# kb

id: scientific-integrity-in-policymaking-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_Integrity_in_Policymaking-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific Integrity in Policymaking
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_Integrity_in_Policymaking
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:58:49.862648+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-integrity-in-policymaking-20260505-0
summary:
"Scientific Integrity in Policymaking: An Investigation into the Bush Administration's Misuse of Science" is the title of a report published by the Union of Concerned Scientists in February, 2004. The report was the culmination of an investigation of the Bush administration's objectivity in science, and ultimately a criticism thereof. == "Suppression and distortion of research findings" == A central thesis of the report, according to the Executive Summary (on page 2 of the text), was that the Bush administration had behaved in ways considered to be consistent with the following three situations. Epidemic altering and concealing of scientific information by senior officials in various federal agencies Active censorship of scientific information that the administration considered threatening to its own philosophies Restriction of the ability of government-supported scientists to freely communicate scientific ideas related to "sensitive" issues == "An unprecedented pattern of behavior" == In "Part III", the text of the report posits that the aforementioned activities are unprecedented in the history of the United States. The report lists the following persons and organization who had supposedly acted or made statements to support this claim. This list is sorted first by category, then by the order in which the persons or


id: seasonal-attribution-project-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seasonal_Attribution_Project-0.md
category: reference
title: Seasonal Attribution Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seasonal_Attribution_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:58:50.991638+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seasonal-attribution-project-20260505-0
summary:
The Seasonal Attribution Project is a climate'prediction.net sub-project, with support from the WWF. It runs a high resolution model in order to try to determine the extent to which extreme weather events are attributable to human-induced global warming. The project did cease giving out more work, however there has been a project extension to try a fourth sea surface temperature pattern. Current work will still be accepted and used for collaborations and possibly revisions of papers during the review process. A further extension will start soon. == The experiments == United Kingdom floods of Autumn 2000 – Current project. Mountain snowpack decline in western North America Developed in collaboration with the Climate Impacts Group at the University of Washington. Heatwave occurrence in South Africa and India The latter two will use the same models. Information has been uploaded but analysis of information generated has not yet started. == See also == Effects of global warming == References == == External links == Seasonal Attribution Website Archived 2011-02-20 at the Wayback Machine


id: sense-about-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense_about_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Sense about Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense_about_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:58:52.184775+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sense-about-science-20260505-0
summary:
Sense about Science is a United Kingdom charitable organization that promotes the public understanding of science. Sense about Science was founded in 2002 by Lord Taverne, Bridget Ogilvie and others to promote respect for scientific evidence and good science. It was established as a charitable trust in 2003, with 14 trustees, an advisory council and a small office staff. Tracey Brown has been the director since 2002. The organisation works with scientists and journalists to put scientific evidence in public discussions about science, and to correct unscientific misinformation. They encourage and assist scientists to engage in public debates about their area of expertise, to respond to scientifically inaccurate claims in the media, to help people contact scientists with appropriate expertise, and to prepare briefings about the scientific background to issues of public concern. == Projects == Sense about Science publishes guides to different areas of science in partnership with experts. These include: Responsible Handover Framework, Data Science: A Guide for Society, Making Sense of Nuclear, Making Sense of Uncertainty, Making Sense of Allergies, Making Sense of Drug Safety Science, Making Sense of Testing, Making Sense of Crime, Making Sense of Statistics, Making Sense of Screening and Making Sense of GM.


id: seti-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home-0.md
category: reference
title: SETI@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:58:53.372547+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seti-home-20260505-0
summary:
SETI@home ("SETI at home") is a project of the Berkeley SETI Research Center to analyze radio signals with the aim of searching for signs of extraterrestrial intelligence. Until March 2020, it was run as an Internet-based public volunteer computing project that employed the BOINC software platform. It is hosted by the Space Sciences Laboratory at the University of California, Berkeley, and is one of many activities undertaken as part of the worldwide SETI effort. SETI@home software was released to the public on May 17, 1999, making it the third large-scale use of volunteer computing over the Internet for research purposes, after Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search (GIMPS) was launched in 1996 and distributed.net in 1997. Along with MilkyWay@home and Einstein@home, it has the investigation of phenomena in interstellar space as its primary purpose. In March 2020, the project stopped sending out new work to SETI@home users, bringing the crowdsourced computing aspect of the project to a stop. At the time, the team intended to shift focus onto the analysis and interpretation of the 20 years' worth of accumulated data. However, the team left open the possibility of eventually resuming volunteer computing using data from other radio telescopes, such as MeerKAT


id: seti-home-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home-1.md
category: reference
title: SETI@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:58:53.372547+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seti-home-20260505-0
summary:
== Technology == Anybody with an at least intermittently Internet-connected computer was able to participate in SETI@home by running a free program that downloaded and analyzed radio telescope data. Observational data were recorded on 2-terabyte SATA hard disk drives fed from the Arecibo Telescope in Puerto Rico, each holding about 2.5 days of observations, which were then sent to Berkeley. Arecibo does not have a broadband Internet connection, so data must go by postal mail to Berkeley. Once there, it is divided in both time and frequency domains work units of 107 seconds of data, or approximately 0.35 megabytes (350 kilobytes or 350,000 bytes), which overlap in time but not in frequency. These work units are then sent from the SETI@home server over the Internet to personal computers around the world to analyze. Data was merged into a database using SETI@home computers in Berkeley. Interference was rejected, and various pattern-detection algorithms were applied to search for the most interesting signals. The project used CUDA for GPU processing starting in 2015. In 2016 SETI@home began processing data from the Breakthrough Listen project. === Software === The SETI@home volunteer computing software ran either as a screensaver or continuously while a user worked,


id: seti-home-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home-2.md
category: reference
title: SETI@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:58:53.372547+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seti-home-20260505-0
summary:
== Competitive aspect == SETI@home users quickly started to compete with one another to process the maximum number of work units. Teams were formed to combine the efforts of individual users. The competition continued and grew larger with the introduction of BOINC. As with any competition, attempts have been made to "cheat" the system and claim credit for work that has not been performed. To combat cheats, the SETI@home system sends every work unit to multiple computers, a value known as "initial replication" (currently 2). Credit is only granted for each returned work unit once a minimum number of results have been returned and the results agree, a value known as "minimum quorum" (currently 2). If, due to computation errors or cheating by submitting false data, not enough results agree, more identical work units are sent out until the minimum quorum can be reached. The final credit granted to all machines which returned the correct result is the same and is the lowest of the values claimed by each machine. Some users have installed and run SETI@home on computers at their workplaces; an act known as "Borging", after the assimilation-driven Borg of Star Trek. In some cases, SETI@home users have


id: seti-home-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home-3.md
category: reference
title: SETI@home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:58:53.372547+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seti-home-20260505-0
summary:
SETI@home is a test bed for further development not only of BOINC but of other hardware and software (database) technology. Under SETI@home processing loads, these experimental technologies can be more challenging than expected, as SETI databases do not have typical accounting and business data or relational structures. The non-traditional database uses often do incur greater processing overheads and risk of database corruption and outright database failure. Hardware, software and database failures can (and do) cause dips in project participation. The project has had to shut down several times to change over to new databases capable of handling more massive datasets. Hardware failure has proven to be a substantial source of project shutdowns, as hardware failure is often coupled with database corruption. == See also == == References == == Further reading == Carrigan, Richard A. Jr. (2003). "The Ultimate Hacker: SETI Signals May Need to Be Decontaminated". Bioastronomy 2002: Life Among the Stars. 213. Astronomical Society of the Pacific: 519. Bibcode:2004IAUS..213..519C. Sample, Ian (November 25, 2005). "Scientists be on guard..." The Guardian. London. Retrieved November 25, 2005. Scoles, Sarah (May 23, 2017). "A Brief History of SETI@Home". The Atlantic. == External links == Official website SETI@home screensaver video on YouTube


id: seti-home-beta-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home_beta-0.md
category: reference
title: SETI@home beta
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SETI@home_beta
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:58:54.609126+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: seti-home-beta-20260505-0
summary:
SETI@home beta, is a hibernating volunteer computing project using the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) platform, as a test environment for future SETI@home projects: AstroPulse is a volunteer computing project searching for primordial black holes, pulsars, and ETI. AstroPulse clients have been tested by this project for nearly 6 years. It is already running on SETI@home, testing new GPU/CPU optimized apps and performing other tasks. SETI Southern Hemisphere Search, which is another SETI@home project that was due to join BOINC. It was expected that this project would use a slightly modified version of the SETI enhanced client, as the Parkes Observatory has a feedhorn with more beams than the Arecibo Observatory. == Applications Testing == 11 Dec 2008, CUDA applications test 3 Jun 2013, SETI@home v7 test 01 Dec 2015 SETI@home v8 test == External links == Official website SETI@home beta screensaver video on YouTube == References ==


id: similarity-matrix-of-proteins-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Similarity_Matrix_of_Proteins-0.md
category: reference
title: Similarity Matrix of Proteins
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Similarity_Matrix_of_Proteins
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:58:55.709397+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: similarity-matrix-of-proteins-20260505-0
summary:
Similarity Matrix of Proteins (SIMAP) is a database of protein similarities created using volunteer computing. It is freely accessible for scientific purposes. SIMAP uses the FASTA algorithm to precalculate protein similarity, while another application uses hidden Markov models to search for protein domains. SIMAP is a joint project of the Technical University of Munich, the Helmholtz Zentrum München, and the University of Vienna. == Project == The project usually got new work units at the beginning of each month. More recently, (2010), inclusion of environmental sequences into the database has required longer periods of activity, several months of continuous work for example. Typically, these updates occurred twice each year. In the fourth quarter of 2010, the project relocated to the University of Vienna due to the failing electrical infrastructure at the Technical University of Munich. Part of this exercise involved the creation of a project specific URL requiring existing volunteers and users to detach/reattach to the project. On May 30, 2014, it was announced by project administrators that after a 10-year history, SIMAP would be leaving BOINC by the end of 2014. SIMAP research, however, will go forward with the use of local hardware consisting of "ordinary multi-core CPUs (some


id: simonyi-professor-for-the-public-understanding-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simonyi_Professor_for_the_Public_Understanding_of_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Simonyi Professor for the Public Understanding of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simonyi_Professor_for_the_Public_Understanding_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:58:56.932238+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: simonyi-professor-for-the-public-understanding-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The Simonyi Professorship for the Public Understanding of Science is a chair at the University of Oxford. The chair was established in 1995 for the ethologist Richard Dawkins by an endowment from Charles Simonyi. The aim of the Professorship is 'to communicate science to the public without, in doing so, losing those elements of scholarship which constitute the essence of true understanding'. It is a position that had been endowed by Charles Simonyi with the express intention that the holder "be expected to make important contributions to the public understanding of some scientific field", and that its first holder should be Richard Dawkins. == History == Richard Dawkins explained the history of the creation of the chair in a chapter of his memoirs, Brief Candle in the Dark: My Life in Science. In 2008, Dawkins retired and the Oxford mathematician Marcus du Sautoy was elected to the chair. == List of Simonyi Professors == 1995–2008: Richard Dawkins, biological science Since 2008: Marcus du Sautoy, mathematical science == List of Simonyi Lectures == Richard Dawkins established an annual "Charles Simonyi Lecture" at the University of Oxford. He invited the following speakers: Marcus du Sautoy, second Simonyi Professor, invited: == Notes and


id: slinca-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SLinCA@Home-0.md
category: reference
title: SLinCA@Home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SLinCA@Home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:58:58.129131+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: slinca-home-20260505-0
summary:
SLinCA@Home (Scaling Laws in Cluster Aggregation) was a research project that uses Internet-connected computers to do research in fields such as physics and materials science. == Introduction == SLinCA@Home was based at the G. V. Kurdyumov Institute for Metal Physics (IMP) of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine (NASU) in Kyiv, Ukraine's capital city. It ran on the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) software platform, the SZTAKI Desktop Grid platform, and the Distributed Computing API (DC-API) by SZTAKI. SLinCA@Home hosts several scientific applications dedicated to research into scale-invariant dependencies in experimental data in physics and materials science. Statistics at the BOINCstats site (as of 16 March 2011), show over 2,000 volunteers in 39 countries have participated in the project; it is the second most popular BOINC project in Ukraine (after the Magnetism@Home project, which is now inactive). About 700 active users contribute about 0.5–1.5 teraFLOPS of computational power, which would rank SLinCA@Home among the top 20 on the TOP500 list of supercomputers in June 2005. == History == The SLinCA@Home project was previously launched in January 2009 as part of the EGEE project in the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7) for the funding of research and


id: slow-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Slow science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:58:59.300516+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: slow-science-20260505-0
summary:
Slow science is part of the broader slow movement. It is based on the belief that science should be a slow, steady, methodical process, and that scientists should not be expected to provide "quick fixes" to society's problems. Slow science supports curiosity-driven scientific research and opposes performance targets. Slow science is a continually developing school of thought in the scientific community. Followers of slow science practices are generally opposed to the current model of research which is seen as constrained by the need for continued funding. The slow science perspective attributes the overinflation of scientific publishing, and rise in fraudulent publishing with the requirement for researchers and institutions to create a justification for continued funding. The term slow science was first popularised in “Another Science is Possible: A Manifesto for Slow Science” by researcher Isabelle Stengers in 2018. The idea of “publish or perish”, which too links limitations in the quality of research to financial constraints, has been around since the early 20th century. The slow science philosophy has been described as both a way to approach scientific research, and a science led movement which acts as a critique of science's function in neoliberal society. Slow science has developed its


id: slow-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Slow science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:58:59.300516+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: slow-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Research funding reform === Slow Science proposes a change to the current structure of research funding, especially directed towards the increase in funding sourced from corporate donorship in academic institutions, as well as the rise in private independent research institutes. The slow science movement has called for all government funded research to be for the benefit of broader society, and has also called for an overall system of funding reform. Slow science groups, such as Slow Science Belgium, have called for increased government funding to be a necessity, and for key performance indicator linked targets for results to be removed from grant conditions. Key contributor to the slow science Uta Frith has expressed the idea that as government funding increases, so will risk taking in research, and therefore lead to the potential of greater scientific innovation. === Apolitical driven research === Apolitical research, from a slow science perspective, opposes research which aims to show alternatives to scientific precedent for political benefits. As well as this, the slow science movement extends this to what is described as an inherently political shift in the privatisation of knowledge, that is, scientific research which has moved from publications to private research and development


id: social-effects-of-evolutionary-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_effects_of_evolutionary_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Social effects of evolutionary theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_effects_of_evolutionary_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:59:00.550752+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-effects-of-evolutionary-theory-20260505-0
summary:
The social effects of evolutionary thought have been considerable. As the scientific explanation of life's diversity has developed, it has often displaced alternative, sometimes very widely held, explanations. Because the theory of evolution includes an explanation of humanity's origins, it has had a profound impact on human societies. Some have vigorously denied acceptance of the scientific explanation due to its perceived religious implications (e.g. its implied rejection of the special creation of humans presumably described in the Bible). This has led to a vigorous conflict between creation and evolution in public education, primarily in the United States. == Evolution and ethics == The theory of evolution by natural selection has also been adopted as a foundation for various ethical and social systems, such as social Darwinism, an idea that preceded the publication of The Origin of Species, popular in the 19th century, which holds that "the survival of the fittest" (a phrase coined in 1851 by Herbert Spencer, 8 years before Darwin published his theory of evolution) explains and justifies differences in wealth and success among societies and people. A similar interpretation was one created by Darwin's cousin, Francis Galton, known as eugenics, which claimed that human civilization was subverting


id: social-effects-of-evolutionary-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_effects_of_evolutionary_theory-1.md
category: reference
title: Social effects of evolutionary theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_effects_of_evolutionary_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:59:00.550752+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-effects-of-evolutionary-theory-20260505-0
summary:
The Roman Catholic Church, beginning in 1950 with Pope Pius XII's encyclical Humani Generis, took up a neutral position with regard to evolution. "The Church does not forbid that...research and discussions, on the part of men experienced in both fields, take place with regard to the doctrine of evolution, in as far as it inquires into the origin of the human body as coming from pre-existent and living matter." In an October 22, 1996, address to the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, Pope John Paul II updated the Church's position, recognizing that Evolution is "more than a hypothesis" - "In his encyclical Humani Generis, my predecessor Pius XII has already affirmed that there is no conflict between evolution and the doctrine of the faith regarding man and his vocation... Today, more than a half-century after the appearance of that encyclical, some new findings lead us toward the recognition of evolution as more than an hypothesis. In fact it is remarkable that this theory has had progressively greater influence on the spirit of researchers, following a series of discoveries in different scholarly disciplines." === Islamic views on evolution === === Jewish views on evolution === == Evolutionary theory and the political left


id: spinhenge-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinhenge@Home-0.md
category: reference
title: Spinhenge@Home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinhenge@Home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:59:05.740814+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: spinhenge-home-20260505-0
summary:
Spinhenge@home was a volunteer computing project on the BOINC platform, which performs extensive numerical simulations concerning the physical characteristics of magnetic molecules. It is a project of the Bielefeld University of Applied Sciences, Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, in cooperation with the University of Osnabrück and Ames Laboratory. The project began beta testing on September 1, 2006, and used the Metropolis Monte Carlo algorithm to calculate and simulate spin dynamics in nanoscale molecular magnets. On September 28, 2011, a hiatus was announced while the project team reviewed results and upgraded hardware. As of July 10, 2022 the hiatus continues and it is likely that the project has been closed down permanently. == See also == Spintronics BOINC List of volunteer computing projects == References == == External links == Project Website Spinhenge@home screensaver video on YouTube More Information about Spinhenge@Home Project Statistics at BOINCStats


id: el-sue-o-de-arqu-medes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Sueño_de_Arquímedes-0.md
category: reference
title: El Sueño de Arquímedes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Sueño_de_Arquímedes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:59:06.911884+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: el-sue-o-de-arqu-medes-20260505-0
summary:
El Sueño de Arquímedes was a Spanish science podcast and radio program which was broadcast by Radio Nacional de España (RNE) from September 2006 until June, 2007. The program was created by Ángel Rodríguez Lozano. A total of 35 programs are still available for download. In addition to El Sueño de Arquímedes, Ángel Rodríguez Lozano also hosted Vanguardia de la Ciencia, which was broadcast weekly without interruption from April 1995 until June 2007. The name of the program means "the dream of Archimedes", and alludes to Archimedes' statement that given a lever and a fixed point, he could move the world. To Ángel Rodríguez Lozano, the dream was moving the world by popularizing and sharing knowledge. == Format == Before the startup of El Sueño de Arquímedes, Ángel Rodríguez Lozano had been hosting Vanguardia de la Ciencia for more than a decade. When RNE asked if he would host a second popular science program, Ángel Rodríguez Lozano realised that the scheduled timing, Sundays between 3 and 4 p.m, meant that it would be sandwiched between sports broadcasts. Therefore, he would have to capture the attention of listeners who were not looking for this type of program. The intention was therefore


id: theskynet-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TheSkyNet-0.md
category: reference
title: TheSkyNet
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TheSkyNet
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:59:08.071585+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theskynet-20260505-0
summary:
theSkyNet was a research project that used volunteer Internet-connected computers to carry out research in astronomy. It was an initiative of the International Centre for Radio Astronomy Research (ICRAR), a joint venture of Curtin University and the University of Western Australia. theSkyNet had two projects, Sourcefinder and POGS. Both projects have been completed. theSkyNet Sourcefinder aimed to test and refine automatic radio sourcefinding algorithms in preparation for radio galaxy surveys using the Australian Square Kilometre Array Pathfinder and the Square Kilometre Array. theSkyNet POGS used Spectral Energy Distribution fitting to calculate characteristics of many galaxies using images taken by the Pan-STARRS PS1 optical telescope in Hawaii. == History == theSkyNet Sourcefinder project was introduced publicly on 13 September 2011, operating on a Java-based user platform, processing data using new distributed computing software called Nereus. One year later, theSkyNet celebrated its first birthday and at the same time theSkyNet POGS project became the first public Australian based project to participate in the well established volunteer computing platform BOINC. The acronym POGS is a reference to a game played with discs that originated on Maui, Hawaii, in the 1920s, and the fact that the Pan-STARRS PS1 telescope, is situated on Mount Haleakala,


id: university-technology-transfer-offices-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_technology_transfer_offices-0.md
category: reference
title: University technology transfer offices
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_technology_transfer_offices
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:59:09.263963+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: university-technology-transfer-offices-20260505-0
summary:
University technology transfer offices (TTOs), or technology licensing offices (TLOs), are responsible for technology transfer and other aspects of the commercialization of research that takes place in a university. TTOs engage in a variety of commercial activities that are meant to facilitate the process of bringing research developments to market, often acting as a channel between academia and industry. Most major research universities have established TTOs in the past decades in an effort to increase the impact of university research and provide opportunities for financial gain. While TTOs are commonplace, many studies have questioned their financial benefit to the university. == History == The history of technology transfer is intimately linked with the history of the science policy of the United States. The foundation for modern American science policy laid way out in Vannevar Bush's letter in response to President Roosevelt's query about whether the US should maintain the high level of research funding it had been pouring into the Office of Scientific Research and Development, which had coordinated large private-public partnership research projects as part of the war effort, including the Manhattan Project. Bush's answer was Science - the Endless Frontier. In that letter, Bush advocated that the US


id: university-technology-transfer-offices-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_technology_transfer_offices-1.md
category: reference
title: University technology transfer offices
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_technology_transfer_offices
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:59:09.263963+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: university-technology-transfer-offices-20260505-0
summary:
== Structure and organization == The structure and organization of TTOs can affect its overall performance and can vary among universities. Since TTOs deal with both academic research and industry, they consist of a diverse set of individuals, including scientists, lawyers, analysts, licensing experts, and business managers. By having individuals (particularly different scientists, engineers, and analysts) with varying sets of expertise in research, TTOs attempt to more effectively assess, protect, and profit from the research developments taking place in multiple disciplines throughout the university. TTOs can by classified into three different types: internal: existing as an integrated part of the university and controlled by university administration external: existing as an independent company that does not operate under the control of university administration mixed: having components of both internal and external TTOs As of 2012 the "internal" type was most common in the US. TTOs of different universities can also collaborate between them to grow, thus originating new organizational structures. Such structures are: Network structure: the existing organizational forms of each TTO are maintained and the single organizations operate together in a virtual manner creating a subset of links between the existing TTOs involved in the consortium Strong Hub structure: a


id: va-public-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VA_(Public_&_Science)-0.md
category: reference
title: VA (Public & Science)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VA_(Public_&_Science)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:59:10.450322+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: va-public-science-20260505-0
summary:
VA (Public & Science) (Swedish: "Vetenskap & Allmänhet") is a Sweden-based non-profit association focusing on citizen science, responsible research and innovation, and science communication to the Swedish and European public. Its projects include: web games, books, and festivals for public engagement; studies and surveys to measure public scientific knowledge and engagement; and national and international research policy advocacy. == Projects == VA is currently a partner in three EU-funded Horizon 2020 projects SciShops: ORION, Open Responsible research and Innovation to further Outstanding Knowledge, is aimed at fostering RRI and open science in research performing and research funding organisations. SciShops will expand the ecosystem of Science Shops in Europe and BLOOM is aimed at raising public awareness and interest in the bioeconomy through dialogue and co-creation activities. == Membership == VA's members consist of some 100 organizations, authorities, universities, companies and associations. In addition, it has a number of individual members. The organization is funded through membership fees, project grants and a grant from the Swedish Ministry of Education and Research. VA is a member of EUSEA (European Science Events Association), ECSA (European Citizen Science Association) and the Living Knowledge network. == Board of Representatives == VA's board consists of representatives


id: world-community-grid-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-0.md
category: reference
title: World Community Grid
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:59:12.872858+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-community-grid-20260505-0
summary:
World Community Grid (WCG) is an effort to create the world's largest volunteer computing platform to perform scientific research that benefits humanity. Launched on November 16, 2004, with proprietary Grid MP client from United Devices and adding support for Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) in 2005, World Community Grid eventually discontinued the Grid MP client and consolidated on the BOINC platform in 2008. In September 2021, it was announced that IBM transferred ownership to the Krembil Research Institute of University Health Network in Toronto, Ontario. World Community Grid uses unused processing power of consumer devices (PCs, Laptops, Android Smartphones, etc.) to analyse data created by the research groups that participate in the grid. WCG projects have analysed data related to the human genome, the human microbiome, HIV, dengue, muscular dystrophy, cancer, influenza, Ebola, Zika virus, virtual screening, rice crop yields, clean energy, water purification and COVID-19, among other research areas. There are currently four active projects and 28 completed projects. Several of these projects have published peer-reviewed papers based on the analysis of the data generated by WCG. These include an OpenZika project paper on the discovery of a compound (FAM 3) that inhibits the NS3 Helicase protein


id: world-community-grid-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-1.md
category: reference
title: World Community Grid
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:59:12.872858+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-community-grid-20260505-0
summary:
== Statistics and competition == The contributions of each user are recorded and user contribution statistics are publicly available. Due to the fact that the processing time of each workunit varies from computer to computer, depending on the difficulty of the workunit, the speed of the computer, and the amount of idle resources available, contributions are usually measured in terms of points. Points are awarded for each workunit depending on the effort required to process it. Upon completing a workunit, the BOINC client will request the number of points it thinks it deserves based on software benchmarks (see BOINC Credit System#Cobblestones). Since multiple computers process the same workunit to ensure accuracy, the World Community Grid servers can look at the points claimed by each of those computers. The WCG servers disregard statistical outliers, average the remaining values and award the resulting number of points to each computer. Within the grid, users may join teams that have been created by organizations, groups, or individuals. Teams allow for a heightened sense of community identity and can also inspire competition. As teams compete against each other, more work is done for the grid overall. == Outreach == World Community Grid recognizes companies and


id: world-community-grid-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-2.md
category: reference
title: World Community Grid
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:59:12.872858+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-community-grid-20260505-0
summary:
In February 2014, the Help Fight Childhood Cancer project scientists announced the discovery of 7 compounds that destroy neuroblastoma cancer cells without any apparent side effects. This discovery, made with the support of the WCG volunteers, is a positive step towards a new treatment. The project has announced that it is seeking a collaboration with a pharmaceutical company in order to develop the compounds into treatments. Given the success of the project, the scientists have stated that they are already planning a follow-up project which will focus on other pediatric cancers, possibly in collaboration with a newly formed Pan-Asian oncology group, of which they are a founding member. As of July 2012, the Human Proteome Folding Project has published several papers using data from WCG. These include a paper on validation methods and a new database of protein structure and function predictions; a paper on the identification of proteins that regulate human processes; a paper on the analysis of the genomes from five plant families and their proteomes, for which WCG was used in the creation of over 29,000 protein structures; a paper on the proteome of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The GO Fight Against Malaria project reported the discovery of several


id: world-community-grid-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-3.md
category: reference
title: World Community Grid
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:59:12.872858+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-community-grid-20260505-0
summary:
=== OpenPandemics - COVID-19 === On April 1, 2020, IBM announced OpenPandemics - COVID-19. The project aims to identify possible treatments for the Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) which is responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic. WCG will partner with Scripps Research, with whom it has partnered in the past, notably in FightAIDS@Home projects. The project runs on CPUs and GPUs and will also serve to create a "fast-response, open source tool that will help all scientists quickly search for treatments for future pandemics." The project launched on May 14, 2020. === Mapping Cancer Markers === Mapping Cancer Markers (launched November 8, 2013). The project aims to identify the markers associated with various types of cancer, and is analyzing millions of data points collected from thousands of healthy and cancerous patient tissue samples. These include tissues with lung, ovarian, prostate, pancreatic and breast cancers. By comparing these different data points, researchers aim to identify patterns of markers for different cancers and correlate them with different outcomes, including responsiveness to various treatment options. The project is focusing on 4 types of cancer, with the first focus being on lung cancer, and will move on to ovarian cancer, prostate cancer and


id: world-community-grid-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-4.md
category: reference
title: World Community Grid
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:59:12.872858+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-community-grid-20260505-0
summary:
=== AfricanClimate@Home === The mission of AfricanClimate@Home was to develop more accurate climate models of specific regions in Africa. It was intended to serve as a basis for understanding how the climate will change in the future so that measures designed to alleviate the adverse effects of climate change could be implemented. World Community Grid's tremendous computing power was used to understand and reduce the uncertainty with which climate processes were simulated over Africa. Phase 1 of African Climate@Home launched on September 3, 2007, and ended in July 2008. === Help Conquer Cancer === Help Conquer Cancer project (launched November 1, 2007) is sponsored by the Ontario Cancer Institute (OCI), Princess Margaret Hospital and University Health Network of Toronto, Canada. The project involves X-ray crystallography. The mission of Help Conquer Cancer is to improve the results of protein X-ray crystallography, which helps researchers not only annotate unknown parts of the human proteome, but importantly improves their understanding of cancer initiation, progression and treatment. The HCC project was the first WCG project benefiting from graphics processing units (GPU)s which helped finish it a lot earlier than initially projected due to the massive power of GPUs. In the April 2013 status report


id: world-community-grid-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-5.md
category: reference
title: World Community Grid
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:59:12.872858+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-community-grid-20260505-0
summary:
World Community Grid and researchers supported by Decrypthon, a partnership between AFM (French Muscular Dystrophy Association), CNRS (French National Center for Scientific Research), Universite Pierre et Marie Curie, and IBM were investigating protein–protein interactions for more than 2,200 proteins whose structures are known, with particular focus on those proteins that play a role in neuromuscular diseases. Phase 2 was launched on May 12, 2009, and completed on September 26, 2012. The database of information produced will help researchers design molecules to inhibit or enhance binding of particular macromolecules, hopefully leading to better treatments for muscular dystrophy and other neuromuscular diseases. Phase 2 of the Help Cure Muscular Dystrophy project began once the results from the first phase had been analyzed. Phase 2 ran on the BOINC platform. === Discovering Dengue Drugs – Together – Phase 2 === Discovering Dengue Drugs – Together – Phase 2 (launched February 17, 2010) is sponsored by The University of Texas Medical Branch (UTMB) in Galveston, Texas, United States and the University of Chicago in Illinois, USA. The mission is to identify promising drug candidates to combat the Dengue, Hepatitis C, West Nile, Yellow Fever, and other related viruses. The extensive computing power of World


id: world-community-grid-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid-6.md
category: reference
title: World Community Grid
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Community_Grid
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:59:12.872858+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-community-grid-20260505-0
summary:
FightAIDS@Home (launched November 19, 2005) was World Community Grid's second project and its first to target a single disease. Each individual computer processes one potential drug molecule and tests how well it would dock with HIV protease, acting as a protease inhibitor. Scripps Research Institute published its first peer-reviewed scientific paper about the results of FightAIDS@Home on April 21, 2007. This paper explains that the results up to that point will primarily be used to improve the efficiency of future FightAIDS@Home calculations. === FightAIDS@Home Phase 2 === FightAIDS@Home Phase 2 (launched September 30, 2015) is looking more closely at the results of Phase 1. The project has two goals in the early experiments; the simulation architecture is functioning correctly and giving reliable results, and using BEDAM and AutoDock together provides better results than using just BEDAM or AutoDock. === Microbiome Immunity Project === Microbiome Immunity Project (launched August 2017) is a study of proteins in bacteria located in and on the human body; the human microbiome, which comprises around 3 million separate bacterial genes. By studying bacterial genes, researchers can determine their individual shapes, which in turn dictate the function of the bacteria. Collaborative institutions includes the University of California


id: ufluids-home-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UFluids@Home-0.md
category: reference
title: UFluids@Home
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UFluids@Home
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:59:14.044004+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ufluids-home-20260505-0
summary:
μFluids@Home is a computer simulation of two-phase flow behavior in microgravity and microfluidics problems at Purdue University, using the Surface Evolver program. == About == The project's purpose is to develop better methods for the management of liquid rocket propellants in microgravity, and to investigate two-phase flow in microelectromechanical systems, taking into account factors like surface tension. Systems using electrowetting, channel geometry, and hydrophobic or hydrophilic coatings to allow the smooth passage of fluids can then be designed. Such systems include compact medical devices, biosensors, and fuel cells. == Computing platform == μFluids@Home uses the BOINC volunteer computing platform. Application notes There is no screensaver. Work unit CPU times are generally less than 20 hours. Work units average in size around 500 kB. You must run many work units to get levels of credit comparable to SETI@home or climateprediction.net BOINC projects. == References == == External links == Website archive


id: geographic-information-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Geographic information science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:59:15.725750+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geographic-information-science-20260505-0
summary:
Geographic information science (GIScience, GISc) or geoinformation science is a scientific discipline at the crossroads of computational science, social science, and natural science that studies geographic information, including how it represents phenomena in the real world, how it represents the way humans understand the world, and how it can be captured, organized, and analyzed. It is a sub-field of geography, specifically part of technical geography. It has applications to both physical geography and human geography, although its techniques can be applied to many other fields of study as well as many different industries. As a field of study or profession, it can be contrasted with geographic information systems (GIS), which are the actual repositories of geospatial data, the software tools for carrying out relevant tasks, and the profession of GIS users. That said, one of the major goals of GIScience is to find practical ways to improve GIS data, software, and professional practice; it is more focused on how GIS is applied in real life as opposed to being a geographic information system tool in and of itself. The field is also sometimes called geographical information science. British geographer Michael Goodchild defined this area in the 1990s and summarized its


id: geomatics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomatics-0.md
category: reference
title: Geomatics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomatics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:59:16.916119+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geomatics-20260505-0
summary:
Geomatics is defined in the ISO/TC 211 series of standards as the "discipline concerned with the collection, distribution, storage, analysis, processing, presentation of geographic data or geographic information". Under another definition, it consists of products, services and tools involved in the collection, integration and management of geographic (geospatial) data. Surveying engineering was the common name used for geomatics engineering in the past. The term was placed by the UNESCO Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems under the branch of technical geography, which is geared towards interpreting and communicating spatial data. In Germany, "geodesy and geoinformatics" or "geodesy and geoinformation" is commonly used for describing this discipline. In addition, geospatial engineering is an alternative term to geomatic(s) engineering. == History and etymology == The term was proposed in French ("géomatique") at the end of the 1960s by scientist Bernard Dubuisson to reflect at the time recent changes in the jobs of surveyor and photogrammetrist. On June 1, 1971, 'geomatics' was first employed in a French Ministry of Public Works memorandum instituting a "standing committee of geomatics" in the government. At the centennial congress of the Canadian Institute of Surveying (now known as the Canadian Institute of Geomatics) in April 1982, the new


id: geomatics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomatics-1.md
category: reference
title: Geomatics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomatics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:59:16.916119+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geomatics-20260505-0
summary:
Global navigation satellite systems are a collection of geospatial systems that provide global coverage. The technology has a variety of purposes from communications to mobile navigation. The six GNSS constellations in operation are the U.S. GPS Operational Constellation, GLObal NAvigation Satellite System (GLONASS) stemming from Russia, the European Galileo, China's BeiDou/Compass, Japan's Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS), and The Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS). == Geomatics engineering == Geomatics engineering is a rapidly developing engineering discipline which focuses on spatial information (i.e. information that has a location). The location is the primary factor used to integrate a very wide range of data for spatial analysis and visualization. Geomatics engineers design, develop, and operate systems for collecting and analyzing spatial information about the land, the oceans, natural resources, and manmade features. Geomatics engineers or geomatician apply engineering principles to spatial information and implement relational data structures involving measurement sciences, thus using geomatics and acting as spatial information engineers. They sit at the nexus of geography and computer science. A geomatician practices geomatics, by combining "geo", (the earth) with information and automation. Geomatics engineers manage local, regional, national and global spatial data infrastructures. Geomatics engineering also involves aspects of Computer Engineering, Software


id: theories-of-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: Theories of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:59:22.333603+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theories-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Theories of technological change and innovation attempt to explain the factors that shape technological innovation as well as the impact of technology on society and culture. Some of the most contemporary theories of technological change reject two of the previous views: the linear model of technological innovation and other, the technological determinism. To challenge the linear model, some of today's theories of technological change and innovation point to the history of technology, where they find evidence that technological innovation often gives rise to new scientific fields, and emphasizes the important role that social networks and cultural values play in creating and shaping technological artifacts. To challenge the so-called "technological determinism", today's theories of technological change emphasize the scope of the need of technical choice, which they find to be greater than most laypeople can realize; as scientists in philosophy of science, and further science and technology often like to say about this "It could have been different." For this reason, theorists who take these positions often argue that a greater public involvement in technological decision-making is desired. == Sociological theories == Sociological theories and researches of the Society and the Social focus on how human and technology actually interact and


id: theories-of-technology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology-1.md
category: reference
title: Theories of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:59:22.333603+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theories-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Approaches of the critical theory === Critical theory attempts, according to some, to go beyond the descriptiveness of one account that may show of how things are, the exam and question of why they have come to be that way and how they might otherwise be. Critical theory asks whose interests are being served by the questioned status quo and assesses the potentials of a future, that alternates and propose "to better" both the technological service, and even social justice. Here Geuss's definition is given, where "a critical theory, then, is a reflective theory which gives agents a kind of knowledge inherently productive of enlightenment and emancipation" (1964). Thus Marcuse argued that while technology matters and design are often presented as neutral technical choices, in fact, they manifest political or moral values. Critical theory is seen as a "form of archaeology" that attempt to get beneath common-sense understandings in order to reveal the power relationships and interests determining particular technological configuration and use. Perhaps the most developed contemporary critical theory of technology is contained in the works of Andrew Feenberg included in his book 'Transforming Technology' (2002). Values in Design asks how do we ensure a place for values


id: theories-of-technology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology-2.md
category: reference
title: Theories of technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:59:22.333603+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theories-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
=== Other Stances === Additionally, many authors have posed technology so as to critique and or emphasize aspects of technology as addressed by the mainline theories. For example, Steve Woolgar (1991) considers technology as text in order to critique the sociology of scientific knowledge as applied to technology and to distinguish between three responses to that notion: the instrumental response (interpretive flexibility), the interpretivist response (environmental/organizational influences), the reflexive response (a double hermeneutic). Pfaffenberger (1992) treats technology as drama to argue that a recursive structuring of technological artifacts and their social structure discursively regulate the technological construction of political power. A technological drama is a discourse of technological "statements" and "counterstatements" within the processes of technological regularization, adjustment, and reconstitution. An important philosophical approach to technology has been taken by Bernard Stiegler, whose work has been influenced by other philosophers and historians of technology including Gilbert Simondon and André Leroi-Gourhan. In the Schumpeterian and Neo-Schumpeterian theories technologies are critical factors of economic growth (Carlota Perez). == Analytical theories == There are theories of technological change and innovation which are not defined or claimed by a proponent, but are used by authors in describing existing literature, in contrast to their own


id: all-models-are-wrong-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_models_are_wrong-0.md
category: reference
title: All models are wrong
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_models_are_wrong
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:59:23.855720+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: all-models-are-wrong-20260505-0
summary:
"All models are wrong" is a common aphorism in statistics. It is often expanded as "All models are wrong, but some are useful". The aphorism acknowledges that statistical models always fall short of the complexities of reality but can still be useful nonetheless. The aphorism is generally attributed to George E. P. Box, a British statistician, although the underlying concept predates Box's writings. == History == The phrase "all models are wrong" was attributed to George Box who used the phrase in a 1976 paper to refer to the limitations of models, arguing that while no model is ever completely accurate, simpler models can still provide valuable insights if applied judiciously. In their 1983 book on generalized linear models, Peter McCullagh and John Nelder stated that while modeling in science is a creative process, some models are better than others, even though none can claim eternal truth. In 1996, an Applied Statistician's Creed was proposed by M.R. Nester, which incorporated the aphorism as a central tenet. The longer form appears on in a 1987 book by Box and Norman Draper in a section "The Use of Approximating Functions,": "The fact that the polynomial is an approximation does not necessarily detract


id: and-yet-it-moves-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/And_yet_it_moves-0.md
category: reference
title: And yet it moves
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/And_yet_it_moves
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:59:24.971266+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: and-yet-it-moves-20260505-0
summary:
E pur si muove or Eppur si muove [epˈpur si ˈmwɔːve] ('And yet it moves' or 'Although it does move') is an Italian phrase commonly attributed to the Italian physicist and astronomer Galileo Galilei (1564–1642). The Catholic Church persecuted Galileo for promoting the Copernican model of the Solar System in which the Earth moves around the Sun, which contradicted Catholic orthodoxy that the Earth remained fixed in the center of the universe. According to popular legend, Galileo muttered this in 1633 after the Roman Inquisition forced him to recant his claims, though this is likely apocryphal. == History == According to Stephen Hawking, some historians believe this episode might have happened upon Galileo's transfer from house arrest under the watch of Archbishop Ascanio Piccolomini to "another home, in the hills above Florence". This other home was also his own, the Villa Il Gioiello, in Arcetri. The earliest biography of Galileo, written by his disciple Vincenzo Viviani in 1655–1656, does not mention this phrase, and records of his trial do not cite it. Some authors say it would have been imprudent for Galileo to have said such a thing before the Inquisition. The event was first reported in English print in


id: houston-we-have-a-problem-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston,_we_have_a_problem-0.md
category: reference
title: Houston, we have a problem
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston,_we_have_a_problem
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:59:33.118419+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: houston-we-have-a-problem-20260505-0
summary:
"Houston, we have a problem" is a popular misquote of a phrase spoken during Apollo 13, a NASA mission in the Apollo space program and the third mission intended to land on the Moon. After an explosion occurred on board the spacecraft en route to the Moon around 56 hours into the mission, Jack Swigert, the command module pilot, reported to Mission Control Center in Houston, Texas: "Okay, Houston ... we've had a problem here." After Swigert was prompted to repeat his words by Jack R. Lousma, the capsule communicator at Mission Control, Jim Lovell, the mission commander, responded: "Ah, Houston, we've had a problem." The 1995 film Apollo 13 used the slight misquotation "Houston, we have a problem" in its dramatization of the mission, since it had become the popularly expected phrase. The phrase has been informally used to describe the emergence of an unforeseen problem, often with a sense of ironic understatement. == Background == The Apollo 13 Flight Journal lists the timestamps and dialogue between the astronauts and Mission Control. 055:55:19 Swigert: Okay, Houston ... 055:55:19 Lovell: ... Houston... 055:55:20 Swigert: ... we've had a problem here. [Pause.] 055:55:28 Lousma: This is Houston. Say again, please. 055:55:35


id: information-wants-to-be-free-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_wants_to_be_free-0.md
category: reference
title: Information wants to be free
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_wants_to_be_free
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:59:35.542788+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: information-wants-to-be-free-20260505-0
summary:
"Information wants to be free" is an expression that means either that all people should be able to access information freely, or that information (formulated as an actor) naturally strives to become as freely available among people as possible. It is often used by technology activists to criticize laws that limit transparency and general access to information. People who criticize intellectual property law say the system of such government-granted monopolies conflicts with the development of a public domain of information. The expression is often credited to Stewart Brand, who was recorded saying it at a Hackers Conference in 1984. == History == The phrase is attributed to Stewart Brand, who, in the late 1960s, founded the Whole Earth Catalog and argued that technology could be liberating rather than oppressing. What is considered the earliest recorded occurrence of the expression was at the first Hackers Conference in 1984, although the video recording of the conversation shows that what Brand actually said is slightly different. Brand told Steve Wozniak: On the one hand you have—the point you’re making Woz—is that information sort of wants to be expensive because it is so valuable—the right information in the right place just changes your life.


id: knismesis-and-gargalesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knismesis_and_gargalesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Knismesis and gargalesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knismesis_and_gargalesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:59:36.846504+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: knismesis-and-gargalesis-20260505-0
summary:
Knismesis and gargalesis are the scientific terms, coined in 1897 by psychologists G. Stanley Hall and Arthur Allin, used to describe the two types of tickling. Knismesis refers to the light, feather-like type of tickling. This type of tickling generally does not induce laughter and is often accompanied by an itching sensation. Gargalesis refers to harder, laughter-inducing tickling, and involves the repeated application of high pressure to sensitive areas. While the two terms are used in academic papers, they do not appear in many dictionaries and their origin is rarely declared. The term knismesis comes from the Ancient Greek κνισμός (knismós) meaning 'itching'. The term gargalesis stems from the Ancient Greek γαργαλίζω (gargalízō) meaning 'to tickle'. The suffix -esis is used to form nouns of action or process. == Knismesis == The knismesis phenomenon requires low levels of stimulation to sensitive parts of the body, and can be triggered by a light touch or by a light electric current. Knismesis can also be triggered by crawling insects or parasites, prompting scratching or rubbing at the ticklish spot, thereby removing the pest. It is possible that this function explains why knismesis produces a similar response in many different kinds of animals.


id: knowledge-is-power-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_is_power-0.md
category: reference
title: Knowledge is power
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_is_power
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:59:38.098438+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: knowledge-is-power-20260505-0
summary:
The phrase "scientia potentia est" (or "scientia est potentia" or also "scientia potestas est") is a Latin aphorism meaning "knowledge is power", commonly attributed to Sir Francis Bacon. The expression "ipsa scientia potestas est" ('knowledge itself is power') occurs in Bacon's Meditationes Sacrae (1597). The exact phrase "scientia potentia est" (knowledge is power) was written for the first time in the 1668 version of Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes, who was a secretary to Bacon as a young man. The related phrase "sapientia est potentia" is often translated as "wisdom is power". == History == === Origins and parallels === A proverb in practically the same wording is found in Hebrew, in the Biblical Book of Proverbs (24:5): גֶּבֶר-חָכָם בַּעוֹז; וְאִישׁ-דַּעַת, מְאַמֶּץ-כֹּחַ. This was translated in the Latin Vulgata as "vir sapiens fortis est et vir doctus robustus et validus" and in the King James Version as "A wise man is strong, a man of knowledge increaseth strength". The Persian poet Ferdowsi (940–1019/1025) wrote توانا بود هر که دانا بود (tavânâ bûd har ke dânâ bûd) "Mighty is the one who has knowledge." === Thomas Hobbes === The first known reference of the exact phrase appeared in the Latin edition of


id: knowledge-is-power-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_is_power-1.md
category: reference
title: Knowledge is power
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_is_power
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:59:38.098438+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: knowledge-is-power-20260505-0
summary:
=== Wissen ist Macht in Germany === After the 1871 unification of Germany, "Wissen ist Macht, geographisches Wissen ist Weltmacht" (Knowledge is power, geographical knowledge is world power) was often used in German geopolitics and the public discussion to support efforts for a German colonial empire after 1880. Julius Perthes, for example, used the motto for his publishing house. However, this installation of geographical research followed popular requests and was not imposed by the government. In particular, Count Bismarck was not much interested in German colonial adventures; his envoy Gustav Nachtigal started with the first protectorates, but was more interested in ethnological aspects. After World War I, German geopolitics tried to contribute to efforts to regain world power. Scholars like Karl Haushofer, a former general, and his son Albrecht Haushofer (both in close contact with Rudolf Hess) got worldwide attention with their concept of geopolitics. Associations of German geographers and schoolteachers welcomed the Machtergreifung and hoped to get further influence in the new regime. Germany's postwar geopolitics was much more cautious; concepts of political geography and projection of power had not been widespread scholarly topics in Germany until 1989. Geographical knowledge is however still of importance in Germany. Germans tend


id: noli-turbare-circulos-meos-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noli_turbare_circulos_meos!-0.md
category: reference
title: Noli turbare circulos meos!
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noli_turbare_circulos_meos!
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:59:41.514157+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: noli-turbare-circulos-meos-20260505-0
summary:
"Nōlī turbāre circulōs meōs!" is a Latin phrase, meaning "Do not disturb my circles!" It is said to have been uttered by Archimedes—in reference to a geometric figure he had outlined on the sand—as he was about to be killed by a Roman soldier during the Siege of Syracuse. == Origin == According to Valerius Maximus, the phrase was uttered by the ancient Greek mathematician and astronomer Archimedes. When the Romans conquered the city of Syracuse after the siege of 214–212 BC, the Roman general Marcus Claudius Marcellus gave the order to retrieve Archimedes. Some soldiers entered the house of Archimedes and one of the soldiers asked Archimedes who he was. But, according to Valerius Maximus (Facta et dicta memorabilia, Book VIII.7), Archimedes just answered "Noli, obsecro, istum disturbare" ("Do not, I entreat you, disturb that (sand)"), because he was so engrossed in the circles drawn on the sand in front of him. After that, one of the soldiers killed Archimedes, despite the order of Marcus Claudius Marcellus. == Authenticity == Plutarch does not mention the quote in his Parallel Lives. Valerius Maximus (Facta et dicta memorabilia, Book VIII.7) attests the Latin form "noli ... istum disturbare" ("I ask you


id: one-small-step-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_small_step-0.md
category: reference
title: One small step
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_small_step
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:59:45.217914+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: one-small-step-20260505-0
summary:
On July 21, 1969, when Neil Armstrong became the first person to set foot on the Moon, he said "That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind". Recordings of Armstrong's Apollo 11 transmission do not provide evidence for the indefinite article "a" before "man", leading to some controversy about whether he said the word or not. After years of Armstrong and NASA insisting that the static obscured it, Armstrong conceded that he must have dropped the "a" after carefully listening to the recording. Several scientific analyses have been conducted with some suggesting that he did say the "a" and others suggesting that he did not. As a result, the "a" is often included in brackets in the quote. == Background == The Lunar Module Eagle landed on the Moon as part of Apollo 11 in 1969. After Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin were ready to go outside, Eagle was depressurized, the hatch was opened, and Armstrong made his way down the ladder. At the bottom of the ladder, while standing on a Lunar Module landing pad, Armstrong said, "I'm going to step off the LM now." He turned and set his left boot on the lunar surface


id: standing-on-the-shoulders-of-giants-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants-0.md
category: reference
title: Standing on the shoulders of giants
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:59:47.601142+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: standing-on-the-shoulders-of-giants-20260505-0
summary:
The phrase "standing on the shoulders of giants" is a metaphor which means "using the understanding gained by major thinkers who have gone before in order to make intellectual progress". It is a metaphor of a person who wants to reach higher, standing on the shoulders of giants (Latin: nani gigantum humeris insidentes) and expresses the meaning of "discovering truth by building on previous discoveries". This concept has been dated to the 12th century and, according to John of Salisbury, is attributed to Bernard of Chartres. Its most familiar and popular expression occurs in a 1675 letter by Isaac Newton: "if I have seen further [than others], it is by standing on the shoulders of giants." == Early references == === Middle Ages === The earliest documented attestation of this aphorism appears in 1123 in William of Conches's Glosses on Priscian's Institutiones grammaticae. Where Priscian says quanto juniores, tanto perspicaciores (young men simply can see more sharply), William comments: The ancients had only the books which they themselves wrote, but we have all their books and moreover all those which have been written from the beginning until our time.… Hence we are like a dwarf perched on the shoulders of


id: standing-on-the-shoulders-of-giants-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants-1.md
category: reference
title: Standing on the shoulders of giants
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:59:47.601142+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: standing-on-the-shoulders-of-giants-20260505-0
summary:
Diego de Estella took up the quotation in his 1578 commentary on Gospel of Luke and by the 17th century it had become commonplace. Robert Burton, in the second edition of The Anatomy of Melancholy (1624), quotes Stella thus: I say with Didacus Stella, a dwarf standing on the shoulders of a giant may see farther than a giant himself. Later editors of Burton misattributed the quotation to Lucan; in their hands Burton's attribution Didacus Stella, in luc 10, tom. ii "Didacus on the Gospel of Luke, chapter 10; volume 2" became a reference to Lucan's Pharsalia 2.10. No reference or allusion to the quotation is found there. In 1634, Marin Mersenne quoted the expression in his Questions harmoniques: ... comme l'on dit, il est bien facile, & mesme necessaire de voir plus loin que nos devanciers, lors que nous sommes montez sur leur espaules ...Blaise Pascal, in the "Preface to the Treatise on the Vacuum" expresses the same idea, without talking about shoulders, but rather about the knowledge handed down to us by the ancients as steps that allow us to climb higher and see farther than they could:C'est de cette façon que l'on peut aujourd'hui prendre d'autres sentiments


id: tyranny-of-numbers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyranny_of_numbers-0.md
category: reference
title: Tyranny of numbers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyranny_of_numbers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:59:52.543763+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tyranny-of-numbers-20260505-0
summary:
The tyranny of numbers was a problem faced in the 1960s by computer engineers. Engineers were unable to increase the performance of their designs due to the huge number of components involved. In theory, every component needed to be wired to every other component (or at least many other components) and were typically strung and soldered by hand. In order to improve performance, more components would be needed, and it seemed that future designs would consist almost entirely of wiring. == History == The first known recorded use of the term in this context was made by the Vice President of Bell Labs in an article celebrating the 10th anniversary of the invention of the transistor, for the "Proceedings of the IRE" (Institute of Radio Engineers), June 1958 [1]. Referring to the problems many designers were having, he wrote: For some time now, electronic man has known how 'in principle' to extend greatly his visual, tactile, and mental abilities through the digital transmission and processing of all kinds of information. However, all these functions suffer from what has been called 'the tyranny of numbers.' Such systems, because of their complex digital nature, require hundreds, thousands, and sometimes tens of thousands


id: international-scientific-vocabulary-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_scientific_vocabulary-0.md
category: reference
title: International scientific vocabulary
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_scientific_vocabulary
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:59:54.209338+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-scientific-vocabulary-20260505-0
summary:
International scientific vocabulary (ISV) is the set of scientific and specialized words that are in current use in several modern languages. Although the language of origin of ISV may or may not be certain, they are used translingually, whether in naturalized, loanword, or calque forms. The name "international scientific vocabulary" was first used by Philip Gove in Webster's Third New International Dictionary (1961). As noted by David Crystal, science is an especially productive field for new coinages. It is also especially predisposed to immediate translingual sharing of words owing to its very nature: scientists working in many countries and languages, reading each other's latest articles in scientific journals (via foreign language skills, translation help, or both), and eager to apply any reported advances to their own context. == Instances == According to Webster's Third, "some ISV words (like haploid) have been created by taking a word with a rather general and simple meaning from one of the languages of antiquity, usually Latin and Greek, and conferring upon it a very specific and complicated meaning for the purposes of modern scientific discourse." An ISV word is typically a classical compound or a derivative which "gets only its raw materials, so to


id: scientific-terminology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific terminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:59:55.500176+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific terminology refers to the specialized vocabulary used by scientists and engineers in their professional fields. It encompasses words and expressions created to name newly discovered or invented concepts, materials, methods, and phenomena. In the early modern period, scientific terminology was predominantly Latin, resulting in naming practices that have persisted into the present. In science, "naming a particle [or concept] is not just convenient; it marks a leap forward in our understanding of the world". Thus, new technical terms, neologisms, often arise whenever science advances. For example, the term nanotechnology was coined in 1974 to describe precise engineering at the atomic scale. More generally, neologisms have long been driven by technology and science: "technological advances are among the main drivers of word creation… In many cases, neologisms come about as names for new objects". Likewise, language scholars observe that "science is an especially productive field for new coinages," and scientific terms often spread immediately across languages through research publications. Over time, many such technical terms (e.g. laser, radar, DNA) enter common usage, though at first, they denote concepts known mainly within the field. == New concepts == Scientists frequently introduce new names for novel concepts or discoveries. Every time a


id: scientific-terminology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientific terminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:59:55.500176+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
== Classical and non-vernacular terms and expressions == In modern science and its applied fields such as technology and medicine, a knowledge of classical languages is not as rigid a prerequisite as it used to be. However, traces of their influence remain. Firstly, languages such as Greek, Latin and Arabic – either directly or via more recently derived languages such as French – have provided not only most of the technical terms used in Western science, but also a de facto vocabulary of roots, prefixes and suffixes for the construction of new terms as required. Echoes of the consequences sound in remarks such as "Television? The word is half Latin and half Greek. No good can come of it." (referring to it being a hybrid word). A special class of terminology that overwhelmingly is derived from classical sources, is biological classification, in which binomial nomenclature still is most often based on classical origins. The derivations are arbitrary however and can be mixed variously with modernisms, late Latin, and even fictional roots, errors and whims. However, in spite of the chaotic nature of the field, it still is helpful to the biologist to have a good vocabulary of classical roots. Branches


id: scientific-terminology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology-2.md
category: reference
title: Scientific terminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:59:55.500176+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
A good example is the word laser, an acronym for "Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation", and therefore all its letters should be capitalized. However, because of frequent use, this acronym became a neologism, i.e., it has integrated into English and most other languages. Consequently, laser is commonly written in small letters. It has even produced secondary acronyms such as LASIK (Laser-ASsisted in Situ Keratomileusis). A related acronym and neologism maser (Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) is much less known. Nevertheless, it is commonly written in small letters. On the contrary, acronym SPASER (Surface Plasmon Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) is capitalized. Many scientific acronyms or abbreviations reflect the artistic sense of their creators, e.g., AMANDA – Antarctic Muon And Neutrino Detector Array, a neutrino telescope BLAST – Balloon-borne Large Aperture Submillimeter Telescope COMICS – COoled Mid-Infrared Camera and Spectrometer FROG - Frequency-resolved optical gating MARVEL – Multi-object Apache Point Observatory Radial Velocity Exoplanet Large-area Survey, a NASA-funded project to search for exoplanets METATOY – METAmaTerial fOr raYs – a material that changes the direction of transmitted light rays PLANET – Probing Lensing Anomalies NETwork, a program to search for microlensing events SCREAM – Single Crystal


id: homogeneity-and-heterogeneity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity-0.md
category: reference
title: Homogeneity and heterogeneity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:59:56.824054+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: homogeneity-and-heterogeneity-20260505-0
summary:
Homogeneity and heterogeneity are concepts relating to the uniformity of a substance, process or image. A homogeneous feature is uniform in composition or character (i.e., color, shape, size, weight, height, distribution, texture, language, income, disease, temperature, radioactivity, architectural design, etc.); one that is heterogeneous is distinctly nonuniform in at least one of these qualities. == Etymology and spelling == The words homogeneous and heterogeneous come from Medieval Latin homogeneus and heterogeneus, from Ancient Greek ὁμογενής (homogenēs) and ἑτερογενής (heterogenēs), from ὁμός (homos, "same") and ἕτερος (heteros, "other, another, different") respectively, followed by γένος (genos, "kind"); -ous is an adjectival suffix. Alternate spellings omitting the last -e- (and the associated pronunciations) are common, but mistaken: homogenous is strictly a biological/pathological term which has largely been replaced by homologous. But use of homogenous to mean homogeneous has seen a rise since 2000, enough for it to now be considered an "established variant". Similarly, heterogenous is a spelling traditionally reserved to biology and pathology, referring to the property of an object in the body having its origin outside the body. == Scaling == The concepts are the same to every level of complexity. From atoms to galaxies, plants, animals, humans, and other living


id: organic-model-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_(model)-0.md
category: reference
title: Organic (model)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_(model)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T02:59:59.228296+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: organic-model-20260505-0
summary:
Organic describes forms, methods and patterns found in living systems such as the organisation of cells, to populations, communities, and ecosystems. Typically organic models stress the interdependence of the component parts, as well as their differentiation. Other properties of organic models include: the growth, life or development cycle the ability to adapt, learn, and evolve emergent behaviour or emergent properties steady change or growth, as opposed to instant change regulatory feedback composed of heterogeneous (diverse) parts Organic models are used especially in the design of artificial systems, and the description of social systems and constructs. == Uses == In the social sciences, the organic model has been drawn upon for ideas such as mechanical and organic solidarity and organic unity. Carl Ritter advanced the idea of Lebensraum using the metaphor of an organic, growing state. In computer science, organic networks grow in an ad hoc manner, while organic computing is autonomous and able to self-organise and heal. Bionics (biomimicry) is the engineering of technology through the use of systems found in biology. Organic architecture stresses interrelatedness as it combines the site, buildings, furnishings, and surroundings into a unified whole, each adapted to the others. Examples include the use of passive


id: phlegmatizer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phlegmatizer-0.md
category: reference
title: Phlegmatizer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phlegmatizer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:00.397175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: phlegmatizer-20260505-0
summary:
A phlegmatizer is a compound that minimizes the explosive tendency of another compound or material. The term is derived from the word phlegmatic, meaning 'not easily excited'. Many chemical compounds that are potentially explosive have useful non-explosive applications. One large family of phlegmatizers are phthalate esters, which are used as solvents to minimize the explosive tendency of organic peroxides, such as dibenzoyl peroxide and MEKP, which are widely used initiators for polymerizations. == See also == Phlegmatized explosive == References ==


id: photochemical-action-plots-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photochemical_action_plots-0.md
category: reference
title: Photochemical action plots
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photochemical_action_plots
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:01.563042+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: photochemical-action-plots-20260505-0
summary:
Photochemical action plots are a scientific tool used to understand the effects of different wavelengths of light on photochemical reactions. The methodology involves exposing a reaction solution to the same number of photons at varying monochromatic wavelengths, monitoring the conversion or reaction yield of starting materials and/or reaction products. Such global high-resolution analysis of wavelength-dependent chemical reactivity has revealed that maxima in absorbance and reactivity often do not align. Photochemical action plots are historically connected to (biological) action spectra. == Historical development == The study of biological responses to specific wavelengths dates back to the late 19th century. Research primarily focused on assessing photodamage from solar radiation using broad-band lamps and narrow filters. These studies quantified effects such as cell viability, production of erythema, vitamin D3 degradation, DNA changes, and skin cancer appearance. The first biological action spectrum was recorded by Engelmann, who used a prism to produce different colors of light and then illuminated cladophora in a bacteria suspension. He discovered the effects of different light wavelengths on photosynthesis, marking the first recorded action spectrum of photosynthesis. Critical evaluations of active wavelength regions in these studies helped identify contributing chromophores to processes such as photosynthesis. These chromophores are key


id: science-and-technology-in-the-discovery-of-america-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Technology_in_the_Discovery_of_America-0.md
category: reference
title: Science and Technology in the Discovery of America
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Technology_in_the_Discovery_of_America
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:04.421128+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-in-the-discovery-of-america-20260505-0
summary:
Science and Technology in the Discovery of America (Spanish: La ciencia y la técnica en el descubrimiento de América), is a work by the historian and mathematician Julio Rey Pastor, published in Spanish in 1945, in Buenos Aires, by the Espasa-Calpe publishing. A second, "improved and corrected" edition was published in 1945. A third and fourth edition were published in 1951 and 1970, respectively. == Description == In this book, Rey Pastor analyzes the role of science and technology in the discovery of America, with special attention to the contributions of disciplines such as geography, cartography, nautical science and cosmography, which were decisive for the realization of transoceanic expeditions, such as that of Christopher Columbus, whom Rey Pastor considers a man of science, taking into account what was understood in his time by "man of science". The work reviews the scientific situation prior to the discovery and the evolution of latitude measurement and geographical representation techniques, highlighting how these innovations allowed the navigation challenges of the time to be faced. He insists on the enormous disproportion between the magnificent results of the discoverers and the poverty of the means at their disposal. The book highlights the leading role of Spanish


id: sonnet-to-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonnet_to_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Sonnet to Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonnet_to_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:05.618155+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sonnet-to-science-20260505-0
summary:
"Sonnet to Science" (originally "Sonnet — To Science") is an 1829 poem by Edgar Allan Poe, published in Al Aaraaf, Tamerlane, and Minor Poems. == Summary == Poe asks why science preys on the poet. Science is peering, destructive and interested only in cold realities. It will not allow the poet to soar in fantasy or even to sit peacefully dreaming beneath a tree. == Publication history == In mid-November 1829, Poe agreed with the Baltimore firm Hatch and Dunning to publish his second volume of poetry, entitled Al Aaraaf, Tamerlane, and Minor Poems. This volume was the first instance in which Poe published his verse under his own name as opposed to his first publication, Tamerlane and Other Poems, which was only attributed to “a Bostonian”. A later published version of this poem includes the following note, “Private reasons—some of which have reference to the sin of plagiarism, and other to the date of Tennyson’s first poems—have induced me, after some hesitation, to re-publish these, the crude compositions of my earliest boyhood. They are printed verbatim—without alteration from the original edition—the date of which is too remote to be judiciously acknowledged.” == References == == External links == An


id: unesco-science-report-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_Science_Report-0.md
category: reference
title: UNESCO Science Report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_Science_Report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:09.814460+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unesco-science-report-20260505-0
summary:
The UNESCO Science Report is a global monitoring report published regularly by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Every five years, this report maps the latest trends and developments in national and regional policy landscapes, against the backdrop of shifting socio-economic, geopolitical and environmental realities. Each edition is typically released on 10 November, which is World Science Day for Peace and Development. The most recent edition was released on 11 June 2021. == History == In 1987, the General Conference of UNESCO approved the launch of the Organization's first world reports, the World Communication Report, which first appeared two years later. In 1989, the General Conference approved the launch of the World Education Report, which appeared in 1991, 1993, 1995, 1998 and 2000. The launch of these two reports created a momentum to generalize the world reports to all of UNESCO's fields of competence. The World Science Report (as the UNESCO Science Report was originally known) was the next title to appear, in 1993. The first World Information Report followed in 1997 then the World Social Science Report in 1999, as well as two World Culture Reports in 1998 and 2000. Two existing reports were merged to produce


id: unesco-science-report-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_Science_Report-1.md
category: reference
title: UNESCO Science Report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_Science_Report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:09.814460+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unesco-science-report-20260505-0
summary:
== Geographical coverage == Each edition has added geographic detail. The 2021 edition of the UNESCO Science Report provided data for 193 countries, with contributions from more than 70 authors from 52 countries. Published in June 2021, the seventh report in the series arrived at a crucial juncture, as countries were one-third of the way to the 2030 deadline for achieving their Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The report revealed that countries of all income levels shared a common agenda at this time for transitioning to digital and 'green' economies. Themes covered in 2021 included our relationship with advanced technologies and the resources and energy they require, the Fourth Industrial Revolution, the effect of Brexit on science and technology and the status of women in science and Industry 4.0. For the first time, an analysis of scientific output broke down the broad field of cross-cutting strategic technologies into its sub-fields, such as artificial intelligence and robotics, energy and nanotechnology. The report found that the COVID-19 pandemic had energized knowledge production systems. This dynamic built on the trend towards greater international scientific collaboration, which bodes well for tackling this and other global challenges such as climate change and biodiversity loss. However, sustainability


id: list-of-adiabatic-concepts-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_adiabatic_concepts-0.md
category: reference
title: List of adiabatic concepts
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_adiabatic_concepts
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:12.724457+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-adiabatic-concepts-20260505-0
summary:
Adiabatic (from Gr. ἀ negative + διάβασις passage; transference) refers to any process that occurs without heat transfer. This concept is used in many areas of physics and engineering. Notable examples are listed below. == Automobiles == Engine braking, a feature of some diesel engines, uses adiabatic expansion to diminish the vehicle's forward momentum. == Meteorology == Adiabatic lapse rate, the change in air temperature with changing height, resulting from pressure change. == Quantum chemistry == Adiabatic invariant Born–Oppenheimer approximation == Thermodynamics == Adiabatic process Adiabatic ionization Adiabatic index Adiabatic accessibility == Quantum mechanics == Adiabatic theorem Adiabatic quantum motor == Electronics == Adiabatic circuit Adiabatic logic == References ==


id: list-of-laser-applications-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications-0.md
category: reference
title: List of laser applications
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:13.914805+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-laser-applications-20260505-0
summary:
Many scientific, military, medical and commercial laser applications have been developed since the invention of the laser in 1958. The coherency, high monochromaticity, and ability to reach extremely high powers are all properties which allow for these specialized applications. == Scientific == In science, lasers are used in many ways, including: A wide variety of interferometric techniques Raman spectroscopy Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy Atmospheric remote sensing Investigating nonlinear optics phenomena Holographic techniques employing lasers also contribute to a number of measurement techniques. Laser based lidar (LIght raDAR) technology applications in geology, seismology, remote sensing and atmospheric physics. Three-dimensional structural modifications and writing inside technological materials. Lasers have been used aboard spacecraft such as in the Cassini-Huygens mission. In astronomy, lasers have been used to create artificial laser guide stars, used as reference objects for adaptive optics telescopes. Lasers may also be indirectly used in spectroscopy as a micro-sampling system, a technique termed Laser ablation (LA), which is typically applied to ICP-MS apparatus resulting in the powerful LA-ICP-MS. The principles of laser spectroscopy are discussed by Demtröder. === Spectroscopy === Most types of laser are an inherently pure source of light; they emit near-monochromatic light with a very well defined range


id: list-of-laser-applications-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications-1.md
category: reference
title: List of laser applications
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:13.914805+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-laser-applications-20260505-0
summary:
Powerful lasers producing ultra-short (in the tens of femtoseconds) and ultra-intense (up to 1023 W/cm2) laser pulses offer much greater acceleration gradients than that of conventional accelerators. This fact is exploited in several plasma acceleration techniques used for accelerating both electrons and charged ions to high energies. === Microscopy === Confocal laser scanning microscopy and Two-photon excitation microscopy make use of lasers to obtain blur-free images of thick specimens at various depths. Laser capture microdissection use lasers to procure specific cell populations from a tissue section under microscopic visualization. Additional laser microscopy techniques include harmonic microscopy, four-wave mixing microscopy and interferometric microscopy. == Military == === Directly as an energy weapon === A laser weapon is directed-energy weapon based on lasers. === Defensive countermeasures === Defensive countermeasure applications can range from compact, low power infrared countermeasures to high power, airborne laser systems. IR countermeasure systems use lasers to confuse the seeker heads on infrared homing missiles. === Disorientation === Some weapons simply use a laser to disorient a person. One such weapon is the Thales Green Laser Optical Warner. === Guidance === Laser guidance is a technique of guiding a missile or other projectile or vehicle to a target by


id: list-of-laser-applications-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications-2.md
category: reference
title: List of laser applications
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:13.914805+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-laser-applications-20260505-0
summary:
Industrial laser applications can be divided into two categories depending on the power of the laser: material processing and micro-material processing. In material processing, lasers with average optical power above 1 kilowatt are used mainly for industrial materials processing applications. Beyond this power threshold there are thermal issues related to the optics that separate these lasers from their lower-power counterparts. Laser systems in the 50-300W range are used primarily for pumping, plastic welding and soldering applications. Lasers above 300W are used in brazing, thin metal welding, and sheet metal cutting applications. The required brightness (as measured in by the beam parameter product) is higher for cutting applications than for brazing and thin metal welding. High power applications, such as hardening, cladding, and deep penetrating welding, require multiple kW of optical power, and are used in a broad range of industrial processes. Micro material processing is a category that includes all laser material processing applications under 1 kilowatt. The use of lasers in Micro Materials Processing has found broad application in the development and manufacturing of screens for smartphones, tablet computers, and LED TVs. A detailed list of industrial and commercial laser applications includes: Laser cutting Laser welding Laser drilling Laser


id: list-of-applications-of-stainless-steel-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel-0.md
category: reference
title: List of applications of stainless steel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:15.064706+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-applications-of-stainless-steel-20260505-0
summary:
Stainless steel is used in a multitude of fields including architecture, art, chemical engineering, food and beverage manufacture, vehicles, medicine, energy and firearms. == Architecture == The use of stainless steel in buildings can be both practical and aesthetic. In vogue during the Art Deco period, the most famous use of stainless steel can be seen in the upper portion of the Chrysler Building. Thanks to its durability, many of these buildings have retained their original appearance. Stainless steel is used in the construction of modern buildings, such as the exterior of the Petronas Twin Towers and the Jin Mao Building. The Parliament House of Australia in Canberra has a stainless steel flagpole weighing over 220 metric tons (240 short tons). The largest stainless steel building in North America is the aeration building in the Edmonton Composting Facility. La Geode in Paris has a dome composed of 6433 polished stainless steel triangles that form the sphere that reflects the sky. The development of high-strength stainless steel grades, such as "lean duplex" grades, has led to increasing use in structural applications. Thanks to its low reflectivity, stainless steel is used as a roofing material for airports, which prevents pilots from being


id: list-of-applications-of-stainless-steel-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel-1.md
category: reference
title: List of applications of stainless steel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:15.064706+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-applications-of-stainless-steel-20260505-0
summary:
== Food and beverage == Austenitic (300 series) stainless steel, particularly Types 304 and 316, is the material of choice for the food and beverage industry, though martensitic and ferritic (400 series) steels are also used. Stainless steels are advantageous because they do not affect the taste of the product, are easily cleaned and sterilized to prevent bacterial contamination of the food, and are durable. Within the food and beverage industry, stainless steel is extensively used in cookware, commercial food processing, commercial kitchens, brewing beer, winemaking, and meat processing. Stainless steel's superiority over plastic in preserving flavor is reportedly why McDonald's traditionally procures soft drink syrup for its soda fountains from The Coca-Cola Company in stainless steel tanks, rather than the bag-in-box technology preferred by most fast food restaurant chains. Acidic foods with high salt additions, such as tomato sauce, and highly salted condiments, such as soy sauce, may require higher-alloyed stainless steels such as 6% Mo superaustenitics to prevent pitting corrosion by chloride. == Vehicles == === Automobiles === The Allegheny Ludlum Corporation worked with Ford on various concept cars with stainless steel bodies from the 1930s through the 1970s to demonstrate the material's potential. The 1957 and 1958


id: list-of-applications-of-stainless-steel-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel-2.md
category: reference
title: List of applications of stainless steel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:15.064706+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-applications-of-stainless-steel-20260505-0
summary:
Surgical tools and medical equipment are usually made of stainless steel, because of its durability and ability to be sterilized in an autoclave. In addition, surgical implants such as bone reinforcements and replacements (e.g. hip sockets and cranial plates) are made with special alloys formulated to resist corrosion, mechanical wear, and biological reactions in vivo. Stainless steel is used in a variety of applications in dentistry. It is common to use stainless steel in many instruments that need to be sterilized, such as needles, endodontic files in root canal therapy, metal posts in root canal-treated teeth, temporary crowns and crowns for deciduous teeth, and arch wires and brackets in orthodontics. Surgical stainless steel alloys (e.g., 316 low-carbon steel) were also used in some early dental implants. == Energy == Stainless steels are extensively used in all types of power stations, from nuclear to solar. Stainless steels are ideally suited as mechanical supports for power generation units when the permeation of gases or liquids are required, such as filters in cooling water or hot gas clean up or as structural supports in electrolytic power generation. Stainless steel is used in electrolysers (proton exchange membranes and solid oxide electrolysers being the most


id: list-of-asteroid-discovering-observatories-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_asteroid-discovering_observatories-0.md
category: reference
title: List of asteroid-discovering observatories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_asteroid-discovering_observatories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:16.235397+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-asteroid-discovering-observatories-20260505-0
summary:
The list of asteroid-discovering observatories contains a section for each observatory which has discovered one or more asteroids, along with a list of those asteroids. For each numbered asteroid, the Minor Planet Center lists one or more discoverers who have been given credit for the discovery. Sometimes these are individuals (by modern rules there can be no more than three co-discoverers), and sometimes the credit is given to an organization (for instance, Purple Mountain Observatory). == Observatories == === Andrushivka Astronomical Observatory === The Andrushivka Astronomical Observatory is a private observatory near Andrushivka in Zhytomyr oblast, Ukraine. The observatory has IAU observatory code A50. It has discovered the following asteroids: === Bohyunsan Optical Astronomy Observatory === The Korean Bohyunsan Optical Astronomy Observatory (BOAO), located at Mount Bohyeon near the city of Yeongcheon, is a member of the East-Asian Planet Search Network, an international collaboration between Korea, China and Japan. Each facility, BOAO (Korea), Xinglong Station (NAOC) (China), and Okayama Astrophysical Observatory (Japan), has a 2 m class telescope, a high dispersion echelle spectrograph, and an iodine absorption cell for precise RV measurements, looking for extrasolar planets. It has discovered the following asteroids: === Cerro El Roble Astronomical Station === Between


id: atmospheric-optics-ray-tracing-codes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_optics_ray-tracing_codes-0.md
category: reference
title: Atmospheric optics ray-tracing codes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_optics_ray-tracing_codes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:17.507286+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: atmospheric-optics-ray-tracing-codes-20260505-0
summary:
Atmospheric optics ray tracing codes - this article list codes for light scattering using ray-tracing technique to study atmospheric optics phenomena such as rainbows and halos. Such particles can be large raindrops or hexagonal ice crystals. Such codes are one of many approaches to calculations of light scattering by particles. == Geometric optics (ray tracing) == Ray tracing techniques can be applied to study light scattering by spherical and non-spherical particles under the condition that the size of a particle is much larger than the wavelength of light. The light can be considered as collection of separate rays with width of rays much larger than the wavelength but smaller than a particle. Rays hitting the particle undergoes reflection, refraction and diffraction. These rays exit in various directions with different amplitudes and phases. Such ray tracing techniques are used to describe optical phenomena such as rainbow of halo on hexagonal ice crystals for large particles. Review of several mathematical techniques is provided in series of publications. The 46° halo was first explained as being caused by refractions through ice crystals in 1679 by the French physicist Edmé Mariotte (1620–1684) in terms of light refraction Jacobowitz in 1971 was the first to


id: atmospheric-radiative-transfer-codes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_radiative_transfer_codes-0.md
category: reference
title: Atmospheric radiative transfer codes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_radiative_transfer_codes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:18.655518+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: atmospheric-radiative-transfer-codes-20260505-0
summary:
An atmospheric radiative transfer model, code, or simulator calculates radiative transfer of electromagnetic radiation through a planetary atmosphere. == Methods == At the core of a radiative transfer model lies the radiative transfer equation that is numerically solved using a solver such as a discrete ordinate method or a Monte Carlo method. The radiative transfer equation is a monochromatic equation to calculate radiance in a single layer of the Earth's atmosphere. To calculate the radiance for a spectral region with a finite width (e.g., to estimate the Earth's energy budget or simulate an instrument response), one has to integrate this over a band of frequencies (or wavelengths). The most exact way to do this is to loop through the frequencies of interest, and for each frequency, calculate the radiance at this frequency. For this, one needs to calculate the contribution of each spectral line for all molecules in the atmospheric layer; this is called a line-by-line calculation. For an instrument response, this is then convolved with the spectral response of the instrument. A faster but more approximate method is a band transmission. Here, the transmission in a region in a band is characterised by a set of pre-calculated coefficients (depending


id: azeotrope-tables-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azeotrope_tables-0.md
category: reference
title: Azeotrope tables
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azeotrope_tables
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:21.065789+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: azeotrope-tables-20260505-0
summary:
This page contains tables of azeotrope data for various binary and ternary mixtures of solvents. The data include the composition of a mixture by weight (in binary azeotropes, when only one fraction is given, it is the fraction of the second component), the boiling point (b.p.) of a component, the boiling point of a mixture, and the specific gravity of the mixture. Boiling points are reported at a pressure of 760 mm Hg unless otherwise stated. Where the mixture separates into layers, values are shown for upper (U) and lower (L) layers. The data were obtained from Lange's 10th edition and CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 44th edition unless otherwise noted (see color code table). A list of 15825 binary and ternary mixtures was collated and published by the American Chemical Society. An azeotrope databank is also available online through the University of Edinburgh. == Binary azeotropes == == Ternary azeotropes == Tables of various ternary azeotropes (that is azeotropes consisting of three components). Fraction percentages are given by weight. ‡Saddle azeotrope ‡Saddle azeotrope == References ==


id: list-of-balzan-prize-recipients-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Balzan Prize recipients
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:25.359732+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-balzan-prize-recipients-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of recipients of the Balzan Prize, one of the world's most prestigious academic awards. The International Balzan Prize Foundation awards four annual monetary prizes to people or organizations who have made outstanding achievements in the humanities, natural sciences, culture, and peace on an international level. The Prizes are awarded in four subject areas: "two in literature, the moral sciences and the arts" and "two in the physical, mathematical and natural sciences and medicine." The special Prize for Humanity, Peace and Fraternity is presented at intervals of every three years or longer. == 1960s–1970s == 1961 Nobel Foundation (Sweden) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples 1962 Andrey Kolmogorov (Soviet Union) --- Mathematics Karl von Frisch (Austria) --- Biology Paul Hindemith (Germany) --- Music Samuel Eliot Morison (United States) --- History Pope John XXIII (Vatican) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples 1978 Mother Teresa of Calcutta (India) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples 1979 Ernest Labrousse (France) and Giuseppe Tucci (Italy) --- History Jean Piaget (Switzerland) --- Social and political sciences Torbjörn Caspersson (Sweden) --- Biology == 1980s == 1980 Enrico Bombieri (Italy) --- Mathematics Hassan Fathy (Egypt) --- Architecture and town planning Jorge Luis


id: list-of-balzan-prize-recipients-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients-1.md
category: reference
title: List of Balzan Prize recipients
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:25.359732+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-balzan-prize-recipients-20260505-0
summary:
== 2000s == 2000 Ilkka Hanski (Finland) --- Ecological sciences Martin Litchfield West (United Kingdom) --- Classical antiquity Michael Stolleis (Germany) --- Legal history since 1500 Michel G.E. Mayor (Switzerland) --- Instrumentation and techniques in astronomy and astrophysics Abdul Sattar Edhi (Pakistan) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples 2001 Claude Lorius (France) --- Climatology James Sloss Ackerman (United States) --- History of architecture (including town planning and landscape design) Jean-Pierre Changeux (France) --- Cognitive neurosciences Marc Fumaroli (France) --- Literary history and criticism (post 1500) 2002 Anthony Grafton (United States) --- History of the humanities Dominique Schnapper (France) --- Sociology Walter J. Gehring (Switzerland) --- Developmental biology Xavier Le Pichon (France) --- Geology 2003 Eric Hobsbawm (United Kingdom) --- European history since 1900 Reinhard Genzel (Germany) --- Infrared astronomy Serge Moscovici (France) --- Social psychology Wen-Hsiung Li (Taiwan / United States) --- Genetics and evolution 2004 Andrew Colin Renfrew (United Kingdom) --- Prehistoric Archaeology Michael Marmot (United Kingdom) --- Epidemiology Nikki R. Keddie (United States) --- The Islamic world from the end of the 19th to the end of the 20th century Pierre Deligne (Belgium) --- Mathematics Community of Sant'Egidio --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples 2005 Lothar


id: list-of-balzan-prize-recipients-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients-2.md
category: reference
title: List of Balzan Prize recipients
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:25.359732+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-balzan-prize-recipients-20260505-0
summary:
== 2020s == 2020 Susan Trumbore (US / Germany) --- Earth System Dynamics Jean-Marie Tarascon (France) --- Environmental Challenges: Materials Science for Renewable Energy Joan Martinez Alier (Spain) --- Environmental Challenges: Responses from the Social Sciences and the Humanities Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade (Brazil) --- Human Rights 2021 Saul Friedländer (France / US) --- Holocaust and Genocide Studies Jeffrey I. Gordon (US) --- Microbiome in Health and Disease Alessandra Buonanno (Italy / US) and Thibault Damour (France) --- Gravitation: physical and astrophysical aspects Giorgio Buccellati and Marilyn Kelly-Buccellati (Italy / USA) --- Art and Archaeology of the Ancient Far East 2022 Robert Langer (US) --- Biomaterials for Nanomedicine and Tissue Engineering Martha Nussbaum (US) --- Moral Philosophy Dorthe Dahl-Jensen (Denmark) and Hans Oerlemans (Netherlands) --- Glaciation and Ice-Sheet Dynamics Philip Bohlman (US) --- Ethnomusicology 2023 David Damrosch (US) --- World Literature Jean-Jacques Hublin (France) --- Evolution of Humankind: Paleoanthropology Eske Willerslev (Denmark) --- Evolution of Humankind: Ancient DNA and Human Evolution Heino Falcke (Germany) --- High resolution images: from planetary to cosmic objects 2024 John Braithwaite (Australia) --- Restorative Justice Lorraine Daston (US / Germany) --- History of Modern and Contemporary Science Michael N. Hall (US / Switzerland) --- Biological


id: outline-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_biochemistry-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of biochemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_biochemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:26.541132+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to biochemistry: Biochemistry, or biological chemistry (distinct from chemical biology), is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms. A sub-discipline of both chemistry and biology, biochemistry may be divided into three fields: structural biology, enzymology, and metabolism. Over the last decades of the 20th century, biochemistry has become successful at explaining living processes through these three disciplines. Almost all areas of the life sciences are being uncovered and developed through biochemical methodology and research. Biochemistry focuses on understanding the chemical basis that allows biological molecules to give rise to the processes that occur within living cells and between cells, in turn relating greatly to the understanding of tissues and organs as well as organism structure and function. Biochemistry is closely related to molecular biology, the study of the molecular mechanisms of biological phenomena. == Applications of biochemistry == Testing Ames test – salmonella bacteria is exposed to a chemical under question (a food additive, for example), and changes in the way the bacteria grows are measured. This test is useful for screening chemicals to see if they mutate the structure of DNA and by


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:34.285411+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The following index is provided as an overview of and topical guide to science: Links to articles and redirects to sections of articles which provide information on each topic are listed with a short description of the topic. When there is more than one article with information on a topic, the most relevant is usually listed, and it may be cross-linked to further information from the linked page or section. Science (from Latin scientia, meaning "knowledge") is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. The branches of science, also referred to as scientific fields, scientific disciplines, or just sciences, can be arbitrarily divided into three major groups: The natural sciences (biology, chemistry, physics, astronomy, and Earth sciences), which study nature in the broadest sense; The social sciences (e.g. psychology, sociology, economics, history) which study people and societies; and The formal sciences (e.g. mathematics, logic, theoretical computer science), which study abstract concepts. Disciplines that use science, such as engineering and medicine, are described as applied sciences. == A == Abiology – Life arising from non-living matterPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of inanimate, inorganic, or lifeless


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:34.285411+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== B == Bacteriology – Subdiscipline of microbiology that studies bacteria Ballistics – Science of the motion of projectiles Balneology – Method of treating diseases by bathingPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – science of the therapeutic use of baths. Barodynamics – science of the support and mechanics of heavy structures Barology – study of gravitational force. Bathymetry – Study of underwater depth of lake or ocean floors Batology – Study of brambles Batrachology – Branch of herpetology that studies amphibians Behavioural genetics – Study of genetic-environment interactions influencing behaviour Behavioral neuroscience – Study of biological and neural mechanisma in behaviour Bibliology – Organized listing of books and the systematic description of them as objects Bibliotics – study of documents to determine authenticity. Bioecology – Study of interrelations of plants and animals with their environment Biogeochemistry – Study of chemical cycles of the earth related to biological activity Biology – Scientific study of life Biochemistry – Study of chemical processes of living organisms Biomechanics – Study of the mechanics of biological systems Biometrics – Metrics related to human characteristics Bionomics – Term with different meanings in ecology or economics – study of organisms interacting in their environments. Biophysics –


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:34.285411+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== D == Dactyliology – study of finger rings. Dactylography – Scientific study of fingerprints Dactylology – Form of communication using one or both handsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of sign language. Data science – Field of study to extract knowledge from data – study of analyzing, processing, interpreting and extracting data. Demography – Study of human populations and their structures Demology – study of human populations and behaviour. Dendrochronology – Method of dating based on the analysis of patterns of tree rings Dendrology – Science and study of woody plants Dermatoglyphics – Scientific study of finger- and toeprints Dermatology – Field of medicine dealing with the hair, nails, skin, and its diseases Desmology – Study of ligaments Dialectology – Scientific study of linguistic dialect Dietetics – Study of diet and nutrition in relation to health and disease Dioptrics – Science of light and lenses Diplomatics – Academic study of the protocols of documents – science of deciphering ancient writings and texts. Dosiology – study of dosage of drugs. Dynamics – Study of forces and their effect on motion Dysgenics – Decrease in genetic traits deemed desirable and study thereof. == E == Eccrinology – Sweat


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:34.285411+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== G == Garbology – Study of modern refuse Gastroenterology – Branch of medicine focused on the digestive system and its disorders Gastronomy – Study of the relationship between food and culture Gemmology – Science dealing with natural and artificial gemstone materialsPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of gems and jewels Gender studies – Interdisciplinary field of study – study of gender Genealogy – Study of individual descent and bloodline – study of descent of families Genesiology – study of reproduction and heredity Genetics – Science of genes, heredity and variation Geochemistry – Science that applies chemistry to analyze geological systems – study of chemistry of the Earth's crust Geochronology – Science of determining the age of rocks, sediments and fossils – study of measuring geological time Geography – Study of Earth's spatial information – study of surface of the earth and its inhabitants Geology – Scientific study of Earth's physical composition – study of the rocks of a planet Geometry – Branch of mathematics – study the sizes, shapes, positions, angles and dimensions of things. Geomorphogeny – study of the characteristics, origins, and development of land forms Geomorphology – Scientific study of landforms – study of


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-4.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:34.285411+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== I == Iamatology – Obsolete synonym for the study of therapies. Iatrology – treatise or text on medical topics; study of medicine Ichnography – Architectural drawing showing interior layout of a buildingPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – art of drawing ground plans; a ground plan Ichnology – Study of trace fossils Ichthyology – Scientific study of fish Iconography – Branch of art history – study of drawing symbols Iconology – Method of interpretation in cultural history – study of icons; symbols Ideogeny – study of origins of ideas Ideology – Set of beliefs or values – science of ideas; system of ideas used to justify behaviour Idiomology – study of idiom, jargon or dialect Idiopsychology – study of the psychology of one's own mind Immunochemistry – Study of the chemistry of the immune system Immunogenetics – Branch of medical genetics – study of genetic characteristics of immunity Immunology – Branch of medicine studying the immune system Immunopathology – Branch of medicine that deals with immune responses associated with disease Information science – Academic field concerned with collection and analysis of information Information technology (IT) – Computer-based technology Insectology – Scientific study ofi insects, or relationships between insects


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-5.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:34.285411+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== M == Macroeconomics – Study of an economy as a whole – branch of economics dealing with the performance, structure, behavior, and decision-making of the whole economy Magnetics – Class of physical phenomenaPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of magnetism Magnetohydrodynamics – Model of electrically conducting fluids – study of electrically conducting fluids Magnetostatics – Branch of physics about magnetism in systems with steady electric currents – study of magnetic fields in systems where the currents are steady Malacology – Study of molluscs Malariology – Study of the mosquito borne disease, malaria Mammalogy – Study of mammals Marine biology – Scientific study of ocean life – study of the ocean's ecosystem Mastology – Study of mammals – study of mammals Mathematics – Field of study – study of magnitude, number, and forms Mazology – mammalogy; study of mammals Mechanics – Science concerned with physical bodies subjected to forces or displacements Meconology – study of or treatise concerning opium Media studies – Field of study that deals with media Medicine – Diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of illness Melissopalynology – Study of pollen contained in honey Melittology – Scientific study of bees Melology – Scholarly study of musicPages


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-6.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:34.285411+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== O == Obstetrics – Medical specialty concerning pregnancy and childbirth Oceanography – Scientific study of the ocean Oceanology – Scientific study of the ocean Odontology – Scientific study of teeth Odonatology – Study of dragonflies and damselflies Oenology – Study of wine and winemaking Oikology – science of housekeeping Olfactology – study of the sense of smell Ombrology – study of rain Oncology – Branch of medicine dealing with, or specializing in, cancer Oneirology – Scientific study of dreams Onomasiology – Branch of linguistics concerned with how to express a given concept – study of nomenclature Onomastics – Study of proper names Ontology – Philosophical study of being – science of pure being; the nature of things Oology – Branch of ornithology studying bird eggs, nests and breeding behavior Ophiology, also known as ophidiology – Branch of herpetology that studies snakes Ophthalmology – Field of medicine treating eye disorders Optics – Branch of physics that studies light Optology – study of sight Optometry – Field of medicine treating eye disorders – science of examining the eyes Orbital mechanics – Field of classical mechanics concerned with the motion of spacecraft Orchidology – Scientific study of orchids Ornithology – Scientific study


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-7.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:34.285411+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== P == Paedology – Study of children's behavior and development Paidonosology – study of children's diseases; pediatrics Palaeoanthropology – Study of ancient humans Palaeobiology – Study of organic evolution using fossils Palaeoclimatology – Study of changes in ancient climate Palaeoichthyology – study of ancient fish Palaeolimnology – Scientific study of ancient lakes and streams Palaeontology – Study of life before the Holocene epoch Palaeopedology – Discipline studying soils of the past eras Paleobotany – Study of organic evolution of plants based on fossils Paleo-osteology – study of ancient bones Paleoseismology – Study of earthquakes that happened in the past Palynology – Study of pollen and other acid-resistant microoscopic organic material Papyrology – Scientific study of ancient manuscripts Paradoxology – Logically self-contradictory statementPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – study of paradoxes Parapsychology – Study of paranormal and psychic phenomena Parasitology – Study of parasites, their hosts, and the relationship between them Paroemiology – study of proverbs Parthenology – study of virgins Particle physics – Study of subatomic particles and forces Pathology – Study of disease Pedagogics – Theory and practice of educationPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Pedology – Study of soils in their natural environment Pelology


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-8.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:34.285411+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== R == Radiobiology – Study of effects of radiation on living tissues – study of the scientific principles, mechanisms, and effects of the interaction of ionizing radiation with living matter Radiochemistry – Chemistry of radioactive materials – study of ordinary chemical reactions under radioactive circumstances Radiology – Medical specialty for imaging procedures Rheology – Study of the flow of matter, primarily in a fluid state Rheumatology – Medical speciality of inflammatory diseases Rhinology – Study of the nose and sinuses Rhochrematics – science of inventory management and the movement of products Robotics – Design, construction, use, and application of robots Rodentology – Study of rodents Runology – Study of Runic alphabets == S == Sarcology – study of fleshy parts of the body Scatology – Study of faeces – study of excrement or obscene literature Schematonics – art of using gesture to express tones Sciagraphy – Study of perspective shadow projection – art of shading Scientific modelling – Scientific activity that produces models – study of application of models to understand a particular problem Scientific programming – Language for controlling a computer – study of programming Scripophily – Study and collection of stock and bond certificates Sedimentology – Study


id: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science-9.md
category: reference
title: Index of branches of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_branches_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:34.285411+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-branches-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== T == Taxidermy – Stuffing and mounting dead animals for display – art of curing and stuffing animals Taxonomy – Science of classifying organisms Tectonics – Process of evolution of Earth's crust Teleology – Thinking in terms of destiny or purpose – study of final causes; analysis in terms of purpose Telmatology – Branch of physical geography concerned with the study of wetlands Tempestology – The study of cyclones, hurricanes and similar extreme weather events Teratology – Study of developmental anomalies Terrestrial ecology – Study of terrestrial ecosystems and the biotic and abiotic things that occupy them. Teuthology – Study of cephalopods Textology – Identification of textual variants – study of the production of texts Thalassography – science of the seas and gulfs Thanatology – Scientific study of death and its aspects Thaumatology – The study of miracles – study of miracles Theology – Study of the nature of deities and religious beliefs - study of religion Theoretical computer science – Subfield of computer science and mathematics Theriogenology – Veterinary specialty concerning reproduction Thermodynamics – Physics of heat, work, and temperature Thermokinematics – study of motion of heat Thermology – study of heat Therology – Study of mammals Thremmatology


id: list-of-cities-by-scientific-output-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_by_scientific_output-0.md
category: reference
title: List of cities by scientific output
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_by_scientific_output
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:35.417060+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cities-by-scientific-output-20260505-0
summary:
The following article lists the cities and metropolitan areas with the greatest scientific output, according to the Nature Index. The Nature Index attempts to objectively measure the scientific output of institutions, cities and countries by the amount of scientific articles and papers published in leading journals. Differences in quality are taken into account. Only articles published in 82 selected quality journals are counted. All these journals are in the English language. They were selected by a committee. If authors from several institutions from different cities are involved in a scientific article, it is divided accordingly, assuming that all researchers were equally involved in the article. In 2019, Beijing was the city in the world with the largest scientific output, accounting for 2.8% of the world's total. New York City was second in the world, with about 2% of the world's total. Overall, China has the most cities in the top 100 list with 28, followed by the United States with 27. == List == Listed below are the top 100 cities and metropolitan areas with the highest share of articles published in scientific journals in 2024, according to the Nature Index 2025 Science Cities: == Leading cities in different fields


id: list-of-citizen-science-projects-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_citizen_science_projects-0.md
category: reference
title: List of citizen science projects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_citizen_science_projects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:36.660161+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-citizen-science-projects-20260505-0
summary:
Citizen science projects are activities sponsored by a wide variety of organizations so non-scientists can meaningfully contribute to scientific research. == Precis == Activities vary widely from transcribing old ship logbooks to digitize the data as part of the Old Weather project to observing and counting birds at home or in the field for eBird. Participation can be as simple as playing a computer game for a project called Eyewire that may help scientists learn more about retinal neurons. It can also be more in depth, such as when citizens collect water quality data over time to assess the health of local waters, or help discover and name new species of insects. An emerging branch of Citizen Science are Community Mapping projects that utilize smartphone and tablet technology. For example, TurtleSAT is a community mapping project that is mapping freshwater turtle deaths throughout Australia. This list of citizen science projects involves projects that engage all age groups. There are projects specifically aimed at the younger age demographic like iTechExplorers which was created by a 14 year old in the UK to assess the effects of bedtime technology on the body's circadian rhythm and can be completed in a classroom setting.


id: codes-for-electromagnetic-scattering-by-cylinders-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codes_for_electromagnetic_scattering_by_cylinders-0.md
category: reference
title: Codes for electromagnetic scattering by cylinders
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codes_for_electromagnetic_scattering_by_cylinders
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:37.807337+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: codes-for-electromagnetic-scattering-by-cylinders-20260505-0
summary:
Codes for electromagnetic scattering by cylinders – this article list codes for electromagnetic scattering by a cylinder. Majority of existing codes for calculation of electromagnetic scattering by a single cylinder are based on Mie theory, which is an analytical solution of Maxwell's equations in terms of infinite series. == Classification == The compilation contains information about the electromagnetic scattering by cylindrical particles, relevant links, and applications. === Codes for electromagnetic scattering by a single homogeneous cylinder === == Relevant scattering codes == Discrete dipole approximation codes Codes for electromagnetic scattering by spheres == See also == Computational electromagnetics List of atmospheric radiative transfer codes == References == == External links == SCATTERLIB: Collection of light scattering codes


id: codes-for-electromagnetic-scattering-by-spheres-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codes_for_electromagnetic_scattering_by_spheres-0.md
category: reference
title: Codes for electromagnetic scattering by spheres
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codes_for_electromagnetic_scattering_by_spheres
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:38.918361+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: codes-for-electromagnetic-scattering-by-spheres-20260505-0
summary:
Codes for electromagnetic scattering by spheres - this article list codes for electromagnetic scattering by a homogeneous sphere, layered sphere, and cluster of spheres. == Solution techniques == Majority of existing codes for calculation of electromagnetic scattering by a single sphere is based on Mie theory which is an analytical solution of Maxwell's equations in terms of infinite series. Other approximations to scattering by a single sphere include: Debye series, ray tracing (geometrical optics), ray tracing including the effects of interference between rays, Airy theory, Rayleigh scattering, diffraction approximation. There are many phenomena related to light scattering by spherical particles such as resonances, surface waves, plasmons, near-field scattering. Even though Mie theory offers convenient and fast way of solving light scattering problem by homogeneous spherical particles, there are other techniques, such as discrete dipole approximation, FDTD, T-matrix, which can also be used for such tasks. == Classification == The compilation contains information about the electromagnetic scattering by spherical particles, relevant links, and applications. === Codes for electromagnetic scattering by a single homogeneous sphere === === Codes for electromagnetic scattering by a layered sphere === Algorithmic literature includes several contributions === Codes for electromagnetic scattering by cluster of spheres === ==


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:40.254229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-0.md

summary:
Each entry on this list of common misconceptions is worded as a correction; the misconceptions themselves are implied rather than stated. These entries are concise summaries; the main subject articles can be consulted for more detail. == Astronomy and spaceflight == There is no scientific evidence that the motion of stars, planets, and other celestial bodies influences the fates of humans, and astrology has repeatedly been shown to have no explanatory power in predicting future events. Astronauts in orbit have the sensation of being weightless because they are in free fall around the Earth, not because they are so far away from the Earth that its gravitational pull is negligible. For example, on the International Space Station the Earth's gravity is nearly 90% as strong as at the surface. Objects orbiting in space would not remain in orbit if not for the gravitational force, and gravitational fields extend even into the depths of intergalactic space. The dark side of the Moon receives about the same amount of light from the Sun as the near side. The far side is called "dark" not because it never receives light but because it had never been seen until humans sent spacecraft around the

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-1
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:40.254229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-1.md

summary:
=== Mammals === Bats are not blind. While about 70% of bat species, mainly in the microbat family, use echolocation to navigate, all bat species have eyes and are capable of sight. In addition, almost all bats in the megabat or fruit bat family cannot echolocate and have excellent night vision. Bulls are not enraged by the color red, used in capes by professional bullfighters. Cattle are dichromats, so red does not stand out as a bright color. It is not the color of the cape, but the perceived threat by the bullfighter that incites it to charge, along with the spearing of the bull and mental agitation and abuse it endures beforehand. Camels do not store water in their humps, but rather fatty tissue which can be used as a reserve source of calories. While they can go long periods without water, the water is stored in the animal's bloodstream, not their humps. Domestic cats' behavioral and personality traits cannot be predicted from their coat color. Rather, these traits depend on a complex interplay between genetic and environmental factors. Not all cats are attracted and intoxicated by catnip, which affects only about two thirds of them. Alternatives exist, such

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-2
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:40.254229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-2.md

summary:
The bold, powerful cry commonly associated with the bald eagle in popular culture is actually that of a red-tailed hawk. Bald eagle vocalizations are much softer and chirpier, and bear far more resemblance to the calls of gulls. Despite the saying "dumb as a dodo", the dodo's intelligence was above average for an avian, as it was a member of the family Columbidae (pigeons). The perceived stupidity of the dodo, a medium-sized flightless bird that was native to Mauritius, is due to naivety and passivity from living in isolation without significant predators. Many believe that the dodo was hunted to extinction by European settlers due to its high culinary value. However, the dodo's meat was stated to be inedible by historical accounts, as one of its early names given by the Dutch was Walghvoghel (repulsive bird). The dodo's decline was caused more by predation of their eggs from invasive species as opposed to direct predation from humans. A duck's quack actually does echo, although the echo may be difficult to hear for humans under some circumstances. Despite this, a British panel show compiling interesting facts was named Duck Quacks Don't Echo. Ostriches do not stick their heads in the sand

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-3
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:40.254229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-3.md

summary:
It is not true that aerodynamic theory predicts that bumblebees should not be able to fly; the physics of insect flight is quite well understood. The misconception appears to come from a calculation based on a fixed-wing aircraft mentioned in a 1934 book, and was further popularized in the 2007 film Bee Movie. While certainly critical to the pollination of many plant species, European honey bees are not essential to human food production, despite claims that without their pollination, humanity would starve or die out "within four years". In fact, the most essential staple food crops on the planet, like wheat, maize, rice, soybeans and sorghum, are wind-pollinated or self-pollinating, and only slightly over 10% of the total human diet of plant crops is dependent upon insect pollination. Bees do not always die if they use their sting. This happens for only a very small minority of species, which includes the honey bee, when they sting mammals, as they have thick skin. They are able to survive when they sting other insects. Cockroaches would not be the only organisms capable of surviving in an environment contaminated with nuclear fallout. While cockroaches have a much higher radiation resistance than vertebrates, they


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-4
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:40.254229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-4.md

summary:
The word theory in "the theory of evolution" does not imply scientific doubt regarding its validity; the concepts of theory and hypothesis have specific meanings in a scientific context. While theory in colloquial usage may denote a hunch or conjecture, a scientific theory is a set of principles that explains an observable phenomenon in natural terms. Scientific facts and theories are not mutually exclusive, and evolution is a theory in the same sense as germ theory or the theory of gravitation. The theory of evolution does not attempt to explain the origin of life or the origin and development of the universe. The theory of evolution deals primarily with changes in successive generations over time after life has already originated. The scientific model concerned with the origin of the first organisms from organic or inorganic molecules is known as abiogenesis, and the prevailing theory for explaining the early development of the universe is the Big Bang model. Evolution is not a progression from inferior to superior organisms, and it also does not necessarily result in an increase in complexity. Evolution through natural selection only causes successive generations of a population of organisms to become more fit for their environment than


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-5
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:40.254229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-5.md

summary:
== Chemistry and materials science == Himalayan salt does not have lower levels of sodium than conventional table salt. Glass does not flow at room temperature as a high-viscosity liquid. Although glass shares some molecular properties with liquids, it is a solid at room temperature and begins to flow only at hundreds of degrees above room temperature. Old glass which is thicker at the bottom than at the top comes from the production process, not from slow flow; no such distortion is observed in other glass objects of similar or even greater age. Diamonds are not formed from highly compressed coal. Almost all commercially mined diamonds were formed in the conditions of extreme heat and pressure about 150 kilometers (93 mi) below the earth's surface. Coal is formed from prehistoric plants buried much closer to the surface, and is unlikely to migrate below 3.2 kilometers (2.0 mi) through geological processes. Most diamonds that have been dated are older than the first land plants, and are therefore older than coal. Neither "tin" foil nor "tin" cans still use tin as a primary material. Aluminum foil has replaced tin foil in almost all uses since the 20th century; tin cans now primarily


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-6
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:40.254229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-6.md

summary:
Contemporary global warming is driven by human activities, despite claims that it is not occurring, lacks strong scientific consensus, or that warming is mostly caused by non-human factors. No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with the decades-old, near-complete scientific consensus on climate change. Global warming is primarily a result of the increase in atmospheric greenhouse-gas concentrations (like CO2 and methane) via the burning of fossil fuels as well as other human activities such as deforestation, with secondary climate change feedback mechanisms (such as the melting of the polar ice increasing the Earth's absorption of sunlight) assisting to perpetuate the change. Global warming is not caused by the hole in the ozone layer. Ozone depletion is a separate problem caused by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which have been released into the atmosphere. CFCs are strong greenhouse gases; however, the hole in the ozone layer is shrinking and in 2019 was the smallest it had been since 1982, while global warming continues. Cooling towers in power stations and other facilities do not emit smoke, harmful fumes, or radiation; they emit water vapor and do not contribute to climate change. Nuclear power is one of the safest sources of energy, resulting in


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-7
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:40.254229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-7.md

summary:
The total number of people living in extreme absolute poverty globally decreased by two-thirds from 1990 to 2025 (measured using the international poverty line), with other poverty measurements showing similar trends. However, most people surveyed in several countries incorrectly think it has increased or stayed the same. Although the human population of Earth is increasing, the rate of human population growth is decreasing and the world population is expected to peak and then begin falling during the 21st century. Improvements in agricultural productivity and technology are expected to be able to meet anticipated increased demand for resources, making a global human overpopulation scenario unlikely. For any given production set, there is not a set amount of labor input (a "lump of labor") to produce that output. This fallacy is commonly seen in Luddite and later, related movements as an argument either that automation causes permanent, structural unemployment, or that labor-limiting regulation can decrease unemployment. In fact, changes in capital allocation, efficiency, and economies of learning can change the amount of labor input for a given set of production. Income is not a direct factor in determining credit score in the United States. Rather, credit score is affected by the amount


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-8
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:40.254229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-8.md

summary:
It is not just heavy metals which can be toxic; other metals (for example beryllium and lithium) can be toxic too. Sleeping in a closed room with an electric fan running does not result in "fan death", as is widely believed in South Korea among older people. As of 2019, this belief was in decline. Nocturia (waking up at night to urinate) is equally prevalent in women and men, although it is more common among both men and women over 50. Waking up a sleepwalker does not harm them. Sleepwalkers may be confused or disoriented for a short time after awakening, but the health risks associated with sleepwalking are from injury or insomnia, not from being awakened. Seizures cannot cause a person to swallow their own tongue, and it is dangerous to attempt to place a foreign object into a convulsing person's mouth. Instead it is recommended to gently lay a convulsing person on their side to minimize the risk of asphyxiation. Drowning is often inconspicuous to onlookers. In most cases, the instinctive drowning response prevents the victim from waving or yelling (known as "aquatic distress"), which are therefore not dependable signs of trouble; indeed, most drowning victims undergoing the


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-9
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:40.254229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-9.md

summary:
It is not true that more people have died from the COVID-19 vaccine than from COVID-19 itself. Severe adverse reactions from the vaccine are rare, and an "exceedingly small" number of deaths have been caused by the vaccine. Meanwhile, the death toll from the disease itself is in the millions. Tuberculosis is not purely a disease of the lungs that has symptoms of coughing. It may instead infect a wide range of other organs in the body. Cancer cannot be treated by restricting food intake and so supposedly "starving" tumors. Rather, the health of people with cancer is best served by maintaining a healthy diet. The common cold and the common flu are caused by viruses, not exposure to cold temperatures. However, low temperatures may somewhat weaken the immune system, and someone already infected with a cold or influenza virus but showing no symptoms can become symptomatic after they are exposed to low temperatures. Viruses are more likely to spread during the winter for a variety of reasons such as dry air, less air circulation in homes, people spending more time indoors, and lower vitamin D levels in humans. Antibiotics will not cure a cold; they treat bacterial diseases and


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-10
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:40.254229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-10.md

summary:
=== Nutrition, food, and drink === Diet has little influence on the body's detoxification, and there is no evidence that detoxification diets rid the body of toxins. Toxins are metabolized and removed from the bloodstream by the liver and kidneys, and they are primarily removed from the body in urine and bile (excreted with the feces). Drinking milk or consuming other dairy products does not increase mucus production. As a result, they do not need to be avoided by those with the flu or cold congestion. However, milk and saliva in one's mouth mix to create a thick liquid that can briefly coat the mouth and throat. The sensation that lingers may be mistaken for increased phlegm. Drinking eight glasses (2–3 liters) of water a day is not needed to maintain health. The amount of water needed varies by person, weight, diet, activity level, clothing, and the ambient temperature and humidity. Water requirements can be met from liquids such as juices, tea, milk, soups, etc., and from foods including fruits and vegetables. Drinking coffee and other caffeinated beverages does not cause dehydration for regular drinkers, although it can for occasional drinkers. Eating disorders do not exclusively affect women; women are


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-11
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:40.254229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-11.md

summary:
=== Sexuality and reproduction === Older adults are not necessarily sexually inactive nor have they lost interest in sex; although the frequency of sexual activity tends to decline with age. One survey in England of people aged 60–69 recorded 86% of men and 60% of women as sexually active. It is not possible to get pregnant from semen released in a commercial swimming pool without penetration. The sperm cells would be quickly killed by the chlorinated water and would not survive long enough to reach the vagina. An examination of the hymen is not an accurate or reliable indicator that a woman or girl has had penetrative sex, because the tearing of the hymen may have been the result of some other event, and some women are born without one. Virginity tests, such as the "two-finger" test, are unscientific. Hand size and foot size do not correlate with human penis size, but finger length ratio may. While pregnancies from sex between first cousins do carry a slightly elevated risk of birth defects, this risk is often exaggerated. The risk is 5–6% (similar to that of a woman in her early 40s giving birth), compared with a baseline risk of 3–4%.


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-12
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:40.254229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-12.md

summary:
== Inventions == James Watt did not invent the steam engine, nor were his ideas on steam engine power inspired by a kettle lid pressured open by steam. Watt improved upon the already commercially successful Newcomen atmospheric engine (invented in 1712 by Thomas Newcomen) in the 1760s and 1770s, making certain improvements critical to its future usage; his new steam engine later gained huge fame as a result. Although the guillotine was named after the French physician Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, he neither invented nor was executed with this device. He died peacefully in his own bed in 1814. Rather, it was Guillotin's speech favoring beheadings over other forms of execution that led to the device being referred to as "La machine Guillotine" and later simply guillotine. Thomas Crapper did not invent the flush toilet. A forerunner of the modern toilet was invented by the Elizabethan courtier Sir John Harington in the 16th century, and in 1775 the Scottish mechanic Alexander Cumming developed and patented a design for a toilet with an S-trap and flushing mechanism. Crapper, however, did much to increase the popularity of the flush toilet and introduced several innovations in the late 19th century, holding nine patents, including one


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-13
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:40.254229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-13.md

summary:
The lift force is not generated by the air taking the same time to travel above and below an aircraft's wing. This misconception, sometimes called the equal transit-time fallacy, is widespread among textbooks and non-technical reference books, and even appears in pilot training materials. In fact, the air moving over the top of an aerofoil generating lift is always moving much faster than the equal transit theory would imply, as described in the incorrect and correct explanations of lift force. Blowing over a curved piece of paper does not demonstrate Bernoulli's principle. Although a common classroom experiment is often explained this way, Bernoulli's principle applies only within a flow field, and the air above and below the paper are in different flow fields. The paper rises because the air follows the curve of the paper and a curved streamline will develop pressure differences perpendicular to the airflow. The Coriolis effect does not cause water to consistently drain from basins in a clockwise/counter-clockwise direction depending on the hemisphere. The common myth often refers to the draining action of flush toilets and bathtubs. In fact, rotation is determined by whatever minor rotation is initially present at the time the water starts to


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-14
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:40.254229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-14.md

summary:
=== Mental disorders === Vaccines do not cause autism. There have been no successful attempts to reproduce fraudulent research by British ex-doctor Andrew Wakefield, where the misconception likely originates. Wakefield's research was ultimately shown to have been manipulated. Dyslexia is not defined or diagnosed as mirror writing or reading letters or words backwards. Mirror writing and reading letters or words backwards are behaviors seen in many children (dyslexic or not) as they learn to read and write. Dyslexia is a neurodevelopmental disorder of people who have at least average intelligence and who have difficulty in reading and writing that is not otherwise explained by low intelligence. Self-harm is not generally an attention-seeking behavior. People who engage in self-harm are typically very self-conscious of their wounds and scars and feel guilty about their behavior, leading them to go to great lengths to conceal it from others. They may offer alternative explanations for their injuries, or conceal their scars with clothing. There is no evidence that a chemical imbalance or neurotransmitter deficiency is the sole factor in depression and other mental disorders, but rather a combination of biological, psychological, and social factors. Schizophrenia does not involve split or multiple personalities. It is


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-15
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:40.254229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-15.md

summary:
== Toxicology == Smokeless tobacco is not a "safe" alternative to conventional tobacco; smokeless tobacco products contain nicotine and are therefore highly addictive. They also can cause various harmful effects such as dental disease, oral cancer, oesophagus cancer, and pancreas cancer, coronary heart disease, as well as negative reproductive effects including stillbirth, premature birth and low birth weight. Swallowing gasoline does not generally require special emergency treatment, as long as it goes into the stomach and not the lungs. This does not mean gasoline is safe to drink; it is very dangerous when consumed. Inducing vomiting can make it worse. A chloroform-soaked rag cannot instantly incapacitate a person. It takes at least five minutes of inhaling an item soaked in chloroform to render a person unconscious. Most criminal cases involving chloroform also involve another drug being co-administered, such as alcohol or diazepam, or the victim being found to have been complicit in its administration. The misconception that chloroform can be used as an incapacitating agent has been popularized by crime fiction authors. Although bananas contain naturally occurring radioactive isotopes, particularly potassium-40 (40K), which emit ionizing radiation when undergoing radioactive decay, the levels of such radiation are far too low to


id: index-of-computing-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_computing_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of computing articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_computing_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:41.384391+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-computing-articles-20260505-0
summary:
Originally, the word computing was synonymous with counting and calculating, and the science and technology of mathematical calculations. Today, "computing" means using computers and other computing machines. It includes their operation and usage, the electrical processes carried out within the computing hardware itself, and the theoretical concepts governing them (computer science). See also: List of programmers, List of computing people, List of computer scientists, List of basic computer science topics, List of terms relating to algorithms and data structures. Topics on computing include: == 0–9 == 1.TR.6 – 100BaseVG – 100VG-AnyLAN – 10BASE-2 – 10BASE-5 – 10BASE-T – 120 reset – 1-bit computing – 16-bit computing – 16550 UART – 1NF – 1TBS – 20-GATE – 20-GATE – 2B1D – 2B1Q – 2D – 2NF – 3-tier (computing) – 32-bit application – 32-bit computing – 320xx microprocessor – 386BSD – 3Com Corporation – 3DO – 3D computer graphics – 3GL – 3NF – 3Station – 4.2BSD – 4-bit computing – 404 error – 431A – 473L system – 486SX – 4GL – 4NF – 51-FORTH – 56 kbit/s line – 5ESS switch – 5NF – 5th Glove – 6.001 – 64-bit computing – 680x0 – 6x86 – 8-bit clean –


id: index-of-computing-articles-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_computing_articles-1.md
category: reference
title: Index of computing articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_computing_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:41.384391+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-computing-articles-20260505-0
summary:
== I == IA-32 – IA-64 – IBM PC – Interactive computation – IBM – iBook – iCab – iCal – Icon – iDVD – IEEE 802.2 – IEEE 802.3 – IEEE floating-point standard – iMac – Image processing – iMovie – Indentation style Inform – Instruction register – Intel 8008 – Intel 80186 – Intel 80188 – Intel 80386 – Intel 80486SX – Intel 80486 – Intel 8048 – Intel 8051 – Intel 8080 – Intel 8086 – Intel 80x86 – Intel – INTERCAL – International Electrotechnical Commission – Internet Explorer – Internet – iPhoto – iPod – iResQ – Irreversible circuit – iSync – iTunes == J == J (programming language) – Java Platform, Enterprise Edition – Java Platform, Micro Edition – Java Platform, Standard Edition – Java API – Java – Java virtual machine (JVM) – JavaScript (standardized as ECMAScript) – JPEG == K == K&R – KDE – Kilobyte – KL-ONE – Kleene star – Klez – Kotlin == L == LALR parser – Lambda calculus – Lasso – LaTeX – Leet – Legal aspects of computing – Lex – LibreOffice – Limbo – Linked list – Linux – Lisp – List of IBM products –


id: list-of-scientific-constants-named-after-people-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_constants_named_after_people-0.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific constants named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_constants_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:42.624123+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-constants-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of physical and mathematical constants named after people. Eponymous constants and their influence on scientific citations have been discussed in the literature. Apéry's constant – Roger Apéry Archimedes' constant (π, pi) – Archimedes Avogadro constant – Amedeo Avogadro Balmer's constant – Johann Jakob Balmer Belphegor's prime – Belphegor (demon) Bohr magneton – Niels Bohr Bohr radius – Niels Bohr Boltzmann constant – Ludwig Boltzmann Brun's constant – Viggo Brun Cabibbo angle – Nicola Cabibbo Chaitin's constant – Gregory Chaitin Champernowne constant – D. G. Champernowne Chandrasekhar limit – Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar Copeland–Erdős constant – Paul Erdős and Peter Borwein Eddington number – Arthur Stanley Eddington Dunbar's number – Robin Dunbar Embree–Trefethen constant Erdős–Borwein constant Euler–Mascheroni constant ( γ {\displaystyle \gamma } ) – Leonhard Euler and Lorenzo Mascheroni Euler's number ( e {\displaystyle e} ) – Leonhard Euler Faraday constant – Michael Faraday Feigenbaum constants – Mitchell Feigenbaum Fermi coupling constant – Enrico Fermi Gauss's constant – Carl Friedrich Gauss Graham's number – Ronald Graham Hartree energy – Douglas Hartree Hubble constant – Edwin Hubble Josephson constant – Brian David Josephson Kaprekar's constant – D. R. Kaprekar Kerr constant – John Kerr Khinchin's constant – Aleksandr Khinchin


id: list-of-crew-members-aboard-the-first-voyage-of-james-cook-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_crew_members_aboard_the_first_voyage_of_James_Cook-0.md
category: reference
title: List of crew members aboard the first voyage of James Cook
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_crew_members_aboard_the_first_voyage_of_James_Cook
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:46.746246+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-crew-members-aboard-the-first-voyage-of-james-cook-20260505-0
summary:
The first voyage of James Cook was a discovery expedition to the south Pacific Ocean, with aims of observing the 1769 transit of Venus across the Sun and seeking evidence of the alleged southern territories, named by that time as Terra Australis Incognita. The ship chosen for the voyage was HMS Endeavour. The makeup of the crew during the voyage varied due the high mortality, for which contributed mainly malaria and dysentery, that the crew had contracted in Batavia. There was also one occurrence of successful desertion of Patrick Saunders, who after being disrated, escaped the ship. == Personnel == The following is a complete list of initial crew that departed from Plymouth on 26 August 1768 according to ship's journal. == See also == 1769 transit of Venus observed from Tahiti Personnel of Franklin's lost expedition == Notes and references == === Notes === === References === === Works cited === Rigby, Nigel; van der Merwe, Pieter (2002). Captain Cook in the Pacific. National Maritime Museum (UK). ISBN 0-948065-43-5.


id: list-of-cycles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cycles-0.md
category: reference
title: List of cycles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cycles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:47.882457+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cycles-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of recurring cycles. See also Index of wave articles, Time, and Pattern. == Planetary cycles == === Astronomical cycles === Astronomy – Axial precession – CNO cycle – Eclipse cycle – Eclipse – Full moon cycle – Galactic year – Great Year – Lunar phase – Mesoamerican calendars – Metonic cycle – Milankovitch cycles – Mira – Moon – Nutation – Orbit – Orbital period – Saros cycle – Sothic cycle – Secularity – Sidereal year – Sunspot – Tide – Tropical year – Year === Climate and weather cycles === Animal migration – Avalanche – Carbon cycle – Climate change – Climate change and agriculture – Climate model – Climate oscillation – Clock of the Long Now – Ecology – El Niño/La Niña – Environmental geography – Global cooling – Global warming – Historical temperature record – Hydrogen cycle – Ice age – Transhumance – Milankovitch cycles – Monsoon – Pleistocene – Season – Sulfur cycle – Sunspot – Tide – Timeline of meteorology – 1500-year climate cycle === Geological cycles === Age of the Earth – Aluminum cycle – Arsenic cycle – Boron cycle – Bromine cycle – Cadmium cycle – Calcium cycle –


id: list-of-developers-of-optical-scientific-equipment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_developers_of_optical_scientific_equipment-0.md
category: reference
title: List of developers of optical scientific equipment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_developers_of_optical_scientific_equipment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:49.060394+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-developers-of-optical-scientific-equipment-20260505-0
summary:
A developer of optical scientific equipment is an individual who makes and adjusts optical aids for scientific purposes, including telescope optics and microscope lenses. == Telescope developers == James Gilbert Baker Denis Albert Bardou John A. Brashear Laurent Cassegrain Henri Chrétien Alvan Clark John Dollond Charles Wesley Elmer and Richard Scott Perkin Galileo Galilei James Gregory John Hadley Chester Moore Hall Robert Hooke Johannes Kepler Frederick James Hargreaves Christiaan Huygens Hans Lippershey Raymond Augustin Mailhat Dmitri Dmitrievich Maksutov James Henry Marriott Jacob Metius Isaac Newton Georg Simon Plössl Russell W. Porter Jesse Ramsden George Willis Ritchey Christoph Scheiner Bernhard Schmidt James Short See also Timeline of telescope technology and List of astronomical instrument makers == Microscope developers == Ernst Karl Abbe Denis Albert Bardou Christopher Cock Siegfried Czapski Cornelius Drebbel Galileo Galilei Robert Hooke Christiaan Huygens Carl Kellner Anton van Leeuwenhoek Moritz von Rohr See also Timeline of microscope technology == References ==


id: list-of-diagnoses-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience-0.md
category: reference
title: List of diagnoses characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:50.211778+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-diagnoses-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Many proposed diseases and diagnoses are rejected by mainstream medical consensus and are associated with pseudoscience due to a lack of scientific evidence for their existence, proposed mechanism or action, or manifestation that cannot be explained by something else. == Definition == Pseudoscientific diseases are not defined using objective criteria. Such diseases cannot achieve, and perhaps do not seek, medical recognition. Pseudoscience rejects empirical methodology. Other conditions may be rejected or contested by orthodox medicine, but are not necessarily associated with pseudoscience. Diagnostic criteria for some of these conditions may be vague, over-inclusive, or otherwise ill-defined. Although the evidence for the disease may be contested or lacking, the justification for these diagnoses is nevertheless empirical and therefore amenable to scientific investigation, at least in theory. In some cases, patients are exhibiting genuine signs and symptoms but the explanation or diagnosis for their distress is disputed or inaccurate. Examples of conditions that are not necessarily pseudoscientific include: Conditions determined to be somatic in nature, including mass psychogenic illnesses. Medicalized conditions that are not pathogenic in nature, such as aging, childbirth, pregnancy, sexual addiction, baldness, jet lag, and halitosis. Conditions that are not widely recognized, about which there is an ongoing debate


id: list-of-diagnoses-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience-1.md
category: reference
title: List of diagnoses characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:50.211778+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-diagnoses-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
== Medical == Adrenal fatigue or hypoadrenia is a diagnosis described as a state in which the adrenal glands are exhausted and unable to produce adequate quantities of hormones, primarily the glucocorticoid cortisol, due to chronic stress or infections. Adrenal fatigue should not be confused with a number of actual forms of adrenal dysfunction such as adrenal insufficiency or Addison's disease. The term "adrenal fatigue", which was invented in 1998 by James Wilson, a chiropractor, may be applied to a collection of mostly nonspecific symptoms. There is no scientific evidence supporting the concept of adrenal fatigue and it is not recognized as a diagnosis by any scientific or medical community. A systematic review found no evidence for the term adrenal fatigue, confirming the consensus among endocrinological societies that it is a myth. Autistic enterocolitis is a nonexistent medical condition proposed in 1998 by now-discredited British gastroenterologist Andrew Wakefield, who suggested a link between a number of common clinical symptoms and signs which he contended were distinctive to autism. The existence of such an enterocolitis has been dismissed by experts as having "not been established". Wakefield's fraudulent report, which was retracted in 2010, suppressed negative findings and used inadequate controls. Multiple


id: list-of-diagnoses-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience-2.md
category: reference
title: List of diagnoses characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:50.211778+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-diagnoses-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
== Psychological == Autogynephilia is a proposed paraphilic disorder in which a man has erotic interest in the idea of himself in the form of a woman. Autogynephilia is not recognized by any major medical organization and has been criticised as a form of medical transphobia. Drapetomania was a supposed mental illness that, in 1851, American physician Samuel A. Cartwright hypothesized as the cause of enslaved Africans fleeing captivity. This hypothesis centered around the belief that slavery was such an improvement upon the lives of slaves that only those suffering from some form of mental illness would wish to escape. As treatment Cartwright recommended "whipping the devil out of them" both as a punishment and as a preventative measure. Female hysteria was once a common medical diagnosis for women, which was described as exhibiting a wide array of symptoms, including anxiety, shortness of breath, fainting, nervousness, sexual desire, insomnia, fluid retention, heaviness in the abdomen, irritability, loss of appetite for food or sex, (paradoxically) sexually forward behaviour, and a "tendency to cause trouble for others". It is no longer recognized by medical authorities as a medical disorder. Parental alienation syndrome, also routinely referred to as parental alienation is a proposed


id: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-0.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of scientific discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:51.420967+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-0
summary:
The timeline below shows the date of publication of possible major scientific breakthroughs, theories and discoveries, along with the discoverer. This article discounts mere speculation as discovery, although imperfect reasoned arguments, arguments based on elegance/simplicity, and numerically/experimentally verified conjectures qualify (as otherwise no scientific discovery before the late 19th century would count). The timeline begins at the Bronze Age, as it is difficult to give even estimates for the timing of events prior to this, such as of the discovery of counting, natural numbers and arithmetic. To avoid overlap with timeline of historic inventions, the timeline does not list examples of documentation for manufactured substances and devices unless they reveal a more fundamental leap in the theoretical ideas in a field. == Bronze Age == Many early innovations of the Bronze Age were prompted by the increase in trade, and this also applies to the scientific advances of this period. For context, the major civilizations of this period are Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Indus Valley, with Greece rising in importance towards the end of the third millennium BC. The Indus Valley script remains undeciphered and there are very little surviving fragments of its writing, thus any inference about scientific discoveries


id: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-1.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of scientific discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:51.420967+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-0
summary:
500 BC: Hippasus, a Pythagorean, discovers irrational numbers. 500 BC: Anaxagoras identifies moonlight as reflected sunlight. 5th century BC: The Greeks start experimenting with straightedge-and-compass constructions. 5th century BC: The earliest documented mention of a spherical Earth comes from the Greeks in the 5th century BC. It is known that the Indians modeled the Earth as spherical by 300 BC 460 BC: Empedocles describes thermal expansion. Late 5th century BC: Antiphon discovers the method of exhaustion, foreshadowing the concept of a limit. 4th century BC: Greek philosophers study the properties of logical negation. 4th century BC: The first true formal system is constructed by Pāṇini in his Sanskrit grammar. 4th century BC: Eudoxus of Cnidus states the Archimedean property. 4th century BC: Thaetetus shows that square roots are either integer or irrational. 4th century BC: Thaetetus enumerates the Platonic solids, an early work in graph theory. 4th century BC: Menaechmus discovers conic sections. 4th century BC: Menaechmus develops co-ordinate geometry. 4th century BC: Mozi in China gives a description of the camera obscura phenomenon. 4th century BC: Around the time of Aristotle, a more empirically founded system of anatomy is established, based on animal dissection. In particular, Praxagoras makes the


id: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-2.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of scientific discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:51.420967+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-0
summary:
1st to 4th century: A precursor to long division, known as "galley division" is developed at some point. Its discovery is generally believed to have originated in India around the 4th century AD, although Singaporean mathematician Lam Lay Yong claims that the method is found in the Chinese text The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, from the 1st century AD. 60 AD: Heron's formula is discovered by Hero of Alexandria. 2nd century: Ptolemy formalises the epicycles of Apollonius. 2nd century: Ptolemy publishes his Optics, discussing colour, reflection, and refraction of light, and including the first known table of refractive angles. 2nd century: Galen studies the anatomy of pigs. 100: Menelaus of Alexandria describes spherical triangles, a precursor to non-Euclidean geometry. 150: The Almagest of Ptolemy contains evidence of the Hellenistic zero. Unlike the earlier Babylonian zero, the Hellenistic zero could be used alone, or at the end of a number. However, it was usually used in the fractional part of a numeral, and was not regarded as a true arithmetical number itself. 150: Ptolemy's Almagest contains practical formulae to calculate latitudes and day lengths. 3rd century: Diophantus discusses linear diophantine equations. 3rd century: Diophantus uses a primitive form of


id: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-3.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of scientific discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:51.420967+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-0
summary:
6th century: Varahamira in the Gupta empire is the first to describe comets as astronomical phenomena, and as periodic in nature. 525: John Philoponus in Byzantine Egypt describes the notion of inertia, and states that the motion of a falling object does not depend on its weight. His radical rejection of Aristotlean orthodoxy lead him to be ignored in his time 628: Brahmagupta states the arithmetic rules for addition, subtraction, and multiplication with zero, as well as the multiplication of negative numbers, extending the basic rules for the latter found in the earlier The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art. 628: Brahmagupta writes down Brahmagupta's identity, an important lemma in the theory of Pell's equation. 628: Brahmagupta produces an infinite (but not exhaustive) number of solutions to Pell's equation. 628: Brahmagupta provides an explicit solution to the quadratic equation. 628: Brahmagupta discovers Brahmagupta's formula, a generalization of Heron's formula to cyclic quadrilaterals. 628: Brahmagupta discovers second-order interpolation, in the form of Brahmagupta's interpolation formula. 628: Brahmagupta invents a symbolic mathematical notation, which is then adopted by mathematicians through India and the Near East, and eventually Europe. 629: Bhāskara I produces the first approximation of a transcendental function with a rational


id: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-4.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of scientific discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:51.420967+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-0
summary:
16th century: Gerolamo Cardano solves the general cubic equation (by reducing them to the case with zero quadratic term). 16th century: Lodovico Ferrari solves the general quartic equation (by reducing it to the case with zero quartic term). 16th century: François Viète discovers Vieta's formulas. 16th century: François Viète discovers Viète's formula for π.1500: Scipione del Ferro solves the special cubic equation x 3 = p x + q {\displaystyle x^{3}=px+q} . Late 16th century: Tycho Brahe proves that comets are astronomical (and not atmospheric) phenomena. 1517: Nicolaus Copernicus develops the quantity theory of money and states the earliest known form of Gresham's law: ("Bad money drowns out good"). 1543: Nicolaus Copernicus develops a heliocentric model, rejecting Aristotle's Earth-centric view, would be the first quantitative heliocentric model in history. 1543: Vesalius: pioneering research into human anatomy. 1545: Gerolamo Cardano discovers complex numbers. 1556: Niccolò Tartaglia introduces parenthesis. 1557: Robert Recorde introduces the equal sign. 1564: Gerolamo Cardano is the first to produce a systematic treatment of probability. 1572: Rafael Bombelli provides rules for complex arithmetic. 1591: François Viète's New algebra shows the modern notational algebraic manipulation. == 17th century == 1600: William Gilbert: Earth's magnetic field. 1608: Earliest record of


id: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-5.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of scientific discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:51.420967+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-0
summary:
== 1850–1899 == 1856: Robert Forester Mushet develops a process for the decarbonisation, and re-carbonisation of iron, through the addition of a calculated quantity of spiegeleisen, to produce cheap, consistently high quality steel. 1858: Rudolf Virchow: cells can only arise from pre-existing cells. 1859: Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace: Theory of evolution by natural selection. 1861: Louis Pasteur: Germ theory. 1861: John Tyndall: Experiments in Radiant Energy that reinforced the Greenhouse effect. 1864: James Clerk Maxwell: Theory of electromagnetism. 1865: Gregor Mendel: Mendel's laws of inheritance, basis for genetics. 1865: Rudolf Clausius: Definition of entropy. 1868: Robert Forester Mushet discovers that alloying steel with tungsten produces a harder, more durable alloy. 1869: Dmitri Mendeleev: Periodic table. 1871: Lord Rayleigh: Diffuse sky radiation (Rayleigh scattering) explains why sky appears blue. 1873: Johannes Diderik van der Waals: was one of the first to postulate an intermolecular force: the van der Waals force. 1873: Frederick Guthrie discovers thermionic emission. 1873: Willoughby Smith discovers photoconductivity. 1875: William Crookes invented the Crookes tube and studied cathode rays. 1876: Josiah Willard Gibbs founded chemical thermodynamics, the phase rule. 1877: Ludwig Boltzmann: Statistical definition of entropy. 1880s: John Hopkinson develops three-phase electrical supplies, mathematically proves how multiple


id: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-6.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of scientific discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:51.420967+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-0
summary:
== 1950–1999 == 1951: George Otto Gey propagates first cancer cell line, HeLa 1952: Jonas Salk: developed and tested first polio vaccine 1952: Stanley Miller: demonstrated that the building blocks of life could arise from primeval soup in the conditions present during early Earth (Miller-Urey experiment) 1952: Frederick Sanger: demonstrated that proteins are sequences of amino acids 1953: James Watson, Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin: helical structure of DNA, basis for molecular biology 1957: Chien Shiung Wu: demonstrated that parity, and thus charge conjugation and time-reversals, are violated for weak interactions 1962: Riccardo Giacconi and his team discover the first cosmic x-ray source, Scorpius X-1 1963: Lawrence Morley, Fred Vine, and Drummond Matthews: Paleomagnetic stripes in ocean crust as evidence of plate tectonics (Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis). 1964: Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig: postulates quarks, leading to the Standard Model 1964: Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson: detection of CMBR providing experimental evidence for the Big Bang 1965: Leonard Hayflick: normal cells divide only a certain number of times: the Hayflick limit 1967: Jocelyn Bell Burnell and Antony Hewish discover first pulsar 1967: Vela nuclear test detection satellites discover the first gamma-ray burst 1970: James H. Ellis proposed the possibility


id: earth-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Earth science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:53.861518+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: earth-science-20260505-0
summary:
Earth science or geoscience includes all fields of natural science related to planet Earth. This is a branch of science dealing with the physical, chemical, and biological complex constitutions and synergistic linkages of Earth's four spheres: the biosphere, hydrosphere/cryosphere, atmosphere, and geosphere (or lithosphere). Earth science can be considered to be a branch of planetary science but with a much older history. == Geology == Geology is broadly the study of Earth's structure, substance, and processes. Geology is largely the study of the lithosphere, or Earth's surface, including the Earth's crust and rocks. It includes the physical characteristics and processes that occur in the lithosphere as well as how they are affected by geothermal energy. It incorporates aspects of chemistry, physics, and biology as elements of geology interact. Historical geology is the application of geology to interpret Earth history and how it has changed over time. Geochemistry studies the chemical components and processes of the Earth. Geophysics studies the physical properties of the Earth. Paleontology studies fossilized biological material in the lithosphere. Planetary geology studies geoscience as it pertains to extraterrestrial bodies. Geomorphology studies the origin of landscapes. Structural geology studies the deformation of rocks to produce mountains and lowlands.


id: earth-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Earth science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:53.861518+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: earth-science-20260505-0
summary:
Ecology is the study of the biosphere. This includes the study of nature and of how living things interact with the Earth and one another and the consequences of that. It considers how living things use resources such as oxygen, water, and nutrients from the Earth to sustain themselves. It also considers how humans and other living creatures cause changes to nature. == Physical geography == Physical geography is the study of Earth's systems and how they interact with one another as part of a single self-contained system. It incorporates astronomy, mathematical geography, meteorology, climatology, geology, geomorphology, biology, biogeography, pedology, and soils geography. Physical geography is distinct from human geography, which studies the human populations on Earth, though it does include human effects on the environment. == Methodology == Methodologies vary depending on the nature of the subjects being studied. Studies typically fall into one of three categories: observational, experimental, or theoretical. Earth scientists often conduct sophisticated computer analysis or visit an interesting location to study earth phenomena (e.g., Antarctica or hot spot island chains). A foundational idea in Earth science is the notion of uniformitarianism, which states that "ancient geologic features are interpreted by understanding active processes that are


id: outline-of-earth-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of Earth science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:55.003860+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-earth-science-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Earth science: Earth science – all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. It is also known as geoscience, the geosciences or the Earthquake sciences, and is arguably a special case in planetary science, the Earth being the only known life-bearing planet. Earth science is a branch of the physical sciences which is a part of the natural sciences. It in turn has many branches. == Earth's spheres == Ecosphere – there are many subsystems that make up the natural environment (the planetary ecosystem or "ecosphere") of the Earth. Many of the subsystems are characterized as "spheres", coinciding with the shape of the planet. The four spheres (for which most of the other spheres are a subtype of) are the atmosphere, the biosphere, the hydrosphere and the geosphere. Earth's ecosphere lies it self within the heliosphere (the Sun's astrosphere). Listed roughly from outermost to innermost the named spheres of the Earth are: Magnetosphere – The region around an astronomical object in which charged particles are affected by its magnetic field Atmosphere, the gases that surround the Earth (its air) By altitude Exosphere – The outermost


id: outline-of-earth-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Outline of Earth science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:55.003860+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-earth-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Geology === Geology – The study of the composition, structure, physical properties, and history of Earth's components, and the processes by which they are shaped. Economic geology – Science concerned with earth materials of economic value Engineering geology – The application of the geology to engineering practice. Environmental geology – Science of the practical application of geology in environmental problems. Quaternary geology – The branch of geology that studies developments more recent than 2.6 million years ago Planetary geology – The geology of astronomical objects apparently in orbit around stellar objects Petroleum geology – The study of the origin, occurrence, movement, accumulation, and exploration of hydrocarbon fuels Historical geology – The study of the geological history of Earth Hydrogeology – The study of the distribution and movement of groundwater Structural geology – The science of the description and interpretation of deformation in the Earth's crust independent of extent Geochemistry – Science that applies chemistry to analyse geological systems Geochronology – Science of determining the age of rocks, sediments and fossils Geodesy – The science of the geometric shape, orientation in space, and gravitational field of the Earth Geomagnetics – Study of the Earth's magnetic field Geomicrobiology – Science of


id: outline-of-earth-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Outline of Earth science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:55.003860+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-earth-science-20260505-0
summary:
History of atmospheric sciences – history of the umbrella study of the atmosphere, its processes, the effects other systems have on the atmosphere, and the effects of the atmosphere on these other systems. History of atmospheric chemistry History of biogeography – history of the study of the distribution of species (biology), organisms, and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time. History of cartography – history of the study and practice of making maps or globes. History of climatology – history of the study of climate, scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time History of coastal geography – history of the study of the dynamic interface between the ocean and the land, incorporating both the physical geography (i.e. coastal geomorphology, geology, and oceanography) and the human geography (sociology and history) of the coast. History of environmental science – history of an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental systems. History of ecology – history of the scientific study of the distribution and abundance of living organisms and how they are affected by interactions between the organisms and their environment. History of Freshwater biology – history of the scientific biological study of freshwater ecosystems


id: list-of-effects-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-0.md
category: reference
title: List of effects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:56.203937+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-effects-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of names for observable phenomena that contain the word “effect”, amplified by reference(s) to their respective fields of study. == A == Abscopal effect (cancer treatments) (immune system) (medical treatments) (radiation therapy) Accelerator effect (economics) Accordion effect (physics) (waves) Acousto-optic effect (nonlinear optics) (waves) Additive genetic effects (genetics) Aharonov–Bohm effect (quantum mechanics) Al Jazeera effect (Al Jazeera) (media issues) Alienation effect (acting techniques) (Bertolt Brecht theories and techniques) (film theory) (metafictional techniques) (theatre) Allais effect (fringe physics) Allee effect (biology) Ambiguity effect (cognitive biases) Anrep effect (cardiology) (medicine) Antenna effect (digital electronics) (electronic design automation) Anti-greenhouse effect (atmospheric dynamics) (atmospheric science) (astronomy) (planetary atmospheres) Askaryan effect (particle physics) Asymmetric blade effect (aerodynamics) Audience effect (psychology) (social psychology) Auger effect (atomic physics) (foundational quantum physics) Aureole effect (atmospheric optical phenomena) (scientific terminology) Autler–Townes effect (atomic, molecular, and optical physics) (atomic physics) (quantum optics) Autokinetic effect (vision) Avalanche effect (cryptography) Averch–Johnson effect (economics) == B == Baader-Meinhof effect / Baader-Meinhof phenomenon (psychology) Balassa–Samuelson effect (economics) Baldwin effect (evolutionary biology) (selection) Balloon-carried light effect (balloons) (culture) (entertainment) Bambi effect (hunting) (psychology stubs) Bandwagon effect (cognitive biases) (crowd psychology) (economics effects) (metaphors) (propaganda techniques) Bank effect (marine propulsion) (nautical terms)


id: list-of-effects-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-1.md
category: reference
title: List of effects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:56.203937+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-effects-20260505-0
summary:
== F == Fahraeus–Lindquist effect (blood) (fluid dynamics) (molecular and cellular biology) False consensus effect (cognitive biases) (futurology) (group processes) (psychological theories) (sustainability) Faraday effect (magnetism) (optics) Ferroelectric effect (condensed matter physics) (electrical phenomena) Fink effect (anesthesia) (diffusion) Floating body effect (electronics) (semiconductors) Floodgate effect (social phenomena) (sociology) Floor effect (statistics) Florence Nightingale effect (Florence Nightingale) (love) (psychology) Flutie effect (student sport) Flux pinning (Physics) Flynn effect (futurology) (intelligence) (psychological theories) (psychometrics) (race and intelligence controversy) Focusing effect (cognitive biases) Forbush effect (cosmic rays) (solar phenomena) Forer effect (cognitive biases) (history of astrology) (psychological theories) Founder effect (ecology) (population genetics) Fractional quantum Hall effect (physics) Franssen effect (acoustics) (sound perception) Franz–Keldysh effect (condensed matter) (electronic engineering) (electronics) (optics) (optoelectronics) Free surface effect (fluid mechanics) Front projection effect (film production) Fujiwhara effect (tropical cyclone meteorology) (vortices) Full screen effect (computer graphics) (demo effects) == G == Garshelis effect (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (magnetism) (physics) Gauche effect (stereochemistry) Gell-Mann amnesia effect (journalism) Generation effect (cognitive biases) (memory biases) (psychological theories) Geodetic effect (general relativity) Gerschenkron effect (economic development) (economic systems) (economics and finance) (econometrics) (index numbers) (national accounts)r Giant magnetoresistive effect (condensed matter physics) (electric and magnetic fields in matter)


id: list-of-effects-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-2.md
category: reference
title: List of effects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:56.203937+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-effects-20260505-0
summary:
== M == Magali effect Magneto-optic effect (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (optical phenomena) Magneto-optic Kerr effect (condensed matter physics) (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (optical phenomena) magnetocaloric effect (physical phenomena) (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (thermodynamics) Magnus effect (fluid dynamics) Malmquist effect (astronomy) Malter effect (physics) Mandela effect (psychology) (paranormal) Marangoni effect (fluid dynamics) (fluid mechanics) (physical phenomena) Marchywka effect (electrochemistry) (ultraviolet sensor production) Mark Twain effect (economics and finance) (stock market) Martha Mitchell effect (psychological theories) (psychosis) Massenerhebung effect (trees) Maternal age effect (developmental biology) Maternal effect (developmental biology) Matthew effect (education) (education) Matilda effect (Research) Matthew effect (sociology) (adages) (social phenomena) (sociology of scientific knowledge) McClintock effect (menstruation) McCollough effect (optical illusions) McGurk effect (auditory illusions) (perception) (psychological theories) Meissner effect (levitation) (magnetism) (superconductivity) Meitner–Hupfeld effect (particle physics) Mellanby effect (health) (alcohol intoxication) Memory effect (electric batteries) Mesomeric effect (chemical bonding) Microwave auditory effect (cognitive neuroscience) (espionage) (hearing) (human psychology) (less-lethal weapons) (mind control) (sound) Mid-domain effect (macroecology) (biogeography) (biodiversity) Mikheyev–Smirnov–Wolfenstein effect (particle physics) Milky seas effect (aquatic biology) (biological oceanography) (bioluminescence) Miller effect (electrical engineering) (electronics terms) Miniature effect (film and video technology) (film techniques) (scale modeling) (scientific modeling) (special effects) (visual effects)


id: list-of-effects-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-3.md
category: reference
title: List of effects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:56.203937+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-effects-20260505-0
summary:
== S == Sabattier effect (solarization) (photographic processes) (science of photography) Sachs–Wolfe effect (astronomy) (physical cosmology) Sagnac effect (optics) (relativity) Sailing Ship Effect (business) (economics) Samba effect (Brazil) (economy of Brazil) (history of Brazil) Sandbox effect (Internet technology) (search engine optimization) Scharnhorst effect (quantum field theory) Schottky effect (diodes) Schwinger effect (particle physics) (hypothetical processes) (quantum electrodynamics) Screen-door effect (display technology) (technology) Second gas effect (anesthesia) Second-system effect (software development) Seeliger effect (astronomy) (observational astronomy) Serial position effect (cognitive biases) (psychological theories) (psychologicy) Shaft effect (motorcycle) Shapiro effect (effects of gravitation) Shielding effect (atomic, molecular, and optical physics) (atomic physics) (chemistry) (quantum chemistry) Shower-curtain effect (fluid dynamics) Shubnikov–de Haas effect (science) Side effect (computer science) (computer programming) Side effect (disambiguation) Signor–Lipps effect (extinction) (fossils) (paleontology) Silk screen effect (technology) Silo effect (management) (systems theory) Simon effect (psychology) Simpson's paradox aka Yule–Simpson effect (probability) (statistics) Skin effect (electronics) Slashdot effect (denial-of-service attacks)(Internet terminology) (Slashdot) Sleeper effect (social psychology) Smith–Purcell effect (physics) (quantum optics) Snackwell effect (consumer behaviour) (psychology) Snob effect (consumer theory) (economics and finance) Snowball effect (language) (metaphors) Somogyi effect (diabetes) Sound effect (film techniques) (sound effects) (sound production) (special effects) Soap opera effect (film techniques) (television terminology) (filming) (film


id: list-of-forms-of-electricity-named-after-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_forms_of_electricity_named_after_scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of forms of electricity named after scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_forms_of_electricity_named_after_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:00:57.469953+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-forms-of-electricity-named-after-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of forms of electricity named after scientists. The terms in this list are mostly archaic usages but are found in many 19th and early 20th-century publications. == Adjectives == faradic Of electricity that is alternating, especially when obtained from an induction coil. Named after Michael Faraday who built the first electromagnetic generator. galvanic Of electricity that is not alternating. Named after Luigi Galvani. voltaic Of electricity derived from an electrochemical cell or battery. Named after Alessandro Volta who built the first battery, the voltaic pile. In most contexts it can be considered a synonym of galvanic. == Nouns (applications) == Faradization Electrotherapy treatment of a person with faradic electricity. Coined by Duchenne de Boulogne and named after Michael Faraday. Franklinization Electrotherapy by charging a person to high voltage with static electricity. Named after Benjamin Franklin. d'Arsonvalization Electrotherapy treatment of a person with high frequency electricity. Named after Jacques-Arsène d'Arsonval. == Nouns (forms) == Faradism Faradic electricity Franklinism High voltage static electricity as used in Franklinization Galvanism Originally, voltaic electricity, but can also be used to distinguish Galvani's animal electricity from Volta's chemical/metal contact electricity == References == == Bibliography == Borck, Cornelius, Brainwaves: A Cultural History


id: list-of-engineering-blunders-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_engineering_blunders-0.md
category: reference
title: List of engineering blunders
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_engineering_blunders
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:01.558974+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-engineering-blunders-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of engineering blunders, i.e., gross errors or mistakes resulting from grave lack of proper consideration, such as stupidity, confusion, carelessness, or culpable ignorance, which resulted in notable incidents. Deepwater Horizon oil spill caused by a faulty blowout preventer. Fort Montgomery was sometimes referred to as "Fort Blunder", because the first version of the U.S. Army fort was inadvertently built on the Canadian side of Lake Champlain. Millennium Bridge, London, nicknamed "Wobbly Bridge"; it took almost two years to fix the engineering error The NASA Mars Climate Orbiter, launched in 1998, burned up in the Martian atmosphere. A mixup between metric and US Standard measurements in the controlling software caused the spacecraft to miss its intended 140–150 km altitude above Mars during orbit insertion, instead entering the Martian atmosphere at about 57 km. The NASA Genesis mission was an attempt to sample particles from the solar wind. It successfully collected a sample and returned to Earth. However at the last moment the landing parachute failed to open and the return capsule smashed into the ground at high speed, contaminating the samples. The parachute failure was traced to an accelerometer installed backwards. Palace II, Brazil; parts of it


id: lists-of-engineering-software-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_engineering_software-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of engineering software
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_engineering_software
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:02.731920+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-engineering-software-20260505-0
summary:
These are lists of engineering software tools used for design, analysis, simulation, and management across different engineering disciplines. == Lists of engineering software == Comparison of EDA software and list of electrical engineering software Comparison of electromagnetic simulation software Comparison of nucleic acid simulation software Comparison of optimization software Comparison of software for molecular mechanics modeling Comparison of system dynamics software List of aerospace engineering software List of automotive engineering software List of bioinformatics software and structural alignment software List of building information modeling software List of chemical engineering software List of chemical process simulators List of civil engineering software List of computational chemistry software and list of quantum chemistry and solid-state physics software List of computational fluid dynamics software List of computational materials science software List of computational physics software List of computer-aided engineering software List of computer-aided manufacturing software and list of 3D printing software List of construction software List of data science software List of discrete event simulation software List of finite element analysis software List of gene prediction software List of genetic engineering software List of geotechnical engineering software List of HDL simulators List of hydrology software List of mechanical engineering software List of molecular design


id: eppendorf-science-prize-for-neurobiology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eppendorf_&_Science_Prize_for_Neurobiology-0.md
category: reference
title: Eppendorf & Science Prize for Neurobiology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eppendorf_&_Science_Prize_for_Neurobiology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:03.941954+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eppendorf-science-prize-for-neurobiology-20260505-0
summary:
The Eppendorf & Science Prize for Neurobiology is a neurobiology prize that is awarded annually by Science magazine (published by American Association for the Advancement of Science) and underwritten by Eppendorf AG, a laboratory equipment and supply company. Entries are reviewed by editors from Science magazine and the top 10% are forwarded to the judging panel. The judging panel is chaired by the Neuroscience Editor of Science and the remaining judges are nominated from the Society for Neuroscience. The award was established in 2002 to promote the work of promising early-career neurobiologists with $25,000 cash award to support their careers. Each applicant must submit a 1000-word essay explaining the focus and motivation for their last three years of work. The winner is awarded $25,000 and the scientist's winning essay is then published in Science (the winning essay and the other finalists' essays are all published on Science Online). == List (2013–) == == See also == List of neuroscience awards == References ==


id: list-of-scientific-equations-named-after-people-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_equations_named_after_people-0.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific equations named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_equations_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:05.146777+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-equations-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of scientific equations named after people (eponymous equations). == See also == Eponym List of eponymous laws List of laws in science List of equations Scientific constants named after people Scientific phenomena named after people Scientific laws named after people == References ==


id: list-of-types-of-equilibrium-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_equilibrium-0.md
category: reference
title: List of types of equilibrium
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_equilibrium
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:06.393559+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-types-of-equilibrium-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list presents the various articles at Wikipedia that use the term equilibrium (or an associated prefix or derivative) in their titles or leads. It is not necessarily complete; further examples may be found by using the Wikipedia search function, and this term. == Biology == Equilibrioception, the sense of a balance present in human beings and animals Equilibrium unfolding, the process of unfolding a protein or RNA molecule by gradually changing its environment Genetic equilibrium, theoretical state in which a population is not evolving Homeostasis, the ability of an open system, especially living organisms, to regulate its internal environment Punctuated equilibrium, theory in evolutionary biology Sedimentation equilibrium, analytical ultracentrifugation method for measuring protein molecular masses in solution Equilibrium Theory (Island biogeography), MacArthur-Wilson theory explaining biodiversity character of ecological islands Osmotic equilibrium, balance between solvent flow and pressure across a membrane == Physics == Equilibrant force, which keeps any object motionless and acts on virtually every object in the world that is not moving Equilibrium mode distribution, the state of fiber optic or waveguide transmission in which the propagation mode does not vary with distance along the fiber or changes in the launch mode Hydrostatic equilibrium, the state


id: list-of-members-of-the-european-academy-of-sciences-and-arts-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_European_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Arts-0.md
category: reference
title: List of members of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_European_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Arts
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:07.564915+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-members-of-the-european-academy-of-sciences-and-arts-20260505-0
summary:
The European Academy of Sciences and Arts (EASA, Latin: Academia Scientiarum et Artium Europaea) is a transnational and interdisciplinary network, connecting about 2,000 recommended scientists and artists worldwide, including 38 Nobel Prize laureates. The European Academy of Sciences and Arts is a learned society of scientists and artists, founded by Felix Unger. The academy was founded 1990, is situated in Salzburg and has been supported by the city of Vienna, the government of Austria, and the European Commission. The EASA is now headed by President Klaus Mainzer, TUM Emeritus of Excellence at the Technical University of Munich and Senior Professor at the Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker Center of the University of Tübingen. Below is a list of members of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts (MEASA). == I – Humanities == == II – Medicine == == III – Arts == == IV – Natural sciences == == V – Social sciences, law and economics == == VI – Technical and environmental sciences == == VII – World religions == == References == == External links == Members at European Academy of Sciences and Arts


id: list-of-existing-technologies-predicted-in-science-fiction-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_existing_technologies_predicted_in_science_fiction-0.md
category: reference
title: List of existing technologies predicted in science fiction
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_existing_technologies_predicted_in_science_fiction
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:08.763081+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-existing-technologies-predicted-in-science-fiction-20260505-0
summary:
This list of existing technologies predicted in science fiction includes every medium, mainly literature and film. In 1964 Soviet engineer and writer Genrikh Altshuller made the first attempt to catalogue science fiction technologies of the time. Alongside first prediction of a particular technology, the list may include all subsequent works mentioning it until its invention. The list includes technologies that were first posited in non-fiction works before their appearance in science fiction and subsequent invention, such as ion thruster. To avoid repetitions, the list excludes film adaptations of prior literature containing the same predictions, such as "The Minority Report". The list also excludes emerging technologies that are not widely available. The names of some modern inventions (atomic bomb, robot, space station, oral contraceptive and borazon) exactly match their fictional predecessors. A few works correctly predicted the years when some technologies would emerge, such as the first sustained heavier-than-air aircraft flight in 1903 and the first atomic bomb explosion in 1945. == Literature == == Films and TV series == == Notes == == References == === Sources === Bleiler, E. F.; Bleiler, Richard (1990). Science-Fiction: The Early Years. Kent State University Press. ISBN 0-87338-416-4. Gerrold, David (2006). "Predictions". PCMag. Vol.


id: list-of-firefighting-mnemonics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_firefighting_mnemonics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of firefighting mnemonics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_firefighting_mnemonics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:11.239378+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-firefighting-mnemonics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of mnemonics related to firefighting or rescue. == Mnemonics == Incident priorities LIP Life safety Incident Stabilization Property conservation === Fire scene priorities === RECEO - SV Rescue victims Exposures - stop fire spread Confine - contain the fire Extinguish Overhaul - check for hidden fire spread - targets of opportunity: Salvage Vent Company Officer Checklist For Report On Conditions SLICERS Size up Locate seat of fire Identify flow path Cool from safe distance Extinguish fire Rescue Salvage === First attack response === RACE (General first response to a fire.) Rescue - move people who are in immediate danger. Alarm - raise the alarm and alert persons to the presence of fire. Confine - shut doors and reduce airflow and fuel sources to the fire, to reduce its spread. Extinguish or Evacuate - extinguish the fire if it's safe to do so, or coordinate the evacuation from the area. === Response phases === TRIPOD ( The six different possible primary phases of a fire response.) Transitional - moving from an offensive attack to a defensive position. Rescue - victim rescue Investigating Preparing Offensive Defensive === Wildland firefighting safety === PLACES -Safety checklist PPE Lookouts Awareness Communications


id: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates-0.md
category: reference
title: List of fossil primates
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:12.487980+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of fossil primates—extinct primates for which a fossil record exists. Primates are generally thought to have evolved from a small, unspecialized mammal, which probably fed on insects and fruits. However, the precise source of the primates remains controversial and even their arboreal origin has recently been questioned. As it has been suggested, many other mammal orders are arboreal too, but they have not developed the same characteristics as primates. Nowadays, some well known genera, such as Purgatorius and Plesiadapis, thought to be the most ancient primates for a long time, are not usually considered as such by recent authors, who tend to include them in the new order Plesiadapiformes, within superorder Euarchontoglires. Some, to avoid confusions, employ the unranked term Euprimates, which excludes Plesiadapiformes. That denomination is not used here. There is an academic debate on the time the first primates appeared. One of the earliest probable primate fossils is the problematic Altiatlasius koulchii, perhaps an Omomyid, but perhaps a non-Primate Plesiadapiform, which lived in Morocco, during the Paleocene, around 60 Ma. However, other studies, including molecular clock studies, have estimated the origin of the primate branch to have been in the mid-Cretaceous period, around 85


id: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates-1.md
category: reference
title: List of fossil primates
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:12.487980+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-0
summary:
Ekgmowechashalidae Szalay, 1976 Bugtilemur Marivaux et al., 2001 Bugtilemur mathesoni Marivaux et al., 2001 Ekgmowechashala Macdonald, 1963 Ekgmowechashala philotau Macdonald, 1963 Ekgmowechashala zancanellai Samuels, Albright & Fremd, 2015 Gatanthropus Ni et al., 2016 Gatanthropus micros Ni et al., 2016 Muangthanhinius Marivaux et al., 2006 Muangthanhinius siami Marivaux et al., 2006 Notharctidae Trouessart, 1879 Notharctinae Trouessart, 1879 Cantius Simons, 1962 Cantius abditus Gingerich & Simmons, 1977 Cantius angulatus Cope, 1875 Cantius antediluvius Kihm, 1992 Cantius eppsi Cooper, 1932 Cantius frugivorus Cope, 1875 Cantius lohseorum Robinson, 2016 Cantius mckennai Gingerich & Simons, 1977 Cantius nuniensis Cope, 1881 Cantius ralstoni Matthew, 1915 Cantius savagei Gingerich, 1977 Cantius torresi Gingerich, 1986 Copelemur Gingerich & Simons, 1977 Copelemur australotutus Beard, 1988 Copelemur praetutus Gazin, 1962 Copelemur tutus Cope, 1877 Hesperolemur Gunnell, 1995 Hesperolemur actius Gunnell, 1995 Megaceralemur Robinson, 2016 Megaceralemur trigonodus (Matthew, 1915) Megaceralemur matthewi Robinson, 2016 Notharctus Leidy, 1870 Notharctus pugnax Granger & Gregory, 1917 Notharctus robustior Leidy, 1870 Notharctus tenebrosus Leidy, 1870 Notharctus venticolus Osborn, 1902 Pelycodus Cope, 1875 Pelycodus danielsae Froehlich & Lucas, 1991 Pelycodus jarrovii Cope, 1874 Pinolophus Robinson, 2016 Pinolophus meikei Robinson, 2016 Smilodectes Wortman, 1903 Smilodectes gingerichi Beard, 1988 Smilodectes gracilis Marsh, 1871 Smilodectes mcgrewi Gingerich, 1979 Cercamoniinae Gingerich,


id: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates-2.md
category: reference
title: List of fossil primates
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:12.487980+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-0
summary:
Archaeolemuridae G. Grandier, 1905 Archaeolemur Filhol, 1895 Archaeolemur edwardsi Filhol, 1895 Archaeolemur majori Filhol, 1895 Hadropithecus Lorenz von Liburnau, 1899 Hadropithecus stenognathus Lorenz von Liburnau, 1899 Palaeopropithecidae Tattersall, 1973 Mesopropithecus Standing, 1905 Mesopropithecus dolichobrachion Simons et al., 1995 Mesopropithecus globiceps Lamberton, 1936 Mesopropithecus pithecoides Standing, 1905 Babakotia Godfrey et al., 1990 Babakotia radofilai Godfrey et al., 1990 Palaeopropithecus G. Grandidier, 1899 Palaeopropithecus ingens G. Grandidier, 1899 Palaeopropithecus kelyus Gommery et al., 2010 Palaeopropithecus maximus Standing, 1903 Archaeoindris Standing, 1909 Archaeoindris fontoynontii Standing, 1909 Megaladapidae Forsyth-Major, 1894 Megaladapis Forsyth-Major, 1894 Subgenus: Megaladapis Megaladapis (Megaladapis) grandidieri Standing, 1903 Megaladapis (Megaladapis) madagascariensis Forsyth-Major, 1894 Subgenus: Peloriadapis Megaladapis (Peloriadapis) edwardsi Grandidier, 1899 Lemuridae Gray, 1821 Pachylemur Lamberton, 1946 Pachylemur insignis Filhol, 1895 Pachylemur jullyi Lamberton, 1948 === Lorisiformes === Lorisidae Gray, 1821 Karanisia Seiffert et al., 2003 Karanisia clarki Seiffert et al., 2003 Mioeuoticus Leakey, 1962 Mioeuoticus bishopi Leakey, 1962 Mioeuoticus kichotoi Kunimatsu, Tsujikawa, Nakatsukasa, Shimizu, Ogihara, Kikuchi, Nakano, Takano, Morimoto, and Ishida, 2017 Mioeuoticus shipmani Phillips & Walker, 2000 Nycticeboides Jacobs, 1981 Nycticeboides simpsoni Jacobs, 1981 Galagidae Gray, 1825 Galago Geoffroy, 1796 Galago farafraensis Pickford, Wanas & Soliman, 2006 Galago howelli Wesselman, 1984 Galago sadimanensis Walker, 1987 Komba Simpson, 1967 Komba minor Le


id: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates-3.md
category: reference
title: List of fossil primates
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:12.487980+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-0
summary:
==== Omomyoidea ==== Omomyidae Trouessart, 1879 Baataromomys Ni, Beard, Meng, Wang, and Gebo, 2007 Baataromomys ulaanus Ni, Beard, Meng, Wang, and Gebo, 2007 Kohatius Russell & Gingerich, 1980 Kohatius coppensi Russell & Gingerich, 1980 Microchoerinae Lydekker, 1887 Melaneremia Hooker, 2007 Melaneremia bryanti Hooker, 2007 Microchoerus Wood, 1846 Microchoerus creechbarrowensis Hooker, 1986 Microchoerus edwardsi Filhol, 1880 Microchoerus erinaceus Wood, 1846 Microchoerus hookeri Minwer-Barakat, Marigó, Femenias-Gual, Costeur, Esteban-Trivigno, and Moyà-Solà, 2017 Microchoerus ornatus Stehlin, 1916 Microchoerus wardi Hooker, 1986 Necrolemur Filhol, 1873 Necrolemur anadoni Minwer-Barakat, Marigó & Moyà-Solà, 2015 Necrolemur antiquus Filhol, 1873 Necrolemur zitteli Schlosser, 1887 Nannopithex Stehlin, 1916 Nannopithex filholi Chantre & Gaillard, 1897 Nannopithex humilidens Thalmann, 1994 Nannopithex quaylei Hooker, 1986 Nannopithex raabi Heller, 1930 Nannopithex zuccolae Godinot et al., 1992 Pseudoloris Stehlin, 1916 Pseudoloris crusafonti Louis & Sudre, 1975 Pseudoloris godinoti Köhler & Moyà-Solà, 1999 Pseudoloris isabenae Crusafont-Pairo, 1967 Pseudoloris parvulus Filhol, 1890 Anaptomorphinae Cope, 1883 Tribe: Anaptomorphini Anaptomorphus Cope, 1872 Anaptomorphus aemulus Cope, 1872 Anaptomorphus westi Szalay, 1976 Tetonius Matthew, 1915 Tetonius homunculus Cope, 1882 Tetonius matthewi Bown & Rose, 1987 Tetonius mckennai Bown & Rose, 1987 Absarokius Matthew, 1915 Absarokius abbotti Loomis, 1906 Absarokius australis Bown & Rose, 1987 Absarokius nocerai Robinson, 1966 Absarokius metoecus Bown


id: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates-4.md
category: reference
title: List of fossil primates
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:12.487980+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-0
summary:
==== Simiiformes, incertae sedis ==== Amphipithecidae Godinot, 1994 Pondaungia Pilgrim, 1927 Pondaungia cotteri Pilgrim, 1927 Amphipithecus Colbert, 1937 Amphipithecus mogaungensis Colbert, 1937 Krabia Chaimanee et al., 2013 Krabia minuta Chaimanee et al., 2013 Siamopithecus Chaimanee et al., 1997 Siamopithecus eocaenus Chaimanee et al., 1997 Proteopithecidae Simons, 1997 Proteopithecus Simons, 1989 Proteopithecus sylviae Simons, 1989 Serapia Simons, 1992 Serapia eocaena Simons, 1992 Parapithecidae Schlosser, 1911 Arsinoea Simons, 1992 Arsinoea kallimos Simons, 1992 Apidium Osborn, 1908 Apidium bowni Simons, 1995 Apidium moustafai Simons, 1962 Apidium phiomense Osborn, 1908 Parapithecus Schlosser, 1910 Parapithecus fraasi Schlosser, 1910 Parapithecus grangeri Simons, 1974 Qatrania Simons & Kay, 1983 Qatrania fleaglei Simons & Kay, 1988 Qatrania wingi Simons & kay, 1983 Biretia Bonis et al., 1988 Biretia piveteaui Bonis et al., 1988 Biretia fayumensis Seiffert et al., 2005 Biretia megalopsis Seiffert et al., 2005 ==== Platyrrhini ==== Platyrrhini, incertae sedis Branisella Hoffstetter, 1969 Branisella boliviana Hoffstetter, 1969 Atelidae Gray, 1825 Pitheciinae Mivart, 1865 Tribus: Callicebini Xenothrix Williams & Koopman, 1952 Xenothrix mcgregori Williams & Koopman, 1952 Antillothrix MacPhee et al., 1995 Antillothrix bernensis Rímoli, 1977 Paralouatta Rivero & Arredondo, 1991 Paralouatta varonai Rivero & Arredondo, 1991 Paralouatta marianae Tribus: Pitheciini Soriacebus Fleagle et al., 1987 Soriacebus adrianae


id: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates-5.md
category: reference
title: List of fossil primates
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:12.487980+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-0
summary:
===== Cercopithecoidea ===== Nsungwepithecus Stevens et al., 2013 Nsungwepithecus gunnelli Stevens et al., 2013 Victoriapithecidae von Koenigswald, 1969 Victoriapithecus von Koenigswald, 1969 Victoriapithecus macinnesi von Koenigswald, 1969 Prohylobates Fourtau, 1918 Prohylobates tandyi Fourtau, 1918 Prohylobates simonsi Delson, 1979 Noropithecus Miller et al. 2009 Noropithecus bulukensis Miller et al. 2009 Cercopithecidae Gray, 1821 Colobinae Jernon, 1867 Tribus: Colobini Microcolobus Benefit & Pickford, 1986 Microcolobus tugenensis Benefit & Pickford, 1986 Rhinocolobus M.G. Leakey, 1982 Rhinocolobus turkanaensis M.G. Leakey, 1982 Colobinae, incertae sedis Mesopithecus Wagner, 1839 Mesopithecus pentelicus Wagner, 1839 Mesopithecus monspessulanus Gervais, 1849 Mesopithecus sivalensis (Lydekker, 1878) Myanmarcolobus Takai et al., 2015 Myanmarcolobus yawensis Takai et al., 2015 Rhinopithecus É. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1812 Subgenus: Rhinopithecus É. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1812 Rhinopithecus (Rhinopithecus) lantianensis Hu & Qi, 1978 Dolichopithecus Depéret, 1889 Dolichopithecus ruscinensis Depéret, 1889 Libypithecus Stromer, 1913 Libypithecus markgrafi Stromer, 1913 Semnopithecus Desmarest, 1822 Semnopithecus gwebinnensis Takai et al., 2016 Parapresbytis Kalmykov & Maschenko, 1992 Parapresbytis eohanuman (Borissoglebskaya, 1981) Cercopithecoides Mollett, 1947 Cercopithecoides kimeui M.G. Leakey, 1982 Cercopithecoides williamsi Mollett, 1947 Paracolobus R.E.F. Leakey, 1969 Paracolobus chemeroni R.E.F. Leakey, 1969 Paracolobus mutiwa M.G. Leakey, 1969 Cercopithecinae Gray, 1821 Tribus: Papionini Subtribus: Macanina Macaca Lacépède, 1799 Macaca anderssoni Schlosser, 1924 Macaca florentina Cocchi, 1872


id: list-of-geoscience-organizations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geoscience_organizations-0.md
category: reference
title: List of geoscience organizations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geoscience_organizations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:16.517935+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-geoscience-organizations-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of geoscience organizations, including such fields of geosciences as geology, geophysics, hydrology, oceanography, petrophysics, and related fields. == Intercontinental organizations == Anthropocene Working Group Association for Women Geoscientists (AWG) Association of Applied Geochemists Environmental and Engineering Geophysical Society Geochemical Society International Association for Engineering Geology and the Environment International Association for Mathematical Geosciences (IAMG) International Association of Cryospheric Sciences International Association of GeoChemistry International Association of Geomagnetism and Aeronomy International Association of Hydrological Sciences (IAHS/AISH) International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior (IAVCEI) – International non-governmental organization International Association for the Conservation of Geological Heritage ProGEO International Centre for Diffraction Data International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) – Non-governmental geological organization International Commission on the History of Geological Sciences International Continental Scientific Drilling Program International Geoscience Programme International Glaciological Society (IGS) – International glaciology academic organization International Mineralogical Association International Organization for Biological Crystallization International Permafrost Association International Union for Quaternary Research International Union of Crystallography International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG) – International non-governmental organization International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) – International non-governmental organization Geoscience Education, Training and Technology Transfer International Union of Soil Sciences (IUSS) – International scientific union OneGeology


id: list-of-geoscience-organizations-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geoscience_organizations-1.md
category: reference
title: List of geoscience organizations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geoscience_organizations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:16.517935+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-geoscience-organizations-20260505-0
summary:
=== United States === American Association of Petroleum Geologists (AAPG) – Professional geological association American Crystallographic Association American Gem Society (AGS), also known as American Gemological Society – American trade association American Geosciences Institute (AGI) – Nonprofit scientific federation American Geophysical Union (AGU) – Nonprofit organization of geophysicists American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, also known as Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration (SME) American Quaternary Association Association for the Sciences of Limnology and Oceanography (ASLO), also known as American Society of Limnology and Oceanography Association of Environmental & Engineering Geologists (AEG) The Clay Minerals Society (CMS) – US-based non-profit organizationPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Earth Science Women's Network (ESWN) Environmental and Engineering Geophysical Society (EEGS) Gemological Institute of America (GIA) – Research institute in Carlsbad, California Geological Society of America (GSA) – Nonprofit organization dedicated to geoscience Geoscience Information Society (GSIS) Keck Geology Consortium Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory Mineralogical Society of America (MSA) – Scientific organization promoting mineralogy National Association of Black Geologists and Geophysicists (NABGG) National Center for Earth-surface Dynamics National Cooperative Soil Survey (NCSS) – Program to understand and manage US soils National Speleological Society (NSS) – Organization for exploration, conservation, and study of


id: outline-of-health-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_health_sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of health sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_health_sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:17.624144+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-health-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to health sciences: Health sciences – those sciences that focus on health, or health care, as core parts of their subject matter. Health sciences relate to multiple academic disciplines, including STEM disciplines and emerging patient safety disciplines (such as social care research). == Medicine and its branches == Medicine is an applied science or practice of the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease. It encompasses a variety of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness. Below are some of the branches of medicine. Anesthesiology is the brand of medicine that deals with life support and anesthesia during surgery. Angiology deals with the diseases of the circulatory system. Audiology focuses on preventing and curing hearing damage. Bariatrics deals with the causes, prevention, and treatment of obesity. Cardiology deals with disorders of the heart and the blood vessels. Critical care medicine focuses on life support and the intensive care of the seriously ill. Dentistry is the branch of medicine that consists of the study, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of diseases, disorders, and conditions of the oral cavity, commonly in the dentition


id: list-of-hyperaccumulators-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hyperaccumulators-0.md
category: reference
title: List of hyperaccumulators
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hyperaccumulators
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:18.790682+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-hyperaccumulators-20260505-0
summary:
This article covers known hyperaccumulators, accumulators or species tolerant to the following: Aluminium (Al), Silver (Ag), Arsenic (As), Beryllium (Be), Chromium (Cr), Copper (Cu), Manganese (Mn), Mercury (Hg), Molybdenum (Mo), Naphthalene, Lead (Pb), Selenium (Se) and Zinc (Zn). See also: Hyperaccumulators table – 2: Nickel Hyperaccumulators table – 3: Cd, Cs, Co, Pu, Ra, Sr, U, radionuclides, hydrocarbons, organic solvents, etc. == Hyperaccumulators table – 1 == Cs-137 activity was much smaller in leaves of larch and sycamore maple than of spruce: spruce > larch > sycamore maple. == References ==


id: hyperaccumulators-table-2-nickel-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperaccumulators_table_–_2:_Nickel-0.md
category: reference
title: Hyperaccumulators table – 2: Nickel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperaccumulators_table_–_2:_Nickel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:20.039129+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hyperaccumulators-table-2-nickel-20260505-0
summary:
This list covers known nickel hyperaccumulators, accumulators or plant species tolerant to nickel. See also: Hyperaccumulators table – 1: Ag, Al, As, Be, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mn, Mo, Naphthalene, Pb, Pd, Se, Zn Hyperaccumulators table – 3: Cd, Cs, Co, Pu, Ra, Sr, U, radionuclides, hydrocarbons, organic solvents, etc. Notes In the genus Alyssum, free histamin (His) is an important Ni binding ligand that increases in the xylem proportionately to root Ni uptake. There is a close correlation between Ni tolerance, root His concentration, and ATP-PRT transcript abundance. Thus ATP-PRT expression may play a major role in regulating the pool of free His and contributes to the exceptional Ni tolerance of hyperaccumulator Alyssum species. But this is not the complete hyperaccumulator phenotype because His-(GM-)overproducing lines do not exhibit increased Ni concentrations in either xylem sap or shoot tissue. Alpine pennycress or «Alpine Pennygrass» is also found as «Alpine Pennycrest» in (some books). == Reference sources with notes == The references are so far mostly from academic trial papers, experiments and generally of exploration of that field. == See also == Phytoremediation, Hyperaccumulators List of hyperaccumulators Hyperaccumulators table – 3


id: hyperaccumulators-table-3-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperaccumulators_table_–_3-0.md
category: reference
title: Hyperaccumulators table – 3
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperaccumulators_table_–_3
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:21.211012+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hyperaccumulators-table-3-20260505-0
summary:
This list covers hyperaccumulators, plant species which accumulate, or are tolerant of, radionuclides (Cd, Cs-137, Co, Pu-238, Ra, Sr, U-234, 235, 238), hydrocarbons and organic solvents (Benzene, BTEX, DDT, Dieldrin, Endosulfan, Fluoranthene, MTBE, PCB, PCNB, TCE and by-products), and inorganic compounds (Potassium ferrocyanide). See also: Hyperaccumulators table – 1 : Ag, Al, As, Be, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mn, Mo, Naphthalene, Pb, Pd, Se, Zn Hyperaccumulators table – 2 : Nickel == Notes == Uranium: The symbol for Uranium is sometimes given as Ur instead of U. According to Ulrich Schmidt and others, plants' concentration of uranium is considerably increased by an application of citric acid, which solubilizes the uranium (and other metals). Radionuclides: Cs-137 and Sr-90 are not removed from the top 0.4 meters of soil even under high rainfall, and migration rate from the top few centimeters of soil is slow. Radionuclides: Plants with mycorrhizal associations are often more effective than non-mycorrhizal plants at the uptake of radionuclides. Radionuclides: In general, soils containing higher amounts of organic matter will allow plants to accumulate higher amounts of radionuclides. See also note on Lolium multiflorum in Paasikallio 1984. Plant uptake is also increased with a higher cation exchange capacity for Sr-90


id: iarc-group-3-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IARC_group_3-0.md
category: reference
title: IARC group 3
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IARC_group_3
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:22.457049+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: iarc-group-3-20260505-0
summary:
IARC group 3 substances, chemical mixtures and exposure circumstances are those that can not be classified in regard to their carcinogenicity to humans by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). This category is used most commonly for agents, mixtures and exposure circumstances for which the level of evidence of carcinogenicity is inadequate in humans and inadequate or limited in experimental animals. Exceptionally, agents (mixtures) for which the evidence of carcinogenicity is inadequate in humans, but sufficient in experimental animals may be placed in this category when there is strong evidence that the mechanism of carcinogenicity in experimental animals does not operate in humans. Agents, mixtures and exposure circumstances that do not fall into any other group are also placed in this category. The IARC Monographs on which this list is based assess the hazard linked to the agents, they do not assess the cancer risk of the agents. The list is up-to-date as of January 2024. == Agents and groups of agents == === A === === B === === C === === D === === E–G === === H–L === === M === === N–O === === P === === Q–R === === S === === T


id: university-of-ibadan-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Ibadan-0.md
category: reference
title: University of Ibadan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Ibadan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:23.627174+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: university-of-ibadan-20260505-0
summary:
The University of Ibadan (UI) is a federal university located in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. Initially founded as the University College Ibadan in 1948, it maintained its affiliation with the University of London. In 1962, it became an independent institution, making it the oldest degree-awarding institution in Nigeria. The University of Ibadan has significantly contributed to Nigeria's political, industrial, economic, and cultural development through its extensive network of graduates. UI enrolls about 33,000 students, is internationally recognized, and has a number of accomplished alumni. == History == The university was established in 1948 as University College Ibadan, a branch of the University of London, which supervised its academic programs and awarded degrees until 1967. The establishment came as a result of a recommendation from the Asquith and the Elliot Commissions on Higher Education in the then-British colonies, that two Universities stemming from the University of London should be set up in Ghana and Nigeria. Before 1948, Yaba College had been founded in 1932 in Yaba, Lagos, as the first tertiary educational institute in Nigeria, focused primarily on providing post-secondary vocational education and teacher training to Africans. However, the limited aims of Yaba College and clamor by Nigerian nationalists for self-improvement


id: university-of-ibadan-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Ibadan-1.md
category: reference
title: University of Ibadan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Ibadan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:23.627174+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: university-of-ibadan-20260505-0
summary:
== Library == Among the notable structures in the university is the central Kenneth Dike Library (popularly called "KDL" by the students), located just beside the Faculty of Arts. The library, which has a large capacity for students, contains books relating to virtually all fields of knowledge both in and outside the university community. The library is named after Professor Kenneth Dike, who was the first indigenous Principal and former Vice-Chancellor of the university. It was established out of the desires of the founding fathers and matriarch of the institution to cut a niche for research and sound teaching. The library contains 700,000 volumes of information and more than 1,250 seats for readers. It is open to all senior staff, students of the institution, senior staff of the University College Hospital, (UCH) Ibadan as well as alumni of the university. == Notable alumni == The university has educated many notable alumni, including a Nobel Laureate in Literature, eminent mathematicians, scientists, politicians, lawyers, business icons, philosophers, writers, monarchs, countless technocrats, recipients of the Nigerian National Order of Merit and fellows of the various learned academies. Abdulganiyu Abdulrasaq, lawyer, former President of the Nigerian Stock Exchange Mufutau Oloyede Abdul-Rahmon, Professor of Arabic


id: list-of-ice-cores-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores-0.md
category: reference
title: List of ice cores
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:24.876028+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ice-cores-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of ice cores drilled for scientific purposes. Note that many of these locations are on moving ice sheets, and the latitude and longitude given is as of the date of drilling. == Africa == == Antarctica == == Asia == === Mainland and arctic islands === === Southeast Asia === == Europe == === Alps === === Iceland === === Scandinavia === === Spitzbergen === == North America == === Canada === === Greenland === === United States === == Oceania == === New Zealand === == South America == === Bolivia === === Peru === == See also == List of Arctic research programs List of research stations in the Arctic Research stations in Antarctica == Notes == == References ==


id: list-of-ice-cores-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores-1.md
category: reference
title: List of ice cores
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:24.876028+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ice-cores-20260505-0
summary:
== Sources == Abram, Nerilie J.; Mulvaney, Robert; Wolff, Eric W.; Mudelsee, Manfred (2007). "Ice core records as sea ice proxies: An evaluation from the Weddell Sea region of Antarctica" (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research. 112 (D15): 1–13. Bibcode:2007JGRD..11215101A. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.473.4635. doi:10.1029/2006JD008139. Alley, R.B.; Koci, B.R. (1988). "Ice-core analysis at Site A, Greenland: preliminary results". Annals of Glaciology. 10: 1–4. Bibcode:1988AnGla..10....1A. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.476.6746. doi:10.1017/S0260305500004067. Aristarain, A.J. (1981). "First glaciological studies on the James Ross Island ice cap, Antarctic peninsula". Journal of Glaciology. 27 (97): 371–379. Bibcode:1981JGlac..27..371A. doi:10.1017/S0022143000011412. Benson, Carl S. (1984). "Ice core drilling on Mt. Wrangell, Alaska 1982". In Holdsworth, G.; et al. (eds.). Ice Drilling Technology. Hanover, New Hampshire: Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory. pp. 61–68. Bentley, Charles R.; Koci, Bruce R. (2007). "Drilling to the beds of the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets: a review". Annals of Glaciology. 47 (1): 1–9. Bibcode:2007AnGla..47....1B. doi:10.3189/172756407786857695. Bird, I.G. (1976). "Thermal ice drilling: Australian developments and experience". In Splettstoesser, John F. (ed.). Ice-Core Drilling. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press. pp. 1–18. ISBN 978-0-8032-5843-3. Bory, A.J.; Biscaye, P.E.; Piotrowski, A.M.; Steffensen, J.P. (2003). "Regional variability of ice core dust composition and provenance in Greenland". Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 4 (12): 1107.


id: list-of-ice-cores-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores-2.md
category: reference
title: List of ice cores
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:24.876028+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ice-cores-20260505-0
summary:
Rapp, Donald (2012). Ice Ages and Interglacials: Measurements, Interpretation, and Models (2nd ed.). Chichester, UK: Springer. ISBN 978-3-642-30028-8. Rasmussen, S.O.; et al. (2013). "A first chronology for the North Greenland Eemian Ice Drilling (NEEM) ice core". Climate of the Past. 9 (6): 2713–2730. Bibcode:2013CliPa...9.2713R. doi:10.5194/cp-9-2713-2013. Thompson, L.G.; et al. (1994). "Climate since AD 1510 on Dyer Plateau, Antarctic Peninsula: evidence for recent climate change" (PDF). Annals of Glaciology. 20: 420–426. Bibcode:1994AnGla..20..420T. doi:10.3189/1994aog20-1-420-426. Thwaites, Richard J.; Wilson, Christopher; McCray, Anthony P. (1984). "Relationship between bore-hole closure and crystal fabrics in Antarctic ice core from Cape Folger" (PDF). Journal of Glaciology. 30 (105): 171–179. Bibcode:1984JGlac..30..171T. doi:10.1017/S0022143000005906. Ueda, Herbert T.; Talalay, Pavel G. (October 2007). "Fifty Years of Soviet and Russian Drilling Activity in Polar and Non-Polar Ice". Erdc/Crrel Tr-07-20. Archived from the original on April 20, 2017. Vasiliev, N.I.; et al. (2007). "Deep drilling at Vostok station, Antarctica: history and recent events". Annals of Glaciology. 47 (1): 10–23. Bibcode:2007AnGla..47...10V. doi:10.3189/172756407786857776. Weidick, Anker (1995). "Satellite Image Atlas of Glaciers of the World: Greenland" (PDF). United States Geological Survey Professional Papers. 1386-C: 1–153. Zagorodnov, V.; et al. (1998). "Antifreeze thermal ice core drilling: an effective approach to the acquisition of ice cores" (PDF). Cold


id: index-of-earth-science-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_Earth_science_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of Earth science articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_Earth_science_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:26.046967+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-earth-science-articles-20260505-0
summary:
Earth science (also known as geoscience, the geosciences or the Earth Sciences) is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. It is arguably a special case in planetary science, the Earth being the only known life-bearing planet. There are both reductionist and holistic approaches to Earth science. There are four major disciplines in earth sciences, namely geography, geology, geophysics and geodesy. These major disciplines use physics, chemistry, biology, chronology and mathematics to build a quantitative understanding of the principal areas or spheres of the Earth system. Articles related to Earth science include: == A == Antarctic Convergence Atmospheric chemistry Atmospheric physics Atmospheric sciences == B == Biosphere Biogeography == C == Cartography Chemical oceanography Climatology Crust Cryosphere Crystallography (mineralogy) == D == Dynamo theory == E == Earth's core Earth's magnetic field Earth's mantle Economic geology Edaphology (soil science) Engineering geology Environmental geology Environmental science Erosion Exosphere (Atmospheric sciences) == G == Gaia hypothesis Gemology (mineralogy) Geochemistry Geochronology (Geophysics) Geodesy (see Surveying) Geodynamics (Geophysics and Tectonics) Geographical Information System Geography Geoinformatics (GIS) Geology Geomagnetics (Geophysics) Geomicrobiology Geomorphology Geophysics Geosphere Geostatistics Glaciology (Geology and Hydrology) Gravimetry (Geophysics) == H == Historical geology Human geography Hydrogeology Hydrology Hydrometeorology


id: list-of-inductees-in-the-international-rubber-science-hall-of-fame-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inductees_in_the_International_Rubber_Science_Hall_of_Fame-0.md
category: reference
title: List of inductees in the International Rubber Science Hall of Fame
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inductees_in_the_International_Rubber_Science_Hall_of_Fame
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:27.274530+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inductees-in-the-international-rubber-science-hall-of-fame-20260505-0
summary:
The International Rubber Science Hall of Fame recognizes the careers of notable professionals in rubber technology. It is jointly sponsored by the Maurice Morton Institute of Polymer Science at The University of Akron and the Rubber Division of the American Chemical Society. The Goodyear Polymer Center at the University of Akron houses the Hall of Fame's portrait gallery. == Inductees == The following are members of the International Rubber Hall of Fame: == See also == Charles Goodyear Medal: Another ACS rubber award Melvin Mooney Distinguished Technology Award: Another ACS rubber award International Rubber Science Hall of Fame: Another ACS award Rubber Chemistry and Technology: An ACS journal List of chemistry awards == References == == External links == Awards page of ACS Rubber Division


id: outline-of-library-and-information-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_library_and_information_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of library and information science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_library_and_information_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:33.085113+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-library-and-information-science-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to library and information science: Library and information science (LIS) is the scientific study of issues related to libraries and the information fields. This includes academic studies regarding how library resources are used and how people interact with library systems. The organization of knowledge for efficient retrieval of relevant information is also a major research goal of library science. Given its interdisciplinary nature, it overlaps with the fields of computer science, various social sciences, statistics, and systems analysis. == Nature of library and information science == === Definition === Library and information science can be described as all of the following: The study of libraries and information both in terms of theory and practice. Field of science – widely recognized category of specialized expertise within science, and typically embodies its own terminology and nomenclature. Such a field will usually be represented by one or more scientific journals, where peer reviewed research is published. There are many library and information-related scientific journals. Social science – field of academic scholarship that explores aspects of human society. === Essence === Library and information science Library science Information science Glossary of library


id: outline-of-library-and-information-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_library_and_information_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Outline of library and information science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_library_and_information_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:33.085113+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-library-and-information-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Social issues === Decreased funding for established libraries Digital divide Digitization Education for librarianship Information access Information and communication technologies (ICT's) Sustainability and ICT's Information explosion Information policy Information literacy Information Society Literacy Remote access == Education and training == Education for librarianship – List of I-Schools Academic courses in library science Collection management Cataloging and classification Database management Information architecture Information systems and technology Knowledge management List of Library Science schools Management Preservation Reference Research methods Statistics == Professional organizations == American Association of School Librarians American Library Association Australian Library and Information Association Canadian Library Association Association for Library Service to Children Association of Research Libraries International Federation of Library Associations (IFLA) Public Library Association Special Libraries Association == Non-profit organizations == Librarians Without Borders Bibliothèques Sans Frontières African Library Project Friends of Libraries == Notable people in library science == List of librarians Librarians in popular culture Sanford Berman Daniel J. Boorstin William Warner Bishop Lee Pierce Butler John Cotton Dana Melvil Dewey John Fiske (philosopher) Michael Gorman Seymour Lubetzky Eric Moon Paul Evan Peters S. R. Ranganathan Jesse Shera Howard D. White == List of Topic in Library School == Collection Development Information Literacy Digital


id: list-of-life-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_life_sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: List of life sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_life_sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:34.307787+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-life-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
This list of life sciences comprises the branches of science that involve the scientific study of life — such as animals (including human beings), microorganisms, and plants. This is one of the two major branches of natural science, the other being physical science, which is concerned with non-living matter. Biology is the overall natural science that studies life, with the other life sciences as its sub-disciplines. Some life sciences focus on a specific type of organism. For example, zoology is the study of animals, while botany is the study of plants. Other life sciences focus on aspects common to all or many life forms, such as anatomy and genetics. Some focus on the micro scale (e.g., molecular biology, biochemistry), while others focus on larger scales (e.g., cytology, immunology, ethology, pharmacy, ecology). Another major branch of life sciences involves understanding the mind—neuroscience. Life-science discoveries are helpful in improving the quality and standard of life and have applications in health, agriculture, medicine, and the pharmaceutical and food science industries. For example, they have provided information on certain diseases, which has helped in the understanding of human health. == Basic life science branches == Biology – scientific study of life Anatomy – study


id: list-of-life-sciences-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_life_sciences-1.md
category: reference
title: List of life sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_life_sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:34.307787+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-life-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
Agriculture – science and practice of cultivating plants and livestock Agronomy – science of cultivating plants for resources Biocomputers – systems of biologically derived molecules, such as DNA and proteins, are used to perform computational calculations involving storing, retrieving, and processing data. The development of biological computing has been made possible by the expanding new science of nanobiotechnology. Biocontrol – bioeffector-method of controlling pests (including insects, mites, weeds and plant diseases) using other living organisms. Bioengineering – study of biology through the means of engineering with an emphasis on applied knowledge and especially related to biotechnology Bioelectronics – field at the convergence of electronics and biological sciences. The electrical state of biological matter significantly affects its structure and function, compare for instance the membrane potential, the signal transduction by neurons, the isoelectric point (IEP) and so on. Micro- and nano-electronic components and devices have increasingly been combined with biological systems like medical implants, biosensors, lab-on-a-chip devices etc. causing the emergence of this new scientific field. Biomaterials – any matter, surface, or construct that interacts with biological systems. As a science, biomaterials is about fifty years old. The study of biomaterials is called biomaterials science. It has experienced steady and strong


id: list-of-life-sciences-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_life_sciences-2.md
category: reference
title: List of life sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_life_sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:34.307787+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-life-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
If substances have medicinal properties, they are considered pharmaceuticals. Proteomics – the large-scale study of proteins, particularly their structures and functions. Proteins are vital parts of living organisms, as they are the main components of the physiological metabolic pathways of cells. The proteome is the entire set of proteins, produced or modified by an organism or system. This varies with time and distinct requirements, or stresses, that a cell or organism undergoes. == See also == Outline of biology Divisions of pharmacology Control theory == References == == Further reading == Magner, Lois N. (2002). A history of the life sciences (Rev. and expanded 3rd ed.). New York: M. Dekker. ISBN 0824708245.


id: list-of-agricultural-journals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_agricultural_journals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of agricultural journals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_agricultural_journals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:35.488748+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-agricultural-journals-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of agricultural journals which includes notable peer-reviewed scientific journals that publish research in agriculture, agronomy, crop science, soil science, horticulture, plant pathology, animal science, and related fields. == Journals == Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica B African Crop Science Journal African Journal of Range & Forage Science Agricultural and Forest Meteorology Agricultural Economics Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment Agronomy Journal American Journal of Agricultural Economics American Journal of Enology and Viticulture Animal (journal) Annual Review of Phytopathology Aquaculture (journal) Aquaculture International Aquaculture Research Australasian Agribusiness Review BioControl Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry Bulgarian Journal of Agricultural Science Cahiers Agricultures California Agriculture Crop & Pasture Science Crop Science Fisheries Research Folia Horticulturae Hilgardia HortScience Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences Journal of Agrarian Change Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry Journal of Agricultural Economics Journal of Agricultural, Biological and Environmental Statistics The Journal of Agricultural Science Journal of Animal Science Journal of Central European Agriculture Journal of Dairy Science Journal of Experimental Botany Journal of Horticultural Sciences The Journal of Peasant Studies Journal of Plantation Crops Journal of Soil and Water Conservation Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture Open Agriculture Pertanika Journal of Tropical


id: list-of-mechanical-engineering-journals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mechanical_engineering_journals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of mechanical engineering journals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mechanical_engineering_journals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:37.931521+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mechanical-engineering-journals-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of mechanical engineering journals which includes peer-reviewed scientific journals that cover research in mechanical systems, acoustics, thermodynamics, electromechanics, fluid mechanics, manufacturing, robotics, and other related fields. == Journals == Applied Mechanics Reviews ASCE-ASME Journal of Risk and Uncertainty in Engineering Systems Experimental Mechanics Heat and Mass Transfer International Journal of Extreme Manufacturing International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture International Journal of Plasticity Jordan Journal of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Journal of Computational and Nonlinear Dynamics Journal of Fluid Mechanics Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer Research Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems Journal of Micro/Nanopatterning, Materials, and Metrology Journal of Sound and Vibration Mechanism and Machine Theory Meccanica Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part C: Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part L == See also == American Society for Precision Engineering International Conference on Robotics and Automation Lists of academic journals List of American Society of Mechanical Engineers academic journals List of engineering awards List of aerospace engineering journals List of engineering journals and magazines List of materials science journals List of mechanical engineering software List of physics journals List of


id: list-of-nuclear-science-journals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nuclear_science_journals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of nuclear science journals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nuclear_science_journals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:39.115427+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-nuclear-science-journals-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of nuclear science journals which includes peer-reviewed scientific journals covering nuclear physics, nuclear engineering, reactor design, radiation detection, and related areas of nuclear technology. == Journals == Acta Physica Polonica B Annals of Nuclear Energy Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science Applied Radiation and Isotopes Atomic Data and Nuclear Data Tables Chinese Physics C European Physical Journal A Fusion Engineering and Design Health Physics IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science International Journal of Energy Research International Journal of Radiation Biology Journal of Instrumentation Journal of Physics G Journal of Nuclear Materials Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry Journal of Radiological Protection Magnetohydrodynamics (journal) Nuclear Fusion Nuclear Physics (journal) Nuclear Physics A Nuclear Physics B Nuclear Physics and Atomic Energy Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Nuclear Science and Engineering Nuclear Science and Techniques Nuclear Technology Nukleonik Physical Review and their sub-journals Physical Review Accelerators and Beams Physical Review C Physics Letters B Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion Progress in Nuclear Energy Radiation Measurements Radiation Protection Dosimetry Review of Scientific Instruments == See also == American Nuclear Society International Atomic Energy Agency List of energy journals List of engineering journals and magazines List of physics journals


id: list-of-people-who-achieved-posthumous-recognition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_people_who_achieved_posthumous_recognition-0.md
category: reference
title: List of people who achieved posthumous recognition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_people_who_achieved_posthumous_recognition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:40.250273+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-people-who-achieved-posthumous-recognition-20260505-0
summary:
This article is a chronological list of people who achieved posthumous recognition, which is the fame, honour, or critical breakthrough bestowed upon them only after their death. The phenomenon appears in many fields, including arts, literature and science, and has been described in cultural and historical studies. The list is organized chronologically by year of birth. Please add to this list people who meet all of the following criteria: People who had limited or small recognition in their lifetime, After their death, their work or actions received a clear growth in recognition through various honours such as prizes, memorials or institutions named after them and so on. Reliable secondary sources, stating that the person became famous only after their death or that their work, even if initially famous, was forgotten but later rediscovered. == Science == == Literature & Poetry == == Art == == Music == == See also == Posthumous fame of Vincent van Gogh Posthumous fame of El Greco Reception of Johann Sebastian Bach's music – History of musical appreciation Posthumous award – Award granted after death Posthumous publication – Publishing a work after the creator's death == References ==


id: list-of-quantum-mechanical-potentials-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_quantum-mechanical_potentials-0.md
category: reference
title: List of quantum-mechanical potentials
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_quantum-mechanical_potentials
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:41.373777+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-quantum-mechanical-potentials-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of potential energy functions that are frequently used in quantum mechanics and have any meaning. == One-dimensional potentials == Rectangular potential barrier Delta potential (aka "contact potential") Double delta potential Step potential Periodic potential Barrier potential Gaussian potential Eckart potential == Wells == Quantum well Potential well Finite potential well Infinite potential well Double-well potential Semicircular potential well Circular potential well Spherical potential well Triangular potential well == Interatomic potentials == Interatomic potential Bond order potential EAM potential Coulomb potential Buckingham potential Lennard-Jones potential Morse potential Morse/Long-range potential Rosen–Morse potential Trigonometric Rosen–Morse potential Stockmayer potential Pöschl–Teller potential Axilrod–Teller potential Mie potential == Oscillators == Harmonic potential (harmonic oscillator) Morse potential (morse oscillator) Morse/Long-range potential (Morse/Long-range oscillator) Kratzer potential (Kratzer oscillator) == Quantum Field theory == Yukawa potential Coleman–Weinberg potential Uehling potential Woods–Saxon potential Cornell potential == Miscellaneous == Quantum potential Pseudopotential Superpotential Komar superpotential Kolos–Wolniewicz potential == See also == List of quantum-mechanical systems with analytical solutions List of integrable models


id: list-of-renewable-energy-journals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_renewable_energy_journals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of renewable energy journals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_renewable_energy_journals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:42.575966+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-renewable-energy-journals-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of renewable energy journals that focus on topics related to solar energy, wind power, bioenergy, geothermal energy, energy storage, and other renewable energy topics. == Journals == === General renewable and sustainable energy === Applied Energy Energies Energy and Buildings Energy Conversion and Management Energy for Sustainable Development Journal of Cleaner Production Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy Nature Energy Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews Renewable Energy Smart Energy === Solar energy === Progress in Photovoltaics Solar Energy Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells === Wind energy === IET Renewable Power Generation Wind Energy Wind Engineering === Bioenergy and biofuels === Bioresource Technology GCB Bioenergy === Geothermal energy === Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research === Energy systems, storage, and integration === ACS Energy Letters ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering Advanced Energy Materials Batteries Energy Energy & Environmental Science Energy Reports Energy Storage Materials Energy Technology International Journal of Energy Research International Journal of Hydrogen Energy Journal of the Electrochemical Society Journal of Power Sources Joule Nano Energy === Policy and economics === Energy Economics Energy Policy Energy Research & Social Science Resource and Energy Economics The Energy Journal == See also == List of books


id: list-of-science-magazines-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_magazines-0.md
category: reference
title: List of science magazines
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_magazines
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:43.796329+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-science-magazines-20260505-0
summary:
A science magazine is a periodical publication with news, opinions, and reports about science, generally written for a non-expert audience. In contrast, a periodical publication, usually including primary research and/or reviews, that is written by scientific experts is called a "scientific journal". Science magazines are read by non-scientists and scientists who want accessible information on fields outside their specialization. Articles in science magazines are sometimes republished or summarized by the general press. == Examples of general science magazines == === Africa === === Asia === ==== Bangladesh ==== Byapon – Youth Science Magazine in Bengali Bigganchinta[1] BigganBarta (বিজ্ঞানবার্তা) – Free PDF Science Magazine in Bengali Bangachi (ব্যাঙাচি) – Free Science Magazine in Bengali published by Banger Chhater Biggan Biggan Ananda (বিজ্ঞান আনন্দ) - Published by Bangladesh Science Fiction Society (BSFS) Zero to Infinity (জিরো টু ইনফিনিটি) ==== India ==== Resonance, published by Indian Academy of Sciences Current Science Dream 2047, published by Vigyan Prasar Jnan o Bijnan, published by Bangiya Bijnan Parishad Sandarbh Science Reporter Safari ==== Japan ==== Newton press Nikkei Science ==== Kazakhstan ==== OYLA ==== Pakistan ==== Global Science ==== South Korea ==== Donga Science ==== Turkey ==== Bilim ve Teknik === Europe === EuroScientist ==== Austria


id: list-of-materials-analysis-methods-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_materials_analysis_methods-0.md
category: reference
title: List of materials analysis methods
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_materials_analysis_methods
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:47.729859+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-materials-analysis-methods-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of analysis methods used in materials science. Analysis methods are listed by their acronym, if one exists. == Symbols == μSR – see muon spin spectroscopy χ – see magnetic susceptibility == A == AAS – Atomic absorption spectroscopy AED – Auger electron diffraction AES – Auger electron spectroscopy AFM – Atomic force microscopy AFS – Atomic fluorescence spectroscopy Analytical ultracentrifugation APFIM – Atom probe field ion microscopy APS – Appearance potential spectroscopy ARPES – Angle resolved photoemission spectroscopy ARUPS – Angle resolved ultraviolet photoemission spectroscopy ATR – Attenuated total reflectance == B == BET – BET surface area measurement (BET from Brunauer, Emmett, Teller) BiFC – Bimolecular fluorescence complementation BKD – Backscatter Kikuchi diffraction, see EBSD BRET – Bioluminescence resonance energy transfer BSED – Back scattered electron diffraction, see EBSD == C == CAICISS – Coaxial impact collision ion scattering spectroscopy CARS – Coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy CBED – Convergent beam electron diffraction CCM – Charge collection microscopy CDI – Coherent diffraction imaging CE – Capillary electrophoresis CET – Cryo-electron tomography CL – Cathodoluminescence CLSM – Confocal laser scanning microscopy COSY – Correlation spectroscopy Cryo-EM – Cryo-electron microscopy Cryo-SEM – Cryo-scanning electron microscopy CV –


id: list-of-materials-analysis-methods-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_materials_analysis_methods-1.md
category: reference
title: List of materials analysis methods
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_materials_analysis_methods
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:47.729859+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-materials-analysis-methods-20260505-0
summary:
== P == PAS – Positron annihilation spectroscopy Photoacoustic spectroscopy PAT or PACT – Photoacoustic tomography or photoacoustic computed tomography PAX – Photoemission of adsorbed xenon PC or PCS – Photocurrent spectroscopy Phase contrast microscopy PhD – Photoelectron diffraction PD – Photodesorption PDEIS – Potentiodynamic electrochemical impedance spectroscopy PDS – Photothermal deflection spectroscopy PED – Photoelectron diffraction PEELS – parallel electron energy loss spectroscopy PEEM – Photoemission electron microscopy (or photoelectron emission microscopy) PES – Photoelectron spectroscopy PINEM – photon-induced near-field electron microscopy PIGE – Particle (or proton) induced gamma-ray spectroscopy, see nuclear reaction analysis PIXE – Particle (or proton) induced X-ray spectroscopy PL – Photoluminescence Porosimetry Powder diffraction PTMS – Photothermal microspectroscopy PTS – Photothermal spectroscopy == Q == QENS – Quasielastic neutron scattering QCM-D – Quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring == R == Raman spectroscopy RAXRS – Resonant anomalous X-ray scattering RBS – Rutherford backscattering spectrometry REM – Reflection electron microscopy RDS – Reflectance difference spectroscopy RHEED – Reflection high energy electron diffraction RIMS – Resonance ionization mass spectrometry RIXS – Resonant inelastic X-ray scattering RR spectroscopy – Resonance Raman spectroscopy == S == SAD – Selected area diffraction SAED – Selected area electron diffraction SAM –


id: list-of-measuring-instruments-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_measuring_instruments-0.md
category: reference
title: List of measuring instruments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_measuring_instruments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:48.891386+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-measuring-instruments-20260505-0
summary:
A measuring instrument is a device to measure a physical quantity. In the physical sciences, quality assurance, and engineering, measurement is the activity of obtaining and comparing physical quantities of real-world objects and events. Established standard objects and events are used as units, and the process of measurement gives a number relating the item under study and the referenced unit of measurement. Measuring instruments, and formal test methods which define the instrument's use, are the means by which these relations of numbers are obtained. All measuring instruments are subject to varying degrees of instrument error and measurement uncertainty. These instruments may range from simple objects such as rulers and stopwatches to electron microscopes and particle accelerators. Virtual instrumentation is widely used in the development of modern measuring instruments. == Time == In the past, common time measuring instrument were sundials, water clocks and hourglasses, measuring periods of time within a day. Today, the usual measuring instruments for time are clocks and watches. For highly accurate measurement of time an atomic clock is used. Stopwatches are also used to measure time in some sports. == Energy == Energy is measured by an energy meter. Examples of energy meters include: === Electricity


id: list-of-measuring-instruments-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_measuring_instruments-1.md
category: reference
title: List of measuring instruments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_measuring_instruments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:48.891386+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-measuring-instruments-20260505-0
summary:
=== Electric field (negative gradient of electric potential, voltage per length) === Field mill === Magnetic field === See also the relevant section in the article about the magnetic field. Compass Hall effect sensor Magnetometer Proton magnetometer SQUID For the ranges of magnetic field see: Orders of magnitude (magnetic field) === Combination instruments === Multimeter, combines the functions of ammeter, voltmeter, and ohmmeter as a minimum. LCR meter, combines the functions of ohmmeter, capacitance meter, and inductance meter. Also called component bridge due to the bridge circuit method of measurement. == Thermodynamics == Temperature-related considerations dominate thermodynamics. There are two distinct thermal properties: A thermal potential — the temperature. For example: A glowing coal has a different thermal quality than a non-glowing one. And a substance-like property, — the entropy; for example: One glowing coal won't heat a pot of water, but a hundred will. Energy in thermodynamics is calculated by multiplying the thermal potential by the amount of entropy found at that potential: temperature times entropy. Entropy can be created by friction but not annihilated. === Amount of substance === A physical quantity introduced in chemistry; usually determined indirectly. If mass and substance type of the sample are known,


id: list-of-measuring-instruments-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_measuring_instruments-2.md
category: reference
title: List of measuring instruments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_measuring_instruments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:48.891386+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-measuring-instruments-20260505-0
summary:
=== Specific temperature coefficient of energy or "specific heat capacity" === The temperature coefficient of energy divided by a substance-like quantity (amount of substance, mass, volume) describing the sample. Usually calculated from measurements by a division or could be measured directly using a unit amount of that sample. For the ranges of specific heat capacities see: Orders of magnitude (specific heat capacity) === Coefficient of thermal expansion === Dilatometer Strain gauge === Melting temperature === Differential Scanning Calorimeter gives melting point and enthalpy of fusion. Kofler bench Thiele tube === Boiling temperature === Ebullioscope a device for measuring the boiling point of a liquid. This device is also part of a method that uses the effect of boiling point elevation for calculating the molecular mass of a solvent. See also Thermal analysis, Heat. == More on continuum mechanics == This includes mostly instruments which measure macroscopic properties of matter: In the fields of solid-state physics; in condensed matter physics which considers solids, liquids, and in-betweens exhibiting for example viscoelastic behavior; and furthermore, in fluid mechanics, where liquids, gases, plasmas, and in-betweens like supercritical fluids are studied. === Density === This refers to particle density of fluids and compact(ed) solids like


id: list-of-measuring-instruments-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_measuring_instruments-3.md
category: reference
title: List of measuring instruments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_measuring_instruments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:48.891386+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-measuring-instruments-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ionizing radiation === Ionizing radiation includes rays of "particles" as well as rays of "waves". Especially X-rays and gamma rays transfer enough energy in non-thermal, (single-) collision processes to separate electron(s) from an atom. ==== Particle and ray flux ==== Bubble chamber Cloud chamber Dosimeter, a technical device realizes different working principles. Geiger counter Ionisation chamber Microchannel plate detector Photographic plate Photostimulable phosphor plate Proportional counter Scintillation counter, Lucas cell Semiconductor detector == Identification and content == This could include chemical substances, rays of any kind, elementary particles, and quasiparticles. Many measurement devices outside this section may be used or at least become part of an identification process. For identification and content concerning chemical substances, see also Analytical chemistry, List of chemical analysis methods, and List of materials analysis methods. === Content in mixtures, substance identification === Carbon dioxide sensor chromatographic device, gas chromatograph separates mixtures of substances. Different velocities of the substance types accomplish the separation. Colorimeter absorbance, and thus concentration Gas detector Gas detector in combination with mass spectrometer, mass spectrometer identifies the chemical composition of a sample on the basis of the mass-to-charge ratio of charged particles. Nephelometer or turbidimeter Oxygen sensor (= lambda sond) Refractometer,


id: list-of-measuring-instruments-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_measuring_instruments-4.md
category: reference
title: List of measuring instruments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_measuring_instruments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:48.891386+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-measuring-instruments-20260505-0
summary:
== Uncategorized, specialized, or generalized application == Actograph measures and records animal activity within an experimental chamber. Densitometer measures light transmission through processed photographic film or transparent material or light reflection from a reflective material. Force platform measures ground reaction force. Gauge (engineering) A highly precise measurement instrument, also usable to calibrate other instruments of the same kind. Often found in conjunction with defining or applying technical standards. Gradiometer any device that measures spatial variations of a physical quantity. For example, as done in gravity gradiometry. Parking meter measures time a vehicle is parked at a particular spot, usually with a fee. Postage meter measures postage used from a prepaid account. S meter measures the signal strength processed by a communications receiver. Sensor, hypernym for devices that measure with little interaction, typically used in technical applications. Spectroscope is an important tool used by physicists. SWR meter check the quality of the match between the antenna and the transmission line. Universal measuring machine measures geometric locations for inspecting tolerances. === Alphabetical listing === == See also == Category:Instrument-making corporations Data logger measuring devices History of measurement History of weights and measures Instrumentation List of measuring devices List of physical quantities List


id: list-of-microorganisms-tested-in-outer-space-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_microorganisms_tested_in_outer_space-0.md
category: reference
title: List of microorganisms tested in outer space
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_microorganisms_tested_in_outer_space
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:50.268957+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-microorganisms-tested-in-outer-space-20260505-0
summary:
The survival of some microorganisms exposed to outer space has been studied using both simulated facilities and low Earth orbit exposures. Bacteria were some of the first organisms investigated, when in 1960 a Russian satellite carried Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus, and Enterobacter aerogenes into orbit. Many kinds of microorganisms have been selected for exposure experiments since, as listed in the table below. Experiments of the adaption of microbes in space have yielded unpredictable results. While sometimes the microorganism may weaken, they can also increase in their disease-causing potency. It is possible to classify these microorganisms into two groups, the human-borne and the extremophiles. Studying the human-borne microorganisms is significant for human welfare and future crewed missions in space, whilst the extremophiles are vital for studying the physiological requirements of survival in space. NASA has pointed out that normal adults have ten times as many microbial cells as human cells in their bodies. They are also nearly everywhere in the environment and, although normally invisible, can form slimy biofilms. Extremophiles have adapted to live in some of the most extreme environments on Earth. This includes hypersaline lakes, arid regions, deep sea, acidic sites, cold and dry polar regions and permafrost. The existence


id: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents-0.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific misconduct incidents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:51.543843+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific misconduct is a serious form of violation of the standard codes of scholarly conduct and ethical behavior in the publication of professional scientific research. A Lancet review on Handling of Scientific Misconduct in Scandinavian countries gave examples of policy definitions. In Denmark, scientific misconduct is defined as "intention[al] negligence leading to fabrication of the scientific message or a false credit or emphasis given to a scientist", and in Sweden as "intention[al] distortion of the research process by fabrication of data, text, hypothesis, or methods from another researcher's manuscript form or publication; or distortion of the research process in other ways." A 2009 systematic review and meta-analysis of survey data found that about 2% of scientists admitted to falsifying, fabricating, or modifying data at least once. Incidents should only be included in this list if the individuals or entities involved have their own Wikipedia articles, or in the absence of an article, where the misconduct incident is covered in multiple reliable sources.


id: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents-1.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific misconduct incidents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:51.543843+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-0
summary:
== Biology and biomedical sciences == Bharat Aggarwal (US), a former Ransom Horne, Jr. Distinguished Professor of Cancer Research at the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, resigned from his position after fraud was discovered in 65 papers published by him in the area of curcumin as a treatment for cancer. As of 2024 Aggarwal has had 30 of his research papers retracted, with 10 others having received an expression of concern and 17 others having been corrected. Anna Ahimastos (Australia) resigned from her position at Melbourne's Baker IDI Heart & Diabetes Institute in 2015 after admitting to fabricating data in a trial of the blood pressure drug ramipril that analyzed if ramipril could reduce pain in people with peripheral artery disease. As of 2025, Ahimastos has had nine of their research publications retracted. Elias Alsabti (Iraq, US), was a medical practitioner who posed as a biomedical researcher. He plagiarized as many as 60 papers in the field of cancer research, many with non-existent co-authors. Werner Bezwoda (South Africa), formerly of the University of Witwatersrand, admitted to scientific misconduct in trials on high-dose chemotherapy on breast cancer, stating that he had "committed a serious breach of scientific honesty and


id: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents-2.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific misconduct incidents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:51.543843+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-0
summary:
Many major trials of the drug ivermectin that claimed it could prevent COVID-19 were found to show signs of fraud and had "either obvious signs of fabrication or errors so critical they invalidate the study," according to one of the groups investigating the studies. For example, some studies were found to list patients who had never actually participated in the research, and others placed patients who were already statistically more likely to die in the placebo group while putting the healthier patients in the experimental group that received ivermectin. Studies that were found to contain legitimate research were generally inconclusive about the effects of ivermectin on COVID-19. He Jiankui (China), former associate professor with the Southern University of Science and Technology, was in 2019 sentenced to three years in prison and fined three million yuan (about US$430,000) for illegally carrying out human embryo gene-editing intended for reproduction. The case is called the He Jiankui affair. Woo-suk Hwang (Hwang Woo-suk) (South Korea), former Professor of Biotechnology at Seoul National University, was found by a University committee to have committed "deliberate fabrication" in his research on stem cells, and to have coerced female members of his research team to donate their eggs.


id: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents-3.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific misconduct incidents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:51.543843+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-0
summary:
Krishna Murthy (US), a protein crystallographer and former research associate professor at the University of Alabama at Birmingham, was found in 2009 by a University committee to be "solely responsible for ... fraudulent data" on protein structures published in nine papers. In 2018 the United States Office of Research Integrity placed a 10-year ban on Federal funding for Murthy. As of 2020 ten of Krishna Murthy's publications have been retracted, and two others have received an expression of concern. Haruko Obokata (Japan) formerly of RIKEN and Harvard University, falsified data in the widely publicized STAP cell fraud. As of 2021, Obokata has had four of her research publications retracted. Luk Van Parijs (US), Associate Professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) fabricated and falsified data in research papers, unpublished manuscripts, and grant applications. He was convicted in 2011 of making a false statement on a federal grant application. Parijs has had five research publications retracted. Milena Penkowa (Denmark), a neuroscientist and former professor at the Panum Institute of the University of Copenhagen, was in 2010 convicted of fraud and embezzlement of research funds, and in 2012 was found to have committed "deliberate scientific malpractice". In 2017 the University of


id: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents-4.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific misconduct incidents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:51.543843+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-0
summary:
Wakefield's claims of a link between the MMR vaccine, autism and inflammatory bowel disease have been reported in the British Medical Journal as "based not on bad science but on a deliberate fraud", and the 1998 paper originally presenting his theory was retracted in 2010 by The Lancet. Wakefield was unsuccessful in an attempt to sue detractors/critics for libel and defamation. Wakefield has had two papers retracted and one corrected. Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories fabricated research data to the extent that upon FDA analysis of 867 studies, 618 (71%) were deemed invalid, including many of which were used to gain regulatory approval for widely used household and industrial products. The company Surgisphere claimed to have hospital data which was used to support studies of the effectiveness of hydroxychloroquine in treating COVID-19. Papers in the Lancet and New England Journal of Medicine were retracted in June 2020 when the data was found to be implausible. The National Centre for Biological Sciences, one of India's top research institutes and part of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, retracted one of its breakthrough scientific papers in 2021 describing the discovery of iron-sensing RNA after its findings and images were found to be manipulated. Eliezer


id: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents-5.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific misconduct incidents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:51.543843+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-0
summary:
== Chemistry == Leo Paquette (US), an Ohio State University professor, plagiarized sections from an unfunded NIH grant application for use in his own NIH grant application. He also plagiarized a NSF proposal for use in one of his scientific publications. Kenichiro Itami (Japan), Nagoya University professor, and other members of his laboratory committed scientific misconduct in the graphene nanoribbon fraud. As a result of that misconduct, in 2022 Itami and the other implicated lab members were banned from receiving research support from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science for at least three years. As of 2023, Itami has had three of his research publications retracted, one other paper has received an expression of concern, and one other paper has been corrected. Itami was held responsible, and the Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST) and the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS), which determine the allocation of government research funds, have stopped granting research funds as a penalty until the end of March 2025 from the university. Despite this, RIKEN, which is funded mainly by research fees from the government, hired Itami and obtained about 50 million yen in research funding. He pioneered a loophole that


id: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents-6.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific misconduct incidents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:51.543843+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-0
summary:
== Philosophy == Magali Elise Roques (France), a philosopher and a chargé de recherche at the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) in Paris, in 2020 became the subject of academic plagiarism inquiries. Several of her journal publications were subsequently retracted, with the journal Vivarium publishing a detailed retraction notice. A CNRS investigating committee reported that although the allegations of plagiarism against Roques were unjustified, "the whole body of [Roques'] work in English [...] is seriously flawed by the regular presence of bad scholarly practices, by what might be called a sort of active negligence". As of 2023, Roques has had 13 of her published articles retracted. Martin William Francis Stone, an Irish philosopher formerly at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, plagiarized in more than 40 publications. Peter Johannes Schulz, a philosopher working at the Institute of Communication and Health at the University of Lugano, had articles both in philosophy and communications retracted for plagiarism and failure to credit sources properly. After a minor sanction, he was reinstated by the university in 2017. Mahmoud Khatami, an Iranian philosopher at the University of Tehran, was subject to plagiarism accusations in 2014. A retraction for one article by Khatami due to plagiarism


id: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents-7.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific misconduct incidents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:51.543843+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-0
summary:
== Social sciences == Mart Bax (Netherlands), former professor of political anthropology at the Vrije Universiteit, committed multiple acts of scientific misconduct including data fabrication, with a 2020 article in Ethnologia Europaea characterizing Bax's misconduct as "incredible and appalling." Bax, who as of 2020 has had nine of his research publications retracted, was found in 2013 to have never published 61 of the papers he listed on his CV. Bruno Frey (Switzerland), an economist formerly at the University of Zurich, in 2010–11 committed multiple acts of self-plagiarism in articles about the Titanic disaster. Frey admitted to the self-plagiarism, terming the acts "grave mistake[s]" and "deplorable." Karl-Theodor zu Guttenberg (Germany), former Minister of Defence of Germany, resigned from his office because of plagiarism in his doctoral dissertation from the University of Bayreuth. The university, which had awarded Guttenberg's dissertation with summa cum laude distinction, revoked his Ph.D. title on 23 February 2011, and Guttenberg resigned in March. Michael LaCour (US), former graduate student in political science at UCLA, was the lead author of the 2014 article "When contact changes minds". Published in Science and making international headlines, the paper was later retracted because of numerous irregularities in the methodology and falsified


id: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents-8.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific misconduct incidents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:51.543843+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-0
summary:
== Other == Cistercian historian Louis Lekai called attention to "a major case of modern plagiarism" when in 1959 he proved that almost all of Louis Dubois' influential biography of Abbot Armand Jean de Rancé, published in 1867, was copied from an unpublished manuscript by Francois Armand Gervaise. In 2016 the scientific publisher Springer Nature retracted 58 papers from seven journals, authored mostly by Iran-based researchers, because the papers showed evidence of authorship manipulation, peer-review manipulation, and/or plagiarism. Ohio University in 2006 alleged more than three dozen cases of plagiarism in master's degree theses dating back 20 years in its mechanical engineering department. A former faculty member involved in the plagiarism cases, Jay S. Gunasekera, was removed from his position as department chair, had his title of "distinguished professor" rescinded, and in 2011 settled a lawsuit he had brought against the university. Another former faculty member implicated in the plagiarism cases, Bhavin Mehta, in 2012 lost a defamation suit he had brought against the university. 486 Chinese cancer researchers were found guilty of engaging in a fraudulent peer-review scheme by China's Ministry of Science and Technology. The investigation was initiated after the retraction of 107 papers published in Tumor Biology


id: list-of-neurological-research-methods-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_neurological_research_methods-0.md
category: reference
title: List of neurological research methods
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_neurological_research_methods
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:54.237005+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-neurological-research-methods-20260505-0
summary:
There are numerous types of research methods used when conducting neurological research, all with the purpose of trying to view the activity that occurs within the brain during a certain activity or behavior. The disciplines within which these methods are used is quite broad, ranging from psychology to neuroscience to biomedical engineering to sociology. The following is a list of neuroimaging methods: Electroencephalography (EEG) Quantitative electroencephalography (QEEG) Stereoelectroencephalography (SEEG) Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) Magnetoencephalography (MEG) Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) Positron emission tomography (PET) Single-unit recording Transcranial direct-current stimulation (TDCS) Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) == See also == neuroimaging functional neuroimaging


id: list-of-noise-topics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_noise_topics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of noise topics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_noise_topics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:55.431030+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-noise-topics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of noise topics. == Engineering and physics == == Environmental == == Noise reduction == == Music == == See also == DB drag racing List of environment topics == External links == Noboomers


id: list-of-otomies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_-otomies-0.md
category: reference
title: List of -otomies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_-otomies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:56.737987+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-otomies-20260505-0
summary:
The suffix '-otomy' is derived from Greek τόμος (-tómos) 'cutting, sharp, separate'. == Medical procedures == Amniotomy – An incision created to accelerate labor. Androtomy – Dissection of the human body. Bilateral cingulotomy – Psychosurgery, treatment for depression and addiction . Bronchotomy – A procedure that ensures there is an open airway between a patient's lung/s and the outside world. Clitoridotomy – Plastic surgery of the clitorial hood. Coeliotomy – A large incision through the abdominal wall to gain access into the abdominal cavity Colpotomy – Extraction of fluid from the rectouterine pouch through a needle. Cordotomy – Procedure that disables selected pain-conducting tracts in the spinal cord, in order to achieve loss of pain and temperature perception. Craniotomy – A bone flap is temporarily removed from the skull to access the brain. Cricothyrotomy – An incision made through the skin and cricothyroid membrane to establish a patent airway during certain life-threatening situations. Escharotomy – Procedure used to treat full-thickness (third-degree) circumferential burns. Episiotomy – Surgical incision of the perineum and the posterior vaginal wall. Fasciotomy – Surgical procedure where the fascia is cut to relieve tension or pressure commonly to treat the resulting loss of circulation to an area


id: outline-of-academic-disciplines-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_academic_disciplines-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of academic disciplines
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_academic_disciplines
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:57.957353+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-academic-disciplines-20260505-0
summary:
An academic discipline or academic field is a subdivision of knowledge that is taught and researched at the college or university level. Disciplines are defined (in part) and recognized by the academic journals in which research is published, and the learned societies and academic departments or faculties within colleges and universities to which their practitioners belong. Academic disciplines are conventionally divided into the humanities (including philosophy, languages, art and cultural studies), the scientific disciplines (such as physics, chemistry, and biology); and the formal sciences like mathematics and computer science. The social sciences are sometimes considered a fourth category. It is also known as a field of study, field of inquiry, research field and branch of knowledge. The different terms are used in different countries and fields. Individuals associated with academic disciplines are commonly referred to as experts or specialists. Others, who may have studied liberal arts or systems theory rather than concentrating in a specific academic discipline, are classified as generalists. The following outline provides an overview of and topical guide to academic disciplines. In each case, an entry at the highest level of the hierarchy (e.g., Humanities) is a group of broadly similar disciplines; an entry at the next


id: list-of-petawatt-lasers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_petawatt_lasers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of petawatt lasers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_petawatt_lasers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:01:59.083539+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-petawatt-lasers-20260505-0
summary:
This page contains a list of petawatt-level lasers in operation, under construction, or proposed. The list is compiled from existing academic reviews. A petawatt laser is typically defined as a laser system whose pulse energy divided by its pulse duration reaches an order of magnitude of 1015 W, or 1 petawatt. These high-power laser pulses are capable of driving a strong electromagnetic field, giving rise to a number of novel applications. For instance, focusing large numbers of petawatt level lasers on a target containing deuterium and tritium creates enough energy density to drive inertial confinement fusion. Another potential application is using strong electric fields from petawatt laser pulses to drive steep density gradient structures in a plasma, which then creates field gradients capable of accelerating particles in a much shorter distance than linac; such concept is known as laser wakefield acceleration. In addition, as the laser pulse itself reaches extremely high field intensity, interaction of the high-energy particle beam with a petawatt laser pulse can achieve interactions with intensity beyond the Schwinger limit, enabling possible observation of effects such as vacuum polarization and Breit-Wheeler process. Generation of a petawatt laser pulse requires the pulse duration to be extremely short: to


id: list-of-polyurethane-applications-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyurethane_applications-0.md
category: reference
title: List of polyurethane applications
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyurethane_applications
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:02:03.083716+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-polyurethane-applications-20260505-0
summary:
Polyurethane products have many uses. Over three quarters of the global consumption of polyurethane products is in the form of foams, with flexible and rigid types being roughly equal in market size. In both cases, the foam is usually behind other materials: flexible foams are behind upholstery fabrics in commercial and domestic furniture; rigid foams are between metal, or plastic walls/sheets of most refrigerators and freezers, or other surface materials in the case of thermal insulation panels in the construction sector. Its use in garments is growing: for example, in lining the cups of brassieres. Polyurethane is also used for moldings which include door frames, columns, balusters, window headers, pediments, medallions and rosettes. Polyurethane formulations cover an extremely wide range of stiffness, hardness, and densities. These materials include: Low-density flexible foam used in upholstery, bedding, automotive and truck seating, and novel inorganic plant substrates for roof or wall gardens Low density elastomers used in footwear Hard solid plastics used as electronic instrument bezels and structural parts Flexible plastics used as straps and bands Cast and injection molded components for various markets – i.e., agriculture, military, automotive, industrial, etc. Polyurethane foam is widely used in high resiliency flexible foam seating, rigid


id: list-of-polyurethane-applications-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyurethane_applications-1.md
category: reference
title: List of polyurethane applications
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyurethane_applications
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:02:03.083716+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-polyurethane-applications-20260505-0
summary:
== Filling of spaces and cavities == Two binary liquids, one of which is a polyurethane (either T6 or 16), when mixed and aerated, expand into a hard, space-filling aerosolid. === Construction sealants and firestopping === Approved polyurethane sealants (which is different from foam) are available in one, two and three part systems, and in cartridges, buckets or drums. Polyurethane sealants are used to fill gaps thereby preventing air and water leakage. They are also used in conjunction with inorganic insulation, such as rockwool or ceramic fibres, for firestopping. Firestops can thwart smoke and hose-stream passage. The Browns Ferry Nuclear Power Plant used flammable polyurethane foam as a firestop, which was accidentally ignited and caused a major fire. == Water vessels == Polyurethane foam is widely used in the marine world in many applications: === Inflatable boats === Some raft manufacturers use urethane for the construction of inflatable boats. AIRE uses urethane membrane material as an air-retentive bladder inside a PVC shell, whereas SOTAR uses urethane membrane materials as a coating on some boats. Maravia uses a liquid urethane material which is spray-coated over PVC to enhance air retention and increase abrasion resistance. === Surfboards === Some surfboards are made


id: list-of-polyurethane-applications-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyurethane_applications-2.md
category: reference
title: List of polyurethane applications
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyurethane_applications
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:02:03.083716+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-polyurethane-applications-20260505-0
summary:
Polyurethane is also used in making solid tires and wheels. Industrial applications include forklift drive and load wheels, grocery and industrial carts, and roller coaster wheels. Modern roller blading and skateboarding became economical only with the introduction of tough, abrasion-resistant polyurethane parts, helping to usher in the popularity of what had once been an obscure 1960s craze. The durability of polyurethane wheels allowed the range of tricks and stunts performed on skateboards to expand considerably. Polyurethane is also used to make small equipment tires in the lawn and garden industry for wheelbarrows, hand trucks, lawn mowers, carts, etc. They provide the bounce and feel of an air-filled tire with the benefit of no punctures. They weigh about the same as air-filled tires as well, even though they are solid polyurethane all the way through. Other constructions have been developed for pneumatic tires, and microcellular foam variants are widely used in tires on wheelchairs, bicycles and other uses. These latter foam types are also widely encountered in car steering wheels and other interior and exterior automotive parts, including bumpers and fenders. == Automotive parts == Polyurethane usage has increased over the past twenty years in the automotive industry. It is being


id: list-of-polyurethane-applications-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyurethane_applications-3.md
category: reference
title: List of polyurethane applications
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyurethane_applications
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:02:03.083716+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-polyurethane-applications-20260505-0
summary:
Mining and mineral processing Aggregate Transportation Concrete Paper processing Power Inflatable boat manufacture Polyurethane is also used in the concrete construction industry to create formliners. Polyurethane formliners serves as a mold for concrete, creating a variety of textures and art. == Solid-fuel rockets == Polyurethane is used together with Ammonium perchlorate as solid fuel in the submarine launched Polaris missiles. == Body armor == Polyurethane urea elastomers have been investigated by researchers from the U.S. Army Research Laboratory and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for potential material for helmets, face shields, and ballistic vests for soldiers. == Inorganic plant substrates == Sheet and flaked semi-open cell hydrophilic polyurethane foams have found application in roof gardens and vertical green walls with commercial products now emerging on the market. Semi-open cell polyurethane foams substrates have much lower density and far greater water holding capacities than soil substrates. The semi-open cell structure facilitate the required plant root attachment for vertical wall gardens. Reductions in weight reduce building/wall supporting structure requirements, whilst increased water holding capacity reduces plant watering requirements. == Concrete raising == Closed cell polymers have been used to raise and support concrete roadways and bridge approaches since 1989. Originally developed in


id: list-of-popular-science-mass-media-outlets-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_popular_science_mass_media_outlets-0.md
category: reference
title: List of popular science mass media outlets
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_popular_science_mass_media_outlets
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:02:04.243558+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-popular-science-mass-media-outlets-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of popular science mass media outlets. == See also == List of science magazines List of science books == References ==


id: list-of-science-and-technology-awards-for-women-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_and_technology_awards_for_women-0.md
category: reference
title: List of science and technology awards for women
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_and_technology_awards_for_women
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:02:05.512649+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-science-and-technology-awards-for-women-20260505-0
summary:
This list of science and technology awards for women is an index to articles about notable awards made to women for work in science and the STEM (Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) fields generally. It includes awards for astronomy, space and atmospheric science; biology and medicine; chemistry; engineering; mathematics; neuroscience; physics; technology; and general or multiple fields. == Astronomy, space, atmospheric science == Annie Jump Cannon Award in Astronomy – annual award for outstanding contributions to astronomy by a woman within five years of earning a doctorate degree Peter B. Wagner Memorial Award for Women in Atmospheric Sciences – awarded annually since 1998, based on paper completion, to a woman studying for a Masters or PhD in atmospheric science at a university in the United States == Biology and medicine == Elizabeth Blackwell Medal, given by the American Medical Women's Association to a woman physician "who has made the most outstanding contributions to the cause of women in the field of medicine" Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology (FASEB) Excellence in Science Award Group on Women in Medicine and Science Leadership Awards, Association of American Medical Colleges Margaret Oakley Dayhoff Award from the Biophysical Society, Rockville, Maryland – given


id: lists-of-problems-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_problems-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of problems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_problems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:02:06.671577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-problems-20260505-0
summary:
The following articles contain lists of problems. This includes unsolved problems, which may refer to several notable conjectures or open problems in various academic fields: == Natural sciences, engineering and medicine == List of unsolved problems in astronomy List of unsolved problems in biology List of unsolved problems in chemistry List of unsolved problems in geoscience Unsolved problems in medicine List of unsolved problems in neuroscience List of unsolved problems in physics == Mathematics == List of unsolved problems in mathematics List of undecidable problems List of NP-complete problems List of PSPACE-complete problems List of problems in loop theory and quasigroup theory == Social sciences, statistics, and information sciences == List of unsolved problems in economics List of unsolved problems in fair division List of unsolved problems in statistics List of unsolved problems in computer science List of unsolved problems in information theory == Other == List of philosophical problems List of unsolved deaths == See also == Cold case List of ciphertexts List of hypothetical technologies List of paradoxes Unknowability


id: list-of-prolific-inventors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prolific_inventors-0.md
category: reference
title: List of prolific inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prolific_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:02:07.776913+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-prolific-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
The 100 known most prolific inventors based on worldwide utility patents are shown in the following table. While in many cases this is the number of utility patents granted by the United States Patent and Trademark Office, it may include utility patents granted by other countries, as noted by the source references for an inventor. == Prolific Inventors == This table is usually updated every Tuesday, and is current as of April 28, 2026. The columns are defined as follows: Inventor: The name of the inventor. Pats: The number of utility patents that have been issued. Only utility patents (or the international equivalent) are listed, as a utility patent is a patent for an invention. Not all patents are for inventions. Other patent types include: design patents for the ornamental design of an object; plant patents for plant varieties; and reissue patents, where a correction is made to an already granted patent. This list does not include patent applications (patents pending) as there is no guarantee that a patent application actually describes a novel invention until the patent is granted. Fams: The number of patent families, which in USPTO data includes an original or continuation-in-part patent by itself or with


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-0.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:02:09.038666+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of topics that have, either currently or in the past, been characterized as pseudoscience by academics or researchers. Detailed discussion of these topics may be found on their main pages. Criticism of pseudoscience, generally by the scientific community or skeptical organizations, involves critiques of the logical, methodological, or rhetorical bases of the topic in question. Though some of the listed topics continue to be investigated scientifically like psychoanalysis, others were only subject to scientific research in the past and today are considered refuted, but resurrected in a pseudoscientific fashion. Other ideas presented here are entirely non-scientific, but have in one way or another impinged on scientific domains or practices. Many adherents or practitioners of the topics listed here dispute their characterization as pseudoscience. Each section here summarizes the alleged pseudoscientific aspects of that topic. == Physical sciences == === Astronomy and space sciences === 2012 phenomenon – a range of eschatological beliefs that cataclysmic or otherwise transformative events would occur on or around 21 December 2012. This date was regarded as the end-date of a 5,126-year-long cycle in the Mesoamerican Long Count calendar and as such, festivities to commemorate the date took place on 21 December


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-1.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:02:09.038666+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Earth sciences === Megalithic geometry or 366 geometry – posits the existence of an Earth-based geometry dating back to at least 3500 BCE and the possibility that such a system is still in use in modern Freemasonry. According to proponents, megalithic civilizations in Britain and Brittany had advanced knowledge of geometry and the size of Earth. The megalithic yard is correlated to the polar circumference of Earth using a circle divided into 366 degrees. The Bermuda Triangle – a region of the Atlantic Ocean that lies between Bermuda, Puerto Rico and (in its most popular version) Florida. Ship and aircraft disasters and disappearances perceived as frequent in this area have led to the circulation of stories of unusual natural phenomena, paranormal encounters and interactions with extraterrestrials. Climate change denial – involves denial, dismissal, unwarranted doubt or contrarian views which depart from the scientific consensus on climate change, including the extent to which it is caused by humans, its impacts on nature and human society, or the potential of adaptation to global warming by human actions. Flood geology – creationist form of geology that advocates most of the geologic features on Earth are explainable by a global flood. The Hollow


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-2.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:02:09.038666+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Agriculture === Lysenkoism, or Lysenko-Michurinism – was a political campaign against genetics and science-based agriculture conducted by Trofim Lysenko, his followers and Soviet authorities. Lysenko served as the director of the Soviet Union's Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences. Lysenkoism began in the late 1920s and formally ended in 1964. The pseudoscientific ideas of Lysenkoism built on Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's concepts of the heritability of acquired characteristics. Lysenko's theory rejected Gregor Mendel's theory of inheritance and the concept of the "gene"; it departed from Darwinian evolutionary theory by rejecting natural selection, viewing that concept as being incompatible with Marxist ideology. Biodynamic agriculture – method of organic farming that treats farms as unified and individual organisms. Biodynamics uses a calendar which has been characterized as astrological. The substances and composts used by biodynamicists have been described as unconventional and homeopathic. For example, field mice are countered by deploying ashes prepared from field mice skin when Venus is in the Scorpius constellation. No difference in beneficial outcomes has been scientifically established between certified biodynamic agricultural techniques and similar organic and integrated farming practices. Biodynamic agriculture lacks strong scientific evidence for its efficacy and has been labeled a pseudoscience because of its overreliance


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-3.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:02:09.038666+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
The abortion–breast cancer hypothesis posits that having an induced abortion can increase the risk of breast cancer. This hypothesis is at odds with mainstream scientific opinion and is rejected by major medical professional organizations. Access Consciousness is an alternative medicine technique similar to a combination of phrenology, reiki, energy therapies and therapeutic touch, where health and wellness can be improved by touching the 32 "Energy Bars" on a person's head. Acupuncture – use of fine needles to stimulate acupuncture points and balance the flow of qi. There is no known anatomical or histological basis for the existence of acupuncture points or meridians and acupuncture is regarded as an alternative medical procedure. Some acupuncturists regard them as functional rather than structural entities, useful in guiding evaluation and care of patients. Acupuncture has been the subject of active scientific research since the late 20th century and its effects and application remain controversial among medical researchers and clinicians. Some scholarly reviews conclude that acupuncture's effects are mainly attributable to the placebo effect and others find likelihood of efficacy for particular conditions. Dry needling is the therapeutic insertion of fine needles without regard to traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and is similarly controversial. Acupressure is


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-4.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:02:09.038666+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
There is disputed evidence that it may be effective in combating postoperative nausea and vomiting. Auriculotherapy (also auricular therapy, ear acupuncture, and auriculoacupuncture) is a form of alternative medicine based on the idea that the ear is a micro-system which reflects the entire body, represented on the auricle, the outer portion of the ear. Conditions affecting the physical, mental or emotional health of the patient are assumed to be treatable by stimulation of the surface of the ear exclusively. Similar mappings are used in many areas of the body, including the practices of reflexology and iridology. These mappings are not based on or supported by any medical or scientific evidence and are therefore considered to be pseudoscience. Autistic enterocolitis is a nonexistent medical condition proposed by discredited British gastroenterologist Andrew Wakefield when he suggested a link between a number of common clinical symptoms and signs which he contended were distinctive to autism. The existence of such an enterocolitis has been dismissed by experts as having "not been established". Wakefield's now-retracted and fraudulent report used inadequate controls and suppressed negative findings and multiple attempts to replicate his results have been unsuccessful. Reviews in the medical literature have found no link between


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-5.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:02:09.038666+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Chromotherapy, sometimes called color therapy, colorology or cromatherapy, is an alternative medicine method which is considered pseudoscience. Chromotherapists claim to be able to use light in the form of color to balance "energy" lacking from a person's body, whether it be on physical, emotional, spiritual, or mental levels. Color therapy is distinct from other types of light therapy, such as neonatal jaundice treatment and blood irradiation therapy, which is a scientifically accepted medical treatment for a number of conditions, and from photobiology, the scientific study of the effects of light on living organisms. French skeptic and lighting physicist Sébastien Point considers LED lamps at domestic radiance to be safe in normal use for the general population; he also pointed out the risk of overexposure to light from LEDs for practices like chromotherapy, when duration and time exposure are not under control. Chronic Lyme disease (not to be confused with Lyme disease) is a generally rejected diagnosis that encompasses "a broad array of illnesses or symptom complexes for which there is no reproducible or convincing scientific evidence of any relationship to Borrelia burgdorferi infection." Despite numerous studies, there is no clinical evidence that "chronic" Lyme disease is caused by a persistent


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-6.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:02:09.038666+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
The field has been compared to pseudoscience due to irreproducible or contradictory findings, exaggerated claims of usefulness and lack of high quality research protocols. Ear candling, also called ear coning or thermal-auricular therapy, is a pseudoscientific alternative medicine practice claimed to improve general health and well-being by lighting one end of a hollow candle and placing the other end in the ear canal. Medical research has shown that the practice is both dangerous and ineffective and does not functionally remove earwax or toxicants, despite product design contributing to that impression.


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-7.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:02:09.038666+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Earthing therapy or grounding is a therapy that is claimed to ease pain, provide a better night's sleep, and assist with symptoms of inflammation by being in direct physical contact with the ground or a device connected to electrical ground. Practitioners claim that Earth has an excess of electrons which people are missing due to insulating shoes and ground cover. Being in electrical contact with Earth is claimed to provide the body with those excess electrons, which then act as antioxidants. A 2012 systematic review study showed inconclusive results related to methodological issues across the literature. Subsequently, a 2017 systematic review of the benefits of spending time in forests demonstrated positive health effects, but not enough to generate clinical practice guidelines or demonstrate causality. Electrohomeopathy (or Mattei cancer cure) is a derivative of homeopathy invented in the 19th century by Count Cesare Mattei. The name is derived from a combination of electro (referring to an electric bio-energy content supposedly extracted from plants and of therapeutic value, rather than electricity in its conventional sense) and homeopathy (referring to an alternative medicinal philosophy developed by Samuel Hahnemann in the 18th century). Electrohomeopathy has been defined as the combination of electrical devices and


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-8.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:02:09.038666+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Systematic reviews of clinical trials of Bach flower solutions have found no efficacy beyond a placebo effect. Iridology – means of medical diagnosis which proponents believe can identify and diagnose health problems through close examination of the markings and patterns of the iris. Practitioners divide the iris into 80–90 zones, each of which is connected to a particular body region or organ. This connection has not been scientifically validated and disorder detection is neither selective nor specific. Because iris texture is a phenotypical feature which develops during gestation and remains unchanged after birth (which makes the iris useful for Biometrics), iridology is all but impossible. Jilly Juice – a potentially dangerous fermented drink that has been claimed to treat a variety of medical conditions. Leaky gut syndrome – in alternative medicine, a proposed condition caused by the passage of harmful substances outward through the gut wall. It has been proposed as the cause of many conditions, including multiple sclerosis and autism, a claim which has been called pseudoscientific. According to the UK National Health Service, the theory is vague and unproven. Some skeptics and scientists say that the marketing of treatments for leaky gut syndrome is either misguided or an


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-9.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:02:09.038666+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Radionics – means of medical diagnosis and therapy which proponents believe can diagnose and remedy health problems using various frequencies in a putative energy field coupled to the practitioner's electronic device. The first such "black box" devices were designed and promoted by Albert Abrams and were definitively proven useless by an independent investigation commissioned by Scientific American in 1924. The internal circuitry of radionics devices is often obfuscated and irrelevant, leading proponents to conjecture dowsing and ESP as operating principles. Similar devices continue to be marketed under various names, though none is approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration; there is no scientific evidence for the efficacy or underlying premise of radionics devices. The radionics of Albert Abrams and his intellectual descendants should not be confused with similarly named reputable and legitimate companies, products, or medical treatments such as radiotherapy or radiofrequency ablation. Reiki is a form of alternative medicine called energy healing. Reiki practitioners use a technique called palm healing or hands-on healing through which a "universal energy" is said to be transferred through the palms of the practitioner to the patient in order to encourage emotional or physical healing. Reiki is a pseudoscience, and is used as


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-10.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:02:09.038666+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Research concerning qigong has been conducted for a wide range of medical conditions, including hypertension, pain and cancer, and with respect to quality of life. Most research concerning health benefits of qigong has been of poor quality, such that it would be unwise to draw firm conclusions at this stage. Zang-fu – concept of organs as functional yin and yang entities for the storage and manipulation of qi. These organs are not based in anatomy. Tomatis Method A type of auditory integration training devised by Alfred A. Tomatis and promoted, without supporting evidence, as being of benefit to people with autism. Urine therapy – drinking either one's own undiluted urine or homeopathic potions of urine for treatment of a wide variety of diseases is based on pseudoscience. Promotion of a link between autism and vaccines, in which the vaccines are accused of causing autism-spectrum conditions, triggering them, or aggravating them, has been characterized as pseudoscience. Many epidemiological studies have reported no association between either the MMR vaccine and autism, or thimerosal-containing vaccines and autism. Consequently, the Institute of Medicine has concluded that there is no causal link between either of these varieties of vaccines and autism. Similarly, "vaccine overload", a


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-11.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:02:09.038666+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Technology === 5G conspiracies and 5G causes coronavirus theories – theory proposing that 5G causes health issues, including COVID-19. == Social sciences == === History === Christ myth theory – A fringe theory that proposes that the historical Jesus did not exist in any capacity whatsoever. While the divinity of Jesus is a matter of religious and philosophical rather than historical debate, Christian and non-Christian scholars of antiquity universally agree that Jesus of Nazareth was a Galilean Jew who lived in the first century, was baptized, and later crucified by Roman authorities. This is based on sources written by historians, scholars, and politicians who lived during the time of Christ. Holocaust denial – Historical revisionist movements associated with Holocaust denial have employed pseudoscientific evidence and conspiracy theories published in intradiegetic pseudo-academic journals and presented at fringe conferences (e.g. misconstruing cyanide residue studies, claiming despite all evidence to the contrary that gas chambers were built after the war). Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry – A fringe theory that postulates that Ashkenazi Jews were primarily, or to a large extent, descended from Khazars, a multi-ethnic conglomerate of mostly Turkic peoples who formed a semi-nomadic khanate in and around the northern and


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-12.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:02:09.038666+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Psychology === Attachment therapy – common name for a set of potentially fatal clinical interventions and parenting techniques aimed at controlling aggressive, disobedient, or unaffectionate children using "restraint and physical and psychological abuse to seek their desired results." (The term "attachment therapy" may sometimes be used loosely to refer to mainstream approaches based on attachment theory, usually outside the US where the pseudoscientific form of attachment therapy is less known.) Probably the most common form is holding therapy, in which the child is restrained by adults for the purpose of supposed cathartic release of suppressed rage and regression. Perhaps the most extreme, but much less common, is "rebirthing", in which the child is wrapped tightly in a blanket and then made to simulate emergence from a birth canal. This is done by encouraging the child to struggle and pushing and squeezing them to mimic contractions. Despite the practice's name, it is not based on traditional attachment theory and shares no principles of mainstream developmental psychology research. In 2006, it was the subject of an almost entirely critical Taskforce Report commissioned by the American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children (APSAC). Conversion therapy – sometimes called reparative therapy, seeks


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-13.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:02:09.038666+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
The Center for Applications of Psychological Type claims that the MBTI is scientifically supported, but most of the research on it is done through its own journal, Journal of Psychological Type, raising questions of bias. Results are said to follow the Barnum effect. Neuro-linguistic programming – an approach to communication, personal development, and psychotherapy created in the 1970s. The title refers to a stated connection between the neurological processes ("neuro"), language ("linguistic") and behavioral patterns that have been learned through experience ("programming") and can be organized to achieve specific goals in life. According to certain neuroscientists psychologists and linguists, NLP is unsupported by current scientific evidence, and uses incorrect and misleading terms and concepts. Reviews of empirical research on NLP indicate that NLP contains numerous factual errors, and has failed to produce reliable results for the claims for effectiveness made by NLP's originators and proponents. According to Devilly, NLP is no longer as prevalent as it was in the 1970s and 1980s. Criticisms go beyond the lack of empirical evidence for effectiveness; critics say that NLP exhibits pseudoscientific characteristics, title, concepts and terminology. NLP is used as an example of pseudoscience for facilitating the teaching of scientific literacy at the


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-14.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:02:09.038666+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Racial theories === Scientific racism – claim that scientific evidence shows the inferiority or superiority of certain races. Aryanism – the claim that there is a distinct "Aryan race" that is superior to other putative races was an important tenet of Nazism and "the basis of the German government policy of exterminating Jews, Gypsies, and other 'non-Aryans.'" Drapetomania was a conjectural mental illness that, in 1851, American physician Samuel A. Cartwright hypothesized as the cause of enslaved Africans fleeing captivity. It has since been debunked as pseudoscience and part of the edifice of scientific racism. Melanin theory – belief founded in the distortion of known physical properties of melanin, a natural polymer, that posits the inherent superiority of dark-skinned people and the essential inhumanity and inferiority of light-skinned people. Turkish History Thesis – the belief that Turks from Central Asia migrated and brought civilization to China, India, the Middle East, and Europe. Eugenics – As a movement, eugenics was associated with pseudoscience including pseudoscientific journals and professional societies. This is to be contrasted with the common and scientifically accepted practice of selective breeding. === Sociology === Alpha and beta male – pseudoscientific terms for men derived from alpha and


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-15.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:02:09.038666+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Animal mutilations – cases of animals, primarily domestic livestock, with seemingly inexplicable wounds. These wounds have been said to be caused by extraterrestrials, cults, covert government organizations, or cryptids such as el chupacabra, when in fact most such cases were found to be caused by natural predation. An aura or human energy field is, according to New Age beliefs, a colored emanation said to enclose a human body or any animal or object. In some esoteric positions, the aura is described as a subtle body. Psychics and holistic medicine practitioners often claim to have the ability to see the size, color and type of vibration of an aura. In New Age alternative medicine, the human aura is seen as a hidden anatomy that affects the health of a client, and is often understood to be composed of centers of vital force called chakra. Such claims are not supported by scientific evidence and are pseudoscience. When tested under controlled experiments, the ability to see auras has not been shown to exist. Channeling – communication of information to or through a person allegedly from a spirit or other paranormal entity. Crop circles – geometric designs of crushed or knocked-over crops created in


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-16.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:02:09.038666+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Affirmative prayer is a form of prayer or a metaphysical technique that is focused on a positive outcome, rather than a negative situation. For instance, a person who is experiencing some form of illness would focus the prayer on the desired state of perfect health and affirm this desired intention "as if already happened" rather than identifying the illness and then asking God for help to eliminate it. William James described affirmative prayer as an element of the American metaphysical healing movement that he called the "mind-cure"; he described it as the United States' "only decidedly original contribution to the systemic philosophy of life." What sets affirmative prayer apart from secular affirmations of the autosuggestion type taught by the 19th century self-help author Émile Coué (whose most famous affirmation was "Every day in every way, I am getting better and better") is that affirmative prayer addresses the practitioner to God, the Divine, the Creative Mind, emphasizing the seemingly practical aspects of religious belief. Christian Science is generally considered a Christian new religious movement; however, some have called it "pseudoscience" because its founder, Mary Baker Eddy, used "science" in its name, and because of its former stance against medical science. Also,


id: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-17
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience-17.md
category: reference
title: List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:02:09.038666+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Scientology === Dianetics, a therapeutic technique promoted by Scientology, purports to treat a hypothetical reactive mind. There is no scientific evidence for the existence of an actual reactive mind, apart from the stimulus response mechanisms documented in behaviorist psychology. Narconon and Purification Rundown are Scientology programs that purport to clean the human body of toxins and drugs respectively. Their method consists of very long saunas over many days, extremely large (possibly toxic) doses of vitamins including niacin, and Scientology 'training routines', sometimes including attempts at telekinesis. The programs have been described as "medically unsafe", "quackery" and "medical fraud", while academic and medical experts have dismissed Narconon's educational programme as containing "factual errors in basic concepts such as physical and mental effects, addiction and even spelling". In turn, Narconon has claimed that mainstream medicine is "biased" against it, and that "people who endorse so-called controlled drug use cannot be trusted to review a program advocating totally drug-free living." Narconon has said that criticism of its programmes is "bigoted", and that its critics are "in favor of drug abuse [...] they are either using drugs or selling drugs". === Other === Quantum mysticism – builds on a superficial similarity between certain


id: index-of-quality-engineering-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_quality_engineering_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of quality engineering articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_quality_engineering_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:02:10.214417+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-quality-engineering-articles-20260505-0
summary:
This is an alphabetical list of articles pertaining specifically to quality engineering. For a broad overview of engineering, please see List of engineering topics. For biographies please see List of engineers. == A == American Customer Satisfaction Index (ACSI) active listening affinity diagram Automotive Industry Action Group (AIAG) American Society for Quality (ASQ) Audit Appraisal == B == Bar chart Benchmarking == C == change management Code of Ethics Continuous quality improvement Cost of Poor Execution (COPE) Cost of quality (CoQ) Cost of poor quality (COPQ) Customer satisfaction research == D == Define, measure, analyze, improve and control (DMAIC) == E == European Foundation for Quality Management (EFQM) == F == Five whys == G == Groupthink Gantt chart == H == House of Quality Human reliability assessment (HRA) == I == Incrementalism == J == Joseph M. Juran == K == Kaizen == L == Lean manufacturing == M == Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award Monitoring and evaluation Muda (Japanese term) == N == National Council on Physical Distribution Management (NCPDM) Next operation as customer(NOAC) Nine windows Nominal group technique == O == Organizational culture Overall equipment effectiveness (OEE) == P == Plan, Do, Check, Act (PDCA) Poka-yoke Process


id: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-delft-university-of-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_Delft_University_of_Technology-0.md
category: reference
title: List of rectores magnifici of Delft University of Technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_Delft_University_of_Technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:02:11.284269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-delft-university-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
A rector of a Dutch university is called a rector magnificus. The following people have been rector magnificus of Delft University of Technology or its predecessor, Technische Hogeschool Delft: == References == Bruggemans, J.S. (1983). "Inventaris van de archieven van de Technische Hogeschool te Delft - Overzicht van de rectores magnifici tussen 1959 en 1972" (PDF). Nationaal Archief Den Haag: 8. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Bruggemans, J.S. (1983). "Inventaris van de archieven van de Technische Hogeschool te Delft - Overzicht van de rectores magnifici tussen 1905 en 1959" (PDF). Nationaal Archief Den Haag: 162–163. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)


id: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-the-eindhoven-university-of-technology-20260505-0
category: reference
title: List of rectores magnifici of the Eindhoven University of Technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_the_Eindhoven_University_of_Technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:02:12.455382+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-the-eindhoven-university-of-technology-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_the_Eindhoven_University_of_Technology-0.md

summary:
A rector of a Dutch university is called a rector magnificus. The following people have been rector magnificus of the Eindhoven University of Technology or its predecessor, the Technische Hogeschool Eindhoven (THE):


id: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-the-erasmus-university-rotterdam-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_the_Erasmus_University_Rotterdam-0.md
category: reference
title: List of rectores magnifici of the Erasmus University Rotterdam
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_the_Erasmus_University_Rotterdam
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:02:13.683548+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-the-erasmus-university-rotterdam-20260505-0
summary:
A rector of a Dutch university is called a rector magnificus. The following people have been rector magnificus of the Erasmus University Rotterdam: == External links == Website Erasmus University Rotterdam


id: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-leiden-university-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_Leiden_University-0.md
category: reference
title: List of rectores magnifici of Leiden University
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_Leiden_University
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:02:17.925194+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-leiden-university-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of chancellors (rectores magnifici) of Leiden University, as from 1575. Three Nobel laureates are among these chancellors: Hendrik Lorentz, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes and Willem Einthoven. == 16th century == === 1575–1600 === == 17th century == === 1601–1620 === === 1621–1640 === === 1641–1660 === === 1661–1680 === === 1681–1700 === == 18th century == === 1701–1720 === === 1721–1740 === === 1741–1760 === === 1761–1780 === === 1781–1800 === == 19th century == === 1801–1820 === === 1821–1840 === === 1841–1860 === === 1861–1880 === === 1881–1900 === == 20th century == === 1901–1920 === === 1921–1940 === === 1941–1960 === === 1961–2000 === == 21st century == == See also == List of Leiden University people == Literature == Harm Beukers [et al.].: Album Scholasticum academiae Lugduno-Batavae MCMLXXV-MCMLXXXIX. (1575–1989), Leids Universiteits-Fonds, Leiden, 1991 R.E.O. Ekkart: Athenae Batavae. De Leidse Universiteit / The University of Leiden 1575-1975. Universitaire Pers Leiden, 1975. ISBN 90-6021-222-3 Icones Leidenses. Leiden, Universitaire Pers, 1973. ISBN 9060211839 == References == == External links == Website Leiden University


id: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-maastricht-university-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_Maastricht_University-0.md
category: reference
title: List of rectores magnifici of Maastricht University
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_Maastricht_University
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:02:19.069286+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-maastricht-university-20260505-0
summary:
A rector of a Dutch university is called a rector magnificus. The following people have been rector magnificus of the Maastricht University: == External links == Maastricht University


id: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-the-vrije-universiteit-amsterdam-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_the_Vrije_Universiteit_Amsterdam-0.md
category: reference
title: List of rectores magnifici of the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_the_Vrije_Universiteit_Amsterdam
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:02:20.196414+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-the-vrije-universiteit-amsterdam-20260505-0
summary:
The rector of a Dutch university is called a rector magnificus. The following people have been rector magnificus of the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam: == Publication == A.Th. van Deursen: The distinctive character of the Free University in Amsterdam, 1880-2005. A commemorative history. Grand Rapids, Michigan, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2008. ISBN 9780802862518 == References == Jaarboek Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1880-1990 (digital)


id: list-of-robotics-journals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_robotics_journals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of robotics journals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_robotics_journals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:02:21.447620+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-robotics-journals-20260505-0
summary:
List of robotics journals includes notable academic and scientific journals that focus on research in the field of robotics and automation. == Journals == Acta Mechanica et Automatica Advanced Robotics Annual Review of Control, Robotics, and Autonomous Systems IEEE Robotics and Automation Letters IEEE Transactions on Robotics IEEE Transactions on Field Robotics The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology International Journal of Humanoid Robotics International Journal of Robotics Research Journal of Cognitive Engineering and Decision Making Journal of Field Robotics Journal of Intelligent & Robotic Systems Paladyn Robotics and Autonomous Systems Robotics Science Robotics SLAS Technology == See also == List of computer science journals List of artificial intelligence journals List of engineering journals and magazines List of open-source artificial intelligence software for robotics Robotics Automation === Robotics conferences === International Conference on Robotics and Automation International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems International Conference on Human–Robot Interaction Humanoids Summit Roboexotica Defcon Robot Contest == External links == IEEE Xplore Digital Library The International Journal of Robotics Research – Springer Science Robotics – AAAS


id: list-of-scientists-whose-names-are-used-as-units-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientists_whose_names_are_used_as_units-0.md
category: reference
title: List of scientists whose names are used as units
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientists_whose_names_are_used_as_units
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:02:22.606389+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientists-whose-names-are-used-as-units-20260505-0
summary:
Many scientists have been recognized with the assignment of their names as international units by the International Committee for Weights and Measures or as non-SI units. The International System of Units (abbreviated SI from French: Système international d'unités) is the most widely used system of units of measurement. There are 7 base units and 22 derived units (excluding compound units). These units are used both in science and in commerce. Two of the base SI units and 17 of the derived units are named after scientists. 28 non-SI units are named after scientists. By this convention, their names are immortalised. As a rule, the SI units are written in lowercase letters, but symbols of units derived from the name of a person begin with a capital letter. == Scientists and SI units == (colour legend) == Scientists and non-SI units == == See also == List of chemical elements named after people List of scientists whose names are used in physical constants == References == == Bibliography == == External links == Physical dimensions of the units


id: list-of-science-podcasts-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_podcasts-0.md
category: reference
title: List of science podcasts
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_podcasts
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:02:23.745752+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-science-podcasts-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of science podcasts. == List == == See also == Science communication Science journalism Popular science Nature documentary == References ==


id: list-of-scientific-demonstrations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_demonstrations-0.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific demonstrations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_demonstrations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:02:24.909951+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-demonstrations-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of scientific demonstrations used in educational demonstrations and popular science lectures. == Physics == Balsa wood bridge — demonstrates compressive strength and tensile strength, teaches engineering thinking Egg drop competition — demonstrates compressive strength, teaches engineering thinking Hand boiler — demonstrates vapour-liquid equilibrium and simple heat engine principles Newton's cradle — demonstrates elastic collision, conservation of momentum, and conservation of energy Gauss gun Plate trick or Dirac belt trick — demonstrates spinors and the double cover of SO(3) by SU(2) Prince Rupert's Drop — demonstrates supercooling and tensile stress Self-siphoning beads — demonstrates momentum, energy and inertia Water rocket — demonstrates conservation of momentum, conservation of energy, the gas laws and basic rocketry Franklin bells — demonstrate electric charges Oxford Electric Bell — an experimental electric bell that was set up in 1840 and which has run nearly continuously ever since Wimshurst machine — an electrostatic generator Shooting a candle through a plank Foucault pendulum — demonstrates the rotation of Earth == Chemistry == Ammonia fountain — introduces concepts like solubility and the gas laws at entry level. Barking dog reaction — demonstrates rapid exothermic chemical reaction Blue bottle (chemical reaction) — demonstrates reduction and oxidation


id: list-of-scientific-laws-named-after-people-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_laws_named_after_people-0.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific laws named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_laws_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:02:27.386320+00:00
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This is a list of scientific laws named after people (eponymous laws). For other lists of eponyms, see eponym. == See also == Eponym Fields of science List of eponymous laws (overlaps with this list but includes non-scientific laws such as Murphy's law) List of legislation named for a person List of laws in science Lists of etymologies Scientific constants named after people Scientific phenomena named after people Stigler's law of eponymy == Further reading == Ballentyne, D. W. G.; Lovett, D. R. (1980). A dictionary of named effects and laws in chemistry, physics, and mathematics (4th ed.). Chapman and Hall. ISBN 978-0-412-22380-8.


id: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific phenomena named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people
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parent: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of scientific phenomena and concepts named after people (eponymous phenomena). For other lists of eponyms, see eponym. == A == Abderhalden–Fauser reaction – Emil Abderhalden and August Fauser (1856–1938) Abney effect – William de Wiveleslie Abney Abrikosov lattice – Alexei Alexeyevich Abrikosov Aharonov–Bohm effect – Yakir Aharonov and David Bohm Alfvén wave – Hannes Olof Gösta Alfvén Alhazen's problem – Alhazen Allais effect – Maurice Allais Allee effect – Warder Clyde Allee Amdahl's law, a.k.a. Amdahl's argument – Gene Amdahl Ampère's law – André-Marie Ampère Anderson–Higgs mechanism (a.k.a. Higgs mechanism) – Peter Higgs and Philip Warren Anderson Anderson–Darling test – Theodore Wilbur Anderson and Donald A. Darling Andreev reflection – Alexander F. Andreev Apgar score – Virginia Apgar Arago spot – Dominique François Jean Arago Michaelis–Arbuzov reaction – Aleksandr Erminingeldovich Arbuzov and August Karl Arnold Michaelis Archimedean spiral, Archimedes number – Archimedes Argand diagram – Jean Robert Argand Aristotle's lantern – Aristotle Armstrong limit or Armstrong's line – Harry George Armstrong Armstrong oscillator – Edwin Armstrong Arndt–Eistert synthesis – Fritz Arndt and Bernd Eistert Arndt–Schulz law/principle/rule – Rudolf Arndt and Hugo Paul Friedrich Schulz Arrhenius equation – Svante August Arrhenius Ashkin–Teller model (a.k.a. Potts model) –


id: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientific phenomena named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:02:32.420705+00:00
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== B == Baeyer–Drewson indigo synthesis – Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Adolf von Baeyer and Viggo Drewsen Baeyer–Villiger oxidation and Baeyer–Villiger rearrangement – Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Adolf von Baeyer and Victor Villiger Babinet's principle – Jacques Babinet Babler–Dauben oxidation – James Babler and William Garfield Dauben Bagnold number – Ralph Alger Bagnold Baily's beads – Francis Baily Baker–Nathan effect – John William Baker and Wilfred S. Nathan Bakerian mimicry – Herbert G. Baker Baldwin effect (astronomy) – Jack Allen Baldwin Baldwin effect (Baldwinian evolution, Ontogenic evolution) – James Mark Baldwin Baldwin's rules – Jack Edward Baldwin Balmer line, series – Johann Jakob Balmer Bamberger rearrangement – Eugen Bamberger Bamford–Stevens reaction – William Randall Bamford and Thomas Stevens Stevens Barkhausen effect – Heinrich Barkhausen Barnett effect – Samuel Jackson Barnett Barnum effect (a.k.a. Forer effect) – Phineas Taylor Barnum (and Bertram R. Forer) Barton reaction – Derek Harold Richard Barton Barton–McCombie deoxygenation – Derek Harold Richard Barton and Stuart W. McCombie Baskerville effect – the fictional Charles Baskerville of the novel The Hound of the Baskervilles Batesian mimicry – Henry Walter Bates Bauschinger effect – Johann Bauschinger Bayes's theorem – Thomas Bayes Baylis–Hillman reaction – Anthony B. Baylis and Melville E. D.


id: scientific-phenomena-named-after-people-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people-2.md
category: reference
title: Scientific phenomena named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people
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== C == Cabannes–Daure effect – Jean Cabannes and Pierre Daure Cadiot–Chodkiewicz coupling, reaction – Paul Cadiot and Wladyslav Chodkiewicz Callendar effect – Guy Stewart Callendar Callippic cycle – Callippus of Cyzicus Calvin cycle (a.k.a. Calvin–Benson cycle) – Melvin Calvin (and Andy Benson) Cannizzaro reaction – Stanislao Cannizzaro Cardan angles (a.k.a. Tait–Bryan angles) – Gerolamo Cardano Carnot cycle, number – Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot Carpenter effect (a.k.a. Ideomotor effect) – William Benjamin Carpenter Cartan–Kähler theorem – Élie Cartan, Erich Kähler Casimir effect – Hendrik Casimir Catalan's conjecture (a.k.a. Mihăilescu's theorem), Catalan numbers – Eugène Charles Catalan Cauchy number (a.k.a. Hooke number) – Augustin-Louis Cauchy Cauchy–Kovalevskaya theorem – Augustin-Louis Cauchy, Sofia Kovalevskaya Cauer filter – Wilhelm Cauer Chandler wobble – Seth Carlo Chandler Chandrasekhar limit, number – Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar Chang–Refsdal lens – Kyongae Chang and Sjur Refsdal Chaplygin gas – Sergey Alexeyevich Chaplygin Charles's law – Jacques Charles Chebyshev distance, equation, filter, linkage, polynomials – Pafnuty Chebyshev Chebyshev's inequality (a.k.a. Bienaymé–Chebyshev inequality) – Pafnuty Chebyshev (and Irénée-Jules Bienaymé) Cherenkov radiation (a.k.a. Cherenkov–Vavilov radiation) – Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov (and Sergey Ivanovich Vavilov) Chichibabin reaction – Alexei Yevgenievich Chichibabin Christiansen effect – Christian Christiansen Christoffel symbol – Elwin Bruno Christoffel Christofilos effect –


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people-3.md
category: reference
title: Scientific phenomena named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people
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== E == Early effect – James M. Early Eddington limit – Arthur Eddington Edgeworth–Bowley box – Francis Ysidro Edgeworth and Arthur Lyon Bowley Edison effect – Thomas Edison Edman degradation – Pehr Victor Edman Edward–Lemieux effect (a.k.a. Anomeric effect) – John Thomas Edward and Raymond U. Lemieux Eglinton reaction – Geoffrey Eglinton Ehrenfest paradox – Paul Ehrenfest Eimer's organ – Gustav Heinrich Theodor Eimer Einstein Cross, effect, radius, ring, shift – Albert Einstein Einstein–Chwolson ring or Chwolson ring – Albert Einstein and Orest Khvolson Einstein–de Haas effect – Albert Einstein and Wander Johannes de Haas Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox (a.k.a. EPR paradox, Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen–Bohm paradox) – Albert Einstein, Boris Podolsky, Nathan Rosen (and David Bohm) Ekman layer – Walfrid Ekman Elbs reaction – Karl Elbs Elliott–Halberstam conjecture – Peter D. T. A. Elliott and Heini Halberstam Elman network – Jeff Elman Elsasser number – Walter M. Elsasser Engel curve – Ernst Engel Engelbart's law – Douglas Engelbart Epimenides paradox – Epimenides of Knossos Erlenmeyer flask, rule, synthesis – Richard August Carl Emil Erlenmeyer Eschenmoser fragmentation – Albert Eschenmoser Eschweiler–Clarke reaction – Wilhelm Eschweiler and Hans Thacher Clarke Eshelby's inclusion – John D. Eshelby Étard reaction – Alexandre Léon Étard Ettingshausen effect –


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people-4.md
category: reference
title: Scientific phenomena named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people
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== G == Gabriel synthesis – Siegmund Gabriel Gardner transition – Elizabeth Gardner Garman limit – Elspeth Garman Gattermann reaction – Ludwig Gattermann Gattermann–Koch reaction – Ludwig Gattermann and Julius Arnold Koch Gaunt factor (or Kramers–Gaunt factor) – John Arthur Gaunt (and Hendrik Anthony Kramers) Gause's principle – Georgii Gause Gauss's law – Carl Friedrich Gauss Gauss–Bonnet gravity, theorem – Carl Friedrich Gauss and Pierre Ossian Bonnet Geib–Spevack process (a.k.a. Girdler sulfide (GS) process) – Karl-Hermann Geib and Jerome S. Spevack (and the Girdler company, which built the first American plant using the process) Geiger counter (a.k.a. Geiger–Müller counter) – Johannes Wilhelm (Hans) Geiger (and Walther Müller) Geiger–Marsden experiment (a.k.a. Rutherford experiment) – Johannes Wilhelm (Hans) Geiger and Ernest Marsden Geiger–Müller tube – Johannes Wilhelm (Hans) Geiger and Walther Müller Geiger–Nuttall law/rule – Johannes Wilhelm (Hans) Geiger and John Mitchell Nuttall Geissler tube – Heinrich Geissler Gibbs entropy, free energy, paradox, Gibbs's phase rule, Gibbs phenomenon – Josiah Willard Gibbs Gibbs–Donnan effect (a.k.a. Donnan effect) – Josiah Willard Gibbs and Frederick G. Donnan Gibbs–Marangoni effect (a.k.a. Marangoni effect) – Josiah Willard Gibbs and Carlo Marangoni Gibbs–Helmholtz equation – Josiah Willard Gibbs and Hermann von Helmholtz Gibbs–Thomson effect – Josiah Willard


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people-5.md
category: reference
title: Scientific phenomena named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people
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== J == Jaccard index, similarity coefficient, distance – Paul Jaccard Jaffe profile (or model) – Walter Jaffe Jahn–Teller effect – Hermann Arthur Jahn and Edward Teller Jaro–Winkler distance – Matthew A. Jaro and William E. Winkler Jarque–Bera test – Carlos M. Jarque and Anil K. Bera Jeans's theorem – James Hopwood Jeans Johnson–Nyquist noise – John B. Johnson and Harry Nyquist Jordan's rule/law – David Starr Jordan Josephson constant, effect, junction – Brian David Josephson Joule's law (a.k.a. Joule–Lenz law) – James Prescott Joule and Heinrich Friedrich Emil Lenz Joule–Thomson effect (a.k.a. Joule–Kelvin effect) – James Prescott Joule and William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin == K == K3 surface – Ernst Kummer, Erich Kähler, Kunihiko Kodaira Kähler differential, manifold, metric – Erich Kähler Kakutani's problem – see Collatz conjecture, above Kármán vortex street – Theodore von Kármán Karnaugh map (a.k.a. Karnaugh–Veitch map, Veitch diagram) – Maurice Karnaugh (and Edward W. Veitch) Karush–Kuhn–Tucker conditions (a.k.a. Kuhn–Tucker conditions) – William Karush, Harold W. Kuhn and Albert W. Tucker Kasha's rule – Michael Kasha Kater's pendulum – Captain Henry Kater Kaye effect – Alan Kaye Keeling Curve – Charles David Keeling Kelvin wave – William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism, instability


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people-6.md
category: reference
title: Scientific phenomena named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people
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== M == Mach band/effect, number, principle – Ernst Mach Mach–Zehnder interferometer – Ludwig Mach and Ludwig Zehnder Madelung constant, rule, energy – Erwin Madelung Maggi–Righi–Leduc effect (Thermal Hall effect) – Gian Antonio Maggi, Augusto Righi and Sylvestre Anatole Leduc Magnus effect – Heinrich Gustav Magnus Magorrian relation – John Magorrian Mahalanobis distance – Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis (প্রশান্ত চন্দ্র মহলানবিস) Mahler measure, Mahler's theorem – Kurt Mahler Maillard reaction Malmquist bias, effect – Karl Gunnar Malmquist Malus's law – Étienne-Louis Malus Malthusian parameter – named by Ronald Fisher as a criticism of Thomas Robert Malthus Malthusian catastrophe, growth model – Thomas Robert Malthus Marangoni cell/convection (a.k.a. Bénard–Marangoni convection) – see Bénard–Marangoni cell/convection, above Marangoni effect (a.k.a. Gibbs–Marangoni effect) – see Gibbs–Marangoni effect, above Markov's inequality, chain, partition, Markovian process – Andrey Markov Mathieu functions – Émile Léonard Mathieu Matilda effect – Matilda Joslyn Gage Matthew effect – Matthew the Evangelist Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution – James Clerk Maxwell and Ludwig Boltzmann McCollough effect – Celeste McCollough McCulloch–Pitts neuron – Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts McGurk effect (a.k.a. McGurk–MacDonald effect) – Harry McGurk (and John MacDonald) Mealy machine – George H. Mealy Meissner effect (a.k.a. Meissner–Ochsenfeld effect) – Walther Meissner (and Robert Ochsenfeld)


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people-7.md
category: reference
title: Scientific phenomena named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_phenomena_named_after_people
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== R == Rabi oscillations – Isidor Isaac Rabi Rademacher distribution, function, series, sum – Hans Adolph Rademacher Rademacher–Menchov theorem – Hans Adolph Rademacher and Dmitrii Menshov Radon transform – Johann Karl August Radon Raman scattering – Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman Ramsauer–Townsend effect (a.k.a. Ramsauer effect, Townsend effect) – Carl Ramsauer and John Sealy Townsend Ramsden circle/disc/eyepoint, eyepiece – Jesse Ramsden Ramsey theory – Frank Plumpton Ramsey Rapoport's rule – Eduardo H. Rapoport Raychaudhuri's equation – Amal Kumar Raychaudhuri (অমল কুমার রায়চৌধুরী) Raygor Estimate Graph – Alton L. Raygor Rayleigh criterion, distribution, fading, number, quotient, scattering, waves – Lord Rayleigh Rayleigh–Bénard cell/convection – Lord Rayleigh and Henri Bénard Rayleigh–Jeans law – Lord Rayleigh and James Jeans Rayleigh–Taylor instability – Lord Rayleigh and G. I. Taylor Rees–Sciama effect – Martin Rees and Dennis Sciama Reidemeister moves – Kurt Reidemeister Résal effect – Louis-Jean Résal Rescorla–Wagner rule – Robert A. Rescorla and Allan R. Wagner Reynolds number, Reynolds analogy – Osborne Reynolds Ribot's law (of Retrograde Amnesia) – Théodule-Armand Ribot Ricardian equivalence (a.k.a. Barro–Ricardo equivalence, or Ricardo–de Viti–Barro equivalence) – Robert Barro, David Ricardo, and Antonio de Viti de Marco Richards controller – Charles L. Richards Richardson's constant, equation, law – Owen Willans


