# kb

id: fluidization-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluidization-1.md
category: reference
title: Fluidization
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluidization
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:47:54.289691+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fluidization-20260505-0
summary:
Fluidized solids can be easily transferred between reactors. The intense mixing within a fluidized bed means that its temperature is uniform. There is excellent heat transfer between a fluidized bed and heat exchangers immersed in the bed. In the 1920s, the Winkler process was developed to gasify coal in a fluidized bed, using oxygen. It was not commercially successful. The first large scale commercial implementation, in the early 1940s, was the fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) process, which converted heavier petroleum cuts into gasoline. Carbon-rich "coke" deposits on the catalyst particles and deactivates the catalyst in less than 1 second. The fluidized catalyst particles are shuttled between the fluidized bed reactor and a fluidized bed burner where the coke deposits are burned off, generating heat for the endothermic cracking reaction. By the 1950s, fluidized bed technology was being applied to mineral and metallurgical processes such as drying, calcining, and sulfide roasting. In the 1960s, several fluidized bed processes dramatically reduced the cost of some important monomers. Examples are the Sohio process for acrylonitrile and the oxychlorination process for vinyl chloride. These chemical reactions are highly exothermic and fluidization ensures a uniform temperature, minimizing unwanted side reactions, and efficient heat transfer to


id: fluidized-bed-combustion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluidized_bed_combustion-0.md
category: reference
title: Fluidized bed combustion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluidized_bed_combustion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:47:55.510744+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fluidized-bed-combustion-20260505-0
summary:
Fluidized bed combustion (FBC) is a combustion technology used to burn solid fuels. In its most basic form, fuel particles are suspended in a hot, bubbling fluidity bed of ash and other particulate materials (sand, limestone etc.) through which jets of air are blown to provide the oxygen required for combustion or gasification. The resultant fast and intimate mixing of gas and solids promotes rapid heat transfer and chemical reactions within the bed. FBC plants are capable of burning a variety of low-grade solid fuels, including most types of coal, coal waste and woody biomass, at high efficiency and without the necessity for expensive fuel preparation (e.g., pulverising). In addition, for any given thermal duty, FBCs are smaller than the equivalent conventional furnace, so may offer significant advantages over the latter in terms of cost and flexibility. FBC reduces the amount of sulfur emitted in the form of SOx emissions. Limestone is used to precipitate out sulfate during combustion, which also allows more efficient heat transfer from the boiler to the apparatus used to capture the heat energy (usually water tubes). The heated precipitate coming in direct contact with the tubes (heating by conduction) increases the efficiency. This allows coal


id: fluoroether-e-1-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluoroether_E-1-0.md
category: reference
title: Fluoroether E-1
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluoroether_E-1
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:47:56.739256+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fluoroether-e-1-20260505-0
summary:
Fluoroether E-1 (known chemically as heptafluoropropyl 1,2,2,2-tetrafluoroethyl ether, is a chemical compound that is among the class of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). This synthetic fluorochemical is used in the GenX process, and may arise from the degradation of GenX chemicals including FRD-903. == Production == The main production of Fluoroether E-1 is within the GenX process where FRD-903 (2,3,3,3-tetrafluoro-2-(heptafluoropropoxy)propanoic acid) is used to generate (FRD-902) ammonium 2,3,3,3-tetrafluoro-2-(heptafluoropropoxy)propanoate, and Fluoroether E-1 (heptafluoropropyl 1,2,2,2-tetrafluoroethyl ether). == Properties == Fluoroether E-1 is a colorless liquid that is practically insoluble in water. It is volatile and has a low boiling point. == References ==


id: 6-2-fluorotelomersulfonic-acid-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6:2-Fluorotelomersulfonic_acid-0.md
category: reference
title: 6:2-Fluorotelomersulfonic acid
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6:2-Fluorotelomersulfonic_acid
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:47:57.862696+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 6-2-fluorotelomersulfonic-acid-20260505-0
summary:
6:2-fluorotelomersulfonic acid (6:2-FTS) is a chemical compound that belongs to the group of fluorotelomersulfonic acids within the broader class of per- and polyfluorinated alkyl compounds (PFAS). Due to its structural similarity to perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS), it is also called H4PFOS. == Production == 6:2-Fluorotelomersulfonic acid is produced via telomerization. In addition, it is also formed, for example, from some perfluorocarboxybetaines after their splitting. == Usage == 6:2-Fluorotelomersulfonic acid and its derivatives are used as a replacement product for perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) or its salts in fire-fighting foams. 6:2-FTS has also been used in the chromium plating industry to reduce mist formation during plating. == References ==


id: foam-separation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foam_separation-0.md
category: reference
title: Foam separation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foam_separation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:47:59.013110+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: foam-separation-20260505-0
summary:
Foam separation is a chemical process which falls into a category of separation techniques called "Adsorptive bubble separation methods". It is further divided into froth flotation and foam fractionation. Foam separation is essential in order to prevent contamination of fermentation medium through the foam by external microbes. == References ==


id: formox-process-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formox_process-0.md
category: reference
title: Formox process
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formox_process
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:48:00.187149+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: formox-process-20260505-0
summary:
The Formox process produces formaldehyde. Formox is a registered trademark owned by Johnson Matthey. The process was originally invented jointly by Swedish chemical company Perstorp and Reichhold Chemicals. Industrially, formaldehyde is produced by catalytic oxidation of methanol. The most commonly used catalysts are silver metal or a mixture of an iron oxide with molybdenum and/or vanadium. In the recently more commonly used Formox process using iron oxide and molybdenum and/or vanadium, methanol and oxygen react at 300-400°C to produce formaldehyde according to the chemical equation: CH3OH + ½ O2 → H2CO + H2O. The silver-based catalyst (see also: the Fasil process) is usually operated at a higher temperature, about 650 °C. On it, two chemical reactions simultaneously produce formaldehyde: the one shown above, and the dehydrogenation reaction: CH3OH → H2CO + H2 Further oxidation of the formaldehyde product during its production usually gives formic acid that is found in formaldehyde solution, found in parts per million values. == References ==


id: fowler-process-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fowler_process-0.md
category: reference
title: Fowler process
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fowler_process
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:48:01.371535+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fowler-process-20260505-0
summary:
The Fowler process is an industry and laboratory route to fluorocarbons, by fluorinating hydrocarbons or their partially fluorinated derivatives in the vapor phase over cobalt(III) fluoride. == Background == The Manhattan Project required the production and handling of uranium hexafluoride for uranium enrichment, whether by diffusion or centrifuge. Uranium hexafluoride is very corrosive, oxidising, volatile solid (sublimes at 56 °C). To handle this material, several new materials were required, including a coolant liquid that could survive contact with uranium hexafluoride. Perfluorocarbons were identified as ideal materials, but at that point no method was available to produce them in any significant quantity. The problem is that fluorine gas is extremely reactive. Simply exposing a hydrocarbon to fluorine will cause the hydrocarbon to ignite. A way to moderate the reaction was required, and the method developed was to react the hydrocarbon with cobalt(III) fluoride, rather than fluorine itself. After World War II, much of the technology that had been kept secret was released into the public domain. The March 1947 issue of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry presented a collection of articles about fluorine chemistry, starting with the generation and handling of fluorine, and going on to discuss the synthesis of organofluorides and


id: frank-caro-process-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank–Caro_process-0.md
category: reference
title: Frank–Caro process
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank–Caro_process
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:48:02.549271+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: frank-caro-process-20260505-0
summary:
The Frank–Caro process, also called cyanamide process, is the nitrogen fixation reaction of calcium carbide with nitrogen gas in a reactor vessel at about 1,000 °C. The reaction is exothermic and self-sustaining once the reaction temperature is reached. Originally the reaction took place in large steel cylinders with an electrical resistance element providing initial heat to start the reaction. Modern production uses rotating ovens. The synthesis produces a solid mixture of calcium cyanamide (CaCN2), also known as nitrolime, and carbon. CaC2 + N2 → CaCN2 + C == History == The Frank–Caro process was the first commercial process that was used worldwide to fix atmospheric nitrogen. The product was used as fertilizer and commercially known as Lime-Nitrogen. Nitrolim or Kalkstickstoff in German. The method was developed by the German chemists Adolph Frank and Nikodem Caro between 1895 and 1899. In its first decades, the world market for inorganic fertilizer was dominated by factories utilizing the cyanamide process. === Production facilities === The first full-scale factories were established in 1905 in Piano d´Orta (Italy) and Westeregeln (Germany). From 1908 the Frank–Caro process was used at North Western Cyanamide Company at Odda, Norway. With an annual production capacity of 12,000 ton from


id: galvanization-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galvanization-0.md
category: reference
title: Galvanization
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galvanization
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:48:03.729256+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: galvanization-20260505-0
summary:
Galvanization (also spelled galvanisation) is the process of applying a protective zinc coating to steel or iron, to prevent rusting. The most common method is hot-dip galvanizing, in which the parts are coated by submerging them in a bath of hot, molten zinc. Galvanized steel is widely used in applications where corrosion resistance is needed without the cost of stainless steel, and is considered superior in terms of cost and life-cycle. It can be identified by the crystallization patterning on the surface (often called a "spangle"). Galvanized steel can be welded; however, welding gives off toxic zinc fumes. Galvanized fumes are released when the galvanized metal reaches a certain temperature. This temperature varies by the galvanization process used. In long-term, continuous exposure, the recommended maximum temperature for hot-dip galvanized steel is 200 °C (392 °F), according to the American Galvanizers Association. The use of galvanized steel at temperatures above this will result in peeling of the zinc at the inter-metallic layer. Like other corrosion protection systems, galvanizing protects steel by acting as a barrier between steel and the atmosphere. However, zinc is a more electropositive (active) metal in comparison to steel. This is a unique characteristic for galvanizing, which means


id: chemical-garden-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_garden-0.md
category: reference
title: Chemical garden
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_garden
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:48:04.929522+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chemical-garden-20260505-0
summary:
A chemical garden is a set of complex biological-looking structures created by mixing inorganic chemicals. This experiment in chemistry is usually performed by adding metal salts, such as copper sulfate or cobalt(II) chloride, to an aqueous solution of sodium silicate (otherwise known as waterglass). This results in the growth of plant-like forms in minutes to hours. The chemical garden was first observed and described by Johann Rudolf Glauber in 1646. In its original form, the chemical garden involved the introduction of ferrous chloride (FeCl2) crystals into a solution of potassium silicate (K2SiO3). == Process == The chemical garden relies on most transition metal silicates being insoluble in water and colored. When a metal salt, such as cobalt chloride, is added to a sodium silicate solution, it will start to dissolve. It will then form insoluble cobalt silicate by a double displacement reaction. This cobalt silicate is a semipermeable membrane. Because the ionic strength of the cobalt solution inside the membrane is higher than the sodium silicate solution's, which forms the bulk of the tank contents, osmotic effects will increase the pressure within the membrane. This will cause the membrane to tear, forming a hole. The cobalt cations will react with


id: glycol-dehydration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycol_dehydration-0.md
category: reference
title: Glycol dehydration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycol_dehydration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:48:06.124014+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glycol-dehydration-20260505-0
summary:
Glycol dehydration is a liquid desiccant system for the removal of water from natural gas and natural gas liquids (NGL). It is the most common and economical means of water removal from these streams. Glycols typically seen in industry include triethylene glycol (TEG), diethylene glycol (DEG), ethylene glycol (MEG), and tetraethylene glycol (TREG). TEG is the most commonly used glycol in industry. == Purpose == The purpose of a glycol dehydration unit is to remove water from natural gas and natural gas liquids. When produced from a reservoir, natural gas usually contains a large amount of water and is typically completely saturated or at the water dew point. This water can cause several problems for downstream processes and equipment. At low temperatures the water can either freeze in piping or, as is more commonly the case, form hydrates with CO2 and hydrocarbons (mainly methane hydrates). Depending on composition, these hydrates can form at relatively high temperatures plugging equipment and piping. Glycol dehydration units depress the hydrate formation point of the gas through water removal. Without dehydration, a free water phase (liquid water) could also drop out of the natural gas as it is either cooled or the pressure is lowered


id: haber-process-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haber_process-0.md
category: reference
title: Haber process
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haber_process
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:48:07.304456+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: haber-process-20260505-0
summary:
The Haber process, also called the Haber–Bosch process, is the main industrial procedure for the production of ammonia. It converts atmospheric nitrogen (N2) to ammonia (NH3) by a reaction with hydrogen (H2) using finely divided iron metal as a catalyst: N 2 + 3 H 2 ↽ − − ⇀ 2 NH 3 Δ H 298 K ∘ = − 92.28 kJ per mole of N 2 {\displaystyle {\ce {N2 + 3H2 <=> 2NH3}}\qquad {\Delta H_{\mathrm {298~K} }^{\circ }=-92.28~{\text{kJ per mole of }}{\ce {N2}}}} This reaction is exothermic but disfavored in terms of entropy because four equivalents of reactant gases are converted into two equivalents of product gas. However, due to the extremely high kinetic barriers to bond cleavage, high pressures and temperatures are needed to drive the reaction forward. The German chemists Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch developed the process in the first decade of the 20th century, and its improved efficiency over existing methods such as the Birkeland–Eyde and Frank–Caro processes was a major advancement in the industrial production of ammonia. The Haber process can be combined with steam reforming to produce ammonia with just three chemical inputs: water, natural gas, and atmospheric nitrogen. Both Haber and Bosch


id: haber-process-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haber_process-1.md
category: reference
title: Haber process
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haber_process
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:48:07.304456+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: haber-process-20260505-0
summary:
Combined with the energy needed to produce hydrogen and purified atmospheric nitrogen, ammonia production is energy-intensive, accounting for 1–2% of global energy consumption, 3% of global carbon emissions, and 3% to 5% of natural gas consumption. Hydrogen required for ammonia synthesis is most often produced through gasification of hydrocarbons, mostly natural gas, but other potential hydrogen sources include coal, petroleum, peat, biomass, or waste. As of 2012, the global production of ammonia produced from natural gas using the steam reforming process was 72%; however, in China as of 2022, natural gas and coal were responsible for 20% and 75% respectively. Hydrogen can also be produced from water and electricity using electrolysis: at one time, most of Europe's ammonia was produced from the Hydro plant at Vemork. Other possibilities include biological hydrogen production or photolysis, but at present, steam reforming of natural gas is the most economical means of mass-producing hydrogen. The choice of catalyst is important for synthesizing ammonia. In 2012, Hideo Hosono's group reported ammonia synthesis using Ru-loaded calcium-aluminium oxide C12A7:e− electride, describing the electride as an electron donor and reversible hydrogen store. Subsequent work studied nitrogen dissociation and catalytic mechanisms on Ru-loaded C12A7:e−. This method is implemented in


id: haber-process-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haber_process-2.md
category: reference
title: Haber process
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haber_process
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:48:07.304456+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: haber-process-20260505-0
summary:
where ϕ ^ i {\displaystyle {\hat {\phi }}_{i}} is the fugacity coefficient of species i {\displaystyle i} , y i {\displaystyle y_{i}} is the mole fraction of the same species, P {\displaystyle P} is the reactor pressure, and P ∘ {\displaystyle P^{\circ }} is standard pressure, typically 1 bar (0.10 MPa). Economically, reactor pressurization is expensive: pipes, valves, and reaction vessels need to be strong enough, and safety considerations affect operating at 20 MPa. Compressors take considerable energy, as work must be done on the (compressible) gas. Thus, the compromise used gives a single-pass yield of around 15%. While removing the ammonia from the system increases the reaction yield, this step is not used in practice, since the temperature is too high; instead it is removed from the gases leaving the reaction vessel. The hot gases are cooled under high pressure, allowing the ammonia to condense and be removed as a liquid. Unreacted hydrogen and nitrogen gases are returned to the reaction vessel for another round. While most ammonia is removed (typically down to 2–5 mol.%), some ammonia remains in the recycle stream. In academic literature, a more complete separation of ammonia has been proposed by absorption in metal halides,


id: haber-process-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haber_process-3.md
category: reference
title: Haber process
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haber_process
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:48:07.304456+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: haber-process-20260505-0
summary:
=== Catalysts other than iron === Many efforts have been made to improve the Haber–Bosch process. Many metals were tested as catalysts. The requirement for suitability is the dissociative adsorption of nitrogen (i. e. the nitrogen molecule must be split into nitrogen atoms upon adsorption). If the binding of the nitrogen is too strong, the catalyst is blocked and the catalytic ability is reduced (self-poisoning). The elements in the periodic table to the left of the iron group show such strong bonds. Further, the formation of surface nitrides makes, for example, chromium catalysts ineffective. Metals to the right of the iron group, in contrast, adsorb nitrogen too weakly for ammonia synthesis. Haber initially used catalysts based on osmium and uranium. Uranium reacts to its nitride during catalysis, while osmium oxide is rare. According to theoretical and practical studies, improvements over pure iron are limited. The activity of iron catalysts is increased by the inclusion of cobalt. ==== Ruthenium ==== Ruthenium forms highly active catalysts. Allowing milder operating pressures and temperatures, Ru-based materials are referred to as second-generation catalysts. Such catalysts are prepared by the decomposition of triruthenium dodecacarbonyl on graphite. A drawback of activated-carbon-supported ruthenium-based catalysts is the methanation of


id: haber-process-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haber_process-4.md
category: reference
title: Haber process
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haber_process
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:48:07.304456+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: haber-process-20260505-0
summary:
The methane gas reacts in the primary reformer only partially. To increase the hydrogen yield and keep the content of inert components (i. e. methane) as low as possible, the remaining methane gas is converted in a second step with oxygen to hydrogen and carbon monoxide in the secondary reformer. The secondary reformer is supplied with air as the oxygen source. Also, the required nitrogen for the subsequent ammonia synthesis is added to the gas mixture. 2 CH 4 ( g ) + O 2 ( g ) ⟶ 2 CO ( g ) + 4 H 2 ( g ) Δ H ∘ = − 71 kJ / mol {\displaystyle {\ce {{2CH4_{(g)}}+O2_{(g)}->{2CO_{(g)}}+4H2_{(g)}}}\qquad {\Delta H^{\circ }=-71\ {\ce {kJ/mol}}}} In the third step, the carbon monoxide is oxidized to carbon dioxide, which is called CO conversion or water–gas shift reaction. CO ( g ) + H 2 O ( g ) ⟶ CO 2 ( g ) + H 2 ( g ) Δ H ∘ = − 41 kJ / mol {\displaystyle {\ce {{CO_{(g)}}+H2O(g)->{CO2_{(g)}}+H2_{(g)}}}\qquad {\Delta H^{\circ }=-41\ {\ce {kJ/mol}}}} Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide would form carbamates with ammonia, which would clog (as solids) pipelines and apparatus within a short


id: haber-process-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haber_process-5.md
category: reference
title: Haber process
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haber_process
date_saved: 2026-05-05T10:48:07.304456+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: haber-process-20260505-0
summary:
N2 → S*–N2 (γ-species) → S*–N2–S* (α-species) → 2 S*–N (β-species, surface nitride) The adsorption of nitrogen is similar to the chemisorption of carbon monoxide. On a Fe(111) surface, the adsorption of nitrogen first leads to an adsorbed γ-species with an adsorption energy of 24 kJmol−1 and an N-N stretch vibration of 2100 cm−1. Since the nitrogen is isoelectronic to carbon monoxide, it adsorbs in an on-end configuration in which the molecule is bound perpendicular to the metal surface at one nitrogen atom. This has been confirmed by photoelectron spectroscopy. Ab-initio-MO calculations have shown that, in addition to the σ binding of the free electron pair of nitrogen to the metal, there is a π binding from the d orbitals of the metal to the π* orbitals of nitrogen, which strengthens the iron-nitrogen bond. The nitrogen in the α state is more strongly bound with 31 kJmol−1. The resulting N–N bond weakening could be experimentally confirmed by a reduction of the wave numbers of the N–N stretching oscillation to 1490 cm−1. Further heating of the Fe(111) area covered by α-N2 leads to both desorption and the emergence of a new band at 450 cm−1. This represents a metal-nitrogen oscillation, the


