# kb

id: philosophy-of-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Philosophy of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:09.106686+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophy-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Should science aim to determine ultimate truth, or are there questions that science cannot answer? Scientific realists claim that science aims at truth and that one ought to regard scientific theories as true, approximately true, or likely true. Conversely, scientific anti-realists argue that science does not aim (or at least does not succeed) at truth, especially truth about unobservables like electrons or other universes. Instrumentalists argue that scientific theories should only be evaluated on whether they are useful. In their view, whether theories are true or not is beside the point, because the purpose of science is to make predictions and enable effective technology. Realists often point to the success of recent scientific theories as evidence for the truth (or near truth) of current theories. Antirealists point to either the many false theories in the history of science, epistemic morals, the success of false modeling assumptions, or widely termed postmodern criticisms of objectivity as evidence against scientific realism. Antirealists attempt to explain the success of scientific theories without reference to truth. Some antirealists claim that scientific theories aim at being accurate only about observable objects and argue that their success is primarily judged by that criterion. ==== Real patterns ====


id: philosophy-of-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Philosophy of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:09.106686+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophy-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Instrumentalism became popular among physicists around the turn of the 20th century, after which logical positivism defined the field for several decades. Logical positivism accepts only testable statements as meaningful, rejects metaphysical interpretations, and embraces verificationism (a set of theories of knowledge that combines logicism, empiricism, and linguistics to ground philosophy on a basis consistent with examples from the empirical sciences). Seeking to overhaul all of philosophy and convert it to a new scientific philosophy, the Berlin Circle and the Vienna Circle propounded logical positivism in the late 1920s. Interpreting Ludwig Wittgenstein's early philosophy of language, logical positivists identified a verifiability principle or criterion of cognitive meaningfulness. From Bertrand Russell's logicism they sought reduction of mathematics to logic. They also embraced Russell's logical atomism, Ernst Mach's phenomenalism—whereby the mind knows only actual or potential sensory experience, which is the content of all sciences, whether physics or psychology—and Percy Bridgman's operationalism. Thereby, only the verifiable was scientific and cognitively meaningful, whereas the unverifiable was unscientific, cognitively meaningless "pseudostatements"—metaphysical, emotive, or such—not worthy of further review by philosophers, who were newly tasked to organize knowledge rather than develop new knowledge. Logical positivism is commonly portrayed as taking the extreme position that scientific


id: philosophy-of-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science-4.md
category: reference
title: Philosophy of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:09.106686+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophy-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
That there is an objective reality shared by all rational observers."The basis for rationality is acceptance of an external objective reality." "Objective reality is clearly an essential thing if we are to develop a meaningful perspective of the world. Nevertheless its very existence is assumed." "Our belief that objective reality exist is an assumption that it arises from a real world outside of ourselves. As infants we made this assumption unconsciously. People are happy to make this assumption that adds meaning to our sensations and feelings, than live with solipsism." "Without this assumption, there would be only the thoughts and images in our own mind (which would be the only existing mind) and there would be no need of science, or anything else." That this objective reality is governed by natural laws; "Science, at least today, assumes that the universe obeys knowable principles that don't depend on time or place, nor on subjective parameters such as what we think, know or how we behave." Hugh Gauch argues that science presupposes that "the physical world is orderly and comprehensible." That reality can be discovered by means of systematic observation and experimentation.Stanley Sobottka said: "The assumption of external reality is necessary for


id: philosophy-of-science-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science-5.md
category: reference
title: Philosophy of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:09.106686+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophy-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Paul Feyerabend (1924–1994) argued that no description of scientific method could possibly be broad enough to include all the approaches and methods used by scientists, and that there are no useful and exception-free methodological rules governing the progress of science. He argued that "the only principle that does not inhibit progress is: anything goes". Feyerabend said that science started as a liberating movement, but that over time it had become increasingly dogmatic and rigid and had some oppressive features, and thus had become increasingly an ideology. Because of this, he said it was impossible to come up with an unambiguous way to distinguish science from religion, magic, or mythology. He saw the exclusive dominance of science as a means of directing society as authoritarian and ungrounded. Promulgation of this epistemological anarchism earned Feyerabend the title of "the worst enemy of science" from his detractors. === Sociology of scientific knowledge methodology === According to Kuhn, science is an inherently communal activity which can only be done as part of a community. For him, the fundamental difference between science and other disciplines is the way in which the communities function. Others, especially Feyerabend and some post-modernist thinkers, have argued that there is


id: philosophy-of-science-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science-6.md
category: reference
title: Philosophy of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:09.106686+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophy-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Other topics == === Reductionism === Analysis involves breaking an observation or theory down into simpler concepts in order to understand it. Reductionism can refer to one of several philosophical positions related to this approach. One type of reductionism suggests that phenomena are amenable to scientific explanation at lower levels of analysis and inquiry. Perhaps a historical event might be explained in sociological and psychological terms, which in turn might be described in terms of human physiology, which in turn might be described in terms of chemistry and physics. Daniel Dennett distinguishes legitimate reductionism from what he calls greedy reductionism, which denies real complexities and leaps too quickly to sweeping generalizations. === Social accountability === A broad issue affecting the neutrality of science concerns the areas which science chooses to explore—that is, what part of the world and of humankind are studied by science. Philip Kitcher in his Science, Truth, and Democracy argues that scientific studies that attempt to show one segment of the population as being less intelligent, less successful, or emotionally backward compared to others have a political feedback effect which further excludes such groups from access to science. Thus such studies undermine the broad consensus required


id: philosophy-of-science-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science-7.md
category: reference
title: Philosophy of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:09.106686+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophy-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Philosophy of biology deals with epistemological, metaphysical, and ethical issues in the biological and biomedical sciences. Although philosophers of science and philosophers generally have long been interested in biology (e.g., Aristotle, Descartes, Leibniz and even Kant), philosophy of biology only emerged as an independent field of philosophy in the 1960s and 1970s. Philosophers of science began to pay increasing attention to developments in biology, from the rise of the modern synthesis in the 1930s and 1940s to the discovery of the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in 1953 to more recent advances in genetic engineering. Other key ideas such as the reduction of all life processes to biochemical reactions as well as the incorporation of psychology into a broader neuroscience are also addressed. Research in current philosophy of biology includes investigation of the foundations of evolutionary theory (such as Peter Godfrey-Smith's work), and the role of viruses as persistent symbionts in host genomes. As a consequence, the evolution of genetic content order is seen as the result of competent genome editors in contrast to former narratives in which error replication events (mutations) dominated. === Philosophy of medicine === Beyond medical ethics and bioethics, the philosophy of medicine is a branch


id: philosophy-of-science-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science-8.md
category: reference
title: Philosophy of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:09.106686+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophy-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The philosophy of social science is the study of the logic and method of the social sciences, such as sociology and cultural anthropology. Philosophers of social science are concerned with the differences and similarities between the social and the natural sciences, causal relationships between social phenomena, the possible existence of social laws, and the ontological significance of structure and agency. The French philosopher, Auguste Comte (1798–1857), established the epistemological perspective of positivism in The Course in Positivist Philosophy, a series of texts published between 1830 and 1842. The first three volumes of the Course dealt chiefly with the natural sciences already in existence (geoscience, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology), whereas the latter two emphasised the inevitable coming of social science: "sociologie". For Comte, the natural sciences had to necessarily arrive first, before humanity could adequately channel its efforts into the most challenging and complex "Queen science" of human society itself. Comte offers an evolutionary system proposing that society undergoes three phases in its quest for the truth according to a general 'law of three stages'. These are (1) the theological, (2) the metaphysical, and (3) the positive. Comte's positivism established the initial philosophical foundations for formal sociology and social research. Durkheim,


id: proofs-and-refutations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proofs_and_Refutations-0.md
category: reference
title: Proofs and Refutations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proofs_and_Refutations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:14.943371+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: proofs-and-refutations-20260505-0
summary:
Proofs and Refutations: The Logic of Mathematical Discovery is a 1976 book by philosopher Imre Lakatos expounding his view of the progress of mathematics. The book is written as a series of Socratic dialogues involving a group of students who discuss proposed proofs of Euler's polyhedral formula. A central theme is that definitions are not carved in stone, but often have to be patched up in the light of later insights, in particular failed proofs. This gives mathematics a somewhat experimental flavour. At the end of the Introduction, Lakatos explains that his purpose is to challenge formalism in mathematics, and to show that informal mathematics grows by a logic of "proofs and refutations". == Background == The 1976 book Proofs and Refutations is based on the first three chapters of his 1961 four-chapter doctoral thesis Essays in the Logic of Mathematical Discovery. But its first chapter is Lakatos's own revision of its chapter 1 that was first published as Proofs and Refutations in four parts in 1963–4 in the British Journal for the Philosophy of Science. == Synopsis == Many important logical ideas are explained in the book. For example, the difference between a counterexample to a lemma (a so-called


id: richard-dawkins-how-a-scientist-changed-the-way-we-think-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Dawkins:_How_a_Scientist_Changed_the_Way_We_Think-0.md
category: reference
title: Richard Dawkins: How a Scientist Changed the Way We Think
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Dawkins:_How_a_Scientist_Changed_the_Way_We_Think
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:16.286866+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: richard-dawkins-how-a-scientist-changed-the-way-we-think-20260505-0
summary:
Richard Dawkins: How a Scientist Changed the Way We Think is a festschrift of 25 essays written in recognition of the life and work of Richard Dawkins. It was published in 2006, to coincide with the 30th anniversary of the publication of The Selfish Gene. A wide range of topics is covered from many fields including evolutionary biology, philosophy, and psychology. Space is also given to writers who are not in full agreement with Dawkins. The book is edited by two of Dawkins' former PhD students, Alan Grafen and Mark Ridley. (ISBN 9780199291168) == Reception == The reviews of the book have been mixed, but the controversial title phrase, "How a Scientist Changed the Way We Think" has been explained by considering Dawkins to have worked as an influential educator and concise author, of The Selfish Gene, who promoted the key ideas of others about evolutionary biology, also including some controversial ideas which are not as widely accepted. As the author of a popular science book, Dawkins had popularized ideas by George Williams in critiquing group selection, William Hamilton on the theory of kin selection in evolution, biologist/geneticist John Maynard Smith on evolutionarily stable strategies, and Robert Trivers about reciprocal


id: science-and-civilisation-in-china-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China-0.md
category: reference
title: Science and Civilisation in China
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:17.599687+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-civilisation-in-china-20260505-0
summary:
Science and Civilisation in China (1954–present) is an ongoing series of books about the history of science and technology in China published by Cambridge University Press. It was initiated and edited by British historian Joseph Needham (1900–1995). Needham was a well-respected scientist before undertaking this encyclopedia and was even responsible for the "S" in UNESCO. To date there have been seven volumes in twenty-seven books. The series was on the Modern Library Board's 100 Best Nonfiction books of the 20th century. Needham's work was the first of its kind to praise Chinese scientific contributions and provide their history and connection to global knowledge in contrast to eurocentric historiography. By asking his grand questions: why did modern science not develop in China, and why China was technologically superior to the West prior to the 16th century, Needham’s Science and Civilisation in China is also recognized as one of the most influential works in stimulating the discourse on the multicultural roots of modern science. In 1954, Needham—along with an international team of collaborators—initiated the project to study the science, technology, and civilisation of ancient China. This project produced a series of volumes published by Cambridge University Press. The project is still continuing


id: science-and-civilisation-in-china-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China-1.md
category: reference
title: Science and Civilisation in China
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:17.599687+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-civilisation-in-china-20260505-0
summary:
=== Critical acclaim === Groff Conklin of Galaxy Science Fiction in 1955 said that Vol. 1 "presents a richly patterned tapestry of the development of civilization in the Far East", and that "it is for everyone who is intrigued by the unknown, whether future (science fiction) or past (scientific history)". Jonathan Spence wrote in a 1982 New York Times article "this work is the most ambitious undertaking in Chinese studies during this century". The New York Times obituary for Needham stated that students of China hail Needham's encyclopedia and compare him to Charles Darwin in terms of importance regarding scientific knowledge. In 1999 Roger Hart published Beyond Science and Civilization: A Post-Needham Critique giving more analysis of Needham's work about how sciences of the West and China differed in practice to make for different historical attributes. According to Arun Bala, the author of The Dialogue of Civilizations in the Birth of Modern Science, Needham postulates that scientific knowledge may evolve to more closely resemble Chinese philosophical views of nature; signifying his belief in Chinese inherent wisdom. === Criticism from scholars === Science and Civilisation in China was welcomed and is highly regarded among scholars because of its extensive comparative coverage


id: science-and-civilisation-in-china-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China-2.md
category: reference
title: Science and Civilisation in China
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:17.599687+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-civilisation-in-china-20260505-0
summary:
=== Scholarly Discourse === In the late 1950s and early 1960s, in response to Needham’s Science and Civilisation in China, Western historians insisted that modern science was unique to Western civilizations. Scholars like Roger Hart stated that Needham’s work was significant in helping change the criteria for defining modern science. In Hart’s Imagined Civilizations: China, The West, and Their First Encounter, Hart introduces the idea of the “Great Divide” between “the primitive non-West and the modern West” in the history of science. Hart explains the concept of the “Great Divide” as the perception that non-Western civilizations practiced false sciences and he criticizes the Eurocentric claim that the development of modern science was uniquely Western. Bala’s The Dialogue of Civilizations in the Birth of Modern Science examines historical and epistemological presumptions in order to break from the Eurocentric view of the development of modern science. Needham’s juxtaposition of the attributes of Eastern and Western science influenced Bala to postulate that the future of science could be close to the Chinese view of nature. Needham and his co-authors are credited for amassing a plethora of evidence regarding the influence and contributions of Chinese technologies and ideas that allowed for the growth of


id: scientific-communication-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_communication-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific communication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_communication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:21.331036+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-communication-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific communication is a part of information science and the sociology of science which study researchers' use of formal and informal information channels, their communicative roles (e.g., "gatekeepers"), the utilization of the formal publication system and similar issues. == Literature == Björk, B.C. (2005). A lifecycle model of the scientific communication process. LEARNED PUBLISHING, 18(3), 165–176. Fjordback Søndergaard, Trine; Andersen, Jack & Hjørland, Birger (2003). Documents and the communication of scientific and scholarly information. Revising and updating the UNISIST model. Hurd, J. M. (2000). The transformation of scientific communication: A model for 2020. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 51(14), 1279–1283. Kling, R. & McKim, G. (2000). Not just a matter of time: Field differences and the shaping of electronic media in supporting scientific communication. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR INFORMATION SCIENCE, 51(14), 1306–1320. Nelson, C. E. & Pollock, D. K. (Eds.). (1970). Communication Among Scientists and Engineers. Lexington, Massachusetts: Health Lexington Books. Meadows, A. J. (1974). Communication in Science. London: Butterworths. Meadows, A. J. (1998). Communicating Research. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Mogull, S. A. (2017). Scientific and Medical Communication: A Guide for Effective Practice. New York: Routledge. Vickery, B. (2000). Scientific Communication in History. Lanham,


id: scientific-community-metaphor-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_community_metaphor-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific community metaphor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_community_metaphor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:22.603136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-community-metaphor-20260505-0
summary:
In computer science, the scientific community metaphor is a metaphor used to aid understanding scientific communities. The first publications on the scientific community metaphor in 1981 and 1982 involved the development of a programming language named Ether that invoked procedural plans to process goals and assertions concurrently by dynamically creating new rules during program execution. Ether also addressed issues of conflict and contradiction with multiple sources of knowledge and multiple viewpoints. == Development == The scientific community metaphor builds on the philosophy, history and sociology of science. It was originally developed building on work in the philosophy of science by Karl Popper and Imre Lakatos. In particular, it initially made use of Lakatos' work on proofs and refutations. Subsequently, development has been influenced by the work of Geof Bowker, Michel Callon, Paul Feyerabend, Elihu M. Gerson, Bruno Latour, John Law, Karl Popper, Susan Leigh Star, Anselm Strauss, and Lucy Suchman. In particular Latour's Science in Action had great influence. In the book, Janus figures make paradoxical statements about scientific development. An important challenge for the scientific community metaphor is to reconcile these paradoxical statements. == Qualities of scientific research == Scientific research depends critically on monotonicity, concurrency, commutativity, and pluralism


id: scientific-community-metaphor-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_community_metaphor-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientific community metaphor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_community_metaphor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:22.603136+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-community-metaphor-20260505-0
summary:
== Emphasis on communities rather than individuals == Alan Turing was one of the first to attempt to more precisely characterize individual intelligence through the notion of his famous Turing Test. This paradigm was developed and deepened in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon did pioneer work in analyzing the protocols of individual human problem solving behavior on puzzles. More recently Marvin Minsky has developed the idea that the mind of an individual human is composed of a society of agents in Society of Mind (see the analysis by Push Singh). The above research on individual human problem solving is complementary to the scientific community metaphor. == Current applications == Some developments in hardware and software technology for the Internet are being applied in light of the scientific community metaphor.Hewitt 2006 Legal concerns (e.g., HIPAA, Sarbanes-Oxley, "The Books and Records Rules" in SEC Rule 17a-3/4 and "Design Criteria Standard for Electronic Records Management Software Applications" in DOD 5015.2 in the U.S.) are leading organizations to store information monotonically forever. It has just now become less costly in many cases to store information on magnetic disk than on tape. With increasing storage capacity, sites can monotonically


id: the-selfish-gene-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene-0.md
category: reference
title: The Selfish Gene
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:23.752400+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-selfish-gene-20260505-0
summary:
The Selfish Gene is a 1976 popular science book by Richard Dawkins that espouses the gene-centred view of evolution. It builds upon the thesis of George Christopher Williams's Adaptation and Natural Selection (1966) and W. D. Hamilton's work on kin selection. From the gene-centred view, it follows that the more genes two individuals share, the more sense it makes for them to co-operate. The book introduced the term meme for a unit of cultural evolution analogous to the gene. Memetics has become a subject in its own right in the years since. In popularising Hamilton's ideas, as well as making its own valuable contributions to the field, the book has also stimulated research on human inclusive fitness. The "selfish gene" is a metaphor for the gene-centred view of evolution. As such, the book is not about a particular gene that causes selfish behaviour; in fact, much of it is devoted to explaining the evolution of altruism. Dawkins says of the title that he "can readily see that it might give an inadequate impression of its contents" and in retrospect wishes he had taken Tom Maschler's advice and titled it The Immortal Gene. He laments that “Too many people read it


id: the-selfish-gene-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene-1.md
category: reference
title: The Selfish Gene
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:23.752400+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-selfish-gene-20260505-0
summary:
9. Battle of the Sexes Dawkins discusses Darwin’s theory of sexual selection. Females can afford to be choosy in their mates, and select for attractive traits in males. Fisher's principle explains why a 50:50 ratio of males to females is evolutionarily stable. This is true even in an extreme case like the harem-keeping elephant seal, where 4% of the males get 88% of copulations. In that case, the strategy of having a female offspring is safe, as she will have a pup, but the strategy of having a male can bring a large return (dozens of pups), even though many males live out their lives as bachelors. 10. You Scratch My back, I’ll Ride on Yours Dawkins discusses reciprocal altruism. Amotz Zahavi's theory of honest signalling explains stotting as a selfish act that improves the springbok's chances of escaping from a predator by indicating how difficult the chase would be. Dawkins discusses why many species live in groups, achieving mutual benefits through mechanisms such as Hamilton's selfish herd model: each individual behaves selfishly but the result is herd behaviour. Altruism can evolve, as in the social insects such as ants and bees, where workers give up the right to reproduce


id: the-selfish-gene-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene-2.md
category: reference
title: The Selfish Gene
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:23.752400+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-selfish-gene-20260505-0
summary:
=== Choice of words === A good deal of objection to The Selfish Gene stemmed from its failure to be always clear about "selection" and "replication". Dawkins says the gene is the fundamental unit of selection, and then points out that selection does not act directly upon the gene, but upon "vehicles" or '"extended phenotypes". Stephen Jay Gould took exception to calling the gene a 'unit of selection' because selection acted only upon phenotypes. Summarising the Dawkins-Gould difference of view, Sterelny says: Gould thinks gene differences do not cause evolutionary changes in populations, they register those changes. The word "cause" here is somewhat tricky: does a change in lottery rules (for example, inheriting a defective gene "responsible" for a disorder) "cause" differences in outcome that might or might not occur? It certainly alters the likelihood of events, but a concatenation of contingencies decides what actually occurs. Dawkins thinks the use of "cause" as a statistical weighting is acceptable in common usage. Like Gould, Gabriel Dover in criticising The Selfish Gene says: It is illegitimate to give 'powers' to genes, as Dawkins would have it, to control the outcome of selection...There are no genes for interactions, as such: rather, each unique


id: the-selfish-gene-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene-3.md
category: reference
title: The Selfish Gene
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:23.752400+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-selfish-gene-20260505-0
summary:
== Awards and recognition == In July 2017 a poll to celebrate the 30th anniversary of the Royal Society Science Book Prize listed The Selfish Gene as the most influential science book of all time. The Royal Institution conducted a poll to determine the best science book ever. The Selfish Gene made the shortlist, along with Tom Stoppard's Arcadia, Konrad Lorenz's King Solomon's Ring and, in first place, Primo Levi's The Periodic Table. Ian McEwan writes that it "stood at the beginning of a golden age of science writing. With a fine sense of literary tradition, the physicist Steven Weinberg, in his book Dreams of a Final Theory, revisited Huxley's lecture on chalk in order to make the case for reductionism. Steven Pinker's application of Darwinian thought to Chomskyan linguistics in The Language Instinct is one of the finest celebrations of language I know. Among many other indispensable 'classics', I would propose EO Wilson's The Diversity of Life on the ecological wonders of the Amazon rain forest, and on the teeming micro-organisms in a handful of soil; David Deutsch's masterly account of the Many Worlds theory in The Fabric of Reality; Jared Diamond's melding of history with biological thought in


id: sociobiology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiology-0.md
category: reference
title: Sociobiology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:24.998969+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sociobiology-20260505-0
summary:
Sociobiology is a field of biology that aims to explain social behavior in terms of evolution. It draws from disciplines including psychology, ethology, anthropology, evolution, zoology, archaeology, and population genetics. Within the study of human societies, sociobiology is closely related to evolutionary anthropology, human behavioral ecology, evolutionary psychology, and sociology. Sociobiology investigates social behaviors such as mating patterns, territorial fights, pack hunting, and the hive society of social insects. It argues that just as selection pressure led to animals evolving useful ways of interacting with the natural environment, so also it led to the genetic evolution of advantageous social behavior. While the term "sociobiology" originated at least as early as the 1940s; the concept did not gain major recognition until the publication of E. O. Wilson's book Sociobiology: The New Synthesis in 1975. The field quickly became the subject of scientific controversy. Critics, led by Richard Lewontin and Stephen Jay Gould, argued that genes played a role in human behavior, but that traits such as aggressiveness could be explained by social environment rather than by biology. Sociobiologists responded by pointing to the complex relationship between nature and nurture. Among sociobiologists, the controversy between laying weight to different levels of selection


id: sociobiology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiology-1.md
category: reference
title: Sociobiology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociobiology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:24.998969+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sociobiology-20260505-0
summary:
Certain behavioral traits are inherited, Inherited behavioral traits have been honed by natural selection and were adaptive in the environment in which they evolved. Sociobiology uses Nikolaas Tinbergen's four questions to search for explanations of animal behavior. Two of these categories are at the species level; two, at the individual level. The species-level categories (often called "ultimate explanations") are the adaptive function that a behavior serves and the historical evolutionary process that resulted in this functionality. The individual-level categories (often called "proximate explanations") are the development of the individual and the proximate mechanism (such as brain anatomy and hormones). === In humans === Studies of human behavior genetics have found behavioral traits such as creativity, extroversion, aggressiveness, and IQ have high heritability. Researchers are careful to point out that heritability does not constrain the influence that environmental or cultural factors may have on these traits. Various theorists have argued that in some environments criminal behavior might be adaptive. The evolutionary neuroandrogenic (ENA) theory, by sociologist/criminologist Lee Ellis, posits that female sexual selection has led to increased competitive behavior among men, sometimes resulting in criminality. In another theory, Mark van Vugt argues that a history of intergroup conflict for resources between


id: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-0.md
category: reference
title: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:26.249284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-0
summary:
The Structure of Scientific Revolutions is a 1962 book about the history of science by the philosopher Thomas S. Kuhn. Its publication was a landmark event in the history, philosophy, and sociology of science. Kuhn challenged the then prevailing view of progress in science in which scientific progress was viewed as "development-by-accumulation" of accepted facts and theories. Kuhn argued for an episodic model in which periods of conceptual continuity and cumulative progress, referred to as periods of "normal science", were interrupted by periods of revolutionary science. The discovery of "anomalies" accumulating and precipitating revolutions in science leads to new paradigms. New paradigms then ask new questions of old data, move beyond the mere "puzzle-solving" of the previous paradigm, alter the rules of the game and change the "map" directing new research. For example, Kuhn's analysis of the Copernican Revolution emphasized that, in its beginning, it did not offer more accurate predictions of celestial events, such as planetary positions, than the Ptolemaic system, but instead appealed to some practitioners based on a promise of better, simpler solutions that might be developed at some point in the future. Kuhn called the core concepts of an ascendant revolution its "paradigms" and thereby launched


id: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-1.md
category: reference
title: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:26.249284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-0
summary:
"The operations and measurements that a scientist undertakes in the laboratory are not "the given" of experience but rather "the collected with difficulty". They are not what the scientist sees—at least not before his research is well advanced and his attention focused. Rather, they are concrete indices to the content of more elementary perceptions, and as such they are selected for the close scrutiny of normal research only because they promise opportunity for the fruitful elaboration of an accepted paradigm. Far more clearly than the immediate experience from which they in part derive, operations and measurements are paradigm-determined. Science does not deal in all possible laboratory manipulations. Instead, it selects those relevant to the juxtaposition of a paradigm with the immediate experience that that paradigm has partially determined. As a result, scientists with different paradigms engage in different concrete laboratory manipulations." === Historical examples of chemistry === Kuhn explains his ideas using examples taken from the history of science. For instance, eighteenth-century scientists believed that homogenous solutions were chemical compounds. Therefore, a combination of water and alcohol was generally classified as a compound. Nowadays it is considered to be a solution, but there was no reason then to suspect that


id: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-2.md
category: reference
title: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:26.249284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-0
summary:
A famous example of a revolution in scientific thought is the Copernican Revolution. In Ptolemy's school of thought, cycles and epicycles (with some additional concepts) were used for modeling the movements of the planets in a cosmos that had a stationary Earth at its center. As accuracy of celestial observations increased, complexity of the Ptolemaic cyclical and epicyclical mechanisms had to increase to maintain the calculated planetary positions close to the observed positions. Copernicus proposed a cosmology in which the Sun was at the center and the Earth was one of the planets revolving around it. For modeling the planetary motions, Copernicus used the tools he was familiar with, namely the cycles and epicycles of the Ptolemaic toolbox. Yet Copernicus' model needed more cycles and epicycles than existed in the then-current Ptolemaic model, and due to a lack of accuracy in calculations, his model did not appear to provide more accurate predictions than the Ptolemy model. Copernicus' contemporaries rejected his cosmology, and Kuhn asserts that they were quite right to do so: Copernicus' cosmology lacked credibility. Kuhn illustrates how a paradigm shift later became possible when Galileo Galilei introduced his new ideas concerning motion. Intuitively, when an object is set


id: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-3.md
category: reference
title: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:26.249284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-0
summary:
=== Coherence === One of the aims of science is to find models that will account for as many observations as possible within a coherent framework. Together, Galileo's rethinking of the nature of motion and Keplerian cosmology represented a coherent framework that was capable of rivaling the Aristotelian/Ptolemaic framework. Once a paradigm shift has taken place, the textbooks are rewritten. Often the history of science too is rewritten, being presented as an inevitable process leading up to the current, established framework of thought. There is a prevalent belief that all hitherto-unexplained phenomena will in due course be accounted for in terms of this established framework. Kuhn states that scientists spend most (if not all) of their careers in a process of puzzle-solving. Their puzzle-solving is pursued with great tenacity, because the previous successes of the established paradigm tend to generate great confidence that the approach being taken guarantees that a solution to the puzzle exists, even though it may be very hard to find. Kuhn calls this process normal science. As a paradigm is stretched to its limits, anomalies – failures of the current paradigm to take into account observed phenomena – accumulate. Their significance is judged by the practitioners


id: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-4.md
category: reference
title: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:26.249284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-0
summary:
=== Incommensurability === According to Kuhn, the scientific paradigms preceding and succeeding a paradigm shift are so different that their theories are incommensurable—the new paradigm cannot be proven or disproven by the rules of the old paradigm, and vice versa. A later interpretation by Kuhn of "commensurable" versus "incommensurable" was as a distinction between "languages", namely, that statements in commensurable languages were translatable fully from one to the other, while in incommensurable languages, strict translation is not possible. The paradigm shift does not merely involve the revision or transformation of an individual theory, it changes the way terminology is defined, how the scientists in that field view their subject, and, perhaps most significantly, what questions are regarded as valid, and what rules are used to determine the truth of a particular theory. The new theories were not, as the scientists had previously thought, just extensions of old theories, but were instead completely new world views. Such incommensurability exists not just before and after a paradigm shift, but in the periods in between conflicting paradigms. It is simply not possible, according to Kuhn, to construct an impartial language that can be used to perform a neutral comparison between conflicting paradigms, because


id: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-5.md
category: reference
title: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:26.249284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-0
summary:
"First, the new candidate must seem to resolve some outstanding and generally recognized problem that can be met in no other way. Second, the new paradigm must promise to preserve a relatively large part of the concrete problem-solving ability that has accrued to science through its predecessors. Novelty for its own sake is not a desideratum in the sciences as it is in so many other creative fields. As a result, though new paradigms seldom or never possess all the capabilities of their predecessors, they usually preserve a great deal of the most concrete parts of past achievement and they always permit additional concrete problem-solutions besides." In the second edition, Kuhn added a postscript in which he elaborated his ideas on the nature of scientific progress. He described a thought experiment involving an observer who has the opportunity to inspect an assortment of theories, each corresponding to a single stage in a succession of theories. What if the observer is presented with these theories without any explicit indication of their chronological order? Kuhn anticipates that it will be possible to reconstruct their chronology on the basis of the theories' scope and content, because the more recent a theory is, the


id: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-6.md
category: reference
title: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:26.249284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-0
summary:
=== Political science === In 1974, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions was ranked as the second most frequently used book in political science courses focused on scope and methods. In particular, Kuhn's theory has been used by political scientists to critique behavioralism, which claims that accurate political statements must be both testable and falsifiable. The book also proved popular with political scientists embroiled in debates about whether a set of formulations put forth by a political scientist constituted a theory, or something else. The changes that occur in politics, society and business are often expressed in Kuhnian terms, however poor their parallel with the practice of science may seem to scientists and historians of science. The terms "paradigm" and "paradigm shift" have become such notorious clichés and buzzwords that they are sometimes viewed as effectively devoid of content. == Criticisms == The Structure of Scientific Revolutions was soon criticized by Kuhn's colleagues in the history and philosophy of science. In 1965, a special symposium on the book was held at an International Colloquium on the Philosophy of Science that took place at Bedford College, London, and was chaired by Karl Popper. The symposium led to the publication of the symposium's


id: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-7.md
category: reference
title: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:26.249284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-0
summary:
Relativistic mass: the mass of a particle is equal to the total energy of the particle divided by the speed of light squared. Since the total energy of a particle in relation to one system of reference differs from the total energy in relation to other systems of reference, while the speed of light remains constant in all systems, it follows that the mass of a particle has different values in different systems of reference. "Real" mass: the mass of a particle is equal to the non-kinetic energy of a particle divided by the speed of light squared. Since non-kinetic energy is the same in all systems of reference, and the same is true of light, it follows that the mass of a particle has the same value in all systems of reference. Projecting this distinction backwards in time onto Newtonian dynamics, we can formulate the following two hypotheses: HR: the term "mass" in Newtonian theory denotes relativistic mass. Hp: the term "mass" in Newtonian theory denotes "real" mass. According to Field, it is impossible to decide which of these two affirmations is true. Prior to the theory of relativity, the term "mass" was referentially indeterminate. But this does not


id: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions-8.md
category: reference
title: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:26.249284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-structure-of-scientific-revolutions-20260505-0
summary:
== Bibliography == Barnes, Barry (1982). T. S. Kuhn and Social Science. New York City: Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231054362. Bilton, Tony; et al. (2002). Introductory Sociology (4th ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 422. ISBN 978-0-333-94571-1.* Bird, Alexander (2013). "Thomas Kuhn". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Retrieved September 23, 2017. Bird, Alexander; Ladyman, James (2013). Arguing about Science. Routledge. ISBN 9780415492294. Retrieved September 23, 2017. Blanchard, Olivier J. (2009). "The State of Macro". Annual Review of Economics. 1 (1): 209–228. doi:10.3386/w14259. Conant, James; Haugeland, John (2002). "Editors' introduction". The Road Since Structure: Philosophical Essays, 1970-1993, with an Autobiographical Interview (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0226457994. Daston, Lorraine (2012). "Structure". Historical Studies in the Natural Sciences. 42 (5): 496–499. doi:10.1525/hsns.2012.42.5.496. JSTOR 10.1525/hsns.2012.42.5.496. Davidson, Donald (1973). "On the Very Idea of a Conceptual Scheme". Proceedings and Addresses of the American Philosophical Association. 47: 5–20. doi:10.2307/3129898. JSTOR 3129898. de Gelder, Beatrice (1989). "Granny, The Naked Emperor and the Second Cognitive Revolution". The Cognitive Turn: Sociological and Psychological Perspectives on Science. Sociology of the Sciences Yearbook. Vol. 13. Springer Netherlands. pp. 97–100. ISBN 978-0-7923-0306-0. Dolby, R. G. A. (1971). "Reviewed Work: Criticism and the


id: technoscience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technoscience-0.md
category: reference
title: Technoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:32.691160+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technoscience-20260505-0
summary:
In common usage, technoscience refers to the entire long-standing and global human activity of technology, combined with the relatively recent scientific method that occurred primarily in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries. Technoscience is the study of how humans interact with technology using the scientific method. Technoscience thus comprises the history of human application of technology and modern scientific methods, ranging from the early development of basic technologies for hunting, agriculture, or husbandry (e.g. the well, the bow, the plow, the harness) and all the way through atomic applications, biotechnology, robotics, and computer sciences. This more common and comprehensive usage of the term technoscience can be found in general textbooks and lectures concerning the history of science. The relationship with the history of science is important in this subject and also underestimated, for example, by more modern sociologists of science. Instead, it is worth emphasizing the links that exist between books on the history of science and technology and the study of the relationship between science and technology within a framework of social developments. The generational leap between historical periods and scientific discoveries, the construction of machines, and the creation of tools in relation to the technological changes that


id: technoscience-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technoscience-1.md
category: reference
title: Technoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:32.691160+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technoscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Political === Science and technology are tools that continually change social structures and behaviors. Technoscience can be viewed as a form of government or having the power of government because of its impact on society. The impact extends to public health, safety, the environment, and beyond. Innovations create fundamental changes and drastically change the way people live. For example, C-SPAN and social media give American voters a near real-time view of Congress. This has allowed journalists and the people to hold their elected officials accountable in new ways. === Environmental === Chlorine chemists and their scientific knowledge helped set the agenda for many environmental problems: PCBs in the Hudson River are polychlorinated biphenols; DDT, dieldrin, and aldrin are chlorinated pesticides; CFCs that deplete the ozone layer are chlorofluorocarbons. Industry actually manufactured the chemicals and consumers purchased them. Therefore, one can determine that chemists are not the sole cause for these issues, but they are not blameless. == See also == Bernard Stiegler Feminist technoscience Technocriticism Technoethics == Notes == == References == Steven Lukes, Power (1974), A Radical View, London: Macmillan Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar (1979). Laboratory Life: the Social Construction of Scientific Facts. Princeton University Press. ISBN


id: tree-of-knowledge-system-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_knowledge_system-0.md
category: reference
title: Tree of knowledge system
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_knowledge_system
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:35.269263+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tree-of-knowledge-system-20260505-0
summary:
The tree of knowledge (ToK) system is a new map of Big History that traces cosmic evolution across four different planes of existence, identified as Matter, Life, Mind and Culture that are mapped respectively by the physical, biological, psychological and social domains of science. The Tree of Knowledge (ToK) System was developed by Gregg Henriques, who is a professor and core faculty member in the Combined-Integrated Doctoral Program in Clinical and School Psychology at James Madison University. The ToK System is part of a larger Unified Theory of Knowledge that Henriques describes as a consilient scientific humanistic philosophy for the 21st Century. The official Unified Theory of Knowledge website describes the ToK System as: [A] theory of scientific knowledge that defines the human knower in relation to the known. It achieves this novel accomplishment by solving the problem of psychology and giving rise to a truly consilient view of the scientific landscape. It accomplishes this via dividing the evolution of behavioral complexity into four different planes of existence...The ToK also characterizes modern empirical natural science as a kind of justification system that functions to map complexity and change. The outline of the ToK System was first published in 2003 in


id: tree-of-knowledge-system-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_knowledge_system-1.md
category: reference
title: Tree of knowledge system
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_knowledge_system
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:35.269263+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tree-of-knowledge-system-20260505-0
summary:
=== Mind/Animal — (Basic) psychological sciences === Mind/cognition in the ToK system refers to the set of mental behaviors. Mental behaviors are behaviors of animals mediated by the nervous system that produce a functional effect on the animal-environment relationship. As such, Mind/cognition is essentially synonymous with what behavioral psychologists have meant when they use the term behavior. Thus, a fly avoiding a fly swatter, a rat pushing a bar or a human getting a drink of water are all mental behaviors. Mind is not synonymous with sentience or the capacity for mental experience, although such processes are presumed to emerge in the mental/cognitive dimension. Cognition, in the broad sense of the term is meaning bodily-neuro-social information processing, as in EEEE Cognition: Embodied, Embedded, Enactive, Extended. While cognitive science stands for naturalist study of mind, psychology is an approach grounded in the tradition of humanities, especially philosophy. Thus, by defining mind as mental behavior, Henriques argues that the ToK System provides a way to bridge the epistemological differences between cognitive and behavioral science. Henriques argues that comparative psychology, ethology, and (animal) cognitive behavioral neuroscience should all be thought of as parts of the discipline that maps the animal-mental domain. === Culture/Person


id: tree-of-knowledge-system-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_knowledge_system-2.md
category: reference
title: Tree of knowledge system
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_knowledge_system
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:35.269263+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tree-of-knowledge-system-20260505-0
summary:
== The "problem of psychology" == The ToK System emerged as a consequence of Henriques wrestling with what he calls "the problem of psychology". Henriques argues that the most difficult problem in psychology as a discipline is that while there is incredible diversity offered by different approaches to psychology, and there is no consensus model of what psychology actually is. Specifically, Henriques argues that the field lacks a clear definition, an agreed upon subject matter, and a coherent conceptual framework. The problem has been long standing, identified as the "crisis" by Lev Vygotsky in the mid 1920s. Henriques further argues that the patent tendency of psychology has been toward theoretical and substantial fragmentation and increasing insularity among the "specialties." In other words, the discipline has fragmented into different schools of thought and methodology, with no overall framework to interpret and integrate the research of different areas. At its best, the different approaches are a strength of psychology; different approaches lead to novel ideas, and prevent psychologists from clinging to a paradigm that fails to explain a phenomenon. At its worst, adherents of one particular school cling to their beliefs concerning the relative importance of their research and disregard or are


id: tree-of-knowledge-system-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_knowledge_system-3.md
category: reference
title: Tree of knowledge system
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_knowledge_system
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:35.269263+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tree-of-knowledge-system-20260505-0
summary:
(1) psychological formalism and (2) human psychology. Psychological formalism is defined as the science of mind and corresponds to the behavior of animal objects. Human psychology is considered to be a unique subset of psychological formalism that deals with human behavior at the level of the individual. Because human behavior is immersed in the larger socio-cultural context (level four in the ToK System), human psychology is considered a hybrid discipline that merges the pure science of psychology with the social sciences. It is important to point out that there are other disciplines the ToK System would classify as “hybrids.” Molecular genetics, for example, is a hybrid between chemistry and biology and neuroscience is a hybrid between biology and psychology. As with Henriques' proposed conception of human psychology, both of these disciplines adopt an object level perspective (molecular and cellular, respectively) on phenomena that simultaneously exist as part of meta-level system processes (life and mind, respectively). Though David A. F. Haaga "congratulate[d] Dr. Henriques' ambitious, scholarly, provocative paper", and "found the Tree of Knowledge taxonomy, the theoretical joint points, the evolutionary history, and the levels of emergent properties highly illuminating", he asks the rhetorical questions, If it is so difficult to


id: tree-of-knowledge-system-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_knowledge_system-4.md
category: reference
title: Tree of knowledge system
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_of_knowledge_system
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:35.269263+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tree-of-knowledge-system-20260505-0
summary:
== Toward the integration of human knowledge == As stated above, the ToK System proposes a new epistemology with the goal of moving academic knowledge toward what E.O. Wilson termed consilience. Consilience is the interlocking of fact and theory into a coherent, holistic view of knowledge. Henriques argues that the ToK affords new perspectives on how knowledge is obtained because it depicts how science emerges from culture and that the four dimensions of complexity correspond to four broad classes of science: the physical, biological, psychological and social sciences. Henriques further argues that developing such a system for integrating knowledge is not just an academic enterprise. He suggests that in an increasingly complex world, the fragmented state of knowledge can be seen as one of the most pressing social problems of our time. Henriques also believes that history seems to attest that the absence of a collective worldview ostensibly condemns humanity to an endless series of conflicts that inevitably stem from incompatible, partially correct, locally situated justification systems. Thus, from Henriques' perspective, there are good reasons for believing that if there was a shared, general background of explanation, humanity might be able to achieve much greater levels of harmonious relations. In


id: unified-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Unified Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:37.815419+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unified-science-20260505-0
summary:
"Unified Science" can refer to any of three related strands in contemporary thought. Belief in the unity of science was a central tenet of logical positivism. Different logical positivists construed this doctrine in several different ways, e.g. as a reductionist thesis, that the objects investigated by the special sciences reduce to the objects of a common, putatively more basic domain of science, usually thought to be physics; as the thesis that all of the theories and results of the various sciences can or ought to be expressed in a common language or "universal slang"; or as the thesis that all the special sciences share a common method. The writings of Edward Haskell and a few associates, seeking to rework science into a single discipline employing a common artificial language. This work culminated in the 1972 publication of Full Circle: The Moral Force of Unified Science. The vast part of the work of Haskell and his contemporaries remains unpublished, however. Timothy Wilken and Anthony Judge have recently revived and extended the insights of Haskell and his coworkers. Unified Science has been a consistent thread since the 1940s in Howard T. Odum's systems ecology and the associated Emergy Synthesis, modeling the "ecosystem":


id: unity-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unity_of_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Unity of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unity_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:39.001046+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unity-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The unity of science is a thesis in philosophy of science that says that all the sciences form a unified whole. The variants of the thesis can be classified as ontological (giving a unified account of the structure of reality) and/or as epistemic/pragmatic (giving a unified account of how the activities and products of science work). There are also philosophers who emphasize the disunity of science, which does not necessarily imply that there could be no unity in some sense but does emphasize pluralism in the ontology and/or practice of science. Early versions of the unity of science thesis can be found in ancient Greek philosophers such as Aristotle, and in the later history of Western philosophy. For example, in the first half of the 20th century the thesis was associated with the unity of science movement led by Otto Neurath, and in the second half of the century the thesis was advocated by Ludwig von Bertalanffy in "General System Theory: A New Approach to Unity of Science" (1951) and by Paul Oppenheim and Hilary Putnam in "Unity of Science as a Working Hypothesis" (1958). It has been opposed by, for example, Jerry Fodor in "Special Sciences (Or: The Disunity


id: vienna-circle-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle-0.md
category: reference
title: Vienna Circle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:41.365102+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vienna-circle-20260505-0
summary:
The Vienna Circle (German: Wiener Kreis) of logical empiricism was a group of philosophers and scientists drawn from the natural and social sciences, logic and mathematics who met regularly from 1924 to 1936 at the University of Vienna, chaired by Moritz Schlick. The Vienna Circle had an influence on 20th-century philosophy, especially philosophy of science and analytic philosophy. The philosophical position of the Vienna Circle was called logical empiricism (German: logischer Empirismus), logical positivism or neopositivism. It was influenced by Ernst Mach, David Hilbert, French conventionalism (Henri Poincaré and Pierre Duhem), Gottlob Frege, Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein and Albert Einstein. The Vienna Circle was pluralistic and committed to the ideals of the Enlightenment. It was unified by the aim of making philosophy scientific with the help of modern logic. Main topics were foundational debates in the natural and social sciences, logic and mathematics; the modernization of empiricism by modern logic; the search for an empiricist criterion of meaning; the critique of metaphysics and the unification of the sciences in the unity of science. The Vienna Circle appeared in public with the publication of various book series – Schriften zur wissenschaftlichen Weltauffassung (Monographs on the Scientific World-Conception), Einheitswissenschaft (Unified Science) and


id: vienna-circle-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle-1.md
category: reference
title: Vienna Circle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:41.365102+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vienna-circle-20260505-0
summary:
=== Public phase – Schlick Circle and Verein Ernst Mach (1928–1934) === In 1928 the Verein Ernst Mach (Ernst Mach Society) was founded, with Schlick as its chairman. The aim of the society was the spreading of a "scientific world conception" through public lectures that were in large part held by members of the Vienna Circle. In 1929 the Vienna Circle made its first public appearance under this name – invented by Neurath – with the publication of its manifesto Wissenschaftliche Weltauffassung. Der Wiener Kreis (The Scientific Conception of the World. The Vienna Circle also known as Viewing the World Scientifically: The Vienna Circle) The pamphlet is dedicated to Schlick, and its preface was signed by Hahn, Neurath and Carnap. The manifesto was presented at the Tagung für Erkenntnislehre der exakten Wissenschaften (Conference on the Epistemology of the Exact Sciences) in autumn 1929, organized by the Vienna Circle together with the Berlin Circle. This conference was the first international appearance of logical empiricism (Neurath coined the term in 1931 in his article "Physikalismus") and the first of a number of conferences: Königsberg (1930), Prague (1934), Paris (1935), Copenhague (1936), Cambridge, UK (1938), Cambridge, Mass. (1939), and Chicago (1941). While primarily


id: vienna-circle-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle-2.md
category: reference
title: Vienna Circle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:41.365102+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vienna-circle-20260505-0
summary:
== Congresses and publications == The Vienna Circle was very active in advertising their new philosophical ideas. Several congresses on epistemology and philosophy of science were organized, with the help of the Berlin Circle. There were some preparatory congresses: Prague (1929), Königsberg (1930), Prague (1934) and then the first congress on scientific philosophy held in Paris (1935), followed by congresses in Copenhagen (1936), Paris (1937), Cambridge, UK (1938), Cambridge, Massachusetts. (1939). The Königsberg congress (1930) was very important, for Kurt Gödel announced that he had proven the completeness of first-order logic and the incompleteness of formal arithmetic. Another very interesting congress was the one held in Copenhagen (1936), which was dedicated to quantum physics and causality. Between 1928 and 1937, the Vienna Circle published ten books in a collection named Schriften zur wissenschaftlichen Weltauffassung (Monographs on the Scientific World-Conception), edited by Schlick and Frank. Karl Raimund Popper's book Logik der Forschung was published in this collection. Seven works were published in another collection, called Einheitswissenschaft (Unified Science). In 1930 Rudolf Carnap and Hans Reichenbach undertook the editorship of the journal Erkenntnis, which was published between 1930 and 1940 (from 1939 the editors were Otto Neurath, Rudolf Carnap and Charles Morris).


id: vienna-circle-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle-3.md
category: reference
title: Vienna Circle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:41.365102+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vienna-circle-20260505-0
summary:
=== The Manifesto (1929) === This states the scientific world-conception of the Vienna Circle, which is characterized "essentially by two features. First it is empiricist and positivist: there is knowledge only from experience. Second, the scientific world-conception is marked by the application of a certain method, namely logical analysis." Logical analysis is the method of clarification of philosophical problems; it makes an extensive use of symbolic logic and distinguishes the Vienna Circle empiricism from earlier versions. The task of philosophy lies in the clarification—through the method of logical analysis—of problems and assertions. Logical analysis shows that there are two different kinds of statements; one kind includes statements reducible to simpler statements about the empirically given; the other kind includes statements which cannot be reduced to statements about experience and thus they are devoid of meaning. Metaphysical statements belong to this second kind and therefore they are meaningless. Hence many philosophical problems are rejected as pseudo-problems which arise from logical mistakes, while others are re-interpreted as empirical statements and thus become the subject of scientific inquiries. One source of the logical mistakes that are at the origins of metaphysics is the ambiguity of natural language. "Ordinary language for instance uses the


id: vienna-circle-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle-4.md
category: reference
title: Vienna Circle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:41.365102+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vienna-circle-20260505-0
summary:
=== Critique of metaphysics === The attitude of Vienna Circle towards metaphysics is well expressed by Carnap in the article 'Überwindung der Metaphysik durch Logische Analyse der Sprache' in Erkenntnis, vol. 2, 1932 (English translation 'The Elimination of Metaphysics Through Logical Analysis of Language' in Sarkar, Sahotra, ed., Logical empiricism at its peak: Schlick, Carnap, and Neurath, New York : Garland Pub., 1996, pp. 10–31). A language—says Carnap—consists of a vocabulary, i.e., a set of meaningful words, and a syntax, i.e., a set of rules governing the formation of sentences from the words of the vocabulary. Pseudo-statements, i.e., sequences of words that at first sight resemble statements but in reality have no meaning, are formed in two ways: either meaningless words occur in them, or they are formed in an invalid syntactical way. According to Carnap, pseudo-statements of both kinds occur in metaphysics. A word W has a meaning if two conditions are satisfied. First, the mode of the occurrence of W in its elementary sentence form (i.e., the simplest sentence form in which W is capable of occurring) must be fixed. Secondly, if W occurs in an elementary sentence S, it is necessary to give an answer to the


id: vienna-circle-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle-5.md
category: reference
title: Vienna Circle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vienna_Circle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:41.365102+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vienna-circle-20260505-0
summary:
What sentences is S deducible from, and what sentences are deducible from S? Under what conditions is S supposed to be true, and under what conditions false? How is S verified? What is the meaning of S? (Carnap, "The Elimination of Metaphysics Through Logical Analysis of Language" in Sarkar, Sahotra 1996, p. 12) An example offered by Carnap concerns the word 'arthropod'. The sentence form "the thing x is an arthropod" is an elementary sentence form that is derivable from "x is an animal", "x has a segmented body" and "x has jointed legs". Conversely, these sentences are derivable from "the thing x is an arthropod". Thus the meaning of the word 'arthropod' is determined. According to Carnap, many words of metaphysics do not fulfill these requirements and thus they are meaningless. As an example, Carnap considers the word 'principle'. This word has a definite meaning, if the sentence "x is the principle of y" is supposed to be equivalent to the sentence "y exists by virtue of x" or "y arises out of x". The latter sentence is perfectly clear: y arises out of x when x is invariably followed by y, and the invariable association between x and


id: science-journalism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_journalism-0.md
category: reference
title: Science journalism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_journalism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:43.357712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-journalism-20260505-0
summary:
Science journalism conveys reporting about science to the public. The field typically involves interactions between scientists, journalists and the public. There are many different examples of science writing. A few examples include feature writing, risk communication, blogs, science books, scientific journals, science podcasts and science magazines. == Origins == Modern science journalism originated in weather and other natural history observations, as well as reports of new scientific findings, reported by almanacs and other news writing in the centuries following the advent of the printing press. One early example dates back to Digdarshan (means showing the direction), which was an educational monthly magazine that started publication in 1818 from Srirampore, Bengal, India. Digdarshan carried articles on different aspects of science, such as plants, steam boat, etc. It was available in Bengali, Hindi and English languages. In the U.S., Scientific American was founded in 1845, in another early example. One of the occasions an article was attributed to a 'scientific correspondent' was "A Gale in the Bay of Biscay" by William Crookes which appeared in The Times on 18 January 1871, page 7. Thomas Henry Huxley (1825–1895) and John Tyndall (1820–1893) were scientists who were greatly involved in journalism and Peter Chalmers


id: science-journalism-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_journalism-1.md
category: reference
title: Science journalism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_journalism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:43.357712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-journalism-20260505-0
summary:
== Status == With budget cuts at major newspapers and other media, there are fewer working science journalists employed by traditional print and broadcast media than before. Similarly, there are currently very few journalists in traditional media outlets that write multiple articles on emerging science, such as nanotechnology. In 2011, there were 459 journalists who had written a newspaper article covering nanotechnology, of whom 7 wrote about the topic more than 25 times. In January 2012, just a week after The Daily Climate reported that worldwide coverage of climate change continued a three-year slide in 2012 and that among the five largest US dailies, the New York Times published the most stories and had the biggest increase in coverage, that newspaper announced that it was dismantling its environmental desk and merging its journalists with other departments. News coverage on science by traditional media outlets, such as newspapers, magazines, radio and news broadcasts is being replaced by online sources. In April 2012, the New York Times was awarded two Pulitzer Prizes for content published by Politico and The Huffington Post (now HuffPost) both online sources, a sign of the platform shift by the media outlet. Science information continues to be widely


id: science-journalism-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_journalism-2.md
category: reference
title: Science journalism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_journalism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:43.357712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-journalism-20260505-0
summary:
The content of news stories regarding climate change are affected by journalistic norms including balance, impartiality, neutrality and objectivity. Balanced reporting, which involves giving equal time to opposing sides of a debate over has had a harmful impact on the media coverage of climate science.


id: science-journalism-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_journalism-3.md
category: reference
title: Science journalism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_journalism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:43.357712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-journalism-20260505-0
summary:
== Criticism == Science journalists regularly come under criticism for misleading reporting of scientific stories. All three groups of scientists, journalists and the public often criticize science journalism for bias and inaccuracies. However, with the increasing collaborations online between science journalists there may be potential with removing inaccuracies. The 2010 book Merchants of Doubt by historians of science Naomi Oreskes and Erik M. Conway argues that in topics like the global warming controversy, tobacco smoking, acid rain, DDT and ozone depletion, contrarian scientists have sought to "keep the controversy alive" in the public arena by demanding that reporters give false balance to the minority side. Very often, such as with climate change, this leaves the public with the impression that disagreement within the scientific community is much greater than it actually is. Science is based on experimental evidence and testing, and disputation is a normal activity. Scholars have criticized science journalists for: Uncritical reporting Emphasizing frames of scientific progress and economic prospect Not presenting a range of expert opinion Having preferences toward positive messages Reporting unrealistic timelines and engaging in the production of a "cycle of hype" Science journalists can be seen as the gatekeepers of scientific information. Just like


id: administratium-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administratium-0.md
category: reference
title: Administratium
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administratium
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:44.524173+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: administratium-20260505-0
summary:
Administratium is a well-known in-joke in scientific circles and is a parody both on the bureaucracy of the scientific community and academic institutions, and on descriptions of newly discovered chemical elements. In 1991, Thomas Kyle (the supposed discoverer of this element) was awarded an Ig Nobel Prize for physics, making him one of only three fictional people to have won the award. A spoof article was written by William DeBuvitz in 1988 and first appeared in print in the January 1989 issue of The Physics Teacher. It spread rapidly among university campuses and research centers; many versions surfaced, often customized to the contributor's situation. A similar joke concerns Administrontium which was referenced in print in 1993. Another variation on the same joke is Bureaucratium. A commonly heard description describes it as "having a negative half-life". In other words, the more time passes, the more massive "Bureaucratium" becomes; it only grows larger and more sluggish. This refers to the bureaucratic system, which is generally perceived as a system in which bureaucratic procedures accumulate, and whatever needs to get done takes increasingly longer to get done as soon as it touches the bureaucracy. == See also == Unobtainium Wishalloy List of fictional


id: the-craft-of-science-writing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Craft_of_Science_Writing-0.md
category: reference
title: The Craft of Science Writing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Craft_of_Science_Writing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:50.185718+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-craft-of-science-writing-20260505-0
summary:
The Craft of Science Writing: Selections from The Open Notebook is a non-fiction book edited by Siri Carpenter and published in 2020 by The Open Notebook. == Synopsis == The Craft of Science Writing presents more than 30 articles, some new, others previously published on The Open Notebook website, organized to answer five questions: "Who is a science journalist and how do you become one? What makes a science story and how do you find one? How do you report a science story? How do you tell your story? How do you build expertise in science writing?" In ALA's CHOICE, Melody Herr wrote that the articles are organized "into an introductory course that covers becoming a science journalist, identifying a story idea, conducting research, writing the story, and building proficiency in core skills". She also said the articles demonstrate effective idea presentation, "through personal anecdotes, interviews with award-winning journalists, expert panel discussions, and visuals, including a marked-up science article, a flowchart, and helpful checklists". Jonathan Wai wrote in Psychology Today, that it "...seeks to illuminate the craft of science writing by collecting numerous perspectives from science writers themselves about how to improve their own craft of science writing." Carolyn Crist


id: microphotography-literature-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microphotography_(literature)-0.md
category: reference
title: Microphotography (literature)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microphotography_(literature)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:51.459091+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: microphotography-literature-20260505-0
summary:
Microphotography is a writing style that emerged in the early 1990s in science journalism. The style is named after micrographs and is distinctive for its highly detailed, worm's eye or microscopic view of the macroscopic world. One of the flagship works in this style was David Bodanis's commercially prominent The Secret House: 24 hours in the strange & wonderful world in which we spend our nights and days. This book followed daily life in a typical enclosed human habitat in minute detail, featuring detailed physical and biological explanations. == References ==


id: nature-writing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_writing-0.md
category: reference
title: Nature writing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_writing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:52.652645+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nature-writing-20260505-0
summary:
Nature writing is nonfiction or fiction prose about the natural environment. It often draws heavily from scientific information and facts while also incorporating philosophical reflection upon various aspects of nature. Works are frequently written in the first person and include personal observations. Nature writing encompasses a wide variety of works, ranging from those that place primary emphasis on natural history (such as field guides) to those focusing on philosophical interpretation. It includes poetry, essays of solitude or escape, as well as travel and adventure writing. Modern-day nature writing traces its roots to works of natural history that initially gained popularity in the second half of the 18th century, and continued to do so throughout the 19th century. An important early figure in nature writing was the parson-naturalist Gilbert White (1720–1793), a pioneering English naturalist and ornithologist. He is best known for writing Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne (1789). William Bartram (1739–1823) was another significant American pioneer naturalist who became a respected figure in literary and scientific communities after his first work was published in 1791. == Early history == The tradition of clerical naturalists can be traced back to the monastic writings of the Middle Ages, although under modern-day


id: nature-writing-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_writing-1.md
category: reference
title: Nature writing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_writing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:52.652645+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nature-writing-20260505-0
summary:
== 20th century to date == The second half of the 20th century saw a significant increase in nature writing in fiction and non-fiction in Britain. One of the earliest of these works was John Moore (1907–1967), a best-selling pioneer conservationist. Writing from the 1930s to 1960s, he was described by Sir Compton Mackenzie as the most talented writer about the countryside of his generation. Moore's contemporaries included Henry Williamson (1895–1977), best known for Tarka the Otter, whose imaginative prose won him the Hawthornden Prize in 1928. Other 20th century writers included American authors Edward Abbey (1927–1989), Aldo Leopold (1887–1948) and Indian author M. Krishnan (1912–1996). After World War II, other writers emerged including English teacher and naturalist Margaret Hutchinson (1904–1997), who strongly advocated for raising children as naturalists from an early age. American author Rachel Carson (1907–1964) is known for Silent Spring, published in 1962. Carson heralded a new and pointed style of nature writing that carried stronger warnings of environmental loss as pesticide use in industrial agriculture became an increasing concern after World War II. Relevant contemporary nature writers in Britain include Richard Mabey, Roger Deakin, Mark Cocker, and Oliver Rackham. Rackham's books included Ancient Woodland (1980) and


id: patrusky-lecture-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrusky_Lecture-0.md
category: reference
title: Patrusky Lecture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrusky_Lecture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:53.795621+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patrusky-lecture-20260505-0
summary:
The Patrusky lecture series is held by the Council for the Advancement of Science Writing (CASW) in honor of Ben Patrusky, who retired from CASW in 2013 after 25 years as the executive director of CASW and 30 years as the director of the New Horizons in Science program. The first lecture was held in 2013 and the event has taken place every year since then. == The Lecturers == 2013 — George M. Whitesides 2014 — Donald Johanson 2015 — Jo Handelsman 2016 — Steven Weinberg 2017 — Susan Desmond-Hellmann 2018 — Shirley Tilghman 2019 — Steve Squyres 2020 — Ruha Benjamin 2021 — Katharine Hayhoe 2022 — Alyssa A. Goodman 2023 — Michael E. Mann == References ==


id: the-puzzle-solver-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Puzzle_Solver-0.md
category: reference
title: The Puzzle Solver
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Puzzle_Solver
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:55.135087+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-puzzle-solver-20260505-0
summary:
The Puzzle Solver: A Scientist's Desperate Quest to Cure the Illness that Stole His Son is a book by Tracie White with scientist Ronald W. Davis about Davis's efforts to cure his son Whitney, who has very severe myalgic encephalomyelitis, also called chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS). The book was published on January 5, 2021. == Publication history == The Puzzle Solver began as a work of journalism that Tracie White wrote for Stanford Medicine. She expanded the work into a book (her first) in collaboration with Ronald W. Davis, a renowned scientist and one of the book's subjects. It was published by Hachette on January 5, 2021. == Content == Whitney Dafoe was a photographer and world traveler when at age 23, he was hospitalized on a trip to India, suffering from a stomach ailment. When he returned home, he weighed only 115 pounds and instead of recovering his health steadily declined. He was diagnosed with ME/CFS in 2011 but continued to slip until he was confined to a back room at his parents' home, unable to speak or eat without the assistance of a feeding tube. His one source of hope was his father, world renown scientist Ronald W.


id: scientific-writing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_writing-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific writing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_writing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:57.612484+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-writing-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific writing is about science, with the implication that the writing is done by scientists and for an audience that primarily includes peers—those with sufficient expertise to follow in detail. (The similar term "science writing" instead refers to writing about a scientific topic for a general audience; this could be by scientists and/or journalists, for example.) Scientific writing is a specialized form of technical writing, and a prominent genre of it involves reporting about scientific studies such as in articles for a scientific journal. Other scientific writing genres include writing literature-review articles (also typically for scientific journals), which summarize the existing state of a given aspect of a scientific field, and writing grant proposals, which are a common means of obtaining funding to support scientific research. Scientific writing is more likely to focus on the pure sciences compared to other aspects of technical communication that are more applied, although there is overlap. There is not one specific style for citations and references in scientific writing. Whether one is submitting a grant proposal, literature review articles, or submitting an article into a paper, the citation system that must be used will depend on the publication they plan to submit to. English-language


id: scientific-writing-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_writing-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientific writing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_writing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:57.612484+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-writing-20260505-0
summary:
Dissuasion from, and sometimes advocacy of, the passive voice. Advocates for the passive voice argue for its utility in avoiding first-person pronouns, while critics argue that it can be hard to make claims without an active voice. Generalizations about tense. In the mathematical sciences, for example, it is customary to report in the present tense, while in experimental sciences reporting is always in the past tense, as the experiments happened in the past. Preferences about "we" vs. "I" as a personal pronoun or a first-person pronoun (e.g., mathematical deductions sometimes include the reader in the pronoun "we.") Contemporary researchers in writing studies have pointed out that blanket generalizations about academic writing are seldom helpful, for example, scientific writing in practice is complex and shifts of tense and person reflect subtle changes in the section of the scientific journal article. Additionally, the use of passive voice allows the writer to focus on the subject being studied (the focus of communication in science) rather than the author. Similarly, some use of first-person pronouns is acceptable (such as "we" or "I," which depends on the number of authors). According to some journal editors, the best practice is to review articles recently published in


id: scientific-writing-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_writing-2.md
category: reference
title: Scientific writing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_writing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:57.612484+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-writing-20260505-0
summary:
== Scientific report == The stages of the scientific method are often incorporated into sections of scientific reports. The first section is typically the abstract, followed by the introduction, methods, results, conclusions, and acknowledgments. The introduction discusses the issue studied and discloses the hypothesis tested in the experiment. The step-by-step procedure, notable observations, and relevant data collected are all included in the methods and results. The discussion section consists of the author's analysis and interpretations of the data. Additionally, the author may choose to discuss any discrepancies with the experiment that could have altered the results. The conclusion summarizes the experiment and will make inferences about the outcomes. The paper will typically end with an acknowledgments section, giving proper attribution to any other contributors besides the main author(s). To get published, papers must go through peer review by experts with significant knowledge in the field. During this process, papers may get rejected or edited without adequate justification. This historically emerged form of argument has been periodically criticized for obscuring the process or investigation, eliminating the incorrect guesses, false leads, and errors that may have occurred before coming to the final method, data, explanation, and argument presented in the published paper.


id: 1970s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1970s_in_science_and_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: 1970s in science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1970s_in_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:37:59.149639+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 1970s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
This article is a summary of the 1970s in science and technology. == Science == The 1970s in science and technology reached its height with the ambitious Voyager Program, which sent the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 uncrewed expeditions to several of the outer planets in the Solar System. The program also included a Voyager Golden Record with the spaceships in hopes of presenting aspects of life on Earth to intelligent alien life forms. The record contained pictures and other data about human beings and other living beings on earth. It also had an assortment of music from across cultures. Coupled with the zenithal achievements of the Voyagers was the end of NASA's Apollo lunar spacecraft program, with the final flight, Apollo 17, in 1972. The Apollo–Soyuz and Spacelab programs ended in 1976, and there would be a five-year hiatus in American crewed spaceflight until the flight of the Space Shuttle. The Soviet Union developed vital technologies involving long-term human life in free-fall on the Salyut and later Mir space stations. The 1970s witnessed an explosion in the understanding of solid-state physics, driven by the development of the integrated circuit and the laser. The evolution of the computer produced an


id: 1980s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980s_in_science_and_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: 1980s in science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980s_in_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:00.473684+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 1980s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
This article is a summary of the 1980s in science and technology. == Astronomy == The Rings of Neptune were first discovered in 1984. The Voyager 2 spacecraft provided images of them in 1989. 4769 Castalia was discovered in 1989. It became the first asteroid to be viewed through radar imaging. The first exoplanet is discovered in 1988, though it was not confirmed until much later. == Genetic engineering and biology == 1983 Kary Mullis revolutionized molecular biology with his invention of the polymerase chain reaction, which required only a test tube, some reagents, a DNA template, and a source of heat. 1986 April – The first child produced from a gestational surrogacy is born. This is the first time in history that a child has been born to somebody who is not their biological mother. 1989 May 22 – The first gene transfer experiment in humans takes place, leading to full-fledged gene therapy trials by September 1990. The gene responsible for the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator was discovered. Mutations of the gene are considered causes of cystic fibrosis. The kākāpō, a bird species of New Zealand, was termed a threatened species. The Department of Conservation started an endangered


id: 1990s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990s_in_science_and_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: 1990s in science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990s_in_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:01.793632+00:00
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parent: 1990s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
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This article is a summary of the 1990s in science and technology. == Science timeline == 1990 April - The Hubble Space Telescope is launched; revolutionizes astronomy. September - The first successful somatic gene therapy trials begin. October - Human Genome Project formally begins. December 20 - The World Wide Web software is first tested by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN. 1992 January 14 - The first intracytoplasmic sperm injection in vitro fertilization produced baby is born by mechanically injecting a single, selected sperm cell into an egg. Detection of extrasolar planets orbiting a pulsar is confirmed. 1994 The FlavrSavr tomato, the first genetically modified food sold in the United States is introduced. The Oriental Pearl Tower is completed in Shanghai, China, representing the newfound wealth and investment present in eastern China. 1995 The Global Positioning System (GPS) becomes fully operational. In April the NSFNET backbone is shut down, making the Internet a unified and "centerless" network without any restrictions on traffic types and essentially causing the Dot com bubble by attracting large-scale corporate investment in the Internet. On June 5 the first Bose–Einstein condensates of Rubidium-87 and Sodium-23 are created at JILA and MIT. In December the Galileo probe orbits


id: 1990s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990s_in_science_and_technology-1.md
category: reference
title: 1990s in science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990s_in_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:01.793632+00:00
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parent: 1990s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
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Home consoles become powerful and affordable enough to begin replacing trips to the arcade. CD-ROMs, which was first introduced as a software storage media with the 1988 launch of the PC Engine CD-ROM² System in Japan, gradually replaced ROM cartridges and floppy disks as the primary storage media for video games, starting with the release of platforms such as the Turbo Duo and Sega CD, later on with the PlayStation and the Sega Saturn, while CD-ROM drives for PCs became standardized. The sole exception was Nintendo, who canceled their plans to release a CD-ROM adapter for the Super NES and chose to employ cartridges for their subsequent home console, the Nintendo 64. Gaming, along with animation in general becomes more appealing to adults. Online multiplayer environments are popular over the internet during the later half of the 1990s. The first console with built-in Internet connectivity was the Dreamcast in 1999, which failed due to the low download speeds common at the time but eventually led to an online-centric gaming industry by the late 2000s. First-person shooter games become popular with the release of Doom (1993). 3D graphics overtake the traditional 2D graphics in the mid-nineties with the release of Quake


id: 2000s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000s_in_science_and_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: 2000s in science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000s_in_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:07.510758+00:00
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parent: 2000s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
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This article is a summary of the 2000s in science and technology. == Science == Using the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe, scientists studying the universe measured that its age is 13.77 billion years; "solidly supported" that it has been expanding and cooling since the Big Bang; and calculated that the universe is composed of about 4.6% atoms, 24% dark matter, and 71% dark energy. The Mars Exploration Rover (MER) Mission successfully reached the surface of Mars in 2004, and sent detailed data and images of the landscape there back to Earth. Whilst NASA's original mission timeline of three months was incorrectly speculated, the mission was tremendously successful overall in the long term, as the MER Mission continued until 2018, lasting nearly 25 times the projected length. The Human Genome Project was completed in 2003. The National Geographic Society and IBM funded The Genographic Project. In 2002, Perelman posted the first of a series of eprints to the arXiv, in which he proved the Poincaré conjecture, 2004 – The astrophysicist and radio astronomer Naomi McClure-Griffiths identifies a new spiral arm of the Milky Way galaxy On 29 July 2005, the discovery of Eris, a Kuiper Belt object larger than Pluto, was


id: 2000s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000s_in_science_and_technology-1.md
category: reference
title: 2000s in science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000s_in_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:07.510758+00:00
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parent: 2000s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
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Digital cameras became very popular due to rapid decreases in size and cost while photo resolution steadily increased. As a result, sales of film reel cameras diminished greatly, and integration into mobile phones increased greatly; sexting by teenagers also became a controversial social issue, with teenagers - and even in one case a school administrator who investigated a sexting case - being arrested. Graphics processing units (GPUs) and video cards became powerful enough to render ultra-high-resolution (e.g. 2560 × 1600) scenes in real time with substantial detail and texture. Flat panel displays began displacing cathode ray tubes. This was a dramatic change during the decade, as very few flat panels were sold through the mid-2000s (decade) and the majority of stores sell only flat panel TVs by the end of the decade. Handheld projectors entered the market and were then integrated into cellphones. The digital switchover started to be enforced for television. The introduction of digital video recorders (DVRs) allowed consumers to modify content they watch on TV, and to record TV programs and watch them later, leading to problems as consumers could fast-forward through commercials, making them useless, and save TV shows for later viewing, causing a decline in


id: 2010s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010s_in_science_and_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: 2010s in science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010s_in_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:08.831866+00:00
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parent: 2010s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
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This article is a summary of the 2010s in science and technology. == Technology == Big data and "Big Tech" saw an expansion in size and power in the 2010s, particularly FAANG corporations. The growing influence of "Big Tech" over cyberspace drew scrutiny and increased oversight from national governments. The G20 countries began closing tax loopholes and the European Union began asserting legal guidelines over domains such as data privacy, copyright, and hate speech, the latter of which helped fuel a debate over tech censorship and free speech online, particularly deplatforming. Throughout the decade, the United States government increasingly scrutinized the tech industry, from attempted copyright regulations to threatening antitrust probes. Increased protectionism and attempts to regulate and localize the internet by national governments also raised fears of cyber-balkanization in the later half of the decade. === Communications and electronics === Smartphones maintained their strong popularity throughout the 2010s, along with the arrival of tablets. Apple Inc. launched the iPad in 2010, its first tablet computer, which offered multi-touch interaction. The iPad became an immediate bestseller and only months after its release became the best selling tech product in history. By the mid-2010s, almost all smartphones were touchscreen-only, and Android


id: 2010s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010s_in_science_and_technology-1.md
category: reference
title: 2010s in science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010s_in_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:08.831866+00:00
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Drones became increasingly popular, especially in the assistance of making deliveries, aerial photography, and drone racing. Electric and hybrid vehicles became popular in many countries in the Western world during the decade. Notable electric vehicles include the Chevrolet Volt, which became the world's top selling plug-in hybrid of all time with over 100,000 units sold in 2015. Other hybrid vehicles have also been noted such as the Porsche Panamera and BMW i3. Self-driving cars, while still in their infancy, were widely tested throughout the 2010s with significant progress. Google developed Waymo, the world's first self-driving car, to be licensed for use on public roads in 2011. In 2018, a woman in Tempe, Arizona became the first recorded casualty of an accident involving an autonomous vehicle. Automaker Volkswagen is alleged to have been involved in worldwide rigging of diesel emissions tests in 2015, affecting an estimated 11 million vehicles globally. The trend of shared mobility grew significantly during the decade. Carsharing, bike-sharing, and scooter-sharing services saw substantial growth as multiple economic, social and technological factors such as developments in "last mile" transportation helped changed the way people think about modern transportation, particularly in the Western world. The world's first 100% low-floor


id: 2010s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010s_in_science_and_technology-2.md
category: reference
title: 2010s in science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010s_in_science_and_technology
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== Computing and artificial intelligence == The number of internet users doubled from about 2 billion to about 4 billion, surpassing half the world population in 2018. Smartphones became increasingly common due to a rapid increase in sales. Their applications and use time by the average user increased, too. Google develops the world's first self-driving car to be licensed for use on public roads. It was the first driverless ride that was on a public road and was not accompanied by a test driver or police escort. The car had no steering wheel or floor pedals. In 2012, Google Chrome became the world's most used web browser, displacing former long-time frontrunner Internet Explorer. Microsoft announces Windows Mixed Reality (previously Windows Holographic). Quantum computers made rapid progress. In 2019 Google announced to have achieved quantum supremacy, although this claim is disputed. During this decade artificial intelligence based on deep learning neural networks experienced rapid advancement, resulting in multiple practical applications in diverse fields such as speech and image recognition, social network moderation, virtual assistants, surveillance, healthcare or even art generation. In 2016, Google artificial intelligence program AlphaGo beat human grandmaster in the game of Go for the first time. === Legal


id: 2020s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020s_in_science_and_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: 2020s in science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020s_in_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:10.099531+00:00
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parent: 2020s-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
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This article is a summary of the 2020s in science and technology. == Biology and medicine == DeepMind used artificial intelligence for the first time to predict protein folding. Singapore became the first jurisdiction to approve the sale of cultured meat. The vaccines produced by Pfizer/BioNTech and Moderna against Coronavirus disease 2019 became the first vaccines developed using messenger RNA and mark the fastest vaccine development and approval, taking only 10 months. Oregon became the first jurisdiction to legalize the medicinal use of psilocybin for mental health treatment. == Energy == QuantumScape revealed that it had created the first functioning prototype of a solid-state battery, promising to massively increase battery capacity. The Chinese Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak was turned on for the first time. The China Fusion Engineering Test Reactor is being planned for commissioning later in the decade. Group14 Technologies has patented SCC55, a silicon-carbon composite, leading to 50% more in fully lithiated volumetric energy density than graphite used in conventional lithium-ion battery anodes. == Environmental sciences == The United Nations has designated the 2020s as the Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development. == Space == == Transport == === Air === In 2021, United Airlines revealed plans


id: list-of-inventions-in-the-medieval-islamic-world-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world-0.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world
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The following is a list of inventions, discoveries and scientific advancements made in the medieval Islamic world, especially during the Islamic Golden Age, as well as in later states of the Age of the Islamic Gunpowders such as the Ottoman and Mughal empires. The Islamic Golden Age was a period of cultural, economic and scientific flourishing in the history of Islam, traditionally dated from the eighth century to the fourteenth century, with several contemporary scholars dating the end of the era to the fifteenth or sixteenth century. This period is traditionally understood to have begun during the reign of the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid (786 to 809) with the inauguration of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, where scholars from various parts of the world with different cultural backgrounds were mandated to gather and translate all of the world's classical knowledge into the Arabic language and subsequently development in various fields of sciences began. Science and technology in the Islamic world adopted and preserved knowledge and technologies from contemporary and earlier civilizations, including Persia, Egypt, India, China, and Greco-Roman antiquity, while making numerous improvements, innovations and inventions. == List of inventions == === Early caliphates === ==== Seventh century ====


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world-1.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world
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==== Ninth century ==== Algebra discipline: Al-Khwarizmi is considered the father of the algebra discipline. The word Algebra comes from the Arabic الجبر (al-jabr) in the title of his book Ilm al-jabr wa'l-muḳābala. He was the first to treat algebra as an independent discipline in its own right. Algebraic reduction and balancing, cancellation, and like terms: Al-Khwarizmi introduced reduction and balancing in algebra. It refers to the transposition of subtracted terms to the other side of an equation, that is, the cancellation of like terms on opposite sides of the equation, which the term al-jabr (algebra) originally referred to. Automatic controls: "Although the Banu Musa took Greek models as their starting point, they went well beyond anything achieved by Hero or Philo. In particular, it is their preoccupation with automatic controls that distinguishes them not only from their Greek predecessors but from their Islamic successors." Chemical synthesis of a naturally occurring compound: The oldest known instructions for deriving an inorganic compound (sal ammoniac or ammonium chloride) from organic substances (such as plants, blood, and hair) by chemical means appear in the works attributed to Jabir ibn Hayyan (written c. 850–950). Chess manual: The oldest known chess manual was in Arabic


id: list-of-inventions-in-the-medieval-islamic-world-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world-2.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:11.746810+00:00
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==== Tenth century ==== Alhazen's problem: A theorem by ibn al-Haytham solved only in 1997 by Neumann. Arabic numerals: The modern Arabic numeral symbols originate from Islamic North Africa in the 10th century. A distinctive Western Arabic variant of the Eastern Arabic numerals began to emerge around the 10th century in the Maghreb and Al-Andalus (sometimes called ghubar numerals, though the term is not always accepted), which are the direct ancestor of the modern Arabic numerals used throughout the world. Binomial theorem: The first formulation of the binomial theorem and the table of binomial coefficient can be found in a work by Al-Karaji, quoted by Al-Samaw'al in his "al-Bahir". Cauchy-Riemann Integral: Ibn al-Haytham gave a simple form of this. Decimal fractions: Decimal fractions were first used by Abu'l-Hasan al-Uqlidisi in the 10th century. Experimental scientific method: Expounded and practised by ibn al-Haytham Fountain pen: An early historical mention of what appears to be a reservoir pen dates back to the 10th century. According to Ali Abuzar Mari (d. 974) in his Kitab al-Majalis wa 'l-musayarat, the Fatimid caliph Al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah demanded a pen that would not stain his hands or clothes, and was provided with a pen that held


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world-3.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world
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==== Thirteenth century ==== Fritware: It refers to a type of pottery which was first developed in the Near East, beginning in the late 1st millennium, for which frit was a significant ingredient. A recipe for "fritware" dating to c. 1300 AD written by Abu’l Qasim reports that the ratio of quartz to "frit-glass" to white clay is 10:1:1. This type of pottery has also been referred to as "stonepaste" and "faience" among other names. A 9th-century corpus of "proto-stonepaste" from Baghdad has "relict glass fragments" in its fabric. Mercury clock: A detailed account of technology in Islamic Spain was compiled under Alfonso X of Castile between 1276 and 1279, which included a compartmented mercury clock, which was influential up until the 17th century. It was described in the Libros del saber de Astronomia, a Spanish work from 1277 consisting of translations and paraphrases of Arabic works. Mariotte's bottle: The Libros del saber de Astronomia describes a water clock which employs the principle of Mariotte's bottle. Metabolism: Although Greek philosophers described processes of metabolism, Ibn al-Nafees is the first scholar to describe metabolism as "a continuous state of dissolution and nourishment". Naker: Arabic nakers were the direct ancestors of most


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world-4.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:11.746810+00:00
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==== Thirteenth century ==== Various automatons: Al-Jazari's inventions included automaton peacocks, a hand-washing automaton, and a musical band of automatons. Candle clock with dial and fastening mechanism: The earliest reference of the candle clock is described in a Chinese poem by You Jiangu (AD 520), However the most sophisticated candle clocks known, were those of Al-Jazari in 1206. It included a dial to display the time. Crank-slider: Ismail al-Jazari's water pump employed the first known crank-slider mechanism. Cotton gin with worm gear: The worm gear roller gin was invented in the Delhi Sultanate during the 13th to 14th centuries. Design and construction methods: English technology historian Donald Hill wrote, "We see for the first time in al-Jazari's work several concepts important for both design and construction: the lamination of timber to minimize warping, the static balancing of wheels, the use of wooden templates (a kind of pattern), the use of paper models to establish designs, the calibration of orifices, the grinding of the seats and plugs of valves together with emery powder to obtain a watertight fit, and the casting of metals in closed mold boxes with sand." Draw bar: The draw bar was applied to sugar-milling, with evidence of


id: list-of-inventions-in-the-medieval-islamic-world-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world-5.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world
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==== Sixteenth century ==== Firearm kneeling position: At the Battle of Mohács in 1526, the Janissaries equipped with 2000 tüfenks (usually translated as musket) "formed nine consecutive rows and they fired their weapons row by row," in a "kneeling or standing position without the need for additional support or rest." The Chinese later adopted the Ottoman kneeling position for firing. Marching band and military band: The marching band and military band both have their origins in the Ottoman military band, performed by the Janissary since the 16th century. Matchlock volley fire: Volley fire with matchlocks was first implemented in 1526 when the Ottoman Janissaries utilized it during the Battle of Mohács. Parallel rulers: Invented by Taqi ad-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf and used at the Constantinople Observatory of Taqi ad-Din (1577–1580). Practical impulse steam turbine: A practical impulse steam turbine was first described in 1551 by Taqi al-Din, a philosopher, astronomer and engineer in 16th century Ottoman Egypt, who described a method for rotating a spit by means of a jet of steam playing on rotary vanes around the periphery of a wheel. A similar device for rotating a spit was also later described by John Wilkins in 1648. Steam jack:


id: science-and-technology-in-pacific-island-countries-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Pacific_Island_countries-0.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology in Pacific Island countries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Pacific_Island_countries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:13.011932+00:00
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parent: science-and-technology-in-pacific-island-countries-20260505-0
summary:
Science and technology in Pacific Island countries encompass a diverse range of activities and innovations that address the unique challenges faced by this geographically dispersed region. Despite limited resources and infrastructural constraints, Pacific Island nations have made notable progress in areas such as digital connectivity, agricultural innovation, and climate resilience. Advancements in mobile and internet technologies have improved access to information and services, while regional cooperation has fostered the development of research networks and shared scientific infrastructure. The application of emerging technologies, including nuclear science for agriculture and DNA monitoring for biosecurity, is increasingly shaping policy and development initiatives. However, the region continues to face obstacles such as data scarcity, limited research funding, and vulnerability to climate change, necessitating ongoing collaboration and investment to realize the full potential of science and technology for sustainable development. == Socio-economic context == === Trends === Pacific Island economies are mostly dependent on natural resources, with a tiny manufacturing sector and no heavy industry. In Fiji and Papua New Guinea, for instance, there is a need to adopt automated machinery and design in forestry and to improve training, in order to add value to exports. Papua New Guinea experienced the strongest economic growth between


id: science-and-technology-in-pacific-island-countries-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Pacific_Island_countries-1.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology in Pacific Island countries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Pacific_Island_countries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:13.011932+00:00
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parent: science-and-technology-in-pacific-island-countries-20260505-0
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=== Regional bodies addressing technological issues === Both the largest and smallest Pacific nations acknowledge that taking a regional approach to science and technology offers them greater opportunities for institutional development. This approach is encapsulated in the Framework for Pacific Regionalism (2014). All 14 nations have mandated the agencies attached to the Council of Regional Organisations of the Pacific (CROP) to conduct technical backstopping. CROP agencies partially fulfill the role that a science council might play in other regions. However, none of these agencies has a specific mandate or policy for science and technology. Pacific Island states have established a number of regional bodies to address technological issues for sectorial development. Examples are the Council of Regional Organisations of the Pacific, such as the Pacific Community (SPC); Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat; and Secretariat of the Pacific Region Environmental Programme. The Ministers of Education from Pacific Island countries signed a Ministerial communiqué on Pacific Science, Technology and Innovation in 2017, in which they committed to developing regional and national STI policies and roadmaps. However, no policy or roadmap has since been published for want of resources. The 2014 Small Island Developing States (SIDS) Accelerated Modalities of Action Pathway (SAMOA Pathway) identified


id: science-and-technology-in-pacific-island-countries-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Pacific_Island_countries-2.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology in Pacific Island countries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Pacific_Island_countries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:13.011932+00:00
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==== Higher education ==== Fiji, Papua New Guinea and Samoa all consider education to be one of the key policy tools for driving science, technology and innovation, as well as modernization. Fiji, in particular, has made a supreme effort to re-visit existing policies, rules and regulations in this sector. The Fijian government allocates a larger portion of its national budget to education than any other Pacific Island country (4.2% of GDP in 2011), although this is down from 6% of GDP in 2000. The proportion of the education budget allocated to higher education (0.5% of GDP) amounts to 13% of the public education budget. Scholarship schemes like National Toppers, introduced in 2014, and the availability of student loans have made higher education attractive and rewarding in Fiji. According to an internal investigation into the choice of disciplines in school-leaving examinations (year 13), Fijian students have shown a greater interest in science since 2011. A similar trend can be observed in enrolment figures at all three Fijian universities. Many Pacific Island countries take Fiji as a benchmark for education. The country draws education leaders from other Pacific Island countries for training and, according to the Ministry of Education, teachers from Fiji


id: science-and-technology-in-pacific-island-countries-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Pacific_Island_countries-3.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology in Pacific Island countries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Pacific_Island_countries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:13.011932+00:00
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parent: science-and-technology-in-pacific-island-countries-20260505-0
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==== Research and development ==== The National Vision 2050 was adopted in 2009. It has led to the establishment of the Research, Science and Technology Council. At its gathering in November 2014, the Council re-emphasized the need to focus on sustainable development through science and technology. Vision 2050’s medium-term priorities are: emerging industrial technology for downstream processing; infrastructure technology for the economic corridors; knowledge-based technology; Science and engineering education; and to reach the target of investing 5% of GDP in R&D by 2050. By 2016, the share of GDP invested in research and development measured just 0.03%. Between 2008 and 2014, 82% of scientific articles from Papua New Guinea concerned the biological and medical sciences. Less than 10% of the country's 517 articles catalogued in Thomson Reuters' Web of Science (Science Citation Index Expanded) focused on geosciences. In 2016, women represented 33.2% of the scientists in Papua New Guinea, on par with the global share. Professor Teatulohi Matainaho serves as Chief Science Advisor to Papua New Guinea, appointed in 2013. == Sustainable development == === Disaster resilience === Countries around the Pacific Rim are seeking ways to link their national knowledge base to regional and global advances in science. One


id: science-and-technology-in-pacific-island-countries-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Pacific_Island_countries-4.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology in Pacific Island countries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Pacific_Island_countries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:13.011932+00:00
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parent: science-and-technology-in-pacific-island-countries-20260505-0
summary:
=== Energy === On average, 10% of the GDP of Pacific Island countries funds imports of petroleum products but in some cases this figure can exceed 30%. In addition to high fuel transport costs, this reliance on fossil fuels leaves Pacific economies vulnerable to volatile global fuel prices and potential spills by oil tankers. Consequently, many Pacific Island countries are convinced that renewable energy will play a role in their socio-economic development. In Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Samoa and Vanuatu, renewable energy sources already represent significant shares of the total electricity supply: 60%, 66%, 37% and 15% respectively. Tokelau has even become the first country in the world to generate 100% of its electricity using renewable sources. According to the Secretariat of the Pacific Community, renewable energy still represented less than 10% of total energy use in the 22 Pacific Island countries and territories in 2015. The Secretariat of the Pacific Community observed that, 'while Fiji, Papua New Guinea and Samoa are leading the way with large-scale hydropower projects, there is enormous potential to expand the deployment of other renewable energy options such as solar, wind, geothermal and ocean-based energy sources'. International development partners are participating in several projects to


id: science-and-technology-in-pacific-island-countries-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Pacific_Island_countries-5.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology in Pacific Island countries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Pacific_Island_countries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:13.011932+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-in-pacific-island-countries-20260505-0
summary:
=== Trends in scientific authorship === According to the Web of Science, Papua New Guinea had the largest number of publications (110) among Pacific Island states in 2014, followed by Fiji (106). Fijian research was concentrated in a handful of scientific disciplines, such as medical sciences, geosciences and biology. Nine out of ten scientific publications from Papua New Guinea focused on immunology, genetics, biotechnology and microbiology. This pattern contrasts with the trend observed in the French territories of New Caledonia and French Polynesia, where there was a strong emphasis on geosciences: six to eight times the world average for this field. === Trends in international co-authorship === More than three-quarters of articles published by scientists from Pacific Island nations between 2008 and 2014 were signed by international collaborators, according to Thomson Reuters' Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded. International co-authorship was higher for Papua New Guinea and Fiji (90% and 83% respectively) than for New Caledonia and French Polynesia (63% and 56% respectively). All countries counted North American partners among their top five partners. Fijian research collaboration with North American partners even exceeded that with India, even though a large proportion of Fijians are of Indian origin. Research partnerships


id: women-in-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:14.758470+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
The presence of women in science spans the earliest times of the history of science wherein they have made substantial contributions. Historians with an interest in gender and science have researched the scientific endeavors and accomplishments of women, the barriers they have faced, and the strategies implemented to have their work peer-reviewed and accepted in major scientific journals and other publications. The historical, critical, and sociological study of these issues has become an academic discipline in its own right. The involvement of women in medicine occurred in several early Western civilizations, and the study of natural philosophy in ancient Greece was open to women. Women contributed to the proto-science of alchemy in the first or second centuries CE. During the Middle Ages, religious convents were an important place of education for women, and some of these communities provided opportunities for women to contribute to scholarly research. The 11th century saw the emergence of the first universities; women were, for the most part, excluded from university education. Outside academia, botany was the science that benefitted most from women’s contributions in early modern times. The attitude toward educating women in medical fields appears to have been more liberal in Italy than elsewhere.


id: women-in-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:14.758470+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ancient history === The involvement of women in the field of medicine has been recorded in several early civilizations. An ancient Egyptian physician, Peseshet (c. 2600–2500 B.C.E.), described in an inscription as "lady overseer of the female physicians", is the earliest known female physician named in the history of science. Agamede was cited by Homer as a healer in ancient Greece before the Trojan War (c. 1194–1184 BCE). The study of natural philosophy in ancient Greece was open to women. Recorded examples include Aglaonike, who predicted eclipses; and Theano, mathematician and physician, who was a pupil (possibly also wife) of Pythagoras, and one of the school in Crotone founded by Pythagoras, which included many other women. A passage in Pollux speaks about those who invented the process of coining money, mentioning Pheidon and Demodike from Cyme, wife of the Phrygian king, Midas, and daughter of King Agamemnon of Cyme. A daughter of a certain Agamemnon, king of Aeolian Cyme, married a Phrygian king called Midas. This link may have facilitated the Greeks "borrowing" their alphabet from the Phrygians because the Phrygian letter shapes are closest to the inscriptions from Aeolis. During the period of the Babylonian civilization, around 1200


id: women-in-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:14.758470+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
Margaret Cavendish, a seventeenth-century aristocrat, took part in some of the most important scientific debates of that time. She was, however, not inducted into the English Royal Society, although she was once allowed to attend a meeting. She wrote a number of works on scientific matters, including Observations upon Experimental Philosophy (1666) and Grounds of Natural Philosophy. In these works she was especially critical of the growing belief that humans, through science, were the masters of nature. The observations provided a critique of the experimental science of Bacon and criticized microscopes as imperfect machines. Isabella Cortese, an Italian alchemist, is best known for her book I secreti della signora Isabella Cortese or The Secrets of Isabella Cortese. Cortese was able to manipulate nature in order to create several medicinal, alchemy and cosmetic "secrets" or experiments. Isabella's book of secrets belongs to a larger book of secrets that became extremely popular among the elite during the 16th century. Despite the low percentage of literate women during Cortese's era, the majority of alchemical and cosmetic "secrets" in the book of secrets were geared towards women. This included but was not limited to pregnancy, fertility, and childbirth. Sophia Brahe, sister of Tycho Brahe,


id: women-in-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:14.758470+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
Although women excelled in many scientific areas during the eighteenth century, they were discouraged from learning about plant reproduction. Carl Linnaeus' system of plant classification based on sexual characteristics drew attention to botanical licentiousness, and people feared that women would learn immoral lessons from nature's example. Women were often depicted as both innately emotional and incapable of objective reasoning, or as natural mothers reproducing a natural, moral society. The eighteenth century was characterized by three divergent views towards women: that women were mentally and socially inferior to men, that they were equal but different, and that women were potentially equal in both mental ability and contribution to society. While individuals such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau believed women's roles were confined to motherhood and service to their male partners, the Enlightenment was a period in which women experienced expanded roles in the sciences. The rise of salon culture in Europe brought philosophers and their conversation to an intimate setting where men and women met to discuss contemporary political, social, and scientific topics. While Jean-Jacques Rousseau attacked women-dominated salons as producing 'effeminate men' that stifled serious discourse, salons were characterized in this era by the mixing of the sexes. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu


id: women-in-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-4.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:14.758470+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
In 1741–42 Charlotta Frölich became the first woman to be published by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences with three books in agricultural science. In 1748 Eva Ekeblad became the first woman inducted into that academy. In 1746 Ekeblad had written to the academy about her discoveries of how to make flour and alcohol out of potatoes. Potatoes had been introduced into Sweden in 1658 but had been cultivated only in the greenhouses of the aristocracy. Ekeblad's work turned potatoes into a staple food in Sweden, and increased the supply of wheat, rye and barley available for making bread, since potatoes could be used instead to make alcohol. This greatly improved the country's eating habits and reduced the frequency of famines. Ekeblad also discovered a method of bleaching cotton textile and yarn with soap in 1751, and of replacing the dangerous ingredients in cosmetics of the time by using potato flour in 1752. Émilie du Châtelet, a close friend of Voltaire, was the first scientist to appreciate the significance of kinetic energy, as opposed to momentum. She repeated and described the importance of an experiment originally devised by Willem 's Gravesande showing the impact of falling objects is proportional not


id: women-in-science-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-5.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:14.758470+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
Science remained a largely amateur profession during the early part of the nineteenth century. Botany was considered a popular and fashionable activity, and one particularly suitable to women. In the later eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, it was one of the most accessible areas of science for women in both England and North America. However, as the nineteenth century progressed, botany and other sciences became increasingly professionalized, and women were increasingly excluded. Women's contributions were limited by their exclusion from most formal scientific education, but began to be recognized through their occasional admittance into learned societies during this period. Scottish scientist Mary Fairfax Somerville carried out experiments in magnetism, presenting a paper entitled 'The Magnetic Properties of the Violet Rays of the Solar Spectrum' to the Royal Society in 1826, the second woman to do so. She also wrote several mathematical, astronomical, physical and geographical texts, and was a strong advocate for women's education. In 1835, she and Caroline Herschel were the first two women elected as Honorary Members of the Royal Astronomical Society. English mathematician Ada, Lady Lovelace, a pupil of Somerville, corresponded with Charles Babbage about applications for his analytical engine. In her notes (1842–43) appended to her


id: women-in-science-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-6.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:14.758470+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
Among the successful scientists were Nadezhda Suslova (1843–1918), the first woman in the world to obtain a medical doctorate fully equivalent to men's degrees; Maria Bokova-Sechenova (1839–1929), a pioneer of women's medical education who received two doctoral degrees, one in medicine in Zürich and one in physiology in Vienna; Julia Lermontova (1846–1919), the first woman in the world to receive a doctoral degree in chemistry; the marine biologist Sofia Pereiaslavtseva (1849–1903), director of the Sevastopol Biological Station and winner of the Kessler Prize of the Russian Society of Natural Scientists; and the mathematician Sofia Kovalevskaia (1850–1891), the first woman in 19th century Europe to receive a doctorate in mathematics and the first to become a university professor in any field. ==== Late nineteenth century in the United States ==== In the later nineteenth century the rise of the women's college provided jobs for women scientists, and opportunities for education. Women's colleges produced a disproportionate number of women who went on for PhDs in science. Many coeducational colleges and universities also opened or started to admit women during this period; such institutions included just over 3000 women in 1875, by 1900 numbered almost 20,000. An example is Elizabeth Blackwell, who became


id: women-in-science-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-7.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:14.758470+00:00
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parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
In 1892, Ellen Swallow Richards called for the "christening of a new science" – "oekology" (ecology) in a Boston lecture. This new science included the study of "consumer nutrition" and environmental education. This interdisciplinary branch of science was later specialized into what is currently known as ecology, while the consumer nutrition focus split off and was eventually relabeled as home economics, which provided another avenue for women to study science. Richards helped to form the American Home Economics Association, which published a journal, the Journal of Home Economics, and hosted conferences. Home economics departments were formed at many colleges, especially at land grant institutions. In her work at MIT, Ellen Richards also introduced the first biology course in its history as well as the focus area of sanitary engineering. Women also found opportunities in botany and embryology. In psychology, women earned doctorates but were encouraged to specialize in educational and child psychology and to take jobs in clinical settings, such as hospitals and social welfare agencies. In 1901, Annie Jump Cannon first noticed that it was a star's temperature that was the principal distinguishing feature among different spectra. This led to re-ordering of the ABC types by temperature instead of


id: women-in-science-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-8.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:14.758470+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
Wu would later also confirm Albert Einstein's EPR Paradox in the first experimental corroboration, and prove the first violation of Parity and Charge Conjugate Symmetry, thereby laying the conceptual basis for the future Standard Model of Particle Physics, and the rapid development of the new field. Women in other disciplines looked for ways to apply their expertise to the war effort. Three nutritionists, Lydia J. Roberts, Hazel K. Stiebeling, and Helen S. Mitchell, developed the Recommended Dietary Allowance in 1941 to help military and civilian groups make plans for group feeding situations. The RDAs proved necessary, especially, once foods began to be rationed. Rachel Carson worked for the United States Bureau of Fisheries, writing brochures to encourage Americans to consume a wider variety of fish and seafood. She also contributed to research to assist the Navy in developing techniques and equipment for submarine detection. Women in psychology formed the National Council of Women Psychologists, which organized projects related to the war effort. The NCWP elected Florence Laura Goodenough president. In the social sciences, several women contributed to the Japanese Evacuation and Resettlement Study, based at the University of California. This study was led by sociologist Dorothy Swaine Thomas, who directed


id: women-in-science-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-9.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:14.758470+00:00
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parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== Europe after World War II ==== South-African born physicist and radiobiologist Tikvah Alper(1909–95), working in the UK, developed many fundamental insights into biological mechanisms, including the (negative) discovery that the infective agent in scrapie could not be a virus or other eukaryotic structure. French virologist Françoise Barré-Sinoussi performed some of the fundamental work in the identification of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) as the cause of AIDS, for which she shared the 2008 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. In July 1967, Jocelyn Bell Burnell discovered evidence for the first known radio pulsar, which resulted in the 1974 Nobel Prize in Physics for her supervisor. She was president of the Institute of Physics from October 2008 until October 2010. Astrophysicist Margaret Burbidge was a member of the B2FH group responsible for originating the theory of stellar nucleosynthesis, which explains how elements are formed in stars. She has held a number of prestigious posts, including the directorship of the Royal Greenwich Observatory. Mary Cartwright was a mathematician and student of G. H. Hardy. Her work on nonlinear differential equations was influential in the field of dynamical systems. Rosalind Franklin was a crystallographer, whose work helped to elucidate the fine structures


id: women-in-science-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-10.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:14.758470+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
Immediately after the end of World War II, the country saw a "retrenchment of positions for women" as male veterans returned and began filling open job positions. While men benefited from the opportunities of the G.I. Bill, some women had success with programs such as Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service (WAVES), a women's branch of the US Navy Reserve. The Society of Women Engineers held their first meeting in 1950. Although NASA was established in 1958, women were only admitted to the astronaut program in 1983, 25 years later. Kay McNulty, Betty Jennings, Betty Snyder, Marlyn Wescoff, Fran Bilas and Ruth Lichterman were six of the original programmers for the ENIAC, the first general purpose electronic computer. Linda B. Buck is a neurobiologist who was awarded the 2004 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine along with Richard Axel for their work on olfactory receptors. Rachel Carson was a marine biologist from the United States. She is credited with being the founder of the environmental movement. The biologist and activist published Silent Spring, a work on the dangers of pesticides, in 1962. The publishing of her environmental science book led to the questioning of usage of harmful pesticides and other


id: women-in-science-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-11.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:14.758470+00:00
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parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== Australia after World War II ==== Amanda Barnard, an Australia-based theoretical physicist specializing in nanomaterials, winner of the Malcolm McIntosh Prize for Physical Scientist of the Year. Isobel Bennett, was one of the first women to go to Macquarie Island with the Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions (ANARE). She is one of Australia's best known marine biologists. Dorothy Hill, an Australian geologist who became the first female professor at an Australian university. Ruby Payne-Scott, was an Australian who was an early leader in the fields of radio astronomy and radiophysics. She was one of the first radio astronomers and the first woman in the field. Penny Sackett, an astronomer who became the first female chief scientist of Australia in 2008. She is a US-born Australian citizen. Fiona Stanley, winner of the 2003 Australian of the Year award, is an epidemiologist noted for her research into child and maternal health, birth disorders, and her work in the public health field. Michelle Simmons, winner of the 2018 Australian of the Year award, is a quantum physicist known for her research and leadership on atomic-scale silicon quantum devices. ==== Israel after World War II ==== Ada Yonath, the first woman from the


id: women-in-science-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-12.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:14.758470+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Situation in the 1990s === Women appear to do less well than men (in terms of degree, rank, and salary) in the fields that have been traditionally dominated by women, such as nursing. In 1991 women attributed 91% of the PhDs in nursing, and men held 4% of full professorships in nursing. In the field of psychology, where women earn the majority of PhDs, women do not fill the majority of high rank positions in that field. Women's lower salaries in the scientific community are also reflected in statistics. According to the data provided in 1993, the median salaries of female scientists and engineers with doctoral degrees were 20% less than men. This data can be explained as there was less participation of women in high rank scientific fields/positions and a female majority in low-paid fields/positions. However, even with men and women in the same scientific community field, women are typically paid 15–17% less than men. In addition to the gender gap, there were also salary differences between ethnicity: African-American women with more years of experiences earn 3.4% less than European-American women with similar skills, while Asian women engineers out-earn both Africans and Europeans. Women are also under-represented in


id: women-in-science-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-13.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:14.758470+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== In decision-making ==== As of 2015, each step up the ladder of the scientific research system saw a drop in female participation until, at the highest echelons of scientific research and decision-making, there were very few women left. In 2015, the EU Commissioner for Research, Science and Innovation Carlos Moedas called attention to this phenomenon, adding that the majority of entrepreneurs in science and engineering tended to be men. In 2013, the German government coalition agreement introduced a 30% quota for women on company boards of directors. In 2010, women made up 14% of university chancellors and vice-chancellors at Brazilian public universities and 17% of those in South Africa in 2011. As of 2015, in Argentina, women made up 16% of directors and vice-directors of national research centres and, in Mexico, 10% of directors of scientific research institutes at the National Autonomous University of Mexico. In the US, numbers are slightly higher at 23%. In the EU, less than 16% of tertiary institutions were headed by a woman in 2010 and just 10% of universities. In 2011, at the main tertiary institution for the English-speaking Caribbean, the University of the West Indies, women represented 51% of lecturers but only


id: women-in-science-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-14.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:14.758470+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== In engineering and related fields ==== Women are consistently underrepresented in engineering and related fields. In Israel, for instance, where 28% of senior academic staff are women, there are proportionately many fewer in engineering (14%), physical sciences (11%), mathematics and computer sciences (10%) but dominate education (52%) and paramedical occupations (63%). In Japan and the Republic of Korea, women represent just 5% and 10% of engineers. For women who are pursuing STEM major careers, these individuals often face gender disparities in the work field, especially in regards to science and engineering. It has become more common for women to pursue undergraduate degrees in science, but are continuously discredited in salary rates and higher ranking positions. For example, men show a greater likelihood of being selected for an employment position than a woman. In Europe and North America, the number of female graduates in engineering, physics, mathematics and computer science is generally low. Women make up just 19% of engineers in Canada, Germany and the US and 22% in Finland, for example. However, 50% of engineering graduates are women in Cyprus, 38% in Denmark and 36% in the Russian Federation, for instance. In many cases, engineering has lost ground to


id: women-in-science-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-15.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:14.758470+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
During the early 1960s, the first American astronauts, nicknamed the Mercury Seven, were training. At the same time, William Randolph Lovelace II was interested to see if women could manage to go through the same training that the Mercury 7 undergoing at the time. Lovelace recruited thirteen female pilots, called the "Mercury 13", and put them through the same tests that the male astronauts took. As a result, the women actually performed better on these tests than the men of the Mercury 7 did. However, this did not convince NASA officials to allow women in space. In response, congressional hearings were held to investigate discrimination against women in the program. One of the women who testified at the hearing was Jerrie Cobb, the first woman to pass Lovelace's tests. During her testimony, Cobb said:I find it a little ridiculous when I read in a newspaper that there is a place called Chimp College in New Mexico where they are training chimpanzees for space flight, one a female named Glenda. I think it would be at least as important to let the women undergo this training for space flight.NASA officials also had representatives present, notably astronauts John Glenn and Scott Carpenter,


id: women-in-science-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-16.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:14.758470+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== Latin America and the Caribbean ==== Latin America has some of the world's highest rates of women studying scientific fields; it also shares with the Caribbean one of the highest proportions of female researchers: 44%. Of the 12 countries reporting data for the years 2010–2013, seven have achieved gender parity, or even dominate research: Bolivia (63%), Venezuela (56%), Argentina (53%), Paraguay (52%), Uruguay (49%), Brazil (48%) and Guatemala (45%). Costa Rica is on the cusp (43%). Chile has the lowest score among countries for which there are recent data (31%). The Caribbean paints a similar picture, with Cuba having achieved gender parity (47%) and Trinidad and Tobago on 44%. Recent data on women's participation in industrial research are available for those countries with the most developed national innovation systems, with the exception of Brazil and Cuba: Uruguay (47%), Argentina (29%), Colombia and Chile (26%). As in most other regions, the great majority of health graduates are women (60–85%). Women are also strongly represented in science. More than 40% of science graduates are women in each of Argentina, Colombia, Ecuador, El Salvador, Mexico, Panama and Uruguay. The Caribbean paints a similar picture, with women graduates in science being on a


id: women-in-science-20260505-17
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-17.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:14.758470+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== European Union ==== Women make up 33% of researchers overall in the European Union (EU), slightly more than their representation in science (32%). Women constitute 40% of researchers in higher education, 40% in government and 19% in the private sector, with the number of female researchers increasing faster than that of male researchers. The proportion of female researchers has been increasing over the last decade, at a faster rate than men (5.1% annually over 2002–2009 compared with 3.3% for men), which is also true for their participation among scientists and engineers (up 5.4% annually between 2002 and 2010, compared with 3.1% for men). Despite these gains, women's academic careers in Europe remain characterized by strong vertical and horizontal segregation. In 2010, although female students (55%) and graduates (59%) outnumbered male students, men outnumbered women at the PhD and graduate levels (albeit by a small margin). Further along in the research career, women represented 44% of grade C academic staff, 37% of grade B academic staff and 20% of grade A academic staff.11 These trends are intensified in science, with women making up 31% of the student population at the tertiary level to 38% of PhD students and 35% of


id: women-in-science-20260505-18
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-18.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:14.758470+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== Southeast Asia ==== Southeast Asia presents a different picture entirely, with women basically on a par with men in some countries: they make up 52% of researchers in the Philippines and Thailand, for example. Other countries are close to parity, such as Malaysia and Vietnam, whereas Indonesia and Singapore are still around the 30% mark. Cambodia trails its neighbours at 20%. Female researchers in the region are spread fairly equally across the sectors of participation, with the exception of the private sector, where they make up 30% or less of researchers in most countries. The proportion of women tertiary graduates reflects these trends, with high percentages of women in science in Brunei Darussalam, Malaysia, Myanmar and the Philippines (around 60%) and a low of 10% in Cambodia. Women make up the majority of graduates in health sciences, from 60% in Laos to 81% in Myanmar – Vietnam being an exception at 42%. Women graduates are on a par with men in agriculture but less present in engineering: Vietnam (31%), the Philippines (30%) and Malaysia (39%); here, the exception is Myanmar, at 65%. In the Republic of Korea, women make up about 40% of graduates in science and agriculture and


id: women-in-science-20260505-19
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-19.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:14.758470+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== Sub-Saharan Africa ==== Just under one in three (30%) researchers in sub-Saharan Africa is a woman. Much of sub-Saharan Africa is seeing solid gains in the share of women among tertiary graduates in scientific fields. In two of the top four countries for women's representation in science, women graduates are part of very small cohorts, however: they make up 54% of Lesotho's 47 tertiary graduates in science and 60% of those in Namibia's graduating class of 149. South Africa and Zimbabwe, which have larger graduate populations in science, have achieved parity, with 49% and 47% respectively. The next grouping clusters seven countries poised at around 35–40% (Angola, Burundi, Eritrea, Liberia, Madagascar, Mozambique and Rwanda). The rest are grouped around 30% or below (Benin, Ethiopia, Ghana, Swaziland and Uganda). Burkina Faso ranks lowest, with women making up 18% of its science graduates. Female representation in engineering is fairly high in sub-Saharan Africa in comparison with other regions. In Mozambique and South Africa, for instance, women make up more than 34% and 28% of engineering graduates, respectively. Numbers of female graduates in agricultural science have been increasing steadily across the continent, with eight countries reporting the share of women graduates of


id: women-in-science-20260505-20
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-20.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:14.758470+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Underrepresentation of homosexual and bi women, and gender nonconformists in STEM === While there has been a push to encourage more women to participate in science, there is less outreach to lesbian, bi, or gender nonconforming women, and gender nonconforming people more broadly. Due to the lack of data and statistics of LGBTQ members involvement in the STEM field, it is unknown to what exact degree lesbian and bisexual women, gender non-conformers (transgender, nonbinary/agender, or anti-gender gender abolitionists who eschew the system altogether) are potentially even more repressed and underrepresented than their straight peers. But a general lack of out lesbian and bi women in STEM has been noted. Reasons for under-representation of same-sex attracted women and anyone gender nonconforming in STEM fields include lack of role models in K–12, the desire of some transgender girls and women to adopt traditional heteronormative gender roles as gender is a cultural performance and socially-determined subjective internal experience, employment discrimination, and the possibility of sexual harassment in the workplace. Historically, women who have accepted STEM research positions for the government or the military remained in the closet due to lack of federal protections or the fact that homosexual or gender nonconforming expression


id: women-in-science-20260505-21
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-21.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:14.758470+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Societal disadvantages === Despite women's tendency to perform better than men academically, there are flaws involving stereotyping, lack of information, and family influence that have been found to affect women's involvement in science. Stereotyping has an effect, because people associate characteristics such as nurturing, kind, and warm or characteristics like strong and powerful with a particular gender. These character associations lead people to stereotype that certain jobs are more suitable to a particular gender. Lack of information is something that many institutions have worked hard over the years to improve by making programs such as the IFAC project (Information for a choice: empowering women through learning for scientific and technological career paths) which investigated low women participation in science and technology fields at high school to university level. However, not all efforts were as successful, "Science: it's a girl thing" campaign, which has since been removed, received backlash for further encouraging women that they must partake in "girly" or "feminine" activities. The idea being that if women are fully informed of their career choices and employability, they will be more inclined to pursue STEM field jobs. Women also struggle in the sense of lacking role models of women in


id: women-in-science-20260505-22
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-22.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:14.758470+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Efforts to increase participation === A number of organizations have been set up to combat the stereotyping that may encourage girls away from careers in these areas. In the UK The WISE Campaign (Women into Science, Engineering and Construction) and the UKRC (The UK Resource Centre for Women in SET) are collaborating to ensure industry, academia and education are all aware of the importance of challenging the traditional approaches to careers advice and recruitment that mean some of the best brains in the country are lost to science. The UKRC and other women's networks provide female role models, resources and support for activities that promote science to girls and women. The Women's Engineering Society, a professional association in the UK, has been supporting women in engineering and science since 1919. In computing, the British Computer Society group BCSWomen is active in encouraging girls to consider computing careers, and in supporting women in the computing workforce. In the United States, the Association for Women in Science is one of the most prominent organization for professional women in science. In 2011, the Scientista Foundation was created to empower pre-professional college and graduate women in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM), to


id: women-in-science-20260505-23
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-23.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:14.758470+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Notable controversies and developments === A study conducted at Lund University in 2010 and 2011 analysed the genders of invited contributors to News & Views in Nature and Perspectives in Science. It found that 3.8% of the Earth and environmental science contributions to News & Views were written by women even while the field was estimated to be 16–20% female in the United States. Nature responded by suggesting that, worldwide, a significantly lower number of Earth scientists were women, but nevertheless committed to address any disparity. In 2012, a journal article published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) reported a gender bias among science faculty. Faculty were asked to review a resume from a hypothetical student and report how likely they would be to hire or mentor that student, as well as what they would offer as starting salary. Two resumes were distributed randomly to the faculty, only differing in the names at the top of the resume (John or Jennifer). The male student was rated as significantly more competent, more likely to be hired, and more likely to be mentored. The median starting salary offered to the male student was greater than $3,000 over the


id: women-in-science-20260505-24
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science-24.md
category: reference
title: Women in science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:14.758470+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
==== Problematic public statements ==== In January 2005, Harvard University President Lawrence Summers sparked controversy at a National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) Conference on Diversifying the Science & Engineering Workforce. Dr. Summers offered his explanation for the shortage of women in senior posts in science and engineering. He made comments suggesting the lower numbers of women in high-level science positions may in part be due to innate differences in abilities or preferences between men and women. Making references to the field and behavioral genetics, he noted the generally greater variability among men (compared to women) on tests of cognitive abilities, leading to proportionally more men than women at both the lower and upper tails of the test score distributions. In his discussion of this, Summers said that "even small differences in the standard deviation [between genders] will translate into very large differences in the available pool substantially out [from the mean]". Summers concluded his discussion by saying:So my best guess, to provoke you, of what's behind all of this is that the largest phenomenon, by far, is the general clash between people's legitimate family desires and employers' current desire for high power and high intensity, that in the special


id: women-in-stem-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM-0.md
category: reference
title: Women in STEM
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:16.104709+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-stem-20260505-0
summary:
Many scholars and policymakers have noted that the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) have remained predominantly male with historically low participation among women since the origins of these fields in the 18th century during the Age of Enlightenment. Scholars are exploring the various reasons for the continued existence of this gender disparity in STEM fields. Those who view this disparity as resulting from discriminatory forces are also seeking ways to redress this disparity within STEM fields. STEM professions are typically construed as well-compensated, high-status professions with universal career appeal. == History == Women's participation in science, technology, and engineering has been limited and also under-reported throughout most of history. This has been the case, with exceptions, until large-scale changes began around the 1970s. Scholars have discussed possible reasons and mechanisms behind the limitations such as ingrained gender roles, sexism, and sex differences in psychology. There has also been an effort among historians of science to uncover under-reported contributions of women. The "Computer Women" at NASA during the 1950s and 1960s were a group of women known as "computers" who performed essential calculations for aeronautical and space research. They worked as mathematicians, engineers, and analysts, laying the groundwork


id: women-in-stem-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM-1.md
category: reference
title: Women in STEM
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:16.104709+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-stem-20260505-0
summary:
Female college graduates earned less on average than male college graduates, even though they shared the earnings growth of all college graduates in the 1980s. Some of the salary differences are related to the differences in occupations entered by women and men. Among recent science and engineering bachelor's degree recipients, women were less likely than men to be employed in science and engineering occupations. There remains a wage gap between men and women in comparable scientific positions. Among more experienced scientists and engineers, the gender gap in salaries is greater than for recent graduates. Salaries are highest in mathematics, computer science, and engineering, which are fields in which women are not highly represented. In Australia, a study conducted by the Australian Bureau of Statistics has shown that the current gender wage gap between men and women in STEM fields in Australia stands at 30.1 percent as of 2013, which is an increase of 3 percent since 2012. In addition, according to a study done by Moss, when faculty members of top research institutions in America were asked to recruit student applicants for a laboratory manager position, both men and women faculty members rated the male applicants as more hireable and


id: women-in-stem-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM-2.md
category: reference
title: Women in STEM
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:16.104709+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-stem-20260505-0
summary:
==== Indonesia ==== UNESCO's A Complex Formula states that Indonesia's government has been working towards gender equality, especially through the Ministry of Education and Culture, but stereotypes about women's roles in the workplace persist. Due to traditional views and societal norms, women struggle to remain in their careers or to move up in the workplace. Substantially more women are enrolled in science-based fields such as pharmacy and biology than in mathematics and physics. Within engineering, statistics vary based on the specific engineering discipline; women make up 78% of chemical engineering students but only 5% of mechanical engineering students. As of 2005, out of 35,564 researchers in science, technology, and engineering, only 10,874 or 31% were female. ==== Japan ==== According to OECD data, about 25 percent of enrollment in science programs at the tertiary education level in Japan are women. Japan has the lowest share of women in tertiary teaching staff among OECD countries, with only 28% of female faculty members, far below the OECD average of 44%. Women make up just 17.7% of teaching staff at national universities, with only 10.8% in science and engineering fields and 9.4% in executive positions. Additionally, female enrollment in natural sciences, mathematics, and


id: women-in-stem-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM-3.md
category: reference
title: Women in STEM
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:16.104709+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-stem-20260505-0
summary:
=== Central and South America === Nearly half of PhD degrees pursued in Central and South America are completed by women (2018). However, only a small minority is represented at decision-making levels. A 2018 study gathered 6,849 articles published in Latin America and found that women researchers were 31% of published researchers in 2018, an increase from 27% in 2002. The same study also found that when women lead the research group, women contributors were published 60%, compared to when men are the leaders and the women contributors were published 20%. When looking at over 1,500 articles related to Botany published in Latin America, a study found that participation from both women and men were equal, whether it be in publications or leading roles in scientific organizations. Also women had higher rates of publication in Argentina, Brazil, and Mexico when compared to other Latin American countries despite participation being nearly the same throughout the region. Although women have higher publications in Botany, men still out publish women and are often the ones cited in research papers and studies relating to the sciences. The study concluded that according to the data (shown in the table above), women in Chile that are


id: women-in-stem-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM-4.md
category: reference
title: Women in STEM
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:16.104709+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-stem-20260505-0
summary:
==== African American women ==== According to Kimberly Jackson, prejudice and assumed stereotypes keep women of color, especially black women from studying in STEM fields. Psychologically, stereotypes on black women's intellect, cognitive abilities, and work ethic contribute to their lack of confidence in STEM. Some schools, such as Spelman College, have made attempts to change perceptions of African-American women and improve their rates of becoming involved and technically proficient in STEM. Students of color, especially Black students, face difficulty in STEM majors as they face hostile climates, microaggressions, and a lack of support and mentorship. Despite facing discrimination, many African American women have risen to prominence in STEM fields, starting in the mid-1800s, when physician Rebecca Lee Crumpler was the first African American woman to earn a medical degree. In our day major scientific advances have been made by African American women such as Dr. Kizzmekia Corbett, who contributed to developing COVID-19 vaccines; Dr. Ayanna Howard, a leader in robotics and artificial intelligence; and Dr. Hadiyah-Nicole Green, a physicist known for her work in cancer treatments using lasers. Several organizations have worked to help African American women obtain the support needed to be successful in STEM; some of them include


id: women-in-stem-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM-5.md
category: reference
title: Women in STEM
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:16.104709+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-stem-20260505-0
summary:
==== Discrimination ==== This leakage may be due to discrimination, both overt and covert, faced by women in STEM fields. According to Schiebinger, women are twice as likely to leave jobs in science and engineering than men are. In the 1980s, researchers demonstrated a general evaluative bias against women. In a 2012 study, email requests were sent to meet to professors in doctoral programs at the top 260 U.S. universities. It was impossible to determine whether any particular individual in this study was exhibiting discrimination, since each participant only viewed a request from one potential graduate student. However, researchers found evidence for discrimination against ethnic minorities and women relative to Caucasian men. In another study, science faculty were sent the materials of students who were applying for a lab manager position at their university. The materials were the same for each participant, but each application was randomly assigned either a male or a female name. The researchers found that faculty members rated the male candidates as both more competent and more hirable than the female candidates, despite applications being otherwise identical. If individuals are given information about a prospective student's gender, they may infer that he or she possesses traits


id: women-in-stem-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM-6.md
category: reference
title: Women in STEM
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:16.104709+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-stem-20260505-0
summary:
==== Queen Bee effect ==== The Queen Bee effect is similar to the Black Sheep effect but applies only to women. It explains why higher-status women, particularly in male-dominated professions, may actually be far less likely to help other women than their male colleagues might be. A 2004 study found that while doctoral students in a number of different disciplines did not exhibit any gender differences in work commitment or work satisfaction, faculty members at the same university believed that female students were less committed to their work than male students. What was particularly surprising was that these beliefs by faculty members were most strongly endorsed by female faculty members, rather than male faculty members. One potential explanation for this finding is that individual mobility for a member of a negatively stereotyped group is often accompanied by a social and psychological distancing of oneself from the group. This implies that successful women in traditionally male-dominated careers do not see their success as evidence that negative stereotypes about women's quantitative and analytical abilities are wrong, but rather as proof that they personally are exceptions to the rule. Thus, such women may actually play a role in perpetuating, rather than abolishing, these


id: women-in-stem-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM-7.md
category: reference
title: Women in STEM
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:16.104709+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-stem-20260505-0
summary:
==== Clustering and leaky pipeline ==== In the early 1980s, Rossiter put forth the concept of "territorial segregation" or occupational segregation, which is the idea that women "cluster" in certain fields of study. For example, "women are more likely to teach and do research in the humanities and social sciences than in the natural sciences and engineering", and the majority of college women tend to choose majors such as psychology, education, English, performing arts, and nursing. Rossiter also used "hierarchical segregation" as an explanation for the low number of women in STEM fields. She describes "hierarchical segregation" as a decrease in the number of women as one "moves up the ladder of power and prestige." This is related to the leaky STEM pipeline concept. The metaphor of the leaky pipeline has been used to describe how women drop out of STEM fields at all stages of their careers. In the U.S., out of 2,000 high school aged persons, 1944 were enrolled in high school fall 2014. Assuming equal enrollment for boys and girls, 60 boys and 62 girls are considered "gifted." By comparing enrollment to the population of persons 20–24 years old, 880 of the 1,000 original women, and 654


id: women-in-stem-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM-8.md
category: reference
title: Women in STEM
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:16.104709+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-stem-20260505-0
summary:
==== Lack of confidence ==== According to A. N. Pell, the pipeline has several major leaks spanning the time from elementary school to retirement. One of the most important periods is adolescence. One of the factors behind girls' lack of confidence might be unqualified or ineffective teachers. Teachers' gendered perceptions on their students' capabilities can create an unbalanced learning environment and deter girls from pursuing further STEM education. They can also pass these stereotyped beliefs onto their students. Studies have also shown that student-teacher interactions affect girls' engagement with STEM. Teachers often give boys more opportunity to figure out the solution to a problem by themselves while telling the girls to follow the rules. Teachers are also more likely to accept questions from boys while telling girls to wait for their turns. This is partly due to gender expectations that boys will be active but that girls will be quiet and obedient. Prior to 1985, girls were provided fewer laboratory opportunities than boys. In middle and high school, science, mathematics, mechanics and computers courses are mainly taken by male students and also tend to be taught by male teachers. A lack of opportunities in STEM fields could lead to a


id: women-in-stem-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM-9.md
category: reference
title: Women in STEM
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:16.104709+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-stem-20260505-0
summary:
=== Innate versus learned skill === Some studies propose the explanation that STEM fields (and especially fields like physics, math and philosophy) are considered by both teachers and students to require more innate talent than skills that can be learned. Combined with a tendency to view women as having less of the required innate abilities, researchers proposed that this can result in assessing women as less qualified for STEM positions. In a study done by Ellis, Fosdick and Rasmussen, it was concluded that without strong skills in calculus, women cannot perform as well as their male counterparts in any field of STEM, which leads to the fewer women pursuing a career in these fields. A high percentage of women that do pursue a career in STEM do not continue on this pathway after taking Calculus I, which was found to be a class that weeds out students from the STEM pathway. There have been several controversial statements about innate ability and success in STEM. A few notable examples include Lawrence Summers, former president of Harvard University who suggested cognitive ability at high end positions could cause a population difference. Summers later stepped down as president. Former Google engineer, James Damore,


id: women-in-stem-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM-10.md
category: reference
title: Women in STEM
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_STEM
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:16.104709+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-stem-20260505-0
summary:
==== Self-affirmation ==== Researchers have investigated the usefulness of self-affirmation in alleviating stereotype threat. One study found that women who affirmed a personal value prior to experiencing stereotype threat performed as well on a math test as men and as women who did not experience stereotype threat. A subsequent study found that a short writing exercise in which college students, who were enrolled in an introductory physics course, wrote about their most important values substantially decreased the gender performance gap and boosted women's grades. Scholars believe that the effectiveness of such values-affirmation exercises is their ability to help individuals view themselves as complex individuals, rather than through the lens of a harmful stereotype. Supporting this hypothesis, another study found that women who were encouraged to draw self-concept maps with many nodes did not experience a performance decrease on a math test. However, women who did not draw self-concept maps or only drew maps with a few nodes did perform significantly worse than men on the math test. The effect of these maps with many nodes was to remind women of their "multiple roles and identities," that were unrelated to, and would thus not be harmed by, their performance on the


id: 500-women-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/500_Women_Scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: 500 Women Scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/500_Women_Scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:17.413441+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 500-women-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
500 Women Scientists is a non-profit group dedicated to making science open, inclusive, and accessible. To achieve this mission, they work to increase scientific literacy through public engagement, advocate for science and equity, and provide self-identifying women with the tools and support they need to reach their full potential. The organization began with an open letter in November 2016 and was officially recognized as a 501(c)3 in May 2018. == History == 500 Women Scientists launched with an open letter signed by 500 women scientists after the United States 2016 presidential election. The letter pledged to speak out not only against policies that go against scientific evidence, but also against inequality, sexism, xenophobia, and other forms of discrimination against marginalized communities. Within two months, the pledge received over fifteen thousand signatures from women and allies in 109 countries. In concert with the 2017 Women's March, women scientists and supporters who signed the pledge organized themselves into groups to march together. The local marches became the basis for forming local chapters, or "Pods", where local women scientists meet regularly. Pods function both as a support system and as a vehicle to focus on and organize around issues that resonate in their


id: academianet-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AcademiaNet-0.md
category: reference
title: AcademiaNet
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AcademiaNet
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:18.588181+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: academianet-20260505-0
summary:
AcademiaNet was an international database containing profiles of women scientists. It is a non-profit project with the goal to raise the share of women in leadership positions in academia. AcademiaNet was initiated in 2010 in Germany by the Robert Bosch Stiftung and the publishing house "Spektrum der Wissenschaft". The Swiss National Science Foundation assumed responsibility of the platform in 2020, but shut it down in September 2025. == Goals and functions == The share of women professors and executives at research institutions across Europe is low and rising only slowly. AcademiaNet is a resource aimed at facilitating the search for women researchers in view of academic appointments or as conference speakers, experts on scientific committees or peer reviewers. A search function allows users to find the registered scientists according to their field or discipline. As opposed to databases such as "Request a Woman in STEMM" by 500 Women Scientists or "WiLS database of women in science", women cannot create their own profile on AcademiaNet; they need to be nominated by a scientific partner based on clearly defined criteria. == History == The Robert Bosch Stiftung founded AcademiaNet in 2010. In her speech inaugurating the platform in November 2010, the German


id: ada-lovelace-day-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada_Lovelace_Day-0.md
category: reference
title: Ada Lovelace Day
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada_Lovelace_Day
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:19.767827+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ada-lovelace-day-20260505-0
summary:
Ada Lovelace Day is an annual event held on the second Tuesday of October to celebrate and raise awareness of the contributions of women to STEM fields. It is named after mathematician and computer science pioneer Ada Lovelace. It started in 2009 as a "day of blogging" and has since become a multi-national event with conferences. == History == The day was founded in the United Kingdom in 2009 by Suw Charman-Anderson on the second Tuesday in October as a means of raising awareness about the contributions of women to science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields. Charman-Anderson later said of this: I launched Ada Lovelace Day in 2009 because I felt passionately that we needed a way to celebrate and highlight women’s work and achievements in STEM, which frequently don’t get the recognition they deserve. In 2022, Charman-Anderson announced that this would be the last year in which the organization that she founded, Finding Ada, would organize an annual flagship Ada Lovelace Day event in England. However, the Royal Institution stepped in with funding, due to its alignment with their mission to bring scientists and the public together. Since its inception, Ada Lovelace Day has become international in scope,


id: afghan-girls-robotics-team-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghan_Girls_Robotics_Team-0.md
category: reference
title: Afghan Girls Robotics Team
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghan_Girls_Robotics_Team
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:25.549004+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: afghan-girls-robotics-team-20260505-0
summary:
The Afghan Girls Robotics Team, also known as the Afghan Dreamers, is an all-girl robotics team from Herat, Afghanistan, founded through the Digital Citizen Fund (DCF) in 2017 by Roya Mahboob and Alireza Mehraban. It is made up of girls between ages 12 and 18 and their mentors. Several members of the team were relocated to Qatar and Mexico by humanitarian and tech entrepreneur Sarah Porter following the fall of Kabul in August 2021. A documentary film featuring members of the team, titled Afghan Dreamers, was released by MTV Documentary Films in 2023. == Origins == The Afghan Girls Robotics Team was co-founded in 2017 by Roya Mahboob, who is their coach, mentor and sponsor, and founder of the Digital Citizen Fund (DCF), which is the parent organization for the team. Dean Kamen was planning a 2017 competition in the United States and had recruited Mahboob to form a team from Afghanistan. Out of 150 girls, 12 were selected for the first team. Before parts were sent by Kamen, they trained in the basement of the home of Mahboob's parents, with scrap metal and without safety equipment under the guidance of their coach, Mahboob's brother Alireza Mehraban, who is also


id: afghan-girls-robotics-team-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghan_Girls_Robotics_Team-1.md
category: reference
title: Afghan Girls Robotics Team
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghan_Girls_Robotics_Team
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:25.549004+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: afghan-girls-robotics-team-20260505-0
summary:
== Afghan Dreamers documentary == The Afghan Dreamers documentary from MTV Documentary Films premiered in May 2023 on Paramount+. The film was directed by David Greenwald and produced by David Cowan and Beth Murphy. In a review for Screen Daily, Wendy Ide wrote, "This film, with its likeable cast of girl nerds and positive message, should enjoy a warm reception on the festival circuit, and will be of particular interest to events seeking to showcase women's stories from around the world. It also serves as a timely cautionary tale – a case study on just how quickly the rights and the opportunities of women can be curtailed, at the behest of the men in power." == Honors and awards == 2017 Silver medal for Courageous Achievement at the FIRST Global Challenge, science and technology 2017 Benefiting Humanity in AI Award at World Summit AI 2017 Winner, Entrepreneurship Challenge at Robotex in Estonia 2018 Permission to Dream Award, Raw Film Festival 2018 Conrad Innovation Challenge, Raw Film Festival 2018 Rookie All Star – District Championship, Canada 2018 Asia Game Changer Award Honoree 2019 Inspiring in Engineering Award – FIRST Detroit World Championship 2019 Asia Game Changer Award of California 2019 Safety


id: athena-swan-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athena_SWAN-0.md
category: reference
title: Athena SWAN
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athena_SWAN
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:26.970905+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: athena-swan-20260505-0
summary:
The Athena SWAN Charter (Scientific Women's Academic Network) is an equality charter mark framework and accreditation scheme for higher education and research institutions, established in 2005 by the UK's Equality Challenge Unit (now part of Advance HE). It recognises and promotes commitment to advancing gender equality, particularly in relation to representation, career progression, and success for women. The charter is used both as a self-assessment and benchmarking tool to guide institutional change. == Award details == Members (universities) who sign up to the charter are expected to apply for an Athena SWAN award, at Bronze, Silver or Gold level. Each award is valid for four years under the post-2015 rules (three years where pre-2015 rules apply). They commit to adopting ten principles, which focus on promoting and supporting gender equality for women. These are: We acknowledge that academia cannot reach its full potential unless it can benefit from the talents of all. We commit to advancing gender equality in academia, in particular, addressing the loss of women across the career pipeline and the absence of women from senior academic, professional and support roles. We commit to addressing unequal gender representation across academic disciplines and professional and support functions. In this


id: athena-swan-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athena_SWAN-1.md
category: reference
title: Athena SWAN
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athena_SWAN
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:26.970905+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: athena-swan-20260505-0
summary:
== Reception == An exploratory study of women's and men's perceptions of Athena SWAN in 2017 was broadly positive, and highlighted the significance of government funding being linked to Athena SWAN awards; it also highlighted the limitations of the process to change long-standing and entrenched issues in society. A 2019 study of the university culture in medical and social sciences attributed a more positive culture in medical sciences to the widespread implementation of Athena SWAN gender equality action plans, linked to the funding incentives of the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR). A 2020 study examining the effect of Athena SWAN funding incentives on women's research leadership in NIHR Biomedical Research Centres found a rise in the number of women in mid-level leadership positions and the proportion of funding going to women. According to empirical research carried out at the University of Bath, "there is no evidence that Athena SWAN membership and award level have any impact" on "the gender pay gap and the proportion of women in the top quartile of pay". Some commentators consider it to be largely window-dressing with little impact on lived experiences of women working in universities. Others have indicated an apparent failure to find


id: balfour-biological-laboratory-for-women-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balfour_Biological_Laboratory_for_Women-0.md
category: reference
title: Balfour Biological Laboratory for Women
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balfour_Biological_Laboratory_for_Women
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:28.178724+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: balfour-biological-laboratory-for-women-20260505-0
summary:
The Balfour Biological Laboratory for Women was a laboratory attached to the University of Cambridge from 1884 to 1914. Established to expand the laboratory capacity and provide a separate space for women's practical work, it served as an important source of academic posts and opportunities for networking and discussion for women at Cambridge until laboratories began being shared by men and women in 1914. == Background == In March 1881, the month after women students received the right to sit the Natural Sciences Tripos at the University of Cambridge, twenty-two natural sciences students at Newnham College, Cambridge presented a memorial to the college's governing body outlining the need for more laboratory space. Newnham, one of two women's colleges at Cambridge, had had a purpose-built laboratory on its grounds since 1879. This laboratory was mostly set up for chemistry, and more space was needed because the Natural Sciences Tripos included a two-day examination in practical laboratory techniques. All laboratory space at Cambridge was becoming oversubscribed due to the increase in students wanting to study natural sciences, but it was also thought appropriate that women, who attended lectures alongside men, should have a separate laboratory facility rather than a shared one. In


id: bathurst-studentship-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathurst_studentship-0.md
category: reference
title: Bathurst studentship
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathurst_studentship
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:29.360126+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bathurst-studentship-20260505-0
summary:
The Bathurst studentship was a fund for graduates of the natural science tripos at the women's colleges at the University of Cambridge to continue their scientific research. It was established in 1879 by The Hon. Lady Evelyn Selina Bathurst (often called Selina Bathurst, d. 1946). She was the daughter of Allen Bathurst, 6th Earl Bathurst and his second wife Evelyn, née Hankey. She contributed money and equipment for the establishment of the Balfour Biological Laboratory for Women. On 18 June 1898, she married Major George Coryton Lister. They had two children. She died on 16 April 1946. The Bathurst Studentship, awarded 'from time to time,' was taken up by dozens of women scientists in the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Students would work independently, supported by academic supervisors, and were granted bench space in the Balfour Biological Laboratory for Women for their experiments. == Notable recipients == Florence Eves (1881–2) Alice Johnson (1882–3) Marion Greenwood (1883–4) Anna Bateson (1887–9) Edith Saunders (1888–9) Elizabeth Eleanor Field (1891–3) Mary Tebb (1891–3) Gertrude Elles (1895) Ethel Skeat (1895–7) Mildred Gostling (1899–1900) Sibille Ford (1900–2) Ida Smedley (1901–3) Jessie Slater (1903–5) Muriel Onslow (1904) Edith Gertrude Willcock (1904–5) Annie Homer (1905) Mary Gladys Sykes


id: beyond-curie-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Curie-0.md
category: reference
title: Beyond Curie
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Curie
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:30.629931+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: beyond-curie-20260505-0
summary:
Beyond Curie is a portrait series of women who have made significant contributions in STEM fields. As of November 2018, the series features 42 women, including all 18 female Nobel Prize winners in Physics, Chemistry, and Physiology or Medicine. The series was created by Amanda Phingbodhipakkiya, a former neuroscience researcher and designer who named the project after two-time Nobel prize winner Marie Curie, with the goal of highlighting other important female scientists who are less well known. Beyond Curie has raised $44,172 from 856 backers across two Kickstarter campaigns. == Public exhibits == Beyond Curie has been on display in an exhibit at the North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences since March 24, 2017. Phingbodhipakkiya worked with the March for Science organizers to make special Beyond Curie posters that could be freely downloaded and brought to a rally or protest. In partnership with Outside, Phingbodhipakkiya developed five portraits specifically focused on women whose work focused on health and the environment. Phingbodhipakkiya presented some of the Beyond Curie portraits at TEDWomen 2017, where she said the project was "about finding your heroes" and shared stories of female scientists who only learned about some of the historical figures of the series after


id: susan-brunskill-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susan_Brunskill-0.md
category: reference
title: Susan Brunskill
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susan_Brunskill
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:31.928946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: susan-brunskill-20260505-0
summary:
Sue Brunskill is a Landcare community leader, and was awarded a Medal of the Order of Australia, General Division, for her leadership and services to the environment. She has 35 years experience in bushland conservation and land management. == Early life == Brunskill's early life and childhood took place on a farm near Wagga Wagga, in Borambola. She was a volunteer within the Wooragee Primary School for 15 years, and then a volunteer at the Horticultural business, Amenity Horticulture. == Career == Brunskill was a teacher of Natural Resource Management, at the TAFE of Thurgoona. She is a bush regenerator, both teaching and conducting bush regeneration and Bush Care, in various groups around Albury Wodonga. Brunskill has been a community leader for longer than 30 years, and has been working to conserve the native flora and fauna species on her 50 ha property in Wooragee, located in the north-east region of Victoria. She is the president and has been working with the Wooragee Landcare Group (WLG), a group who removes invasive species which outcompete native vegetation. Her knowledge, combined with her enthusiasm for conservation, has supported local gardeners, farmers, and local people to understand the impact they can have on


id: coded-bias-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coded_Bias-0.md
category: reference
title: Coded Bias
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coded_Bias
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:33.122687+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: coded-bias-20260505-0
summary:
Coded Bias is an American documentary film directed by Shalini Kantayya that premiered at the 2020 Sundance Film Festival. The film includes contributions from researchers Joy Buolamwini, Deborah Raji, Meredith Broussard, Cathy O’Neil, Zeynep Tufekci, Safiya Noble, Timnit Gebru, Virginia Eubanks, and Silkie Carlo, and others. == Background == Kantayya previously directed a documentary titled Catching the Sun and also directed one episode of the National Geographic television series, Breakthrough. She is also an associate of UC Berkeley Graduate School of Journalism. Kantayya said an interview with 500 Global on August 17, 2021, that three years previously she did not even know what an algorithm was. She read the book Weapons of Math Destruction, which describes how artificial intelligence, machine learning, and algorithms can determine outcomes for certain people. She later came across the work of Joy Buolamwini through a Ted Talk. == Summary == The documentary is about artificial intelligence and the biases that can be embedded into this technology. MIT media researcher Joy Buolamwini's computer science studies uncovered that her face was unrecognizable in many facial recognition systems and she worked to find out why these systems failed. She later found that facial recognition programs only worked when


id: computer-engineer-barbie-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Engineer_Barbie-0.md
category: reference
title: Computer Engineer Barbie
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Engineer_Barbie
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:34.331879+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: computer-engineer-barbie-20260505-0
summary:
Computer Engineer Barbie is the 126th career version of Mattel's Barbie doll. In response to poll results indicating strong support for computer engineers, the doll set was created and introduced in 2010. In 2014, Mattel apologized for the accompanying book, I Can Be a Computer Engineer, after complaints that it represented Barbie as incompetent in the field, needing the help of men. == Description == The doll has a pink laptop and a pink smartphone, and is wearing geometric pink glasses, a pink watch, black leggings, a T-shirt decorated with "Barbie" spelled in binary code, a fitted vest with saddle-stitch detailing, pink wedges, and a Bluetooth headset. The packaging included a code to unlock exclusive game content on the Barbie website. Female engineers including Betty Shanahan, CEO of the Society of Women Engineers, and Alice Agogino of the National Academy of Engineering were consulted on her wardrobe and work environment. They suggested that for authenticity she needed "a Coke can and a bag of Doritos" on her desk; she has a coffee cup. One mockup also included a Linux penguin; Barbie is running Linux on her dual-monitor set-up. == History == In 2010, Mattel invited people to vote for Barbie's


id: django-girls-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Django_Girls-0.md
category: reference
title: Django Girls
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Django_Girls
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:35.493958+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: django-girls-20260505-0
summary:
Django Girls is an international non-profit organization started by two Polish women, Ola Sitarska and Ola Sendecka, to inspire women from all backgrounds to get interested in technology and to become programmers, offering a safe and friendly environment. It is known for the free workshops it hosts to help women to learn to program and for its Django tutorial. It is often supported by the Python Software Foundation, and they often hold sessions at the Python Conference. == History == The first Django Girls workshop, which kicked off Django Girls, happened during EuroPython 2014, in Berlin. Ola Sitarska and Ola Sendecka decided to use Django and Python because both are open source code platforms, which may help women developing their own ideas. Since then, the initiative has spread worldwide, reaching countries like Argentina, Australia, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Ghana, Nigeria, United Kingdom, Peru, United States, Zimbabwe and many others. == Tutorial == The tutorial, which teaches how to create and deploy a blog application using Django, is maintained and updated by the Django Girls community, using Github. As of May 2018, the Django Girls tutorial has been published online in 14 languages besides its original English version. As of May


id: doris-m-curtis-outstanding-woman-in-science-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doris_M._Curtis_Outstanding_Woman_in_Science_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: Doris M. Curtis Outstanding Woman in Science Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doris_M._Curtis_Outstanding_Woman_in_Science_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:36.953396+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: doris-m-curtis-outstanding-woman-in-science-award-20260505-0
summary:
The Doris M. Curtis Outstanding Woman in Science Award, also known as the Subaru Outstanding Woman in Science Award is a prize given annually by the Geological Society of America to "...women who have made a significant impact on the geosciences with their Ph.D. research." The award is named in memory of Doris Malkin Curtis, first female president of the GSA, and sponsored by Subaru. Recipients of the award are listed below. == References ==


id: empowering-women-in-organic-chemistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empowering_Women_in_Organic_Chemistry-0.md
category: reference
title: Empowering Women in Organic Chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empowering_Women_in_Organic_Chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:43.310723+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: empowering-women-in-organic-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
Empowering Women in organic Chemistry (EWOC) is a scientific conference designed to bring the research and career interests of women in organic chemistry to the forefront and seeks to empower all marginalized individuals by promoting equity, justice, diversity, and inclusion across all chemistry fields. EWOC is the world's largest gathering of women in organic chemistry, and hosts an annual meeting of women (students, post-docs, faculty and professionals) who work or plan to work in the field of Organic Chemistry, broadly defined, from all types of institutions (academic, industry, biotech, non-profit and government). The meeting goals are to Establish a peer group network for collaborating and recruiting diverse talent Afford a novel mechanism to provide advice and counsel for women organic chemists Share stories from different perspectives about career development and challenges faced – and overcome – along the way Establish an inclusive community, with an emphasis on Diversity, Inclusion and Belonging, to engage, network and support each other in the field of Organic Chemistry Provide support and guidance to graduate students and post-docs making career decisions Provide community support to enhance retention of women in chemistry. == History == The number of female scientists in the organic chemistry community, industry


id: female-education-in-stem-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Female_education_in_STEM-0.md
category: reference
title: Female education in STEM
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Female_education_in_STEM
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:44.563050+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: female-education-in-stem-20260505-0
summary:
Female education in STEM refers to child and adult female representation in the educational fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). In 2017, 33% of students in STEM fields were women. The organization UNESCO has stated that this gender disparity is due to discrimination, biases, social norms and expectations that influence the quality of education women receive and the subjects they study. UNESCO also believes that having more women in STEM fields is desirable because it would help bring about sustainable development. == Current status of girls and women in STEM education == === Overall trends in STEM education === Gender differences in STEM education remain a global issue. This is widely understood to be influenced by society and cultural factors. Including gender norms, expectation's, access to resources, and the availability of role models. Girls appear to lose interest in STEM subjects with age, particularly between early and late adolescence. This decreased interest affects participation in advanced studies at the secondary level and in higher education. Globally, women represent 35% of graduates in STEM fields, and this share hasn't changed by much in recent years. However, participation can vary by subject. Women are more strongly represented in life sciences


id: female-education-in-stem-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Female_education_in_STEM-1.md
category: reference
title: Female education in STEM
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Female_education_in_STEM
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:44.563050+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: female-education-in-stem-20260505-0
summary:
=== Family and peer level === Parents, including their beliefs and expectations, play an important role in shaping girls' attitudes towards, and interest in, STEM studies. Parents with traditional beliefs about gender roles and who treat girls and boys unequally can reinforce stereotypes about gender and ability in STEM. Parents can also have a strong influence on girls' STEM participation and learning achievement through the family values, environment, experiences, and encouragement that they provide. Some research finds that parents’ expectations, particularly the mother's expectations, have more influence on the higher education and career choices of girls than those of boys. Higher socio-economic status and parental educational qualifications are associated with higher scores in mathematics and science for both girls and boys. Girls' science performance appears to be more strongly associated with mothers' higher educational qualifications, and boys' with their fathers'. Family members with STEM careers can also influence girls’ STEM engagement. The broader socio-cultural context of the family can also play a role. Factors such as ethnicity, language used at home, immigrant status, and family structure may also have an influence on girls' participation and performance in STEM. Peers can also impact on girls’ motivation and feeling of belonging in


id: feminist-technoscience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_technoscience-0.md
category: reference
title: Feminist technoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_technoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:47.206109+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: feminist-technoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Feminist technoscience is a transdisciplinary branch of science studies which emerged from decades of feminist critique on the way gender and other identity markers are entangled in the combined fields of science and technology. The term technoscience, especially in regard to the field of feminist technoscience studies, seeks to remove the distinction between scientific research and development with applied applications of technology while assuming science is entwined with the common interests of society. As a result, science is suggested to be held to the same level of political and ethical accountability as the technologies which develop from it. Feminist technoscience studies continue to develop new theories on how politics of gender and other identity markers are interconnected to resulting processes of technical change, and power relations of the globalized, material world. Feminist technoscience focuses less on intrapersonal relationships between men and women, and more on broader issues concerning knowledge production and how bodies manifest and are acknowledged in societies. Feminist technoscience studies are inspired by social constructionist approaches to gender, sex, intersectionalities, and science, technology and society (STS). It can also be referred to as feminist science studies, feminist STS, feminist cultural studies of science, feminist studies of science and


id: feminist-technoscience-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_technoscience-1.md
category: reference
title: Feminist technoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_technoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:47.206109+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: feminist-technoscience-20260505-0
summary:
== Feminist technologies and technoscience studies == Feminist technoscience studies have become intrinsically linked with practices of Technofeminism and the development of feminist technologies in cultural and critical vernacular. Feminist technoscience studies explore the coded social and historical implications of science and technology on the development of society, including how identity constructs and is constructed by these technologies. Technofeminism emerged in the early 1980s, leaning on the different feminist movements. Feminist scholars reanalyzed the Scientific Revolution, and stated that the resulting science was based on the masculine ideology of exploiting the Earth and control. During this time, nature and scientific inquiry were modelled after misogynous relationships to women. Femininity was associated with nature and considered as something passive to be objectified. This was in contrast to culture, which was represented by objectifying masculinity. This analysis depended on the use of gender imagery to conceptualize the nature of technoscientific masculine ideology. Judy Wajcman draws parallels between Judith Butler's theory of gender performativity and the construction of technology. Butler conceives gender as a performative act as opposed to a naturalized condition one is born into. Through a fluctuating process achieved in daily social interaction, gender identity is acted and constructed through relational


id: feminist-technoscience-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_technoscience-2.md
category: reference
title: Feminist technoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_technoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:47.206109+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: feminist-technoscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Bioethics and capitalism === The development of reproductive technologies blur the lines between nature and technology, allowing for the reconfiguration of life itself. Through the advances of genetic technologies, the controlling of pregnancy, childbirth, and motherhood has become increasingly possible through intrusive means. These advances in biotechnology are serving to develop life as a commodity and deepen monetary inequality - a link made by feminist theorists such as Donna Haraway. Genetic engineering also brings about questions in eugenics, leading early radical feminist analysis to declare and attempt to reclaim motherhood as a foundation of female identity. The idea of a green, natural motherhood was popularized by ecofeminists who celebrated the identification of women with nature, and natural life. Haraway instead chooses to embrace technology as feminist instead of reverting to this idea of naturalized femininity. By embracing the image of the cyborg, an amalgamation that is neither human/animal nor machine, Haraway explores the ideas of technoscience and gender, conceptualizing a space where gender is an arbitrary, unnecessary construct. The corporatization of biology through the alteration of nature through technology is also a theme explored by Haraway. The OncoMouse is a laboratory mouse genetically modified to carry a specific gene


id: graduate-women-in-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graduate_Women_in_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Graduate Women in Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graduate_Women_in_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:48.647238+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: graduate-women-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
Graduate Women in Science (GWIS), formerly known as Sigma Delta Epsilon (ΣΔΕ), is an international professional organization for women in science. It was established as a scientific women's fraternity in 1921 at Cornell University, United States. It played an important role for women scientists for some fifty years when they were not allowed membership in most mainstream scientific organizations. GWIS is a non-profit 501(c)(3) organization with over 1,000 active members and more than 30 active chapters. == History == Sigma Delta Epsilon was established at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York by Adele Lewis Grant on May 24, 1921. It was founded as a fraternity for women pursuing graduate degrees in the sciences. Its stated purpose was "to further interest in science, recognize women involved in science, and unite them through friendship". Initially, Sigma Delta Epsilon had 25 student members and eight honorary members, who were professional women who had achieved recognition in science. Its first officers were Adele Lewis Grant, president; Katherine Van Winkle, vice president; Josephine Overton Sonders, secretary; and Hazel Elizabeth Branch, treasurer. Sigma Delta Epsilon had a fraternity house where its members could live. In 1922, a similar local group for women at the University of


id: list-of-graduate-women-in-science-chapters-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Graduate_Women_in_Science_chapters-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Graduate Women in Science chapters
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Graduate_Women_in_Science_chapters
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:49.991460+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-graduate-women-in-science-chapters-20260505-0
summary:
Graduate Women in Science, formerly known as Sigma Delta Epsilon, is an international organization for women in science. It was established in 1921 at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, United States. In the following list, active chapters are indicated in bold and inactive chapters are in italics. == See also == List of Graduate Women in Science members == Notes == == References ==


id: harvard-plate-stacks-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Plate_Stacks-0.md
category: reference
title: Harvard Plate Stacks
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Plate_Stacks
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:51.318188+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: harvard-plate-stacks-20260505-0
summary:
The Harvard Plate Stacks, previously known as the Harvard College Observatory glass plate collection or the astronomical photographic glass plate collection, is a collection of astronomical glass plate negatives at the Center for Astrophysics | Harvard & Smithsonian in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Created over more than a century by the Harvard College Observatory, it is widely described as the largest collection of astronomical glass plates in the world. The collection includes more than 550,000 glass plate negatives dating from the 1870s to the late 1990s, as well as early photographic data from as early as 1849, and logbooks, notebooks, and photographic prints associated with astronomical research at Harvard and affiliated observing stations. It is one of the largest photographic collections at Harvard. Many of the astronomers, assistants, and computers who worked with the collection were women, including members of the group now commonly known as the Women Astronomical Computers. == Scope and Size == The Harvard Plate Stacks collection consists of over 550,000 glass plate negatives of the night sky. The glass alone is estimated to weigh over 165 tons and stored across three floors of a purpose-built building on Observatory Hill in Cambridge, MA. The majority of the collection consists


id: harvard-plate-stacks-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Plate_Stacks-1.md
category: reference
title: Harvard Plate Stacks
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Plate_Stacks
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:51.318188+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: harvard-plate-stacks-20260505-0
summary:
"My dear Mrs. Draper, Mr. Clark tells me that you are preparing to complete the work in which Dr. Draper was engaged, and my interest in this matter must be my excuse for addressing you regarding it. I need not state my satisfaction that you are taking this step, since it must be obvious that in no other way could you erect so lasting a monument to his memory." This would be the beginning of Anna Draper being the single largest benefactor to the Harvard College Observatory for the next three decades. Her funds and future endowment would back the creation, preservation, and housing of nearly 6000,000 glass plates and the core of the Harvard Plate Stacks collection, which would amount to a century of photographing the night sky. Her gift would not only include funds but also her and her husband's personal telescope. She would establish the Henry Draper Memorial, which would include both the creation of a physical photographic plate collection, as well as the study and publication of what is known as the Henry Draper Catalogue. Over 44 women would partake in the study, writing, and creation of the catalogue from 1886 until the final publication of


id: harvard-plate-stacks-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Plate_Stacks-2.md
category: reference
title: Harvard Plate Stacks
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Plate_Stacks
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:51.318188+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: harvard-plate-stacks-20260505-0
summary:
=== Armagh-Dunsink-Harvard telescope === In 1947 through a chance meeting in the Shannon Airport with Harvard College Observatory director, Harlow Shapley, and Irish President (Taoiseach), Éamon de Valera led to the idea and further creation of the Armagh-Dunsink-Harvard telescope. Although installed and housed at Harvard's Boyden Observatory in South Africa, this was a joint endeavor with the Armagh Observatory in Northern Ireland, the Republic of Ireland, and the Harvard College Observatory. This was one of the earlier examples of Space diplomacy that would be spearheaded at Harvard by astronomer Bart Bok. The director of the Armagh Observatory at the time was Eric Lindsay, who not only got his PhD from Harvard in 1934, but he would meet and later marry Women Astronomical Computer, Sylvia Mussells (Sister to fellow astronomer and Harvard Plate Stacks employee Muriel Mussells Seyfert). De Valera recently pushed to create the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies and its subsequent purchase of the Dunsink Observatory after Trinity College Dublin had ceased its operations a few years earlier. This cooperative agreement would be one of the rare instances where these two governments would regularly work together. The telescope was a 36—32 Baker-Schmidt telescope that received first light in October


id: hidden-figures-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_Figures-0.md
category: reference
title: Hidden Figures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_Figures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:52.643995+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hidden-figures-20260505-0
summary:
Hidden Figures is a 2016 American biographical drama film co-produced and directed by Theodore Melfi, who co-wrote the screenplay with Allison Schroeder. It is loosely based on the 2016 book by Margot Lee Shetterly. It follows three female African-American mathematicians, Katherine Goble Johnson (Taraji P. Henson), Dorothy Vaughan (Octavia Spencer), and Mary Jackson (Janelle Monáe), who worked at NASA during the Space Race in the 1950s and 1960s. Other stars include Kevin Costner, Kirsten Dunst, Jim Parsons, Mahershala Ali, Aldis Hodge, and Glen Powell. Principal photography began in March 2016 in Atlanta, Georgia, and wrapped up in May 2016. Other filming locations included several other locations in Georgia, including East Point, Canton, Monroe, Columbus, and Madison. Hidden Figures had a limited release on December 25, 2016, by 20th Century Fox, before going wide in on January 6, 2017. The film received positive reviews, with praise for the performances (particularly Henson, Spencer and Monáe), the writing, direction, cinematography, emotional tone, and historical accuracy, although some argued it featured a white savior narrative. The film was a commercial success, grossing $236 million worldwide against its $25 million production budget. The film was chosen by the National Board of Review as one of


id: hidden-figures-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_Figures-1.md
category: reference
title: Hidden Figures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_Figures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:52.643995+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hidden-figures-20260505-0
summary:
=== Development and casting === In 2015, producer Donna Gigliotti acquired Margot Lee Shetterly's nonfiction book Hidden Figures, about a group of Black female mathematicians that helped NASA win the Space Race. Allison Schroeder wrote the script, which was developed by Gigliotti through Levantine Films. Schroeder grew up by Cape Canaveral and her grandparents worked at NASA, where she also interned as a teenager, and as a result saw the project as a perfect fit for herself. Levantine Films produced the film with Peter Chernin's Chernin Entertainment. Fox 2000 Pictures acquired the film rights, and Theodore Melfi signed on to direct. After coming aboard, Melfi revised Schroeder's script, and in particular focused on balancing the home lives of the three protagonists with their careers at NASA. After the film's development was announced, actresses considered to play the lead roles included Oprah Winfrey, Viola Davis, Octavia Spencer, and Taraji P. Henson. Chernin and Jenno Topping produced, along with Gigliotti and Melfi. Fox cast Henson to play the lead role of mathematician Katherine Goble Johnson. Spencer was selected to play Dorothy Vaughan, one of the three lead mathematicians at NASA. Kevin Costner was cast in the film to play the fictional head


id: hidden-figures-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_Figures-2.md
category: reference
title: Hidden Figures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_Figures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:52.643995+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hidden-figures-20260505-0
summary:
== Historical accuracy == The film, set at NASA Langley Research Center in 1961, depicts segregated facilities such as the West Area Computing unit, where an all-Black group of female mathematicians were originally required to use separate dining and bathroom facilities. However, in reality, Dorothy Vaughan was promoted to supervisor of West Computing much earlier, in 1949, becoming the first Black supervisor at the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) and one of its few female supervisors. In 1958, when NACA became NASA, segregated facilities, including the West Computing office, were abolished. Vaughan and many of the former West computers transferred to the new Analysis and Computation Division (ACD), a racially and gender-integrated group. It was Mary Jackson, not Katherine Goble Johnson, who had difficulty finding a colored bathroom – in a 1953 incident she experienced while on temporary assignment in the East Area, a region of Langley unfamiliar to her and where few Blacks worked. Katherine Goble Johnson, for her part, was initially unaware that the bathrooms at Langley were segregated (in both its East and West areas during the NACA era), and used the "whites-only" bathrooms (many were not explicitly labeled as such) for years before anyone complained.


id: hidden-figures-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_Figures-3.md
category: reference
title: Hidden Figures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_Figures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:52.643995+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hidden-figures-20260505-0
summary:
His frustration is also a perfect example of how, when it comes to open dialogue about depictions of people of color on screen, it behooves white people (especially those who position themselves as 'allies') to listen [...] the inclusion of the bathroom scene doesn't make Melfi a bad filmmaker, or a bad person, or a racist. But his suggestion that a feel-good scene like that was needed for the marketability and overall appeal of the film speaks to the fact that Hollywood at large still has a long way to go in telling Black stories, no matter how many strides have been made. The fictional characters Vivian Mitchell and Paul Stafford are composites of several team members and reflect common social views and attitudes of the time. Karl Zielinski is based on Mary Jackson's mentor, Kazimierz "Kaz" Czarnecki. John Glenn, who was about a decade older than depicted at the time of launch, did ask specifically for Goble Johnson to verify the IBM calculations, although she had several days before the launch date to complete the process. Author Margot Lee Shetterly has agreed that there are differences between her book and the movie, but found that to be understandable: For


id: hidden-figures-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_Figures-4.md
category: reference
title: Hidden Figures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_Figures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:52.643995+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hidden-figures-20260505-0
summary:
=== Charity screenings === After Hidden Figures was released on December 25, 2016, certain charities, institutions and independent businesses who regard the film as relevant to the cause of improving youth awareness in education and careers in the science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields, organized free screenings of the film in order to spread the message of the film's subject matter. A collaborative effort between Western New York STEM Hub, AT&T and the Girl Scouts of the USA allowed more than 200 Buffalo Public Schools students, Girl Scouts and teachers to see the film. WBFO's Senior Reporter Eileen Buckley stated the event was designed to help encourage a new generation of women to consider STEM careers. Research indicates that by 2020, there will be 2.4 million unfilled STEM jobs. Aspiring astronaut Naia Butler-Craig wrote of the film: "I can't imagine what that would have been like: 16-year-old, impressionable, curious and space-obsessed Naia finding out that Black women had something to do with getting Americans on the moon." Also, the film's principal actors (Henson, Spencer, Monáe and Parsons), director (Melfi), producer/musical creator (Williams), and other non-profit outside groups have offered free screenings to Hidden Figures at several cinema locations around


id: hidden-figures-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_Figures-5.md
category: reference
title: Hidden Figures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hidden_Figures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:52.643995+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hidden-figures-20260505-0
summary:
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 93% based on 325 reviews, with an average rating of 7.6/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "In heartwarming, crowd-pleasing fashion, Hidden Figures celebrates overlooked—and crucial—contributions from a pivotal moment in American history." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 74 out of 100, based on 47 critics, indicating "generally favorable" reviews. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A+" on an A+ to F scale, one of fewer than 90 films in the history of the service to receive such a score. Simon Thompson of IGN gave the film a rating of nine out of ten, writing, "Hidden Figures fills in an all too forgotten, or simply too widely unknown, blank in US history in a classy, engaging, entertaining and hugely fulfilling way. Superb performances across the board and a fascinating story alone make Hidden Figures a solid, an accomplished and deftly executed movie that entertains, engages and earns your time, money and attention." Ty Burr of The Boston Globe wrote, "the film's made with more heart than art and more skill than subtlety, and it works primarily because of the


id: inferior-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inferior_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Inferior (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inferior_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:55.013756+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: inferior-book-20260505-0
summary:
Inferior: How Science Got Women Wrong and the New Research That's Rewriting the Story is a 2017 book by science journalist Angela Saini. The book discusses the effect of sexism on scientific research, and how that sexism influences social beliefs. Inferior was launched in June 2017 at the Royal Academy of Engineering. The book was published by Beacon Press in the United States and Fourth Estate Books in the United Kingdom. == Reception == According to journalist Chantal Da Silva of The Independent, Angela Saini "paints a disturbing picture of just how deeply sexist notions have been woven into the fabric of scientific research" and concluded that her work "presents the rest of the scientific community with an important challenge: to acknowledge and correct a deep-rooted bias – and to help rewrite the role of women in the story of human evolution". Science journalist Nicola Davis writing for The Guardian stated that Saini "discovers that many of society’s traditional beliefs about women are built on shaky ground" and that "Saini’s scrutiny of the stereotype of men as hunters, leaving women to tend hearth and home, is eye-opening". Journalist Anjana Vaswani in the Ahmedabad Mirror wrote that Saini "exposes Charles Darwin's


id: international-conference-of-women-engineers-and-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Conference_of_Women_Engineers_and_Scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: International Conference of Women Engineers and Scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Conference_of_Women_Engineers_and_Scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:38:56.348614+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-conference-of-women-engineers-and-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
ICWES (International Conference of Women Engineers and Scientists) is an international conference for engineers and scientists. Established in 1964, it takes place every 3–4 years in countries around the world. Since 1999, the conference has been organised by the International Network of Women Engineers and Scientists (INWES), which was founded at the World Conference on Science (Budapest, Hungary) in 1999. The first conference took place in New York City, USA in 1964, the second followed in 1967 in Cambridge, UK. Since then meetings have taken place in Turin, Italy (1971); Cracow, Poland (1975); Rouen, France (1978); Mumbai, India, (1981); Washington DC, USA (1984); Abidjan, Ivory Coast (1988); Warwick, UK (1991); Budapest, Hungary (1996); Chiba, Japan (1999); Ottawa, Canada (2002); Seoul, Korea (2005); Lille, France (2008); Adelaide, Australia (2011); Los Angeles, USA (2014); New Delhi, India (2017). ICWES 18 was postponed due to the Covid pandemic and took place in Coventry, UK, in 2021. ICWES 19 was hosted in Aotearoa, New Zealand in 2023. == ICWES I - New York City == The first ICWES conference took place in New York City, United States of America in 1964 and was organised by the American Society of Women Engineers (SWE). Beatrice Hicks


id: international-day-of-women-and-girls-in-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Day_of_Women_and_Girls_in_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: International Day of Women and Girls in Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Day_of_Women_and_Girls_in_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:02.768407+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-day-of-women-and-girls-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
The International Day of Women and Girls in Science is an annual observance adopted by the United Nations General Assembly to promote equal participation of women in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) fields. The United Nations General Assembly passed the resolution in 2015, which proclaimed 11 February as the commemoration of the observance. A theme is selected annually as a focus point for gender equality in science. The International Day of Women and Girls in Science is implemented annually at the United Nations Headquarters by the Royal Academy of Science International Trust in partnership with UNESCO and UNWomen. to promote the role of women and girls in scientific fields and celebrate those who have been successful in the field. == Background == === Context === In comparison to their male peers, females are underrepresented in science and technology fields. Between the 1960s and 1980s, the number of women obtaining science and engineering degrees steadily increased in American universities, however reached an unexpected plateau from the 1980s. A 2013 UK study explored that there has existed a persistent underrepresentation of women in STEM fields, and that in the prior 25-year period there had been little change of the participation of


id: international-day-of-women-and-girls-in-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Day_of_Women_and_Girls_in_Science-1.md
category: reference
title: International Day of Women and Girls in Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Day_of_Women_and_Girls_in_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:02.768407+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-day-of-women-and-girls-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
Following the adoption of Resolution A/RES/70/212 on the International Day of Women and Girls in Science, The Royal Academy of Science International Trust (RASIT) continues to work with UN Member States, Inter-Governmental Organizations, the UN and its entities to achieve equality in science, technology, and innovation for socio-economic sustainable development in line with the 2030 Agenda and its SDGs. Following the adoption of UNGA Resolution 70/212, RASIT reached out to UNESCO and UN Women on January 4, 2016 to discuss its vision for the inaugural International Day of Women and Girls in Science. On January 7, UNESCO, accompanied by UN Women invited RASIT to lead celebration planning. Each year on February 11, RASIT in close collaboration and partnership with the United Nations Member States, Departments, organizations and entities, as well as Intergovernmental Organizations organizes the International Day of Women and Girls in Science Assembly at the United Nations Headquarters in New York. The High-Level Assembly brings together representatives of member states and international organizations, the private sector and leading scientists to discuss measures and initiatives to promote the increased participation of females in STEM. Each year the assembly focuses upon a key theme as a central topic of discussion. In


id: international-network-of-women-engineers-and-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Network_of_Women_Engineers_and_Scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: International Network of Women Engineers and Scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Network_of_Women_Engineers_and_Scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:03.985537+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-network-of-women-engineers-and-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
International Network of Women Engineers and Scientists (INWES) is a current network for women professionals, which was founded in 2002 with the intention to support women and girls in engineering and science across the world. The current (2020–2023) President is Jung Sun Kim, from Dongseo University, South Korea. According to their mission statement, the network seeks to encourage the education and retention of professional women in these fields through international collaboration. The founding of the network received support from UNESCO. Founding members include Canadian engineers Claire Deschênes, Monique Frize and Gail Mattson, current Immediate Past President of INWES and past president of SWE, Society of Women Engineers, USA. The network currently has over 60 countries involved, including the Association of Korean Women Scientists and Engineers, Women's Engineering Society (UK), the German Association of Women Engineers (DIB), the Society of Taiwan Women in Science and Technology (TWiST) and African Women in Science and Engineering (AWSE). == Management of the International Conference of Women Engineers and Scientists == The network took over the management of the International Conference of Women Engineers and Scientists (ICWES), which first took place in 1964 in New York and has met every 3–4 years since then. ICWES


id: ir-ne-joliot-curie-prize-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irène_Joliot-Curie_Prize-0.md
category: reference
title: Irène Joliot-Curie Prize
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irène_Joliot-Curie_Prize
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:05.253413+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ir-ne-joliot-curie-prize-20260505-0
summary:
The Irène Joliot-Curie Prize is a French prize for women in science and technology, founded in 2001. It is awarded by the Ministry of Higher Education, Research and Innovation, the Airbus Group corporate foundation, the French Academy of Sciences and the Academy of Technologies, it aims at rewarding women for their work in the fields of science and technology". The prize is named after French scientist Irène Joliot-Curie, a French chemist, physicist and politician who won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1935 for the discovery of artificial radioactivity. (This prize should be distinguished from a different prize with the same name, offered since 1956 by the Société Française de Physique. which rewards work in the field of physics each year.) Each year three awards are given: one for the female scientist of the year, a second to a young female scientist, and a third to a woman in business and technology. In addition, until 2009, of the award a fourth category of awards was given, to an individual or group in recognition of their mentorship of women in science. In 2023, a new category was recognized in a special prize for engagement. Since 2011, the award winners have been


id: kiriri-women-s-university-of-science-and-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiriri_Women's_University_of_Science_and_Technology-0.md
category: reference
title: Kiriri Women's University of Science and Technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiriri_Women's_University_of_Science_and_Technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:06.468263+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kiriri-women-s-university-of-science-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Kiriri Women's University of Science and Technology, often referred to as KWUST, is a non-state funded secular women's university in Nairobi, Kenya. It was started in 2002. Its aim is to empower women in sciences. Kiriri Women's University is the only women's university in east and southern Africa. Its main campus is located in Mwihoko, Githurai in the outskirt of Nairobi. Kiriri has no male students. It offers Bachelors in Science degrees, mathematics (actuarial, pure, statistics), computer science and business administration, as well as diplomas and certificates. == Admissionsthrive == Admissions are conducted twice annually, in May and September.The university maintains a female-only enrollment policy, in line with its mission to empower women in STEM and leadership fields. === Accreditation === Kiriri Women's University of Science and Technology (KWUST) was officially accredited by the Commission for University Education (CUE) in Kenya and granted its charter on 2 August 2022. == References == == External links == Official website Universities and Colleges in Kenya


id: lean-out-the-struggle-for-gender-equality-in-tech-and-start-up-culture-20260505-0
category: reference
title: Lean Out: The Struggle for Gender Equality in Tech and Start-up Culture
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:07.743742+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lean-out-the-struggle-for-gender-equality-in-tech-and-start-up-culture-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lean_Out:_The_Struggle_for_Gender_Equality_in_Tech_and_Start-up_Culture-0.md

summary:
Lean Out: The Struggle for Gender Equality in Tech and Start-Up Culture is a 2015 book written by Elissa Shevinsky, an information security entrepreneur and feminist. Shevinsky wrote it in response to Sheryl Sandberg's Lean In, a book often criticized by feminists as being unrealistic in its expectations on women. == Reactions == The book was listed by Inc. Magazine as one of the 100 best business books of 2015. Newspaper reviews have been nearly universal in their approbation of Shevinsky's work, with the Los Angeles Times saying "the book is not just directed at women who might want to opt out of the rat race and start their own thing. This book is packed with stories — and statistics — that should give anyone in tech management pause." At least one review notes that "the essays end up varying widely in quality, radical message, level of editing, and scope. Among incisive critiques of nerd sociology and important stories of micro and macro aggressions, there are also far too many unnecessarily long resumes and capitalist self-help manuals in the book." == References ==

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lean_Out:_The_Struggle_for_Gender_Equality_in_Tech_and_Start-up_Culture


id: list-of-graduate-women-in-science-members-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Graduate_Women_in_Science_members-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Graduate Women in Science members
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Graduate_Women_in_Science_members
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:09.048874+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-graduate-women-in-science-members-20260505-0
summary:
Graduate Women in Science formerly known as Sigma Delta Epsilon, is an international organization for women in science. It was established in 1921 at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, United States as a women's fraternity. Following are some of its notable members. Membership includes graduate students in the sciences, alumnae, and honorary members. The latter are professional women who had achieved recognition in the science. == See also == List of Graduate Women in Science chapters Women in science == References ==


id: marie-pistilli-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Pistilli_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: Marie Pistilli Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Pistilli_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:10.197004+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: marie-pistilli-award-20260505-0
summary:
The Marie R. Pistilli Women in Engineering Achievement Award is issued annually since 2000 by the Design Automation Conference (DAC) to honor the outstanding achievements of women in Electronic Design Automation. It is named after the co-founder of DAC, Marie Pistilli. Originally named as the "Marie R. Pistilli Women in EDA Achievement Award", it is named the "Marie R. Pistilli Women in Engineering Achievement Award" since 2016. == Recipients == 2000: Penny Herscher, then with Cadence Design Systems 2001: Deirdre Hanford, Synopsys, Inc. 2002: Ann Rincon, then senior technical staff member at IBM Microelectronics, Burlington, Vermont, "For her significant contributions in helping women advance in the field of DA technology" 2003: Karen Bartleson, Synopsis, Inc. 2004: Mary Jane Irwin, Pennsylvania State University 2005: Kathryn Kranen, Jasper Design Automation 2006: Ellen J. Yoffa, IBM 2007: Jan Willis, then with Cadence Design Systems - "Jan's leadership and dedication in serving as a mentor and role model to women in EDA, and young girls and boys as they begin to consider career options, exemplifies what the Marie R. Pistilli Women in Electronic Design Automation Achievement Award is all about." 2008: Louise Trevillyan IBM Research Center 2009: Telle Whitney 2010: Mar Hershenson, Vice President


id: matilda-effect-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matilda_effect-0.md
category: reference
title: Matilda effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matilda_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:11.466682+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: matilda-effect-20260505-0
summary:
The Matilda effect is a bias against acknowledging the achievements of women scientists and inventors, whose work is consequently attributed to their male colleagues. This phenomenon was first described by suffragist and abolitionist Matilda Joslyn Gage (1826–1898) in her essay, "Woman as Inventor" (first published as a tract in 1870 and later published in the North American Review, retitled "Woman as an Inventor", in 1883). The term Matilda effect was coined in 1993 by science historian Margaret W. Rossiter. Rossiter provides several examples of this effect. Trotula (Trota of Salerno), a 12th-century Italian woman physician, wrote books which, after her death, were attributed to male authors. Nineteenth- and twentieth-century cases illustrating the Matilda effect include those of Nettie Stevens, Lise Meitner, Marietta Blau, Rosalind Franklin, and Jocelyn Bell Burnell. The Matilda effect was compared to the Matthew effect, whereby an eminent scientist often gets more credit than a comparatively unknown researcher, even if their work is shared or similar. == Research == In 2012, Marieke van den Brink and Yvonne Benschop from Radboud University Nijmegen showed that in the Netherlands the sex of professorship candidates influences the evaluation made of them. Similar cases are described by Andrea Cerroni and Zenia


id: matilda-effect-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matilda_effect-1.md
category: reference
title: Matilda effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matilda_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:11.466682+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: matilda-effect-20260505-0
summary:
In 1934, the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to George Whipple, George Richards Minot, and William P. Murphy. They felt their female co-worker, Frieda Robscheit-Robbins, was excluded on grounds of her sex. Whipple, however, shared the prize money with her as he felt she deserved the Nobel as well, since she was co-author of almost all of Whipple's publications. In 1944 the Nobel Prize in Chemistry was given to Otto Hahn as the sole recipient. Lise Meitner had worked with Hahn and had laid the theoretical foundations for nuclear fission (she coined the term nuclear fission). Meitner was not recognized by the Nobel Prize Committee, partly due to her gender and partly due to her persecuted Jewish identity in Nazi Germany. She was affected by the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, which prohibited Jews from holding government-related positions, including in research. Initially, her Austrian citizenship shielded her from persecution, but she fled Germany after Hitler's annexation of Austria in 1938. In 1950, Cecil Powell received the Nobel Prize in Physics for his development of the photographic method of studying nuclear processes and for the resulting discovery of the pion (pi-meson). Marietta Blau did


id: sarah-mcswiney-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah_McSwiney-0.md
category: reference
title: Sarah McSwiney
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah_McSwiney
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:12.632651+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sarah-mcswiney-20260505-0
summary:
Sarah McSwiney FTSE is an Australian aerospace engineer, who was made a fellow of the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering in 2025. She is head of Engineering at Jetstar Airways and has a passion for supporting young women in the Aerospace and Aviation industry, and supporter of gender equity. == Education == McSwiney attended Kilvington Grammar and graduated in 1999. She graduated with a Bachelor of Aerospace Engineering (hons), as well as an MBA. == Career == McSwiney was a design engineer and liaison engineer in Seattle (USA) and Melbourne. She worked with Boeing for 17 years, including as leading the liaison engineering team across Boeing Australia, and then subsequently the Senior Manager of Engineering Strategy and Operations. McSwiney was Chair of Kilvington Board, as well as holding a number of Board positions, including Chair of the Aviation/Aeorspace Australia. She is also the Chair of the Sir Lawrence Wackett Defence as well as Chair of the Aerospace Centre advisory board at RMIT. == Gender Equity == McSwiney has a passion for encouraging young women and girls to pursue careers in STEM, and encouraging gender equity, which was first sparked while she was a primary school student at Kilvington


id: nelson-diversity-surveys-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nelson_Diversity_Surveys-0.md
category: reference
title: Nelson Diversity Surveys
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nelson_Diversity_Surveys
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:13.862910+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nelson-diversity-surveys-20260505-0
summary:
The Nelson Diversity Surveys (NDS) are a collection of data sets that quantify the representation of women and minorities among professors, by science and engineering discipline, at research universities. They consist of four data sets compiled by Donna Nelson, Professor of Chemistry at the University of Oklahoma during fiscal years (FY) 2002, 2005, 2007, and 2012 through the Diversity in Science Association. These surveys were each complete populations, rather than samples. Consequently, the Surveys quantified characteristics of the faculty which had never been revealed previously, drawing great attention from women and minorities. Furthermore, the Surveys initially came at a time when these underrepresented groups were becoming concerned and vocal about perceived inequities in academia. At the time the surveys were initiated, the MIT Study of 1999, expressing the concerns of women scientists (including Nancy Hopkins), had just been issued, and underrepresented minority (URM) science faculty noticed URM students increase among PhD recipients without a corresponding increase among recently hired professors. Data sets like the NDS, along with similar research available through the NSF, allowed URM faculty to track the progress of diversity efforts in the STEM fields. As noted by the Women's Institute for Policy Research, progress has been slow


id: pakistani-women-in-stem-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistani_women_in_STEM-0.md
category: reference
title: Pakistani women in STEM
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistani_women_in_STEM
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:19.618247+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pakistani-women-in-stem-20260505-0
summary:
While STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) fields all over the world are dominated by men, the number of Pakistani women in 'STEM' is low due to one of the highest gender gaps in STEM fields. However, over the time, some Pakistani women have emerged as scientists in fields like physics, biology and computer sciences. == Gender gap in Pakistan == Pakistan has one of the highest gender gaps in the world, and it is the third least performer in gender parity according to a report published by World Economic Forum in 2020. The low literacy rate of women in Pakistan, despite women making almost half the population, is one of the factors in a high gender gap in STEM fields. This literacy rate is even lower in science and technology. === Facts === According to UNESCO, among students enrolled in bachelor's degrees, 47% are women while 53% are men. The number of women pursuing doctoral studies is only 36%, while the percentage of men is 64%. There is also a significant gender gap in research sector, with women making only 34% of researchers. Among students in universities, the field of natural sciences is reported to have only 40% women


id: portrayal-of-women-scientists-in-film-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portrayal_of_women_scientists_in_film-0.md
category: reference
title: Portrayal of women scientists in film
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portrayal_of_women_scientists_in_film
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:20.837531+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: portrayal-of-women-scientists-in-film-20260505-0
summary:
Films have portrayed professional women in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields in various ways throughout film history. == Overview == The study of female characters in film began with movements from the 1960s and 1970s in the form of second-wave feminism, the rise of independent films, and the beginning of academic film studies. Some films promote certain socially defined female stereotypical archetypes that often combine job stereotypes with gender stereotypes. The use of these stereotypes in film has been suggested to contribute to a questionable portrayal of women, especially revolving around themes of violence, sexuality, objectification, and subordination. == Examples of female scientists in film == === Early 20th century === The presentation of women as scientists on film goes back to the early days of cinema. The first known presentation may be 1929's Woman in the Moon. Written by Thea von Harbou and directed by Fritz Lang, the film follows a group of Germans as they travel to the Moon. The group includes Friede Velten, an assistant on the trip, who chooses between two potential husbands and ultimately decides to stay on the Moon and live a new life there. It would take almost ten years before


id: portrayal-of-women-scientists-in-film-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portrayal_of_women_scientists_in_film-1.md
category: reference
title: Portrayal of women scientists in film
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portrayal_of_women_scientists_in_film
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:20.837531+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: portrayal-of-women-scientists-in-film-20260505-0
summary:
=== Arrival (2016) === The 2016 film Arrival revolves around the character of linguist Dr. Louise Banks, played by Amy Adams, who facilitates the very first instance of human communicative contact with an alien population. The film makes an obvious effort at employing a feminist theme, primarily through the way the backstory shapes Dr. Banks and frames her as an accomplished professional and mother. === Hidden Figures === Hidden Figures was released in 2016 and told the true story of three female African-American mathematicians, Katherine Johnson, Dorothy Vaughan and Mary Jackson (engineer) who worked at NASA during the Space Race. === Black Panther (2018) === The critically acclaimed film Black Panther features Princess Shuri, a young, Black, female character who excels in the STEM field as an intelligent and creative technology whiz and inventor. Portrayed by Letitia Wright, Princess Shuri is the younger sister of T'Challa (Chadwick Boseman), the eventual king of Wakanda, and the mastermind behind harnessing the power of vibranium, specifically in the creation of the Black Panther suit. The Marvel Cinematic Universe has portrayed over 60 fictional scientists, about a quarter of them being women, including computer expert Dr Helen Cho, biologist Dr Maya Hensen and biochemist


id: portrayal-of-women-scientists-in-film-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portrayal_of_women_scientists_in_film-2.md
category: reference
title: Portrayal of women scientists in film
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portrayal_of_women_scientists_in_film
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:20.837531+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: portrayal-of-women-scientists-in-film-20260505-0
summary:
=== The Lonely Heroine === This type of woman scientist is intelligent, attractive, and somewhat independent. Flicker says that she "has appropriated some male traits," such as losing herself in her work. She is both sexual and smart, and she manages to exhibit both qualities in the film. Despite this, she is still subordinate to the men on her team, and depends on them and their work to gain respect. She is the most progressive of the woman scientist types, but she lacks her own form of independence and still must rely on a sexual relationship with a man to be seen as someone. The "lonely heroine" type is best seen in Jodie Foster's portrayal of Elleonore Arroway in the film Contact. == Objectification of women in film == Flicker argues that women are often pigeonholed into these six limiting roles when written in films. Each of these roles places the female scientist character on the sidelines, and does not allow her to be on the same level as her male counterpart(s). Although the women in these roles are educated, and often just as educated as the men on their team, they are used primarily as assistants and sexual characters.


id: portrayal-of-women-scientists-in-film-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portrayal_of_women_scientists_in_film-3.md
category: reference
title: Portrayal of women scientists in film
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portrayal_of_women_scientists_in_film
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:20.837531+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: portrayal-of-women-scientists-in-film-20260505-0
summary:
== Opposing views == Noël Carroll references Mulvey's pivotal paper on psychoanalysis and visual pleasure in his writing, and plays devil's advocate to her claim that women are the only subjects of gaze. Carroll acknowledges and agrees with Mulvey's assessment that women in film are strategically placed for the male gaze despite the role of their actual character. Carroll states, "Women in Hollywood film are staged and blocked for male erotic contemplation and pleasure." However, Carroll adds that men in films are also strategically placed for the purpose of pleasure. He cites such examples as Sylvester Stallone and Arnold Schwarzenegger, big bodybuilding actors "whose scenes are blocked and staged precisely to afford spectacles of bulging pectorals and other parts." Similarly to actresses, male actors are also heralded for their facial attractiveness and are sometimes lauded exclusively for being attractive. As an example, Carroll offers Leslie Howard, a male actor who appeared in Of Human Bondage and Gone With the Wind, who was highly successful in the industry despite being "staggeringly ineffectual." According to Carroll, being subject to the erotic gaze of the audience is not an exclusively female burden; rather, both sexes fall prey to Hollywood camera angles that best


id: promoting-women-in-entrepreneurship-act-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promoting_Women_in_Entrepreneurship_Act-0.md
category: reference
title: Promoting Women in Entrepreneurship Act
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promoting_Women_in_Entrepreneurship_Act
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:22.467511+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: promoting-women-in-entrepreneurship-act-20260505-0
summary:
The Promoting Women in Entrepreneurship Act in the USA (Pub. L. 115–6 (text) (PDF), H.R. 255) is a 2017 public law amendment to the Science and Engineering Equal Opportunities Act (Pub. L. 96–516) to authorize the National Science Foundation to encourage its entrepreneurial programs to recruit and support women to extend their focus beyond the laboratory and into the commercial world. == Background == The Promoting Women in Entrepreneurship Act was introduced in the United States House of Representatives on January 4, 2017, by Representative Elizabeth Esty of Connecticut and signed into law by President Donald Trump on February 28, 2017. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, women account for 47% of the workforce, but make up only 25.6 percent of computer and mathematical occupations. In addition, only 15.4 percent of architecture and engineering jobs are filled by women. Congress also found that only 26 percent of women who earned STEM degrees actually worked in STEM related jobs. The president stated, “(Pub. L. 96–516) enables the National Science Foundation to support women inventors – of which there are many – researchers and scientists in bringing their discoveries to the business world, championing science and entrepreneurship and creating new ways


id: racial-diversity-and-discrimination-in-stem-fields-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_diversity_and_discrimination_in_STEM_fields-0.md
category: reference
title: Racial diversity and discrimination in STEM fields
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_diversity_and_discrimination_in_STEM_fields
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:23.742602+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: racial-diversity-and-discrimination-in-stem-fields-20260505-0
summary:
According to the National Science Foundation (NSF), women and racial minorities are underrepresented in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). Scholars, governments, and scientific organizations from around the world have noted a variety of explanations contributing to this lack of racial diversity, including higher levels of discrimination, implicit bias, microaggressions, chilly climate, lack of role models and mentors, and less academic preparation. == Race imbalance in STEM in the United States == Racial minorities, with the exception of Asian Americans, are underrepresented through every stage of the STEM pipeline. === Education and degree attainment === Racial disparities in high school completion are a prominent reason for racial imbalances in STEM fields. While only 1.8% of Asian and 4.1% of White students drop out of high school, 5.6% of Black, 7.7% of Hispanic, 8.0% of Pacific Islander, and 9.6% of American Indian/Alaskan Native students drop out of high school. Among those that graduate high school, 67% of Whites, 62% of Blacks, and 69% of Hispanics enroll in a “degree granting college.” While there is no measurable difference in college enrollment of White, Black, and Hispanic STEM students, only 15% of Black students who initially enrolled in a STEM major received a


id: racial-diversity-and-discrimination-in-stem-fields-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_diversity_and_discrimination_in_STEM_fields-1.md
category: reference
title: Racial diversity and discrimination in STEM fields
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_diversity_and_discrimination_in_STEM_fields
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:23.742602+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: racial-diversity-and-discrimination-in-stem-fields-20260505-0
summary:
=== Microaggressions === People of color and underrepresented minority groups in science, technology, engineering and math are more likely than whites to experience racial microaggressions. Studies show racial microaggressions that occur on college campus weaken students sense of belonging, make it difficult to form relationships with faculty, and contribute to less cultural alignment with STEM. At predominantly white institutions (PWI) environmental microaggressions are common in shared laboratory spaces among students and during meetings with faculty and advisors. Black female students are especially likely to feel alienated and isolated from their peers in STEM departments. === Implicit bias === Research on implicit bias demonstrates that as early as preschool teachers are likely to hold implicit bias against students of color, especially Black boys. While Black children make up 19% of preschool enrollment, they account for about half of preschool suspension. Implicit biases among teachers, faculty, and colleagues makes it more difficult for students of color to form relationships, network with professionals in their fields, and find valuable mentors. Judgments placed upon people of color based on implicit biases are incredibly damaging and contribute to stereotype threat, which affects their overall performances. For instance, Black women are often assumed to be under-qualified


id: racial-diversity-and-discrimination-in-stem-fields-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_diversity_and_discrimination_in_STEM_fields-2.md
category: reference
title: Racial diversity and discrimination in STEM fields
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racial_diversity_and_discrimination_in_STEM_fields
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:23.742602+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: racial-diversity-and-discrimination-in-stem-fields-20260505-0
summary:
=== Protective factors === Those in STEM fields have recognized that there is an extensive history of poor representation of women and people of color in STEM and are working to close the gap. Addressing this issue requires a coherent and sustained effort across multiple fronts. Many would argue that single intervention does not work, but that sustainable and strategic reform in education, work place, and within our communities would put our theory in to practice. Transforming our perception of STEM in the early education years for students of color necessitates celebration of the distinct contribution that women and people of color bring to science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. === Teachers === While many teachers are highly dedicated to reducing the race gap and actively striving to create equal opportunities in their classrooms, they can actually contribute to the STEM race gap. Researchers suggest that a teacher's attitude toward's their own profession will predict their attitude over STEM education, with emotional readiness, cognitive readiness and self-efficacy all playing part mediating roles. Meaning teachers who have zero confidence in STEM or under prepared are more likely to teach it incorrectly, which could be detrimental to students of color who already face


id: maria-aparecida-soares-ruas-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Aparecida_Soares_Ruas-0.md
category: reference
title: Maria Aparecida Soares Ruas
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Aparecida_Soares_Ruas
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:24.932179+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: maria-aparecida-soares-ruas-20260505-0
summary:
Maria Aparecida Soares Ruas (1948–2025) was a Brazilian mathematician specializing in differential geometry and singularity theory. She was a professor at the University of São Paulo. == Education and career == Ruas was born on 5 January 1948, in Lins, São Paulo. She became interested in mathematics through a junior high school mathematics teacher, Râmisa Jorge, and after entering university study in 1967, earned a licenciate in mathematics in 1970 through what is now the Faculty of Science and Letters of the Araraquara campus of São Paulo State University. She became a teaching assistant at the same campus in 1971, while at the same time studying for a master's degree at the University of São Paulo, working there with Gilberto Francisco Loibel; she completed her degree in 1974, and was promoted to assistant professor. In 1982 she moved to the University of São Paulo as a professor. She defended her doctoral dissertation, Finity Determinacy and Applications at the University of São Paulo in 1983. It was jointly advised by Luiz Antonio Fávaro and Terence Gaffney. She headed the mathematics department at the University of São Paulo, was a founding member of the Brazilian Mathematical Society, and organized the biennial Workshop


id: us-international-women-in-science-dialogue-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US-International_Women_in_Science_Dialogue-0.md
category: reference
title: US-International Women in Science Dialogue
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US-International_Women_in_Science_Dialogue
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:26.209335+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: us-international-women-in-science-dialogue-20260505-0
summary:
The US-International Women in Science Dialogue was a conference held in June 2011 that brought sixteen women scientists from different countries to talk about their experiences as women in science. It was moderated by Sherburne Abbott. The discussions included public questions from Twitter. == Attendees == Ana Lucia Assad, Ministry of Science and Technology, Brazil. Ansam Sawalha, West Bank and others. == External links == "US-International Women in Science Dialogue" on YouTube. == References ==


id: women-are-boring-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_Are_Boring-0.md
category: reference
title: Women Are Boring
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_Are_Boring
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:27.430958+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-are-boring-20260505-0
summary:
Women Are Boring is an online publication featuring research by women. It aims to improve the visibility of women researchers, in response to the poor representation of discoveries by women in media outlets that quote or cover academic research. Women Are Boring is primarily a platform for women to post summaries or synopses of research that they have published in a different venue, on any topic. == History and motivation == Grace McDermott and Catherine Connolly founded the publication while they were PhD students at Dublin City University in May of 2016. McDermott and Connolly attributed their decision to found Women Are Boring to the under-representation of women in media, and particularly the underrepresentation of women scholars in news about research. They were specifically motivated by a study by The Global Media Monitoring Project which concluded that "only 24% of the persons heard, read about or seen in news media are women", and that only 28% of the sources cited in Irish news media were women, with only a very small proportion of those in expert roles like scientific or academic sources. McDermott and Connolly have noted the contrast between the dearth of women researchers in popular media and the


id: women-at-nasa-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_at_NASA-0.md
category: reference
title: Women at NASA
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_at_NASA
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:28.729277+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-at-nasa-20260505-0
summary:
Women at NASA highlights the scientists, engineers, managers, flight controllers, and astronauts whose work has shaped the United States civil space program from the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics era to the present, with their roles and contributions varying significantly over time. Women entered NACA in the 1920s as technical specialists, including physicist Pearl I. Young, the first woman hired as a professional employee at Langley Memorial Aeronautical Laboratory in 1922, and expanded in the 1940s to large pools of "human computers" who performed critical aeronautical and astronautical calculations by hand at Langley and other facilities. Over time those roles widened into engineering, science leadership, flight operations, and spaceflight, culminating in major program firsts and center leadership positions across the agency. Throughout the 1930s to the present, more women joined the NASA teams not only at Langley Memorial, but at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, the Glenn Research Center, and other numerous NASA sites throughout the United States.[2] As the space program has grown, women have advanced into many roles, including astronauts. NASA's first six female astronaut candidates were selected in 1978 at Johnson Space Center, followed by decades of mission milestones and leadership appointments across multiple centers. By the 2010s


id: women-at-nasa-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_at_NASA-1.md
category: reference
title: Women at NASA
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_at_NASA
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:28.729277+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-at-nasa-20260505-0
summary:
On June 18, 1983, Sally Ride became the first American woman astronaut to travel to space. More than a year later, Judith Resnik flew aboard Space Shuttle Discovery and became the second American woman in space. Kathryn D. Sullivan became the first American woman to perform a spacewalk in 1984. In 1988, Ellen Ochoa joined NASA and became the first Hispanic woman astronaut. Ochoa completed four space shuttle missions aboard Discovery and Atlantis, accumulating nearly 1,000 hours in space. In 1985, Shannon Lucid completed her first spaceflight and by the end of her career had spent 188 days in space. Lucid held the American record for most cumulative days in space until 2002. In the 1986 Space Shuttle Challenger disaster two women died: Christa McAuliffe, who would have been the first teacher in space, and Judith Resnik, the second American woman to fly in space. === 1990s === By the 1990s, NASA had expanded its research into the physiological effects of spaceflight on women's bodies. Carolyn Huntoon delivered a keynote address in 1994 at the 2nd Annual Women's Health and Space Luncheon, highlighting NASA's previously unrecognized contributions to women's health research. On February 3, 1995, Colonel Eileen Collins became the


id: women-at-nasa-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_at_NASA-2.md
category: reference
title: Women at NASA
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_at_NASA
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:28.729277+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-at-nasa-20260505-0
summary:
The Women in Space Program (launched December 20, 1959) was a revived version of the Women in Space Earliest program that had been cancelled in November 1959. Like the program for men, this required candidate testing. However, the testing parameters were modified to accommodate women. In the screening phase, men were required to be degree-holding jet pilots who had attended military test pilot school and had a minimum of 1,500 hours of flying time. Since women were excluded from these opportunities, the screening criteria shifted to women with commercial pilot licenses, particularly those who served as flight instructors. Cobb, who underwent testing first, became the leader of the FLATs (Fellow Lady Astronaut Trainees) along with 12 other women, totaling 13 women (hence the media designation "Mercury 13"). Although Cobb was assigned as a NASA consultant and continued the testing process, women were still not trained as astronauts. During the examinations, some scientists believed that women demonstrated advantages over men for space missions. For example, women's internal organs were thought to be better suited to withstand radiation and vibrations. Due to women's generally smaller size, spacecraft and flights would be less expensive if women were used as astronauts. However, testing for


id: women-at-nasa-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_at_NASA-3.md
category: reference
title: Women at NASA
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_at_NASA
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:28.729277+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-at-nasa-20260505-0
summary:
=== Astronauts and astronaut managers === Ellen S. Baker, physician and veteran of three shuttle flights (1989-1995) Kayla Barron, submarine warfare officer and Crew-3 mission specialist on Expeditions 66 and 67 (2021-2022) Catherine G. "Cady" Coleman, chemist and veteran of STS-73, STS-93, and Expedition 26/27 (1995-2011) Tracy Caldwell Dyson, chemist and veteran of STS-118 and Expeditions 23/24 and 71 (2007-2010, 2024) Kalpana Chawla, aeronautical engineer, flew STS-87 and STS-107, died in the Columbia accident (1997, 2003) Mary L. Cleave, environmental engineer and veteran of STS-61B and STS-30 (1985, 1989) Eileen Collins, test pilot and first woman Shuttle commander, veteran of four missions including STS-93 and STS-114 (1995-2005) Nancy J. Currie-Gregg, engineer and veteran of four shuttle flights STS-57, STS-70, STS-88, STS-109 (1993-2002) Nancy Jan Davis, aerospace engineer and veteran of STS-47, STS-60, and STS-85 (1992-1997) Dorothy Metcalf-Lindenburger, science educator and STS-131 mission specialist (2010) Yvonne Cagle, physician and astronaut selected in 1996, service in astronaut office and medical roles (selected 1996) Anna Fisher, emergency physician and STS-51-A mission specialist, first mother in space (1984) Linda M. Godwin, physicist and veteran of four shuttle flights STS-37, STS-59, STS-76, STS-108 (1991-2001) Susan J. Helms, USAF engineer and veteran of four shuttle flights


id: women-at-nasa-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_at_NASA-4.md
category: reference
title: Women at NASA
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_at_NASA
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:28.729277+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-at-nasa-20260505-0
summary:
=== Scientists, engineers, and technologists === Valerie Thomas, data scientist at Goddard and inventor of the Illusion Transmitter (1964-1995) Pearl I. Young, physicist and first female professional at NACA Langley, later Chief Technical Editor (1922-1936) Dorothy Vaughan, mathematician and supervisor of the West Area Computers at NACA Langley (1943-1958) Mary W. Jackson, aerospace engineer and NASA's first Black female engineer (1958-1985) Katherine Johnson, mathematician whose orbital mechanics work supported Mercury, Apollo, and Shuttle missions (1953-1986) Christine Darden, aeronautical engineer and sonic boom expert, later Senior Executive at NASA Langley (1967-2007) Annie Easley, computer scientist at Lewis, pioneer in codes for propulsion and energy systems (1955-1989) Miriam D. Mann, among the earliest West Area human computers at Langley, noted for desegregation advocacy (1943-1940s) Melba Roy Mouton, mathematician at Goddard who led Echo satellite orbit tracking and programming teams (1959-1973) Susan G. Finley, JPL engineer who began as a human computer in 1958, the lab's longest-serving employee (1958-present) Barbara Askins, Marshall chemist who invented a photographic enhancement process, National Inventor of the Year (1978) Margaret Hamilton, computer scientist who led Apollo guidance computer software at MIT IL (1965-1972) Nancy Grace Roman, astronomer and first Chief of Astronomy at NASA, "Mother of Hubble"


id: women-in-archaeology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_archaeology-0.md
category: reference
title: Women in archaeology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_archaeology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:30.010978+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-archaeology-20260505-0
summary:
Women in archaeology is an aspect of the history of archaeology and the topic of women in science more generally. In the nineteenth century women were discouraged from pursuing interests in archaeology, however throughout the twentieth century participation and recognition of expertise increased. However women in archaeology face discrimination based on their gender and many face harassment in the workplace. == History == As a professional field of study, archaeology was initially established as an academic discipline in the nineteenth century and typically developed from people engaged in the study of antiquities. Prior to the Victorian era, women in Canada, the United Kingdom and the United States were rarely engaged in professional archaeology (though at this time, archaeology was not so much a profession as the practice of wealthy individuals, with workers paid to undertake the digging). Participation by women in the field was discouraged, both by men and societal pressure, as the occupation masculinized the accepted view of women as homemakers and nurturers. Even after they began to enter the field, the reluctance of male colleagues to accept them in fieldwork, led many women to choose roles outside of academia, seeking positions in museums or in cultural preservation associations.


id: women-in-archaeology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_archaeology-1.md
category: reference
title: Women in archaeology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_archaeology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:30.010978+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-archaeology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Glass ceiling === Statistics show that women experience a glass ceiling in academic archaeology. Sue Hamilton, the director of the UCL Institute of Archaeology, noted that 60–70% of the institute's undergraduate and postgraduate students were women, as were the majority of its postdoctoral researchers. However, the proportion of women amongst permanent academic staff has never been more than 31%. Women are progressively further under-represented in each academic rank at the institute: 38% of lecturers are female, 41% of senior lecturers, 17% of readers, and just 11% of professors. A 2016 study found a similar pattern in Australian universities. Whilst 41% of academic archaeologists were women, there was an imbalance in female representation in research fellowships (67%) compared to higher-ranked lecturing posts (31%). This study identified a "two-tiered" glass ceiling: women were less likely to obtain permanent tenure-track positions, and those that did also found it more difficult to advance to senior ranks. In 1994, around 15% of the archaeologists working in the top 30 academic institutions for the field were women. On the other hand, it was within academic archaeology that women first broke the glass ceiling at a number of British universities. Dorothy Garrod was the first woman


id: women-in-cell-biology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_Cell_Biology-0.md
category: reference
title: Women in Cell Biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_Cell_Biology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:31.542275+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-cell-biology-20260505-0
summary:
Women in Cell Biology (WCIB) is a subcommittee of the American Society for Cell Biology (ASCB) created to promote women in cell biology and present awards. == History == A group of women were unhappy with the lack of recognition in ASCB. In 1971, Virginia Walbot gathered a group of women to meet at the annual ASCB meetings and WICB began. The goal was to provide a space for women to talk and network with other women in the field, learn about job opportunities, and promote women in academia. Newsletters were distributed containing job listings and news of powerful women in biology. Originally, WICB was not accepted by ASCB; the newsletter was not funded and later discontinued in the 1970s. WICB was established as a standing committee within ASCB in 1993. The formation of the committee correlates with increased women representation at the annual meeting. Between 1967-1977, there was only one woman speaker at the annual meeting; between 1990-1999, 21% of speakers were women. These numbers increased to parity with men by 2020 with equal numbers as speakers and as award recipients. == Activities == Currently, WICB meets annually at ASCB meetings and has a column in the ASCB newsletter.


id: women-in-physics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_physics-0.md
category: reference
title: Women in physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:37.430832+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-physics-20260505-0
summary:
This article discusses women who have made an important contribution to the field of physics. == International physics awards == === Nobel laureates === Five women have won the Nobel Prize in Physics, awarded annually since 1901 by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. These are: 1903 Marie Curie: "in recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel" 1963 Maria Goeppert Mayer: "for their discoveries concerning nuclear shell structure" 2018 Donna Strickland: "for their method high-intensity, ultra-short optical pulses" 2020 Andrea Ghez: "for the discovery of a supermassive compact object at the centre of our galaxy." 2023 Anne L'Huillier "for experimental methods that generate attosecond pulses of light for the study of electron dynamics in matter." Marie Curie was the first woman to be nominated in 1902 and to receive the prize in 1903 and shared 1/2 of the prize with her husband Pierre Curie for their joint work on radioactivity, discovered by Henri Becquerel who got the other half of the prize. Marie Curie was the first woman to also receive the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1911, making her the first person to win two


id: women-in-physics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_physics-1.md
category: reference
title: Women in physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:37.430832+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-physics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Prizes only for female physicists === L'Oréal-UNESCO For Women in Science Awards, awarded bi-annually to one laureate per continent for outstanding contributions to the physical sciences. Maria Goeppert-Mayer Award of the American Physical Society awarded annually in recognition of an outstanding contribution to physics research. Jocelyn Bell Burnell Medal and Prize by the Institute of Physics in UK, for contributions to physics by a very early career physicist. Annie Jump Cannon Award in Astronomy awarded annually for outstanding contributions to astronomy within five years of earning a doctorate degree. == Topics named after female scientists == Female scientist have sometimes not been recognized in the naming of topics they discovered due to Matilda effect. Some physics phenomena that are named after female scientists include: === Physical models and theories === Birge–Sponer method, in molecular physics, partially named after Hertha Sponer. Fermi–Pasta–Ulam–Tsingou problem in chaos theory, partially named after Mary Tsingou. Frenkel–Kontorova model, in non-linear physics, partially named after Tatiana Kontorova. Hopfield model, in atmospheric physics, is named after Helen Hopfield. Kachru–Kalosh–Linde–Trivedi mechanism, in string theory, is partially named after Renata Kallosh. Kovalevskaya top in rotational dynamics, named after Sofya Kovalevskaya. Peccei–Quinn theory in particle physics, partially named after Helen


id: women-in-physics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_physics-2.md
category: reference
title: Women in physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:37.430832+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-physics-20260505-0
summary:
=== 19th century === 1806: Carl Friedrich Gauss recognizes Marie-Jeanne de Lalande as the only woman he knows working in science. Unaware that his correspondent Sophie Germain was a woman. 1816: French mathematician and physicist Sophie Germain became the first women to win a prize from the Paris Academy of Sciences for her work on elasticity theory. 1828: Caroline Herschel, sister of William Herschel, becomes the first woman to publish in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society and is awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society. 1835: Caroline Herschel and Mary Somerville became the first female Honorary Members of the Royal Astronomical Society. 1856: Amateur scientist Eunice Newton Foote provides the first demonstration of the warming effect of the sun is greater for air with water vapour than for dry air, and the effect is even greater with carbon dioxide (greenhouse effect). 1890: Alice Everett becomes the first woman to be employed and paid at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. 1891: Agnes Pockels, is helped by Rayleigh to publish her first paper on nature of surface tension. There she first introduces the concept of the Pockels point and pioneers the field of surface science. 1893: Astronomer Dorothea Klumpke


id: women-in-physics-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_physics-3.md
category: reference
title: Women in physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:37.430832+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-physics-20260505-0
summary:
==== 1930s ==== 1931: Sylvia Skan and Victor Montague Falkner publish their work on the Falkner–Skan boundary layer. 1931: Toshiko Yuasa becomes the first Japanese female physicist. 1933: Herta Pöschl (abbreviated G. Pöschl) working with Edward Teller, find that the Pöschl–Teller potential is analytically solvable in quantum mechanics. 1934: Olga N. Trapeznikowa and his husband Lev Shubnikov finish an experiment showing one of the first evidences for the existence of antiferromagnetism. 1935: Katharine Burr Blodgett improves Irving Langmuir experimental set up leading to the development of the Langmuir–Blodgett trough and the discovery of the Langmuir–Blodgett films. 1935: Grete Hermann provides the earliest refutation to John von Neumann's attempt to prove that quantum mechanics is incompatible with hidden variables. 1936: Hertha Sponer becomes the first female professor in the physics faculty in Duke University. 1937: Marietta Blau and her student Hertha Wambacher, both Austrian physicists, received the Lieben Prize of the Austrian Academy of Sciences for their work on cosmic ray observations using the technique of nuclear emulsions. 1938: Tatiana Kontorova, in collaboration with Yakov Frenkel, develops the Frenkel-Kontorova model to describe the structure and nonlinear dynamics of a crystal lattice in the vicinity of the dislocation core. 1939 Lise Meitner


id: women-in-physics-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_physics-4.md
category: reference
title: Women in physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:37.430832+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-physics-20260505-0
summary:
==== 1960s ==== 1961: Ellen Fetter and Margaret Hamilton were collaborators with Edward Norton Lorenz in weather forecasting, establishing together modern chaos theory. 1961: Nina Byers, jointly with C.N. Yang, studies the quantum Hall effect. Together they proved the Byers–Yang theorem. 1962: French physicist Marguerite Perey became the first female Fellow elected to the Académie des Sciences. 1963: Maria Goeppert Mayer became the first American woman to receive a Nobel Prize in Physics; she shared the prize with J. Hans D. Jensen "for their discoveries concerning nuclear shell structure" and Eugene Paul Wigner "for his contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the elementary particles, particularly through the discovery and application of fundamental symmetry principles". 1963: Experiments by Myriam Sarachik provided the first data that confirmed the Kondo effect. 1964: Chien-Shiung Wu spoke at MIT about gender discrimination. 1967: Astrophysicist Jocelyn Bell Burnell co-discovered the first radio pulsars. 1967: Helen Freedhoff becomes the first female professor of York University and it is believed to be one the only female professor of physics in Canada at that time. 1969: Helen Hopfield develops the Hopfield model to study the troposphere and satellite-tracking. 1970: Astronomer Vera Rubin published the first evidence


id: women-in-physics-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_physics-5.md
category: reference
title: Women in physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:37.430832+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-physics-20260505-0
summary:
==== 2000s ==== 2001: Lene Hau stopped a beam of light completely 2001: Wendy Freedman and her team published the measured Hubble constant from measurements of the Hubble Space Telescope. 2003: Geophysicist Claudia Alexander oversaw the final stages of Project Galileo, a space exploration mission that ended at the planet Jupiter. Deborah S. Jin and her team were the first to condense pairs of fermionic atoms Physicists Ayşe Erzan, Karimat El-Sayed, Li Fanghua, Mariana Weissmann and Anneke Levelt Sengers win the first L'Oréal-UNESCO For Women in Science Awards in Physical Sciences. Renata Kallosh, in collaboration with Shamit Kachru, Andrei Linde, and Sandip Trivedi, proposes the KKLT mechanism in string theory. 2005: Myriam Sarachik becomes the first woman to win the Oliver E. Buckley Condensed Matter Prize for her contributions to quantum spin dynamics and spin coherence in condensed matter systems, along with David Awschalom and Gabriel Aeppli. 2007: Physicist Ibtesam Badhrees was the first Saudi Arabian woman to become a member of the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN). 2009: Margaret Reid becomes the first woman to win the Moyal Medal fromm Macquarie University, for her In 2019, her work on how to demonstrate the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox using squeezing and


id: women-in-science-hall-of-fame-u-s-state-department-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_Science_Hall_of_Fame_(U.S._State_Department)-0.md
category: reference
title: Women in Science Hall of Fame (U.S. State Department)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_Science_Hall_of_Fame_(U.S._State_Department)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:38.675747+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-science-hall-of-fame-u-s-state-department-20260505-0
summary:
Women in Science Hall of Fame was established in 2010 by the U.S. State Department Environment, Science, Technology, and Health Hub for the Middle East and North Africa to recognize the exceptional women scientists in this region of the world. Annual awards were made 2011-2015 and coordinated by the U.S. Embassy in Amman, Jordan. == References ==


id: women-in-scientific-and-engineering-professions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_Scientific_and_Engineering_Professions-0.md
category: reference
title: Women in Scientific and Engineering Professions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_Scientific_and_Engineering_Professions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:39.910689+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-scientific-and-engineering-professions-20260505-0
summary:
Women in Scientific and Engineering Professions is a 1984 book co-edited by American authors Violet B. Haas and Carolyn C. Perrucci. It was published through University of Michigan Press. The book was reviewed in several academic journals. == References ==


id: women-who-code-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_Who_Code-0.md
category: reference
title: Women Who Code
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_Who_Code
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:41.083868+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-who-code-20260505-0
summary:
Women Who Code (WWCode) was an international non-profit organization that provides services for women pursuing technology careers and a job board for companies seeking coding professionals. The company closed in April 2024. It aimed to provide an avenue into the technology world by evaluating and assisting women in developing technical skills. In 2023, the organization had held more than 16,000 free events & built a membership of over 343,000 people in over 147 countries. The CEO was Julie Elberfeld. == History == Women Who Code was created in 2011. It was founded as a 501(c)(3) not-for-profit and approved by the IRS in November 2013 and is best known for its weekly publication the CODE Review, free technical study groups, hack nights, career development and leadership development, and speaking events featuring influential technology industry experts and investors. Since inception, WWCode has produced thousands of events worldwide and garnered sponsorship from organizations like Google, Zendesk, VMware, KPCB, Capital One, Nike, Yelp, and many others. In the summer of 2016, Women Who Code went through Y Combinator. On April 18, 2024, the organization announced it would be shutting down due to lack of funding. == Key initiatives == Women Who Code's initiatives include:


id: working-group-on-women-in-physics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_Group_on_Women_in_Physics-0.md
category: reference
title: Working Group on Women in Physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_Group_on_Women_in_Physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:42.271949+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: working-group-on-women-in-physics-20260505-0
summary:
The Working Group on Women in Physics of the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP) was formed by resolution of the Atlanta IUPAP General Assembly in 1999. The mandate of the group is: to survey the present situation and report to the council and the liaison committees and to suggest means to improve the situation for women in physics. To carry out this charge the Working Group has, among other things, organized six International Conferences (Paris, France, in 2002, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 2005, Seoul, South Korea, in 2008, Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 2011, Waterloo, Canada, in 2014 and Birmingham, UK, in 2017) gathering teams from more than 60 countries that collected data on their local situation of women in physics. It also promoted and collaborated with the elaboration of a global survey of physicists that was carried on by the Statistical Research Center of the American Institute of Physics. The IUPAP Working Group is currently involved in the elaboration of a new survey that will include other natural sciences and mathematics within the framework of the Gender Gap in Science Project funded by the International Council for Science, ICSU. == References == == External links ==


id: betz-mystery-sphere-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betz_mystery_sphere-0.md
category: reference
title: Betz mystery sphere
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betz_mystery_sphere
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:45.358913+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: betz-mystery-sphere-20260505-0
summary:
The Betz mystery sphere is a metal sphere with an approximate diameter of 8 inches (20 cm) weighing nearly 22 pounds (10 kg) uncovered in 1974 by a family in Florida. == Background == On March 27, 1974, the Betz family investigated a small brush fire near their residence on Fort George Island, Florida. The family of three, Antoine, Jerri, and son Terry, came across a small metal sphere the size of a bowling ball. Their first thought was the sphere had been a cannonball left from New World conquistadors. They decided to take the sphere back to their house. Several days later, Terry was playing the guitar in their home. The sphere seemed to react to the sound of the guitar. It made a throbbing noise. Later, the sphere was noticed to roll on its own and even stop on its own and change direction. Terry started doing experiments with the sphere. He noticed the sphere would reverberate when hit with a hammer. He also found the sphere would move after being shaken and placed on the ground. The Betzes reported that the sphere moved on its own several times, and that it would follow people around the house


id: cern-ritual-hoax-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CERN_ritual_hoax-0.md
category: reference
title: CERN ritual hoax
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CERN_ritual_hoax
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:46.497322+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cern-ritual-hoax-20260505-0
summary:
The CERN ritual hoax is a found footage video that depicts a faux occult ritual occurring in the grounds of CERN, the intergovernmental organization that operates the largest particle physics laboratory in the world. The video became popular in August 2016 and shows several people dressed in black cloaks surrounding a statue of the Hindu deity Shiva and apparently performing a human sacrifice, in apparent mockery of existing conspiracy theories which suggest that CERN aims to use the Large Hadron Collider to create a portal to hell, summon the antichrist, or destroy the universe. The video ended with the person filming crying out and running away. == Reactions == A CERN spokesperson stated that the video was a prank and that no one was actually harmed. CERN stated in its FAQ that the video was "fiction" and the actions were outside its professional guidelines and without any official permission. CERN stated that it "doesn't tolerate this kind of spoof" and that it can "give rise to misunderstandings about the scientific nature of our work". == References ==


id: chemtrail-conspiracy-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemtrail_conspiracy_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Chemtrail conspiracy theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemtrail_conspiracy_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:47.833953+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chemtrail-conspiracy-theory-20260505-0
summary:
The chemtrail conspiracy theory is the erroneous belief that long-lasting condensation trails left in the sky by high-flying aircraft are actually "chemtrails" consisting of chemical or biological agents, sprayed for nefarious purposes undisclosed to the general public. Believers in this conspiracy theory say that while normal contrails dissipate relatively quickly, contrails that linger must contain additional substances. Those who subscribe to the theory speculate that the purpose of the chemical release may be solar radiation management, weather modification, psychological manipulation, human population control, biological or chemical warfare, or testing of biological or chemical agents on a population, and that the trails are causing respiratory illnesses and other health problems. Chemtrail conspiracy theories emerged in the late 1990s after publication of a 1996 United States Air Force (USAF) report on weather modification, with the Air Force accused of secretly spraying substances via aircraft. The theories spread through internet forums and were popularised by radio host Art Bell from 1999. Chemtrails have been dismissed by the scientific community. There is no evidence that purported chemtrails differ from normal water-based contrails routinely left by high-flying aircraft under certain atmospheric conditions. Proponents have tried to prove that chemical spraying occurs, but their analyses have


id: chemtrail-conspiracy-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemtrail_conspiracy_theory-1.md
category: reference
title: Chemtrail conspiracy theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemtrail_conspiracy_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:47.833953+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chemtrail-conspiracy-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Proponents of the chemtrail conspiracy theory say that chemtrails can be distinguished from contrails by their long duration, asserting that the chemtrails are those trails left by aircraft that persist for as much as a half-day or transform into cirrus-like clouds. The proponents claim that after 1995, contrails had a different chemical composition and lasted a lot longer in the sky; proponents fail to acknowledge evidence of long-lasting contrails shown in World War II–era photographs. Proponents characterize contrails as streams that persist for hours and that, with their criss-cross, grid-like, or parallel stripe patterns, eventually blend to form large clouds. Proponents view the presence of visible color spectra in the streams, unusual concentrations of sky tracks in a single area, or lingering tracks left by unmarked or military airplanes flying atypical altitudes or locations as markers of chemtrails. Photographs of barrels installed in the passenger space of an aircraft for flight test purposes have been claimed to show aerosol dispersion systems. The barrels' actual purpose is to simulate the weight of passengers or cargo. The barrels are filled with water, and the water can be pumped from barrel to barrel to test different centers of gravity while the aircraft is


id: chemtrail-conspiracy-theory-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemtrail_conspiracy_theory-2.md
category: reference
title: Chemtrail conspiracy theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemtrail_conspiracy_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:47.833953+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chemtrail-conspiracy-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Incidents === In 2001, in response to requests from constituents, U.S. Representative Dennis Kucinich introduced (but did not author) H.R. 2977 (107th), the Space Preservation Act of 2001, which would have permanently prohibited basing weapons in space, listing chemtrails as one of a number of "exotic weapons" that would be banned. Proponents have interpreted this explicit reference to chemtrails as official government acknowledgment of their existence. Skeptics noted that the bill in question also mentions "extraterrestrial weapons" and "environmental, climate, or tectonic weapons". The bill received an unfavorable evaluation from the United States Department of Defense and died in committee, with no mention of chemtrails appearing in the text of any of Kucinich's three subsequent failed attempts to enact a Space Preservation Act. In 2003, in a response to a petition by concerned Canadian citizens that "chemicals used in aerial sprayings are adversely affecting the health of Canadians", the Government House Leader responded: "There is no substantiated evidence, scientific or otherwise, to support the allegation that there is high altitude spraying conducted in Canadian airspace. The term 'chemtrails' is a popularised expression, and there is no scientific evidence to support their existence." The House leader added, "it is our


id: dead-internet-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Internet_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Dead Internet theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Internet_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:49.078633+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dead-internet-theory-20260505-0
summary:
The dead Internet theory is a conspiracy theory that asserts that, since around 2016, the Internet has consisted primarily of bot activity and automated content manipulated by algorithmic curation. This alleged coordinated effort aims to control the population and reduce genuine human interaction. Supporters of the theory claim that social bots were deliberately created to manipulate algorithms and enhance search results to influence consumers. Some proponents also accuse government agencies of using bots to shape public perception and opinions. The dead Internet theory gained renewed interest following the AI boom that began in the 2020s, with large language model (LLM) chatbots and text-to-image models emerging as technologies that could theoretically drown out human-authored content on the web. In the time since, social media sites have seen a measured increase in bot activity, such as algorithmic feeds displaying low-quality AI slop at the expense of user-generated content. Despite there being no evidence of a conspiracy, commentators have linked some aspects of the dead Internet theory to this rise in generative content across social media. Sources see the theory as having some amount of truth behind it, or as offering a potentially realistic prediction of the Internet's future. One source uses the


id: dead-internet-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Internet_theory-1.md
category: reference
title: Dead Internet theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Internet_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:49.078633+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dead-internet-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== "Leaner" dead Internet theory === In a 2026 article, Hal Berghel discussed what he called a "Leaner" dead Internet Theory, "stripped of paranoia, prejudice, politics and polemic." In this discussion, Berghel points to the 2025 publication in AI & Society by Yoshija Walter, and lists algorithmic generated content, Generative AI byproducts, the difficulty for some people to distingusish between this and human generated content, and the resulting mistrust and misinformation as the core of the dead Internet theory. Berghel laments that conspiracy theorists take these phenomena and to make implausible claims, while arguing that core criticisms should not be dismissed. == Expert view == Caroline Busta, founder of the media platform New Models, was quoted in a 2021 article in The Atlantic calling much of the dead Internet theory a "paranoid fantasy", even if there are legitimate criticisms involving bot traffic and the integrity of the Internet, but she said she does agree with the "overarching idea". A 2021 Ouest-France article, which heavily referenced the 2021 article in The Atlantic, went on to compare the dead Internet theory to flat Earth and COVID-19 conspiracy theories. The article stated that even though bots do produce online content, the dead Internet


id: dead-internet-theory-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Internet_theory-2.md
category: reference
title: Dead Internet theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Internet_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:49.078633+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dead-internet-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== Bot traffic === In 2016, the security firm Imperva released a report on bot traffic after examining over 16.7 billion visits to 100,000 randomly selected domains, and found that automated programs were responsible for 52% of web traffic. This report has been used as evidence in reports on the dead Internet theory. Imperva's report for 2023 found that 49.6% of Internet traffic was automated, a 2% rise from 2022, which was partly attributed to artificial intelligence models scraping the web for training content. A 2023 policy paper from the Institutul Diplomatic Român cited this increase in bot traffic as the basis for the dead Internet theory. === Large language models === Generative pre-trained transformers (GPTs) are a class of large language models (LLMs) that employ artificial neural networks to produce human-like content. The first of these to be well known was developed by OpenAI. These models have created significant controversy. For example, Timothy Shoup of the Copenhagen Institute for Futures Studies said in 2022, "in the scenario where GPT-3 'gets loose', the Internet would be completely unrecognizable". He predicted that in such a scenario, 99% to 99.9% of content online might be AI-generated by 2025 to 2030. These predictions


id: dead-internet-theory-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Internet_theory-3.md
category: reference
title: Dead Internet theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Internet_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:49.078633+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dead-internet-theory-20260505-0
summary:
=== TikTok === In 2024, TikTok began discussing offering the use of virtual influencers to advertising agencies. In a 2024 article in Fast Company, journalist Michael Grothaus linked this and other AI-generated content on social media to the dead Internet theory. In this article, he referred to the content as "AI slime". === YouTube === YouTube is susceptible to fake views generated by computers, not human users, and fake views were so prevalent that some engineers were concerned YouTube's algorithm for detecting them would begin to treat the fake views as default and start misclassifying real ones. YouTube engineers coined the term "the Inversion" to describe this phenomenon. YouTube bots and the fear of "the Inversion" were cited as support for the dead Internet theory in a thread on the Internet forum Melonland. === SocialAI === SocialAI, an app created on September 18, 2024, by Michael Sayman, was created with the full purpose of chatting with only AI bots without human interaction. An article on the Ars Technica website linked SocialAI to the dead Internet theory. === Digg === On June 23, 2025, Alexis Ohanian, one of the Reddit co-founders, said he thought he "long subscribed to the dead Internet


id: fogvid-24-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fogvid-24-0.md
category: reference
title: Fogvid-24
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fogvid-24
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:39:50.262881+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fogvid-24-20260505-0
summary:
Fogvid-24 is a social-media conspiracy theory alleging that unusual winter fog in late 2024 and early 2025 was toxic or engineered—variously described as a chemical or biological weapon, "smart dust," or a cover for hidden activity—and that it caused clusters of flu-like symptoms. The term Fogvid-24 was popularised on platforms such as TikTok and X during a period of widespread fog in North America and the United Kingdom. Fact-checkers and meteorologists attributed the reports to ordinary foggy conditions, seasonal respiratory illness, and misinterpretation of visual effects under lights, noting there is no evidence that the fog was engineered or that it contained harmful agents. == Background == In late December 2024, dense fog and freezing fog were widely reported in parts of the United States and the United Kingdom, disrupting transport and prompting routine advisories. During the same period, posts and short videos circulated claiming the fog was unusually thick, smelled "chemical," or left people unwell shortly after exposure; commenters began referring to the phenomenon as Fogvid-24. == Claims == == Responses and expert commentary == Meteorologists and public-health communicators state there is no evidence that the fog was engineered or toxic, and that winter fog is expected under certain


id: game-development-mdn-20260505-0
file: data/developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games-0.md
category: reference
title: Game development | MDN
tags: web, html, css, javascript, documentation
source_url: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games
date_saved: 2026-05-05T05:20:48.925297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: game-development-mdn-20260505-0
summary:
* [Skip to main content](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games#content) * [Skip to search](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games#search) [ MDN ](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/) HTML [HTML: Markup language](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML) HTML reference * [Elements](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Reference/Elements) * [Global attributes](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Reference/Global_attributes) * [Attributes](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Reference/Attributes) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Reference "See all HTML references") HTML guides * [Responsive images](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Guides/Responsive_images) * [HTML cheatsheet](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Guides/Cheatsheet) * [Date & time formats](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Guides/Date_and_time_formats) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Guides "See all HTML guides") Markup languages * [SVG](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/SVG) * [MathML](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/MathML) * [XML](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/XML) CSS [CSS: Styling language](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS) CSS reference * [Properties](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Reference/Properties) * [Selectors](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Reference/Selectors) * [At-rules](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Reference/At-rules) * [Values](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Reference/Values) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Reference "See all CSS references") CSS guides * [Box model](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Guides/Box_model/Introduction) * [Animations](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Guides/Animations/Using) * [Flexbox](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Guides/Flexible_box_layout/Basic_concepts) * [Colors](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Guides/Colors/Applying_color) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Guides "See all CSS guides") Layout cookbook * [Column layouts](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/How_to/Layout_cookbook/Column_layouts) * [Centering an element](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/How_to/Layout_cookbook/Center_an_element) * [Card component](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/How_to/Layout_cookbook/Card) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/How_to/Layout_cookbook) JavaScriptJS [JavaScript: Scripting language](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript) JS reference * [Standard built-in objects](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Global_Objects) * [Expressions & operators](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Operators) * [Statements & declarations](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Statements) * [Functions](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Functions) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference "See all JavaScript references") JS guides * [Control flow & error handing](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide/Control_flow_and_error_handling) * [Loops and iteration](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide/Loops_and_iteration) * [Working with objects](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide/Working_with_objects) * [Using classes](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide/Using_classes) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide "See all JavaScript guides") Web APIs [Web APIs: Programming interfaces](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API) Web API reference * [File system API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/File_System_API) * [Fetch API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Fetch_API) * [Geolocation API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Geolocation_API) * [HTML DOM API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/HTML_DOM_API) * [Push API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Push_API) * [Service worker API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Service_Worker_API) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API


id: game-development-mdn-20260505-1
file: data/developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games-1.md
category: reference
title: Game development | MDN
tags: web, html, css, javascript, documentation
source_url: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games
date_saved: 2026-05-05T05:20:48.925297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: game-development-mdn-20260505-0
summary:
[Games section on wiki.mozilla.org](https://wiki.mozilla.org/Platform/Games) A wiki page with information about Mozilla's involvement in platform games. ## Help improve MDN [Learn how to contribute](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/MDN/Community/Getting_started) This page was last modified on Apr 6, 2026 by [MDN contributors](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/contributors.txt). [View this page on GitHub](https://github.com/mdn/content/blob/main/files/en-us/games/index.md?plain=1 "Folder: en-us/games \(Opens in a new tab\)") • [Report a problem with this content](https://github.com/mdn/content/issues/new?template=page-report.yml&mdn-url=https%3A%2F%2Fdeveloper.mozilla.org%2Fen-US%2Fdocs%2FGames&metadata=%3C%21--+Do+not+make+changes+below+this+line+--%3E%0A%3Cdetails%3E%0A%3Csummary%3EPage+report+details%3C%2Fsummary%3E%0A%0A*+Folder%3A+%60en-us%2Fgames%60%0A*+MDN+URL%3A+https%3A%2F%2Fdeveloper.mozilla.org%2Fen-US%2Fdocs%2FGames%0A*+GitHub+URL%3A+https%3A%2F%2Fgithub.com%2Fmdn%2Fcontent%2Fblob%2Fmain%2Ffiles%2Fen-us%2Fgames%2Findex.md%0A*+Last+commit%3A+https%3A%2F%2Fgithub.com%2Fmdn%2Fcontent%2Fcommit%2F09d8ff096be97b28ea415fc4c68fb1cff0ff8af9%0A*+Document+last+modified%3A+2026-04-06T19%3A43%3A24.000Z%0A%0A%3C%2Fdetails%3E "This will take you to GitHub to file a new issue.") 1. _[Games](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games)_ 2. Introduction 1. [Introduction](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Introduction) 2. [Anatomy](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Anatomy) 3. [APIs for game development](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Tools) 1. [asm.js](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Tools/asm.js) 2. [Canvas](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Canvas_API) 3. [CSS](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS) 4. [Full screen](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Fullscreen_API) 5. [Gamepad](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Gamepad_API) 6. [IndexedDB](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/IndexedDB_API) 7. [JavaScript](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript) 8. [Pointer Lock](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Pointer_Lock_API) 9. [SVG](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/SVG) 10. [Typed Arrays](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Global_Objects/TypedArray) 11. [Web Audio](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Web_Audio_API) 12. [WebGL](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/WebGL_API) 13. [WebRTC](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/WebRTC_API) 14. [WebSockets](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/WebSockets_API) 15. [WebVR](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/WebVR_API) 16. [Web Workers](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Web_Workers_API) 17. [XMLHttpRequest](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/XMLHttpRequest) 4. [Techniques](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Techniques) 1. [Using async scripts for asm.js](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Techniques/Async_scripts) 2. [Optimizing startup performance](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/Performance/Guides/Optimizing_startup_performance) 3. [Using WebRTC peer-to-peer data channels](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Techniques/WebRTC_data_channels) 4. [Audio for Web Games](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Techniques/Audio_for_Web_Games) 5. [2D collision detection](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Techniques/2D_collision_detection) 6. [Tiles and tilemaps overview](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Techniques/Tilemaps) 7. [Using the Gamepad API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Techniques/Controls_Gamepad_API) 8. [Image rendering for pixel art](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Techniques/Crisp_pixel_art_look) 5. [3D games on the Web](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Techniques/3D_on_the_web) 1. [Explaining basic 3D theory](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Techniques/3D_on_the_web/Basic_theory) 2. [Building up a basic demo with A-Frame](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Techniques/3D_on_the_web/Building_up_a_basic_demo_with_A-Frame) 3. [Building up a basic demo with Babylon.js](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Techniques/3D_on_the_web/Building_up_a_basic_demo_with_Babylon.js) 4. [Building up a basic demo with PlayCanvas](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Techniques/3D_on_the_web/Building_up_a_basic_demo_with_PlayCanvas) 5. [Building up a basic


id: anatomy-of-a-video-game-game-development-mdn-20260505-0
file: data/developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Anatomy-0.md
category: reference
title: Anatomy of a video game - Game development | MDN
tags: web, html, css, javascript, documentation
source_url: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Anatomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T05:20:51.278426+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anatomy-of-a-video-game-game-development-mdn-20260505-0
summary:
* [Skip to main content](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Anatomy#content) * [Skip to search](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Anatomy#search) [ MDN ](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/) HTML [HTML: Markup language](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML) HTML reference * [Elements](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Reference/Elements) * [Global attributes](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Reference/Global_attributes) * [Attributes](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Reference/Attributes) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Reference "See all HTML references") HTML guides * [Responsive images](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Guides/Responsive_images) * [HTML cheatsheet](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Guides/Cheatsheet) * [Date & time formats](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Guides/Date_and_time_formats) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Guides "See all HTML guides") Markup languages * [SVG](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/SVG) * [MathML](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/MathML) * [XML](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/XML) CSS [CSS: Styling language](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS) CSS reference * [Properties](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Reference/Properties) * [Selectors](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Reference/Selectors) * [At-rules](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Reference/At-rules) * [Values](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Reference/Values) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Reference "See all CSS references") CSS guides * [Box model](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Guides/Box_model/Introduction) * [Animations](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Guides/Animations/Using) * [Flexbox](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Guides/Flexible_box_layout/Basic_concepts) * [Colors](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Guides/Colors/Applying_color) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Guides "See all CSS guides") Layout cookbook * [Column layouts](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/How_to/Layout_cookbook/Column_layouts) * [Centering an element](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/How_to/Layout_cookbook/Center_an_element) * [Card component](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/How_to/Layout_cookbook/Card) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/How_to/Layout_cookbook) JavaScriptJS [JavaScript: Scripting language](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript) JS reference * [Standard built-in objects](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Global_Objects) * [Expressions & operators](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Operators) * [Statements & declarations](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Statements) * [Functions](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Functions) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference "See all JavaScript references") JS guides * [Control flow & error handing](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide/Control_flow_and_error_handling) * [Loops and iteration](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide/Loops_and_iteration) * [Working with objects](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide/Working_with_objects) * [Using classes](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide/Using_classes) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide "See all JavaScript guides") Web APIs [Web APIs: Programming interfaces](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API) Web API reference * [File system API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/File_System_API) * [Fetch API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Fetch_API) * [Geolocation API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Geolocation_API) * [HTML DOM API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/HTML_DOM_API) * [Push API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Push_API) * [Service worker API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Service_Worker_API) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API


id: anatomy-of-a-video-game-game-development-mdn-20260505-1
file: data/developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Anatomy-1.md
category: reference
title: Anatomy of a video game - Game development | MDN
tags: web, html, css, javascript, documentation
source_url: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Anatomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T05:20:51.278426+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anatomy-of-a-video-game-game-development-mdn-20260505-0
summary:
## [Present, accept, interpret, calculate, repeat](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Anatomy#present_accept_interpret_calculate_repeat) The goal of every video game is to **present** the user(s) with a situation, **accept** their input, **interpret** those signals into actions, and **calculate** a new situation resulting from those acts. Games are constantly looping through these stages, over and over, until some end condition occurs (such as winning, losing, or exiting to go to bed). Not surprisingly, this pattern corresponds to how a game engine is programmed. The specifics depend on the game. Some games drive this cycle by user input. Imagine that you are developing a _"find the differences between these two similar pictures"_ -type game. These games **present** two images to the user; they **accept** their click (or touch); they **interpret** the input as a success, failure, pause, menu interaction, etc.; finally, they **calculate** an updated scene resulting from that input. The game loop is advanced by the user's input and sleeps until they provide it. This is more of a turn-based approach that doesn't demand a constant update every frame, only when the player reacts. Other games demand control over each of the smallest possible individual timeslices. The same principles as above apply with a slight twist: each frame of


id: anatomy-of-a-video-game-game-development-mdn-20260505-2
file: data/developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Anatomy-2.md
category: reference
title: Anatomy of a video game - Game development | MDN
tags: web, html, css, javascript, documentation
source_url: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Anatomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T05:20:51.278426+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anatomy-of-a-video-game-game-development-mdn-20260505-0
summary:
The above sections describe main loops that avoid taking control away from the browser. These main methods attach themselves to `window.requestAnimationFrame()`, which asks the browser for control over the upcoming frame. It is up to the browser how to relate these requests to its main loop. The [HTML spec](https://html.spec.whatwg.org/multipage/imagebitmap-and-animations.html#dom-animationframeprovider-requestanimationframe) does not really define exactly when the browsers must perform the `requestAnimationFrame` callbacks. This can be a benefit because it leaves browser vendors free to experiment with the solutions that they feel are best and tweak them over time. Modern versions of Firefox and Google Chrome (and probably others) _attempt_ to connect `requestAnimationFrame` callbacks to their main thread at the very beginning of a frame's timeslice. The browser's main thread thus _tries_ to look like the following: 1. Start a new frame (while the previous frame is handled by the display). 2. Go through the list of `requestAnimationFrame` callbacks and invoke them. 3. Perform garbage collection and other per-frame tasks when the above callbacks stop controlling the main thread. 4. Sleep (unless an event interrupts the browser's nap) until the monitor is ready for your image ([VSync](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screen_tearing#Vertical_synchronization)) and repeat.


id: anatomy-of-a-video-game-game-development-mdn-20260505-3
file: data/developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Anatomy-3.md
category: reference
title: Anatomy of a video game - Game development | MDN
tags: web, html, css, javascript, documentation
source_url: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Anatomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T05:20:51.278426+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anatomy-of-a-video-game-game-development-mdn-20260505-0
summary:
You can think about developing realtime applications as having a budget of time to do work. All of the above steps must take place every 16-and-a-half milliseconds to keep up with a 60 Hz display. Browsers invoke your code as early as possible to give it maximum computation time. Your main thread will often start workloads that are not even on the main thread (such as rasterization or shaders in WebGL). Long calculations can be performed on a Web Worker or a GPU at the same time as the browser uses its main thread to manage garbage collection, its other tasks, or handle asynchronous events. While we are on the topic of budgeting time, many web browsers have a tool called _High Resolution Time_. The [`Date`](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Global_Objects/Date) object is no longer the recognized method for timing events because it is very imprecise and can be modified by the system clock. High Resolution Time, on the other hand, counts the number of milliseconds since `navigationStart` (when the previous document is unloaded). This value is returned as a decimal number accurate to a thousandth of a millisecond. It is known as a [`DOMHighResTimeStamp`](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/DOMHighResTimeStamp) but, for all intents and purposes, consider it a floating


id: anatomy-of-a-video-game-game-development-mdn-20260505-4
file: data/developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Anatomy-4.md
category: reference
title: Anatomy of a video game - Game development | MDN
tags: web, html, css, javascript, documentation
source_url: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Anatomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T05:20:51.278426+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anatomy-of-a-video-game-game-development-mdn-20260505-0
summary:
### [Other ways to handle variable refresh rate needs](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Anatomy#other_ways_to_handle_variable_refresh_rate_needs) Other methods of tackling the problem exist. One common technique is to update the simulation at a constant frequency and then draw as much (or as little) of the actual frames as possible. The update method can continue looping without care about what the user sees. The draw method can view the last update and when it happened. Since draw knows when it represents, and the simulation time for the last update, it can predict a plausible frame to draw for the user. It does not matter whether this is more frequent than the official update loop (or even less frequent). The update method sets checkpoints and, as frequently as the system allows, the render method draws instants of time around them. There are many ways to separate the update method in web standards: * Draw on `requestAnimationFrame()` and update on a [`setInterval()`](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Window/setInterval "setInterval\(\)") or [`setTimeout()`](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Window/setTimeout "setTimeout\(\)"). * This uses processor time even when unfocused or minimized, hogs the main thread, and is probably an artifact of traditional game loops (but it is simple.) * Draw on `requestAnimationFrame()` and update on a [`setInterval()`](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/WorkerGlobalScope/setInterval "setInterval\(\)") or [`setTimeout()`](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/WorkerGlobalScope/setTimeout "setTimeout\(\)") in a [Web Worker](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Web_Workers_API/Using_web_workers).


id: anatomy-of-a-video-game-game-development-mdn-20260505-5
file: data/developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Anatomy-5.md
category: reference
title: Anatomy of a video game - Game development | MDN
tags: web, html, css, javascript, documentation
source_url: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Anatomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T05:20:51.278426+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anatomy-of-a-video-game-game-development-mdn-20260505-0
summary:
Once your main loop has been developed and you have decided on a set of assumptions and tradeoffs which suit your game, it is now just a matter of using your decisions to calculate any applicable physics, AI, sounds, network synchronization, and whatever else your game may require. ## Help improve MDN [Learn how to contribute](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/MDN/Community/Getting_started) This page was last modified on Feb 27, 2026 by [MDN contributors](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Anatomy/contributors.txt). [View this page on GitHub](https://github.com/mdn/content/blob/main/files/en-us/games/anatomy/index.md?plain=1 "Folder: en-us/games/anatomy \(Opens in a new tab\)") • [Report a problem with this content](https://github.com/mdn/content/issues/new?template=page-report.yml&mdn-url=https%3A%2F%2Fdeveloper.mozilla.org%2Fen-US%2Fdocs%2FGames%2FAnatomy&metadata=%3C%21--+Do+not+make+changes+below+this+line+--%3E%0A%3Cdetails%3E%0A%3Csummary%3EPage+report+details%3C%2Fsummary%3E%0A%0A*+Folder%3A+%60en-us%2Fgames%2Fanatomy%60%0A*+MDN+URL%3A+https%3A%2F%2Fdeveloper.mozilla.org%2Fen-US%2Fdocs%2FGames%2FAnatomy%0A*+GitHub+URL%3A+https%3A%2F%2Fgithub.com%2Fmdn%2Fcontent%2Fblob%2Fmain%2Ffiles%2Fen-us%2Fgames%2Fanatomy%2Findex.md%0A*+Last+commit%3A+https%3A%2F%2Fgithub.com%2Fmdn%2Fcontent%2Fcommit%2F4833ab42e0aee7611fff57f70e38c4be1df9d11b%0A*+Document+last+modified%3A+2026-02-27T08%3A31%3A01.000Z%0A%0A%3C%2Fdetails%3E "This will take you to GitHub to file a new issue.") 1. [Games](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games) 2. Introduction 1. [Introduction](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Introduction) 2. _[Anatomy](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Anatomy)_ 3. [APIs for game development](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Tools) 1. [asm.js](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Tools/asm.js) 2. [Canvas](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Canvas_API) 3. [CSS](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS) 4. [Full screen](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Fullscreen_API) 5. [Gamepad](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Gamepad_API) 6. [IndexedDB](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/IndexedDB_API) 7. [JavaScript](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript) 8. [Pointer Lock](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Pointer_Lock_API) 9. [SVG](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/SVG) 10. [Typed Arrays](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Global_Objects/TypedArray) 11. [Web Audio](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Web_Audio_API) 12. [WebGL](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/WebGL_API) 13. [WebRTC](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/WebRTC_API) 14. [WebSockets](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/WebSockets_API) 15. [WebVR](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/WebVR_API) 16. [Web Workers](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Web_Workers_API) 17. [XMLHttpRequest](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/XMLHttpRequest) 4. [Techniques](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Techniques) 1. [Using async scripts for asm.js](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Techniques/Async_scripts) 2. [Optimizing startup performance](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/Performance/Guides/Optimizing_startup_performance) 3. [Using WebRTC peer-to-peer data channels](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Techniques/WebRTC_data_channels) 4. [Audio for Web Games](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Techniques/Audio_for_Web_Games) 5. [2D collision detection](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Techniques/2D_collision_detection) 6. [Tiles and tilemaps overview](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Techniques/Tilemaps) 7. [Using the Gamepad API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Techniques/Controls_Gamepad_API) 8. [Image rendering for pixel art](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Techniques/Crisp_pixel_art_look) 5. [3D games on the Web](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Techniques/3D_on_the_web) 1.


id: introduction-to-game-development-for-the-web-game-development-mdn-20260505-0
file: data/developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Introduction-0.md
category: reference
title: Introduction to game development for the Web - Game development | MDN
tags: web, html, css, javascript, documentation
source_url: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Introduction
date_saved: 2026-05-05T05:20:53.363835+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: introduction-to-game-development-for-the-web-game-development-mdn-20260505-0
summary:
* [Skip to main content](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Introduction#content) * [Skip to search](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Introduction#search) [ MDN ](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/) HTML [HTML: Markup language](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML) HTML reference * [Elements](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Reference/Elements) * [Global attributes](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Reference/Global_attributes) * [Attributes](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Reference/Attributes) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Reference "See all HTML references") HTML guides * [Responsive images](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Guides/Responsive_images) * [HTML cheatsheet](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Guides/Cheatsheet) * [Date & time formats](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Guides/Date_and_time_formats) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Guides "See all HTML guides") Markup languages * [SVG](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/SVG) * [MathML](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/MathML) * [XML](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/XML) CSS [CSS: Styling language](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS) CSS reference * [Properties](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Reference/Properties) * [Selectors](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Reference/Selectors) * [At-rules](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Reference/At-rules) * [Values](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Reference/Values) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Reference "See all CSS references") CSS guides * [Box model](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Guides/Box_model/Introduction) * [Animations](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Guides/Animations/Using) * [Flexbox](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Guides/Flexible_box_layout/Basic_concepts) * [Colors](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Guides/Colors/Applying_color) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Guides "See all CSS guides") Layout cookbook * [Column layouts](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/How_to/Layout_cookbook/Column_layouts) * [Centering an element](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/How_to/Layout_cookbook/Center_an_element) * [Card component](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/How_to/Layout_cookbook/Card) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/How_to/Layout_cookbook) JavaScriptJS [JavaScript: Scripting language](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript) JS reference * [Standard built-in objects](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Global_Objects) * [Expressions & operators](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Operators) * [Statements & declarations](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Statements) * [Functions](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Functions) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference "See all JavaScript references") JS guides * [Control flow & error handing](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide/Control_flow_and_error_handling) * [Loops and iteration](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide/Loops_and_iteration) * [Working with objects](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide/Working_with_objects) * [Using classes](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide/Using_classes) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide "See all JavaScript guides") Web APIs [Web APIs: Programming interfaces](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API) Web API reference * [File system API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/File_System_API) * [Fetch API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Fetch_API) * [Geolocation API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Geolocation_API) * [HTML DOM API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/HTML_DOM_API) * [Push API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Push_API) * [Service worker API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Service_Worker_API) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API


id: introduction-to-game-development-for-the-web-game-development-mdn-20260505-1
file: data/developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Introduction-1.md
category: reference
title: Introduction to game development for the Web - Game development | MDN
tags: web, html, css, javascript, documentation
source_url: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Introduction
date_saved: 2026-05-05T05:20:53.363835+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: introduction-to-game-development-for-the-web-game-development-mdn-20260505-0
summary:
## [Web technologies for game developers](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Introduction#web_technologies_for_game_developers) For the tech folks, let's dig into the APIs the Web brings to the table that cater to game developers. Here's a thorough list to give you a taste of what the Web can do for you: [Fetch API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Fetch_API) Send and receive any kind of data you want from a Web server like downloading new game levels and artwork to transmitting non-real-time game status information back and forth. [Full Screen API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Fullscreen_API) This simple API lets your game take over the entire screen, thereby immersing the player in action. [Gamepad API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Gamepad_API/Using_the_Gamepad_API) If you want your users to be able to use gamepads or other game controllers to work your game, you'll need this API. [HTML](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML) and [CSS](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS) Together, these two technologies let you build, style, and lay out your game's user interface. Part of HTML is the [`<canvas>`](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Reference/Elements/canvas) element, which provides one way to do 2D graphics. [HTML audio](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Reference/Elements/audio) The [`<audio>`](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Reference/Elements/audio) element lets you easily play simple sound effects and music. If your needs are more involved, check out the [Web Audio API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Web_Audio_API) for real audio processing power! [IndexedDB](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/IndexedDB_API) A powerful data storage API for maintaining user data on their own computer or device. A


id: publishing-games-game-development-mdn-20260505-0
file: data/developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games-0.md
category: reference
title: Publishing games - Game development | MDN
tags: web, html, css, javascript, documentation
source_url: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games
date_saved: 2026-05-05T05:20:55.648908+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: publishing-games-game-development-mdn-20260505-0
summary:
* [Skip to main content](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games#content) * [Skip to search](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games#search) [ MDN ](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/) HTML [HTML: Markup language](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML) HTML reference * [Elements](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Reference/Elements) * [Global attributes](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Reference/Global_attributes) * [Attributes](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Reference/Attributes) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Reference "See all HTML references") HTML guides * [Responsive images](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Guides/Responsive_images) * [HTML cheatsheet](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Guides/Cheatsheet) * [Date & time formats](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Guides/Date_and_time_formats) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Guides "See all HTML guides") Markup languages * [SVG](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/SVG) * [MathML](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/MathML) * [XML](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/XML) CSS [CSS: Styling language](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS) CSS reference * [Properties](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Reference/Properties) * [Selectors](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Reference/Selectors) * [At-rules](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Reference/At-rules) * [Values](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Reference/Values) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Reference "See all CSS references") CSS guides * [Box model](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Guides/Box_model/Introduction) * [Animations](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Guides/Animations/Using) * [Flexbox](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Guides/Flexible_box_layout/Basic_concepts) * [Colors](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Guides/Colors/Applying_color) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Guides "See all CSS guides") Layout cookbook * [Column layouts](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/How_to/Layout_cookbook/Column_layouts) * [Centering an element](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/How_to/Layout_cookbook/Center_an_element) * [Card component](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/How_to/Layout_cookbook/Card) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/How_to/Layout_cookbook) JavaScriptJS [JavaScript: Scripting language](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript) JS reference * [Standard built-in objects](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Global_Objects) * [Expressions & operators](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Operators) * [Statements & declarations](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Statements) * [Functions](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Functions) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference "See all JavaScript references") JS guides * [Control flow & error handing](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide/Control_flow_and_error_handling) * [Loops and iteration](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide/Loops_and_iteration) * [Working with objects](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide/Working_with_objects) * [Using classes](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide/Using_classes) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide "See all JavaScript guides") Web APIs [Web APIs: Programming interfaces](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API) Web API reference * [File system API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/File_System_API) * [Fetch API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Fetch_API) * [Geolocation API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Geolocation_API) * [HTML DOM API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/HTML_DOM_API) * [Push API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Push_API) * [Service worker API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Service_Worker_API) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API


id: game-distribution-game-development-mdn-20260505-0
file: data/developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_distribution-0.md
category: reference
title: Game distribution - Game development | MDN
tags: web, html, css, javascript, documentation
source_url: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_distribution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T05:20:57.815188+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: game-distribution-game-development-mdn-20260505-0
summary:
* [Skip to main content](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_distribution#content) * [Skip to search](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_distribution#search) [ MDN ](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/) HTML [HTML: Markup language](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML) HTML reference * [Elements](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Reference/Elements) * [Global attributes](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Reference/Global_attributes) * [Attributes](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Reference/Attributes) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Reference "See all HTML references") HTML guides * [Responsive images](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Guides/Responsive_images) * [HTML cheatsheet](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Guides/Cheatsheet) * [Date & time formats](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Guides/Date_and_time_formats) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Guides "See all HTML guides") Markup languages * [SVG](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/SVG) * [MathML](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/MathML) * [XML](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/XML) CSS [CSS: Styling language](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS) CSS reference * [Properties](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Reference/Properties) * [Selectors](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Reference/Selectors) * [At-rules](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Reference/At-rules) * [Values](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Reference/Values) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Reference "See all CSS references") CSS guides * [Box model](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Guides/Box_model/Introduction) * [Animations](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Guides/Animations/Using) * [Flexbox](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Guides/Flexible_box_layout/Basic_concepts) * [Colors](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Guides/Colors/Applying_color) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Guides "See all CSS guides") Layout cookbook * [Column layouts](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/How_to/Layout_cookbook/Column_layouts) * [Centering an element](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/How_to/Layout_cookbook/Center_an_element) * [Card component](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/How_to/Layout_cookbook/Card) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/How_to/Layout_cookbook) JavaScriptJS [JavaScript: Scripting language](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript) JS reference * [Standard built-in objects](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Global_Objects) * [Expressions & operators](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Operators) * [Statements & declarations](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Statements) * [Functions](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Functions) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference "See all JavaScript references") JS guides * [Control flow & error handing](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide/Control_flow_and_error_handling) * [Loops and iteration](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide/Loops_and_iteration) * [Working with objects](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide/Working_with_objects) * [Using classes](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide/Using_classes) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide "See all JavaScript guides") Web APIs [Web APIs: Programming interfaces](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API) Web API reference * [File system API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/File_System_API) * [Fetch API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Fetch_API) * [Geolocation API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Geolocation_API) * [HTML DOM API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/HTML_DOM_API) * [Push API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Push_API) * [Service worker API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Service_Worker_API) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API


id: game-distribution-game-development-mdn-20260505-1
file: data/developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_distribution-1.md
category: reference
title: Game distribution - Game development | MDN
tags: web, html, css, javascript, documentation
source_url: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_distribution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T05:20:57.815188+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: game-distribution-game-development-mdn-20260505-0
summary:
## [Benefits of HTML over native](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_distribution#benefits_of_html_over_native) Building games with HTML gives you extra advantages, such as: ### [Multiplatform bliss](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_distribution#multiplatform_bliss) The technology itself is multiplatform, so you can write the code once and target multiple devices. This can range from low-end smartphones or tablets, through laptops and desktop computers, to smart TVs, watches or even a fridge if it can handle a modern enough browser. You don't need to have separate teams to work on the same title targeting different platforms with only one code base to worry about. You can spend more time and money on [Promotion](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_promotion) and [Monetization](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_monetization). ### [Instant updates](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_distribution#instant_updates) You don't have to wait several days to have your game's code updated. If your user finds a bug, you can quickly fix it, update the system and refresh the game on your server to provide players with the updated code almost instantly. ### [Direct link distribution and instant play](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_distribution#direct_link_distribution_and_instant_play) You don't have to tell people to search for your game in an app store with HTML games. You can just send them a direct URL to access the game, which they can then click to play the game right away without the need to use third party


id: game-distribution-game-development-mdn-20260505-2
file: data/developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_distribution-2.md
category: reference
title: Game distribution - Game development | MDN
tags: web, html, css, javascript, documentation
source_url: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_distribution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T05:20:57.815188+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: game-distribution-game-development-mdn-20260505-0
summary:
Remember that the name of your game should be unique enough to be quickly [promoted](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_promotion) later on, but also catchy enough, so people don't forget it. ### [Self-hosting](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_distribution#self-hosting) If you are a front-end developer, you may already know what to do. An HTML game is just another website. You can upload it to a remote server, grab a catchy domain name, and host it yourself. If you want to make money out of game dev, you should secure your source code one way or another against people who could easily take it and sell it as their own. You can concatenate and minify the code to make it smaller and uglify it so it's a lot harder to reverse engineer your game. Another good measure to take is to provide an online demo if you're planning on packaging it and selling it in a closed store like iTunes or Steam. If you're working on a side project just for fun, then leaving the source open will benefit those who would like to learn from what you've created. You don't even have to worry about looking for a hosting provider as it's possible to [host games on GitHub Pages](https://end3r.com/blog/host-your-html5-games-on-github-pages). You'll get


id: game-distribution-game-development-mdn-20260505-3
file: data/developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_distribution-3.md
category: reference
title: Game distribution - Game development | MDN
tags: web, html, css, javascript, documentation
source_url: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_distribution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T05:20:57.815188+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: game-distribution-game-development-mdn-20260505-0
summary:
If you're looking for more information about the different types of app stores you can check the [List of mobile software distribution platforms](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mobile_software_distribution_platforms) article on Wikipedia. ### [Native desktop](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_distribution#native_desktop) To broaden your audience you can hit the desktop ecosystem with your HTML games too — just remember all the popular AAA games that take most of the market share, and think carefully about whether this suits your strategy. To do the desktop thing properly you should support all three operating systems: Windows, macOS and Linux. The biggest desktop store for games is definitely [Steam](https://steamcommunity.com/) — indie developers can get on Steam via the [Steam Direct](https://partner.steamgames.com/steamdirect) program. Remember that you have to deal with the cross-platform issues yourself by uploading separate versions for different platforms. After you've covered Steam, there's plenty of buzz around initiatives like [Humble Bundle](https://www.humblebundle.com/) where the most popular indie games get presented to a broader audience. It's more like an excellent promotional opportunity than a way to earn a lot of money, however, as the prices paid for the games in a bundle are usually quite low. ## [Packaging games](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_distribution#packaging_games) The web is the first and the best choice for HTML games, but if you want to


id: game-monetization-game-development-mdn-20260505-0
file: data/developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_monetization-0.md
category: reference
title: Game monetization - Game development | MDN
tags: web, html, css, javascript, documentation
source_url: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_monetization
date_saved: 2026-05-05T05:21:00.012938+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: game-monetization-game-development-mdn-20260505-0
summary:
* [Skip to main content](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_monetization#content) * [Skip to search](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_monetization#search) [ MDN ](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/) HTML [HTML: Markup language](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML) HTML reference * [Elements](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Reference/Elements) * [Global attributes](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Reference/Global_attributes) * [Attributes](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Reference/Attributes) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Reference "See all HTML references") HTML guides * [Responsive images](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Guides/Responsive_images) * [HTML cheatsheet](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Guides/Cheatsheet) * [Date & time formats](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Guides/Date_and_time_formats) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Guides "See all HTML guides") Markup languages * [SVG](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/SVG) * [MathML](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/MathML) * [XML](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/XML) CSS [CSS: Styling language](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS) CSS reference * [Properties](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Reference/Properties) * [Selectors](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Reference/Selectors) * [At-rules](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Reference/At-rules) * [Values](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Reference/Values) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Reference "See all CSS references") CSS guides * [Box model](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Guides/Box_model/Introduction) * [Animations](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Guides/Animations/Using) * [Flexbox](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Guides/Flexible_box_layout/Basic_concepts) * [Colors](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Guides/Colors/Applying_color) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Guides "See all CSS guides") Layout cookbook * [Column layouts](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/How_to/Layout_cookbook/Column_layouts) * [Centering an element](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/How_to/Layout_cookbook/Center_an_element) * [Card component](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/How_to/Layout_cookbook/Card) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/How_to/Layout_cookbook) JavaScriptJS [JavaScript: Scripting language](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript) JS reference * [Standard built-in objects](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Global_Objects) * [Expressions & operators](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Operators) * [Statements & declarations](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Statements) * [Functions](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Functions) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference "See all JavaScript references") JS guides * [Control flow & error handing](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide/Control_flow_and_error_handling) * [Loops and iteration](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide/Loops_and_iteration) * [Working with objects](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide/Working_with_objects) * [Using classes](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide/Using_classes) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide "See all JavaScript guides") Web APIs [Web APIs: Programming interfaces](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API) Web API reference * [File system API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/File_System_API) * [Fetch API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Fetch_API) * [Geolocation API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Geolocation_API) * [HTML DOM API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/HTML_DOM_API) * [Push API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Push_API) * [Service worker API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Service_Worker_API) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API


id: game-monetization-game-development-mdn-20260505-1
file: data/developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_monetization-1.md
category: reference
title: Game monetization - Game development | MDN
tags: web, html, css, javascript, documentation
source_url: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_monetization
date_saved: 2026-05-05T05:21:00.012938+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: game-monetization-game-development-mdn-20260505-0
summary:
## [Paid games](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_monetization#paid_games) The first, most obvious choice that may come to your mind might be selling the games the way it is done for huge AAA titles — with a fixed, up front price. Even though the digital market is key and you don't need to print covers and put your game in a physical store in boxes, to earn decent money on selling your games for a fixed price you have to invest your time and money in marketing. Only the best games will break even or earn more than they cost to make, and you still need a lot of luck for that. How much you charge for your game depends on the market, quality of your game and a lot of other small factors. An arcade iOS title can be sold for 0.99 USD, but a longer RPG-style desktop game on Steam can cost 20 USD; both prices are OK. You have to follow the market and do your own research — learning from your mistakes quickly is important. ## [In-app purchases](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_monetization#in-app_purchases) Instead of having people pay for your game up front, you can offer a free game with in-app purchases (IAPs.) In this case the


id: game-monetization-game-development-mdn-20260505-2
file: data/developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_monetization-2.md
category: reference
title: Game monetization - Game development | MDN
tags: web, html, css, javascript, documentation
source_url: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_monetization
date_saved: 2026-05-05T05:21:00.012938+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: game-monetization-game-development-mdn-20260505-0
summary:
### [Subscriptions](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_monetization#subscriptions) There's also an option to get a passive, monthly revenue via a subscription deal. Instead of getting a one-time payment you can get a small amount of money per game, per month — it can be something around 20-50 USD per month, per game. It's normally up to you if you want to get all the money in a lump sum or get it per month. Remember that it can be cancelled, so it's not an indefinitely working solution. ### [Ad revenue](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_monetization#ad_revenue) You can implement advertisements in your game on your own and try to find the traffic to earn a bit, but you can also do a revenue share deal with a publisher. They will take care of driving the traffic and will split the earnings — usually in a 70/30 or 50/50 deal, collected per month. Remember that many new, low quality publishers will want to get your game for ad revenue instead of licensing because it will be cheaper for them and you might end up with earnings around 2 USD per game for the whole deal. Be careful when dealing with new publishers — sometimes it's better to lower the license cost for a


id: game-promotion-game-development-mdn-20260505-0
file: data/developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_promotion-0.md
category: reference
title: Game promotion - Game development | MDN
tags: web, html, css, javascript, documentation
source_url: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_promotion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T05:21:02.118981+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: game-promotion-game-development-mdn-20260505-0
summary:
* [Skip to main content](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_promotion#content) * [Skip to search](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_promotion#search) [ MDN ](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/) HTML [HTML: Markup language](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML) HTML reference * [Elements](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Reference/Elements) * [Global attributes](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Reference/Global_attributes) * [Attributes](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Reference/Attributes) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Reference "See all HTML references") HTML guides * [Responsive images](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Guides/Responsive_images) * [HTML cheatsheet](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Guides/Cheatsheet) * [Date & time formats](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Guides/Date_and_time_formats) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Guides "See all HTML guides") Markup languages * [SVG](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/SVG) * [MathML](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/MathML) * [XML](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/XML) CSS [CSS: Styling language](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS) CSS reference * [Properties](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Reference/Properties) * [Selectors](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Reference/Selectors) * [At-rules](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Reference/At-rules) * [Values](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Reference/Values) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Reference "See all CSS references") CSS guides * [Box model](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Guides/Box_model/Introduction) * [Animations](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Guides/Animations/Using) * [Flexbox](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Guides/Flexible_box_layout/Basic_concepts) * [Colors](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Guides/Colors/Applying_color) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Guides "See all CSS guides") Layout cookbook * [Column layouts](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/How_to/Layout_cookbook/Column_layouts) * [Centering an element](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/How_to/Layout_cookbook/Center_an_element) * [Card component](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/How_to/Layout_cookbook/Card) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/How_to/Layout_cookbook) JavaScriptJS [JavaScript: Scripting language](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript) JS reference * [Standard built-in objects](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Global_Objects) * [Expressions & operators](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Operators) * [Statements & declarations](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Statements) * [Functions](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Functions) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference "See all JavaScript references") JS guides * [Control flow & error handing](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide/Control_flow_and_error_handling) * [Loops and iteration](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide/Loops_and_iteration) * [Working with objects](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide/Working_with_objects) * [Using classes](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide/Using_classes) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide "See all JavaScript guides") Web APIs [Web APIs: Programming interfaces](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API) Web API reference * [File system API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/File_System_API) * [Fetch API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Fetch_API) * [Geolocation API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Geolocation_API) * [HTML DOM API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/HTML_DOM_API) * [Push API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Push_API) * [Service worker API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Service_Worker_API) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API


id: game-promotion-game-development-mdn-20260505-1
file: data/developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_promotion-1.md
category: reference
title: Game promotion - Game development | MDN
tags: web, html, css, javascript, documentation
source_url: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_promotion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T05:21:02.118981+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: game-promotion-game-development-mdn-20260505-0
summary:
## [Competitions](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_promotion#competitions) Taking part in competitions will not only level up your gamedev skills and let you meet new devs to befriend and learn from — and it will also get you involved in the community. If you make a good game for a competition and win some prizes in the process your game will automatically be promoted by the organizers and other attendees. You'll be rich and famous, or so they say. Many great games get started as a quick, sloppy demo submitted to a competition. If both the idea and the execution are good enough, you will succeed. Plus competitions generally require games to follow a mandatory theme, so you can get creative around a theme if you are stuck for ideas. ## [Website and blog](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_promotion#website_and_blog) You should definitely create your own website containing all the information about your games, so people can see what you've worked on. The more information you can include the better — you should include screenshots, description, trailer, press kit, requirements, available platforms, support details and more. You'll get bonus points for allowing your users to directly play your games online — at least in demo form. Also, you should do some work


id: game-promotion-game-development-mdn-20260505-2
file: data/developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_promotion-2.md
category: reference
title: Game promotion - Game development | MDN
tags: web, html, css, javascript, documentation
source_url: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_promotion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T05:21:02.118981+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: game-promotion-game-development-mdn-20260505-0
summary:
It's important to focus on the knowledge part and tone down the marketing — devs are sensitive on this matter and you may end up with an angry crowd if you just try to sell them something. ### [Fairs](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_promotion#fairs) The other event-related option is fairs (or expos) — at such an event you can get a booth among other devs and promote your game to all the attendees passing by. If you do so, try to be unique and original, so you easily stand out from the crowd. Do it the right way and everybody will be talking about you and your game. Having a booth gives you the possibility to interact with your fans directly — besides the promotion part, you can also test new builds of your game on regular people and fix any bugs (or incorporate any feedback) they uncover. You can't imagine what people may come up with when playing your game, and what obvious issues you've missed while spending hours polishing it. ## [Promo codes](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Publishing_games/Game_promotion#promo_codes) If you're selling the game, then create the ability to distribute promo codes allowing people to access your game for free (or at least a demo or time-limited version), and


id: techniques-for-game-development-game-development-mdn-20260505-0
file: data/developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Techniques-0.md
category: reference
title: Techniques for game development - Game development | MDN
tags: web, html, css, javascript, documentation
source_url: https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Techniques
date_saved: 2026-05-05T05:21:04.390633+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: techniques-for-game-development-game-development-mdn-20260505-0
summary:
* [Skip to main content](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Techniques#content) * [Skip to search](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Games/Techniques#search) [ MDN ](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/) HTML [HTML: Markup language](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML) HTML reference * [Elements](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Reference/Elements) * [Global attributes](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Reference/Global_attributes) * [Attributes](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Reference/Attributes) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Reference "See all HTML references") HTML guides * [Responsive images](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Guides/Responsive_images) * [HTML cheatsheet](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Guides/Cheatsheet) * [Date & time formats](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Guides/Date_and_time_formats) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/HTML/Guides "See all HTML guides") Markup languages * [SVG](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/SVG) * [MathML](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/MathML) * [XML](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/XML) CSS [CSS: Styling language](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS) CSS reference * [Properties](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Reference/Properties) * [Selectors](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Reference/Selectors) * [At-rules](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Reference/At-rules) * [Values](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Reference/Values) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Reference "See all CSS references") CSS guides * [Box model](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Guides/Box_model/Introduction) * [Animations](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Guides/Animations/Using) * [Flexbox](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Guides/Flexible_box_layout/Basic_concepts) * [Colors](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Guides/Colors/Applying_color) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/Guides "See all CSS guides") Layout cookbook * [Column layouts](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/How_to/Layout_cookbook/Column_layouts) * [Centering an element](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/How_to/Layout_cookbook/Center_an_element) * [Card component](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/How_to/Layout_cookbook/Card) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/How_to/Layout_cookbook) JavaScriptJS [JavaScript: Scripting language](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript) JS reference * [Standard built-in objects](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Global_Objects) * [Expressions & operators](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Operators) * [Statements & declarations](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Statements) * [Functions](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference/Functions) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Reference "See all JavaScript references") JS guides * [Control flow & error handing](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide/Control_flow_and_error_handling) * [Loops and iteration](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide/Loops_and_iteration) * [Working with objects](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide/Working_with_objects) * [Using classes](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide/Using_classes) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/JavaScript/Guide "See all JavaScript guides") Web APIs [Web APIs: Programming interfaces](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API) Web API reference * [File system API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/File_System_API) * [Fetch API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Fetch_API) * [Geolocation API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Geolocation_API) * [HTML DOM API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/HTML_DOM_API) * [Push API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Push_API) * [Service worker API](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API/Service_Worker_API) * [See all…](https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/API


