous approaches, which were often based on tradition or authority, modern medical guidelines are based on an examination of current evidence within the paradigm of evidence-based medicine. They usually include summarized consensus statements on best practice in healthcare. A healthcare provider is obliged to know the medical guidelines of their profession, and has to decide whether to follow the recommendations of a guideline for an individual treatment. == Background == Modern clinical guidelines identify, summarize and evaluate the highest quality evidence and most current data about prevention, diagnosis, prognosis, therapy including dosage of medications, risk/benefit and cost-effectiveness. Then they define the most important questions related to clinical practice and identify all possible decision options and their outcomes. Some guidelines contain decision or computation algorithms to be followed. Thus, they integrate the identified decision points and respective courses of action with the clinical judgement and


