# kb

id: list-of-research-funders-by-preprint-licensing-policy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_research_funders_by_preprint_licensing_policy-0.md
category: reference
title: List of research funders by preprint licensing policy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_research_funders_by_preprint_licensing_policy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:12:53.596810+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-research-funders-by-preprint-licensing-policy-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of funders of research by their open licensing policies for preprints. With the exception of some government employees and contractors, the majority of authors keep the copyright to their work. Many funders require their grantees to disseminate the work using licenses with specific reuse rights. Other details of funder open access policies can be found at the Registry of Open Access Repositories and the Open Policy Finder from JISC (formerly SHERPA). == Policies by funder == == Exceptions for government employees and contractors == In some countries, work performed by government employees or contractors is owned by the government and subject to their licensing stipulations. For example, in the US, work performed by government employees, such as employees of the NIH is deemed Public Domain in the US, and the US government holds copyright elsewhere. Government licensing policies may override funder requirements. == See also == List of academic publishers by preprint policy == References ==


id: science-media-centre-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Media_Centre-0.md
category: reference
title: Science Media Centre
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Media_Centre
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:12:59.578381+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-media-centre-20260505-0
summary:
The Science Media Centre is a charitable company, first formed in 2002, two years after the United Kingdom House of Lords select committee on Science and Technology's third report on "Science and Society" in 2000. This report stated that while science was generally reported accurately in the mass media, there was a need for the promotion of more expert information at times when science is under attack in the headlines, mentioning the public reaction to GM crops, in particular. The Science Media Centre's purpose is to connect journalists with reliable and up-to-date sources of scientific information. It has also been criticised for bias and undeclared conflicts of interest. == Functions == In order to promote more informed science in the media, the centre's main function is as a service to journalists, providing background briefings on current scientific issues and facilitating interviews with scientists. Comments are also sourced from scientists about breaking news stories, to provide an independent expert commentary on the news, so that press releases have some peer review. Independence means from the breaking news story, and scientists commenting are asked to declare any competing interests they have with their comment. Its director is Fiona Fox who is a


id: science-media-centre-of-canada-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Media_Centre_of_Canada-0.md
category: reference
title: Science Media Centre of Canada
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Media_Centre_of_Canada
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:13:00.805385+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-media-centre-of-canada-20260505-0
summary:
The Science Media Centre of Canada (SMCC) is a non-profit organization that was formally opened on September 27, 2010. It has virtual offices. The purpose of the Centre is to serve journalists with accurate information on scientific matters. The Centre has a Research Advisory Panel of 20 Canadian scientists who will make their expertise available in a simple and understandable manner. In order to secure objectivity, the Centre has an Editorial Advisory Committee of eight journalists. The Centre is bilingual. == Goal == The ultimate goal of SMCC is an "increased public engagement with science issues through media coverage of science that is more informed, more accurate and more incisive." == Other SMCs == Science Media Centres exist in other countries; UK, Australia, New Zealand, Germany and Japan. The Science Media Centre of Canada is independent with respect to the other centres. == External links == Science Media Centre of Canada


id: the-science-network-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Science_Network-0.md
category: reference
title: The Science Network
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Science_Network
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:13:01.978189+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-science-network-20260505-0
summary:
The Science Network (TSN) was a non-profit virtual forum dedicated to science and its impact on society. It was initially conceived in 2003 by Roger Bingham and Terry Sejnowski as a cable science TV network modeled on C-SPAN. TSN later became a global digital platform hosting videos of lectures from scientific meetings and long form one-on-one conversations with prominent scientists and communicators of science, including Neil deGrasse Tyson, V.S. Ramachandran, Helen S. Mayberg, and Barbara Landau. TSN has also sponsored and co-sponsored scientific forums, such as Stem cells: science, ethics and politics at the crossroads, held at the Salk Institute in 2004 and the Beyond Belief conference series. == Beyond Belief conference series == TSN's signature series Beyond Belief was conceived to bring together a community of scientists, philosophers, scholars from the humanities, and social commentators. Speakers at these meetings have included Steven Weinberg, Richard Dawkins, Sam Harris, Harry Kroto, Neil deGrasse Tyson, and Stuart Kauffman. So far, the following three Beyond Belief conferences were organized: === 2006: Science, Religion, Reason and Survival === Beyond Belief: Science, Religion, Reason and Survival, the first of The Science Network's annual Beyond Belief symposia, held from November 5 to November 7, 2006, was


id: science-party-australia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Party_(Australia)-0.md
category: reference
title: Science Party (Australia)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Party_(Australia)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:13:05.636485+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-party-australia-20260505-0
summary:
The Science Party, formerly known as Future Party, is an Australian political party that was established on 2 July 2013. The founding leader, James Jansson, was studying for his doctorate at the Kirby Institute during the party's formation, with a focus on advancing Australian society through technical and long-term solutions. On 22 March 2016, the name was changed to The Science Party after registering with the Australian Electoral Commission. The Science Party has run candidates for the 2013, 2016 and 2019 federal elections, as well as several by-elections in between. The party was de-registered on 12 January 2022 by the Australian Electoral Commission for failing to meet the increased registration requirement of 1,500 members. It later merged with other parties to become the Fusion Party. == Political philosophy == The Science Party believes that technological development is a positive force in human affairs and values the cultural, economic and technological benefits of modernism. It believes in freedom of expression and has a positive view of the power of free markets and the benefits of high density cities. The party seeks to promote high quality science research and education. === Policies === Science Party policies include the following: Opposition to unnecessary


id: science-theatre-michigan-state-university-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Theatre_(Michigan_State_University)-0.md
category: reference
title: Science Theatre (Michigan State University)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Theatre_(Michigan_State_University)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:13:06.806712+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-theatre-michigan-state-university-20260505-0
summary:
Science Theatre is an undergraduate student-run science outreach organization at Michigan State University's East Lansing campus, performing science theatre. Science Theatre visits schools and events throughout Michigan performing interactive science demonstrations for K-12 students on-stage or up-close. Science Theatre performers are undergraduate and graduate student volunteers and all performances are made free of charge. The group's performances consist of arrangements from its catalog of more than seventy demonstrations in biology, chemistry, and physics. Additionally, Science Theatre performs comprehensive shows in Astronomy, Environmental science, Pressure, the Periodic Table, Quantum Mechanics, and FRIB-related science. Science Theatre was founded in April 1991 under a grant from the National Science Foundation and received the 1993 AAAS Award for Public Understanding of Science and Technology. Science Theatre is a four-time winner of the Outreach Award from the Michigan State University Department of Physics and Astronomy. == References == MSU Science Theatre Official Webpage 1993 AAAS Award for Public Understanding of Science and Technology 2 February 2009 State News coverage 10 March 2009 Fox TV coverage 11 March 2009 Daily Press (Michigan) coverage 10 June 2009 Capital Gains Coverage


id: scientific-celebrity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_celebrity-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific celebrity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_celebrity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:13:09.298287+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-celebrity-20260505-0
summary:
A scientific celebrity, also known as a celebrity scientist or public scientist, is a scientist who has gained significant public attention, usually through the media. For the general public, scientific celebrities serve to represent science or a field of science. In some instances this can be self-serving in nature or can be at the behest of governmental or corporate interests or to promote the science involved. With new scientific discoveries scientists come to be publicly known for their contributions. Although this type of recognition has become more common in recent times (coincidental with the rise of celebrity culture), the phenomenon is centuries old. Media attention to science became more pervasive beginning in the late 1960s and early 1970s as the variety of media outlets increased and they gave greater attention to scientific progress. Scientific celebrities have had a significant role in the popularization of science. == Historical examples == In the late 17th century and early 18th century, Isaac Newton became widely known in the United Kingdom and much of the western world after he published his theories of motion. Others, including Voltaire, promoted Newton's reputation; although Newton did not actively promote himself. Charles Darwin pursued popularity among the general


id: scientific-celebrity-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_celebrity-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientific celebrity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_celebrity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:13:09.298287+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-celebrity-20260505-0
summary:
== Role of the media == The means of media reporting on science and the amount of science reporting have evolved significantly since science reporting first began, just as it has with journalism on most subjects. Early on, scientists gained the publicity necessary for celebrity status through traditional print media, including newspapers, magazines, pamphlets and mailings. The lecture circuit was another means, especially for self-promotion. By the middle of the 20th century, broadcast media such as television and radio and eventually cable television became important outlets. The rise of digital media enabled scientist to directly address the general public. Many other people have become known to the public as a result of media promotion. Heads of state, heads of governmental units and religious leaders have long received this type of media attention in representing interests other than their own. Scientific celebrity is similar, and C. Everett Koop is an example of a scientific celebrity who gain celebrity status through his work for a governmental agency, as Surgeon General of the United States. A further form of scientific outreach in the digital age is TED Talks. Science is one of the basic themes of Ted Talks, and examples of scientific celebrities


id: scientific-integrity-in-policymaking-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_Integrity_in_Policymaking-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific Integrity in Policymaking
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_Integrity_in_Policymaking
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:13:10.571281+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-integrity-in-policymaking-20260505-0
summary:
"Scientific Integrity in Policymaking: An Investigation into the Bush Administration's Misuse of Science" is the title of a report published by the Union of Concerned Scientists in February, 2004. The report was the culmination of an investigation of the Bush administration's objectivity in science, and ultimately a criticism thereof. == "Suppression and distortion of research findings" == A central thesis of the report, according to the Executive Summary (on page 2 of the text), was that the Bush administration had behaved in ways considered to be consistent with the following three situations. Epidemic altering and concealing of scientific information by senior officials in various federal agencies Active censorship of scientific information that the administration considered threatening to its own philosophies Restriction of the ability of government-supported scientists to freely communicate scientific ideas related to "sensitive" issues == "An unprecedented pattern of behavior" == In "Part III", the text of the report posits that the aforementioned activities are unprecedented in the history of the United States. The report lists the following persons and organization who had supposedly acted or made statements to support this claim. This list is sorted first by category, then by the order in which the persons or


id: sense-about-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense_about_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Sense about Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense_about_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:13:12.964691+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sense-about-science-20260505-0
summary:
Sense about Science is a United Kingdom charitable organization that promotes the public understanding of science. Sense about Science was founded in 2002 by Lord Taverne, Bridget Ogilvie and others to promote respect for scientific evidence and good science. It was established as a charitable trust in 2003, with 14 trustees, an advisory council and a small office staff. Tracey Brown has been the director since 2002. The organisation works with scientists and journalists to put scientific evidence in public discussions about science, and to correct unscientific misinformation. They encourage and assist scientists to engage in public debates about their area of expertise, to respond to scientifically inaccurate claims in the media, to help people contact scientists with appropriate expertise, and to prepare briefings about the scientific background to issues of public concern. == Projects == Sense about Science publishes guides to different areas of science in partnership with experts. These include: Responsible Handover Framework, Data Science: A Guide for Society, Making Sense of Nuclear, Making Sense of Uncertainty, Making Sense of Allergies, Making Sense of Drug Safety Science, Making Sense of Testing, Making Sense of Crime, Making Sense of Statistics, Making Sense of Screening and Making Sense of GM.


id: simonyi-professor-for-the-public-understanding-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simonyi_Professor_for_the_Public_Understanding_of_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Simonyi Professor for the Public Understanding of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simonyi_Professor_for_the_Public_Understanding_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:13:27.189868+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: simonyi-professor-for-the-public-understanding-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The Simonyi Professorship for the Public Understanding of Science is a chair at the University of Oxford. The chair was established in 1995 for the ethologist Richard Dawkins by an endowment from Charles Simonyi. The aim of the Professorship is 'to communicate science to the public without, in doing so, losing those elements of scholarship which constitute the essence of true understanding'. It is a position that had been endowed by Charles Simonyi with the express intention that the holder "be expected to make important contributions to the public understanding of some scientific field", and that its first holder should be Richard Dawkins. == History == Richard Dawkins explained the history of the creation of the chair in a chapter of his memoirs, Brief Candle in the Dark: My Life in Science. In 2008, Dawkins retired and the Oxford mathematician Marcus du Sautoy was elected to the chair. == List of Simonyi Professors == 1995–2008: Richard Dawkins, biological science Since 2008: Marcus du Sautoy, mathematical science == List of Simonyi Lectures == Richard Dawkins established an annual "Charles Simonyi Lecture" at the University of Oxford. He invited the following speakers: Marcus du Sautoy, second Simonyi Professor, invited: == Notes and


id: slow-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Slow science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:13:29.526183+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: slow-science-20260505-0
summary:
Slow science is part of the broader slow movement. It is based on the belief that science should be a slow, steady, methodical process, and that scientists should not be expected to provide "quick fixes" to society's problems. Slow science supports curiosity-driven scientific research and opposes performance targets. Slow science is a continually developing school of thought in the scientific community. Followers of slow science practices are generally opposed to the current model of research which is seen as constrained by the need for continued funding. The slow science perspective attributes the overinflation of scientific publishing, and rise in fraudulent publishing with the requirement for researchers and institutions to create a justification for continued funding. The term slow science was first popularised in “Another Science is Possible: A Manifesto for Slow Science” by researcher Isabelle Stengers in 2018. The idea of “publish or perish”, which too links limitations in the quality of research to financial constraints, has been around since the early 20th century. The slow science philosophy has been described as both a way to approach scientific research, and a science led movement which acts as a critique of science's function in neoliberal society. Slow science has developed its


id: slow-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Slow science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:13:29.526183+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: slow-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Research funding reform === Slow Science proposes a change to the current structure of research funding, especially directed towards the increase in funding sourced from corporate donorship in academic institutions, as well as the rise in private independent research institutes. The slow science movement has called for all government funded research to be for the benefit of broader society, and has also called for an overall system of funding reform. Slow science groups, such as Slow Science Belgium, have called for increased government funding to be a necessity, and for key performance indicator linked targets for results to be removed from grant conditions. Key contributor to the slow science Uta Frith has expressed the idea that as government funding increases, so will risk taking in research, and therefore lead to the potential of greater scientific innovation. === Apolitical driven research === Apolitical research, from a slow science perspective, opposes research which aims to show alternatives to scientific precedent for political benefits. As well as this, the slow science movement extends this to what is described as an inherently political shift in the privatisation of knowledge, that is, scientific research which has moved from publications to private research and development


id: social-effects-of-evolutionary-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_effects_of_evolutionary_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Social effects of evolutionary theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_effects_of_evolutionary_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:13:30.730607+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-effects-of-evolutionary-theory-20260505-0
summary:
The social effects of evolutionary thought have been considerable. As the scientific explanation of life's diversity has developed, it has often displaced alternative, sometimes very widely held, explanations. Because the theory of evolution includes an explanation of humanity's origins, it has had a profound impact on human societies. Some have vigorously denied acceptance of the scientific explanation due to its perceived religious implications (e.g. its implied rejection of the special creation of humans presumably described in the Bible). This has led to a vigorous conflict between creation and evolution in public education, primarily in the United States. == Evolution and ethics == The theory of evolution by natural selection has also been adopted as a foundation for various ethical and social systems, such as social Darwinism, an idea that preceded the publication of The Origin of Species, popular in the 19th century, which holds that "the survival of the fittest" (a phrase coined in 1851 by Herbert Spencer, 8 years before Darwin published his theory of evolution) explains and justifies differences in wealth and success among societies and people. A similar interpretation was one created by Darwin's cousin, Francis Galton, known as eugenics, which claimed that human civilization was subverting


id: social-effects-of-evolutionary-theory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_effects_of_evolutionary_theory-1.md
category: reference
title: Social effects of evolutionary theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_effects_of_evolutionary_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:13:30.730607+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: social-effects-of-evolutionary-theory-20260505-0
summary:
The Roman Catholic Church, beginning in 1950 with Pope Pius XII's encyclical Humani Generis, took up a neutral position with regard to evolution. "The Church does not forbid that...research and discussions, on the part of men experienced in both fields, take place with regard to the doctrine of evolution, in as far as it inquires into the origin of the human body as coming from pre-existent and living matter." In an October 22, 1996, address to the Pontifical Academy of Sciences, Pope John Paul II updated the Church's position, recognizing that Evolution is "more than a hypothesis" - "In his encyclical Humani Generis, my predecessor Pius XII has already affirmed that there is no conflict between evolution and the doctrine of the faith regarding man and his vocation... Today, more than a half-century after the appearance of that encyclical, some new findings lead us toward the recognition of evolution as more than an hypothesis. In fact it is remarkable that this theory has had progressively greater influence on the spirit of researchers, following a series of discoveries in different scholarly disciplines." === Islamic views on evolution === === Jewish views on evolution === == Evolutionary theory and the political left


id: university-technology-transfer-offices-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_technology_transfer_offices-0.md
category: reference
title: University technology transfer offices
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_technology_transfer_offices
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:13:35.557811+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: university-technology-transfer-offices-20260505-0
summary:
University technology transfer offices (TTOs), or technology licensing offices (TLOs), are responsible for technology transfer and other aspects of the commercialization of research that takes place in a university. TTOs engage in a variety of commercial activities that are meant to facilitate the process of bringing research developments to market, often acting as a channel between academia and industry. Most major research universities have established TTOs in the past decades in an effort to increase the impact of university research and provide opportunities for financial gain. While TTOs are commonplace, many studies have questioned their financial benefit to the university. == History == The history of technology transfer is intimately linked with the history of the science policy of the United States. The foundation for modern American science policy laid way out in Vannevar Bush's letter in response to President Roosevelt's query about whether the US should maintain the high level of research funding it had been pouring into the Office of Scientific Research and Development, which had coordinated large private-public partnership research projects as part of the war effort, including the Manhattan Project. Bush's answer was Science - the Endless Frontier. In that letter, Bush advocated that the US


id: university-technology-transfer-offices-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_technology_transfer_offices-1.md
category: reference
title: University technology transfer offices
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_technology_transfer_offices
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:13:35.557811+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: university-technology-transfer-offices-20260505-0
summary:
== Structure and organization == The structure and organization of TTOs can affect its overall performance and can vary among universities. Since TTOs deal with both academic research and industry, they consist of a diverse set of individuals, including scientists, lawyers, analysts, licensing experts, and business managers. By having individuals (particularly different scientists, engineers, and analysts) with varying sets of expertise in research, TTOs attempt to more effectively assess, protect, and profit from the research developments taking place in multiple disciplines throughout the university. TTOs can by classified into three different types: internal: existing as an integrated part of the university and controlled by university administration external: existing as an independent company that does not operate under the control of university administration mixed: having components of both internal and external TTOs As of 2012 the "internal" type was most common in the US. TTOs of different universities can also collaborate between them to grow, thus originating new organizational structures. Such structures are: Network structure: the existing organizational forms of each TTO are maintained and the single organizations operate together in a virtual manner creating a subset of links between the existing TTOs involved in the consortium Strong Hub structure: a


id: va-public-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VA_(Public_&_Science)-0.md
category: reference
title: VA (Public & Science)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VA_(Public_&_Science)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:13:36.739226+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: va-public-science-20260505-0
summary:
VA (Public & Science) (Swedish: "Vetenskap & Allmänhet") is a Sweden-based non-profit association focusing on citizen science, responsible research and innovation, and science communication to the Swedish and European public. Its projects include: web games, books, and festivals for public engagement; studies and surveys to measure public scientific knowledge and engagement; and national and international research policy advocacy. == Projects == VA is currently a partner in three EU-funded Horizon 2020 projects SciShops: ORION, Open Responsible research and Innovation to further Outstanding Knowledge, is aimed at fostering RRI and open science in research performing and research funding organisations. SciShops will expand the ecosystem of Science Shops in Europe and BLOOM is aimed at raising public awareness and interest in the bioeconomy through dialogue and co-creation activities. == Membership == VA's members consist of some 100 organizations, authorities, universities, companies and associations. In addition, it has a number of individual members. The organization is funded through membership fees, project grants and a grant from the Swedish Ministry of Education and Research. VA is a member of EUSEA (European Science Events Association), ECSA (European Citizen Science Association) and the Living Knowledge network. == Board of Representatives == VA's board consists of representatives


id: geographic-information-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Geographic information science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographic_information_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:13:41.941353+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geographic-information-science-20260505-0
summary:
Geographic information science (GIScience, GISc) or geoinformation science is a scientific discipline at the crossroads of computational science, social science, and natural science that studies geographic information, including how it represents phenomena in the real world, how it represents the way humans understand the world, and how it can be captured, organized, and analyzed. It is a sub-field of geography, specifically part of technical geography. It has applications to both physical geography and human geography, although its techniques can be applied to many other fields of study as well as many different industries. As a field of study or profession, it can be contrasted with geographic information systems (GIS), which are the actual repositories of geospatial data, the software tools for carrying out relevant tasks, and the profession of GIS users. That said, one of the major goals of GIScience is to find practical ways to improve GIS data, software, and professional practice; it is more focused on how GIS is applied in real life as opposed to being a geographic information system tool in and of itself. The field is also sometimes called geographical information science. British geographer Michael Goodchild defined this area in the 1990s and summarized its


id: geomatics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomatics-0.md
category: reference
title: Geomatics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomatics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:13:43.118192+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geomatics-20260505-0
summary:
Geomatics is defined in the ISO/TC 211 series of standards as the "discipline concerned with the collection, distribution, storage, analysis, processing, presentation of geographic data or geographic information". Under another definition, it consists of products, services and tools involved in the collection, integration and management of geographic (geospatial) data. Surveying engineering was the common name used for geomatics engineering in the past. The term was placed by the UNESCO Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems under the branch of technical geography, which is geared towards interpreting and communicating spatial data. In Germany, "geodesy and geoinformatics" or "geodesy and geoinformation" is commonly used for describing this discipline. In addition, geospatial engineering is an alternative term to geomatic(s) engineering. == History and etymology == The term was proposed in French ("géomatique") at the end of the 1960s by scientist Bernard Dubuisson to reflect at the time recent changes in the jobs of surveyor and photogrammetrist. On June 1, 1971, 'geomatics' was first employed in a French Ministry of Public Works memorandum instituting a "standing committee of geomatics" in the government. At the centennial congress of the Canadian Institute of Surveying (now known as the Canadian Institute of Geomatics) in April 1982, the new


id: geomatics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomatics-1.md
category: reference
title: Geomatics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomatics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:13:43.118192+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: geomatics-20260505-0
summary:
Global navigation satellite systems are a collection of geospatial systems that provide global coverage. The technology has a variety of purposes from communications to mobile navigation. The six GNSS constellations in operation are the U.S. GPS Operational Constellation, GLObal NAvigation Satellite System (GLONASS) stemming from Russia, the European Galileo, China's BeiDou/Compass, Japan's Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS), and The Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS). == Geomatics engineering == Geomatics engineering is a rapidly developing engineering discipline which focuses on spatial information (i.e. information that has a location). The location is the primary factor used to integrate a very wide range of data for spatial analysis and visualization. Geomatics engineers design, develop, and operate systems for collecting and analyzing spatial information about the land, the oceans, natural resources, and manmade features. Geomatics engineers or geomatician apply engineering principles to spatial information and implement relational data structures involving measurement sciences, thus using geomatics and acting as spatial information engineers. They sit at the nexus of geography and computer science. A geomatician practices geomatics, by combining "geo", (the earth) with information and automation. Geomatics engineers manage local, regional, national and global spatial data infrastructures. Geomatics engineering also involves aspects of Computer Engineering, Software


id: all-models-are-wrong-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_models_are_wrong-0.md
category: reference
title: All models are wrong
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_models_are_wrong
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:13:45.704436+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: all-models-are-wrong-20260505-0
summary:
"All models are wrong" is a common aphorism in statistics. It is often expanded as "All models are wrong, but some are useful". The aphorism acknowledges that statistical models always fall short of the complexities of reality but can still be useful nonetheless. The aphorism is generally attributed to George E. P. Box, a British statistician, although the underlying concept predates Box's writings. == History == The phrase "all models are wrong" was attributed to George Box who used the phrase in a 1976 paper to refer to the limitations of models, arguing that while no model is ever completely accurate, simpler models can still provide valuable insights if applied judiciously. In their 1983 book on generalized linear models, Peter McCullagh and John Nelder stated that while modeling in science is a creative process, some models are better than others, even though none can claim eternal truth. In 1996, an Applied Statistician's Creed was proposed by M.R. Nester, which incorporated the aphorism as a central tenet. The longer form appears on in a 1987 book by Box and Norman Draper in a section "The Use of Approximating Functions,": "The fact that the polynomial is an approximation does not necessarily detract


id: houston-we-have-a-problem-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston,_we_have_a_problem-0.md
category: reference
title: Houston, we have a problem
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston,_we_have_a_problem
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:13:54.708216+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: houston-we-have-a-problem-20260505-0
summary:
"Houston, we have a problem" is a popular misquote of a phrase spoken during Apollo 13, a NASA mission in the Apollo space program and the third mission intended to land on the Moon. After an explosion occurred on board the spacecraft en route to the Moon around 56 hours into the mission, Jack Swigert, the command module pilot, reported to Mission Control Center in Houston, Texas: "Okay, Houston ... we've had a problem here." After Swigert was prompted to repeat his words by Jack R. Lousma, the capsule communicator at Mission Control, Jim Lovell, the mission commander, responded: "Ah, Houston, we've had a problem." The 1995 film Apollo 13 used the slight misquotation "Houston, we have a problem" in its dramatization of the mission, since it had become the popularly expected phrase. The phrase has been informally used to describe the emergence of an unforeseen problem, often with a sense of ironic understatement. == Background == The Apollo 13 Flight Journal lists the timestamps and dialogue between the astronauts and Mission Control. 055:55:19 Swigert: Okay, Houston ... 055:55:19 Lovell: ... Houston... 055:55:20 Swigert: ... we've had a problem here. [Pause.] 055:55:28 Lousma: This is Houston. Say again, please. 055:55:35


id: information-wants-to-be-free-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_wants_to_be_free-0.md
category: reference
title: Information wants to be free
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_wants_to_be_free
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:13:56.968169+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: information-wants-to-be-free-20260505-0
summary:
"Information wants to be free" is an expression that means either that all people should be able to access information freely, or that information (formulated as an actor) naturally strives to become as freely available among people as possible. It is often used by technology activists to criticize laws that limit transparency and general access to information. People who criticize intellectual property law say the system of such government-granted monopolies conflicts with the development of a public domain of information. The expression is often credited to Stewart Brand, who was recorded saying it at a Hackers Conference in 1984. == History == The phrase is attributed to Stewart Brand, who, in the late 1960s, founded the Whole Earth Catalog and argued that technology could be liberating rather than oppressing. What is considered the earliest recorded occurrence of the expression was at the first Hackers Conference in 1984, although the video recording of the conversation shows that what Brand actually said is slightly different. Brand told Steve Wozniak: On the one hand you have—the point you’re making Woz—is that information sort of wants to be expensive because it is so valuable—the right information in the right place just changes your life.


id: knismesis-and-gargalesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knismesis_and_gargalesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Knismesis and gargalesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knismesis_and_gargalesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:13:58.203103+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: knismesis-and-gargalesis-20260505-0
summary:
Knismesis and gargalesis are the scientific terms, coined in 1897 by psychologists G. Stanley Hall and Arthur Allin, used to describe the two types of tickling. Knismesis refers to the light, feather-like type of tickling. This type of tickling generally does not induce laughter and is often accompanied by an itching sensation. Gargalesis refers to harder, laughter-inducing tickling, and involves the repeated application of high pressure to sensitive areas. While the two terms are used in academic papers, they do not appear in many dictionaries and their origin is rarely declared. The term knismesis comes from the Ancient Greek κνισμός (knismós) meaning 'itching'. The term gargalesis stems from the Ancient Greek γαργαλίζω (gargalízō) meaning 'to tickle'. The suffix -esis is used to form nouns of action or process. == Knismesis == The knismesis phenomenon requires low levels of stimulation to sensitive parts of the body, and can be triggered by a light touch or by a light electric current. Knismesis can also be triggered by crawling insects or parasites, prompting scratching or rubbing at the ticklish spot, thereby removing the pest. It is possible that this function explains why knismesis produces a similar response in many different kinds of animals.


id: knowledge-is-power-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_is_power-0.md
category: reference
title: Knowledge is power
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_is_power
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:13:59.378430+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: knowledge-is-power-20260505-0
summary:
The phrase "scientia potentia est" (or "scientia est potentia" or also "scientia potestas est") is a Latin aphorism meaning "knowledge is power", commonly attributed to Sir Francis Bacon. The expression "ipsa scientia potestas est" ('knowledge itself is power') occurs in Bacon's Meditationes Sacrae (1597). The exact phrase "scientia potentia est" (knowledge is power) was written for the first time in the 1668 version of Leviathan by Thomas Hobbes, who was a secretary to Bacon as a young man. The related phrase "sapientia est potentia" is often translated as "wisdom is power". == History == === Origins and parallels === A proverb in practically the same wording is found in Hebrew, in the Biblical Book of Proverbs (24:5): גֶּבֶר-חָכָם בַּעוֹז; וְאִישׁ-דַּעַת, מְאַמֶּץ-כֹּחַ. This was translated in the Latin Vulgata as "vir sapiens fortis est et vir doctus robustus et validus" and in the King James Version as "A wise man is strong, a man of knowledge increaseth strength". The Persian poet Ferdowsi (940–1019/1025) wrote توانا بود هر که دانا بود (tavânâ bûd har ke dânâ bûd) "Mighty is the one who has knowledge." === Thomas Hobbes === The first known reference of the exact phrase appeared in the Latin edition of


id: knowledge-is-power-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_is_power-1.md
category: reference
title: Knowledge is power
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_is_power
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:13:59.378430+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: knowledge-is-power-20260505-0
summary:
=== Wissen ist Macht in Germany === After the 1871 unification of Germany, "Wissen ist Macht, geographisches Wissen ist Weltmacht" (Knowledge is power, geographical knowledge is world power) was often used in German geopolitics and the public discussion to support efforts for a German colonial empire after 1880. Julius Perthes, for example, used the motto for his publishing house. However, this installation of geographical research followed popular requests and was not imposed by the government. In particular, Count Bismarck was not much interested in German colonial adventures; his envoy Gustav Nachtigal started with the first protectorates, but was more interested in ethnological aspects. After World War I, German geopolitics tried to contribute to efforts to regain world power. Scholars like Karl Haushofer, a former general, and his son Albrecht Haushofer (both in close contact with Rudolf Hess) got worldwide attention with their concept of geopolitics. Associations of German geographers and schoolteachers welcomed the Machtergreifung and hoped to get further influence in the new regime. Germany's postwar geopolitics was much more cautious; concepts of political geography and projection of power had not been widespread scholarly topics in Germany until 1989. Geographical knowledge is however still of importance in Germany. Germans tend


id: noli-turbare-circulos-meos-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noli_turbare_circulos_meos!-0.md
category: reference
title: Noli turbare circulos meos!
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noli_turbare_circulos_meos!
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:02.814245+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: noli-turbare-circulos-meos-20260505-0
summary:
"Nōlī turbāre circulōs meōs!" is a Latin phrase, meaning "Do not disturb my circles!" It is said to have been uttered by Archimedes—in reference to a geometric figure he had outlined on the sand—as he was about to be killed by a Roman soldier during the Siege of Syracuse. == Origin == According to Valerius Maximus, the phrase was uttered by the ancient Greek mathematician and astronomer Archimedes. When the Romans conquered the city of Syracuse after the siege of 214–212 BC, the Roman general Marcus Claudius Marcellus gave the order to retrieve Archimedes. Some soldiers entered the house of Archimedes and one of the soldiers asked Archimedes who he was. But, according to Valerius Maximus (Facta et dicta memorabilia, Book VIII.7), Archimedes just answered "Noli, obsecro, istum disturbare" ("Do not, I entreat you, disturb that (sand)"), because he was so engrossed in the circles drawn on the sand in front of him. After that, one of the soldiers killed Archimedes, despite the order of Marcus Claudius Marcellus. == Authenticity == Plutarch does not mention the quote in his Parallel Lives. Valerius Maximus (Facta et dicta memorabilia, Book VIII.7) attests the Latin form "noli ... istum disturbare" ("I ask you


id: one-small-step-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_small_step-0.md
category: reference
title: One small step
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One_small_step
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:06.177534+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: one-small-step-20260505-0
summary:
On July 21, 1969, when Neil Armstrong became the first person to set foot on the Moon, he said "That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind". Recordings of Armstrong's Apollo 11 transmission do not provide evidence for the indefinite article "a" before "man", leading to some controversy about whether he said the word or not. After years of Armstrong and NASA insisting that the static obscured it, Armstrong conceded that he must have dropped the "a" after carefully listening to the recording. Several scientific analyses have been conducted with some suggesting that he did say the "a" and others suggesting that he did not. As a result, the "a" is often included in brackets in the quote. == Background == The Lunar Module Eagle landed on the Moon as part of Apollo 11 in 1969. After Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin were ready to go outside, Eagle was depressurized, the hatch was opened, and Armstrong made his way down the ladder. At the bottom of the ladder, while standing on a Lunar Module landing pad, Armstrong said, "I'm going to step off the LM now." He turned and set his left boot on the lunar surface


id: standing-on-the-shoulders-of-giants-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants-0.md
category: reference
title: Standing on the shoulders of giants
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:08.497583+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: standing-on-the-shoulders-of-giants-20260505-0
summary:
The phrase "standing on the shoulders of giants" is a metaphor which means "using the understanding gained by major thinkers who have gone before in order to make intellectual progress". It is a metaphor of a person who wants to reach higher, standing on the shoulders of giants (Latin: nani gigantum humeris insidentes) and expresses the meaning of "discovering truth by building on previous discoveries". This concept has been dated to the 12th century and, according to John of Salisbury, is attributed to Bernard of Chartres. Its most familiar and popular expression occurs in a 1675 letter by Isaac Newton: "if I have seen further [than others], it is by standing on the shoulders of giants." == Early references == === Middle Ages === The earliest documented attestation of this aphorism appears in 1123 in William of Conches's Glosses on Priscian's Institutiones grammaticae. Where Priscian says quanto juniores, tanto perspicaciores (young men simply can see more sharply), William comments: The ancients had only the books which they themselves wrote, but we have all their books and moreover all those which have been written from the beginning until our time.… Hence we are like a dwarf perched on the shoulders of


id: standing-on-the-shoulders-of-giants-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants-1.md
category: reference
title: Standing on the shoulders of giants
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_on_the_shoulders_of_giants
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:08.497583+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: standing-on-the-shoulders-of-giants-20260505-0
summary:
Diego de Estella took up the quotation in his 1578 commentary on Gospel of Luke and by the 17th century it had become commonplace. Robert Burton, in the second edition of The Anatomy of Melancholy (1624), quotes Stella thus: I say with Didacus Stella, a dwarf standing on the shoulders of a giant may see farther than a giant himself. Later editors of Burton misattributed the quotation to Lucan; in their hands Burton's attribution Didacus Stella, in luc 10, tom. ii "Didacus on the Gospel of Luke, chapter 10; volume 2" became a reference to Lucan's Pharsalia 2.10. No reference or allusion to the quotation is found there. In 1634, Marin Mersenne quoted the expression in his Questions harmoniques: ... comme l'on dit, il est bien facile, & mesme necessaire de voir plus loin que nos devanciers, lors que nous sommes montez sur leur espaules ...Blaise Pascal, in the "Preface to the Treatise on the Vacuum" expresses the same idea, without talking about shoulders, but rather about the knowledge handed down to us by the ancients as steps that allow us to climb higher and see farther than they could:C'est de cette façon que l'on peut aujourd'hui prendre d'autres sentiments


id: tyranny-of-numbers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyranny_of_numbers-0.md
category: reference
title: Tyranny of numbers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyranny_of_numbers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:09.628858+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tyranny-of-numbers-20260505-0
summary:
The tyranny of numbers was a problem faced in the 1960s by computer engineers. Engineers were unable to increase the performance of their designs due to the huge number of components involved. In theory, every component needed to be wired to every other component (or at least many other components) and were typically strung and soldered by hand. In order to improve performance, more components would be needed, and it seemed that future designs would consist almost entirely of wiring. == History == The first known recorded use of the term in this context was made by the Vice President of Bell Labs in an article celebrating the 10th anniversary of the invention of the transistor, for the "Proceedings of the IRE" (Institute of Radio Engineers), June 1958 [1]. Referring to the problems many designers were having, he wrote: For some time now, electronic man has known how 'in principle' to extend greatly his visual, tactile, and mental abilities through the digital transmission and processing of all kinds of information. However, all these functions suffer from what has been called 'the tyranny of numbers.' Such systems, because of their complex digital nature, require hundreds, thousands, and sometimes tens of thousands


id: scientific-terminology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific terminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:12.321344+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific terminology refers to the specialized vocabulary used by scientists and engineers in their professional fields. It encompasses words and expressions created to name newly discovered or invented concepts, materials, methods, and phenomena. In the early modern period, scientific terminology was predominantly Latin, resulting in naming practices that have persisted into the present. In science, "naming a particle [or concept] is not just convenient; it marks a leap forward in our understanding of the world". Thus, new technical terms, neologisms, often arise whenever science advances. For example, the term nanotechnology was coined in 1974 to describe precise engineering at the atomic scale. More generally, neologisms have long been driven by technology and science: "technological advances are among the main drivers of word creation… In many cases, neologisms come about as names for new objects". Likewise, language scholars observe that "science is an especially productive field for new coinages," and scientific terms often spread immediately across languages through research publications. Over time, many such technical terms (e.g. laser, radar, DNA) enter common usage, though at first, they denote concepts known mainly within the field. == New concepts == Scientists frequently introduce new names for novel concepts or discoveries. Every time a


id: scientific-terminology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientific terminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:12.321344+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
== Classical and non-vernacular terms and expressions == In modern science and its applied fields such as technology and medicine, a knowledge of classical languages is not as rigid a prerequisite as it used to be. However, traces of their influence remain. Firstly, languages such as Greek, Latin and Arabic – either directly or via more recently derived languages such as French – have provided not only most of the technical terms used in Western science, but also a de facto vocabulary of roots, prefixes and suffixes for the construction of new terms as required. Echoes of the consequences sound in remarks such as "Television? The word is half Latin and half Greek. No good can come of it." (referring to it being a hybrid word). A special class of terminology that overwhelmingly is derived from classical sources, is biological classification, in which binomial nomenclature still is most often based on classical origins. The derivations are arbitrary however and can be mixed variously with modernisms, late Latin, and even fictional roots, errors and whims. However, in spite of the chaotic nature of the field, it still is helpful to the biologist to have a good vocabulary of classical roots. Branches


id: scientific-terminology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology-2.md
category: reference
title: Scientific terminology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_terminology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:12.321344+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-terminology-20260505-0
summary:
A good example is the word laser, an acronym for "Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation", and therefore all its letters should be capitalized. However, because of frequent use, this acronym became a neologism, i.e., it has integrated into English and most other languages. Consequently, laser is commonly written in small letters. It has even produced secondary acronyms such as LASIK (Laser-ASsisted in Situ Keratomileusis). A related acronym and neologism maser (Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) is much less known. Nevertheless, it is commonly written in small letters. On the contrary, acronym SPASER (Surface Plasmon Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) is capitalized. Many scientific acronyms or abbreviations reflect the artistic sense of their creators, e.g., AMANDA – Antarctic Muon And Neutrino Detector Array, a neutrino telescope BLAST – Balloon-borne Large Aperture Submillimeter Telescope COMICS – COoled Mid-Infrared Camera and Spectrometer FROG - Frequency-resolved optical gating MARVEL – Multi-object Apache Point Observatory Radial Velocity Exoplanet Large-area Survey, a NASA-funded project to search for exoplanets METATOY – METAmaTerial fOr raYs – a material that changes the direction of transmitted light rays PLANET – Probing Lensing Anomalies NETwork, a program to search for microlensing events SCREAM – Single Crystal


id: homogeneity-and-heterogeneity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity-0.md
category: reference
title: Homogeneity and heterogeneity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneity_and_heterogeneity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:13.452599+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: homogeneity-and-heterogeneity-20260505-0
summary:
Homogeneity and heterogeneity are concepts relating to the uniformity of a substance, process or image. A homogeneous feature is uniform in composition or character (i.e., color, shape, size, weight, height, distribution, texture, language, income, disease, temperature, radioactivity, architectural design, etc.); one that is heterogeneous is distinctly nonuniform in at least one of these qualities. == Etymology and spelling == The words homogeneous and heterogeneous come from Medieval Latin homogeneus and heterogeneus, from Ancient Greek ὁμογενής (homogenēs) and ἑτερογενής (heterogenēs), from ὁμός (homos, "same") and ἕτερος (heteros, "other, another, different") respectively, followed by γένος (genos, "kind"); -ous is an adjectival suffix. Alternate spellings omitting the last -e- (and the associated pronunciations) are common, but mistaken: homogenous is strictly a biological/pathological term which has largely been replaced by homologous. But use of homogenous to mean homogeneous has seen a rise since 2000, enough for it to now be considered an "established variant". Similarly, heterogenous is a spelling traditionally reserved to biology and pathology, referring to the property of an object in the body having its origin outside the body. == Scaling == The concepts are the same to every level of complexity. From atoms to galaxies, plants, animals, humans, and other living


id: organic-model-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_(model)-0.md
category: reference
title: Organic (model)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_(model)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:15.747312+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: organic-model-20260505-0
summary:
Organic describes forms, methods and patterns found in living systems such as the organisation of cells, to populations, communities, and ecosystems. Typically organic models stress the interdependence of the component parts, as well as their differentiation. Other properties of organic models include: the growth, life or development cycle the ability to adapt, learn, and evolve emergent behaviour or emergent properties steady change or growth, as opposed to instant change regulatory feedback composed of heterogeneous (diverse) parts Organic models are used especially in the design of artificial systems, and the description of social systems and constructs. == Uses == In the social sciences, the organic model has been drawn upon for ideas such as mechanical and organic solidarity and organic unity. Carl Ritter advanced the idea of Lebensraum using the metaphor of an organic, growing state. In computer science, organic networks grow in an ad hoc manner, while organic computing is autonomous and able to self-organise and heal. Bionics (biomimicry) is the engineering of technology through the use of systems found in biology. Organic architecture stresses interrelatedness as it combines the site, buildings, furnishings, and surroundings into a unified whole, each adapted to the others. Examples include the use of passive


id: phlegmatizer-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phlegmatizer-0.md
category: reference
title: Phlegmatizer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phlegmatizer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:16.972602+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: phlegmatizer-20260505-0
summary:
A phlegmatizer is a compound that minimizes the explosive tendency of another compound or material. The term is derived from the word phlegmatic, meaning 'not easily excited'. Many chemical compounds that are potentially explosive have useful non-explosive applications. One large family of phlegmatizers are phthalate esters, which are used as solvents to minimize the explosive tendency of organic peroxides, such as dibenzoyl peroxide and MEKP, which are widely used initiators for polymerizations. == See also == Phlegmatized explosive == References ==


id: photochemical-action-plots-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photochemical_action_plots-0.md
category: reference
title: Photochemical action plots
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photochemical_action_plots
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:18.144576+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: photochemical-action-plots-20260505-0
summary:
Photochemical action plots are a scientific tool used to understand the effects of different wavelengths of light on photochemical reactions. The methodology involves exposing a reaction solution to the same number of photons at varying monochromatic wavelengths, monitoring the conversion or reaction yield of starting materials and/or reaction products. Such global high-resolution analysis of wavelength-dependent chemical reactivity has revealed that maxima in absorbance and reactivity often do not align. Photochemical action plots are historically connected to (biological) action spectra. == Historical development == The study of biological responses to specific wavelengths dates back to the late 19th century. Research primarily focused on assessing photodamage from solar radiation using broad-band lamps and narrow filters. These studies quantified effects such as cell viability, production of erythema, vitamin D3 degradation, DNA changes, and skin cancer appearance. The first biological action spectrum was recorded by Engelmann, who used a prism to produce different colors of light and then illuminated cladophora in a bacteria suspension. He discovered the effects of different light wavelengths on photosynthesis, marking the first recorded action spectrum of photosynthesis. Critical evaluations of active wavelength regions in these studies helped identify contributing chromophores to processes such as photosynthesis. These chromophores are key


id: science-and-technology-in-the-discovery-of-america-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Technology_in_the_Discovery_of_America-0.md
category: reference
title: Science and Technology in the Discovery of America
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_Technology_in_the_Discovery_of_America
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:20.850642+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-in-the-discovery-of-america-20260505-0
summary:
Science and Technology in the Discovery of America (Spanish: La ciencia y la técnica en el descubrimiento de América), is a work by the historian and mathematician Julio Rey Pastor, published in Spanish in 1945, in Buenos Aires, by the Espasa-Calpe publishing. A second, "improved and corrected" edition was published in 1945. A third and fourth edition were published in 1951 and 1970, respectively. == Description == In this book, Rey Pastor analyzes the role of science and technology in the discovery of America, with special attention to the contributions of disciplines such as geography, cartography, nautical science and cosmography, which were decisive for the realization of transoceanic expeditions, such as that of Christopher Columbus, whom Rey Pastor considers a man of science, taking into account what was understood in his time by "man of science". The work reviews the scientific situation prior to the discovery and the evolution of latitude measurement and geographical representation techniques, highlighting how these innovations allowed the navigation challenges of the time to be faced. He insists on the enormous disproportion between the magnificent results of the discoverers and the poverty of the means at their disposal. The book highlights the leading role of Spanish


id: sonnet-to-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonnet_to_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Sonnet to Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonnet_to_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:22.015931+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sonnet-to-science-20260505-0
summary:
"Sonnet to Science" (originally "Sonnet — To Science") is an 1829 poem by Edgar Allan Poe, published in Al Aaraaf, Tamerlane, and Minor Poems. == Summary == Poe asks why science preys on the poet. Science is peering, destructive and interested only in cold realities. It will not allow the poet to soar in fantasy or even to sit peacefully dreaming beneath a tree. == Publication history == In mid-November 1829, Poe agreed with the Baltimore firm Hatch and Dunning to publish his second volume of poetry, entitled Al Aaraaf, Tamerlane, and Minor Poems. This volume was the first instance in which Poe published his verse under his own name as opposed to his first publication, Tamerlane and Other Poems, which was only attributed to “a Bostonian”. A later published version of this poem includes the following note, “Private reasons—some of which have reference to the sin of plagiarism, and other to the date of Tennyson’s first poems—have induced me, after some hesitation, to re-publish these, the crude compositions of my earliest boyhood. They are printed verbatim—without alteration from the original edition—the date of which is too remote to be judiciously acknowledged.” == References == == External links == An


id: unesco-science-report-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_Science_Report-0.md
category: reference
title: UNESCO Science Report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_Science_Report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:23.188127+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unesco-science-report-20260505-0
summary:
The UNESCO Science Report is a global monitoring report published regularly by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Every five years, this report maps the latest trends and developments in national and regional policy landscapes, against the backdrop of shifting socio-economic, geopolitical and environmental realities. Each edition is typically released on 10 November, which is World Science Day for Peace and Development. The most recent edition was released on 11 June 2021. == History == In 1987, the General Conference of UNESCO approved the launch of the Organization's first world reports, the World Communication Report, which first appeared two years later. In 1989, the General Conference approved the launch of the World Education Report, which appeared in 1991, 1993, 1995, 1998 and 2000. The launch of these two reports created a momentum to generalize the world reports to all of UNESCO's fields of competence. The World Science Report (as the UNESCO Science Report was originally known) was the next title to appear, in 1993. The first World Information Report followed in 1997 then the World Social Science Report in 1999, as well as two World Culture Reports in 1998 and 2000. Two existing reports were merged to produce


id: unesco-science-report-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_Science_Report-1.md
category: reference
title: UNESCO Science Report
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO_Science_Report
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:23.188127+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: unesco-science-report-20260505-0
summary:
== Geographical coverage == Each edition has added geographic detail. The 2021 edition of the UNESCO Science Report provided data for 193 countries, with contributions from more than 70 authors from 52 countries. Published in June 2021, the seventh report in the series arrived at a crucial juncture, as countries were one-third of the way to the 2030 deadline for achieving their Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The report revealed that countries of all income levels shared a common agenda at this time for transitioning to digital and 'green' economies. Themes covered in 2021 included our relationship with advanced technologies and the resources and energy they require, the Fourth Industrial Revolution, the effect of Brexit on science and technology and the status of women in science and Industry 4.0. For the first time, an analysis of scientific output broke down the broad field of cross-cutting strategic technologies into its sub-fields, such as artificial intelligence and robotics, energy and nanotechnology. The report found that the COVID-19 pandemic had energized knowledge production systems. This dynamic built on the trend towards greater international scientific collaboration, which bodes well for tackling this and other global challenges such as climate change and biodiversity loss. However, sustainability


id: outline-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:24.587642+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as a topical overview of science: Science is a systematic discipline that builds and organises knowledge in the form of testable hypotheses and predictions about the universe. Modern science is typically divided into two – or three – major branches: the natural sciences, which study the physical world, and the social sciences, which study individuals and societies. While referred to as the formal sciences, the study of logic, mathematics, and theoretical computer science are typically regarded as separate because they rely on deductive reasoning instead of the scientific method as their main methodology. Meanwhile, applied sciences are disciplines that use scientific knowledge for practical purposes, such as engineering and medicine. == Study and experimentation == Experimentation is the use of controlled conditions to test an idea. A single independent variable is altered while all other conditions are kept the same to test the alteration's effect on a dependent variable. Design of experiments History of experiments Descriptive and normative science are contrasting methods to explain scientific ideas. Descriptive science explains ideas objectively while normative science explains what should be true using value judgments. Empirical research is conducted using observation and experimentation instead of theory. Empirical evidence


id: outline-of-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Outline of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:24.587642+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Alchemy is the historical study of what is now associated with chemistry. It was accepted as a science until the end of the 17th century. Astrology is a method used in ancient and medieval times to study the social sciences through physical phenomena. Cosmogony is the study of Earth's origins through divine creation. Natural history is the historical name for study of subjects that are now associated with biology. Natural philosophy is the historical name for study of subjects that are now associated with physics and astronomy. == Philosophy of science == Philosophy of science encompasses the questions, assumptions, foundations, methods and implications of science. Anti-realism is the opposition to scientific realism. Anti-realists believe that scientific theories cannot be objectively true or that they do not correlate to objectively real phenomena. Antiscience is a criticism and rejection of modern science and the scientific community. Denialism is the rejection of scientific facts that conflict with one's previous beliefs. Empiricism is the belief that truth is obtained from sense experience. Empiricists believe that science is a systematic and detailed application of common everyday thought and inquiry. Constructive empiricism is the belief that scientific theories can be true but successful testing does not


id: outline-of-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Outline of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:24.587642+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Consensus is general agreement among scientists on a conclusion or finding. Demarcation is the division of scientific and non-scientific ideas, and the resulting dispute over how to divide them. Different fields of study may be evaluated on the level of experimental rigor, how much they engage in abstraction, how closely related they are with the humanities, or other qualities. Funding of science can come from governments and donors. Junk science is the presentation of uncertain scientific claims as facts, typically to a legal or political end. List of topics characterized as pseudoscience Meta-analysis is the comparing of several studies on the same topic to draw conclusions. A paradigm is the overall understanding and accepted system of how science functions. Paradigm shifts are historical periods of total change in how science is practiced. The concept was introduced by Thomas Kuhn. Peer review is a process in which an academic provides feedback on scientific writing, often anonymously, before publication. Pseudoscience is unscientific practice or belief that is presented as scientific or uses scientific language to suggest credibility. History of pseudoscience Regulation of science involves the use of policy to limit scientific activity that regulators determine to be dangerous, unethical, or ineffective. Scientific


id: outline-of-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Outline of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:24.587642+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
== References == Agassi, Joseph (1981). Science and Society: Studies in the Sociology of Science. D. Reidel. ISBN 978-90-277-1244-8. Armstrong, Jon Scott; Green, Kesten C. (2022). The Scientific Method: A Guide to Finding Useful Knowledge. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-009-09642-3. Bird, Alexander (2005). Philosophy of Science. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-85728-504-8. Browne, Janet; Porter, Roy; Bynum, William F., eds. (1981). Dictionary of the History of Science. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-29316-4. Collocott, Thomas C., ed. (1971). Dictionary of Science and Technology. W. & R. Chambers. ISBN 978-0-550-13202-4. Daintith, John; Martin, Elizabeth (2010) [1984]. Oxford Dictionary of Science (6th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-956146-9. Erickson, Mark (2005). Science, Culture and Society: Understanding Science in the 21st Century. Polity. ISBN 978-0-7456-2974-2. Godfrey-Smith, Peter (2003). Theory and Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Science. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-30062-7. Hagstrom, Warren O. (1965). The Scientific Community. Basic Books. LCCN 65-10539. Heilbron, J. L., ed. (2003). The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-511229-0. Morris, Christopher G., ed. (1992). Academic Press Dictionary of Science and Technology. Elsevier Science. ISBN 978-0-12-200400-1. Pigliucci, Massimo; Boudry, Maarten, eds. (2013). Philosophy of Pseudoscience: Reconsidering the Demarcation Problem. The University of Chicago Press. ISBN


id: list-of-adiabatic-concepts-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_adiabatic_concepts-0.md
category: reference
title: List of adiabatic concepts
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_adiabatic_concepts
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:25.762077+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-adiabatic-concepts-20260505-0
summary:
Adiabatic (from Gr. ἀ negative + διάβασις passage; transference) refers to any process that occurs without heat transfer. This concept is used in many areas of physics and engineering. Notable examples are listed below. == Automobiles == Engine braking, a feature of some diesel engines, uses adiabatic expansion to diminish the vehicle's forward momentum. == Meteorology == Adiabatic lapse rate, the change in air temperature with changing height, resulting from pressure change. == Quantum chemistry == Adiabatic invariant Born–Oppenheimer approximation == Thermodynamics == Adiabatic process Adiabatic ionization Adiabatic index Adiabatic accessibility == Quantum mechanics == Adiabatic theorem Adiabatic quantum motor == Electronics == Adiabatic circuit Adiabatic logic == References ==


id: list-of-laser-applications-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications-0.md
category: reference
title: List of laser applications
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:26.918461+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-laser-applications-20260505-0
summary:
Many scientific, military, medical and commercial laser applications have been developed since the invention of the laser in 1958. The coherency, high monochromaticity, and ability to reach extremely high powers are all properties which allow for these specialized applications. == Scientific == In science, lasers are used in many ways, including: A wide variety of interferometric techniques Raman spectroscopy Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy Atmospheric remote sensing Investigating nonlinear optics phenomena Holographic techniques employing lasers also contribute to a number of measurement techniques. Laser based lidar (LIght raDAR) technology applications in geology, seismology, remote sensing and atmospheric physics. Three-dimensional structural modifications and writing inside technological materials. Lasers have been used aboard spacecraft such as in the Cassini-Huygens mission. In astronomy, lasers have been used to create artificial laser guide stars, used as reference objects for adaptive optics telescopes. Lasers may also be indirectly used in spectroscopy as a micro-sampling system, a technique termed Laser ablation (LA), which is typically applied to ICP-MS apparatus resulting in the powerful LA-ICP-MS. The principles of laser spectroscopy are discussed by Demtröder. === Spectroscopy === Most types of laser are an inherently pure source of light; they emit near-monochromatic light with a very well defined range


id: list-of-laser-applications-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications-1.md
category: reference
title: List of laser applications
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:26.918461+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-laser-applications-20260505-0
summary:
Powerful lasers producing ultra-short (in the tens of femtoseconds) and ultra-intense (up to 1023 W/cm2) laser pulses offer much greater acceleration gradients than that of conventional accelerators. This fact is exploited in several plasma acceleration techniques used for accelerating both electrons and charged ions to high energies. === Microscopy === Confocal laser scanning microscopy and Two-photon excitation microscopy make use of lasers to obtain blur-free images of thick specimens at various depths. Laser capture microdissection use lasers to procure specific cell populations from a tissue section under microscopic visualization. Additional laser microscopy techniques include harmonic microscopy, four-wave mixing microscopy and interferometric microscopy. == Military == === Directly as an energy weapon === A laser weapon is directed-energy weapon based on lasers. === Defensive countermeasures === Defensive countermeasure applications can range from compact, low power infrared countermeasures to high power, airborne laser systems. IR countermeasure systems use lasers to confuse the seeker heads on infrared homing missiles. === Disorientation === Some weapons simply use a laser to disorient a person. One such weapon is the Thales Green Laser Optical Warner. === Guidance === Laser guidance is a technique of guiding a missile or other projectile or vehicle to a target by


id: list-of-laser-applications-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications-2.md
category: reference
title: List of laser applications
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_laser_applications
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:26.918461+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-laser-applications-20260505-0
summary:
Industrial laser applications can be divided into two categories depending on the power of the laser: material processing and micro-material processing. In material processing, lasers with average optical power above 1 kilowatt are used mainly for industrial materials processing applications. Beyond this power threshold there are thermal issues related to the optics that separate these lasers from their lower-power counterparts. Laser systems in the 50-300W range are used primarily for pumping, plastic welding and soldering applications. Lasers above 300W are used in brazing, thin metal welding, and sheet metal cutting applications. The required brightness (as measured in by the beam parameter product) is higher for cutting applications than for brazing and thin metal welding. High power applications, such as hardening, cladding, and deep penetrating welding, require multiple kW of optical power, and are used in a broad range of industrial processes. Micro material processing is a category that includes all laser material processing applications under 1 kilowatt. The use of lasers in Micro Materials Processing has found broad application in the development and manufacturing of screens for smartphones, tablet computers, and LED TVs. A detailed list of industrial and commercial laser applications includes: Laser cutting Laser welding Laser drilling Laser


id: list-of-applications-of-stainless-steel-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel-0.md
category: reference
title: List of applications of stainless steel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:28.103330+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-applications-of-stainless-steel-20260505-0
summary:
Stainless steel is used in a multitude of fields including architecture, art, chemical engineering, food and beverage manufacture, vehicles, medicine, energy and firearms. == Architecture == The use of stainless steel in buildings can be both practical and aesthetic. In vogue during the Art Deco period, the most famous use of stainless steel can be seen in the upper portion of the Chrysler Building. Thanks to its durability, many of these buildings have retained their original appearance. Stainless steel is used in the construction of modern buildings, such as the exterior of the Petronas Twin Towers and the Jin Mao Building. The Parliament House of Australia in Canberra has a stainless steel flagpole weighing over 220 metric tons (240 short tons). The largest stainless steel building in North America is the aeration building in the Edmonton Composting Facility. La Geode in Paris has a dome composed of 6433 polished stainless steel triangles that form the sphere that reflects the sky. The development of high-strength stainless steel grades, such as "lean duplex" grades, has led to increasing use in structural applications. Thanks to its low reflectivity, stainless steel is used as a roofing material for airports, which prevents pilots from being


id: list-of-applications-of-stainless-steel-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel-1.md
category: reference
title: List of applications of stainless steel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:28.103330+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-applications-of-stainless-steel-20260505-0
summary:
== Food and beverage == Austenitic (300 series) stainless steel, particularly Types 304 and 316, is the material of choice for the food and beverage industry, though martensitic and ferritic (400 series) steels are also used. Stainless steels are advantageous because they do not affect the taste of the product, are easily cleaned and sterilized to prevent bacterial contamination of the food, and are durable. Within the food and beverage industry, stainless steel is extensively used in cookware, commercial food processing, commercial kitchens, brewing beer, winemaking, and meat processing. Stainless steel's superiority over plastic in preserving flavor is reportedly why McDonald's traditionally procures soft drink syrup for its soda fountains from The Coca-Cola Company in stainless steel tanks, rather than the bag-in-box technology preferred by most fast food restaurant chains. Acidic foods with high salt additions, such as tomato sauce, and highly salted condiments, such as soy sauce, may require higher-alloyed stainless steels such as 6% Mo superaustenitics to prevent pitting corrosion by chloride. == Vehicles == === Automobiles === The Allegheny Ludlum Corporation worked with Ford on various concept cars with stainless steel bodies from the 1930s through the 1970s to demonstrate the material's potential. The 1957 and 1958


id: list-of-applications-of-stainless-steel-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel-2.md
category: reference
title: List of applications of stainless steel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_applications_of_stainless_steel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:28.103330+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-applications-of-stainless-steel-20260505-0
summary:
Surgical tools and medical equipment are usually made of stainless steel, because of its durability and ability to be sterilized in an autoclave. In addition, surgical implants such as bone reinforcements and replacements (e.g. hip sockets and cranial plates) are made with special alloys formulated to resist corrosion, mechanical wear, and biological reactions in vivo. Stainless steel is used in a variety of applications in dentistry. It is common to use stainless steel in many instruments that need to be sterilized, such as needles, endodontic files in root canal therapy, metal posts in root canal-treated teeth, temporary crowns and crowns for deciduous teeth, and arch wires and brackets in orthodontics. Surgical stainless steel alloys (e.g., 316 low-carbon steel) were also used in some early dental implants. == Energy == Stainless steels are extensively used in all types of power stations, from nuclear to solar. Stainless steels are ideally suited as mechanical supports for power generation units when the permeation of gases or liquids are required, such as filters in cooling water or hot gas clean up or as structural supports in electrolytic power generation. Stainless steel is used in electrolysers (proton exchange membranes and solid oxide electrolysers being the most


id: list-of-asteroid-discovering-observatories-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_asteroid-discovering_observatories-0.md
category: reference
title: List of asteroid-discovering observatories
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_asteroid-discovering_observatories
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:29.268275+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-asteroid-discovering-observatories-20260505-0
summary:
The list of asteroid-discovering observatories contains a section for each observatory which has discovered one or more asteroids, along with a list of those asteroids. For each numbered asteroid, the Minor Planet Center lists one or more discoverers who have been given credit for the discovery. Sometimes these are individuals (by modern rules there can be no more than three co-discoverers), and sometimes the credit is given to an organization (for instance, Purple Mountain Observatory). == Observatories == === Andrushivka Astronomical Observatory === The Andrushivka Astronomical Observatory is a private observatory near Andrushivka in Zhytomyr oblast, Ukraine. The observatory has IAU observatory code A50. It has discovered the following asteroids: === Bohyunsan Optical Astronomy Observatory === The Korean Bohyunsan Optical Astronomy Observatory (BOAO), located at Mount Bohyeon near the city of Yeongcheon, is a member of the East-Asian Planet Search Network, an international collaboration between Korea, China and Japan. Each facility, BOAO (Korea), Xinglong Station (NAOC) (China), and Okayama Astrophysical Observatory (Japan), has a 2 m class telescope, a high dispersion echelle spectrograph, and an iodine absorption cell for precise RV measurements, looking for extrasolar planets. It has discovered the following asteroids: === Cerro El Roble Astronomical Station === Between


id: atmospheric-optics-ray-tracing-codes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_optics_ray-tracing_codes-0.md
category: reference
title: Atmospheric optics ray-tracing codes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_optics_ray-tracing_codes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:30.414073+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: atmospheric-optics-ray-tracing-codes-20260505-0
summary:
Atmospheric optics ray tracing codes - this article list codes for light scattering using ray-tracing technique to study atmospheric optics phenomena such as rainbows and halos. Such particles can be large raindrops or hexagonal ice crystals. Such codes are one of many approaches to calculations of light scattering by particles. == Geometric optics (ray tracing) == Ray tracing techniques can be applied to study light scattering by spherical and non-spherical particles under the condition that the size of a particle is much larger than the wavelength of light. The light can be considered as collection of separate rays with width of rays much larger than the wavelength but smaller than a particle. Rays hitting the particle undergoes reflection, refraction and diffraction. These rays exit in various directions with different amplitudes and phases. Such ray tracing techniques are used to describe optical phenomena such as rainbow of halo on hexagonal ice crystals for large particles. Review of several mathematical techniques is provided in series of publications. The 46° halo was first explained as being caused by refractions through ice crystals in 1679 by the French physicist Edmé Mariotte (1620–1684) in terms of light refraction Jacobowitz in 1971 was the first to


id: atmospheric-radiative-transfer-codes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_radiative_transfer_codes-0.md
category: reference
title: Atmospheric radiative transfer codes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_radiative_transfer_codes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:31.649380+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: atmospheric-radiative-transfer-codes-20260505-0
summary:
An atmospheric radiative transfer model, code, or simulator calculates radiative transfer of electromagnetic radiation through a planetary atmosphere. == Methods == At the core of a radiative transfer model lies the radiative transfer equation that is numerically solved using a solver such as a discrete ordinate method or a Monte Carlo method. The radiative transfer equation is a monochromatic equation to calculate radiance in a single layer of the Earth's atmosphere. To calculate the radiance for a spectral region with a finite width (e.g., to estimate the Earth's energy budget or simulate an instrument response), one has to integrate this over a band of frequencies (or wavelengths). The most exact way to do this is to loop through the frequencies of interest, and for each frequency, calculate the radiance at this frequency. For this, one needs to calculate the contribution of each spectral line for all molecules in the atmospheric layer; this is called a line-by-line calculation. For an instrument response, this is then convolved with the spectral response of the instrument. A faster but more approximate method is a band transmission. Here, the transmission in a region in a band is characterised by a set of pre-calculated coefficients (depending


id: list-of-cities-by-scientific-output-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_by_scientific_output-0.md
category: reference
title: List of cities by scientific output
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cities_by_scientific_output
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:43.089577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cities-by-scientific-output-20260505-0
summary:
The following article lists the cities and metropolitan areas with the greatest scientific output, according to the Nature Index. The Nature Index attempts to objectively measure the scientific output of institutions, cities and countries by the amount of scientific articles and papers published in leading journals. Differences in quality are taken into account. Only articles published in 82 selected quality journals are counted. All these journals are in the English language. They were selected by a committee. If authors from several institutions from different cities are involved in a scientific article, it is divided accordingly, assuming that all researchers were equally involved in the article. In 2019, Beijing was the city in the world with the largest scientific output, accounting for 2.8% of the world's total. New York City was second in the world, with about 2% of the world's total. Overall, China has the most cities in the top 100 list with 28, followed by the United States with 27. == List == Listed below are the top 100 cities and metropolitan areas with the highest share of articles published in scientific journals in 2024, according to the Nature Index 2025 Science Cities: == Leading cities in different fields


id: codes-for-electromagnetic-scattering-by-cylinders-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codes_for_electromagnetic_scattering_by_cylinders-0.md
category: reference
title: Codes for electromagnetic scattering by cylinders
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codes_for_electromagnetic_scattering_by_cylinders
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:45.512599+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: codes-for-electromagnetic-scattering-by-cylinders-20260505-0
summary:
Codes for electromagnetic scattering by cylinders – this article list codes for electromagnetic scattering by a cylinder. Majority of existing codes for calculation of electromagnetic scattering by a single cylinder are based on Mie theory, which is an analytical solution of Maxwell's equations in terms of infinite series. == Classification == The compilation contains information about the electromagnetic scattering by cylindrical particles, relevant links, and applications. === Codes for electromagnetic scattering by a single homogeneous cylinder === == Relevant scattering codes == Discrete dipole approximation codes Codes for electromagnetic scattering by spheres == See also == Computational electromagnetics List of atmospheric radiative transfer codes == References == == External links == SCATTERLIB: Collection of light scattering codes


id: codes-for-electromagnetic-scattering-by-spheres-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codes_for_electromagnetic_scattering_by_spheres-0.md
category: reference
title: Codes for electromagnetic scattering by spheres
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codes_for_electromagnetic_scattering_by_spheres
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:46.629977+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: codes-for-electromagnetic-scattering-by-spheres-20260505-0
summary:
Codes for electromagnetic scattering by spheres - this article list codes for electromagnetic scattering by a homogeneous sphere, layered sphere, and cluster of spheres. == Solution techniques == Majority of existing codes for calculation of electromagnetic scattering by a single sphere is based on Mie theory which is an analytical solution of Maxwell's equations in terms of infinite series. Other approximations to scattering by a single sphere include: Debye series, ray tracing (geometrical optics), ray tracing including the effects of interference between rays, Airy theory, Rayleigh scattering, diffraction approximation. There are many phenomena related to light scattering by spherical particles such as resonances, surface waves, plasmons, near-field scattering. Even though Mie theory offers convenient and fast way of solving light scattering problem by homogeneous spherical particles, there are other techniques, such as discrete dipole approximation, FDTD, T-matrix, which can also be used for such tasks. == Classification == The compilation contains information about the electromagnetic scattering by spherical particles, relevant links, and applications. === Codes for electromagnetic scattering by a single homogeneous sphere === === Codes for electromagnetic scattering by a layered sphere === Algorithmic literature includes several contributions === Codes for electromagnetic scattering by cluster of spheres === ==


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:47.900987+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-0.md

summary:
Each entry on this list of common misconceptions is worded as a correction; the misconceptions themselves are implied rather than stated. These entries are concise summaries; the main subject articles can be consulted for more detail. == Astronomy and spaceflight == There is no scientific evidence that the motion of stars, planets, and other celestial bodies influences the fates of humans, and astrology has repeatedly been shown to have no explanatory power in predicting future events. Astronauts in orbit have the sensation of being weightless because they are in free fall around the Earth, not because they are so far away from the Earth that its gravitational pull is negligible. For example, on the International Space Station the Earth's gravity is nearly 90% as strong as at the surface. Objects orbiting in space would not remain in orbit if not for the gravitational force, and gravitational fields extend even into the depths of intergalactic space. The dark side of the Moon receives about the same amount of light from the Sun as the near side. The far side is called "dark" not because it never receives light but because it had never been seen until humans sent spacecraft around the

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-1
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:47.900987+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-1.md

summary:
=== Mammals === Bats are not blind. While about 70% of bat species, mainly in the microbat family, use echolocation to navigate, all bat species have eyes and are capable of sight. In addition, almost all bats in the megabat or fruit bat family cannot echolocate and have excellent night vision. Bulls are not enraged by the color red, used in capes by professional bullfighters. Cattle are dichromats, so red does not stand out as a bright color. It is not the color of the cape, but the perceived threat by the bullfighter that incites it to charge, along with the spearing of the bull and mental agitation and abuse it endures beforehand. Camels do not store water in their humps, but rather fatty tissue which can be used as a reserve source of calories. While they can go long periods without water, the water is stored in the animal's bloodstream, not their humps. Domestic cats' behavioral and personality traits cannot be predicted from their coat color. Rather, these traits depend on a complex interplay between genetic and environmental factors. Not all cats are attracted and intoxicated by catnip, which affects only about two thirds of them. Alternatives exist, such

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-2
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:47.900987+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-2.md

summary:
The bold, powerful cry commonly associated with the bald eagle in popular culture is actually that of a red-tailed hawk. Bald eagle vocalizations are much softer and chirpier, and bear far more resemblance to the calls of gulls. Despite the saying "dumb as a dodo", the dodo's intelligence was above average for an avian, as it was a member of the family Columbidae (pigeons). The perceived stupidity of the dodo, a medium-sized flightless bird that was native to Mauritius, is due to naivety and passivity from living in isolation without significant predators. Many believe that the dodo was hunted to extinction by European settlers due to its high culinary value. However, the dodo's meat was stated to be inedible by historical accounts, as one of its early names given by the Dutch was Walghvoghel (repulsive bird). The dodo's decline was caused more by predation of their eggs from invasive species as opposed to direct predation from humans. A duck's quack actually does echo, although the echo may be difficult to hear for humans under some circumstances. Despite this, a British panel show compiling interesting facts was named Duck Quacks Don't Echo. Ostriches do not stick their heads in the sand

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-3
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:47.900987+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-3.md

summary:
It is not true that aerodynamic theory predicts that bumblebees should not be able to fly; the physics of insect flight is quite well understood. The misconception appears to come from a calculation based on a fixed-wing aircraft mentioned in a 1934 book, and was further popularized in the 2007 film Bee Movie. While certainly critical to the pollination of many plant species, European honey bees are not essential to human food production, despite claims that without their pollination, humanity would starve or die out "within four years". In fact, the most essential staple food crops on the planet, like wheat, maize, rice, soybeans and sorghum, are wind-pollinated or self-pollinating, and only slightly over 10% of the total human diet of plant crops is dependent upon insect pollination. Bees do not always die if they use their sting. This happens for only a very small minority of species, which includes the honey bee, when they sting mammals, as they have thick skin. They are able to survive when they sting other insects. Cockroaches would not be the only organisms capable of surviving in an environment contaminated with nuclear fallout. While cockroaches have a much higher radiation resistance than vertebrates, they


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-4
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:47.900987+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-4.md

summary:
The word theory in "the theory of evolution" does not imply scientific doubt regarding its validity; the concepts of theory and hypothesis have specific meanings in a scientific context. While theory in colloquial usage may denote a hunch or conjecture, a scientific theory is a set of principles that explains an observable phenomenon in natural terms. Scientific facts and theories are not mutually exclusive, and evolution is a theory in the same sense as germ theory or the theory of gravitation. The theory of evolution does not attempt to explain the origin of life or the origin and development of the universe. The theory of evolution deals primarily with changes in successive generations over time after life has already originated. The scientific model concerned with the origin of the first organisms from organic or inorganic molecules is known as abiogenesis, and the prevailing theory for explaining the early development of the universe is the Big Bang model. Evolution is not a progression from inferior to superior organisms, and it also does not necessarily result in an increase in complexity. Evolution through natural selection only causes successive generations of a population of organisms to become more fit for their environment than


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-5
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:47.900987+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-5.md

summary:
== Chemistry and materials science == Himalayan salt does not have lower levels of sodium than conventional table salt. Glass does not flow at room temperature as a high-viscosity liquid. Although glass shares some molecular properties with liquids, it is a solid at room temperature and begins to flow only at hundreds of degrees above room temperature. Old glass which is thicker at the bottom than at the top comes from the production process, not from slow flow; no such distortion is observed in other glass objects of similar or even greater age. Diamonds are not formed from highly compressed coal. Almost all commercially mined diamonds were formed in the conditions of extreme heat and pressure about 150 kilometers (93 mi) below the earth's surface. Coal is formed from prehistoric plants buried much closer to the surface, and is unlikely to migrate below 3.2 kilometers (2.0 mi) through geological processes. Most diamonds that have been dated are older than the first land plants, and are therefore older than coal. Neither "tin" foil nor "tin" cans still use tin as a primary material. Aluminum foil has replaced tin foil in almost all uses since the 20th century; tin cans now primarily


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-6
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:47.900987+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-6.md

summary:
Contemporary global warming is driven by human activities, despite claims that it is not occurring, lacks strong scientific consensus, or that warming is mostly caused by non-human factors. No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with the decades-old, near-complete scientific consensus on climate change. Global warming is primarily a result of the increase in atmospheric greenhouse-gas concentrations (like CO2 and methane) via the burning of fossil fuels as well as other human activities such as deforestation, with secondary climate change feedback mechanisms (such as the melting of the polar ice increasing the Earth's absorption of sunlight) assisting to perpetuate the change. Global warming is not caused by the hole in the ozone layer. Ozone depletion is a separate problem caused by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which have been released into the atmosphere. CFCs are strong greenhouse gases; however, the hole in the ozone layer is shrinking and in 2019 was the smallest it had been since 1982, while global warming continues. Cooling towers in power stations and other facilities do not emit smoke, harmful fumes, or radiation; they emit water vapor and do not contribute to climate change. Nuclear power is one of the safest sources of energy, resulting in


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-7
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:47.900987+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-7.md

summary:
The total number of people living in extreme absolute poverty globally decreased by two-thirds from 1990 to 2025 (measured using the international poverty line), with other poverty measurements showing similar trends. However, most people surveyed in several countries incorrectly think it has increased or stayed the same. Although the human population of Earth is increasing, the rate of human population growth is decreasing and the world population is expected to peak and then begin falling during the 21st century. Improvements in agricultural productivity and technology are expected to be able to meet anticipated increased demand for resources, making a global human overpopulation scenario unlikely. For any given production set, there is not a set amount of labor input (a "lump of labor") to produce that output. This fallacy is commonly seen in Luddite and later, related movements as an argument either that automation causes permanent, structural unemployment, or that labor-limiting regulation can decrease unemployment. In fact, changes in capital allocation, efficiency, and economies of learning can change the amount of labor input for a given set of production. Income is not a direct factor in determining credit score in the United States. Rather, credit score is affected by the amount


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-8
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:47.900987+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-8.md

summary:
It is not just heavy metals which can be toxic; other metals (for example beryllium and lithium) can be toxic too. Sleeping in a closed room with an electric fan running does not result in "fan death", as is widely believed in South Korea among older people. As of 2019, this belief was in decline. Nocturia (waking up at night to urinate) is equally prevalent in women and men, although it is more common among both men and women over 50. Waking up a sleepwalker does not harm them. Sleepwalkers may be confused or disoriented for a short time after awakening, but the health risks associated with sleepwalking are from injury or insomnia, not from being awakened. Seizures cannot cause a person to swallow their own tongue, and it is dangerous to attempt to place a foreign object into a convulsing person's mouth. Instead it is recommended to gently lay a convulsing person on their side to minimize the risk of asphyxiation. Drowning is often inconspicuous to onlookers. In most cases, the instinctive drowning response prevents the victim from waving or yelling (known as "aquatic distress"), which are therefore not dependable signs of trouble; indeed, most drowning victims undergoing the


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-9
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:47.900987+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-9.md

summary:
It is not true that more people have died from the COVID-19 vaccine than from COVID-19 itself. Severe adverse reactions from the vaccine are rare, and an "exceedingly small" number of deaths have been caused by the vaccine. Meanwhile, the death toll from the disease itself is in the millions. Tuberculosis is not purely a disease of the lungs that has symptoms of coughing. It may instead infect a wide range of other organs in the body. Cancer cannot be treated by restricting food intake and so supposedly "starving" tumors. Rather, the health of people with cancer is best served by maintaining a healthy diet. The common cold and the common flu are caused by viruses, not exposure to cold temperatures. However, low temperatures may somewhat weaken the immune system, and someone already infected with a cold or influenza virus but showing no symptoms can become symptomatic after they are exposed to low temperatures. Viruses are more likely to spread during the winter for a variety of reasons such as dry air, less air circulation in homes, people spending more time indoors, and lower vitamin D levels in humans. Antibiotics will not cure a cold; they treat bacterial diseases and


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-10
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:47.900987+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-10.md

summary:
=== Nutrition, food, and drink === Diet has little influence on the body's detoxification, and there is no evidence that detoxification diets rid the body of toxins. Toxins are metabolized and removed from the bloodstream by the liver and kidneys, and they are primarily removed from the body in urine and bile (excreted with the feces). Drinking milk or consuming other dairy products does not increase mucus production. As a result, they do not need to be avoided by those with the flu or cold congestion. However, milk and saliva in one's mouth mix to create a thick liquid that can briefly coat the mouth and throat. The sensation that lingers may be mistaken for increased phlegm. Drinking eight glasses (2–3 liters) of water a day is not needed to maintain health. The amount of water needed varies by person, weight, diet, activity level, clothing, and the ambient temperature and humidity. Water requirements can be met from liquids such as juices, tea, milk, soups, etc., and from foods including fruits and vegetables. Drinking coffee and other caffeinated beverages does not cause dehydration for regular drinkers, although it can for occasional drinkers. Eating disorders do not exclusively affect women; women are


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-11
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:47.900987+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-11.md

summary:
=== Sexuality and reproduction === Older adults are not necessarily sexually inactive nor have they lost interest in sex; although the frequency of sexual activity tends to decline with age. One survey in England of people aged 60–69 recorded 86% of men and 60% of women as sexually active. It is not possible to get pregnant from semen released in a commercial swimming pool without penetration. The sperm cells would be quickly killed by the chlorinated water and would not survive long enough to reach the vagina. An examination of the hymen is not an accurate or reliable indicator that a woman or girl has had penetrative sex, because the tearing of the hymen may have been the result of some other event, and some women are born without one. Virginity tests, such as the "two-finger" test, are unscientific. Hand size and foot size do not correlate with human penis size, but finger length ratio may. While pregnancies from sex between first cousins do carry a slightly elevated risk of birth defects, this risk is often exaggerated. The risk is 5–6% (similar to that of a woman in her early 40s giving birth), compared with a baseline risk of 3–4%.


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-12
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:47.900987+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-12.md

summary:
== Inventions == James Watt did not invent the steam engine, nor were his ideas on steam engine power inspired by a kettle lid pressured open by steam. Watt improved upon the already commercially successful Newcomen atmospheric engine (invented in 1712 by Thomas Newcomen) in the 1760s and 1770s, making certain improvements critical to its future usage; his new steam engine later gained huge fame as a result. Although the guillotine was named after the French physician Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, he neither invented nor was executed with this device. He died peacefully in his own bed in 1814. Rather, it was Guillotin's speech favoring beheadings over other forms of execution that led to the device being referred to as "La machine Guillotine" and later simply guillotine. Thomas Crapper did not invent the flush toilet. A forerunner of the modern toilet was invented by the Elizabethan courtier Sir John Harington in the 16th century, and in 1775 the Scottish mechanic Alexander Cumming developed and patented a design for a toilet with an S-trap and flushing mechanism. Crapper, however, did much to increase the popularity of the flush toilet and introduced several innovations in the late 19th century, holding nine patents, including one


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-13
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:47.900987+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-13.md

summary:
The lift force is not generated by the air taking the same time to travel above and below an aircraft's wing. This misconception, sometimes called the equal transit-time fallacy, is widespread among textbooks and non-technical reference books, and even appears in pilot training materials. In fact, the air moving over the top of an aerofoil generating lift is always moving much faster than the equal transit theory would imply, as described in the incorrect and correct explanations of lift force. Blowing over a curved piece of paper does not demonstrate Bernoulli's principle. Although a common classroom experiment is often explained this way, Bernoulli's principle applies only within a flow field, and the air above and below the paper are in different flow fields. The paper rises because the air follows the curve of the paper and a curved streamline will develop pressure differences perpendicular to the airflow. The Coriolis effect does not cause water to consistently drain from basins in a clockwise/counter-clockwise direction depending on the hemisphere. The common myth often refers to the draining action of flush toilets and bathtubs. In fact, rotation is determined by whatever minor rotation is initially present at the time the water starts to


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-14
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:47.900987+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-14.md

summary:
=== Mental disorders === Vaccines do not cause autism. There have been no successful attempts to reproduce fraudulent research by British ex-doctor Andrew Wakefield, where the misconception likely originates. Wakefield's research was ultimately shown to have been manipulated. Dyslexia is not defined or diagnosed as mirror writing or reading letters or words backwards. Mirror writing and reading letters or words backwards are behaviors seen in many children (dyslexic or not) as they learn to read and write. Dyslexia is a neurodevelopmental disorder of people who have at least average intelligence and who have difficulty in reading and writing that is not otherwise explained by low intelligence. Self-harm is not generally an attention-seeking behavior. People who engage in self-harm are typically very self-conscious of their wounds and scars and feel guilty about their behavior, leading them to go to great lengths to conceal it from others. They may offer alternative explanations for their injuries, or conceal their scars with clothing. There is no evidence that a chemical imbalance or neurotransmitter deficiency is the sole factor in depression and other mental disorders, but rather a combination of biological, psychological, and social factors. Schizophrenia does not involve split or multiple personalities. It is


id: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-15
category: reference
title: List of common misconceptions about science, technology, and mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:47.900987+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-misconceptions-about-science-technology-and-mathematics-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_science,_technology,_and_mathematics-15.md

summary:
== Toxicology == Smokeless tobacco is not a "safe" alternative to conventional tobacco; smokeless tobacco products contain nicotine and are therefore highly addictive. They also can cause various harmful effects such as dental disease, oral cancer, oesophagus cancer, and pancreas cancer, coronary heart disease, as well as negative reproductive effects including stillbirth, premature birth and low birth weight. Swallowing gasoline does not generally require special emergency treatment, as long as it goes into the stomach and not the lungs. This does not mean gasoline is safe to drink; it is very dangerous when consumed. Inducing vomiting can make it worse. A chloroform-soaked rag cannot instantly incapacitate a person. It takes at least five minutes of inhaling an item soaked in chloroform to render a person unconscious. Most criminal cases involving chloroform also involve another drug being co-administered, such as alcohol or diazepam, or the victim being found to have been complicit in its administration. The misconception that chloroform can be used as an incapacitating agent has been popularized by crime fiction authors. Although bananas contain naturally occurring radioactive isotopes, particularly potassium-40 (40K), which emit ionizing radiation when undergoing radioactive decay, the levels of such radiation are far too low to


id: list-of-scientific-constants-named-after-people-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_constants_named_after_people-0.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific constants named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_constants_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:50.343029+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-constants-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of physical and mathematical constants named after people. Eponymous constants and their influence on scientific citations have been discussed in the literature. Apéry's constant – Roger Apéry Archimedes' constant (π, pi) – Archimedes Avogadro constant – Amedeo Avogadro Balmer's constant – Johann Jakob Balmer Belphegor's prime – Belphegor (demon) Bohr magneton – Niels Bohr Bohr radius – Niels Bohr Boltzmann constant – Ludwig Boltzmann Brun's constant – Viggo Brun Cabibbo angle – Nicola Cabibbo Chaitin's constant – Gregory Chaitin Champernowne constant – D. G. Champernowne Chandrasekhar limit – Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar Copeland–Erdős constant – Paul Erdős and Peter Borwein Eddington number – Arthur Stanley Eddington Dunbar's number – Robin Dunbar Embree–Trefethen constant Erdős–Borwein constant Euler–Mascheroni constant ( γ {\displaystyle \gamma } ) – Leonhard Euler and Lorenzo Mascheroni Euler's number ( e {\displaystyle e} ) – Leonhard Euler Faraday constant – Michael Faraday Feigenbaum constants – Mitchell Feigenbaum Fermi coupling constant – Enrico Fermi Gauss's constant – Carl Friedrich Gauss Graham's number – Ronald Graham Hartree energy – Douglas Hartree Hubble constant – Edwin Hubble Josephson constant – Brian David Josephson Kaprekar's constant – D. R. Kaprekar Kerr constant – John Kerr Khinchin's constant – Aleksandr Khinchin


id: list-of-crew-members-aboard-the-first-voyage-of-james-cook-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_crew_members_aboard_the_first_voyage_of_James_Cook-0.md
category: reference
title: List of crew members aboard the first voyage of James Cook
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_crew_members_aboard_the_first_voyage_of_James_Cook
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:51.517636+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-crew-members-aboard-the-first-voyage-of-james-cook-20260505-0
summary:
The first voyage of James Cook was a discovery expedition to the south Pacific Ocean, with aims of observing the 1769 transit of Venus across the Sun and seeking evidence of the alleged southern territories, named by that time as Terra Australis Incognita. The ship chosen for the voyage was HMS Endeavour. The makeup of the crew during the voyage varied due the high mortality, for which contributed mainly malaria and dysentery, that the crew had contracted in Batavia. There was also one occurrence of successful desertion of Patrick Saunders, who after being disrated, escaped the ship. == Personnel == The following is a complete list of initial crew that departed from Plymouth on 26 August 1768 according to ship's journal. == See also == 1769 transit of Venus observed from Tahiti Personnel of Franklin's lost expedition == Notes and references == === Notes === === References === === Works cited === Rigby, Nigel; van der Merwe, Pieter (2002). Captain Cook in the Pacific. National Maritime Museum (UK). ISBN 0-948065-43-5.


id: list-of-cycles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cycles-0.md
category: reference
title: List of cycles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_cycles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:52.741703+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cycles-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of recurring cycles. See also Index of wave articles, Time, and Pattern. == Planetary cycles == === Astronomical cycles === Astronomy – Axial precession – CNO cycle – Eclipse cycle – Eclipse – Full moon cycle – Galactic year – Great Year – Lunar phase – Mesoamerican calendars – Metonic cycle – Milankovitch cycles – Mira – Moon – Nutation – Orbit – Orbital period – Saros cycle – Sothic cycle – Secularity – Sidereal year – Sunspot – Tide – Tropical year – Year === Climate and weather cycles === Animal migration – Avalanche – Carbon cycle – Climate change – Climate change and agriculture – Climate model – Climate oscillation – Clock of the Long Now – Ecology – El Niño/La Niña – Environmental geography – Global cooling – Global warming – Historical temperature record – Hydrogen cycle – Ice age – Transhumance – Milankovitch cycles – Monsoon – Pleistocene – Season – Sulfur cycle – Sunspot – Tide – Timeline of meteorology – 1500-year climate cycle === Geological cycles === Age of the Earth – Aluminum cycle – Arsenic cycle – Boron cycle – Bromine cycle – Cadmium cycle – Calcium cycle –


id: list-of-diagnoses-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience-0.md
category: reference
title: List of diagnoses characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:55.055659+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-diagnoses-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
Many proposed diseases and diagnoses are rejected by mainstream medical consensus and are associated with pseudoscience due to a lack of scientific evidence for their existence, proposed mechanism or action, or manifestation that cannot be explained by something else. == Definition == Pseudoscientific diseases are not defined using objective criteria. Such diseases cannot achieve, and perhaps do not seek, medical recognition. Pseudoscience rejects empirical methodology. Other conditions may be rejected or contested by orthodox medicine, but are not necessarily associated with pseudoscience. Diagnostic criteria for some of these conditions may be vague, over-inclusive, or otherwise ill-defined. Although the evidence for the disease may be contested or lacking, the justification for these diagnoses is nevertheless empirical and therefore amenable to scientific investigation, at least in theory. In some cases, patients are exhibiting genuine signs and symptoms but the explanation or diagnosis for their distress is disputed or inaccurate. Examples of conditions that are not necessarily pseudoscientific include: Conditions determined to be somatic in nature, including mass psychogenic illnesses. Medicalized conditions that are not pathogenic in nature, such as aging, childbirth, pregnancy, sexual addiction, baldness, jet lag, and halitosis. Conditions that are not widely recognized, about which there is an ongoing debate


id: list-of-diagnoses-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience-1.md
category: reference
title: List of diagnoses characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:55.055659+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-diagnoses-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
== Medical == Adrenal fatigue or hypoadrenia is a diagnosis described as a state in which the adrenal glands are exhausted and unable to produce adequate quantities of hormones, primarily the glucocorticoid cortisol, due to chronic stress or infections. Adrenal fatigue should not be confused with a number of actual forms of adrenal dysfunction such as adrenal insufficiency or Addison's disease. The term "adrenal fatigue", which was invented in 1998 by James Wilson, a chiropractor, may be applied to a collection of mostly nonspecific symptoms. There is no scientific evidence supporting the concept of adrenal fatigue and it is not recognized as a diagnosis by any scientific or medical community. A systematic review found no evidence for the term adrenal fatigue, confirming the consensus among endocrinological societies that it is a myth. Autistic enterocolitis is a nonexistent medical condition proposed in 1998 by now-discredited British gastroenterologist Andrew Wakefield, who suggested a link between a number of common clinical symptoms and signs which he contended were distinctive to autism. The existence of such an enterocolitis has been dismissed by experts as having "not been established". Wakefield's fraudulent report, which was retracted in 2010, suppressed negative findings and used inadequate controls. Multiple


id: list-of-diagnoses-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience-2.md
category: reference
title: List of diagnoses characterized as pseudoscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_diagnoses_characterized_as_pseudoscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:55.055659+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-diagnoses-characterized-as-pseudoscience-20260505-0
summary:
== Psychological == Autogynephilia is a proposed paraphilic disorder in which a man has erotic interest in the idea of himself in the form of a woman. Autogynephilia is not recognized by any major medical organization and has been criticised as a form of medical transphobia. Drapetomania was a supposed mental illness that, in 1851, American physician Samuel A. Cartwright hypothesized as the cause of enslaved Africans fleeing captivity. This hypothesis centered around the belief that slavery was such an improvement upon the lives of slaves that only those suffering from some form of mental illness would wish to escape. As treatment Cartwright recommended "whipping the devil out of them" both as a punishment and as a preventative measure. Female hysteria was once a common medical diagnosis for women, which was described as exhibiting a wide array of symptoms, including anxiety, shortness of breath, fainting, nervousness, sexual desire, insomnia, fluid retention, heaviness in the abdomen, irritability, loss of appetite for food or sex, (paradoxically) sexually forward behaviour, and a "tendency to cause trouble for others". It is no longer recognized by medical authorities as a medical disorder. Parental alienation syndrome, also routinely referred to as parental alienation is a proposed


id: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-0.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of scientific discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:56.287596+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-0
summary:
The timeline below shows the date of publication of possible major scientific breakthroughs, theories and discoveries, along with the discoverer. This article discounts mere speculation as discovery, although imperfect reasoned arguments, arguments based on elegance/simplicity, and numerically/experimentally verified conjectures qualify (as otherwise no scientific discovery before the late 19th century would count). The timeline begins at the Bronze Age, as it is difficult to give even estimates for the timing of events prior to this, such as of the discovery of counting, natural numbers and arithmetic. To avoid overlap with timeline of historic inventions, the timeline does not list examples of documentation for manufactured substances and devices unless they reveal a more fundamental leap in the theoretical ideas in a field. == Bronze Age == Many early innovations of the Bronze Age were prompted by the increase in trade, and this also applies to the scientific advances of this period. For context, the major civilizations of this period are Egypt, Mesopotamia, and the Indus Valley, with Greece rising in importance towards the end of the third millennium BC. The Indus Valley script remains undeciphered and there are very little surviving fragments of its writing, thus any inference about scientific discoveries


id: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-1.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of scientific discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:56.287596+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-0
summary:
500 BC: Hippasus, a Pythagorean, discovers irrational numbers. 500 BC: Anaxagoras identifies moonlight as reflected sunlight. 5th century BC: The Greeks start experimenting with straightedge-and-compass constructions. 5th century BC: The earliest documented mention of a spherical Earth comes from the Greeks in the 5th century BC. It is known that the Indians modeled the Earth as spherical by 300 BC 460 BC: Empedocles describes thermal expansion. Late 5th century BC: Antiphon discovers the method of exhaustion, foreshadowing the concept of a limit. 4th century BC: Greek philosophers study the properties of logical negation. 4th century BC: The first true formal system is constructed by Pāṇini in his Sanskrit grammar. 4th century BC: Eudoxus of Cnidus states the Archimedean property. 4th century BC: Thaetetus shows that square roots are either integer or irrational. 4th century BC: Thaetetus enumerates the Platonic solids, an early work in graph theory. 4th century BC: Menaechmus discovers conic sections. 4th century BC: Menaechmus develops co-ordinate geometry. 4th century BC: Mozi in China gives a description of the camera obscura phenomenon. 4th century BC: Around the time of Aristotle, a more empirically founded system of anatomy is established, based on animal dissection. In particular, Praxagoras makes the


id: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-2.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of scientific discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:56.287596+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-0
summary:
1st to 4th century: A precursor to long division, known as "galley division" is developed at some point. Its discovery is generally believed to have originated in India around the 4th century AD, although Singaporean mathematician Lam Lay Yong claims that the method is found in the Chinese text The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art, from the 1st century AD. 60 AD: Heron's formula is discovered by Hero of Alexandria. 2nd century: Ptolemy formalises the epicycles of Apollonius. 2nd century: Ptolemy publishes his Optics, discussing colour, reflection, and refraction of light, and including the first known table of refractive angles. 2nd century: Galen studies the anatomy of pigs. 100: Menelaus of Alexandria describes spherical triangles, a precursor to non-Euclidean geometry. 150: The Almagest of Ptolemy contains evidence of the Hellenistic zero. Unlike the earlier Babylonian zero, the Hellenistic zero could be used alone, or at the end of a number. However, it was usually used in the fractional part of a numeral, and was not regarded as a true arithmetical number itself. 150: Ptolemy's Almagest contains practical formulae to calculate latitudes and day lengths. 3rd century: Diophantus discusses linear diophantine equations. 3rd century: Diophantus uses a primitive form of


id: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-3.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of scientific discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:56.287596+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-0
summary:
6th century: Varahamira in the Gupta empire is the first to describe comets as astronomical phenomena, and as periodic in nature. 525: John Philoponus in Byzantine Egypt describes the notion of inertia, and states that the motion of a falling object does not depend on its weight. His radical rejection of Aristotlean orthodoxy lead him to be ignored in his time 628: Brahmagupta states the arithmetic rules for addition, subtraction, and multiplication with zero, as well as the multiplication of negative numbers, extending the basic rules for the latter found in the earlier The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art. 628: Brahmagupta writes down Brahmagupta's identity, an important lemma in the theory of Pell's equation. 628: Brahmagupta produces an infinite (but not exhaustive) number of solutions to Pell's equation. 628: Brahmagupta provides an explicit solution to the quadratic equation. 628: Brahmagupta discovers Brahmagupta's formula, a generalization of Heron's formula to cyclic quadrilaterals. 628: Brahmagupta discovers second-order interpolation, in the form of Brahmagupta's interpolation formula. 628: Brahmagupta invents a symbolic mathematical notation, which is then adopted by mathematicians through India and the Near East, and eventually Europe. 629: Bhāskara I produces the first approximation of a transcendental function with a rational


id: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-4.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of scientific discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:56.287596+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-0
summary:
16th century: Gerolamo Cardano solves the general cubic equation (by reducing them to the case with zero quadratic term). 16th century: Lodovico Ferrari solves the general quartic equation (by reducing it to the case with zero quartic term). 16th century: François Viète discovers Vieta's formulas. 16th century: François Viète discovers Viète's formula for π.1500: Scipione del Ferro solves the special cubic equation x 3 = p x + q {\displaystyle x^{3}=px+q} . Late 16th century: Tycho Brahe proves that comets are astronomical (and not atmospheric) phenomena. 1517: Nicolaus Copernicus develops the quantity theory of money and states the earliest known form of Gresham's law: ("Bad money drowns out good"). 1543: Nicolaus Copernicus develops a heliocentric model, rejecting Aristotle's Earth-centric view, would be the first quantitative heliocentric model in history. 1543: Vesalius: pioneering research into human anatomy. 1545: Gerolamo Cardano discovers complex numbers. 1556: Niccolò Tartaglia introduces parenthesis. 1557: Robert Recorde introduces the equal sign. 1564: Gerolamo Cardano is the first to produce a systematic treatment of probability. 1572: Rafael Bombelli provides rules for complex arithmetic. 1591: François Viète's New algebra shows the modern notational algebraic manipulation. == 17th century == 1600: William Gilbert: Earth's magnetic field. 1608: Earliest record of


id: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-5.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of scientific discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:56.287596+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-0
summary:
== 1850–1899 == 1856: Robert Forester Mushet develops a process for the decarbonisation, and re-carbonisation of iron, through the addition of a calculated quantity of spiegeleisen, to produce cheap, consistently high quality steel. 1858: Rudolf Virchow: cells can only arise from pre-existing cells. 1859: Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace: Theory of evolution by natural selection. 1861: Louis Pasteur: Germ theory. 1861: John Tyndall: Experiments in Radiant Energy that reinforced the Greenhouse effect. 1864: James Clerk Maxwell: Theory of electromagnetism. 1865: Gregor Mendel: Mendel's laws of inheritance, basis for genetics. 1865: Rudolf Clausius: Definition of entropy. 1868: Robert Forester Mushet discovers that alloying steel with tungsten produces a harder, more durable alloy. 1869: Dmitri Mendeleev: Periodic table. 1871: Lord Rayleigh: Diffuse sky radiation (Rayleigh scattering) explains why sky appears blue. 1873: Johannes Diderik van der Waals: was one of the first to postulate an intermolecular force: the van der Waals force. 1873: Frederick Guthrie discovers thermionic emission. 1873: Willoughby Smith discovers photoconductivity. 1875: William Crookes invented the Crookes tube and studied cathode rays. 1876: Josiah Willard Gibbs founded chemical thermodynamics, the phase rule. 1877: Ludwig Boltzmann: Statistical definition of entropy. 1880s: John Hopkinson develops three-phase electrical supplies, mathematically proves how multiple


id: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries-6.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of scientific discoveries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:56.287596+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-scientific-discoveries-20260505-0
summary:
== 1950–1999 == 1951: George Otto Gey propagates first cancer cell line, HeLa 1952: Jonas Salk: developed and tested first polio vaccine 1952: Stanley Miller: demonstrated that the building blocks of life could arise from primeval soup in the conditions present during early Earth (Miller-Urey experiment) 1952: Frederick Sanger: demonstrated that proteins are sequences of amino acids 1953: James Watson, Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin: helical structure of DNA, basis for molecular biology 1957: Chien Shiung Wu: demonstrated that parity, and thus charge conjugation and time-reversals, are violated for weak interactions 1962: Riccardo Giacconi and his team discover the first cosmic x-ray source, Scorpius X-1 1963: Lawrence Morley, Fred Vine, and Drummond Matthews: Paleomagnetic stripes in ocean crust as evidence of plate tectonics (Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis). 1964: Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig: postulates quarks, leading to the Standard Model 1964: Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson: detection of CMBR providing experimental evidence for the Big Bang 1965: Leonard Hayflick: normal cells divide only a certain number of times: the Hayflick limit 1967: Jocelyn Bell Burnell and Antony Hewish discover first pulsar 1967: Vela nuclear test detection satellites discover the first gamma-ray burst 1970: James H. Ellis proposed the possibility


id: earth-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Earth science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:58.658984+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: earth-science-20260505-0
summary:
Earth science or geoscience includes all fields of natural science related to planet Earth. This is a branch of science dealing with the physical, chemical, and biological complex constitutions and synergistic linkages of Earth's four spheres: the biosphere, hydrosphere/cryosphere, atmosphere, and geosphere (or lithosphere). Earth science can be considered to be a branch of planetary science but with a much older history. == Geology == Geology is broadly the study of Earth's structure, substance, and processes. Geology is largely the study of the lithosphere, or Earth's surface, including the Earth's crust and rocks. It includes the physical characteristics and processes that occur in the lithosphere as well as how they are affected by geothermal energy. It incorporates aspects of chemistry, physics, and biology as elements of geology interact. Historical geology is the application of geology to interpret Earth history and how it has changed over time. Geochemistry studies the chemical components and processes of the Earth. Geophysics studies the physical properties of the Earth. Paleontology studies fossilized biological material in the lithosphere. Planetary geology studies geoscience as it pertains to extraterrestrial bodies. Geomorphology studies the origin of landscapes. Structural geology studies the deformation of rocks to produce mountains and lowlands.


id: earth-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Earth science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:58.658984+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: earth-science-20260505-0
summary:
Ecology is the study of the biosphere. This includes the study of nature and of how living things interact with the Earth and one another and the consequences of that. It considers how living things use resources such as oxygen, water, and nutrients from the Earth to sustain themselves. It also considers how humans and other living creatures cause changes to nature. == Physical geography == Physical geography is the study of Earth's systems and how they interact with one another as part of a single self-contained system. It incorporates astronomy, mathematical geography, meteorology, climatology, geology, geomorphology, biology, biogeography, pedology, and soils geography. Physical geography is distinct from human geography, which studies the human populations on Earth, though it does include human effects on the environment. == Methodology == Methodologies vary depending on the nature of the subjects being studied. Studies typically fall into one of three categories: observational, experimental, or theoretical. Earth scientists often conduct sophisticated computer analysis or visit an interesting location to study earth phenomena (e.g., Antarctica or hot spot island chains). A foundational idea in Earth science is the notion of uniformitarianism, which states that "ancient geologic features are interpreted by understanding active processes that are


id: outline-of-earth-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of Earth science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:59.843349+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-earth-science-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Earth science: Earth science – all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. It is also known as geoscience, the geosciences or the Earthquake sciences, and is arguably a special case in planetary science, the Earth being the only known life-bearing planet. Earth science is a branch of the physical sciences which is a part of the natural sciences. It in turn has many branches. == Earth's spheres == Ecosphere – there are many subsystems that make up the natural environment (the planetary ecosystem or "ecosphere") of the Earth. Many of the subsystems are characterized as "spheres", coinciding with the shape of the planet. The four spheres (for which most of the other spheres are a subtype of) are the atmosphere, the biosphere, the hydrosphere and the geosphere. Earth's ecosphere lies it self within the heliosphere (the Sun's astrosphere). Listed roughly from outermost to innermost the named spheres of the Earth are: Magnetosphere – The region around an astronomical object in which charged particles are affected by its magnetic field Atmosphere, the gases that surround the Earth (its air) By altitude Exosphere – The outermost


id: outline-of-earth-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Outline of Earth science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:59.843349+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-earth-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Geology === Geology – The study of the composition, structure, physical properties, and history of Earth's components, and the processes by which they are shaped. Economic geology – Science concerned with earth materials of economic value Engineering geology – The application of the geology to engineering practice. Environmental geology – Science of the practical application of geology in environmental problems. Quaternary geology – The branch of geology that studies developments more recent than 2.6 million years ago Planetary geology – The geology of astronomical objects apparently in orbit around stellar objects Petroleum geology – The study of the origin, occurrence, movement, accumulation, and exploration of hydrocarbon fuels Historical geology – The study of the geological history of Earth Hydrogeology – The study of the distribution and movement of groundwater Structural geology – The science of the description and interpretation of deformation in the Earth's crust independent of extent Geochemistry – Science that applies chemistry to analyse geological systems Geochronology – Science of determining the age of rocks, sediments and fossils Geodesy – The science of the geometric shape, orientation in space, and gravitational field of the Earth Geomagnetics – Study of the Earth's magnetic field Geomicrobiology – Science of


id: outline-of-earth-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Outline of Earth science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:14:59.843349+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-earth-science-20260505-0
summary:
History of atmospheric sciences – history of the umbrella study of the atmosphere, its processes, the effects other systems have on the atmosphere, and the effects of the atmosphere on these other systems. History of atmospheric chemistry History of biogeography – history of the study of the distribution of species (biology), organisms, and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time. History of cartography – history of the study and practice of making maps or globes. History of climatology – history of the study of climate, scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time History of coastal geography – history of the study of the dynamic interface between the ocean and the land, incorporating both the physical geography (i.e. coastal geomorphology, geology, and oceanography) and the human geography (sociology and history) of the coast. History of environmental science – history of an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental systems. History of ecology – history of the scientific study of the distribution and abundance of living organisms and how they are affected by interactions between the organisms and their environment. History of Freshwater biology – history of the scientific biological study of freshwater ecosystems


id: list-of-engineering-blunders-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_engineering_blunders-0.md
category: reference
title: List of engineering blunders
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_engineering_blunders
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:03.416686+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-engineering-blunders-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of engineering blunders, i.e., gross errors or mistakes resulting from grave lack of proper consideration, such as stupidity, confusion, carelessness, or culpable ignorance, which resulted in notable incidents. Deepwater Horizon oil spill caused by a faulty blowout preventer. Fort Montgomery was sometimes referred to as "Fort Blunder", because the first version of the U.S. Army fort was inadvertently built on the Canadian side of Lake Champlain. Millennium Bridge, London, nicknamed "Wobbly Bridge"; it took almost two years to fix the engineering error The NASA Mars Climate Orbiter, launched in 1998, burned up in the Martian atmosphere. A mixup between metric and US Standard measurements in the controlling software caused the spacecraft to miss its intended 140–150 km altitude above Mars during orbit insertion, instead entering the Martian atmosphere at about 57 km. The NASA Genesis mission was an attempt to sample particles from the solar wind. It successfully collected a sample and returned to Earth. However at the last moment the landing parachute failed to open and the return capsule smashed into the ground at high speed, contaminating the samples. The parachute failure was traced to an accelerometer installed backwards. Palace II, Brazil; parts of it


id: lists-of-engineering-software-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_engineering_software-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of engineering software
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_engineering_software
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:04.590563+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-engineering-software-20260505-0
summary:
These are lists of engineering software tools used for design, analysis, simulation, and management across different engineering disciplines. == Lists of engineering software == Comparison of EDA software and list of electrical engineering software Comparison of electromagnetic simulation software Comparison of nucleic acid simulation software Comparison of optimization software Comparison of software for molecular mechanics modeling Comparison of system dynamics software List of aerospace engineering software List of automotive engineering software List of bioinformatics software and structural alignment software List of building information modeling software List of chemical engineering software List of chemical process simulators List of civil engineering software List of computational chemistry software and list of quantum chemistry and solid-state physics software List of computational fluid dynamics software List of computational materials science software List of computational physics software List of computer-aided engineering software List of computer-aided manufacturing software and list of 3D printing software List of construction software List of data science software List of discrete event simulation software List of finite element analysis software List of gene prediction software List of genetic engineering software List of geotechnical engineering software List of HDL simulators List of hydrology software List of mechanical engineering software List of molecular design


id: eppendorf-science-prize-for-neurobiology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eppendorf_&_Science_Prize_for_Neurobiology-0.md
category: reference
title: Eppendorf & Science Prize for Neurobiology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eppendorf_&_Science_Prize_for_Neurobiology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:05.776106+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eppendorf-science-prize-for-neurobiology-20260505-0
summary:
The Eppendorf & Science Prize for Neurobiology is a neurobiology prize that is awarded annually by Science magazine (published by American Association for the Advancement of Science) and underwritten by Eppendorf AG, a laboratory equipment and supply company. Entries are reviewed by editors from Science magazine and the top 10% are forwarded to the judging panel. The judging panel is chaired by the Neuroscience Editor of Science and the remaining judges are nominated from the Society for Neuroscience. The award was established in 2002 to promote the work of promising early-career neurobiologists with $25,000 cash award to support their careers. Each applicant must submit a 1000-word essay explaining the focus and motivation for their last three years of work. The winner is awarded $25,000 and the scientist's winning essay is then published in Science (the winning essay and the other finalists' essays are all published on Science Online). == List (2013–) == == See also == List of neuroscience awards == References ==


id: list-of-types-of-equilibrium-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_equilibrium-0.md
category: reference
title: List of types of equilibrium
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_equilibrium
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:08.236927+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-types-of-equilibrium-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list presents the various articles at Wikipedia that use the term equilibrium (or an associated prefix or derivative) in their titles or leads. It is not necessarily complete; further examples may be found by using the Wikipedia search function, and this term. == Biology == Equilibrioception, the sense of a balance present in human beings and animals Equilibrium unfolding, the process of unfolding a protein or RNA molecule by gradually changing its environment Genetic equilibrium, theoretical state in which a population is not evolving Homeostasis, the ability of an open system, especially living organisms, to regulate its internal environment Punctuated equilibrium, theory in evolutionary biology Sedimentation equilibrium, analytical ultracentrifugation method for measuring protein molecular masses in solution Equilibrium Theory (Island biogeography), MacArthur-Wilson theory explaining biodiversity character of ecological islands Osmotic equilibrium, balance between solvent flow and pressure across a membrane == Physics == Equilibrant force, which keeps any object motionless and acts on virtually every object in the world that is not moving Equilibrium mode distribution, the state of fiber optic or waveguide transmission in which the propagation mode does not vary with distance along the fiber or changes in the launch mode Hydrostatic equilibrium, the state


id: list-of-members-of-the-european-academy-of-sciences-and-arts-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_European_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Arts-0.md
category: reference
title: List of members of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_European_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Arts
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:09.459289+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-members-of-the-european-academy-of-sciences-and-arts-20260505-0
summary:
The European Academy of Sciences and Arts (EASA, Latin: Academia Scientiarum et Artium Europaea) is a transnational and interdisciplinary network, connecting about 2,000 recommended scientists and artists worldwide, including 38 Nobel Prize laureates. The European Academy of Sciences and Arts is a learned society of scientists and artists, founded by Felix Unger. The academy was founded 1990, is situated in Salzburg and has been supported by the city of Vienna, the government of Austria, and the European Commission. The EASA is now headed by President Klaus Mainzer, TUM Emeritus of Excellence at the Technical University of Munich and Senior Professor at the Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker Center of the University of Tübingen. Below is a list of members of the European Academy of Sciences and Arts (MEASA). == I – Humanities == == II – Medicine == == III – Arts == == IV – Natural sciences == == V – Social sciences, law and economics == == VI – Technical and environmental sciences == == VII – World religions == == References == == External links == Members at European Academy of Sciences and Arts


id: list-of-existing-technologies-predicted-in-science-fiction-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_existing_technologies_predicted_in_science_fiction-0.md
category: reference
title: List of existing technologies predicted in science fiction
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_existing_technologies_predicted_in_science_fiction
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:10.789628+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-existing-technologies-predicted-in-science-fiction-20260505-0
summary:
This list of existing technologies predicted in science fiction includes every medium, mainly literature and film. In 1964 Soviet engineer and writer Genrikh Altshuller made the first attempt to catalogue science fiction technologies of the time. Alongside first prediction of a particular technology, the list may include all subsequent works mentioning it until its invention. The list includes technologies that were first posited in non-fiction works before their appearance in science fiction and subsequent invention, such as ion thruster. To avoid repetitions, the list excludes film adaptations of prior literature containing the same predictions, such as "The Minority Report". The list also excludes emerging technologies that are not widely available. The names of some modern inventions (atomic bomb, robot, space station, oral contraceptive and borazon) exactly match their fictional predecessors. A few works correctly predicted the years when some technologies would emerge, such as the first sustained heavier-than-air aircraft flight in 1903 and the first atomic bomb explosion in 1945. == Literature == == Films and TV series == == Notes == == References == === Sources === Bleiler, E. F.; Bleiler, Richard (1990). Science-Fiction: The Early Years. Kent State University Press. ISBN 0-87338-416-4. Gerrold, David (2006). "Predictions". PCMag. Vol.


id: list-of-firefighting-mnemonics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_firefighting_mnemonics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of firefighting mnemonics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_firefighting_mnemonics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:13.165759+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-firefighting-mnemonics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of mnemonics related to firefighting or rescue. == Mnemonics == Incident priorities LIP Life safety Incident Stabilization Property conservation === Fire scene priorities === RECEO - SV Rescue victims Exposures - stop fire spread Confine - contain the fire Extinguish Overhaul - check for hidden fire spread - targets of opportunity: Salvage Vent Company Officer Checklist For Report On Conditions SLICERS Size up Locate seat of fire Identify flow path Cool from safe distance Extinguish fire Rescue Salvage === First attack response === RACE (General first response to a fire.) Rescue - move people who are in immediate danger. Alarm - raise the alarm and alert persons to the presence of fire. Confine - shut doors and reduce airflow and fuel sources to the fire, to reduce its spread. Extinguish or Evacuate - extinguish the fire if it's safe to do so, or coordinate the evacuation from the area. === Response phases === TRIPOD ( The six different possible primary phases of a fire response.) Transitional - moving from an offensive attack to a defensive position. Rescue - victim rescue Investigating Preparing Offensive Defensive === Wildland firefighting safety === PLACES -Safety checklist PPE Lookouts Awareness Communications


id: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates-0.md
category: reference
title: List of fossil primates
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:14.407133+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of fossil primates—extinct primates for which a fossil record exists. Primates are generally thought to have evolved from a small, unspecialized mammal, which probably fed on insects and fruits. However, the precise source of the primates remains controversial and even their arboreal origin has recently been questioned. As it has been suggested, many other mammal orders are arboreal too, but they have not developed the same characteristics as primates. Nowadays, some well known genera, such as Purgatorius and Plesiadapis, thought to be the most ancient primates for a long time, are not usually considered as such by recent authors, who tend to include them in the new order Plesiadapiformes, within superorder Euarchontoglires. Some, to avoid confusions, employ the unranked term Euprimates, which excludes Plesiadapiformes. That denomination is not used here. There is an academic debate on the time the first primates appeared. One of the earliest probable primate fossils is the problematic Altiatlasius koulchii, perhaps an Omomyid, but perhaps a non-Primate Plesiadapiform, which lived in Morocco, during the Paleocene, around 60 Ma. However, other studies, including molecular clock studies, have estimated the origin of the primate branch to have been in the mid-Cretaceous period, around 85


id: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates-1.md
category: reference
title: List of fossil primates
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:14.407133+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-0
summary:
Ekgmowechashalidae Szalay, 1976 Bugtilemur Marivaux et al., 2001 Bugtilemur mathesoni Marivaux et al., 2001 Ekgmowechashala Macdonald, 1963 Ekgmowechashala philotau Macdonald, 1963 Ekgmowechashala zancanellai Samuels, Albright & Fremd, 2015 Gatanthropus Ni et al., 2016 Gatanthropus micros Ni et al., 2016 Muangthanhinius Marivaux et al., 2006 Muangthanhinius siami Marivaux et al., 2006 Notharctidae Trouessart, 1879 Notharctinae Trouessart, 1879 Cantius Simons, 1962 Cantius abditus Gingerich & Simmons, 1977 Cantius angulatus Cope, 1875 Cantius antediluvius Kihm, 1992 Cantius eppsi Cooper, 1932 Cantius frugivorus Cope, 1875 Cantius lohseorum Robinson, 2016 Cantius mckennai Gingerich & Simons, 1977 Cantius nuniensis Cope, 1881 Cantius ralstoni Matthew, 1915 Cantius savagei Gingerich, 1977 Cantius torresi Gingerich, 1986 Copelemur Gingerich & Simons, 1977 Copelemur australotutus Beard, 1988 Copelemur praetutus Gazin, 1962 Copelemur tutus Cope, 1877 Hesperolemur Gunnell, 1995 Hesperolemur actius Gunnell, 1995 Megaceralemur Robinson, 2016 Megaceralemur trigonodus (Matthew, 1915) Megaceralemur matthewi Robinson, 2016 Notharctus Leidy, 1870 Notharctus pugnax Granger & Gregory, 1917 Notharctus robustior Leidy, 1870 Notharctus tenebrosus Leidy, 1870 Notharctus venticolus Osborn, 1902 Pelycodus Cope, 1875 Pelycodus danielsae Froehlich & Lucas, 1991 Pelycodus jarrovii Cope, 1874 Pinolophus Robinson, 2016 Pinolophus meikei Robinson, 2016 Smilodectes Wortman, 1903 Smilodectes gingerichi Beard, 1988 Smilodectes gracilis Marsh, 1871 Smilodectes mcgrewi Gingerich, 1979 Cercamoniinae Gingerich,


id: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates-2.md
category: reference
title: List of fossil primates
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:14.407133+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-0
summary:
Archaeolemuridae G. Grandier, 1905 Archaeolemur Filhol, 1895 Archaeolemur edwardsi Filhol, 1895 Archaeolemur majori Filhol, 1895 Hadropithecus Lorenz von Liburnau, 1899 Hadropithecus stenognathus Lorenz von Liburnau, 1899 Palaeopropithecidae Tattersall, 1973 Mesopropithecus Standing, 1905 Mesopropithecus dolichobrachion Simons et al., 1995 Mesopropithecus globiceps Lamberton, 1936 Mesopropithecus pithecoides Standing, 1905 Babakotia Godfrey et al., 1990 Babakotia radofilai Godfrey et al., 1990 Palaeopropithecus G. Grandidier, 1899 Palaeopropithecus ingens G. Grandidier, 1899 Palaeopropithecus kelyus Gommery et al., 2010 Palaeopropithecus maximus Standing, 1903 Archaeoindris Standing, 1909 Archaeoindris fontoynontii Standing, 1909 Megaladapidae Forsyth-Major, 1894 Megaladapis Forsyth-Major, 1894 Subgenus: Megaladapis Megaladapis (Megaladapis) grandidieri Standing, 1903 Megaladapis (Megaladapis) madagascariensis Forsyth-Major, 1894 Subgenus: Peloriadapis Megaladapis (Peloriadapis) edwardsi Grandidier, 1899 Lemuridae Gray, 1821 Pachylemur Lamberton, 1946 Pachylemur insignis Filhol, 1895 Pachylemur jullyi Lamberton, 1948 === Lorisiformes === Lorisidae Gray, 1821 Karanisia Seiffert et al., 2003 Karanisia clarki Seiffert et al., 2003 Mioeuoticus Leakey, 1962 Mioeuoticus bishopi Leakey, 1962 Mioeuoticus kichotoi Kunimatsu, Tsujikawa, Nakatsukasa, Shimizu, Ogihara, Kikuchi, Nakano, Takano, Morimoto, and Ishida, 2017 Mioeuoticus shipmani Phillips & Walker, 2000 Nycticeboides Jacobs, 1981 Nycticeboides simpsoni Jacobs, 1981 Galagidae Gray, 1825 Galago Geoffroy, 1796 Galago farafraensis Pickford, Wanas & Soliman, 2006 Galago howelli Wesselman, 1984 Galago sadimanensis Walker, 1987 Komba Simpson, 1967 Komba minor Le


id: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates-3.md
category: reference
title: List of fossil primates
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:14.407133+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-0
summary:
==== Omomyoidea ==== Omomyidae Trouessart, 1879 Baataromomys Ni, Beard, Meng, Wang, and Gebo, 2007 Baataromomys ulaanus Ni, Beard, Meng, Wang, and Gebo, 2007 Kohatius Russell & Gingerich, 1980 Kohatius coppensi Russell & Gingerich, 1980 Microchoerinae Lydekker, 1887 Melaneremia Hooker, 2007 Melaneremia bryanti Hooker, 2007 Microchoerus Wood, 1846 Microchoerus creechbarrowensis Hooker, 1986 Microchoerus edwardsi Filhol, 1880 Microchoerus erinaceus Wood, 1846 Microchoerus hookeri Minwer-Barakat, Marigó, Femenias-Gual, Costeur, Esteban-Trivigno, and Moyà-Solà, 2017 Microchoerus ornatus Stehlin, 1916 Microchoerus wardi Hooker, 1986 Necrolemur Filhol, 1873 Necrolemur anadoni Minwer-Barakat, Marigó & Moyà-Solà, 2015 Necrolemur antiquus Filhol, 1873 Necrolemur zitteli Schlosser, 1887 Nannopithex Stehlin, 1916 Nannopithex filholi Chantre & Gaillard, 1897 Nannopithex humilidens Thalmann, 1994 Nannopithex quaylei Hooker, 1986 Nannopithex raabi Heller, 1930 Nannopithex zuccolae Godinot et al., 1992 Pseudoloris Stehlin, 1916 Pseudoloris crusafonti Louis & Sudre, 1975 Pseudoloris godinoti Köhler & Moyà-Solà, 1999 Pseudoloris isabenae Crusafont-Pairo, 1967 Pseudoloris parvulus Filhol, 1890 Anaptomorphinae Cope, 1883 Tribe: Anaptomorphini Anaptomorphus Cope, 1872 Anaptomorphus aemulus Cope, 1872 Anaptomorphus westi Szalay, 1976 Tetonius Matthew, 1915 Tetonius homunculus Cope, 1882 Tetonius matthewi Bown & Rose, 1987 Tetonius mckennai Bown & Rose, 1987 Absarokius Matthew, 1915 Absarokius abbotti Loomis, 1906 Absarokius australis Bown & Rose, 1987 Absarokius nocerai Robinson, 1966 Absarokius metoecus Bown


id: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates-4.md
category: reference
title: List of fossil primates
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:14.407133+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-0
summary:
==== Simiiformes, incertae sedis ==== Amphipithecidae Godinot, 1994 Pondaungia Pilgrim, 1927 Pondaungia cotteri Pilgrim, 1927 Amphipithecus Colbert, 1937 Amphipithecus mogaungensis Colbert, 1937 Krabia Chaimanee et al., 2013 Krabia minuta Chaimanee et al., 2013 Siamopithecus Chaimanee et al., 1997 Siamopithecus eocaenus Chaimanee et al., 1997 Proteopithecidae Simons, 1997 Proteopithecus Simons, 1989 Proteopithecus sylviae Simons, 1989 Serapia Simons, 1992 Serapia eocaena Simons, 1992 Parapithecidae Schlosser, 1911 Arsinoea Simons, 1992 Arsinoea kallimos Simons, 1992 Apidium Osborn, 1908 Apidium bowni Simons, 1995 Apidium moustafai Simons, 1962 Apidium phiomense Osborn, 1908 Parapithecus Schlosser, 1910 Parapithecus fraasi Schlosser, 1910 Parapithecus grangeri Simons, 1974 Qatrania Simons & Kay, 1983 Qatrania fleaglei Simons & Kay, 1988 Qatrania wingi Simons & kay, 1983 Biretia Bonis et al., 1988 Biretia piveteaui Bonis et al., 1988 Biretia fayumensis Seiffert et al., 2005 Biretia megalopsis Seiffert et al., 2005 ==== Platyrrhini ==== Platyrrhini, incertae sedis Branisella Hoffstetter, 1969 Branisella boliviana Hoffstetter, 1969 Atelidae Gray, 1825 Pitheciinae Mivart, 1865 Tribus: Callicebini Xenothrix Williams & Koopman, 1952 Xenothrix mcgregori Williams & Koopman, 1952 Antillothrix MacPhee et al., 1995 Antillothrix bernensis Rímoli, 1977 Paralouatta Rivero & Arredondo, 1991 Paralouatta varonai Rivero & Arredondo, 1991 Paralouatta marianae Tribus: Pitheciini Soriacebus Fleagle et al., 1987 Soriacebus adrianae


id: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates-5.md
category: reference
title: List of fossil primates
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:14.407133+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fossil-primates-20260505-0
summary:
===== Cercopithecoidea ===== Nsungwepithecus Stevens et al., 2013 Nsungwepithecus gunnelli Stevens et al., 2013 Victoriapithecidae von Koenigswald, 1969 Victoriapithecus von Koenigswald, 1969 Victoriapithecus macinnesi von Koenigswald, 1969 Prohylobates Fourtau, 1918 Prohylobates tandyi Fourtau, 1918 Prohylobates simonsi Delson, 1979 Noropithecus Miller et al. 2009 Noropithecus bulukensis Miller et al. 2009 Cercopithecidae Gray, 1821 Colobinae Jernon, 1867 Tribus: Colobini Microcolobus Benefit & Pickford, 1986 Microcolobus tugenensis Benefit & Pickford, 1986 Rhinocolobus M.G. Leakey, 1982 Rhinocolobus turkanaensis M.G. Leakey, 1982 Colobinae, incertae sedis Mesopithecus Wagner, 1839 Mesopithecus pentelicus Wagner, 1839 Mesopithecus monspessulanus Gervais, 1849 Mesopithecus sivalensis (Lydekker, 1878) Myanmarcolobus Takai et al., 2015 Myanmarcolobus yawensis Takai et al., 2015 Rhinopithecus É. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1812 Subgenus: Rhinopithecus É. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1812 Rhinopithecus (Rhinopithecus) lantianensis Hu & Qi, 1978 Dolichopithecus Depéret, 1889 Dolichopithecus ruscinensis Depéret, 1889 Libypithecus Stromer, 1913 Libypithecus markgrafi Stromer, 1913 Semnopithecus Desmarest, 1822 Semnopithecus gwebinnensis Takai et al., 2016 Parapresbytis Kalmykov & Maschenko, 1992 Parapresbytis eohanuman (Borissoglebskaya, 1981) Cercopithecoides Mollett, 1947 Cercopithecoides kimeui M.G. Leakey, 1982 Cercopithecoides williamsi Mollett, 1947 Paracolobus R.E.F. Leakey, 1969 Paracolobus chemeroni R.E.F. Leakey, 1969 Paracolobus mutiwa M.G. Leakey, 1969 Cercopithecinae Gray, 1821 Tribus: Papionini Subtribus: Macanina Macaca Lacépède, 1799 Macaca anderssoni Schlosser, 1924 Macaca florentina Cocchi, 1872


id: list-of-geoscience-organizations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geoscience_organizations-0.md
category: reference
title: List of geoscience organizations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geoscience_organizations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:15.595697+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-geoscience-organizations-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of geoscience organizations, including such fields of geosciences as geology, geophysics, hydrology, oceanography, petrophysics, and related fields. == Intercontinental organizations == Anthropocene Working Group Association for Women Geoscientists (AWG) Association of Applied Geochemists Environmental and Engineering Geophysical Society Geochemical Society International Association for Engineering Geology and the Environment International Association for Mathematical Geosciences (IAMG) International Association of Cryospheric Sciences International Association of GeoChemistry International Association of Geomagnetism and Aeronomy International Association of Hydrological Sciences (IAHS/AISH) International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior (IAVCEI) – International non-governmental organization International Association for the Conservation of Geological Heritage ProGEO International Centre for Diffraction Data International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) – Non-governmental geological organization International Commission on the History of Geological Sciences International Continental Scientific Drilling Program International Geoscience Programme International Glaciological Society (IGS) – International glaciology academic organization International Mineralogical Association International Organization for Biological Crystallization International Permafrost Association International Union for Quaternary Research International Union of Crystallography International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG) – International non-governmental organization International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) – International non-governmental organization Geoscience Education, Training and Technology Transfer International Union of Soil Sciences (IUSS) – International scientific union OneGeology


id: list-of-geoscience-organizations-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geoscience_organizations-1.md
category: reference
title: List of geoscience organizations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geoscience_organizations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:15.595697+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-geoscience-organizations-20260505-0
summary:
=== United States === American Association of Petroleum Geologists (AAPG) – Professional geological association American Crystallographic Association American Gem Society (AGS), also known as American Gemological Society – American trade association American Geosciences Institute (AGI) – Nonprofit scientific federation American Geophysical Union (AGU) – Nonprofit organization of geophysicists American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, also known as Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration (SME) American Quaternary Association Association for the Sciences of Limnology and Oceanography (ASLO), also known as American Society of Limnology and Oceanography Association of Environmental & Engineering Geologists (AEG) The Clay Minerals Society (CMS) – US-based non-profit organizationPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Earth Science Women's Network (ESWN) Environmental and Engineering Geophysical Society (EEGS) Gemological Institute of America (GIA) – Research institute in Carlsbad, California Geological Society of America (GSA) – Nonprofit organization dedicated to geoscience Geoscience Information Society (GSIS) Keck Geology Consortium Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory Mineralogical Society of America (MSA) – Scientific organization promoting mineralogy National Association of Black Geologists and Geophysicists (NABGG) National Center for Earth-surface Dynamics National Cooperative Soil Survey (NCSS) – Program to understand and manage US soils National Speleological Society (NSS) – Organization for exploration, conservation, and study of


id: outline-of-health-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_health_sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of health sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_health_sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:16.758368+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-health-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to health sciences: Health sciences – those sciences that focus on health, or health care, as core parts of their subject matter. Health sciences relate to multiple academic disciplines, including STEM disciplines and emerging patient safety disciplines (such as social care research). == Medicine and its branches == Medicine is an applied science or practice of the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease. It encompasses a variety of health care practices evolved to maintain and restore health by the prevention and treatment of illness. Below are some of the branches of medicine. Anesthesiology is the brand of medicine that deals with life support and anesthesia during surgery. Angiology deals with the diseases of the circulatory system. Audiology focuses on preventing and curing hearing damage. Bariatrics deals with the causes, prevention, and treatment of obesity. Cardiology deals with disorders of the heart and the blood vessels. Critical care medicine focuses on life support and the intensive care of the seriously ill. Dentistry is the branch of medicine that consists of the study, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of diseases, disorders, and conditions of the oral cavity, commonly in the dentition


id: list-of-hyperaccumulators-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hyperaccumulators-0.md
category: reference
title: List of hyperaccumulators
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_hyperaccumulators
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:17.915440+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-hyperaccumulators-20260505-0
summary:
This article covers known hyperaccumulators, accumulators or species tolerant to the following: Aluminium (Al), Silver (Ag), Arsenic (As), Beryllium (Be), Chromium (Cr), Copper (Cu), Manganese (Mn), Mercury (Hg), Molybdenum (Mo), Naphthalene, Lead (Pb), Selenium (Se) and Zinc (Zn). See also: Hyperaccumulators table – 2: Nickel Hyperaccumulators table – 3: Cd, Cs, Co, Pu, Ra, Sr, U, radionuclides, hydrocarbons, organic solvents, etc. == Hyperaccumulators table – 1 == Cs-137 activity was much smaller in leaves of larch and sycamore maple than of spruce: spruce > larch > sycamore maple. == References ==


id: hyperaccumulators-table-2-nickel-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperaccumulators_table_–_2:_Nickel-0.md
category: reference
title: Hyperaccumulators table – 2: Nickel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperaccumulators_table_–_2:_Nickel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:19.090896+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hyperaccumulators-table-2-nickel-20260505-0
summary:
This list covers known nickel hyperaccumulators, accumulators or plant species tolerant to nickel. See also: Hyperaccumulators table – 1: Ag, Al, As, Be, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mn, Mo, Naphthalene, Pb, Pd, Se, Zn Hyperaccumulators table – 3: Cd, Cs, Co, Pu, Ra, Sr, U, radionuclides, hydrocarbons, organic solvents, etc. Notes In the genus Alyssum, free histamin (His) is an important Ni binding ligand that increases in the xylem proportionately to root Ni uptake. There is a close correlation between Ni tolerance, root His concentration, and ATP-PRT transcript abundance. Thus ATP-PRT expression may play a major role in regulating the pool of free His and contributes to the exceptional Ni tolerance of hyperaccumulator Alyssum species. But this is not the complete hyperaccumulator phenotype because His-(GM-)overproducing lines do not exhibit increased Ni concentrations in either xylem sap or shoot tissue. Alpine pennycress or «Alpine Pennygrass» is also found as «Alpine Pennycrest» in (some books). == Reference sources with notes == The references are so far mostly from academic trial papers, experiments and generally of exploration of that field. == See also == Phytoremediation, Hyperaccumulators List of hyperaccumulators Hyperaccumulators table – 3


id: hyperaccumulators-table-3-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperaccumulators_table_–_3-0.md
category: reference
title: Hyperaccumulators table – 3
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperaccumulators_table_–_3
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:20.228297+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hyperaccumulators-table-3-20260505-0
summary:
This list covers hyperaccumulators, plant species which accumulate, or are tolerant of, radionuclides (Cd, Cs-137, Co, Pu-238, Ra, Sr, U-234, 235, 238), hydrocarbons and organic solvents (Benzene, BTEX, DDT, Dieldrin, Endosulfan, Fluoranthene, MTBE, PCB, PCNB, TCE and by-products), and inorganic compounds (Potassium ferrocyanide). See also: Hyperaccumulators table – 1 : Ag, Al, As, Be, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mn, Mo, Naphthalene, Pb, Pd, Se, Zn Hyperaccumulators table – 2 : Nickel == Notes == Uranium: The symbol for Uranium is sometimes given as Ur instead of U. According to Ulrich Schmidt and others, plants' concentration of uranium is considerably increased by an application of citric acid, which solubilizes the uranium (and other metals). Radionuclides: Cs-137 and Sr-90 are not removed from the top 0.4 meters of soil even under high rainfall, and migration rate from the top few centimeters of soil is slow. Radionuclides: Plants with mycorrhizal associations are often more effective than non-mycorrhizal plants at the uptake of radionuclides. Radionuclides: In general, soils containing higher amounts of organic matter will allow plants to accumulate higher amounts of radionuclides. See also note on Lolium multiflorum in Paasikallio 1984. Plant uptake is also increased with a higher cation exchange capacity for Sr-90


id: iarc-group-3-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IARC_group_3-0.md
category: reference
title: IARC group 3
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IARC_group_3
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:21.413888+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: iarc-group-3-20260505-0
summary:
IARC group 3 substances, chemical mixtures and exposure circumstances are those that can not be classified in regard to their carcinogenicity to humans by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). This category is used most commonly for agents, mixtures and exposure circumstances for which the level of evidence of carcinogenicity is inadequate in humans and inadequate or limited in experimental animals. Exceptionally, agents (mixtures) for which the evidence of carcinogenicity is inadequate in humans, but sufficient in experimental animals may be placed in this category when there is strong evidence that the mechanism of carcinogenicity in experimental animals does not operate in humans. Agents, mixtures and exposure circumstances that do not fall into any other group are also placed in this category. The IARC Monographs on which this list is based assess the hazard linked to the agents, they do not assess the cancer risk of the agents. The list is up-to-date as of January 2024. == Agents and groups of agents == === A === === B === === C === === D === === E–G === === H–L === === M === === N–O === === P === === Q–R === === S === === T


id: university-of-ibadan-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Ibadan-0.md
category: reference
title: University of Ibadan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Ibadan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:22.626670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: university-of-ibadan-20260505-0
summary:
The University of Ibadan (UI) is a federal university located in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. Initially founded as the University College Ibadan in 1948, it maintained its affiliation with the University of London. In 1962, it became an independent institution, making it the oldest degree-awarding institution in Nigeria. The University of Ibadan has significantly contributed to Nigeria's political, industrial, economic, and cultural development through its extensive network of graduates. UI enrolls about 33,000 students, is internationally recognized, and has a number of accomplished alumni. == History == The university was established in 1948 as University College Ibadan, a branch of the University of London, which supervised its academic programs and awarded degrees until 1967. The establishment came as a result of a recommendation from the Asquith and the Elliot Commissions on Higher Education in the then-British colonies, that two Universities stemming from the University of London should be set up in Ghana and Nigeria. Before 1948, Yaba College had been founded in 1932 in Yaba, Lagos, as the first tertiary educational institute in Nigeria, focused primarily on providing post-secondary vocational education and teacher training to Africans. However, the limited aims of Yaba College and clamor by Nigerian nationalists for self-improvement


id: university-of-ibadan-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Ibadan-1.md
category: reference
title: University of Ibadan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Ibadan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:22.626670+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: university-of-ibadan-20260505-0
summary:
== Library == Among the notable structures in the university is the central Kenneth Dike Library (popularly called "KDL" by the students), located just beside the Faculty of Arts. The library, which has a large capacity for students, contains books relating to virtually all fields of knowledge both in and outside the university community. The library is named after Professor Kenneth Dike, who was the first indigenous Principal and former Vice-Chancellor of the university. It was established out of the desires of the founding fathers and matriarch of the institution to cut a niche for research and sound teaching. The library contains 700,000 volumes of information and more than 1,250 seats for readers. It is open to all senior staff, students of the institution, senior staff of the University College Hospital, (UCH) Ibadan as well as alumni of the university. == Notable alumni == The university has educated many notable alumni, including a Nobel Laureate in Literature, eminent mathematicians, scientists, politicians, lawyers, business icons, philosophers, writers, monarchs, countless technocrats, recipients of the Nigerian National Order of Merit and fellows of the various learned academies. Abdulganiyu Abdulrasaq, lawyer, former President of the Nigerian Stock Exchange Mufutau Oloyede Abdul-Rahmon, Professor of Arabic


id: list-of-ice-cores-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores-0.md
category: reference
title: List of ice cores
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:23.807787+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ice-cores-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of ice cores drilled for scientific purposes. Note that many of these locations are on moving ice sheets, and the latitude and longitude given is as of the date of drilling. == Africa == == Antarctica == == Asia == === Mainland and arctic islands === === Southeast Asia === == Europe == === Alps === === Iceland === === Scandinavia === === Spitzbergen === == North America == === Canada === === Greenland === === United States === == Oceania == === New Zealand === == South America == === Bolivia === === Peru === == See also == List of Arctic research programs List of research stations in the Arctic Research stations in Antarctica == Notes == == References ==


id: list-of-ice-cores-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores-1.md
category: reference
title: List of ice cores
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:23.807787+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ice-cores-20260505-0
summary:
== Sources == Abram, Nerilie J.; Mulvaney, Robert; Wolff, Eric W.; Mudelsee, Manfred (2007). "Ice core records as sea ice proxies: An evaluation from the Weddell Sea region of Antarctica" (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research. 112 (D15): 1–13. Bibcode:2007JGRD..11215101A. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.473.4635. doi:10.1029/2006JD008139. Alley, R.B.; Koci, B.R. (1988). "Ice-core analysis at Site A, Greenland: preliminary results". Annals of Glaciology. 10: 1–4. Bibcode:1988AnGla..10....1A. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.476.6746. doi:10.1017/S0260305500004067. Aristarain, A.J. (1981). "First glaciological studies on the James Ross Island ice cap, Antarctic peninsula". Journal of Glaciology. 27 (97): 371–379. Bibcode:1981JGlac..27..371A. doi:10.1017/S0022143000011412. Benson, Carl S. (1984). "Ice core drilling on Mt. Wrangell, Alaska 1982". In Holdsworth, G.; et al. (eds.). Ice Drilling Technology. Hanover, New Hampshire: Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory. pp. 61–68. Bentley, Charles R.; Koci, Bruce R. (2007). "Drilling to the beds of the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets: a review". Annals of Glaciology. 47 (1): 1–9. Bibcode:2007AnGla..47....1B. doi:10.3189/172756407786857695. Bird, I.G. (1976). "Thermal ice drilling: Australian developments and experience". In Splettstoesser, John F. (ed.). Ice-Core Drilling. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press. pp. 1–18. ISBN 978-0-8032-5843-3. Bory, A.J.; Biscaye, P.E.; Piotrowski, A.M.; Steffensen, J.P. (2003). "Regional variability of ice core dust composition and provenance in Greenland". Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 4 (12): 1107.


id: list-of-ice-cores-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores-2.md
category: reference
title: List of ice cores
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:23.807787+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ice-cores-20260505-0
summary:
Rapp, Donald (2012). Ice Ages and Interglacials: Measurements, Interpretation, and Models (2nd ed.). Chichester, UK: Springer. ISBN 978-3-642-30028-8. Rasmussen, S.O.; et al. (2013). "A first chronology for the North Greenland Eemian Ice Drilling (NEEM) ice core". Climate of the Past. 9 (6): 2713–2730. Bibcode:2013CliPa...9.2713R. doi:10.5194/cp-9-2713-2013. Thompson, L.G.; et al. (1994). "Climate since AD 1510 on Dyer Plateau, Antarctic Peninsula: evidence for recent climate change" (PDF). Annals of Glaciology. 20: 420–426. Bibcode:1994AnGla..20..420T. doi:10.3189/1994aog20-1-420-426. Thwaites, Richard J.; Wilson, Christopher; McCray, Anthony P. (1984). "Relationship between bore-hole closure and crystal fabrics in Antarctic ice core from Cape Folger" (PDF). Journal of Glaciology. 30 (105): 171–179. Bibcode:1984JGlac..30..171T. doi:10.1017/S0022143000005906. Ueda, Herbert T.; Talalay, Pavel G. (October 2007). "Fifty Years of Soviet and Russian Drilling Activity in Polar and Non-Polar Ice". Erdc/Crrel Tr-07-20. Archived from the original on April 20, 2017. Vasiliev, N.I.; et al. (2007). "Deep drilling at Vostok station, Antarctica: history and recent events". Annals of Glaciology. 47 (1): 10–23. Bibcode:2007AnGla..47...10V. doi:10.3189/172756407786857776. Weidick, Anker (1995). "Satellite Image Atlas of Glaciers of the World: Greenland" (PDF). United States Geological Survey Professional Papers. 1386-C: 1–153. Zagorodnov, V.; et al. (1998). "Antifreeze thermal ice core drilling: an effective approach to the acquisition of ice cores" (PDF). Cold


id: list-of-inductees-in-the-international-rubber-science-hall-of-fame-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inductees_in_the_International_Rubber_Science_Hall_of_Fame-0.md
category: reference
title: List of inductees in the International Rubber Science Hall of Fame
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inductees_in_the_International_Rubber_Science_Hall_of_Fame
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:26.158386+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inductees-in-the-international-rubber-science-hall-of-fame-20260505-0
summary:
The International Rubber Science Hall of Fame recognizes the careers of notable professionals in rubber technology. It is jointly sponsored by the Maurice Morton Institute of Polymer Science at The University of Akron and the Rubber Division of the American Chemical Society. The Goodyear Polymer Center at the University of Akron houses the Hall of Fame's portrait gallery. == Inductees == The following are members of the International Rubber Hall of Fame: == See also == Charles Goodyear Medal: Another ACS rubber award Melvin Mooney Distinguished Technology Award: Another ACS rubber award International Rubber Science Hall of Fame: Another ACS award Rubber Chemistry and Technology: An ACS journal List of chemistry awards == References == == External links == Awards page of ACS Rubber Division


id: outline-of-library-and-information-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_library_and_information_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of library and information science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_library_and_information_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:28.575686+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-library-and-information-science-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to library and information science: Library and information science (LIS) is the scientific study of issues related to libraries and the information fields. This includes academic studies regarding how library resources are used and how people interact with library systems. The organization of knowledge for efficient retrieval of relevant information is also a major research goal of library science. Given its interdisciplinary nature, it overlaps with the fields of computer science, various social sciences, statistics, and systems analysis. == Nature of library and information science == === Definition === Library and information science can be described as all of the following: The study of libraries and information both in terms of theory and practice. Field of science – widely recognized category of specialized expertise within science, and typically embodies its own terminology and nomenclature. Such a field will usually be represented by one or more scientific journals, where peer reviewed research is published. There are many library and information-related scientific journals. Social science – field of academic scholarship that explores aspects of human society. === Essence === Library and information science Library science Information science Glossary of library


id: outline-of-library-and-information-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_library_and_information_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Outline of library and information science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_library_and_information_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:28.575686+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-library-and-information-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Social issues === Decreased funding for established libraries Digital divide Digitization Education for librarianship Information access Information and communication technologies (ICT's) Sustainability and ICT's Information explosion Information policy Information literacy Information Society Literacy Remote access == Education and training == Education for librarianship – List of I-Schools Academic courses in library science Collection management Cataloging and classification Database management Information architecture Information systems and technology Knowledge management List of Library Science schools Management Preservation Reference Research methods Statistics == Professional organizations == American Association of School Librarians American Library Association Australian Library and Information Association Canadian Library Association Association for Library Service to Children Association of Research Libraries International Federation of Library Associations (IFLA) Public Library Association Special Libraries Association == Non-profit organizations == Librarians Without Borders Bibliothèques Sans Frontières African Library Project Friends of Libraries == Notable people in library science == List of librarians Librarians in popular culture Sanford Berman Daniel J. Boorstin William Warner Bishop Lee Pierce Butler John Cotton Dana Melvil Dewey John Fiske (philosopher) Michael Gorman Seymour Lubetzky Eric Moon Paul Evan Peters S. R. Ranganathan Jesse Shera Howard D. White == List of Topic in Library School == Collection Development Information Literacy Digital


id: list-of-life-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_life_sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: List of life sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_life_sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:29.777724+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-life-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
This list of life sciences comprises the branches of science that involve the scientific study of life — such as animals (including human beings), microorganisms, and plants. This is one of the two major branches of natural science, the other being physical science, which is concerned with non-living matter. Biology is the overall natural science that studies life, with the other life sciences as its sub-disciplines. Some life sciences focus on a specific type of organism. For example, zoology is the study of animals, while botany is the study of plants. Other life sciences focus on aspects common to all or many life forms, such as anatomy and genetics. Some focus on the micro scale (e.g., molecular biology, biochemistry), while others focus on larger scales (e.g., cytology, immunology, ethology, pharmacy, ecology). Another major branch of life sciences involves understanding the mind—neuroscience. Life-science discoveries are helpful in improving the quality and standard of life and have applications in health, agriculture, medicine, and the pharmaceutical and food science industries. For example, they have provided information on certain diseases, which has helped in the understanding of human health. == Basic life science branches == Biology – scientific study of life Anatomy – study


id: list-of-life-sciences-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_life_sciences-1.md
category: reference
title: List of life sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_life_sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:29.777724+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-life-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
Agriculture – science and practice of cultivating plants and livestock Agronomy – science of cultivating plants for resources Biocomputers – systems of biologically derived molecules, such as DNA and proteins, are used to perform computational calculations involving storing, retrieving, and processing data. The development of biological computing has been made possible by the expanding new science of nanobiotechnology. Biocontrol – bioeffector-method of controlling pests (including insects, mites, weeds and plant diseases) using other living organisms. Bioengineering – study of biology through the means of engineering with an emphasis on applied knowledge and especially related to biotechnology Bioelectronics – field at the convergence of electronics and biological sciences. The electrical state of biological matter significantly affects its structure and function, compare for instance the membrane potential, the signal transduction by neurons, the isoelectric point (IEP) and so on. Micro- and nano-electronic components and devices have increasingly been combined with biological systems like medical implants, biosensors, lab-on-a-chip devices etc. causing the emergence of this new scientific field. Biomaterials – any matter, surface, or construct that interacts with biological systems. As a science, biomaterials is about fifty years old. The study of biomaterials is called biomaterials science. It has experienced steady and strong


id: list-of-life-sciences-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_life_sciences-2.md
category: reference
title: List of life sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_life_sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:29.777724+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-life-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
If substances have medicinal properties, they are considered pharmaceuticals. Proteomics – the large-scale study of proteins, particularly their structures and functions. Proteins are vital parts of living organisms, as they are the main components of the physiological metabolic pathways of cells. The proteome is the entire set of proteins, produced or modified by an organism or system. This varies with time and distinct requirements, or stresses, that a cell or organism undergoes. == See also == Outline of biology Divisions of pharmacology Control theory == References == == Further reading == Magner, Lois N. (2002). A history of the life sciences (Rev. and expanded 3rd ed.). New York: M. Dekker. ISBN 0824708245.


id: list-of-agricultural-journals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_agricultural_journals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of agricultural journals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_agricultural_journals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:31.000272+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-agricultural-journals-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of agricultural journals which includes notable peer-reviewed scientific journals that publish research in agriculture, agronomy, crop science, soil science, horticulture, plant pathology, animal science, and related fields. == Journals == Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica B African Crop Science Journal African Journal of Range & Forage Science Agricultural and Forest Meteorology Agricultural Economics Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment Agronomy Journal American Journal of Agricultural Economics American Journal of Enology and Viticulture Animal (journal) Annual Review of Phytopathology Aquaculture (journal) Aquaculture International Aquaculture Research Australasian Agribusiness Review BioControl Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry Bulgarian Journal of Agricultural Science Cahiers Agricultures California Agriculture Crop & Pasture Science Crop Science Fisheries Research Folia Horticulturae Hilgardia HortScience Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences Journal of Agrarian Change Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry Journal of Agricultural Economics Journal of Agricultural, Biological and Environmental Statistics The Journal of Agricultural Science Journal of Animal Science Journal of Central European Agriculture Journal of Dairy Science Journal of Experimental Botany Journal of Horticultural Sciences The Journal of Peasant Studies Journal of Plantation Crops Journal of Soil and Water Conservation Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture Open Agriculture Pertanika Journal of Tropical


id: list-of-mechanical-engineering-journals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mechanical_engineering_journals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of mechanical engineering journals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mechanical_engineering_journals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:33.252061+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mechanical-engineering-journals-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of mechanical engineering journals which includes peer-reviewed scientific journals that cover research in mechanical systems, acoustics, thermodynamics, electromechanics, fluid mechanics, manufacturing, robotics, and other related fields. == Journals == Applied Mechanics Reviews ASCE-ASME Journal of Risk and Uncertainty in Engineering Systems Experimental Mechanics Heat and Mass Transfer International Journal of Extreme Manufacturing International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture International Journal of Plasticity Jordan Journal of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Journal of Computational and Nonlinear Dynamics Journal of Fluid Mechanics Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer Research Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems Journal of Micro/Nanopatterning, Materials, and Metrology Journal of Sound and Vibration Mechanism and Machine Theory Meccanica Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part C: Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part L == See also == American Society for Precision Engineering International Conference on Robotics and Automation Lists of academic journals List of American Society of Mechanical Engineers academic journals List of engineering awards List of aerospace engineering journals List of engineering journals and magazines List of materials science journals List of mechanical engineering software List of physics journals List of


id: list-of-nuclear-science-journals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nuclear_science_journals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of nuclear science journals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_nuclear_science_journals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:34.481604+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-nuclear-science-journals-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of nuclear science journals which includes peer-reviewed scientific journals covering nuclear physics, nuclear engineering, reactor design, radiation detection, and related areas of nuclear technology. == Journals == Acta Physica Polonica B Annals of Nuclear Energy Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science Applied Radiation and Isotopes Atomic Data and Nuclear Data Tables Chinese Physics C European Physical Journal A Fusion Engineering and Design Health Physics IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science International Journal of Energy Research International Journal of Radiation Biology Journal of Instrumentation Journal of Physics G Journal of Nuclear Materials Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry Journal of Radiological Protection Magnetohydrodynamics (journal) Nuclear Fusion Nuclear Physics (journal) Nuclear Physics A Nuclear Physics B Nuclear Physics and Atomic Energy Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Nuclear Science and Engineering Nuclear Science and Techniques Nuclear Technology Nukleonik Physical Review and their sub-journals Physical Review Accelerators and Beams Physical Review C Physics Letters B Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion Progress in Nuclear Energy Radiation Measurements Radiation Protection Dosimetry Review of Scientific Instruments == See also == American Nuclear Society International Atomic Energy Agency List of energy journals List of engineering journals and magazines List of physics journals


id: list-of-people-who-achieved-posthumous-recognition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_people_who_achieved_posthumous_recognition-0.md
category: reference
title: List of people who achieved posthumous recognition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_people_who_achieved_posthumous_recognition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:35.618975+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-people-who-achieved-posthumous-recognition-20260505-0
summary:
This article is a chronological list of people who achieved posthumous recognition, which is the fame, honour, or critical breakthrough bestowed upon them only after their death. The phenomenon appears in many fields, including arts, literature and science, and has been described in cultural and historical studies. The list is organized chronologically by year of birth. Please add to this list people who meet all of the following criteria: People who had limited or small recognition in their lifetime, After their death, their work or actions received a clear growth in recognition through various honours such as prizes, memorials or institutions named after them and so on. Reliable secondary sources, stating that the person became famous only after their death or that their work, even if initially famous, was forgotten but later rediscovered. == Science == == Literature & Poetry == == Art == == Music == == See also == Posthumous fame of Vincent van Gogh Posthumous fame of El Greco Reception of Johann Sebastian Bach's music – History of musical appreciation Posthumous award – Award granted after death Posthumous publication – Publishing a work after the creator's death == References ==


id: list-of-quantum-mechanical-potentials-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_quantum-mechanical_potentials-0.md
category: reference
title: List of quantum-mechanical potentials
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_quantum-mechanical_potentials
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:36.757273+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-quantum-mechanical-potentials-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of potential energy functions that are frequently used in quantum mechanics and have any meaning. == One-dimensional potentials == Rectangular potential barrier Delta potential (aka "contact potential") Double delta potential Step potential Periodic potential Barrier potential Gaussian potential Eckart potential == Wells == Quantum well Potential well Finite potential well Infinite potential well Double-well potential Semicircular potential well Circular potential well Spherical potential well Triangular potential well == Interatomic potentials == Interatomic potential Bond order potential EAM potential Coulomb potential Buckingham potential Lennard-Jones potential Morse potential Morse/Long-range potential Rosen–Morse potential Trigonometric Rosen–Morse potential Stockmayer potential Pöschl–Teller potential Axilrod–Teller potential Mie potential == Oscillators == Harmonic potential (harmonic oscillator) Morse potential (morse oscillator) Morse/Long-range potential (Morse/Long-range oscillator) Kratzer potential (Kratzer oscillator) == Quantum Field theory == Yukawa potential Coleman–Weinberg potential Uehling potential Woods–Saxon potential Cornell potential == Miscellaneous == Quantum potential Pseudopotential Superpotential Komar superpotential Kolos–Wolniewicz potential == See also == List of quantum-mechanical systems with analytical solutions List of integrable models


id: list-of-renewable-energy-journals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_renewable_energy_journals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of renewable energy journals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_renewable_energy_journals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:37.919613+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-renewable-energy-journals-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of renewable energy journals that focus on topics related to solar energy, wind power, bioenergy, geothermal energy, energy storage, and other renewable energy topics. == Journals == === General renewable and sustainable energy === Applied Energy Energies Energy and Buildings Energy Conversion and Management Energy for Sustainable Development Journal of Cleaner Production Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy Nature Energy Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews Renewable Energy Smart Energy === Solar energy === Progress in Photovoltaics Solar Energy Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells === Wind energy === IET Renewable Power Generation Wind Energy Wind Engineering === Bioenergy and biofuels === Bioresource Technology GCB Bioenergy === Geothermal energy === Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research === Energy systems, storage, and integration === ACS Energy Letters ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering Advanced Energy Materials Batteries Energy Energy & Environmental Science Energy Reports Energy Storage Materials Energy Technology International Journal of Energy Research International Journal of Hydrogen Energy Journal of the Electrochemical Society Journal of Power Sources Joule Nano Energy === Policy and economics === Energy Economics Energy Policy Energy Research & Social Science Resource and Energy Economics The Energy Journal == See also == List of books


id: list-of-materials-analysis-methods-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_materials_analysis_methods-0.md
category: reference
title: List of materials analysis methods
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_materials_analysis_methods
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:40.277124+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-materials-analysis-methods-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of analysis methods used in materials science. Analysis methods are listed by their acronym, if one exists. == Symbols == μSR – see muon spin spectroscopy χ – see magnetic susceptibility == A == AAS – Atomic absorption spectroscopy AED – Auger electron diffraction AES – Auger electron spectroscopy AFM – Atomic force microscopy AFS – Atomic fluorescence spectroscopy Analytical ultracentrifugation APFIM – Atom probe field ion microscopy APS – Appearance potential spectroscopy ARPES – Angle resolved photoemission spectroscopy ARUPS – Angle resolved ultraviolet photoemission spectroscopy ATR – Attenuated total reflectance == B == BET – BET surface area measurement (BET from Brunauer, Emmett, Teller) BiFC – Bimolecular fluorescence complementation BKD – Backscatter Kikuchi diffraction, see EBSD BRET – Bioluminescence resonance energy transfer BSED – Back scattered electron diffraction, see EBSD == C == CAICISS – Coaxial impact collision ion scattering spectroscopy CARS – Coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy CBED – Convergent beam electron diffraction CCM – Charge collection microscopy CDI – Coherent diffraction imaging CE – Capillary electrophoresis CET – Cryo-electron tomography CL – Cathodoluminescence CLSM – Confocal laser scanning microscopy COSY – Correlation spectroscopy Cryo-EM – Cryo-electron microscopy Cryo-SEM – Cryo-scanning electron microscopy CV –


id: list-of-materials-analysis-methods-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_materials_analysis_methods-1.md
category: reference
title: List of materials analysis methods
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_materials_analysis_methods
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:40.277124+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-materials-analysis-methods-20260505-0
summary:
== P == PAS – Positron annihilation spectroscopy Photoacoustic spectroscopy PAT or PACT – Photoacoustic tomography or photoacoustic computed tomography PAX – Photoemission of adsorbed xenon PC or PCS – Photocurrent spectroscopy Phase contrast microscopy PhD – Photoelectron diffraction PD – Photodesorption PDEIS – Potentiodynamic electrochemical impedance spectroscopy PDS – Photothermal deflection spectroscopy PED – Photoelectron diffraction PEELS – parallel electron energy loss spectroscopy PEEM – Photoemission electron microscopy (or photoelectron emission microscopy) PES – Photoelectron spectroscopy PINEM – photon-induced near-field electron microscopy PIGE – Particle (or proton) induced gamma-ray spectroscopy, see nuclear reaction analysis PIXE – Particle (or proton) induced X-ray spectroscopy PL – Photoluminescence Porosimetry Powder diffraction PTMS – Photothermal microspectroscopy PTS – Photothermal spectroscopy == Q == QENS – Quasielastic neutron scattering QCM-D – Quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring == R == Raman spectroscopy RAXRS – Resonant anomalous X-ray scattering RBS – Rutherford backscattering spectrometry REM – Reflection electron microscopy RDS – Reflectance difference spectroscopy RHEED – Reflection high energy electron diffraction RIMS – Resonance ionization mass spectrometry RIXS – Resonant inelastic X-ray scattering RR spectroscopy – Resonance Raman spectroscopy == S == SAD – Selected area diffraction SAED – Selected area electron diffraction SAM –


id: list-of-measuring-instruments-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_measuring_instruments-0.md
category: reference
title: List of measuring instruments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_measuring_instruments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:41.455851+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-measuring-instruments-20260505-0
summary:
A measuring instrument is a device to measure a physical quantity. In the physical sciences, quality assurance, and engineering, measurement is the activity of obtaining and comparing physical quantities of real-world objects and events. Established standard objects and events are used as units, and the process of measurement gives a number relating the item under study and the referenced unit of measurement. Measuring instruments, and formal test methods which define the instrument's use, are the means by which these relations of numbers are obtained. All measuring instruments are subject to varying degrees of instrument error and measurement uncertainty. These instruments may range from simple objects such as rulers and stopwatches to electron microscopes and particle accelerators. Virtual instrumentation is widely used in the development of modern measuring instruments. == Time == In the past, common time measuring instrument were sundials, water clocks and hourglasses, measuring periods of time within a day. Today, the usual measuring instruments for time are clocks and watches. For highly accurate measurement of time an atomic clock is used. Stopwatches are also used to measure time in some sports. == Energy == Energy is measured by an energy meter. Examples of energy meters include: === Electricity


id: list-of-measuring-instruments-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_measuring_instruments-1.md
category: reference
title: List of measuring instruments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_measuring_instruments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:41.455851+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-measuring-instruments-20260505-0
summary:
=== Electric field (negative gradient of electric potential, voltage per length) === Field mill === Magnetic field === See also the relevant section in the article about the magnetic field. Compass Hall effect sensor Magnetometer Proton magnetometer SQUID For the ranges of magnetic field see: Orders of magnitude (magnetic field) === Combination instruments === Multimeter, combines the functions of ammeter, voltmeter, and ohmmeter as a minimum. LCR meter, combines the functions of ohmmeter, capacitance meter, and inductance meter. Also called component bridge due to the bridge circuit method of measurement. == Thermodynamics == Temperature-related considerations dominate thermodynamics. There are two distinct thermal properties: A thermal potential — the temperature. For example: A glowing coal has a different thermal quality than a non-glowing one. And a substance-like property, — the entropy; for example: One glowing coal won't heat a pot of water, but a hundred will. Energy in thermodynamics is calculated by multiplying the thermal potential by the amount of entropy found at that potential: temperature times entropy. Entropy can be created by friction but not annihilated. === Amount of substance === A physical quantity introduced in chemistry; usually determined indirectly. If mass and substance type of the sample are known,


id: list-of-measuring-instruments-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_measuring_instruments-2.md
category: reference
title: List of measuring instruments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_measuring_instruments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:41.455851+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-measuring-instruments-20260505-0
summary:
=== Specific temperature coefficient of energy or "specific heat capacity" === The temperature coefficient of energy divided by a substance-like quantity (amount of substance, mass, volume) describing the sample. Usually calculated from measurements by a division or could be measured directly using a unit amount of that sample. For the ranges of specific heat capacities see: Orders of magnitude (specific heat capacity) === Coefficient of thermal expansion === Dilatometer Strain gauge === Melting temperature === Differential Scanning Calorimeter gives melting point and enthalpy of fusion. Kofler bench Thiele tube === Boiling temperature === Ebullioscope a device for measuring the boiling point of a liquid. This device is also part of a method that uses the effect of boiling point elevation for calculating the molecular mass of a solvent. See also Thermal analysis, Heat. == More on continuum mechanics == This includes mostly instruments which measure macroscopic properties of matter: In the fields of solid-state physics; in condensed matter physics which considers solids, liquids, and in-betweens exhibiting for example viscoelastic behavior; and furthermore, in fluid mechanics, where liquids, gases, plasmas, and in-betweens like supercritical fluids are studied. === Density === This refers to particle density of fluids and compact(ed) solids like


id: list-of-measuring-instruments-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_measuring_instruments-3.md
category: reference
title: List of measuring instruments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_measuring_instruments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:41.455851+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-measuring-instruments-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ionizing radiation === Ionizing radiation includes rays of "particles" as well as rays of "waves". Especially X-rays and gamma rays transfer enough energy in non-thermal, (single-) collision processes to separate electron(s) from an atom. ==== Particle and ray flux ==== Bubble chamber Cloud chamber Dosimeter, a technical device realizes different working principles. Geiger counter Ionisation chamber Microchannel plate detector Photographic plate Photostimulable phosphor plate Proportional counter Scintillation counter, Lucas cell Semiconductor detector == Identification and content == This could include chemical substances, rays of any kind, elementary particles, and quasiparticles. Many measurement devices outside this section may be used or at least become part of an identification process. For identification and content concerning chemical substances, see also Analytical chemistry, List of chemical analysis methods, and List of materials analysis methods. === Content in mixtures, substance identification === Carbon dioxide sensor chromatographic device, gas chromatograph separates mixtures of substances. Different velocities of the substance types accomplish the separation. Colorimeter absorbance, and thus concentration Gas detector Gas detector in combination with mass spectrometer, mass spectrometer identifies the chemical composition of a sample on the basis of the mass-to-charge ratio of charged particles. Nephelometer or turbidimeter Oxygen sensor (= lambda sond) Refractometer,


id: list-of-measuring-instruments-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_measuring_instruments-4.md
category: reference
title: List of measuring instruments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_measuring_instruments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:41.455851+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-measuring-instruments-20260505-0
summary:
== Uncategorized, specialized, or generalized application == Actograph measures and records animal activity within an experimental chamber. Densitometer measures light transmission through processed photographic film or transparent material or light reflection from a reflective material. Force platform measures ground reaction force. Gauge (engineering) A highly precise measurement instrument, also usable to calibrate other instruments of the same kind. Often found in conjunction with defining or applying technical standards. Gradiometer any device that measures spatial variations of a physical quantity. For example, as done in gravity gradiometry. Parking meter measures time a vehicle is parked at a particular spot, usually with a fee. Postage meter measures postage used from a prepaid account. S meter measures the signal strength processed by a communications receiver. Sensor, hypernym for devices that measure with little interaction, typically used in technical applications. Spectroscope is an important tool used by physicists. SWR meter check the quality of the match between the antenna and the transmission line. Universal measuring machine measures geometric locations for inspecting tolerances. === Alphabetical listing === == See also == Category:Instrument-making corporations Data logger measuring devices History of measurement History of weights and measures Instrumentation List of measuring devices List of physical quantities List


id: list-of-neurological-research-methods-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_neurological_research_methods-0.md
category: reference
title: List of neurological research methods
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_neurological_research_methods
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:46.204955+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-neurological-research-methods-20260505-0
summary:
There are numerous types of research methods used when conducting neurological research, all with the purpose of trying to view the activity that occurs within the brain during a certain activity or behavior. The disciplines within which these methods are used is quite broad, ranging from psychology to neuroscience to biomedical engineering to sociology. The following is a list of neuroimaging methods: Electroencephalography (EEG) Quantitative electroencephalography (QEEG) Stereoelectroencephalography (SEEG) Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) Magnetoencephalography (MEG) Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) Positron emission tomography (PET) Single-unit recording Transcranial direct-current stimulation (TDCS) Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) == See also == neuroimaging functional neuroimaging


id: list-of-noise-topics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_noise_topics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of noise topics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_noise_topics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:47.351378+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-noise-topics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of noise topics. == Engineering and physics == == Environmental == == Noise reduction == == Music == == See also == DB drag racing List of environment topics == External links == Noboomers


id: list-of-otomies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_-otomies-0.md
category: reference
title: List of -otomies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_-otomies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:48.542966+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-otomies-20260505-0
summary:
The suffix '-otomy' is derived from Greek τόμος (-tómos) 'cutting, sharp, separate'. == Medical procedures == Amniotomy – An incision created to accelerate labor. Androtomy – Dissection of the human body. Bilateral cingulotomy – Psychosurgery, treatment for depression and addiction . Bronchotomy – A procedure that ensures there is an open airway between a patient's lung/s and the outside world. Clitoridotomy – Plastic surgery of the clitorial hood. Coeliotomy – A large incision through the abdominal wall to gain access into the abdominal cavity Colpotomy – Extraction of fluid from the rectouterine pouch through a needle. Cordotomy – Procedure that disables selected pain-conducting tracts in the spinal cord, in order to achieve loss of pain and temperature perception. Craniotomy – A bone flap is temporarily removed from the skull to access the brain. Cricothyrotomy – An incision made through the skin and cricothyroid membrane to establish a patent airway during certain life-threatening situations. Escharotomy – Procedure used to treat full-thickness (third-degree) circumferential burns. Episiotomy – Surgical incision of the perineum and the posterior vaginal wall. Fasciotomy – Surgical procedure where the fascia is cut to relieve tension or pressure commonly to treat the resulting loss of circulation to an area


id: outline-of-academic-disciplines-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_academic_disciplines-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of academic disciplines
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_academic_disciplines
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:49.698852+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-academic-disciplines-20260505-0
summary:
An academic discipline or academic field is a subdivision of knowledge that is taught and researched at the college or university level. Disciplines are defined (in part) and recognized by the academic journals in which research is published, and the learned societies and academic departments or faculties within colleges and universities to which their practitioners belong. Academic disciplines are conventionally divided into the humanities (including philosophy, languages, art and cultural studies), the scientific disciplines (such as physics, chemistry, and biology); and the formal sciences like mathematics and computer science. The social sciences are sometimes considered a fourth category. It is also known as a field of study, field of inquiry, research field and branch of knowledge. The different terms are used in different countries and fields. Individuals associated with academic disciplines are commonly referred to as experts or specialists. Others, who may have studied liberal arts or systems theory rather than concentrating in a specific academic discipline, are classified as generalists. The following outline provides an overview of and topical guide to academic disciplines. In each case, an entry at the highest level of the hierarchy (e.g., Humanities) is a group of broadly similar disciplines; an entry at the next


id: list-of-petawatt-lasers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_petawatt_lasers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of petawatt lasers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_petawatt_lasers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:50.866948+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-petawatt-lasers-20260505-0
summary:
This page contains a list of petawatt-level lasers in operation, under construction, or proposed. The list is compiled from existing academic reviews. A petawatt laser is typically defined as a laser system whose pulse energy divided by its pulse duration reaches an order of magnitude of 1015 W, or 1 petawatt. These high-power laser pulses are capable of driving a strong electromagnetic field, giving rise to a number of novel applications. For instance, focusing large numbers of petawatt level lasers on a target containing deuterium and tritium creates enough energy density to drive inertial confinement fusion. Another potential application is using strong electric fields from petawatt laser pulses to drive steep density gradient structures in a plasma, which then creates field gradients capable of accelerating particles in a much shorter distance than linac; such concept is known as laser wakefield acceleration. In addition, as the laser pulse itself reaches extremely high field intensity, interaction of the high-energy particle beam with a petawatt laser pulse can achieve interactions with intensity beyond the Schwinger limit, enabling possible observation of effects such as vacuum polarization and Breit-Wheeler process. Generation of a petawatt laser pulse requires the pulse duration to be extremely short: to


id: list-of-polyurethane-applications-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyurethane_applications-0.md
category: reference
title: List of polyurethane applications
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyurethane_applications
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:52.057213+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-polyurethane-applications-20260505-0
summary:
Polyurethane products have many uses. Over three quarters of the global consumption of polyurethane products is in the form of foams, with flexible and rigid types being roughly equal in market size. In both cases, the foam is usually behind other materials: flexible foams are behind upholstery fabrics in commercial and domestic furniture; rigid foams are between metal, or plastic walls/sheets of most refrigerators and freezers, or other surface materials in the case of thermal insulation panels in the construction sector. Its use in garments is growing: for example, in lining the cups of brassieres. Polyurethane is also used for moldings which include door frames, columns, balusters, window headers, pediments, medallions and rosettes. Polyurethane formulations cover an extremely wide range of stiffness, hardness, and densities. These materials include: Low-density flexible foam used in upholstery, bedding, automotive and truck seating, and novel inorganic plant substrates for roof or wall gardens Low density elastomers used in footwear Hard solid plastics used as electronic instrument bezels and structural parts Flexible plastics used as straps and bands Cast and injection molded components for various markets – i.e., agriculture, military, automotive, industrial, etc. Polyurethane foam is widely used in high resiliency flexible foam seating, rigid


id: list-of-polyurethane-applications-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyurethane_applications-1.md
category: reference
title: List of polyurethane applications
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyurethane_applications
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:52.057213+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-polyurethane-applications-20260505-0
summary:
== Filling of spaces and cavities == Two binary liquids, one of which is a polyurethane (either T6 or 16), when mixed and aerated, expand into a hard, space-filling aerosolid. === Construction sealants and firestopping === Approved polyurethane sealants (which is different from foam) are available in one, two and three part systems, and in cartridges, buckets or drums. Polyurethane sealants are used to fill gaps thereby preventing air and water leakage. They are also used in conjunction with inorganic insulation, such as rockwool or ceramic fibres, for firestopping. Firestops can thwart smoke and hose-stream passage. The Browns Ferry Nuclear Power Plant used flammable polyurethane foam as a firestop, which was accidentally ignited and caused a major fire. == Water vessels == Polyurethane foam is widely used in the marine world in many applications: === Inflatable boats === Some raft manufacturers use urethane for the construction of inflatable boats. AIRE uses urethane membrane material as an air-retentive bladder inside a PVC shell, whereas SOTAR uses urethane membrane materials as a coating on some boats. Maravia uses a liquid urethane material which is spray-coated over PVC to enhance air retention and increase abrasion resistance. === Surfboards === Some surfboards are made


id: list-of-polyurethane-applications-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyurethane_applications-2.md
category: reference
title: List of polyurethane applications
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyurethane_applications
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:52.057213+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-polyurethane-applications-20260505-0
summary:
Polyurethane is also used in making solid tires and wheels. Industrial applications include forklift drive and load wheels, grocery and industrial carts, and roller coaster wheels. Modern roller blading and skateboarding became economical only with the introduction of tough, abrasion-resistant polyurethane parts, helping to usher in the popularity of what had once been an obscure 1960s craze. The durability of polyurethane wheels allowed the range of tricks and stunts performed on skateboards to expand considerably. Polyurethane is also used to make small equipment tires in the lawn and garden industry for wheelbarrows, hand trucks, lawn mowers, carts, etc. They provide the bounce and feel of an air-filled tire with the benefit of no punctures. They weigh about the same as air-filled tires as well, even though they are solid polyurethane all the way through. Other constructions have been developed for pneumatic tires, and microcellular foam variants are widely used in tires on wheelchairs, bicycles and other uses. These latter foam types are also widely encountered in car steering wheels and other interior and exterior automotive parts, including bumpers and fenders. == Automotive parts == Polyurethane usage has increased over the past twenty years in the automotive industry. It is being


id: list-of-polyurethane-applications-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyurethane_applications-3.md
category: reference
title: List of polyurethane applications
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_polyurethane_applications
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:52.057213+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-polyurethane-applications-20260505-0
summary:
Mining and mineral processing Aggregate Transportation Concrete Paper processing Power Inflatable boat manufacture Polyurethane is also used in the concrete construction industry to create formliners. Polyurethane formliners serves as a mold for concrete, creating a variety of textures and art. == Solid-fuel rockets == Polyurethane is used together with Ammonium perchlorate as solid fuel in the submarine launched Polaris missiles. == Body armor == Polyurethane urea elastomers have been investigated by researchers from the U.S. Army Research Laboratory and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for potential material for helmets, face shields, and ballistic vests for soldiers. == Inorganic plant substrates == Sheet and flaked semi-open cell hydrophilic polyurethane foams have found application in roof gardens and vertical green walls with commercial products now emerging on the market. Semi-open cell polyurethane foams substrates have much lower density and far greater water holding capacities than soil substrates. The semi-open cell structure facilitate the required plant root attachment for vertical wall gardens. Reductions in weight reduce building/wall supporting structure requirements, whilst increased water holding capacity reduces plant watering requirements. == Concrete raising == Closed cell polymers have been used to raise and support concrete roadways and bridge approaches since 1989. Originally developed in


id: list-of-popular-science-mass-media-outlets-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_popular_science_mass_media_outlets-0.md
category: reference
title: List of popular science mass media outlets
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_popular_science_mass_media_outlets
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:53.195593+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-popular-science-mass-media-outlets-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of popular science mass media outlets. == See also == List of science magazines List of science books == References ==


id: list-of-prolific-inventors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prolific_inventors-0.md
category: reference
title: List of prolific inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prolific_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:56.828750+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-prolific-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
The 100 known most prolific inventors based on worldwide utility patents are shown in the following table. While in many cases this is the number of utility patents granted by the United States Patent and Trademark Office, it may include utility patents granted by other countries, as noted by the source references for an inventor. == Prolific Inventors == This table is usually updated every Tuesday, and is current as of April 28, 2026. The columns are defined as follows: Inventor: The name of the inventor. Pats: The number of utility patents that have been issued. Only utility patents (or the international equivalent) are listed, as a utility patent is a patent for an invention. Not all patents are for inventions. Other patent types include: design patents for the ornamental design of an object; plant patents for plant varieties; and reissue patents, where a correction is made to an already granted patent. This list does not include patent applications (patents pending) as there is no guarantee that a patent application actually describes a novel invention until the patent is granted. Fams: The number of patent families, which in USPTO data includes an original or continuation-in-part patent by itself or with


id: index-of-quality-engineering-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_quality_engineering_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of quality engineering articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_quality_engineering_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:15:59.381040+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-quality-engineering-articles-20260505-0
summary:
This is an alphabetical list of articles pertaining specifically to quality engineering. For a broad overview of engineering, please see List of engineering topics. For biographies please see List of engineers. == A == American Customer Satisfaction Index (ACSI) active listening affinity diagram Automotive Industry Action Group (AIAG) American Society for Quality (ASQ) Audit Appraisal == B == Bar chart Benchmarking == C == change management Code of Ethics Continuous quality improvement Cost of Poor Execution (COPE) Cost of quality (CoQ) Cost of poor quality (COPQ) Customer satisfaction research == D == Define, measure, analyze, improve and control (DMAIC) == E == European Foundation for Quality Management (EFQM) == F == Five whys == G == Groupthink Gantt chart == H == House of Quality Human reliability assessment (HRA) == I == Incrementalism == J == Joseph M. Juran == K == Kaizen == L == Lean manufacturing == M == Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award Monitoring and evaluation Muda (Japanese term) == N == National Council on Physical Distribution Management (NCPDM) Next operation as customer(NOAC) Nine windows Nominal group technique == O == Organizational culture Overall equipment effectiveness (OEE) == P == Plan, Do, Check, Act (PDCA) Poka-yoke Process


id: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-delft-university-of-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_Delft_University_of_Technology-0.md
category: reference
title: List of rectores magnifici of Delft University of Technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_Delft_University_of_Technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:00.598302+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-delft-university-of-technology-20260505-0
summary:
A rector of a Dutch university is called a rector magnificus. The following people have been rector magnificus of Delft University of Technology or its predecessor, Technische Hogeschool Delft: == References == Bruggemans, J.S. (1983). "Inventaris van de archieven van de Technische Hogeschool te Delft - Overzicht van de rectores magnifici tussen 1959 en 1972" (PDF). Nationaal Archief Den Haag: 8. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) Bruggemans, J.S. (1983). "Inventaris van de archieven van de Technische Hogeschool te Delft - Overzicht van de rectores magnifici tussen 1905 en 1959" (PDF). Nationaal Archief Den Haag: 162–163. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)


id: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-the-eindhoven-university-of-technology-20260505-0
category: reference
title: List of rectores magnifici of the Eindhoven University of Technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_the_Eindhoven_University_of_Technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:01.958552+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-the-eindhoven-university-of-technology-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_the_Eindhoven_University_of_Technology-0.md

summary:
A rector of a Dutch university is called a rector magnificus. The following people have been rector magnificus of the Eindhoven University of Technology or its predecessor, the Technische Hogeschool Eindhoven (THE):


id: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-the-erasmus-university-rotterdam-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_the_Erasmus_University_Rotterdam-0.md
category: reference
title: List of rectores magnifici of the Erasmus University Rotterdam
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_the_Erasmus_University_Rotterdam
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:03.212872+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-the-erasmus-university-rotterdam-20260505-0
summary:
A rector of a Dutch university is called a rector magnificus. The following people have been rector magnificus of the Erasmus University Rotterdam: == External links == Website Erasmus University Rotterdam


id: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-leiden-university-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_Leiden_University-0.md
category: reference
title: List of rectores magnifici of Leiden University
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_Leiden_University
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:04.508878+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-leiden-university-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of chancellors (rectores magnifici) of Leiden University, as from 1575. Three Nobel laureates are among these chancellors: Hendrik Lorentz, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes and Willem Einthoven. == 16th century == === 1575–1600 === == 17th century == === 1601–1620 === === 1621–1640 === === 1641–1660 === === 1661–1680 === === 1681–1700 === == 18th century == === 1701–1720 === === 1721–1740 === === 1741–1760 === === 1761–1780 === === 1781–1800 === == 19th century == === 1801–1820 === === 1821–1840 === === 1841–1860 === === 1861–1880 === === 1881–1900 === == 20th century == === 1901–1920 === === 1921–1940 === === 1941–1960 === === 1961–2000 === == 21st century == == See also == List of Leiden University people == Literature == Harm Beukers [et al.].: Album Scholasticum academiae Lugduno-Batavae MCMLXXV-MCMLXXXIX. (1575–1989), Leids Universiteits-Fonds, Leiden, 1991 R.E.O. Ekkart: Athenae Batavae. De Leidse Universiteit / The University of Leiden 1575-1975. Universitaire Pers Leiden, 1975. ISBN 90-6021-222-3 Icones Leidenses. Leiden, Universitaire Pers, 1973. ISBN 9060211839 == References == == External links == Website Leiden University


id: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-maastricht-university-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_Maastricht_University-0.md
category: reference
title: List of rectores magnifici of Maastricht University
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_Maastricht_University
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:05.709450+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-maastricht-university-20260505-0
summary:
A rector of a Dutch university is called a rector magnificus. The following people have been rector magnificus of the Maastricht University: == External links == Maastricht University


id: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-the-vrije-universiteit-amsterdam-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_the_Vrije_Universiteit_Amsterdam-0.md
category: reference
title: List of rectores magnifici of the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rectores_magnifici_of_the_Vrije_Universiteit_Amsterdam
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:06.856530+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-rectores-magnifici-of-the-vrije-universiteit-amsterdam-20260505-0
summary:
The rector of a Dutch university is called a rector magnificus. The following people have been rector magnificus of the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam: == Publication == A.Th. van Deursen: The distinctive character of the Free University in Amsterdam, 1880-2005. A commemorative history. Grand Rapids, Michigan, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2008. ISBN 9780802862518 == References == Jaarboek Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1880-1990 (digital)


id: list-of-robotics-journals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_robotics_journals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of robotics journals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_robotics_journals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:08.060710+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-robotics-journals-20260505-0
summary:
List of robotics journals includes notable academic and scientific journals that focus on research in the field of robotics and automation. == Journals == Acta Mechanica et Automatica Advanced Robotics Annual Review of Control, Robotics, and Autonomous Systems IEEE Robotics and Automation Letters IEEE Transactions on Robotics IEEE Transactions on Field Robotics The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology International Journal of Humanoid Robotics International Journal of Robotics Research Journal of Cognitive Engineering and Decision Making Journal of Field Robotics Journal of Intelligent & Robotic Systems Paladyn Robotics and Autonomous Systems Robotics Science Robotics SLAS Technology == See also == List of computer science journals List of artificial intelligence journals List of engineering journals and magazines List of open-source artificial intelligence software for robotics Robotics Automation === Robotics conferences === International Conference on Robotics and Automation International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems International Conference on Human–Robot Interaction Humanoids Summit Roboexotica Defcon Robot Contest == External links == IEEE Xplore Digital Library The International Journal of Robotics Research – Springer Science Robotics – AAAS


id: list-of-scientists-whose-names-are-used-as-units-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientists_whose_names_are_used_as_units-0.md
category: reference
title: List of scientists whose names are used as units
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientists_whose_names_are_used_as_units
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:09.229129+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientists-whose-names-are-used-as-units-20260505-0
summary:
Many scientists have been recognized with the assignment of their names as international units by the International Committee for Weights and Measures or as non-SI units. The International System of Units (abbreviated SI from French: Système international d'unités) is the most widely used system of units of measurement. There are 7 base units and 22 derived units (excluding compound units). These units are used both in science and in commerce. Two of the base SI units and 17 of the derived units are named after scientists. 28 non-SI units are named after scientists. By this convention, their names are immortalised. As a rule, the SI units are written in lowercase letters, but symbols of units derived from the name of a person begin with a capital letter. == Scientists and SI units == (colour legend) == Scientists and non-SI units == == See also == List of chemical elements named after people List of scientists whose names are used in physical constants == References == == Bibliography == == External links == Physical dimensions of the units


id: list-of-scientific-demonstrations-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_demonstrations-0.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific demonstrations
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_demonstrations
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:11.556465+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-demonstrations-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of scientific demonstrations used in educational demonstrations and popular science lectures. == Physics == Balsa wood bridge — demonstrates compressive strength and tensile strength, teaches engineering thinking Egg drop competition — demonstrates compressive strength, teaches engineering thinking Hand boiler — demonstrates vapour-liquid equilibrium and simple heat engine principles Newton's cradle — demonstrates elastic collision, conservation of momentum, and conservation of energy Gauss gun Plate trick or Dirac belt trick — demonstrates spinors and the double cover of SO(3) by SU(2) Prince Rupert's Drop — demonstrates supercooling and tensile stress Self-siphoning beads — demonstrates momentum, energy and inertia Water rocket — demonstrates conservation of momentum, conservation of energy, the gas laws and basic rocketry Franklin bells — demonstrate electric charges Oxford Electric Bell — an experimental electric bell that was set up in 1840 and which has run nearly continuously ever since Wimshurst machine — an electrostatic generator Shooting a candle through a plank Foucault pendulum — demonstrates the rotation of Earth == Chemistry == Ammonia fountain — introduces concepts like solubility and the gas laws at entry level. Barking dog reaction — demonstrates rapid exothermic chemical reaction Blue bottle (chemical reaction) — demonstrates reduction and oxidation


id: scientific-research-on-the-international-space-station-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_research_on_the_International_Space_Station-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific research on the International Space Station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_research_on_the_International_Space_Station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:18.740873+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-research-on-the-international-space-station-20260505-0
summary:
The International Space Station is a platform for scientific research that requires one or more of the unusual conditions present in low Earth orbit (for example microgravity, (cosmic) -radiation and extreme temperatures). The primary fields of research include human research, space medicine, life sciences, physical sciences, astronomy and meteorology. The 2005 NASA Authorization Act designated the American segment of the International Space Station as a national laboratory with the goal of increasing the use of the ISS by other federal agencies and the private sector. Research on the ISS improves knowledge about the effects of long-term space exposure on the human body. Subjects currently under study include muscle atrophy, bone loss, and fluid shift. The data will be used to determine whether space colonization and lengthy human spaceflight are feasible. As of 2006, data on bone loss and muscular atrophy suggest that there would be a significant risk of fractures and movement problems if astronauts landed on a planet after a lengthy interplanetary cruise (such as the six-month journey time required to fly to Mars). Large scale medical studies are conducted aboard the ISS via the National Space Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI). Prominent among these is the Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound


id: scientific-research-on-the-international-space-station-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_research_on_the_International_Space_Station-1.md
category: reference
title: Scientific research on the International Space Station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_research_on_the_International_Space_Station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:18.740873+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-research-on-the-international-space-station-20260505-0
summary:
Ryutai Experiment Rack (Ryutai) Fluid Physics Experiment Facility (FPEF) Solution Crystallization Observation Facility (SCOF) Protein Crystallization Research Facility (PCRF) Image Processing Unit (IPU) Kobairo Rack : Gradient Heating Furnace (GHF) Saibo Experiment Rack (Saibo) Cell Biology Experiment Facility (CBEF) Clean Bench (CB) Lab Support Equipments and other smaller instruments The Minus Eighty Degree Celsius Laboratory Freezer for the International Space Station (MELFI) Biological Experiment Unit (BEU) High Definition TeleVision transmitting system (HDTV) Passive Dosimeter for Life Science Experiments in Space (PADLES) Human Research Facility Holter Monitor Payload Laptop Terminal (PLT) Microgravity Measurement Apparatus (MMA), Utility DC/DC Converter Unit (UDC) External scientific hardware: Japanese Experiment Module - Exposed Facility === Poisk === Multipurpose workstation (MWS) === ISS small hardware === Actiwatch (Actiwatch) BioServe Culture Apparatus (BCA) Biological Research in Canisters for OptiCells (BRIC-Opti) Human Research Facility Continuous Blood Pressure Device (CBPD) Hand Grip Dynamometer Pinch Force Dynamometer (HGD-PFD) Human Research Facility Holter Monitor (Holter) Kennedy Space Center Fixation Tube (KFT) Portable Clinical Blood Analyzer - i-STAT (PCBA) Radiation Area Monitor (RAM) Tissue Equivalent Proportional Counter (TEPC) Urine Monitoring System (UMS) Vegetable Production System (Veggie) === ISS sub-rack === Advanced Biological Research System (ABRS) Advanced Protein Crystallization Facility (APCF) ARCTIC Refrigerator-Freezer (ARCTIC)


id: scientific-research-on-the-international-space-station-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_research_on_the_International_Space_Station-2.md
category: reference
title: Scientific research on the International Space Station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_research_on_the_International_Space_Station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:18.740873+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-research-on-the-international-space-station-20260505-0
summary:
==== Cardiovascular and pulmonary systems ==== Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Control on Return from ISS (CCISS) Cardiac Atrophy and Diastolic Dysfunction During and After Long Duration Spaceflight: Functional Consequences for Orthostatic Intolerance, Exercise Capability and Risk for Cardiac Arrhythmias (Integrated_Cardiovascular) Test of Midodrine as a Countermeasure Against Post-flight Orthostatic Hypotension - Long (Midodrine-Long) Test of Midodrine as a Countermeasure Against Post-flight Orthostatic Hypotension - Short Duration Biological Investigation (Midodrine-SDBI) The Effects of EVA and Long-Term Exposure to Microgravity on Pulmonary Function (PuFF) Evaluation of Maximal Oxygen Uptake and Submaximal Estimates of VO2max Before, During, and After Long Duration International Space Station Missions (VO2max) Effect of Microgravity on the Peripheral Subcutaneous Veno-Arteriolar Reflex in Humans (Xenon1) ==== Crew healthcare systems ==== IntraVenous Fluid GENeration for Exploration Missions (IVGEN) Stability of Pharmacotherapeutic and Nutritional Compounds (Stability) ==== Human behaviour and performance ==== Bodies In the Space Environment was an experiment run from 2009 to 2010 studying how people perceive relative direction in space. Crewmember and Crew-Ground Interaction During International Space Station Missions (Interactions) Behavioral Issues Associated with Isolation and Confinement: Review and Analysis of ISS Crew Journals (Journals) Sleep-Wake Actigraphy and Light Exposure During Spaceflight-Long (Sleep-Long) Sleep-Wake Actigraphy and Light Exposure During Spaceflight-Short


id: scientific-research-on-the-international-space-station-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_research_on_the_International_Space_Station-3.md
category: reference
title: Scientific research on the International Space Station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_research_on_the_International_Space_Station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:18.740873+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-research-on-the-international-space-station-20260505-0
summary:
==== Plant biology ==== Advanced AstrocultureTM (ADVASC) Biomass Production System (BPS) Cambium (Cambium) Cell Wall/Reverse Genetic Approach to Exploring Genes Responsible for Cell Wall Dynamics in Supporting Tissues of Arabidopsis Under Microgravity Conditions and Resist Wall/Role of Microtubule-Membrane-Cell Wall Continuum in Gravity Resistance in Plants (CWRW) Gravity Related Genes in Arabidopsis - A (Genara-A) Threshold Acceleration for Gravisensing (Gravi) Threshold Acceleration for Gravisensing - 2 (Gravi-2) Validating Vegetable Production Unit (VPU) Plants, Protocols, Procedures and Requirements (P3R) Using Currently Existing Flight Resources (Lada-VPU-P3R) Molecular and Plant Physiological Analyses of the Microgravity Effects on Multigeneration Studies of Arabidopsis thaliana (Multigen) National Laboratory Pathfinder - Cells - 3: Jatropha Biofuels (NLP-Cells-3) The Optimization of Root Zone Substrates (ORZS) for Reduced Gravity Experiments Program (ORZS) Photosynthesis Experiment and System Testing and Operation (PESTO) Plant Generic Bioprocessing Apparatus (PGBA) Transgenic Arabidopsis Gene Expression System (TAGES) Analysis of a Novel Sensory Mechanism in Root Phototropism (Tropi) ==== Protein crystallization ==== Advanced Protein Crystallization Facility - Extraordinary Structural Features of Antibodies from Camelids (APCF-Camelids) Advanced Protein Crystallization Facility - Solution Flows and Molecular Disorder of Protein Crystals: Growth of High Quality Crystals, Motions of Lumazin Crystals and Growth of Ferritin Crystals (APCF-Crystal_Growth) Advanced Protein Crystallization Facility


id: scientific-research-on-the-international-space-station-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_research_on_the_International_Space_Station-4.md
category: reference
title: Scientific research on the International Space Station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_research_on_the_International_Space_Station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:18.740873+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-research-on-the-international-space-station-20260505-0
summary:
==== Spacecraft systems ==== Boiling eXperiment Facility - Microheater Array Boiling Experiment (BXF-MABE) Boiling eXperiment Facility - Nucleate Pool Boiling eXperiment (BXF-NPBX) Dust and Aerosol Measurement Feasibility Test (DAFT) Delay Tolerant Networking (DTN) Maui Analysis of Upper Atmospheric Injections (MAUI) Multi-User Droplet Combustion Apparatus - Flame Extinguishment Experiment (MDCA-FLEX) Smoke and Aerosol Measurement Experiment (SAME) Space Communications and Navigation Testbed (SCAN_Testbed) Shuttle Exhaust Ion Turbulence Experiments (SEITE) Shuttle Ionospheric Modification with Pulsed Localized Exhaust Experiments (SIMPLEX) Serial Network Flow Monitor (SNFM) ==== Spacecraft and orbital environments ==== Atmospheric Neutral Density Experiment - 2 (ANDE-2) Ram Burn Observations (RAMBO) Space Test Program-H2-Atmospheric Neutral Density Experiment (STP-H2-ANDE) ==== Other experiments ==== DEBris In Orbit Evaluator - 2 (DEBIE-2) EuTEF Thermometer (EuTemp) Earth Viewing Camera (EVC) Activation and Test Downlink of HDTV System (JAXA-HDTV) Particle Flux Demonstrator (Particle_Flux) Tribology Laboratory (TriboLab) === Earth and space science === ==== Earth science ==== Agricultural Camera (AgCam) Crew Earth Observations (CEO) Crew Earth Observations - International Polar Year (CEO-IPY) ISS-RapidScat ==== Space science ==== Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer - 02 (AMS-02) Neutron Star Interior Composition Explorer (NICER) ==== Other monitors and observatories from the field ==== DOSimetry TELescopes (DOSTEL) Flux (Phi) Probe EXperiment - Time resolved Measurement


id: outline-of-space-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_space_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of space science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_space_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:21.073902+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-space-science-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview and topical guide to space science: Space science – field that encompasses all of the scientific disciplines that involve space exploration and study natural phenomena and physical bodies occurring in outer space, such as space medicine and astrobiology. == Branches of space sciences == === Astronomy === See astronomical object for a list of specific types of entities which scientists study. See Earth's location in the universe for an orientation. Subfields of astronomy: Astrophysics – branch of astronomy that deals with the physics of the universe, including the physical properties of celestial objects, as well as their interactions and behavior. Among the objects studied are galaxies, stars, planets, exoplanets, the interstellar medium and the cosmic microwave background; and the properties examined include luminosity, density, temperature, and chemical composition. The subdisciplines of theoretical astrophysics are: Computational astrophysics – The study of astrophysics using computational methods and tools to develop computational models. Plasma astrophysics – studies properties of plasma in outer space. Space physics – study of plasmas as they occur naturally in the Earth's upper atmosphere (aeronomy) and within the Solar System. Solar physics – Sun and its interaction with the remainder of


id: list-of-topics-in-space-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_in_space-0.md
category: reference
title: List of topics in space
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_topics_in_space
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:22.248877+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-topics-in-space-20260505-0
summary:
List of topics in space; topics as related to outer space. Accidents in space Animals in space Architecture in space Batteries in space Christmas in space Corrosion in space Death in space Dogs in space Dust in space Economy in space (Mining in space) Garbage in space Humans in space Hygiene in space Industry in space Interstellar and circumstellar molecules Locomotion in space Medicine in space Mice in space Microorganisms tested in outer space Monkeys and apes in space Music in space Nuclear power in space Neuroscience in space Plants in space Politics of outer space Religion in space Sex in space Solar power in space Solar power in space for Earth Telescopes in space Tourism in space War in space Weapons in space Weather in space Women in space Writing in space == See also == Outer space Spaceflight Space-based radar Space-based solar power Space and survival Space science Space station Space technology


id: index-of-structural-engineering-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_structural_engineering_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of structural engineering articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_structural_engineering_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:23.411682+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-structural-engineering-articles-20260505-0
summary:
This is an alphabetical list of articles pertaining specifically to structural engineering. For a broad overview of engineering, please see List of engineering topics. For biographies please see List of engineers. == A == A-frame – Aerodynamics – Aeroelasticity – Air-supported structure – Airframe – Aluminium – Analytical method – Angular frequency – Angular speed – Architecture – Architectural engineering – Arch – Arch bridge == B == Base isolation – Beam – Beam axle – Bending – Bifurcation theory – Biomechanics – Boat Building – Body-on-frame – Box girder bridge – Box truss – Bridge engineering – Buckling – Building – Building construction – Building engineering == C == Cable – Cable-stayed bridge – Cantilever – Cantilever bridge – Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer – Casing – Casting – Catastrophic failure – Center of mass – Chaos theory – Chassis – Chimneys – Coachwork – Coefficient of thermal expansion – Coil spring – Columns – Composite material – Composite structure – Compression – Compressive stress – Concrete – Concrete cover – Construction – Construction engineering – Construction management – Continuum mechanics – Corrosion – Crane – Creep – Crumple zone – Curvature == D == Dam – Damper – Damping ratio –


id: table-of-historic-and-prehistoric-climate-indicators-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_historic_and_prehistoric_climate_indicators-0.md
category: reference
title: Table of historic and prehistoric climate indicators
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_historic_and_prehistoric_climate_indicators
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:25.720676+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: table-of-historic-and-prehistoric-climate-indicators-20260505-0
summary:
This table is a reference tool for rapidly locating Wikipedia articles on Historic and Prehistoric climate indicators of all types. To Add: Alkenone analysis TEX-86 analysis Nile river flood levels Trace mineral ratios in deltaic sediment Wildlife distribution Pollen analysis Historic storm-related sinkings Sea temperature and atmospheric pressure (ENSO) Scientific meteorological measurements (since 1800s) air temperature air pressure wind speed and direction Ocean currents and marine productivity Flooding and drought observations on land Volcanic activity Elevated charcoal in lake sediments Sand dune activation records Eolian (wind-borne) sediment deposition == See also == == References ==


id: list-of-taxa-named-after-human-genitals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_taxa_named_after_human_genitals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of taxa named after human genitals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_taxa_named_after_human_genitals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:26.861901+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-taxa-named-after-human-genitals-20260505-0
summary:
This a list of species, genera, and other biological taxa named after human genitals. == Epithets == pubescens. The word originates from the Latin pubes, 'adult, full-grown'; "genital area, groin" (e.g., Pubis); 'the down or soft hair which begins to grow on young persons when they come to the age of puberty'. The use of the term in biology to refer to hairiness or soft down is recorded since 1760 for plants and since 1826 for insects. vaginalis. The common specific name is derived from the Latin vagina, originally meaning 'sheath, scabbard, covering; sheath of an ear of grain, hull, husk'. The specific epithet may refer to a sheathed trait or habit of an organism (e.g. Alysicarpus vaginalis), or may refer to resemblance/relation to the vagina (e.g. Gardnerella vaginalis) == Plants == === Families === Orchidaceae. The type genus is Orchis, whose name comes from the Ancient Greek ὄρχις (órkhis), literally meaning 'testicle', because of the shape of the twin tubers in some species of Orchis. === Subtribes === Clitoriinae === Genera === Amorphophallus Clitoria Clitoriopsis Orchis === Species === Alysicarpus vaginalis Baumea vaginalis Chenopodium vulvaria Festuca vaginalis Pontederia vaginalis === Varieties === Capsicum annum var. annum 'penis pepper' ==


id: list-of-tests-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tests-0.md
category: reference
title: List of tests
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tests
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:28.032677+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-tests-20260505-0
summary:
The following is an alphabetized and categorized list of notable tests. == Clinical psychology tests == == Cognitive development tests == == Intelligence tests == Cattell Culture Fair Kohs block Woodcock–Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities Multidimensional Aptitude Battery II Leiter International Performance Scale Miller Analogies Test Otis–Lennon School Ability Test Raven's Progressive Matrices Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales Sternberg Triarchic Abilities Test Turing test Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence Wonderlic Test Iq test Trust metric == Medical tests == == Self tests == == Statistical tests == Ames test Chi-squared test Draize test Dixon's Q test F-test Fisher's exact test GRIM test Kolmogorov–Smirnov test Kuiper's test Likelihood-ratio test Median test Mann–Whitney U test Pearson's chi-squared test Rank product test Shapiro–Wilk test Statistical hypothesis testing Student's t-test Tukey's range test Tukey's test of additivity Welch's t test == Personality tests == == Pure-mathematical tests == == Skills assessment tests == Student assessment test Scantron test Bourdon–Wiersma test Graduate Management Admission Test Graduate Record Examination (GRE) GRE Physics Test HESI exam Japanese-Language Proficiency Test Medical College Admission Test SAT college entrance test Screen test == Language tests == IELTS (International English Language Testing


id: list-of-unexplained-sounds-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unexplained_sounds-0.md
category: reference
title: List of unexplained sounds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unexplained_sounds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:29.201664+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unexplained-sounds-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of sounds which are currently, or were previously, unidentified. All of the NOAA sound files in this article have been sped up by at least a factor of 16 to increase intelligibility by condensing them and raising the frequency from infrasound to a more audible and reproducible range. == Currently unidentified sounds == === The Hum === The Hum is a persistent and invasive low-frequency humming, rumbling, or droning noise audible to many but not all people. Different causes have been attributed, including local mechanical sources, often from industrial plants, as well as manifestations of tinnitus or other biological auditory effects. === Longfellow Boom === The Longfellow Boom is a loud and unexplained phenomenon reported in the Longfellow community of Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States. The booms reportedly generally take place on summer nights, and have been described by residents as "house-shakingly loud" and at lower tone, distinct from a car crash or gunshot. === Skyquakes === Skyquakes or mistpouffers are a sound phenomenon generally occurring near large bodies of water, described as comparable to distant cannon fire or thunder. The sound has been reported around the world, with several cases documented in the 19th century.


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-neuroscience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_neuroscience-0.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in neuroscience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_neuroscience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:30.345875+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-neuroscience-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of notable unsolved problems in neuroscience. A problem is considered unsolved if no answer is known or if there is significant disagreement among experts about a proposed solution. == Consciousness == Consciousness: How can consciousness be defined? What is the neural basis of subjective experience, cognition, wakefulness, alertness, arousal, and attention? Binding problem: How exactly is it that objects, background, and abstract or emotional features are combined into a single experience? What is the neural basis of self? Quantum mind: Do quantum mechanical phenomena, such as entanglement and superposition, play an important part in the brain's function and can it explain critical aspects of consciousness? Is there a "hard problem of consciousness"? If so, how is it solved? Vertiginous question: Why is it that a specific subject of experience is "live" from a given perspective? What, if anything, is the function of consciousness? Problem of mental causation: How exactly do mental states cause intentional actions to happen? What is the nature and mechanism behind near-death experiences? How can death be defined? Can consciousness exist after death? If consciousness is generated by brain activity, then how do some patients with physically deteriorated brains suddenly gain a


id: list-of-vineyard-soil-types-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vineyard_soil_types-0.md
category: reference
title: List of vineyard soil types
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vineyard_soil_types
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:31.491418+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-vineyard-soil-types-20260505-0
summary:
The soil composition of vineyards is one of the most important viticultural considerations when planting grape vines. The soil supports the root structure of the vine and influences the drainage levels and amount of minerals and nutrients that the vine is exposed to. The ideal soil condition for a vine is a layer of thin topsoil and subsoil that sufficiently retains water but also has good drainage so that the roots do not become overly saturated. The ability of the soil to retain heat and/or reflect it back up to the vine is also an important consideration that affects the ripening of the grapes. There are several minerals that are vital to the health of vines that all good vineyard soils have. These include calcium which helps to neutralize the soil pH levels, iron which is essential for photosynthesis, magnesium which is an important component of chlorophyll, nitrogen which is assimilated in the form of nitrates, phosphates which encourages root development, and potassium which improves the vine metabolisms and increases its health for next year's crop. == List of soil terms == Unless otherwise noted the primary reference for this list is Sotheby's Wine Encyclopedia 2005 === A–C === Albariza


id: list-of-vineyard-soil-types-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vineyard_soil_types-1.md
category: reference
title: List of vineyard soil types
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_vineyard_soil_types
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:31.491418+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-vineyard-soil-types-20260505-0
summary:
=== I–Q === Keuper – Soil type consisting of marl and limestone common in Alsace, dating to the Upper Triassic period. Kimmeridgian soil – A gray-colored limestone-based soil originally identified in Kimmeridge, England. Kimmeridgian clay is calcareous clay containing Kimmeridgian limestone. This is the principal soil type of the Loire Valley, Champagne and Burgundy regions. Lignite – Soil type used as fertilizer in Germany and Champagne. It is a brown-colored carbonaceous soil that is intermediate between peat and coal. Limestone – Sediment-based soil consisting of carbonates. The most common colored limestone found in wine-producing area is buff-gray in color (with the exception of white chalk). The water-retention abilities vary by composition, but limestone is consistently alkaline and is generally planted with grapes of high acidity levels. This is the main soil type in the Zinnkoepflé region of Alsace. Llicorella – A soil type found in the Priorat appellation of Spain. The soil is a mix of slate and quartz that dates to the Paleozoic era. The soil is very porous and drains well. Syrah, Grenache and Carignan have done well in this soil type. Loam – Warm, soft, fertile soil composed of roughly equal amounts of silt, sand and clay.


id: list-of-visual-mnemonics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_visual_mnemonics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of visual mnemonics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_visual_mnemonics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:32.675607+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-visual-mnemonics-20260505-0
summary:
Visual mnemonics are a type of mnemonic that work by associating an image with characters or objects whose name sounds like the item that has to be memorized. == Examples == === Digits === Digits can be memorized by their shapes, so that: 0 -looks like an egg, or a ball; 1 -a pencil, or a candle; 2 -a duck, or a swan; 3 -an ear; a pair of pouted lips. 4 -a sail, a yacht; 5 -a key; 6 -a comet; 7 -a knee; 8 -a snowman, or a pair of glasses; 9 -an apostrophe, or comma. === Biochemistry === Biochemical cycles (i.e., the urea cycle or the citric acid cycle) and their metabolites can be represented by means of hands and fingers (visual imagery mnemonics) which are associated to tales (narrative mnemonics). A hand, depending on its characteristics (e.g. having or not having a fingernail or a nail lunula), represents a biochemical structure and its associated chemical term. A visual mnemonic for the drug hydralazine could be represented as "lazy hydra" that is lying on a beach holding a sign "NO more work". "NO" in the above case symbolizes Nitric oxide, which is related to the drug's mechanism


id: list-of-visual-mnemonics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_visual_mnemonics-1.md
category: reference
title: List of visual mnemonics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_visual_mnemonics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:32.675607+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-visual-mnemonics-20260505-0
summary:
==== Other languages ==== A Lithuanian mnemonic is that the waxing moon at its first (lith:priešpilnis) quarter phase looks like a 'p', and the waning moon at its last (lith:delčia) quarter looks like a 'd'. A French mnemonic is that the waxing moon at its first (fr:premier) quarter phase looks like a 'p', and the waning moon at its last (fr:dernier) quarter looks like a 'd'. A more childlike mnemonic explains that the moon is a liar: the waxing moon looks like an upper-case D, which would correspond to the French verb décroître (meaning: to shrink) but since she (the moon) is une menteuse (a liar) she is in fact doing the opposite: growing. The waning moon looks like a(n upper-case) C, corresponding to the word croître (meaning: to grow), but will be a lie and therefore mean that the moon is 'shrinking'. In Germany, the curve of the moon was traditionally compared to the beginning stroke of the handwritten small letters a (Abnehmen = waning) and z (Zunehmen = waxing), but since this really makes sense only when thinking of the obsolete German handwriting it is rapidly falling into disuse. A more modern German version compares the moon to


id: list-of-volunteer-computing-projects-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_volunteer_computing_projects-0.md
category: reference
title: List of volunteer computing projects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_volunteer_computing_projects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:33.883054+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-volunteer-computing-projects-20260505-0
summary:
Volunteer computing projects are a type of distributed computing where volunteers donate computing time to specific causes. The donated computing power comes from idle CPUs and GPUs in personal computers, video game consoles, and Android devices. Each project seeks to utilize the computing power of many internet connected devices to solve problems and perform large scale computational research in a cost-effective manner. == Active projects == == Completed projects == == See also == == References ==


id: the-10-000-year-explosion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_10,000_Year_Explosion-0.md
category: reference
title: The 10,000 Year Explosion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_10,000_Year_Explosion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:35.456972+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-10-000-year-explosion-20260505-0
summary:
The 10,000 Year Explosion: How Civilization Accelerated Human Evolution is a 2009 book by anthropologists Gregory Cochran and Henry Harpending. Starting with their own take on the conventional wisdom that the evolutionary process stopped when modern humans appeared, the authors explain the genetic basis of their view that human evolution is accelerating, illustrating it with some examples. Some reviewers considered that the book raised valuable questions but relied on discredited views. Others criticized it for oversimplifying history and reifying the concept of race. == Opinions in book == Cochran and Harpending put forward the idea that the development of agriculture has caused an enormous increase in the rate of human evolution, including numerous evolutionary adaptations to the different challenges and lifestyles that resulted. Moreover, they argue that these adaptations have varied across different human populations, depending on factors such as when the various groups developed agriculture, and the extent to which they mixed genetically with other population groups. Such changes, they argue, include not just well-known physical and biological adaptations such as skin colour, disease resistance, and lactose tolerance, but also personality and cognitive adaptations that are starting to emerge from genetic research. These may include tendencies towards (for example)


id: the-10-000-year-explosion-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_10,000_Year_Explosion-1.md
category: reference
title: The 10,000 Year Explosion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_10,000_Year_Explosion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:35.456972+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-10-000-year-explosion-20260505-0
summary:
=== Neanderthals === Wolpoff writes that Cochran and Harpending continue to refute conventional wisdom in their discussion of the Neanderthals. For natural selection to have a chance, they argue, there need to be favourable mutations, or favourable combinations of existing alleles such as genes for blue eyes or pale skin. Cochran and Harpending concentrate on the Neolithic farming revolution as the beginning of major population expansions that provided enough mutations to accelerate genetic change. Infectious diseases were another consequence of the early urban populations and soon became a new source of selection pressures. The origins of many recently adapted genes have now been traced to this period, creating effects such as regional differences in skin colour and skeletal gracility. Adaptations may have sacrificed muscle strength for higher intelligence and less aggressive human behaviours. By 5000 years ago, the authors estimate that adaptive alleles were coming into existence at a rate about 100 times faster than during the Pleistocene. This is the ‘‘explosion’’ of the book’s title. Research cited by Cochran and Harpending provides evidence of genetic mixing between modern humans and an ancient Homo lineage such as the Neanderthals. According to Cochran and Harpending, it supports the idea that modern


id: the-10-000-year-explosion-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_10,000_Year_Explosion-2.md
category: reference
title: The 10,000 Year Explosion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_10,000_Year_Explosion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:35.456972+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-10-000-year-explosion-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ashkenazi Jews === The second major argument, which takes up the final chapter, sets out to explain why Ashkenazi Jews have a mean IQ so much higher than that of the population in general, as well as a higher rate of some genetic disorders such as Tay-Sachs disease. This argument had been published previously in an earlier paper. This hypothesis proposes that from A.D. 800 until around 1700, Askhenazi Jews were restricted to professions that required high intelligence, and that this produced a selective pressure in favor of intelligence. When faced with a sudden threat, evolution may favor any change that offers protection, and Cochran and Harpending propose that selection for genes promoting high intelligence thus had the side effect of also selecting for these genetic disorders. The hypothesis has drawn a mixed reaction from scientists, with some arguing the hypothesis is highly implausible, and others regarding it as worth considering. According to cognitive psychologist Steven Pinker, this theory "meets the standards of a good scientific theory, though it is tentative and could turn out to be mistaken." According to the Southern Poverty Law Center, these claims were based on the work of discredited psychologist and antisemitic conspiracy theorist


id: about-time-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/About_Time_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: About Time (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/About_Time_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:36.634694+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: about-time-book-20260505-0
summary:
About Time: Einstein's Unfinished Revolution (ISBN 978-0-684-81822-1), published in 1995, is the second book written by Paul Davies, regarding the subject of time. His first book on time was his The Physics of Time Asymmetry (1977)(ISBN 0-520-02825-2). The intended audience is the general public, rather than science academics. About Time explores selected mysteries of spacetime, following on from Albert Einstein's theory of relativity, which Davies believes does not fully explain time as humans experience it. The author explains Important though Einstein's time turned out to be, it still did not solve "the riddle of time". The book delves into the nature of metaphysics, time, motion and gravity, covering a wide range of aspects surrounding the current cosmological debate, across 283 pages in great detail. It includes an index, a bibliography, and numerous diagrams. == See also == Basic introduction to the mathematics of curved spacetime Sense of time The Mind of God How to Build a Time Machine, 2002 fiction book by the same author == References ==


id: african-genesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_Genesis-0.md
category: reference
title: African Genesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_Genesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:37.826878+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: african-genesis-20260505-0
summary:
African Genesis: A Personal Investigation into the Animal Origins and Nature of Man is a 1961 nonfiction work by the American writer Robert Ardrey. It expounded on the killer ape theory, positing the hypothesis that man evolved on the African continent from carnivorous, predatory ancestors who distinguished themselves from apes by the use of weapons. The work bears on questions of human origins, human nature, and human uniqueness. Although some of his ideas were refuted by later science, it was widely read and continues to inspire significant controversy. African Genesis is the first in Robert Ardrey's Nature of Man Series. It is followed by The Territorial Imperative (1966), The Social Contract (1970), and The Hunting Hypothesis (1976). It was illustrated by Ardrey's wife, the South African actress and illustrator Berdine Ardrey (née Grunewald). == Background == Robert Ardrey, at the time a working playwright and screenwriter, travelled in 1955 to Africa, partly at the behest of Richard Foster Flint, to investigate claims made by Raymond Dart about a specimen of Australopithecus africanus. He met Dart in March 1955. Dart, in his laboratory at Witwatersrand University Medical School, had assembled evidence for a controversial thesis. Among the collection were fossil baboon


id: african-genesis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_Genesis-1.md
category: reference
title: African Genesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_Genesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:37.826878+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: african-genesis-20260505-0
summary:
== Legacy == African Genesis met with massive popular success and widespread recognition. It became an international bestseller and was translated into dozens of languages. In 1962 it was a finalist for the National Book Award in nonfiction. In 1969 Time magazine named African Genesis the most notable nonfiction book of the 1960s. The book has continued to bear on the popular imagination of human nature. The theories of Dart and Ardrey flew in the face of prevailing theories of human origins. At the time of the publication of African Genesis it was generally agreed that human beings evolved from Asian ancestors. Furthermore, it was taken for granted that these ancestors were herbivorous. The idea of an African Genesis of humanity was met with fervent resistance in the scientific community. On a grander scale, Ardrey challenged the reigning methodological assumption of the social sciences, that human behavior was fundamentally distinct from animal behavior. As he put it in his next book, The Territorial Imperative, "The dog barking at you from behind his master's fence acts for a motive indistinguishable from that of his master when the fence was built." Following the publication of African Genesis Ardrey's theories became mired in


id: the-age-of-wonder-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Age_of_Wonder-0.md
category: reference
title: The Age of Wonder
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Age_of_Wonder
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:39.044804+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-age-of-wonder-20260505-0
summary:
The Age of Wonder: How the Romantic Generation Discovered the Beauty and Terror of Science is a 2008 popular biography book about the history of science written by Richard Holmes. In it, the author describes the scientific discoveries of the polymaths of the late eighteenth century and how this period formed the basis for modern scientific discoveries. Holmes, a literary biographer, also looks at the influence of science on the arts in the Romantic era. The book won the 2009 Royal Society Prize for Science Books, the 2009 National Book Critics Circle Award for General Nonfiction, and the 2010 National Academies Communication Award. == Overview == Holmes focuses particularly on the lives and works of Sir Joseph Banks, the astronomers William and Caroline Herschel, and chemist Humphry Davy. Other profiles include African explorer Mungo Park. There is a chapter on the early history of ballooning including pioneers Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier, Vincent Lunardi, Jean-Pierre Blanchard and James Sadler. He also describes the relationships between the scientists of that time, and the early days of the Royal Society. A recurring theme of the book is the relation between science and poetry in the Romantic era. John Keats, in “On First Looking


id: aid-on-the-edge-of-chaos-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aid_on_the_Edge_of_Chaos-0.md
category: reference
title: Aid on the Edge of Chaos
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aid_on_the_Edge_of_Chaos
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:40.174492+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aid-on-the-edge-of-chaos-20260505-0
summary:
Aid on the Edge of Chaos is a 2013 book on applying science and innovation to international development, published by Oxford University Press and written by global development and humanitarian expert Ben Ramalingam. == Synopsis == The book focuses on the need to improve foreign aid and the value of complex systems science and research for how global international aid efforts should be designed, implemented and evaluated. == Critical reception and influence == Described in a leading development journal as 'one of the most lauded contributions to recent mainstream development thinking', Aid on the Edge of Chaos has been endorsed by many top scientists and international leaders, including four Nobel Laureates in Medicine, Economics and Chemistry and the heads of Red Cross and United Nations as well as many NGO leaders. It has been positively reviewed by various press outlets, including The Economist, the Financial Times, The Guardian, New Scientist, Nature, Lancet, Harvard Business Review and the British Medical Journal. It was also the focus of an interview feature with the author in Huffington Post. Aid on the Edge of Chaos was the subject of a public lecture by Ben Ramalingam at the Royal Society of Arts, London, in December


id: altered-traits-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altered_Traits-0.md
category: reference
title: Altered Traits
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altered_Traits
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:41.339534+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: altered-traits-20260505-0
summary:
Altered Traits: Science Reveals How Meditation Changes Your Mind, Brain, and Body, published in Great Britain as 'The Science of Meditation: How to Change Your Brain, Mind and Body', is a 2017 book by science journalist Daniel Goleman and neuroscientist Richard Davidson. The book discusses research on meditation. For the book, the authors conducted a literature review of over 6,000 scientific studies on meditation, and selected the 60 that they believed met the highest methodological standards. == Summary == The authors write that meditation can be practised at two levels: the "deep path" of intensive meditative discipline aiming for total self-transformation, and the "wide path" of less intensive practice that can reach a larger number of people. The book discusses both these levels, with findings on the highest-level meditators toward the end of the book. After attending meditation retreats in Asia and while graduate students together at Harvard in the 1970s, Goleman and Davidson formulated the hypothesis that "the after is the before for the next during"—meaning the changes that endure after the end of a meditation session contribute to a more equanimous starting point for the next meditation session. Such lasting psychological changes, or altered traits, are the focus


id: the-ambidextrous-universe-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ambidextrous_Universe-0.md
category: reference
title: The Ambidextrous Universe
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ambidextrous_Universe
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:42.499755+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-ambidextrous-universe-20260505-0
summary:
The Ambidextrous Universe is a popular science book by Martin Gardner, covering aspects of symmetry and asymmetry in human culture, science and the wider universe. It culminates in a discussion of whether nature's conservation of parity (the symmetry of mirrored quantum systems) is ever violated, which had been proven experimentally in 1956. The book was originally published in 1964 with the subtitle Left, Right, and the Fall of Parity, with a revised version following in 1969. A second edition was released in 1979 with the new subtitle Mirror Asymmetry and Time-Reversed Worlds. The third edition was released in 1990 under the title The New Ambidextrous Universe: Symmetry and Asymmetry from Mirror Reflections to Superstrings; this was re-released with minor revisions in 2005. == Content == The book begins with the subject of mirror reflection, and from there passes through symmetry in geometry, poetry, art, music, galaxies, stars, planets and living organisms. It then moves down into the molecular scale and looks at how symmetry and asymmetry have evolved from the beginning of life on Earth. There is a chapter on carbon and its versatility and on chirality in biochemistry. The last several chapters deal with a conundrum called the Ozma


id: the-ancient-engineers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ancient_Engineers-0.md
category: reference
title: The Ancient Engineers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ancient_Engineers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:43.652582+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-ancient-engineers-20260505-0
summary:
The Ancient Engineers is a 1963 science book by L. Sprague de Camp, one of his most popular works. It was first published by Doubleday and has been reprinted numerous times by other publishers. Translations into German and Polish have also been published. Portions of the work had previously appeared as articles in the magazines Fate, Isis and Science Digest. == Contents == The work is an examination of engineering through the ages from 3000 BC to 1519 AD, from the monumental works of the Egyptians through the speculative inventions of Leonardo da Vinci. The technological legacies of Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, Rome, China, the medieval Arabs and Europeans, and Renaissance Europe, are all covered in separate sections, focusing particularly on architectural, military and civil engineering. == Review == The following review is often quoted in reference to this book: Mr. de Camp has the trick of being able to show technology engaging in feats as full of derring-do as those of Hannibal's army. History as it should be told. —Isaac Asimov, The New York Times Book Review, 15 May 1963 == See also == Lest Darkness Fall == Notes == == External links == The Ancient Engineers title listing at


id: antarctic-conquest-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarctic_Conquest-0.md
category: reference
title: Antarctic Conquest
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarctic_Conquest
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:44.841619+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: antarctic-conquest-20260505-0
summary:
Antarctic Conquest: the Story of the Ronne Expedition 1946-1948 is a 1949 science book by Norwegian-American Antarctic explorer Finn Ronne and science fiction writer L. Sprague de Camp, published in hardcover by G. P. Putnam's Sons. The role of de Camp, who was commissioned as a ghost writer to recast Ronne's manuscript into publishable form, is uncredited. Ronne's working title was reportedly "Conquering the Antarctic". == Summary == The book relates the story of the Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition, which researched the area surrounding the head of the Weddell Sea in Antarctica from 1947–1948. == Relationship to other works == De Camp's work with Ronne is reflected in two of his contemporary Viagens Interplanetarias science fiction stories set on the fictional planet Krishna. One, the short story "Calories," adopts an Antarctic setting not utilized in any of the series's other stories; in the other, the novel The Hand of Zei, the protagonist adopts the alias of an inhabitant of the planet's Antarctic and is, like de Camp, employed as a ghostwriter for his explorer boss. == Notes == == External links == Book review in the Geographical Review, v. 40, no. 1 (Jan. 1950), pp. 154-155


id: the-ape-man-within-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ape-Man_Within-0.md
category: reference
title: The Ape-Man Within
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ape-Man_Within
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:47.161550+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-ape-man-within-20260505-0
summary:
The Ape-Man Within is a 1995 science book by L. Sprague de Camp, published in hardcover by Prometheus Books. == Summary == The book undertakes to demonstrate how humankind's self-inflicted problems are rooted in its evolutionary past, with primitive survival traits appropriate to ancestral primates who were organized in small, foraging bands still manifesting in modern societies as competitive, adversarial behavior. == Contents == 1. Darwinian Man 2. Our Handy Kin 3. The Noble Savage 4. The Breeds of Man 5. The Phantom Aryans 6. Race and Power 7. Goat Island 8. What Makes Us Tick? 9. "And Hate Alone Is True" 10. Conclusions Notes Bibliography == Reception == De Camp's approach to his subject has been criticized for oversimplification and inaccuracy in matters of detail. == Notes == == External links == "The Ape-Man Within by L. Sprague de Camp – Book Review" - a positive book review by Tudor Vieru "Darwinism made too simple" - a negative book review by Jeffrey McKee


id: apollo-s-arrow-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo's_Arrow-0.md
category: reference
title: Apollo's Arrow
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo's_Arrow
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:48.311236+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: apollo-s-arrow-20260505-0
summary:
Apollo’s Arrow: The Science of Prediction and the Future of Everything is a non-fiction book about prediction written by Canadian author and mathematician David Orrell. The book was initially published in Canada by HarperCollins in 2007, and was a national bestseller. It was published in the United States as The Future of Everything: The Science of Prediction, and translated versions were also published in Japan, South Korea and China. The book was taught as part of a university course in “Forecasting via Mathematical Modeling” at Gustavus Adolphus College in 2009. == Summary == In this book, Orrell explains the science of prediction to a general audience. The book begins with a general history of prediction from the Delphic oracle to the present day. The next part considers three different areas of prediction in detail: weather, health and economics. It argues that these are all examples of complex systems that cannot be reduced to equations. As mathematical models become more refined, the number of unknown parameters tends to explode. At the same time, networks of interlocking feedback loops make the models unstable. According to Orrell, the resulting model error (rather than e.g. the butterfly effect) is the main reason why forecasts


id: bad-pharma-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bad_Pharma-0.md
category: reference
title: Bad Pharma
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bad_Pharma
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:59.702625+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bad-pharma-20260505-0
summary:
Bad Pharma: How Drug Companies Mislead Doctors and Harm Patients is a book by the British physician and academic Ben Goldacre about the pharmaceutical industry, its relationship with the medical profession, and the extent to which it controls academic research into its own products. It was published in the UK in September 2012 by the Fourth Estate imprint of HarperCollins, and in the United States in February 2013 by Faber and Faber. Goldacre argues in the book that "the whole edifice of medicine is broken", because the evidence on which it is based is systematically distorted by the pharmaceutical industry. He writes that the industry finances most of the clinical trials into its own products and much of doctors' continuing education, that clinical trials are often conducted on small groups of unrepresentative subjects and negative data is routinely withheld, and that apparently independent academic papers may be planned and even ghostwritten by pharmaceutical companies or their contractors, without disclosure. Describing the situation as a "murderous disaster", he makes suggestions for action by patients' groups, physicians, academics and the industry itself. Responding to the book's publication, the Association of the British Pharmaceutical Industry issued a statement in 2012 arguing that the


id: bad-pharma-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bad_Pharma-1.md
category: reference
title: Bad Pharma
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bad_Pharma
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:59.702625+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bad-pharma-20260505-0
summary:
=== Chapter 2: "Where Do New Drugs Come From?" === In the second chapter, the book describes the process as new drugs move from animal testing through phase 1 (first-in-man study), phase 2, and phase 3 clinical trials. Phase 1 participants are referred to as volunteers, but in the US are paid $200–$400 per day, and because studies can last several weeks and subjects may volunteer several times a year, earning potential becomes the main reason for participation. Participants are usually taken from the poorest groups in society, and outsourcing increasingly means that trials may be conducted in countries with low wages by contract research organizations (CROs). The rate of growth for clinical trials in India is 20 percent a year, in Argentina 27 percent, and in China 47 percent, while trials in the UK have fallen by 10 percent a year and in the US by six percent. The shift to outsourcing raises issues about data integrity, regulatory oversight, language difficulties, the meaning of informed consent among a much poorer population, the standards of clinical care, the extent to which corruption may be regarded as routine in certain countries, and the ethical problem of raising a population's expectations for


id: bad-pharma-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bad_Pharma-2.md
category: reference
title: Bad Pharma
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bad_Pharma
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:59.702625+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bad-pharma-20260505-0
summary:
=== Chapter 6: "Marketing" === In the final chapter, Goldacre looks at how doctors are persuaded to prescribe "me-too drugs," brand-name drugs that are no more effective than significantly cheaper off-patent ones. He cites as examples the statins atorvastatin (Lipitor, made by Pfizer) and simvastatin (Zocor), which he writes seem to be equally effective, or at least there is no evidence to suggest otherwise. Simvastatin came off patent several years ago, yet there are still three million prescriptions a year in the UK for atorvastatin, costing the National Health Service (NHS) an annual £165 million extra. He addresses the issue of medicalization of certain conditions (or, as he argues, of personhood), whereby pharmaceutical companies "widen the boundaries of diagnosis" before offering solutions. Female sexual dysfunction was highlighted in 1999 by a study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association, which alleged that 43 percent of women were suffering from it. After the article appeared, the New York Times wrote that two of its three authors had worked as consultants for Pfizer, which at the time was preparing to launch UK-414,495, known as female Viagra. The journal's editor said that the failure to disclose the relationship with Pfizer was


id: bad-pharma-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bad_Pharma-3.md
category: reference
title: Bad Pharma
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bad_Pharma
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:16:59.702625+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bad-pharma-20260505-0
summary:
== Reception == The book was generally well received. The Economist described it as "slightly technical, eminently readable, consistently shocking, occasionally hectoring and unapologetically polemical". Helen Lewis in the New Statesman called it an important book, while Luisa Dillner, writing in the Guardian, described it as a "thorough piece of investigative medical journalism". Andrew Jack wrote in the Financial Times that Goldacre is "at his best in methodically dissecting poor clinical trials. ... He is less strong in explaining the complex background reality, such as the general constraints and individual slips of regulators and pharma companies' employees." Jack also argued that the book failed to reflect how many lives have been improved by the current system, for example with new treatments for HIV, rheumatoid arthritis and cancer. Max Pemberton, a psychiatrist, wrote in the Daily Telegraph that "this is a book to make you enraged ... because it's about how big business puts profits over patient welfare, allows people to die because they don't want to disclose damning research evidence, and the tricks they play to make sure doctors do not have all the evidence when it comes to appraising whether a drug really works or not." The Association of


id: the-beauty-of-fractals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beauty_of_Fractals-0.md
category: reference
title: The Beauty of Fractals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beauty_of_Fractals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:00.877624+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-beauty-of-fractals-20260505-0
summary:
The Beauty of Fractals is a 1986 book by Heinz-Otto Peitgen and Peter Richter which publicises the fields of complex dynamics, chaos theory and the concept of fractals. It is lavishly illustrated and as a mathematics book became an unusual success. The book includes a total of 184 illustrations, including 88 full-colour pictures of Julia sets. Although the format suggests a coffee table book, the discussion of the background of the presented images addresses some sophisticated mathematics which would not be found in popular science books. In 1987 the book won an Award for distinguished technical communication. == Summary == The book starts with a general introduction to Complex Dynamics, Chaos and fractals. In particular the Feigenbaum scenario and the relation to Julia sets and the Mandelbrot set is discussed. The following special sections provide in depth detail for the shown images: Verhulst Dynamics, Julia Sets and Their Computergraphical Generation, Sullivan's Classification of Critical Points, The Mandelbrot Set, External Angles and Hubbard Trees, Newton's Method for Complex Polynomials: Cayley's Problem, Newtons's Method for Real Equations, A Discrete Volterra-Lotka System, Yang-Lee Zeros, Renormalization (Magnetism and Complex Boundaries). The book also includes invited Contributions by Benoît Mandelbrot, Adrien Douady, Gert Eilenberger and


id: bending-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bending_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Bending Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bending_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:02.120509+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bending-science-20260505-0
summary:
Bending Science: How special interests corrupt public health research is a 2008 book by Thomas O. McGarity and Wendy E. Wagner, published by Harvard University Press. Bending Science explores the ways that science is manipulated in the process of making public policy and the law. It has been called a "fascinating and troubling investigation." The authors present a collection of case studies, undertaken largely by industry and designed to distort the scientific process. Thomas McGarity and Wendy Wagner are both University of Texas law professors. == See also == List of books about the politics of science == References ==


id: the-big-splash-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Splash_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: The Big Splash (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Big_Splash_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:04.759921+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-big-splash-book-20260505-0
summary:
The Big Splash: A Scientific Discovery That Revolutionizes the Way We View the Origin of Life, the Water We Drink, the Death of the Dinosaurs, the Creation of the Oceans, the Nature of the Cosmos, and the Very Future of the Earth Itself is a 1990 book written by Louis A. Frank with Patrick Huyghe. In the book, Frank claims to have found scientific evidence that every year, millions of small comets (made of ice and water) strike the Earth's atmosphere, and that these comets created Earth's lakes, rivers and oceans. While many scientists disputed Frank's hypothesis, he continued to argue that there are tests which can be performed which would either rule it out or confirm it. == Authors == Louis A. Frank was a Carver/James A. Van Allen Professor of Physics at the University of Iowa, and principal investigator for the auroral imaging instruments for NASA's Dynamics Explorer mission. Patrick Huyghe is a science writer. == References == == External links == Book Review: Overbye, Dennis (November 11, 1990). "IN SHORT: NONFICTION - THE BIG SPLASH: ..." The New York Times. Retrieved 2007-07-28. Excerpt: "The Original Discovery". Small Comets. University of Iowa. Retrieved 2007-07-28.


id: the-billion-dollar-molecule-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Billion-Dollar_Molecule-0.md
category: reference
title: The Billion-Dollar Molecule
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Billion-Dollar_Molecule
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:05.911040+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-billion-dollar-molecule-20260505-0
summary:
The Billion-Dollar Molecule is a book by journalist Barry Werth about the founding and early research efforts of the American biotechnology company Vertex Pharmaceuticals, which was founded in 1989 by Joshua Boger and was among the first biotechnology companies to adopt an explicit strategy of rational drug design as opposed to techniques based on combinatorial chemistry. This book is notable as an inside look at a biotechnology company, and the stresses and marketing pressures on funding research into drug design. This book is a mixture of finance and technology. In February, 2014, Barry Werth published a follow-on book, The Antidote, that looks at Vertex 20 years later after his original effort. == References ==


id: binas-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binas_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Binas (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binas_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:07.119306+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: binas-book-20260505-0
summary:
The Binas (Often written as BiNaS or BINAS) is a Dutch science reference work (a handbook) for the higher levels of secondary school, consisting largely of tables and formulas. The name stands for biologie, natuurkunde, scheikunde (biology, physics, chemistry). It is compiled by NVON (Dutch Association for Education in the Natural Sciences) and has been published by Noordhoff Uitgevers since it became the standard reference work allowed at the central examinations in 1975. An English version of the Binas is also available. == Contents == The Binas is divided into five chapters: general, physics, mathematics, chemistry, and biology. Each chapter consists of multiple tables, each with specific information. These tables can be short or can span up to a few pages. To find information, students can use the alphabetical register in the back. The Binas does not make use of page numbers, but instead the register refers you to a table number. General. This chapter contains an extensive overview of units of measurement and quantities in the International System of units. This chapter continues in the back of the Binas with safety and environment. Physics. The contents of this chapter include physical constants, physical properties of materials, and isotopes. Additionally,


id: biochemical-predestination-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemical_Predestination-0.md
category: reference
title: Biochemical Predestination
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemical_Predestination
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:08.294577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biochemical-predestination-20260505-0
summary:
Biochemical Predestination is a 1969 book by Dean H. Kenyon and Gary Steinman which argued in support of biochemical evolution. In the book, Kenyon and Steinman conclude that "Life might have been biochemically predestined by the properties of attraction that exist between its chemical parts, especially between amino acids in proteins." They argued that life originated with the chemical properties of amino acids causing them to be attracted to each other, forming long protein chains, most important in every living cell. Kenyon believed that proteins were directly formed by attraction between amino acids without DNA coding, and that these were derivatives from non-living raw chemicals in a conducive environment. In 1976 Kenyon was persuaded by the young Earth creationist arguments of A. E. Wilder-Smith. In the 1982 foreword he wrote to What Is Creation Science? by Henry M. Morris and Gary Parker, Kenyon said that he no longer accepted the pro-evolution arguments in Biochemical Predestination. At the Edwards v. Aguillard trial he provided an affidavit in support of creation science and noted the book as one of his publications. In 1989 Kenyon became a co-author of Of Pandas and People which rebranded creation science as intelligent design. == Analysis ==


id: biological-physics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_Physics-0.md
category: reference
title: Biological Physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_Physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:09.469133+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: biological-physics-20260505-0
summary:
Biological Physics: Energy, Information, Life: With new art by David Goodsell is a book by Philip Nelson, illustrated by David Goodsell. The fifth printing was published by W. H. Freeman in late 2013. It is a work on biology with an emphasis on the application of physical principles. == References == Altman, Russ B. (June 1, 2005), "Teaching Biology and Physics Together (Book Review: Biological Physics: Energy, Information, Life)", Biomedical Computation Review: 30. Dobson, Christopher M. (November 25, 2004), "Crossing the boundary (Review of Biological Physics)", Nature, 432 (7016): 444–445, Bibcode:2004Natur.432..444D, doi:10.1038/432444a. Doniach, Sebastian (November 2004), "Biological Physics: Energy, Information, Life", Books, Physics Today, 57 (11): 63–64, Bibcode:2004PhT....57k..63N, doi:10.1063/1.1839381 Hagen, Stephen J. (2004), "Post-Use Review. Biological Physics: Energy, Information, Life", American Journal of Physics, 72 (10): 1359, Bibcode:2004AmJPh..72.1359N, doi:10.1119/1.1783904.


id: book-of-vermilion-fish-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Vermilion_Fish-0.md
category: reference
title: Book of Vermilion Fish
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Vermilion_Fish
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:10.640644+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: book-of-vermilion-fish-20260505-0
summary:
Book of Vermilion Fish (simplified Chinese: 朱砂鱼谱; traditional Chinese: 硃砂魚譜; pinyin: Zhūshāyú pǔ; Wade–Giles: Chu-sha-yü-p'u) is the first monograph on goldfish in the world, written by Chinese writer Zhang Qiande (simplified Chinese: 张谦德; traditional Chinese: 張謙德; pinyin: Zhāng Qiāndé; Wade–Giles: Chang Ch'ien-te) (1577－1643) in 1596 during the Ming dynasty. == See also == Fishkeeping == References == A. C. Moule: A Version of the Book of Vermilion Fish. In T'oung Pao. Second Series, Vol. 39, Livr. 1/3 (1950), pp. 1–82.


id: a-briefer-history-of-time-schulman-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Briefer_History_of_Time_(Schulman_book)-0.md
category: reference
title: A Briefer History of Time (Schulman book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Briefer_History_of_Time_(Schulman_book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:11.836229+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: a-briefer-history-of-time-schulman-book-20260505-0
summary:
A Briefer History of Time is a science humor book by American astronomer Eric Schulman. In it, Schulman presents humorous summaries of what he claims are the fifty-three most important events since the beginning of time. The title and cover are a parody of Stephen Hawking's book A Brief History of Time. Coincidentally, Hawking later wrote a "sequel" entitled A Briefer History of Time. Hawking's publisher Bantam Books was aware that the title had already been used in a popular science book, but proceeded anyway, stating, "The other book was published six years ago, and Professor Hawking is an international figure." In 2004, the author released the book under a creative commons license, CC BY-NC-ND 1.0, as a free download on his website. == Description == Schulman's book is intended to be both humorous and educational. It explores why, even though the Universe is expanding, finding a parking space does not get any easier. Furthermore, the book contains a pulp version of the origin of life ("It was a dark and stormy night. In the shallow tide pool, a nucleic acid base collided with a sugar molecule. An amino acid sank beneath the murky depths . . . ."). ==


id: broca-s-brain-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broca's_Brain-0.md
category: reference
title: Broca's Brain
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broca's_Brain
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:13.002047+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: broca-s-brain-20260505-0
summary:
Broca's Brain: Reflections on the Romance of Science is a 1979 book by the astrophysicist Carl Sagan. Its chapters were originally articles published between 1974 and 1979 in various magazines, including The Atlantic Monthly, The New Republic, Physics Today, Playboy, and Scientific American. In the introduction, Sagan wrote: As long as there have been human beings, we have posed the deep and fundamental questions. ... If we do not destroy ourselves, most of us will be around for the answers. ... By far the most exciting, satisfying and exhilarating time to be alive is the time in which we pass from ignorance to knowledge on these fundamental issues. == Title == The title essay is named in honor of the French physician, anatomist and anthropologist Paul Broca (1824–1880). He is best known for his discovery that different functions are assigned to different parts of the brain. He believed that by studying the brains of cadavers and correlating the known experiences of the former owners of the organs, human behavior could eventually be discovered and understood. To that end, he saved hundreds of human brains in jars of formalin; among the collection is his own brain. When Sagan finds it in


id: bully-for-brontosaurus-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bully_for_Brontosaurus-0.md
category: reference
title: Bully for Brontosaurus
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bully_for_Brontosaurus
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:14.180307+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bully-for-brontosaurus-20260505-0
summary:
Bully for Brontosaurus (1991) is the fifth volume of collected essays by the Harvard paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould. The essays were culled from his monthly column "This View of Life" in Natural History magazine, to which Gould contributed for 27 years. The book deals, in typically discursive fashion, with themes familiar to Gould's writing: evolution and its teaching, science biography, and probabilities. The title essay, "Bully for Brontosaurus", discusses the theory and history of taxonomy by examining the debate over whether Brontosaurus should be labelled Apatosaurus. In "Justice Scalia's Misunderstanding", Gould dissects and decisively rejects Antonin Scalia's dissent in the United States Supreme Court case Edwards v. Aguillard that overturned the last creationist statute in the country. Gould claimed his favourite essay to be "In a Jumbled Drawer" which discusses the debate between Nathaniel Shaler and William James over whether the improbability of our having evolved necessitates divine intervention (Gould, like James, argues no); the essay includes a letter from former President Jimmy Carter as a postscript, which discusses the issue. The essay "Male Nipples and Clitoral Ripples" dealt with the issue of adaptive arguments. It derives from some work by Elisabeth Lloyd, whose subsequent 2005 book was dedicated to


id: the-butchering-art-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Butchering_Art-0.md
category: reference
title: The Butchering Art
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Butchering_Art
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:15.388783+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-butchering-art-20260505-0
summary:
The Butchering Art: Joseph Lister's Quest to Transform the Grisly World of Victorian Medicine is a 2017 historical nonfiction book by Lindsey Fitzharris that discusses the evolution of Victorian-era medicine between the 1840s and 1870s, along with how surgeon Joseph Lister revolutionized the practice of surgery to reduce the extremely high death rates of the time period. Published by Farrar, Straus and Giroux on October 17, 2017, the book includes graphic descriptions of operating theaters and the unclean conditions of hospitals and other facilities at the time. The book was given the 2018 PEN/E. O. Wilson Literary Science Writing Award and was shortlisted for both the 2018 Wellcome Book Prize and the 2018 Wolfson History Prize. == Content == The book is split into a prologue, eleven chapters, and an epilogue. The prologue discusses a general overview of the time period as an "age of agony" that was nearing its end thanks to the emergence of Joseph Lister. Each subsequent chapter covers an ongoing history of Lister's life from childhood onward, with vignettes interspersed with other events and accounts of the medical profession during the time period. The coverage of Lister's life is largely based on Fitzharris' use of his


id: the-canon-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Canon_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: The Canon (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Canon_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:16.567452+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-canon-book-20260505-0
summary:
The Canon: A Whirligig Tour of the Beautiful Basics of Science is a book written by American science author Natalie Angier. == Overview == The Canon presents a summary of some of the different areas of science, as well as extensive descriptions of, and interviews with, contemporary scientists who work in these fields. Angier's tenet is that an understanding of the basics of major areas of science can assist with providing a means by which to understand current scientific issues, and that this process should be fun. In her Introduction, Angier writes: Of course you should know about science, for the same reason Dr. Seuss counsels his readers to sing with a Ying or play Ring the Gack: These things are fun, and fun is good. Angier included quotes from the scientists she interviewed throughout her descriptions of different scientific topics in an attempt to show how scientists experience and think about their work, and why they do it. == Scientists interviewed == To obtain material for The Canon, Angier interviewed a number of scientists, professors, and other science professionals, and incorporated their stories and quotes into her work. She asked them questions such as, "What does it mean to


id: the-collapse-of-chaos-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Collapse_of_Chaos-0.md
category: reference
title: The Collapse of Chaos
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Collapse_of_Chaos
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:17.751962+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-collapse-of-chaos-20260505-0
summary:
The Collapse of Chaos: Discovering Simplicity in a Complex World (1994) is a book about complexity theory and the nature of scientific explanation written by biologist Jack Cohen and mathematician Ian Stewart. In this book Cohen and Stewart give their ideas on chaos theory, particularly on how the simple leads to the complex, and conversely, how the complex leads to the simple, and argue for a need for contextual explanation in science as a complement to reduction. This book dovetails with other books written by the Cohen-Stewart team, particularly Figments of Reality. As with other Cohen-Stewart books, topics are illustrated with humorous science fiction snippets dealing with a fictional alien intelligence, the Zarathustrians, whom Cohen and Stewart use as metaphors of the human mind itself. == Reception == Next Generation commented, "Although the book assumes you have zero knowledge of science (and thus is a little patronizing in the early chapters), it presents the concepts of Complexity Theory as well as anything we've seen." === Additional reviews === Casti, John L. (21 July 1994). "Why is anything ever simple?" (PDF). Nature. 370 (6486): 189. Bibcode:1994Natur.370..189C. doi:10.1038/370189a0. S2CID 4317485. Regis, Ed (12 June 1994). "The World Made Easy". The New York


id: the-computational-brain-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Computational_Brain-0.md
category: reference
title: The Computational Brain
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Computational_Brain
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:18.928403+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-computational-brain-20260505-0
summary:
The Computational Brain is a book by Patricia Churchland and Terrence J. Sejnowski and published in 1992 by The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, ISBN 0-262-03188-4. It has cover blurbs by Karl Pribram, Francis Crick, and Carver Mead. == References ==


id: cosmic-jackpot-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_Jackpot-0.md
category: reference
title: Cosmic Jackpot
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_Jackpot
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:21.271097+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cosmic-jackpot-20260505-0
summary:
Cosmic Jackpot, also published under the title The Goldilocks Enigma: Why is the Universe Just Right for Life?, is a 2007 non-fiction book by physicist and cosmologist Paul Davies, describing the idea of a fine-tuned universe. == The Enigma == In Cosmic Jackpot, Davies argues that certain universal fundamental physical constants are precisely adjusted to make life in the Universe possible: that we have, in a sense, won a "cosmic jackpot," and that conditions are "just right" for life, as in The Story of the Three Bears. As Davies writes elsewhere, "There is now broad agreement among physicists and cosmologists that the universe is in several respects 'fine-tuned' for life." After explaining this enigma, Davies discusses possible solutions, such as the anthropic principle, the idea of a multiverse which contains many different universes (including our "just right" one), and the idea of intelligent design. == The Multiverse == Davies also discusses a number of other ideas connected with the "multiverse." Much like a pencil falling to the ground from its tip in a trade off of symmetry for stability, Davies writes that the Big Bang could have established a complex but stable universe (or multiverse) from symmetry breaking as the


id: cosmos-humboldt-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmos_(Humboldt_book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Cosmos (Humboldt book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmos_(Humboldt_book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:22.423000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cosmos-humboldt-book-20260505-0
summary:
Cosmos: A Sketch of a Physical Description of the Universe (in German Kosmos – Entwurf einer physischen Weltbeschreibung) is an influential treatise on science and nature written by the German scientist and explorer Alexander von Humboldt. It began as a lecture series delivered by Humboldt at the University of Berlin, and was published in five volumes between 1845 and 1862 (the fifth was posthumous and completed based on Humboldt's notes). In the first volume, Humboldt paints a general "portrait of nature", describing the physical nature of outer space and the Earth. In the second volume he describes the history of science. Widely read by academics and laymen, Cosmos applies the ancient Greek view of the orderliness of the cosmos (the harmony of the universe) to the Earth, suggesting that universal laws apply as well to the apparent chaos of the terrestrial world and that contemplation of nature can yield an awareness of its wholeness and coherence. Humboldt embraced the subjectivity of the observer and "thus ran exactly counter to the developing ideology of science, the objectivity which sought to purify science by removing subjectivity altogether". Cosmos was influenced by Humboldt's travels and studies, but mainly by his journey throughout the


id: cosmos-humboldt-book-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmos_(Humboldt_book)-1.md
category: reference
title: Cosmos (Humboldt book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmos_(Humboldt_book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:22.423000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cosmos-humboldt-book-20260505-0
summary:
== Publication == In 1828 after the Berlin lectures, Humboldt began formulating his vision in writing. His factual text, heavily loaded with footnotes and references, was sent in proof sheets to all the various specialists for comments and corrections before publication. In this way, he aimed to ensure that what he wrote was both accurate and up-to-date. He continually looked to his friend and literary advisor Varnhagen von Ense for advice in the matter of his style of writing. In total Cosmos took twenty-five years to write. Humboldt felt as if publishing Cosmos was a race against death. The first volume was published in 1845 when he was seventy-six, the second when he was seventy-eight, the third when he was eighty-one, and the fourth when he was eighty-nine. The fifth volume, however, was only half-written when Humboldt died in 1859 and had to be completed from his notes and provided with an index over a thousand pages long. == Content == Humboldt viewed the world as what the ancient Greeks called a kosmos – “a beautifully ordered and harmonious system” – and coined the modern word “cosmos” to use as the title of his final work. This title allowed him


id: cosmos-humboldt-book-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmos_(Humboldt_book)-2.md
category: reference
title: Cosmos (Humboldt book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmos_(Humboldt_book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:22.423000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cosmos-humboldt-book-20260505-0
summary:
Humboldt's Cosmos had a significant impact on scientific progress, as well as various scientists and authors throughout Europe and America. Humboldt's work gave a strong impetus to scientific exploration throughout the nineteenth century, inspiring many, including Charles Darwin, who brought some of Humboldt's earlier writings with him on his voyage as the naturalist aboard the Beagle in the 1830s. Darwin called Humboldt "the greatest scientific traveler who ever lived." Cosmos influenced several American writers and artists, including Edgar Allan Poe, Walt Whitman, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Frederic Edwin Church. Emerson read Humboldt's work throughout his life, and for him, Cosmos capped Humboldt's role as a scientific revolutionary. Edgar Allan Poe was also an admirer of Humboldt, even dedicating his last major work, Eureka: A Prose Poem, to Humboldt. Humboldt's attempt to unify the sciences was a major inspiration for Poe's work. Walt Whitman was said to have kept a copy of Cosmos on his desk for inspiration as he wrote Leaves of Grass, and Henry David Thoreau's Walden, like Eureka, was a response to Humboldt's ideas. Following the itinerary of Humboldt's expeditions to Colombia and Ecuador, Church found subject matter for some of his most monumental landscape paintings, including The


id: current-protocols-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current_Protocols-0.md
category: reference
title: Current Protocols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Current_Protocols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:23.620621+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: current-protocols-20260505-0
summary:
Current Protocols is a series of laboratory manuals for life scientists. The first title, Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, was established in 1987 by the founding editors Frederick M. Ausubel, Roger Brent, Robert Kingston, David Moore, Jon Seidman, Kevin Struhl, and John A. Smith of the Massachusetts General Hospital Department of Molecular Biology and the Harvard Medical School Departments of Genetics and Biological Chemistry, and Sarah Greene of Greene Publishing Associates The Current Protocols series entered into a partnership with Wiley-Interscience, John Wiley and Sons, was acquired by Wiley in 1995, and continued to introduce additional titles. Scientists contribute methods that are peer-reviewed by one of 18 editorial boards. The core content of each title is updated quarterly, and new material is added. In 2009, the Current Protocols website was launched, with online versions of all of the texts, research tools, video protocols, and a blog. Several Current Protocols titles are indexed in MEDLINE and searchable by PubMed: CP Molecular Biology, CP Immunology, CP Cell Biology, CP Protein Science, CP Microbiology. == Titles == As of April 2023 the series comprised: == References == == External links == Official website


id: darwin-and-his-great-discovery-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin_and_His_Great_Discovery-0.md
category: reference
title: Darwin and His Great Discovery
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin_and_His_Great_Discovery
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:24.827053+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: darwin-and-his-great-discovery-20260505-0
summary:
Darwin and His Great Discovery is a science book for young adults by L. Sprague de Camp and Catherine Crook de Camp, first published by Macmillan in 1972. == Content == The work is an examination of naturalist Charles Darwin and the theory of evolution he proposed and marshaled evidence for in The Origin of Species. A brief account of his visit to the Galápagos Islands brings up the issue of human origins, leading into a discussion of early theories on the formation and age of the Earth and evolution. A biographical sketch of Darwin follows, covering his youth, his naturalistic studies on the voyage of the Beagle and subsequent life, focusing on his scientific researches and writings. The history of the theory of human evolution as currently understood is then presented, with sections on the work of Mendel, the development of the science of genetics, and the Scopes Trial. It includes a selected bibliography and index. == Reception == Isadora Kunitz, writing in the Library Journal, found the work a "well-written account of Charles Darwin's life and work," with "[d]etails about his personal life add[ing] to the interest of the book." She judged it "an excellent supplementary title for


id: the-day-of-the-dinosaur-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Day_of_the_Dinosaur-0.md
category: reference
title: The Day of the Dinosaur
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Day_of_the_Dinosaur
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:26.014279+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-day-of-the-dinosaur-20260505-0
summary:
The Day of the Dinosaur is a science book by L. Sprague de Camp and Catherine Crook de Camp, illustrated with plates. It was first published in hardcover by Doubleday in 1968, and in paperback by Curtis Books in 1970 or 1971. A second hardcover edition was issued by Bonanza Books in 1985. The first chapter was reprinted as "One Day in the Cretaceous" in the de Camps's collection Footprints on Sand (Advent, 1981). == Summary == As stated on the dust cover of the Doubleday edition, the work is a survey of "the exciting story of the lost world of the great reptiles and of the fossil hunters who discovered them millions of years later." It argues, among other things, that the theory of evolution took hold after Darwin because of interest spurred by recently popularized dinosaur remains, corresponding to legends of dragons. == Contents == The Day of the Dinosaur The Finding of the Dragons Out of the Sea Life Invades the Land The Rise of the Dinosaurs The Reptilian Middle Age Reptiles of Sea and Air The Doom of the Dragons The Great Fossil Feud Diggers and Dinosaurs The Heritage of the Dragons Dinosaurs in the World


id: decoding-reality-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decoding_Reality-0.md
category: reference
title: Decoding Reality
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decoding_Reality
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:27.180330+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: decoding-reality-20260505-0
summary:
Decoding Reality: The Universe as Quantum Information is a popular science book by Vlatko Vedral published by Oxford University Press in 2010. Vedral examines information theory and proposes information as the most fundamental building block of reality. He argues what a useful framework this is for viewing all natural and physical phenomena. In building out this framework the books touches upon the origin of information, the idea of entropy, the roots of this thinking in thermodynamics, the replication of DNA, development of social networks, quantum behaviour at the micro and macro level, and the very role of indeterminism in the universe. The book finishes by considering the answer to the ultimate question: where did all of the information in the Universe come from? The ideas address concepts related to the nature of particles, time, determinism, and of reality itself. == Contents == === "Creation Ex Nihilo: Something from Nothing" === Vedral believes in the principle that information is physical. Creation ex nihilo comes from Catholic dogma, the idea being that God created the universe out of nothing. Vedral says that invoking a supernatural being as an explanation for creation does not explain reality because the supernatural being would have to


id: decoding-reality-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decoding_Reality-1.md
category: reference
title: Decoding Reality
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decoding_Reality
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:27.180330+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: decoding-reality-20260505-0
summary:
=== "Surfing the Waves: Hyper-Fast Computers" === Quantum computers offer a search advantage over classical computers by searching many database elements at once as a result of quantum superpositions. A sufficiently advanced quantum computer would break current encryption methods by factorizing large numbers several orders of magnitude faster than any existing classical computer. Any computable problem may be expressed as a general quantum search algorithm although classical computers may have an advantage over quantum search when using more efficient tailored classical algorithms. The issue with quantum computers is that a measurement must be made to determine if the problem is solved which collapses the superposition. Vedral points out that unintentional interaction with the environment can be mitigated with redundancy, and this would be necessary if we were to scale up current quantum computers to achieve greater utility, i.e. to utilize 10 qubits have a 100 atom quantum system so that if one atom decoheres a consensus will still be held by the other 9 for the state of the same qubit. === "Children of the Aimless Chance: Randomness versus Determinism" === Randomness is key to generating new sources of surprise in a reality. Compression of these new sources to discard


id: the-demon-haunted-world-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Demon-Haunted_World-0.md
category: reference
title: The Demon-Haunted World
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Demon-Haunted_World
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:28.348186+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-demon-haunted-world-20260505-0
summary:
The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark is a 1995 book by the astronomer and science communicator Carl Sagan. (Four of the 25 chapters were written with Ann Druyan.) In it, Sagan aims to explain the scientific method to laypeople and to encourage people to learn critical and skeptical thinking. He explains methods to help distinguish between ideas that are considered valid science and those that can be considered pseudoscience. Sagan states that when new ideas are offered for consideration, they should be tested by means of skeptical thinking and should stand up to rigorous questioning. == Themes == Sagan explains that science is not just a body of knowledge, but is a way of thinking. Sagan shows how scientific thinking is both imaginative and disciplined, bringing humans to an understanding of how the universe is, rather than how they wish to perceive it. He says that science works much better than any other system because it has a "built-in error-correcting machine". Superstition and pseudoscience get in the way of the ability of many laypersons to appreciate the beauty and benefits of science. Skeptical thinking allows people to construct, understand, reason, and recognize valid and invalid arguments.


id: the-demon-haunted-world-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Demon-Haunted_World-1.md
category: reference
title: The Demon-Haunted World
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Demon-Haunted_World
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:28.348186+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-demon-haunted-world-20260505-0
summary:
Ad hominem. An arguer attacks the opposing arguer and not the actual argument. Argument from authority. Someone expects another to immediately believe that a person of authority or higher knowledge is correct. Argument from adverse consequences. Someone says that something must be done a certain way or else there will be adverse consequences. Appeal to ignorance. One argues a claim in that whatever has not been proved false must be true, and vice versa. Special pleading. An arguer responds to a deeply complex or rhetorical question or statement by, usually, saying "oh you don't understand how so and so works." Begging the question. An arguer assumes the answer and makes a claim such as, this happened because of that, or, this needs to happen in order for that to happen. Observational selection. Someone talks about how great something is by explaining all of the positive aspects of it while purposely not mentioning any of the negative aspects. Statistics of small numbers. Someone argues something by giving the statistics in small numbers, which isn't very reliable. Misunderstanding of the nature of statistics. Someone misinterprets statistics given to them. Fallacy of inconsistency. An arguer is very inconsistent in their claims. Non sequitur.


id: the-demon-haunted-world-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Demon-Haunted_World-2.md
category: reference
title: The Demon-Haunted World
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Demon-Haunted_World
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:28.348186+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-demon-haunted-world-20260505-0
summary:
== Reception and legacy == The book was a New York Times bestseller. The contemporary skeptical movement considers it an important book. The Demon-Haunted World has been criticized (in Smithsonian magazine and The New York Times) for not incorporating certain information relevant to the items he discusses in his book. The Smithsonian article by Paul Trachtman argues that Sagan relates issues of government choices and declining scientific thinking skills to pseudoscience topics like astrology and faith healing but ignores other issues that may be causing governmental bodies and other individuals to turn away from science. One such issue is consequences of pouring governmental money into cancer research. Trachtman writes, "it is not because of such beliefs that Congress now approaches the NIH budget with an ax. In fact, billions of dollars spent on years of research in the war on cancer have spawned growing professional bureaucracies and diminishing medical benefits." Trachtman argues that Sagan does not include problems like growing bureaucracies and diminishing medical benefits as reasons for a lack of scientific attention. In his review for The New York Times, James Gorman also argues for an unaddressed issue in Sagan's book, saying Sagan fails to emphasize the idea that


id: the-department-of-mad-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Department_of_Mad_Scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: The Department of Mad Scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Department_of_Mad_Scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:29.641942+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-department-of-mad-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
The Department of Mad Scientists: How DARPA is Remaking Our World, from the Internet to Artificial Limbs, is a book by Michael Belfiore about the history and origins of DARPA. Belfiore describes DARPA's creation as the agency ARPA in Department of Defense and some of its notable contributions to artificial limbs, the Internet, space exploration and robotic automobiles. == Reception == In his review of the book, Tom Simonite says "Belfiore does a good job of exploring the sunny side of the moon that is DARPA", but also notes that the author had no access to DARPA's classified research, which constitutes approximately half of all work. Robin Tatu also observes Belfiore's limited access, but calls the book a "an engaging inquiry into the workings of the agency, its past contributions, and its concerns for future technology." David Pitt describes the book as "a capsule history" that, "for some readers [..] serves as a tantalizing introduction to subject that bears deeper exploration." == Notes == == References == == External links == Official website After Words interview with Belfiore on The Department of Mad Scientists, August 21, 2010


id: the-design-of-experiments-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Design_of_Experiments-0.md
category: reference
title: The Design of Experiments
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Design_of_Experiments
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:30.777398+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-design-of-experiments-20260505-0
summary:
The Design of Experiments is a 1935 book by the English statistician, Ronald Fisher, on experimental design, considered to be a foundational work in modern statistics and experimental methodology. The book introduced concepts such as randomization, replication, blocking, and contains Fisher’s influential discussion of the null hypothesis, illustrated in the context of the Lady tasting tea experiment. The book has had a lasting impact on the development of statistical science, shaping diverse fields such as agriculture, psychology, and medical research. It remains an important reference in the history of applied statistics and the philosophy of scientific testing. == Background == At the time of publication, Fisher was a statistician at Rothamsted Research (formally known as Rothamsted Experimental Station) where he developed statistical methods to analyze agricultural data. His broader career included fundamental contributions to statistics, genetics, and evolutionary biology. The Design of Experiments built on Fisher’s earlier work, including his book Statistical Methods for Research Workers (1925), and laid the groundwork for the practical application of statistical tests in experimental science. Much of Fisher’s approach grew out of earlier studies at Rothamsted, particularly a 1923 paper with Winifred Mackenzie on crop variation. In this work, Fisher tied the validity of


id: dinosaur-in-a-haystack-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinosaur_in_a_Haystack-0.md
category: reference
title: Dinosaur in a Haystack
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinosaur_in_a_Haystack
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:31.991928+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dinosaur-in-a-haystack-20260505-0
summary:
Dinosaur in a Haystack (1995) is the seventh volume of collected essays by the Harvard paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould. It collects essays culled from Gould's monthly column "The View of Life" published in Natural History magazine, which Gould contributed for 27 years. The book deals with themes familiar to Gould's writing: evolution, science biography, probabilities, and strange oddities found in nature. His essay "Poe's Greatest Hit" analyzes the controversial conchology textbook The Conchologist's First Book (1839), edited by Edgar Allan Poe. Poe's volume on natural history sold out within two months, and was his only book republished during his lifetime. Essay "Dinomania" is a review of Michael Crichton's novel Jurassic Park and Steven Spielberg's blockbuster film of the same name. == Reception == The book received favorable reviews in Publishers Weekly and The New York Times. == References == == External links == Up Against the Wall - by Steve Jones Essay Summaries - by Lawrence N. Goeller Dinosaur in a Haystack Review - by Danny Yee Book review by Kathryn Denning Two Cultures - by Howard A. Doughty, Innovation Journal Dinosaur in a Haystack Hooking Leviathan by Its Past Dinomania Cordelia's Dilemma Of Tongue Worms, Velvet Worms, and Water


id: distillation-design-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distillation_Design-0.md
category: reference
title: Distillation Design
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distillation_Design
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:33.157388+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: distillation-design-20260505-0
summary:
Distillation Design is a book which provides complete coverage of the design of industrial distillation columns for the petroleum refining, chemical and petrochemical plants, natural gas processing, pharmaceutical, food and alcohol distilling industries. It has been a classical chemical engineering textbook since it was first published in February 1992. The subjects covered in the book include: Vapor–liquid equilibrium(VLE): Vapor–liquid K values, relative volatilities, ideal and non-ideal systems, phase diagrams, calculating bubble points and dew points Key fractional distillation concepts: theoretical stages, x-y diagrams, multicomponent distillation, column composition and temperature profiles Process design and optimization: minimum reflux and minimum stages, optimum reflux, short-cut methods, feed entry location Rigorous calculation methods: Bubble point method, sum rates method, numerical methods (Newton–Raphson technique), inside out method, relaxation method, other methods Batch distillation: Simple distillation, constant reflux, varying reflux, time and boilup requirements Tray design and tray efficiency: tray types, tray capacities, tray hydraulic parameters, tray sizing and determination of column diameter, point and tray efficiencies, tray efficiency prediction and scaleup Packing design and packing efficiency: packing types, packing hydraulics and capacities, determination of packing efficiency by transfer unit method and by HETP method, packed column sizing == See also == Chemical engineer – Professional


id: does-god-play-dice-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Does_God_Play_Dice-0.md
category: reference
title: Does God Play Dice?
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Does_God_Play_Dice?
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:34.317128+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: does-god-play-dice-20260505-0
summary:
Does God Play Dice: The New Mathematics of Chaos is a non-fiction book about chaos theory written by British mathematician Ian Stewart. The book was initially published by Blackwell Publishing in 1989. == Summary == In this book, Stewart explains chaos theory to an audience presumably unfamiliar with it. As the book progresses the writing changes from simple explanations of chaos theory to in-depth, rigorous mathematical study. Stewart covers mathematical concepts such as differential equations, resonance, nonlinear dynamics, and probability. The book is illustrated with diagrams and graphs of mathematical concepts and equations when applicable. The back of the book, and a summary of its content, reads, "The science of chaos is forcing scientists to rethink Einstein's fundamental assumptions regarding the way the universe behaves. Chaos theory has already shown that simple systems, obeying precise laws, can nevertheless act in a random manner. Perhaps God plays dice within a cosmic game of complete law and order. Does God Play Dice? reveals a strange universe in which nothing may be as it seems. Familiar geometric shapes such as circles and ellipses give way to infinitely complex structures known as fractals, the fluttering of a butterfly's wings can change the weather, and


id: don-t-be-such-a-scientist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don't_Be_Such_a_Scientist-0.md
category: reference
title: Don't Be Such a Scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don't_Be_Such_a_Scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:35.515222+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: don-t-be-such-a-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
Don't Be Such A Scientist: Talking Substance in an Age of Style is a book published by Island Press written by scientist-turned-filmmaker Randy Olson which arises from a talk of the same title Olson gave to science audiences at universities and museums for five years preceding its publication. The focus of the book is the challenge scientists face in communicating to the general public in an age of information-overload. Olson draws on his two careers, first as a marine biologist who achieved a tenured professorship, then his second career which began when he then resigned to attend film school and acting classes, eventually becoming an independent feature filmmaker. Among other topics, the book addresses the role of spontaneity, storytelling, and likeability in the mass communication of science. == Reviews == Science News Discover Magazine NPR == References ==


id: the-dragons-of-eden-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dragons_of_Eden-0.md
category: reference
title: The Dragons of Eden
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dragons_of_Eden
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:36.705520+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-dragons-of-eden-20260505-0
summary:
The Dragons of Eden: Speculations on the Evolution of Human Intelligence is a 1977 book by Carl Sagan, in which the author combines the fields of anthropology, evolutionary biology, psychology, and computer science to give a perspective on how human intelligence may have evolved. Sagan discusses the search for a quantitative means of measuring intelligence. He argues that the brain to body mass ratio is an extremely good correlative indicator for intelligence, with humans having the highest ratio and dolphins the second highest, though he views the trend as breaking down at smaller scales, with some small animals (ants in particular) placing disproportionately high on the list. Other topics mentioned include the evolution of the brain (with emphasis on the function of the neocortex in humans), the evolutionary purpose of sleep and dreams, demonstration of sign language abilities by chimps and the purpose of mankind's innate fears and myths. The title "The Dragons of Eden" is borrowed from the notion that man's early struggle for survival in the face of predators, and in particular a fear of reptiles, may have led to cultural beliefs and myths about dragons. The Dragons of Eden won a Pulitzer Prize. In 2002, John Skoyles


id: dream-pool-essays-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_Pool_Essays-0.md
category: reference
title: Dream Pool Essays
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_Pool_Essays
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:37.908108+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dream-pool-essays-20260505-0
summary:
The Dream Pool Essays (or Dream Torrent Essays) was an extensive book written by the Chinese polymath and statesman Shen Kuo (1031–1095), published in 1088 during the Song dynasty (960–1279). Shen compiled this encyclopedic work while living in forced retirement from government office, naming the book after his private estate near modern Zhenjiang, Jiangsu province. The Dream Pool Essays was heavily reorganized in reprint editions by later Chinese authors from the late 11th to 17th centuries. In modern times it has been translated from Chinese into several languages. These include English, German, French, and Japanese translations. The Dream Pool Essays covers a range of topics including discoveries and advancements in traditional Chinese medicine, mathematics, astronomy, science and technology, optics, architecture and civil engineering, metallurgy, and early archaeology. Observations of the natural world included those of wildlife, meteorology, hypotheses advancing early ideas in geomorphology and climate change based on findings of petrification and natural erosion, and strange recorded phenomena such as the description of an unidentified flying object. In addition to establishing the theory of true north in magnetic declination towards the North Pole, Shen was also the first to record the use of a compass for navigation, the first to


id: dream-pool-essays-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_Pool_Essays-1.md
category: reference
title: Dream Pool Essays
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_Pool_Essays
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:37.908108+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dream-pool-essays-20260505-0
summary:
In recent years [cca. 1080] there was a landslide on the bank of a large river in Yong-ning Guan near Yanzhou. The bank collapsed, opening a space of several dozens of feet, and under the ground a forest of bamboo shoots was thus revealed. It contained several hundred bamboo with their roots and trunks all complete, and all turned to stone...Now bamboos do not grow in Yanzhou. These were several dozens of feet below the present surface of the ground, and we do not know in what dynasty they could possibly have grown. Perhaps in very ancient times the climate was different so that the place was low, damp, gloomy, and suitable for bamboos. On the Jin-hua Shan in Wuzhou there are stone pine-cones, and stones formed from peach kernels, stone bulrush roots, stone fishes, crabs, and so on, but as these are all (modern) native products of that place, people are not very surprised at them. But these petrified bamboos appeared under the ground so deep, though they are not produced in that place today. This is a very strange thing. === Astronomy === When the Director of the Astronomical Observatory asked Shen Kuo if the shapes of the


id: dream-pool-essays-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_Pool_Essays-2.md
category: reference
title: Dream Pool Essays
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_Pool_Essays
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:37.908108+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dream-pool-essays-20260505-0
summary:
=== Personal beliefs and philosophy === Of Taoism and the inability of empirical science to explain everything in the world, Shen Kuo wrote: Those in the world who speak of the regularities underlying the phenomena, it seems, manage to apprehend their crude traces. But these regularities have their very subtle aspect, which those who rely on mathematical astronomy cannot know of. Still even these are nothing more than traces. As for the spiritual processes described in the [Book of Changes] that "when they are stimulated, penetrate every situation in the realm," mere traces have nothing to do with them. This spiritual state by which foreknowledge is attained can hardly be sought through changes, of which in any case only the cruder sort are attainable. What I have called the subtlest aspect of these traces, those who discuss the celestial bodies attempt to know by depending on mathematical astronomy; but astronomy is nothing more than the outcome of conjecture. === Dissertation on the Timberwork Manual === Below are two passages from Shen's book outlining the basics contained in Yu Hao's Timberwork Manual. Yu Hao was a Chinese architect of the earlier 10th, and Kuo was one to praise his work. In


id: dream-pool-essays-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_Pool_Essays-3.md
category: reference
title: Dream Pool Essays
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_Pool_Essays
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:37.908108+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dream-pool-essays-20260505-0
summary:
A house belonging to Li Shunju was struck by lightning. Brilliant sparkling light was seen under the eaves. Everyone thought that the hall would be burnt, and those who were inside rushed out. After the thunder had abated, the house was found to be alright, though its walls and the paper on the windows were blackened. On certain wooden shelves, certain lacquered vessels with silver mouths had been struck by the lightning, so that the silver had melted and dropped to the ground, but the lacquer was not even scorched. Also, a valuable sword made of strong steel had been melted to liquid, without the parts of the house nearby being affected. One would have thought that the thatch and wood would have been burnt up first, yet here were metals melted and no injury to thatch and wood. This is beyond the understanding of ordinary people. There are Buddhist books which speak of 'dragon fire' which burns more fiercely when it meets with water instead of being extinguished by water like 'human' fire. Most people can only judge of things by the experiences of ordinary life, but phenomena outside the scope of this are really quite numerous. How insecure


id: dream-pool-essays-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_Pool_Essays-4.md
category: reference
title: Dream Pool Essays
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dream_Pool_Essays
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:37.908108+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dream-pool-essays-20260505-0
summary:
=== Bibliography === Bowman, John S. (2000). Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture. New York: Columbia University Press. Chan, Alan Kam-leung and Gregory K. Clancey, Hui-Chieh Loy (2002). Historical Perspectives on East Asian Science, Technology and Medicine. Singapore: Singapore University Press ISBN 9971-69-259-7 Mohn, Peter (2003). Magnetism in the Solid State: An Introduction. New York: Springer-Verlag Inc. ISBN 3-540-43183-7. Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 1, Introductory Orientations. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3: Civil Engineering and Nautics. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 1: Paper and Printing. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 6, Biology and Biological Technology, Part 1: Botany. Taipei, Caves Books Ltd. Sivin, Nathan (1995). Science in Ancient China: Researches and Reflections. Brookfield, Vermont: VARIORUM, Ashgate Publishing. Ropp, Paul S. (1990). Heritage of China: Contemporary Perspectives on Chinese History. Berkeley: University of California Press.


id: eight-little-piggies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eight_Little_Piggies-0.md
category: reference
title: Eight Little Piggies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eight_Little_Piggies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:39.069878+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eight-little-piggies-20260505-0
summary:
Eight Little Piggies (1993) is the sixth volume of collected essays by the Harvard paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould. The essays were selected from his monthly column "The View of Life" in Natural History magazine, to which Gould contributed for 27 years. The book covers topics that are common to Gould's writing in a discursive manner, including evolution and its teaching, science biography, probabilities, and common sense. The title essay, "Eight Little Piggies", is a thought piece on the prevalence of five digits on hands and feet throughout the animal kingdom. It also explores concepts such as archetypes and polydactyly via the anatomy of early tetrapods. Other essays discuss themes such as the scale of extinction, vertebrate anatomy, grand patterns of evolution, and human nature. == References == == External links == The Snail Wars - by Derek Bickerton, The New York Times Book review - by Howard A. Doughty, College Quarterly Book review - John Farrell, National Review Book review - Edward Kay, Eye Weekly W. W. Norton promotional page Google Books - contains book excerpts and jacket description


id: einstein-s-unfinished-symphony-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein's_Unfinished_Symphony-0.md
category: reference
title: Einstein's Unfinished Symphony
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein's_Unfinished_Symphony
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:40.248751+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: einstein-s-unfinished-symphony-20260505-0
summary:
Einstein's Unfinished Symphony: Listening to the Sounds of Space-Time is a 2000 non-fiction book by Marcia Bartusiak about the preliminary work preceding operational efforts to detect the gravitational waves predicted by Einstein's theory of general relativity. She tells the story of LIGO's two gravitational-wave observatories in Louisiana and Washington State, with some mention of other such observatories in Italy, Germany, Japan, and Australia, and the scientists and scientific considerations involved. Initial LIGO operations between 2002 and 2010 did not detect any gravitational waves. After technical enhancements, gravitational waves were first detected in 2016. After the detection, Bartusiak wrote an updated version entitled Einstein's Unfinished Symphony: The Story of a Gamble, Two Black Holes, and a New Age of Astronomy published in 2017 by Yale University Press. == Reception == For her 2000 book, Bartusiak won the 2001 American Institute of Physics Science Writing Award to a Journalist. The route to LIGO was long and checkered; it is beautifully recounted by Marcia Bartusiak in her latest book, Einstein’s Unfinished Symphony. ... She has clearly made a great effort to interview all major players in the field, scan the literature, and capture the relevant science. What results is an easy-to-read and clear


id: the-emperor-s-new-mind-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Emperor's_New_Mind-0.md
category: reference
title: The Emperor's New Mind
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Emperor's_New_Mind
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:41.471061+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-emperor-s-new-mind-20260505-0
summary:
The Emperor's New Mind: Concerning Computers, Minds and The Laws of Physics is a 1989 book by the mathematical physicist Roger Penrose that posits a quantum mind theory. Penrose argues that human consciousness is non-algorithmic, and thus is not capable of being modeled by a conventional Turing machine, which includes a digital computer. Penrose hypothesizes that quantum mechanics plays an essential role in the understanding of human consciousness. The collapse of the quantum wavefunction is seen as playing an important role in brain function. Most of the book is spent reviewing, for the scientifically-minded lay-reader, a plethora of interrelated subjects such as Newtonian physics, special and general relativity, the philosophy and limitations of mathematics, quantum physics, cosmology, and the nature of time. Penrose intermittently describes how each of these bears on his developing theme: that consciousness is not "algorithmic". Only the later portions of the book address the thesis directly. == Overview == Penrose states that his ideas on the nature of consciousness are speculative, and his thesis is considered erroneous by some experts in the fields of philosophy, computer science, and robotics. The Emperor's New Mind attacks the claims of artificial intelligence using the physics of computing: Penrose notes


id: energy-and-power-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_and_Power-0.md
category: reference
title: Energy and Power
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_and_Power
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:42.618267+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: energy-and-power-20260505-0
summary:
Energy and Power is a 1962 science book for children by L. Sprague de Camp, illustrated by Weimer Pursell and Fred Eng, published by Golden Press as part of The Golden Library of Knowledge Series. It has been translated into Portuguese and Spanish. The title blurb summarizes the content as "How man uses animals, wind, water, heat, electricity, chemistry, and atoms to perform work." == Notes ==


id: engineering-and-the-mind-s-eye-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_and_the_Mind's_Eye-0.md
category: reference
title: Engineering and the Mind's Eye
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering_and_the_Mind's_Eye
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:43.771269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: engineering-and-the-mind-s-eye-20260505-0
summary:
Engineering and the Mind's Eye (1992) is a book by Eugene S. Ferguson, an engineer and historian of science and technology. It was published by MIT Press. In it, Ferguson discusses the importance of the mind's eye for the practicing engineer, including spatial visualization and visual thinking. == Preface == A major argument of the book is summarized as follows in the preface: Since World War II, the dominant trend in engineering has been away from knowledge that cannot be expressed as mathematical relationships. The art of engineering has been pushed aside in favor of the "engineering sciences," which are higher in status and easier to teach. The underlying argument of this book is that an engineering education that ignores its rich heritage of nonverbal learning will produce graduates who are dangerously ignorant of the myriad subtle ways in which the real world differs from the mathematical world their professors teach them. == Chapters == The book comprises 7 chapters and two additional sections on notes about the text and its figures. The chapters are: The Nature of Engineering Design The Mind's Eye Origins of Modern Engineering The Tools of Visualization The Development and Dissemination of Engineering Knowledge The Making


id: engines-book-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engines_(book)-0.md
category: reference
title: Engines (book)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engines_(book)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:44.958561+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: engines-book-20260505-0
summary:
Engines: Man's Use of Power, from the Water Wheel to the Atomic Pile is a science book for children by L. Sprague de Camp, illustrated by Jack Coggins, published by Golden Press as part of its Golden Library of Knowledge Series in 1959. A revised edition was issued in 1961, and a paperback edition in 1969. The book has been translated into Swedish, Norwegian, Finnish, Portuguese, and German. == Summary == As stated on the cover, the work is a survey of "Man's use of power, from the water wheel to the atomic pile." The topic is covered in short segments, titled "The Age of Engines," "Putting Energy to Work," "The First Engines," "Water and Wind Engines," "Early Steam Engines," "How a Steam Engine Works", "Steam Turbines," "Internal-combustion engines," "Otto Cycle Engines," "Two-stroke Cycle Engines," "Diesel Engines," "Gas Turbines," "Rockets," "Electric Motors," "How an Electric Motor Works," "Electric Generators and Power Systems," "Atomic Engines," and "How a Reactor Works." There is a brief one-page topical index. == Reception == The Science News-Letter, in its July 18, 1959 issue, listed the book among its "Books of the Week," describing the work as a "[f]actual book for young readers." == Notes ==


id: das-entdeckte-geheimnis-der-natur-im-bau-und-in-der-befruchtung-der-blumen-20260505-0
category: reference
title: Das entdeckte Geheimnis der Natur im Bau und in der Befruchtung der Blumen
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:46.145655+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: das-entdeckte-geheimnis-der-natur-im-bau-und-in-der-befruchtung-der-blumen-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Das_entdeckte_Geheimnis_der_Natur_im_Bau_und_in_der_Befruchtung_der_Blumen-0.md

summary:
Das entdeckte Geheimnis der Natur im Bau und in der Befruchtung der Blumen (The Secret of Nature in the Form and Fertilisation of Flowers Discovered) by Christian Konrad Sprengel was published in 1793, but received little acclaim during the author's lifetime. Sprengel's ideas were rejected by other naturalists when it was published, but the importance of this work was duly appreciated by Charles Darwin some sixty years later. Darwin's use of Sprengel's ideas and reference to this book in the seminal work on the Fertilisation of Orchids established Sprengel's book as one of the most important works in the fields of floral biology and pollination ecology and its author as a founding father of these fields. The fact that flowers have a sexual role had been recognised earlier by Linnaeus who did not investigate any functional significance of the visits of insects, but by Sprengel's time it was known that they were sometimes involved in fertilisation. These were thought to be chance visits and nectar was not thought to be intended for insects. Sprengel's book introduced a functional view, which would today be called ecology, and provided evidence that pollination was an organised process in which insects acted as "living

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Das_entdeckte_Geheimnis_der_Natur_im_Bau_und_in_der_Befruchtung_der_Blumen


id: escaping-the-rabbit-hole-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escaping_the_Rabbit_Hole-0.md
category: reference
title: Escaping the Rabbit Hole
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escaping_the_Rabbit_Hole
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:47.303262+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: escaping-the-rabbit-hole-20260505-0
summary:
Escaping the Rabbit Hole: How to Debunk Conspiracy Theories Using Facts, Logic, and Respect is a non-fiction book by Mick West that describes a method for helping people disengage from conspiratorial beliefs through patient dialogue, clear evidence, and an emphasis on trust building. Skyhorse Publishing released the first edition in 2018. A revised and updated edition appeared in 2023 with new case material on the COVID-19 pandemic, election fraud narratives, QAnon, and contemporary UFO claims. The work combines practical communication tactics with case studies drawn from West's investigations on the Metabunk forum. == Background == West is a science writer and investigator who founded Metabunk, an online forum focused on analyzing extraordinary claims. The book emerged from a decade of moderating and documenting conversations with believers and former believers, which shaped the focus on respectful engagement, calibration of claims to evidence, and attention to the social dynamics around conspiracist communities. An excerpt from the book appeared in Salon before publication, outlining steps for approaching a friend who believes a conspiracy theory, including establishing common ground, isolating specific points of disagreement, and agreeing on shared standards of evidence. == Contents == The first edition sets out a communication framework that prioritizes


id: evil-genes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evil_Genes-0.md
category: reference
title: Evil Genes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evil_Genes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:48.507681+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evil-genes-20260505-0
summary:
Evil Genes is a book by Barbara Oakley, a systems engineer, about the neurological and social factors contributing to chronic antisocial behavior. The text was published on October 31, 2008, by Prometheus Books. The book has earned both praise and criticism for its treatment of what Oakley considers gaps in psychological research surrounding "successfully sinister" individuals—those who show subclinical symptoms of personality disorders, and who are often found in positions of authority in politics, religion, business, and academia. == See also == Psychopathy The Mask of Sanity Snakes in Suits: When Psychopaths Go to Work The Psychopath Test == References == == Further reading == Erich Fromm: The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness == External links == Official website


id: evolution-what-the-fossils-say-and-why-it-matters-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution:_What_the_Fossils_Say_and_Why_It_Matters-0.md
category: reference
title: Evolution: What the Fossils Say and Why It Matters
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution:_What_the_Fossils_Say_and_Why_It_Matters
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:49.676704+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evolution-what-the-fossils-say-and-why-it-matters-20260505-0
summary:
Evolution: What the Fossils Say and Why It Matters is a 2007 book by American paleontologist Donald Prothero where he documents the evolutionary history of fossil vertebrates. == Summary == Evolution: What the Fossils Say and Why It Matters was written as a response to Duane Gish's 1995 book Evolution: The Fossils Still Say No! It is dedicated to Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould to recognize their contributions to the fields of paleontology and evolutionary biology. The foreword, written by Michael Shermer, is titled Why People Do Not Accept Evolution. The book is divided into two sections. In section one Prothero provides a detailed description of evolution and its relationship to the study of biology. The second section provides a distinct discussion of the fossil record. In a review of the book Peter Dodson says "Prothero points out that the evolution of horses, elucidated since the 1870s, remains one of the finest demonstrations of evolutionary change over time." Prothero is well prepared to cover the topic due to his knowledge of the fossil record, geology, biogeography, embryology, contemporary abiogenetic theory and Biblical origins. One example of the compelling presentations in the book is Prothero's illustrated discussion of tiktaalik, otherwise


id: experiments-and-observations-on-different-kinds-of-air-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiments_and_Observations_on_Different_Kinds_of_Air-0.md
category: reference
title: Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiments_and_Observations_on_Different_Kinds_of_Air
date_saved: 2026-05-05T06:17:50.842479+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: experiments-and-observations-on-different-kinds-of-air-20260505-0
summary:
Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air (1774–86) is a six-volume work published by 18th-century British polymath Joseph Priestley which reports a series of his experiments on "airs" or gases, most notably his discovery of the oxygen gas (which he called "dephlogisticated air"). == Airs == While working as a companion for Lord Shelburne, Priestley had a great deal of free time to engage in scientific investigations. The Earl even set up a laboratory for him. Priestley's experiments during his years in Calne were almost entirely confined to "airs" and from this work emerged his most important scientific texts: the six volumes of Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air. These experiments helped repudiate the last vestiges of the theory of four elements; as one early biographer writes: "taken collectively, [Priestley] did more than those of any one of his contemporaries to uproot and destroy the only generalisation by which his immediate predecessors had sought to group and connect the phenomena of chemistry", however "he was wholly unable to perceive this fact." Priestley's work on "airs" is not easily classified. As historian of science Simon Schaffer points out, it "has been seen as a branch of physics, or


