# kb

id: list-of-ice-cores-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores-2.md
category: reference
title: List of ice cores
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ice_cores
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:15.562026+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ice-cores-20260505-0
summary:
Rapp, Donald (2012). Ice Ages and Interglacials: Measurements, Interpretation, and Models (2nd ed.). Chichester, UK: Springer. ISBN 978-3-642-30028-8. Rasmussen, S.O.; et al. (2013). "A first chronology for the North Greenland Eemian Ice Drilling (NEEM) ice core". Climate of the Past. 9 (6): 2713–2730. Bibcode:2013CliPa...9.2713R. doi:10.5194/cp-9-2713-2013. Thompson, L.G.; et al. (1994). "Climate since AD 1510 on Dyer Plateau, Antarctic Peninsula: evidence for recent climate change" (PDF). Annals of Glaciology. 20: 420–426. Bibcode:1994AnGla..20..420T. doi:10.3189/1994aog20-1-420-426. Thwaites, Richard J.; Wilson, Christopher; McCray, Anthony P. (1984). "Relationship between bore-hole closure and crystal fabrics in Antarctic ice core from Cape Folger" (PDF). Journal of Glaciology. 30 (105): 171–179. Bibcode:1984JGlac..30..171T. doi:10.1017/S0022143000005906. Ueda, Herbert T.; Talalay, Pavel G. (October 2007). "Fifty Years of Soviet and Russian Drilling Activity in Polar and Non-Polar Ice". Erdc/Crrel Tr-07-20. Archived from the original on April 20, 2017. Vasiliev, N.I.; et al. (2007). "Deep drilling at Vostok station, Antarctica: history and recent events". Annals of Glaciology. 47 (1): 10–23. Bibcode:2007AnGla..47...10V. doi:10.3189/172756407786857776. Weidick, Anker (1995). "Satellite Image Atlas of Glaciers of the World: Greenland" (PDF). United States Geological Survey Professional Papers. 1386-C: 1–153. Zagorodnov, V.; et al. (1998). "Antifreeze thermal ice core drilling: an effective approach to the acquisition of ice cores" (PDF). Cold


id: list-of-islands-created-since-the-20th-century-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_islands_created_since_the_20th_century-0.md
category: reference
title: List of islands created since the 20th century
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_islands_created_since_the_20th_century
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:19.232252+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-islands-created-since-the-20th-century-20260505-0
summary:
Below is a list of new islands created since the beginning of the 20th century by volcanism, erosion, glacial retreat, or other mechanisms, excluding artificial islands. One of the most famous new volcanic islands is the small island of Surtsey, located in the Atlantic Ocean south of Iceland. It first emerged from the ocean surface in 1963. Two years later, Surtsey was declared a nature reserve for the study of ecological succession; plants, insects, birds, seals, and other forms of life have since established themselves on the island. Another noted new island is Anak Krakatau (lit. 'child of Krakatoa'), which formed in the flooded caldera of the Krakatoa volcano in Indonesia), which emerged only in 1930. Ample rainforests have grown there, although they are often destroyed by frequent eruptions. A population of many wild animals, including insects, birds, humanborne rats, and even monitor lizards, have also settled there. Didicas Volcano off the northern coast of Luzon Island in the Philippines, was first created during a four-year eruption from 1856 to 1860 but eventually got washed away. In 1900, three tall rock masses were left by another eruption. During the 1952 eruption, the island finally became permanent which was further bolstered


id: list-of-karst-areas-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_karst_areas-0.md
category: reference
title: List of karst areas
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_karst_areas
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:20.547507+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-karst-areas-20260505-0
summary:
Karst topography is a geological formation shaped by the dissolution of a layer or layers of soluble bedrock, usually carbonate rock such as limestone or dolomite, but also in gypsum. It has also been documented for weathering-resistant rocks, such as quartzite, given the right conditions. This is an incomplete list of the major karst landscape areas of the world. == Africa == === Madagascar === Anjajavy Forest, western Madagascar Ankarana Reserve, Madagascar Madagascar dry deciduous forests, western Madagascar Tsingy de Bemaraha Strict Nature Reserve, Madagascar === South Africa === Oudtshoorn, Western Cape Province, KwaZulu Natal. West Rand, Gauteng and North West Province, KwaZulu Natal. == Asia == === China === Area around Guilin and Yangshuo Zhijin Cave, Guizhou (UNESCO World Heritage Site) Jiuzhaigou Valley and Huanglong Scenic and Historic Interest Area, (UNESCO World Heritage Site) Shaanxi tiankeng cluster, discovered in 2016, it is one of the largest in the world comprising forty-nine sinkholes and more than fifty funnels ranging from 50 to 100 metres in diameter. South China Karst, World Heritage Site Stone Forest Xiaozhai Tiankeng, also known as the Heavenly Pit, is the world's largest sinkhole. Zhangjiajie National Forest park, forming part of the Wulingyuan scenic area, World Heritage


id: list-of-karst-areas-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_karst_areas-1.md
category: reference
title: List of karst areas
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_karst_areas
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:20.547507+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-karst-areas-20260505-0
summary:
=== Poland === Kraków-Częstochowa Upland (Jura Krakowsko-Częstochowska) Holy Cross Mountains (Góry Świętokrzyskie) with the Jaskinia Raj (Raj Cave) Tatra Mountains including the Jaskinia Wielka Śnieżna (Great Snowy Cave) – the longest and the deepest cave in Poland Králický Sněžník Mountains with the largest cave outside Tatra Mountains, Jaskinia Niedźwiedzia Kaczawskie Mountains small region near the town Wojcieszów === Portugal === Natural Park Serras d'Aire and Candeeiros === Romania === Apuseni Mountains, Romania Bucegi Mountains, Romania === Serbia === Dinaric Alps region merokarst of eastern Serbia === Slovakia === Slovak Paradise, Slovakia Slovak Karst, Slovakia Tatry, Slovakia Nízke Tatry, Slovakia Muránska planina, Slovakia === Slovenia === Region of Inner Carniola, Goriška, Upper Carniola and Lower Carniola Karst Plateau (Slovene: Kras)(German: Karst), a plateau in southwestern Slovenia and northeastern Italy, which gave the name to karst topography. === Spain === Picos de Europa and Basque Mountains, northern Spain Larra-Belagua, Navarre, northern Spain Serra del Cadí mountain range, Spain Garraf Massif Natural Park area, Spain Ciudad Encantada in the province of Cuenca, Castilla-La Mancha, Spain El Torcal de Antequera nature preserve, southern Spain El Cerro del Hierro, in Sevilla, southern Spain === Sweden === Various places in the limestone and marl island of


id: glossary-of-landforms-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_landforms-0.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of landforms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_landforms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:22.021010+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-landforms-20260505-0
summary:
Landforms are categorized by characteristic physical attributes such as their creating process, shape, elevation, slope, orientation, rock exposure, and soil type. == Landforms by process == Landforms organized by the processes that create them. === Aeolian landforms === Aeolian landform – Landforms produced by action of the winds include: === Coastal and oceanic landforms === Coastal and oceanic landforms include: === Cryogenic landforms === Landforms produced by or in low-temperatures include: === Erosion landforms === Landforms produced by erosion and weathering usually occur in rocky or fluvial environments, and many also appear under those headings. === Fluvial landforms === Fluvial – Natural flowing freshwater streamPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets landforms include: === Impact landforms === Landforms created by extraterrestrial impacts – Collision of two astronomical objects – include: === Lacustrine landforms === Lacustrine – associated with lakes – landforms include: === Mountain and glacial landforms === Mountain and glacial landform – Landform created by the action of glaciers – include: === Slope landforms === Slope landforms include: === Tectonic landforms === Landforms created by tectonic activity include: === Volcanic landforms === Volcanic landforms include: === Weathering landforms === Weathering landforms include: == Landforms by shape == === Positive


id: list-of-landslides-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_landslides-0.md
category: reference
title: List of landslides
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_landslides
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:23.570314+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-landslides-20260505-0
summary:
This list of landslides is a list of notable landslides and mudflows divided into sections by date and type. This list may be incomplete as there is no central catalogue for landslides, although it does exist for some for individual countries or areas. Volumes of landslides are recorded in the scientific literature using cubic kilometres (km3) for the largest and millions of cubic metres (MCM) for most events. == Prehistoric landslides == Note: km3 = cubic kilometre(s) == Submarine landslides == Note: MCM = million cubic metres; km3 = cubic kilometre(s) == Pre-20th-century historic landslides == Note: km3 = cubic kilometre(s); MCM = million cubic metres == 20th-century landslides == === 1901–1950 === Note: km3 = cubic kilometre(s); MCM = million cubic metres === 1951–1975 === Note: km3 = cubic kilometre(s); MCM = million cubic metres === 1976–2000 === Note: MCM = million cubic metres == 21st-century landslides == === 2001–2010 === Note: m3 = cubic metre(s); MCM = million cubic metres === 2011–2020 === Note: MCM = million cubic metres === 2021–present === Note: MCM = million cubic metres == Ongoing landslides == Note: MCM = million cubic metres == See also == List of avalanches by death toll


id: list-of-types-of-limestone-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_limestone-0.md
category: reference
title: List of types of limestone
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_limestone
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:24.935628+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-types-of-limestone-20260505-0
summary:
This article lists types of limestone arranged according to generic type and location. == Generic limestone categories == This section is a list of generic types of limestone. Bituminous limestone Carboniferous Limestone – Limestone deposited during the Dinantian Epoch of the Carboniferous Period Coquina – Sedimentary rock that is composed mostly of fragments of shells Coral rag – Limestone composed of ancient coral reef material Chalk – Soft carbonate rock Fossiliferous limestone – Limestone containing fossils Lithographic limestone – Type of limestone with hard fine grain Marble – Metamorphic limestone Oolite – Sedimentary rock formed from ooids Rag-stone – Work done with stones that are quarried in thin pieces Shelly limestone – Limestone containing many fossils Travertine – Form of limestone deposited by mineral springs Tufa – Porous variety of limestone rock The following sections include both formal stratigraphic unit names and less formal designations, although are these are not differentiated. == Africa == === Egypt === Tura limestone, used for the Great Pyramid casing stones Mokattam limestone; Great Pyramid core stones and head of the Great Sphinx are of the "Member III" stratum Galala marble (a type of limestone, not a true marble) == Asia == === India ===


id: list-of-types-of-marble-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_marble-0.md
category: reference
title: List of types of marble
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_types_of_marble
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:26.239823+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-types-of-marble-20260505-0
summary:
Here is a list of various types of marble according to location. (NB: Marble-like stone which is not true marble according to geologists is included and indicated by italics with geologic classification given as a footnote. == Africa == === Algeria === Greco Scritto === Egypt === Galala Marble Sinai Pearl Marble Milly Grey Marble Sunny Marble Alabaster Marble Shanghi Marble Eleuigion Marble Lepuretya Marble === Ethiopia === Daleti marble, Western Welega: white, white with grey veins and other colours Enda Tikurir marble, Western Tigray Newi marble, Central Tigray Akmara marble, Central Tigray Dichinamo marble, Western Tigray === Tunisia === Giallo antico, also known as Numidian marble (marmor numidicum in Latin), was a yellow marble quarried in Roman times from the area of Chemtou, ancient Simmithu == Asia == === China === Hàn Bái Yǜ Marble (Chinese: 汉白玉) A type of white marble used in China for building and sculpting. === India === Indian Onyx Marble Jaisalmer Yellow Marble Jhiri Marble (white) Katni Marble Makrana Marble Morwad White Marble Udaipur Green Marble == Europe == === Belgium === Griotte Rouge de Rance Noir Belge Noir de Golzinne === Czech Republic === Český Šternberk marble (šternberský mramor) from Český Šternberk, Benešov


id: list-of-meteorite-minerals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_meteorite_minerals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of meteorite minerals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_meteorite_minerals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:27.603210+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-meteorite-minerals-20260505-0
summary:
A meteorite mineral is a mineral found chiefly or exclusively within meteorites or meteorite-derived material. This is a list of those minerals, excluding minerals also commonly found in terrestrial rocks. As of 1997 there were approximately 295 mineral species which have been identified in meteorites. == List of meteorite minerals == [] indicates repeating units == See also == Glossary of meteoritics List of minerals == References ==


id: list-of-mineral-symbols-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mineral_symbols-0.md
category: reference
title: List of mineral symbols
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mineral_symbols
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:29.367861+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mineral-symbols-20260505-0
summary:
Mineral symbols (text abbreviations) are used to abbreviate mineral groups, subgroups, and species, just as lettered symbols are used for the chemical elements. The first set of commonly used mineral symbols was published in 1983 and covered the common rock-forming minerals using 192 two- or three-lettered symbols. These types of symbols are referred to as Kretz symbols. More extensive lists were subsequently made available in the form of publications or posted on journal webpages. A comprehensive list of more than 5,700 IMA-CNMNC approved symbols (referred to as IMA symbols) compiled by L.N. Warr was published in volume 85 (issue 3) of the Mineralogical Magazine (2021). These symbols are listed alphabetically in the tables below. The approved listings are compatible with the system used to symbolize the elements, 30 of which occur as minerals. Mineral symbols are most commonly represented by three-lettered text symbols, although one-, two- and four-lettered symbols also exist. Four methods of nomenclature are used: The initial letters of a name, for example: cyanotrichite: Cya and mitscherlichite: Mits. A combination considered characteristic of the mineral name, for example: ewingite: Ewg and neighborite: Nbo. A selection of letters expressing components of the name, for example: adranosite = Arn and


id: list-of-mineralogists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mineralogists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of mineralogists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mineralogists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:30.651601+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mineralogists-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of notable mineralogists and other people who made notable contributions to mineralogy. Included are winners of major mineralogy awards such as the Dana Medal and the Roebling Medal. Mineralogy is a subject of geology specializing in the scientific study of chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of minerals and mineralized artifacts. == A == Joan Abella (born 1968) Otto Wilhelm Hermann von Abich (1806–1886) Johan Afzelius (1753–1837) Stuart Olof Agrell (1913–1996) Georgius Agricola (1494–1555) – author of De re metallica Arthur Aikin (1773–1854) Thomas Allan (1777–1833) François Alluaud (1778–1866) Gregori Aminoff (1883–1947) Charles Anderson (1876–1944) José Bonifácio de Andrade e Silva (1763–1838) Matthias Joseph Anker (1771–1843) == B == William Babington (1756–1833) Giuseppe Gabriel Balsamo-Crivelli (1800–1874) Andrew Ketcham Barnett (1852–1914) Hilary Bauerman (1835–1909) Lewis Caleb Beck (1798–1853) Friedrich Johann Karl Becke (1855–1931) Nikolay Belov (1891–1982) Torbern Bergman (1735–1784) – Related forms of calcite to cleavage Martine Bertereau (1600–1642) Émile Bertrand (1844–1909) Marcel Alexandre Bertrand (1847–1907) Friedrich Martin Berwerth (1850–1918) Jöns Jacob Berzelius (1779–1848) François Sulpice Beudant (1787–1850) Johannes Martin Bijvoet (1892–1980) Luca Bindi (born 1971) Maynard Bixby (1853–1935) Harald Bjørlykke (1901–1968) William Phipps Blake (1826–1910) Johann Reinhard Blum (1802–1883) Hendrik Enno Boeke (1881–1918)


id: list-of-mineralogists-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mineralogists-1.md
category: reference
title: List of mineralogists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mineralogists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:30.651601+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-mineralogists-20260505-0
summary:
Felix Karl Ludwig Machatschki (1895–1970) George Mackenzie (1780–1848) Ernest-François Mallard (1833–1894) Joseph A. Mandarino (1929–2007) Ho-Kwang Mao (born 1941) Brian Harold Mason (1917–2009) Johannes Mathesius (1504–1565) Charles-Victor Mauguin (1878–1958) John Mawe (1764–1829) Sarah Mawe (1767–1846) Marshall McDonald (1835–1895) Helen Megaw (1907–2002) – first woman to receive the Roebling Medal of the Mineralogical Society of America Giuseppe Giovanni Antonio Meneghini (1811–1889) Luiz Alberto Dias Menezes (1950–2014) Ludwig Meyn (1820–1878) Auguste Michel-Lévy (1844–1911) Henry Alexander Miers (1858–1942) William Hallowes Miller (1801–1880) Stanley Robert Mitchell (1881–1963) Eilhard Mitscherlich (1794–1863) Friedrich Mohs (1773–1839) Jean-André Mongez (1750–1788) Otto Mügge (1858–1932) == N == Alexandra Navrotsky (born 1943) Franz Ernst Neumann (1798–1895) Ernest Henry Nickel (1925–2009) James Nicol (1810–1879) Paul Niggli (1888–1953) William Niven (1850–1937) Johann Jakob Nöggerath (1788–1877) Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld (1832–1901) Nils Gustaf Nordenskiöld (1792–1866) George Lorenzo Noyes (1863–1945) == O == Konrad Oebbeke (1853–1932) == P == Adolf Pabst (1899–1990) Charles Palache (1869–1954) Pierre Bernard Palassou (1745–1830) Eugène Louis Melchior Patrin (1742–1815) Linus Carl Pauling (1901–1994) Lev Perovski (1792–1856) Carlo Perrier (1886–1948) Ours-Pierre-Armand Petit-Dufrénoy (1792–1857) William Phillips (1775–1829) William Pinch (1940–2017) Félix Pisani (1831–1920) Pliny (23–79) Erika Pohl-Ströher (1919–2016) Petru Poni (1841–1925) Alexander Postels (1801–1871) Charles T. Prewitt (1933–2022) George Thurland Prior (1862–1936)


id: classification-of-non-silicate-minerals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_non-silicate_minerals-0.md
category: reference
title: Classification of non-silicate minerals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_non-silicate_minerals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:31.933550+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-non-silicate-minerals-20260505-0
summary:
This list gives an overview of the classification of non-silicate minerals and includes mostly International Mineralogical Association (IMA) recognized minerals and its groupings. This list complements the List of minerals recognized by the International Mineralogical Association series of articles and List of minerals. Rocks, ores, mineral mixtures, not IMA approved minerals, not named minerals are mostly excluded. Mostly major groups only, or groupings used by New Dana Classification and Mindat. == Classification of minerals == === Introduction === The grouping of the New Dana Classification and of the mindat.org is similar only, and so this classification is an overview only. Consistency is missing too on the group name endings (group, subgroup, series) between New Dana Classification and mindat.org. Category, class and supergroup name endings are used as layout tools in the list as well. Abbreviations "*" – Mineral not IMA-approved. "?" – IMA discredited mineral name. "REE" – Rare-earth element (Sc, Y, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu) "PGE" – Platinum-group element (Ru, Rh, Pd, Os, Ir, Pt) === Category 01 === Elements: Metals and Alloys, Carbides, Silicides, Nitrides, Phosphides Category:Diamond Category:Gold ==== Class: Native elements ==== Category:Carbide minerals Osbornite group


id: classification-of-non-silicate-minerals-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_non-silicate_minerals-1.md
category: reference
title: Classification of non-silicate minerals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_non-silicate_minerals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:31.933550+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-non-silicate-minerals-20260505-0
summary:
=== Category 03 === Halogenides, Oxyhalides, Hydroxyhalides Atacamite group Polymorths of Cu2[(OH)3|Cl]: Atacamite, Botallackite, Clinoatacamite, Paratacamite Gillardite Cu3Ni(OH)6Cl2, Haydeeite Cu3Mg(OH)6Cl2, Herbertsmithite Cu3Zn[(OH)3|Cl]2, Kapellasite Cu3Zn[(OH)3|Cl]2 Fluorite group Fluorite CaF2, Fluorocronite PbF2, Frankdicksonite BaF2, Tveitite-(Y) Ca1−xYxF2+x (x~0.3), IMA2009-014 SrF2 Halite group (IMA-CNMNC discourages the use of this grouping, Mills et al. (2009)) Halite NaCl, Sylvite KCl, Villiaumite NaF, Carobbiite KF, Griceite LiF Chlorargyrite group Bromargyrite AgBr, Chlorargyrite AgCl, Marshite CuI, Miersite (Ag,Cu)I, Nantokite CuCl Lawrencite group Chloromagnesite MgCl2, Lawrencite (Fe2+,Ni)Cl2, Scacchite MnCl2, Tolbachite CuCl2 Matlockite group Bismoclite (BiO)Cl, Daubréeite (BiO)(OH,Cl), Laurionite PbCl(OH), Paralaurionite PbCl(OH), Rorisite CaFCl, Zavaritskite (BiO)F, Matlockite PbFCl Challacolloite group Challacolloite KPb2Cl5, Hephaistosite TlPb2Cl5, Steropesite Tl3BiCl6, Panichiite (NH4)2SnCl6 Chukhrovite group Chukhrovite-(Y) Ca3(Y,Ce)Al2(SO4)F13•10H2O, Chukhrovite-(Ce) Ca3(Ce,Y)Al2(SO4)F13•10H2O, Meniaylovite Ca4AlSi(SO4)F13•12H2O, Chukhrovite-(Nd) Ca3(Nd,Y)Al2(SO4)F13•12H2O === Category 04 === Oxides and Hydroxides, Vanadates, Arsenites, Antimonites, Bismuthites, Sulfites, Iodates Category:Vanadate minerals Periclase group (Isometric: Fm3m, IMA-CNMNC discourages the use of this grouping, Mills et al. (2009)) Periclase MgO, Bunsenite NiO, Manganosite MnO, Monteponite CdO, Lime CaO, Wustite FeO, Hongquiite* TiO Hematite group/ Corundum group (Rhombohedral: R-3c) Corundum Al2O3 (Sapphire, Ruby), Eskolaite Cr2O3, Hematite Fe2O3, Karelianite V2O3, Tistarite Ti2O3 Perovskite group Perovskite CaTiO3, Latrappite (Ca,Na)(Nb,Ti,Fe)O3, Loparite-(Ce) (Ce,Na,Ca)2(Ti,Nb)2O6, Lueshite NaNbO3, Tausonite SrTiO3, Isolueshite (Na,La,Ca)(Nb,Ti)O3, Barioperovskite BaTiO3, Lakargiite CaZrO3 Ilmenite group


id: classification-of-non-silicate-minerals-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_non-silicate_minerals-2.md
category: reference
title: Classification of non-silicate minerals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_non-silicate_minerals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:31.933550+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-non-silicate-minerals-20260505-0
summary:
=== Category 07 === Sulfates, Selenates, Chromates, Molybdates, Wolframates, Niobates Barite group Barite BaSO4, Celestine SrSO4, Anglesite PbSO4 Blodite group Blodite Na2Mg(SO4)2•4H2O, Nickelblodite Na2(Ni,Mg)(SO4)2•4H2O, Leonite K2Mg(SO4)2•4H2O, Mereiterite K2Fe2+(SO4)2•4H2O, Changoite Na2Zn(SO4)2•4H2O Alum group, XAl(SO4)2·12H2O Alum-(K) KAl[SO4]2·12H2O, Alum-(Na) NaAl[SO4]2·12H2O, Tschermigite (NH4)Al(SO4)2•12H2O, Lonecreekite (NH4)(Fe3+,Al)(SO4)2•12H2O, Lanmuchangite TlAl(SO4)2•12H2O Voltaite group Voltaite K2(Fe2+)5(Fe3+)3Al(SO4)12•18H2O, Zincovoltaite K2Zn5(Fe3+)3Al(SO4)12•18H2O, Pertlikite K2(Fe2+,Mg)2(Mg,Fe3+)4(Fe3+)2Al(SO4)12•18H2O Aluminite group Aluminite Al2(SO4)(OH)4•7(H2O), Mangazeite Al2(SO4)(OH)4•3H2O Zippeite group Zippeite K4(UO2)6(SO4)3(OH)10•4H2O, Natrozippeite Na4(UO2)6(SO4)3(OH)10•4H2O, Magnesiozippeite Mg(H2O)3.5(UO2)2(SO4)O2, Nickelzippeite (Ni2+)2(UO2)6(SO4)3(OH)10•16H2O, Zinc-zippeite (Zn2+)2(UO2)6(SO4)3(OH)10•16H2O, Cobaltzippeite (Co2+)2(UO2)6(SO4)3(OH)10•16H2O, Marecottite Mg3(H2O)18[(UO2)4O3(SO4)2]2•10H2O, Pseudojohannite Cu6.5[(UO2)4O4(SO4)2]2(OH)5•25H2O, IMA2009-008 Y2[(UO2)8O6(SO4)4(OH)2]•26H2O Copiapite group Copiapite Fe2+(Fe3+)4(SO4)6(OH)2•20H2O, Magnesiocopiapite Mg(Fe3+)4(SO4)6(OH)2•20H2O, Cuprocopiapite Cu(Fe3+)4(SO4)6(OH)2•20H2O, Ferricopiapite (Fe3+)2/3(Fe3+)4(SO4)6(OH)2•20H2O, Calciocopiapite Ca(Fe3+)4(SO4)6(OH)2•19H2O, Zincocopiapite Zn(Fe3+)4(SO4)6(OH)2•18H2O, Aluminocopiapite Al2/3(Fe3+)4(SO4)6O(OH)2•20H2O Pb, Zn tellurates Cheremnykhite Zn3Pb3Te4+O6(VO4)2, Kuksite Pb3Zn3Te6+O6(PO4)2, Dugganite Pb3Zn3Te(As,V,Si)2(O,OH)14, Joelbruggerite Pb3Zn3Sb5+As2O13(OH) "Halotrichite" supergroup Hydrated acid and sulfates where A(B)2(XO4)4·xH2O Halotrichite group Pickeringite MgAl2(SO4)4•22H2O, Halotrichite Fe2+Al2(SO4)4•22H2O, Apjohnite MnAl2(SO4)4•22H2O, Dietrichite (Zn,Fe2+,Mn)Al2(SO4)4•22H2O, Bilinite Fe2+(Fe3+)2(SO4)4•22H2O, Redingtonite (Fe2+,Mg,Ni)(Cr,Al)2(SO4)4•22H2O, Wupatkiite (Co,Mg,Ni)Al2(SO4)4•22H2O Ransomite Cu(Fe3+)2(SO4)4•6H2O, Romerite Fe2+(Fe3+)2(SO4)4•14H2O, Lishizhenite Zn(Fe3+)2(SO4)4•14H2O ==== "Kieserite" supergroup ==== Hydrated acid and sulfates where AXO4·xH2O Kieserite group Kieserite MgSO4•H2O, Szomolnokite Fe2+SO4•H2O, Szmikite MnSO4•H2O, Poitevinite (Cu,Fe2+,Zn)SO4•H2O, Gunningite (Zn,Mn)SO4•H2O, Dwornikite (Ni,Fe2+)SO4•H2O, Cobaltkieserite CoSO4•H2O Rozenite group (Monoclinic) Rozenite Fe2+SO4•4H2O, Starkeyite MgSO4•4H2O, Ilesite (Mn,Zn,Fe2+)SO4•4H2O, Aplowite (Co,Mn,Ni)SO4•4H2O, Boyleite (Zn,Mg)SO4•4H2O, IMA2002-034 CdSO4•4H2O Chalchanthite group (Triclinic: P-1) Chalcanthite CuSO4•5H2O, Siderotil Fe2+SO4•5H2O, Pentahydrite MgSO4•5H2O, Jokokuite MnSO4•5H2O Hexahydrite group (Space group: C2/c) Hexahydrite MgSO4•6H2O, Bianchite (Zn,Fe2+)(SO4)•6H2O, Ferrohexahydrite Fe2+SO4•6H2O, Nickelhexahydrite (Ni,Mg,Fe2+)(SO4)•6H2O,


id: classification-of-non-silicate-minerals-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_non-silicate_minerals-3.md
category: reference
title: Classification of non-silicate minerals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_non-silicate_minerals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:31.933550+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-non-silicate-minerals-20260505-0
summary:
===== "Rockbridgeite" supergroup ===== Anhydrous phosphates, etc. containing hydroxyl or halogen where (A B)5 (XO4)3 Zq Kulanite group Kulanite Ba(Fe2+,Mn,Mg)2Al2(PO4)3(OH)3, Penikisite BaMg2Al2(PO4)3(OH)3, Bjarebyite (Ba,Sr)(Mn2+,Fe2+,Mg)2Al2(PO4)3(OH)3, Perloffite Ba(Mn,Fe2+)2(Fe3+)2(PO4)3(OH)3, Johntomaite Ba(Fe2+,Ca,Mn2+)2(Fe3+)2(PO4)3(OH)3 Rockbridgeite group Rockbridgeite (Fe2+,Mn)(Fe3+)4(PO4)3(OH)5, Frondelite Mn2+(Fe3+)4(PO4)3(OH)5, Plimerite Zn(Fe3+)4(PO4)3(OH)5 Griphite Ca(Mn,Na,Li)6Fe2+Al2(PO4)6(F,OH)2 ===== "Lazulite" supergroup ===== Anhydrous phosphates, etc. containing hydroxyl or halogen where (A2+ B2+)3 (XO4)2 Zq Lazulite group Lazulite MgAl2(PO4)2(OH)2, Scorzalite (Fe2+,Mg)Al2(PO4)2(OH)2, Hentschelite Cu2+(Fe3+)2(PO4)2(OH)2, Barbosalite Fe2+(Fe3+)2(PO4)2(OH)2 Lipscombite group Lipscombite (Fe2+,Mn2+)(Fe3+)2(PO4)2(OH)2, Zinclipscombite Zn(Fe3+)2(PO4)2(OH)2 Goedkenite group Goedkenite (Sr,Ca)2Al(PO4)2(OH), Bearthite Ca2Al(PO4)2(OH), Gamagarite Ba2(Fe3+,Mn3+)(VO4)2(OH), Tokyoite Ba2Mn(VO4)2(OH) Carminite group Carminite Pb(Fe3+)2(AsO4)2(OH)2, Sewardite Ca(Fe3+)2(AsO4)2(OH)2 Mounanaite group Mounanaite Pb(Fe3+)2(VO4)2(OH)2, Krettnichite Pb(Mn3+)2(VO4)2(OH)2 Preisingerite group Preisingerite Bi3(AsO4)2O(OH), Schumacherite Bi3[(V,As,P)O4]2O(OH) Jagowerite BaAl2(PO4)2(OH)2, Melonjosephite CaFe2+Fe3+(PO4)2(OH), Samuelsonite (Ca,Ba)Ca8(Fe2+,Mn)4Al2(PO4)10(OH)2, Petitjeanite (Bi3+)3(PO4)2O(OH), Drugmanite Pb2(Fe3+,Al)H(PO4)2(OH)2 ==== Class: Hydrated phosphates ==== Hureaulite group Hureaulite Mn5(PO3OH)2(PO4)2•4H2O, Sainfeldite Ca5(AsO3OH)2(AsO4)2•4H2O, Villyaellenite (Mn2+)5(AsO3OH)2(AsO4)2•4H2O, IMA2008-047 Cd3Zn2(AsO3OH)2(AsO4)2•4H2O, IMA2008-066 Mn5(H2O)4(AsO3OH)2(AsO4)2 Lindackerite group Lindackerite CuCu4(AsO4)2(AsO3OH)2•~9H2O, Braithwaiteite NaCu5(Ti,Sb)2O2(AsO4)4[AsO3(OH)]2•8H2O, Veselovskyite (Zn,Cu,Co)Cu4(AsO4)2(AsO3OH)2•9H2O, IMA2008-010 CaCu4(AsO4)2(AsO3OH)2•10H2O Struvite group Struvite (NH4)MgPO4•6H2O, Struvite-(K) KMg(PO4)•6H2O, Hazenite KNaMg2(PO4)2•14H2O Autunite group Formula: A(UO2)2(XO4)2·(10-12)H2O A = Cu, Ca, Ba, or Mg; X = P or As. Autunite Ca(UO2)2(PO4)2•(10-12)H2O, Heinrichite Ba(UO2)2(AsO4)2•(10-12)H2O, Kahlerite Fe2+(UO2)2(AsO4)2•(10-12)H2O, Novacekite-I Mg(UO2)2(AsO4)2•12H2O, Sabugalite HAl(UO2)4(PO4)4•16H2O, Saleeite Mg(UO2)2(PO4)2•10H2O, Torbernite Cu(UO2)2(PO4)2•(8-12)H2O, Uranocircite Ba(UO2)2(PO4)2•12H2O, Uranospinite Ca(UO2)2(AsO4)2•10H2O, Zeunerite Cu(UO2)2(AsO4)2•(10-16)H2O Meta-autunite group Formula: A(UO2)2(XO4)2·nH2O (n = 6, 7 or 8) A = Cu, Ca, Ba, or Mg and X = P


id: classification-of-silicate-minerals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_silicate_minerals-0.md
category: reference
title: Classification of silicate minerals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_silicate_minerals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:33.280850+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-silicate-minerals-20260505-0
summary:
This list gives an overview of the classification of minerals (silicates) and includes mostly International Mineralogical Association (IMA) recognized minerals and its groupings. This list complements the List of minerals recognized by the International Mineralogical Association series of articles and List of minerals. Rocks, ores, mineral mixtures, non-IMA approved minerals and non-named minerals are mostly excluded. == Classification of minerals == === Introduction === The grouping of the New Dana Classification and of the mindat.org is similar only, and so this classification is an overview only. Consistency is missing too on the group name endings (group, subgroup, series) between New Dana Classification and mindat.org. Category, class and supergroup name endings are used as layout tools in the list as well. ==== Abbreviations ==== "*" – mineral not IMA-approved. "Q" – doubtful/questionable. Rn – renaming. Rd – redefinition. "REE" – rare-earth element (Sc, Y, La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu). "PGE" – platinum-group element (Ru, Rh, Pd, Os, Ir, Pt). "s.p." – special procedure. === Category '9': silicate minerals === Unclassified silicates ==== Subclass '9.A': nesosilicates ==== Zircon group: MSiO4 (a group of simple tetragonal silicates where M = tetravalent Zr, Th,


id: classification-of-silicate-minerals-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_silicate_minerals-1.md
category: reference
title: Classification of silicate minerals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_silicate_minerals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:33.280850+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-silicate-minerals-20260505-0
summary:
====== Amphibole supergroup ====== w(OH, F, Cl)-dominant amphibole: calcic subgroup Cannilloite root name: fluoro-cannilloite CaCa2Mg4Al(Si5Al3)O22(OH)2 (1993-033, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from cannilloite) Edenite root name: edenite Na[Ca2][Mg5][(OH)2|AlSi7O22] (1839, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), ferro-edenite [Na][Ca2][(Fe2+)5][(OH)2|AlSi7O22] (1946, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), fluoro-edenite Na[Ca2][Mg5][(F,OH)2|AlSi7O22] (IMA 1994-059, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd) Hastingsite root name: hastingsite [Na][Ca2][(Fe2+)4Fe3+][(OH)2|Al2Si6O22] (1896, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd), magnesio-fluoro-hastingsite (Na,K)Ca2(Mg,Fe3+,Ti)5(Si,Al)8O22F2 (IMA 2005-002, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from fluoro-magnesiohastingsite), magnesio-hastingsite Na[Ca2][Mg4Fe3+][(OH)2|Al2Si6O22] (1928, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from magnesiohastingsite), potassic-fluoro-hastingsite KCa2((Fe2+)2,Mg2,Fe3+)S5(Si6Al2)8O22F2 (IMA 2005-006, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from fluoro-potassichastingsite), potassic-chloro-hastingsite KCa2(Mg4Al)(Si6Al2)O22Cl2 (IMA 2005-007, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from chloro-potassicpargasite, syn. dashkesanite), potassic-magnesio-hastingsite (K,Na)Ca2(Mg,Fe2+,Fe3+,Al)5(Si,Al)8O22(OH,Cl)2 (IMA 2004-027b, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from potassic-magnesiohastingsite) Joesmithite PbCa2(Mg,Fe2+,Fe3+)5Si6Be2O22(OH)2 (1968, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd) Magnesio-hornblende root name: ferro-hornblende [Ca2][(Fe2+)4Al][(OH)2|AlSi7O22] (1930, IMA 1978 s.p., IMA 1997 s.p. Rn from ferro-hornblende, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from ferrohornblende), magnesio-hornblende [Ca2][Mg4Al][(OH)2|AlSi7O22] (1965, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from magnesiohornblende) Pargasite root name: chromio-pargasite (IMA 2011-023, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from ehimeite), ferro-pargasite [Na][Ca2][(Fe2+)4Al][(OH)2|Al2Si6O22] (1961, IMA 1997 s.p. Rd, IMA 2012 s.p. Rd Rn from ferropargasite), fluoro-pargasite NaCa2(Mg3Fe2+Al)5(Si6Al2O22)F2 (IMA 2003-050,


id: classification-of-silicate-minerals-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_silicate_minerals-2.md
category: reference
title: Classification of silicate minerals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification_of_silicate_minerals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:33.280850+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: classification-of-silicate-minerals-20260505-0
summary:
==== Subclass '9.E': phyllosilicates ==== Category:Clay minerals group Category:Medicinal clay Category:Mica group Category:Serpentine group/ Kaolinite-Serpentine group Category:Smectite group/ Montmorillonite group Pyrophyllite-Talc group Chlorite group: Clinochlore, Nimite, Pennantite, Baileychlore, Cookeite, Donbassite, Gonyerite, Odinite, Sudoite, Orthochamosite ==== Subclass '9.F': tectosilicates ==== ===== Tectosilicates without zeolitic H2O ===== Category:Quartz varieties Feldspar family Feldspathoid family Sodalite group Helvine group Category:Cancrinite group ===== Tectosilicates with zeolitic H2O ===== Category:Zeolite group Alflarsenite NaCa2Be3Si4O13(OH)•2H2O Zeolites with T5O10 Units – fibrous zeolites Natrolite subgroup Gonnardite (Na,Ca)2(Si,Al)5O10·3H2O, Mesolite Na2Ca2Si9Al6O30·8H2O, Natrolite Na2Al2Si3O10·2H2O, Paranatrolite Na2Al2Si3O10·3H2O, Scolecite CaAl2Si3O10·3H2O Tetranatrolite? Na2[Al2Si3O10]•2H2O, Thomsonite-Sr (Sr,Ca)2Na[Al5Si5O20]•7H2O, Thomsonite-Ca NaCa2Al5Si5O20•6H2O, Kalborsite K6Al4Si6BO20(OH)4Cl, Edingtonite BaAl2Si3O10•4H2O Chains of single connected 4-membered rings Ammonioleucite (NH4,K)AlSi2O6, Leucite KAlSi2O6, Analcime NaAlSi2O6•H2O, Hsianghualite Ca3Li2Be3(SiO4)3F2, Lithosite K6Al4Si8O25•H2O, Pollucite (Cs,Na)2Al2Si4O12•H2O, Wairakite CaAl2Si4O12•2H2O, Laumontite CaAl2Si4O12•4H2O, Yugawaralite CaAl2Si6O16•4H2O, Roggianite Ca2[Be(OH)2Al2Si4O13]•2.5H2O, Goosecreekite CaAl2Si6O16•5H2O, Montesommaite (K,Na)9Al9Si23O64•10H2O, Partheite Ca2Al4Si4O15(OH)2•4H2O Chains of doubly connected 4-membered rings Amicite K2Na2Al4Si4O16•5H2O, Garronite Na2Ca5Al12Si20O64•27H2O, Gobbinsite (Na2,Ca)2K2Al6Si10O32•12H2O, Gismondine Ca2Al4Si4O16•9H2O, Harmotome (Ba,Na,K)(1-2)(Si,Al)8O16•6H2O, Phillipsite-Na (Na,K,Ca)(1-2)(Si,Al)8O16•6H2O, Phillipsite-Ca (Ca,K,Na)(1-2)(Si,Al)8O16•6H2O, Phillipsite-K (K,Na,Ca)(1-2)(Si,Al)8O16•6H2O, Merlinoite (K,Ca,Na,Ba)7Si23Al9O64•23H2O, Mazzite-Mg K2CaMg2(Al,Si)36O72•28H2O, Mazzite-Na Na8Al8Si28O72•30H2O, Perlialite K8Tl4Al12Si24O72•20H2O, Boggsite NaCa2(Al5Si19O48)•17H2O, Paulingite-Ca (Ca,K,Na,Ba)5[Al10Si35O84]•34H2O, Paulingite-K (K2,Ca,Na2,Ba)5Al10Si35O90•45H2O, Paulingite-Na (Na2,K2,Ca,Ba)5Al10Si35O90•45H2O Chains of 6-membered rings – tabular zeolites Gmelinite-Ca (Ca,Na2)Al2Si4O12•6H2O, Gmelinite-K (K,Na,Ca)6(Al7Si17O48)•22H2O, Gmelinite-Na (Na2,Ca)Al2Si4O12•6H2O, Chabazite-K (K2,Ca,Na2,Mg)[Al2Si4O12]•6H2O, Chabazite-Ca (Ca0.5,Na,K)4[Al4Si8O24]•12H2O, Chabazite-Na (Na2,K2,Ca,Mg)[Al2Si4O12]•6H2O, Chabazite-Sr (Sr,Ca,K2,Na2)[Al2Si4O12]•6H2O, Herschelite? (Na,Ca,K)AlSi2O6•3H2O, Willhendersonite KCaAl3Si3O12•5H2O, Levyne-Ca (Ca,Na2,K2)Al2Si4O12•6H2O, Levyne-Na (Na2,Ca,K2)Al2Si4O12•6H2O, Bellbergite (K,Ba,Sr)2Sr2Ca2(Ca,Na)4Al18Si18O72•30H2O, Erionite-Ca (Ca,K2,Na2)2[Al4Si14O36]•15H2O, Erionite-K


id: list-of-minerals-named-after-people-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_named_after_people-0.md
category: reference
title: List of minerals named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:35.881129+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-minerals-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of minerals named after people. The chemical composition of the mineral follows the name. == A == Abelsonite: C31H32N4Ni – American physicist Philip Hauge Abelson (1913–2004) Abswurmbachite: Cu2+Mn3+6O8SiO4 – German mineralogist Irmgard Abs-Wurmbach (1938–2020) Adamite: Zn2AsO4OH – French mineralogist Gilbert Joseph Adam (1795–1881) Agrellite: NaCa2Si4O10F – English optical mineralogist Stuart Olof Agrell (1913–1996) Agricolaite: K4(UO2)(CO3)3 – German scholar Georgius Agricola (1494–1555) Aheylite: Fe2+Al6(PO4)4(OH)8·4H2O – American geologist Allen V. Heyl (1918–2008) Albrechtschraufite: Ca4Mg(UO2)2(CO3)6F2·17H2O – Albrecht Schrauf (1837–1897), professor of mineralogy, University of Vienna Alexandrite: Variety of chrysoberyl (BeAl2O4): – Russian monarch, Tsar Alexander II of Russia (1818–1881) Alforsite: Ba5Cl(PO4)3 – American geologist John T. Alfors (1930–2005) Allabogdanite: (Fe,Ni)2P – Alla Bogdanova (1947–2004), Geological Institute, Kola Science Centre of Russian Academy of Sciences Allanite series: sorosilicate – Scottish mineralogist, Thomas Allan (1777–1833) Alloriite: Na5K1.5(Al6Si6O24)(SO4)(OH)0.5·H2O – Italian mineralogist Roberto Allori (born 1933) Almeidaite: crichtonite group (metal titanates); Brazilian geologist Fernando Flávio Marques de Almeida (1916–2013) Anandite: (Ba,K)(Fe2+,Mg)3(Si,Al,Fe)4O10(S,OH)2 – Ceylonese metaphysician, historian and philosopher Ananda Coomaraswamy (1877–1947), first director of the Mineral Survey of Ceylon Andersonite: Na2Ca(UO2)(CO3)3·6H2O – Charles Alfred Anderson (1902–1990), United States Geological Survey Andradite: Ca3Fe2Si3O12 – Brazilian statesman, naturalist, professor and poet José Bonifácio de Andrade e


id: list-of-minerals-named-after-people-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_named_after_people-1.md
category: reference
title: List of minerals named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:35.881129+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-minerals-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
== C == Cabriite: Pd2SnCu – Canadian mineralogist Louis J. Cabri (born 1934) Cámaraite: sorosilicate – Fernando Cámara (born 1967), mineralogist of Melilla, Spain Cancrinite: Na6Ca2[(CO3)2 – Georg von Cancrin (1774–1845) Canfieldite: Ag8SnS6 – American mining engineer Frederick Alexander Canfield (1849–1926) Cannonite: Bi2(OH)2SO4 – American mineralogist and electron microprobe analyst Benjamin Bartlett (Bart) Cannon Carlfriesite: CaTe4+2Te6+O8 – American researcher at the Institute of Geology of the National university of Mexico Carl Fries, Jr (1910–1965). Carlhintzeite: Ca2AlF7 · H2O – German mineralogist Carl Hintze (1851–1916), University of Breslau Carlosruizite: K6(Na,K)4Na6Mg10(SeO4)12(IO3)12 · 12 H2O – Chilean geologist Carlos Ruiz Fuller (1916–1997), founder of the Chilean Geological Survey Carnallite: KMgCl3 · 6 H2O – Prussian mining engineer, Rudolf von Carnall (1804–1874) Carnotite: K2(UO2)2(VO4)2 – French mining engineer and chemist Marie Adolphe Carnot (1839–1920) Cassidyite: Ca2Ni0.75Mg0.25(PO4)2 · 2 H2O – American geologist William A. Cassidy Castaingite (discredited 1967: a mixture of cuprian molybdenite and gerhardtite) Caswellsilverite: NaCrS2 – American geologist, entrepreneur, and oilman Caswell Silver (1916–1988) Cattiite: Mg3(PO4)2 · 22H2O – Michele Catti (b. 1945), Professor of Physical Chemistry, University of Milano-Bicocca, Italy Celsian: BaAl2Si2O8 – Swedish astronomer and naturalist Anders Celsius (1701–1744) And paracelsian Cernyite: Cu2CdSnS4 – Canadian mineralogist Petr Cerny Cesbronite: Cu6(TeO3)2(OH)6


id: list-of-minerals-named-after-people-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_named_after_people-2.md
category: reference
title: List of minerals named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:35.881129+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-minerals-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
== G == Gadolinite: (Ce,La,Nd,Y)2FeBe2Si2O10 – Finnish mineralogist and chemist Johan Gadolin (1760–1852) Gagarinite series: Na(REExCa(1-x))(REEyCa(1-y))F6 – Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin (1934–1968) Gahnite: ZnAl2O4 – Swedish chemist Johan Gottlieb Gahn (1745–1818) Gatehouseite: Mn2+5(PO4)2(OH)4 – crystal chemist Bryan M. K. C. Gatehouse (born 1932), Monash University, Melbourne Gaylussite: Na2Ca(CO3)2·5H2O – French chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778–1850) Geikielite: MgTiO3 – Scottish geologist Archibald Geikie (1835–1924) Genkinite: (Pt,Pd)4Sb3 – Soviet mineralogist A. D. Genkin Georgerobinsonite: Pb4(CrO4)2(OH)2FCl – George Willard Robinson Gerhardtite: Cu2(NO3)(OH)3 – Alsatian chemist Charles Frédéric Gerhardt Gibbsite: Al(OH)3 – American mineralogist George Gibbs (1777–1834) Uintaite (syn. gilsonite, asphalt) – American Samuel H. Gilson Ferri-ghoseite: ☐[Mn2+Na][Mg4Fe3+]Si8O22(OH)2 – Subrata Ghose (born 1932), emeritus professor at the University of Washington, Seattle Goethite: FeOOH – German polymath Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832) Julgoldite: sorosilicate – American mineralogist and geochemist Julian Royce Goldsmith (1918–1999) Gormanite: Fe2+3Al4(PO4)4(OH)6·2H2O – mineralogist Donald Herbert Gorman, University of Toronto Grandidierite: (Mg,Fe2+)Al3(BO3)(SiO4)O2 – French explorer Alfred Grandidier (1836–1912). Gregoryite: (Na2,K2,Ca)CO3 – British geologist and author John Walter Gregory (1864–1932) Greigite: Fe2+Fe3+2S4 – mineralogist and physical chemist Joseph W. Greig (1895–1977) Grossite: CaAl4O7 – Israeli mineralogist and geologist Shulamit Gross (1923–2012) Grothite (titanite var., 9.AG.15) Grunerite: Fe7Si8O22(OH)2 – Swiss-French chemist Emmanuel-Louis Gruner (1809–1883)


id: list-of-minerals-named-after-people-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_named_after_people-3.md
category: reference
title: List of minerals named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:35.881129+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-minerals-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
== M == Macdonaldite: BaCa4Si16O36(OH)2 · 10 H2O – American volcanologist, Gordon Andrew Macdonald (1911–1978, redirect) Malhmoodite: FeZr(PO4)2 · 4H2O – Bertha K. Malhmood, for many years Administrative Assistant of the Branch of Analytical Laboratories, U.S. Geological Survey Mandarinoite: Fe2(SeO3)3 · 4H2O – American-Canadian mineralogist Joseph (Joe) A. Mandarino (1929–2007) And telluromandarinoite Maricite: NaFePO4 – Croatian mineralogist Luka Marić (1899–1979), University of Zagreb Marthozite: Cu(UO2)3(SeO3)3(OH)2·7H2O – Belgian mineralogist Aimé Marthoz (1894–1962) Machatschkiite (8.CJ.35) Mascagnite: (NH4)2SO4 – Italian anatomist Paolo Mascagni (1752–1815) Mathesiusite: K5(UO2)4(SO4)4(VO5) · 4(H2O) – German minister Johannes Mathesius (1504–1565) Mawbyite: Pb(Fe3+,Zn)2(AsO4)2(OH)2 – Australian metallurgist and mining executive Sir Maurice Alan Edgar Mawby (1904–1977) Mckelveyite-(Y): Ba3NaCa0.75U0.25Y(CO3)6 · 3 H2O – American geologist Vincent E. McKelvey (1916–1985) Meyerhofferite: CaB3O3(OH)5 · H2O – German chemist, Wilhelm Meyerhoffer (1864–1906) Meyrowitzite: Ca(UO2)(CO3)2 · 5H2O – after Robert Meyrowitz (1916–2013), an American analytical chemist Mendeleevite-(Ce): Cs6(Ce22Ca6)(Si70O175)(OH,F)14(H2O)21 – Russian chemist Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev (1834–1907) Menzerite-(Y) (IMA2009-050) Millerite: NiS – British mineralogist William Hallowes Miller (1801–1880) Millosevichite: Al2(SO4)3 – Italian mineralogist Federico Millosevich (1875–1942) Moëloite (2.HC.25) Mohsite (crichtonite var., 4.CC.40) Moissanite: SiC (naturally occurring) – discoverer Henri Moissan (1852–1907) Monticellite: Ca(Mg,Fe)SiO4 – Italian mineralogist Teodoro Monticelli (1759–1845) Morganite (variety of Beryl): – American financier J. P.


id: list-of-minerals-named-after-people-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_named_after_people-4.md
category: reference
title: List of minerals named after people
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_named_after_people
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:35.881129+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-minerals-named-after-people-20260505-0
summary:
== T == Tarbuttite: Zn2(PO4)(OH) Percy Coventry Tarbutt (died 1943), a Director of the Broken Hill Exploration Company Teallite: PbSnS2 – British geologist Jethro Justinian Harris Teall (1849–1924) Tennantite: Cu12As4S13 – English chemist Smithson Tennant (1761–1815) Tenorite: CuO – Italian botanist Michele Tenore (1780–1861) Theophrastite: Ni(OH)2 – Greek philosopher and writer Theophrastus (c. 371 – c. 287 BC) Thomasclarkite: Na0.8Ce0.2Y0.5REE0.7(HCO3)(OH)3·4H2O – Canadian geologist Thomas Clark (1893–1996) Thortveitite: (Sc,Y)2Si2O7 – Norwegian engineer Olaus Thortveit Tiemannite: HgSe – Johann Carl Wilhelm Tiemann (1848–1899) Torbernite: CuAl(UO2)2(PO4)2·8-12H2O – Swedish chemist Torbern Bergman (1735–1784) Trevorite: NiFe2O4 – Major Tudor Gruffydd Trevor, mining inspector for the Pretoria District, Transvaal, South Africa Tschernichite: CaAl2Si6O16·8H2O – Rudy W. Tschernich (born 1945), expert on zeolites Tschermakite: Ca2(Mg3AlFe3+)Si6Al2O22(OH)2 – Austrian mineralogist Gustav Tschermak von Seysenegg (1836–1927) == U == Ulexite: NaCaB5O9·8H2O – German chemist Georg Ludwig Ulex (1811–1883) Ullmannite: NiSbS – German chemist and mineralogist Johann Christoph Ullmann (1771–1821, redirect) Uytenbogaardtite: Ag3AuS2 – Dutch mineralogist Willem Uytenbogaardt (1918–2012) Uvarovite: Ca3Cr2(SiO4)3 – Russian Count Sergei Semenovitch Uvarov (1765–1855) == V == Vaesite: NiS2 – Belgian mineralogist Johannes F. Vaes (1902–1978) Valentinite: Sb2O3 – German alchemist Basilius Valentinus (might be Johann Thölde? 1565–1614) Vanthoffite: Na6Mg(SO4)4 – Jacobus Henricus van't Hoff (1852–1911), professor


id: list-of-minerals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of minerals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:37.075024+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-minerals-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of minerals which have Wikipedia articles. Minerals are distinguished by various chemical and physical properties. Differences in chemical composition and crystal structure distinguish the various species. Within a mineral species there may be variation in physical properties or minor amounts of impurities that are recognized by mineralogists or wider society as a mineral variety. Mineral variety names are listed after the valid minerals for each letter. For a more complete listing of all mineral names, see List of minerals recognized by the International Mineralogical Association. == A == Varieties that are not valid species: Adamantine spar (variety of corundum) Agate (variety of chalcedony and quartz) Alabaster (variety of gypsum) Alexandrite (variety of chrysoberyl) Allingite (synonym of amber) Alum Amazonite (variety of microcline) Amethyst (purple variety of quartz) Ametrine (variety of quartz) Ammolite (organic; also a gemstone) Amosite (asbestiform grunerite) Antozonite (variety of fluorite) Anyolite (metamorphic rock - zoisite, ruby, and hornblende) Aquamarine (light blue variety of beryl) Argentite (high temperature form of acanthite) Asbestos (fibrous serpentine- or amphibole minerals) Auerlite (variety of thorite) Avalite (chromian variety of illite) Aventurine (variety of quartz) == B == Varieties that are not valid species: Barbertonite (polytype of stichtite) Bauxite


id: list-of-minerals-recognized-by-the-international-mineralogical-association-20260505-0
category: reference
title: List of minerals recognized by the International Mineralogical Association
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:38.374024+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-minerals-recognized-by-the-international-mineralogical-association-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_recognized_by_the_International_Mineralogical_Association-0.md

summary:
Mineralogy is an active science in which minerals are discovered or recognised on a regular basis. Use of old mineral names is also discontinued, for example when a name is no longer considered valid. Therefore, a list of recognised mineral species is never complete. Minerals are distinguished by various chemical and physical properties. Differences in chemical composition and crystal structure distinguish the various species. Within a mineral species there may be variation in physical properties or minor amounts of impurities that are recognized by mineralogists or wider society as a mineral variety. The International Mineralogical Association (IMA) is the international scientific group that recognises new minerals and new mineral names. However, minerals discovered before 1959 did not go through the official naming procedure. Some minerals published previously have been either confirmed or discredited since that date. This list contains a mixture of mineral names that have been approved since 1959 and those mineral names believed to still refer to valid mineral species (these are called "grandfathered" species). Presently, each year about 90–110 new mineral species (the sum of all mutations c. 120 per year) are officially approved by the Commission on New Minerals, Nomenclature and Classification (CNMNC) of the International

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_recognized_by_the_International_Mineralogical_Association


id: list-of-minerals-recognized-by-the-international-mineralogical-association-20260505-1
category: reference
title: List of minerals recognized by the International Mineralogical Association
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:38.374024+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-minerals-recognized-by-the-international-mineralogical-association-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_recognized_by_the_International_Mineralogical_Association-1.md

summary:
== Working practices == The name of a new mineral is kept confidential by the IMA until it is approved or until its full description is published, its authors' option (approved decision: 'IMA2009-D'). The IMA uses a code for its own procedures for the supposed new mineral (and so it is a synonym). Ferri-ottoliniite's proposal was assigned code 'IMA2001-067', it was redefined and approved as 'IMA2001-067a' in 2003, for instance (the ottoliniite root name is discredited since 2012). Current IMA regulations do not allow substances of anthropogenic origin (burning coal mine dumps, coal mine fires, slag, etc.) to be validated as a mineral species. Since 1998, the majority of polymorphs (especially polytypes and polytypoids) are not regarded as separate mineral species anymore. IMA/CNMNC identifiers are usually written without space, as years don't get meaningful hits on Google search. "The System of Mineralogy of James Dwight Dana and Edward Salisbury Dana" (8 ed.) was the reference of CNMNC/CNMMN's (IMA) initial work. At the Kobe 2006 general meeting, the IMA council endorsed the creation of an Internet site on minerals ('rruff.info/ima'). So a Master List was needed and the older minerals were reviewed in a document of 130 pages. The final GQN

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_recognized_by_the_International_Mineralogical_Association


id: list-of-minerals-recognized-by-the-international-mineralogical-association-20260505-2
category: reference
title: List of minerals recognized by the International Mineralogical Association
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:38.374024+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-minerals-recognized-by-the-international-mineralogical-association-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_recognized_by_the_International_Mineralogical_Association-2.md

summary:
== Miscellany == Current regulations do not allow a new mineral name to honour a person a second time. But there are exceptions: Jöns Jakob Berzelius (1779–1848) (berzelianite, berzeliite and berzeline (now haüyne)); Pierre Berthier (1782–1861) (berthierine and berthierite); Andor von Semsey (1833–1923) (andorite IV, andorite VI and semseyite); Brian Harold Mason (1917–2009) (brianite and stenhuggarite); Caleb Wroe Wolfe (1908–1980) (wolfeite and wroewolfeite) and Leo Neal Yedlin (1908–1977) (yedlinite and nealite). The regulation does not affect mineral series and other variations (prefix iso, hexa, ortho, tetra, clino, meta, para, pseudo etc.). For instance: Karl Hugo Strunz (1910–2006) (strunzite group); George P. Merrill (1854–1929) (merrillite series, whitlockite group); Edward S. Grew (Ph.D. 1971) (edgrewite series, humite group). Standard temperature and pressure (STP). Silicate perovskites, argentite and β-quartz are not valid minerals, as they do not occur on Earth's surface (STP). The type material of bridgmanite is from a meteorite. Some minerals are unstable on Earth's surface (metastability): diamonds, cohenite and haxonite, for instance. Acanthite var. argentite (a pseudomorph after argentite) and β-quartz pseudomorphs are sometimes sold. Ramdohr (1936) discovered that the type material of schapbachite (Ag0.4Pb0.2Bi0.4S) was a mixture of galena (PbS) and matildite (AgBiS2). It was discredited (1982) as it

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_recognized_by_the_International_Mineralogical_Association


id: list-of-minerals-recognized-by-the-international-mineralogical-association-20260505-3
category: reference
title: List of minerals recognized by the International Mineralogical Association
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:38.374024+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-minerals-recognized-by-the-international-mineralogical-association-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_recognized_by_the_International_Mineralogical_Association-3.md

summary:
Attention with the amphiboles: some mineral names have been redefined (IMA2012 s.p. was the last revision), some even more than once; i.e. their chemical formula range changed. For example, aluminotaramite ('IMA2006-023', 9.DE.20) is a synonym of ferro-taramite, sodic-ferri-ferropedrizite (IMA2003 s.p., 9.DE.25) was renamed to ferro-ferri-pedrizite, ehimeite is a synonym of chromio-pargasite ('IMA2011-023', 9.DE.15), kôzulite is a synonym of mangano-arfvedsonite ('IMA1968-028', 9.DE.25) and kornite is a synonym of potassic-mangani-leakeite ('IMA1992-032', 9.DE.25). Some IMA-CNMNC approved minerals have a questionable status on mineralienatlas.de, but their unit cell parameters are given on mindat.org (or vice versa). Their status here doesn't change, it remains 'approved mineral'. The mineral systematic given on Nickel-Strunz (9 and 10 ed) is not controversial. Dmisteinbergite (feldspar, 9.EG.15), uranyl sorovanadates (4.HD. ids) and silica family (4.DA. ids) are some exceptions, for instance. Great care must be taken with definitions and their redefinitions. There is a difference between rocks, natural minerals and chemical compounds. Some examples: rocksalt (a redirect), halite and sodium chloride; kaolin earth (a redirect) and kaolinite; apatite, strict sense (chlorapatite, fluorapatite and hydroxylapatite), apatite group and apatite supergroup; kaolinite-serpentine group (alias serpentine), serpentine subgroup, serpentinization and serpentinite; olivine structural group (after rruff.nfo/ima); olivine group and olivine (a fosterite var.);


id: list-of-minerals-recognized-by-the-international-mineralogical-association-20260505-4
category: reference
title: List of minerals recognized by the International Mineralogical Association
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:38.374024+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-minerals-recognized-by-the-international-mineralogical-association-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_minerals_recognized_by_the_International_Mineralogical_Association-4.md

summary:
== Nomenclature dictionary == Special minerals (relaxed sense) Native elements (class 1): carbides, silicides, nitrides, phosphides, elements, alloys, amalgams Special minerals (strict sense): tellurium(VI) oxysalts ([Te6+Ox], trioxotellurate(IV) tetraoxotellurate(VI) [Te4+O3][Te6+O4]) "Ore" minerals (sulfides and oxides) Sulfide class (class 2): sulfides [S], selenides [Se], tellurides [Te], arsenides [As], antimonides [Sb], bismuthides [Bi], sulfantimonides [SbxSy], sulfarsenides [AsxSy], sulfbismuthides [BixSy], sulfastannides [SnxSy], plumboarsenide [As,Pb], plumbobismuthide [Bi,Pb] Oxide class (class 4): sulfites(IV) [SO3]2−, selenites(IV) [SeO3]2−, iodates [IO3], trioxotellurate(IV) [Te4+O3]2−, dihydroxotellurate(IV) [Te4+O(OH)2], pentaoxoditellurate(IV) [(Te4+)2O5]2−, vanadyl anion [V4+O2]2- Evaporite and similar minerals Halide class (class 3): fluoride [F], chloride [Cl], bromide [Br], iodide [I], tetrafluoroborates [BF4], hexafluorosilicates [SiF6], hexachlorothallate(III) [Tl3+Cl6] Carbonate and nitrate class (class 5): carbonates [CO3], bicarbonate [HCO3] Nitrates (subclass 5.N): nitrates [NO3] Borate class (class 6): metaborates [B2O4], trioxoborate [BO3], tetrahydroborate [B(OH)4] Mineral structures with a tetrahedral unit, monomeric minerals Sulfate class (class 7), monomeric minerals: sulfates [SO4]2−, tungstates [WO4]2−, niobates [NbO4]2−, molybdates [MoO4]2−, chromates [CrO4]2−, tetraoxotantalate [TaO4], thiosulphates [SO3S]2− Phosphate class (class 8), monomeric minerals: phosphates(V) [PO4]3−, arsenates(V) [AsO4]3−, vanadates(V) [VO4]3−, hydroxophosphates(V) [PO3OH]2−, dihydroxophosphates(V) [PO2(OH)2], hydroxoarsenates(V) [AsO3OH]2−, dihydroxoarsenates(V) [AsO2(OH)2] Nesosilicates (subclass 9.A), monomeric minerals: tetraoxosilicate [SiO4], hydrotrioxosilicate [SiO3OH] Mineral structures with a tetrahedral unit, di- and chain silicates Sorosilicates (subclass 9.B): heptaoxodisilicate [Si2O7],


id: list-of-longest-mountain-chains-on-earth-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_longest_mountain_chains_on_Earth-0.md
category: reference
title: List of longest mountain chains on Earth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_longest_mountain_chains_on_Earth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:39.595293+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-longest-mountain-chains-on-earth-20260505-0
summary:
The world's longest above-water mountain range is the Andes, about 7,000 km (4,300 mi) long. The range stretches from north to south through seven countries in South America, along the west coast of the continent: Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina. Aconcagua is the highest peak, at about 6,962 m (22,841 ft), as well as the highest mountain outside of Asia. This list does not include submarine mountain ranges. If submarine mountains are included, the longest is the global mid-ocean ridge system which extends for about 65,000 km (40,000 mi). == Formation == Mountain chains are typically formed by the process of plate tectonics. Tectonic plates slide very slowly over the Earth's mantle, a lower place of rock that is heated from the Earth's interior. Several huge sections of the Earth's crust are impelled by heat currents in the mantle, producing tremendous forces that can buckle the material at the edges of the plates to form mountains. Usually one plate is forced underneath the other, and the lower plate is slowly absorbed by the mantle. Where the two plates pass one another, heated rock from the mantle can burst through the crust to form volcanoes. The movement of


id: list-of-oil-fields-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_oil_fields-0.md
category: reference
title: List of oil fields
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_oil_fields
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:40.944254+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-oil-fields-20260505-0
summary:
This list of oil fields includes some major oil fields of the past and present. The list is incomplete; there are more than 25,000 oil and gas fields of all sizes in the world. However, 94% of known oil is concentrated in fewer than 1,500 giant and major fields. Most of the world's largest oilfields are located in the Middle East, but there are also super giant (5 billion bbls) oilfields in Brazil, Mexico, Venezuela, Kazakhstan, and Russia. A field containing 500 million barrels or more ultimately recoverable reserves is a giant field, while a super giant contains 5 billion barrels or more recoverable reserves. Amounts listed below, in billions of barrels, are the estimated ultimate recoverable petroleum resources (proved reserves plus cumulative production also abbreviated as URR), given historical production and current extraction technology. Oil shale reserves (perhaps 3 trillion barrels (4.8×1011 m3)) and coal reserves, both of which can be converted to liquid petroleum, are not included in this chart. Other non-conventional liquid fuel sources are similarly excluded from this list. Scientific assessments indicate the existence of substantial undiscovered, technically recoverable oil and natural gas resources in Arctic and other regions, but commercial exploration has either failed or


id: list-of-ophiolites-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ophiolites-0.md
category: reference
title: List of ophiolites
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ophiolites
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:42.156877+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ophiolites-20260505-0
summary:
Ophiolites are sequences of mafic to ultramafic rock generally believed to represent ancient oceanic lithosphere. They are distributed all across the world being all of them located at present or past orogenic belts, sites of mountain building processes. Ophiolites are common in orogenic belts of Mesozoic age, like those formed by the closure of the Tethys Ocean. Ophiolites in Archean and Paleoproterozoic domains are rare. == Mediterranean and Peri-Arabic == Morais ophiolite complex, Portugal Internal Ligurian Ophiolites in Northern Apennines, Italy Troodos Ophiolite in the Troodos Mountains of Cyprus Kizildag ophiolite, southern Turkey Mirdita Ophiolite, middle Jurassic ophiolite in northern Albania between the Apulian and Pelagonian subcontinents in the Balkan Peninsula Cap Corse ophiolite, Corsica, France Vourinos and Pindos Ophiolites in Northern Greece and their northern extensions (numerous ophiolite bodies) in Albania, Serbia and Bosnia Ronda peridotite, Southern Spain Lherz Massif, France Beni Bousera ophiolite, Morocco Golyamo Kamenyane Complex, Bulgaria Semail Ophiolite in Oman and the United Arab Emirates Makran Ophiolite, Makran, Iran and Pakistan Zagros ophiolite, Zagros Mountains, Iran Iraq Zagros ophiolites, Zagros Mountains, Iraq, includes; Cretaceous ophiolites (Mawat, Penjwen, Pushtashan, Hassanbig and Bulfat) and Eocene ophiolites (Rayat and Qalander). == Tibetan == Dongbo ophiolite Loubusa ophiolite Purang ophiolite


id: list-of-orogenies-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_orogenies-0.md
category: reference
title: List of orogenies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_orogenies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:43.448659+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-orogenies-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of known orogenies organised by continent, starting with the oldest in each. The headings are present-day continents, which may differ from the geography contemporary to the orogenies. Some orogenies encompass more than one continent and may have different names in each, and some very large orogenies include sub-orogenies. As with other geological phenomena, orogenies are often subject to revised interpretations of their age, type and associated paleogeography. In some (especially older) literature, the term orogeny refers to a long episode of basin formation and deposition of sediments over hundreds of millions of years, ending with deformation (sometimes including metamorphism) of these deposits. However, some workers use the term only for the final mountain-building deformation event over tens of millions of years or shorter. == African orogenies == Pan-African orogeny – Series of major mountain-forming events in the Neoproterozoic, Neoproterozoic Era (550 Ma) Damara orogeny – Mountain-building event at the intersection of the Congo and Kalahari cratons Kibaran orogeny – Mountain building event in what is now Africa Eburnean orogeny – Mountain building event in what is now West Africa East African Orogeny – Main stage in the Neoproterozoic assembly of East and West Gondwana Mauritanide


id: list-of-orogenies-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_orogenies-1.md
category: reference
title: List of orogenies
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_orogenies
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:43.448659+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-orogenies-20260505-0
summary:
Algoman orogeny, also known as Kenoran orogeny – Late Archaean episode of mountain building in what is now North America – Superior province, South Dakota to Lake Huron, late Archean Eon (2700–2500 Ma) Wopmay orogeny – Mountain-building event in northern Canada – Along western edge of Canadian Shield, (2100–1900 Ma) Trans-Hudson orogeny, also known as Hudsonian orogeny – Mountain-building event in North America – Extends from Hudson Bay west into Saskatchewan then south through the western Dakotas and Nebraska. Result of the collision of the Superior craton with the Hearne craton and the Wyoming craton, during the Proterozoic Eon (2000–1800 Ma) Nagssugtoqidian orogeny – Late Paleoproterozoic mountain-building event in Greenland – (1910–1770 Ma) Ketilidian orogeny – Collision at the southern margin of the North Atlantic Craton, late Paleoproterozoic Era (1850–1720 Ma) Penokean orogeny – Wisconsin, Minnesota, Michigan, and southern Ontario, (1850–1840 Ma) Great Falls orogeny, also known as the Big Sky orogeny – Proterozoic collision between the Hearne craton and the Wyoming craton in southwest Montana, (1770 Ma) Ivanpah orogeny – Mountain building event in the Proterozoic – Mojave Desert region, southwestern U.S. Yavapai orogeny – Mountain building event 1.7 billion years ago in the southwestern United States, (1710–1700 Ma)


id: list-of-penrose-medal-winners-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Penrose_Medal_winners-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Penrose Medal winners
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Penrose_Medal_winners
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:46.009817+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-penrose-medal-winners-20260505-0
summary:
The Penrose Medal was created in 1925 by R.A.F. Penrose, Jr., as the top prize awarded by the Geological Society of America. Originally created as the Geological Society of America Medal it was soon renamed the Penrose Medal by popular assent of the society's membership, and was first awarded in 1927. It is awarded only at the discretion of the GSA council, "in recognition of eminent research in pure geology, for outstanding original contributions or achievements that mark a major advance in the science of geology." == Award winners == Source: GSA == See also == Category:Penrose Medal winners List of geology awards Prizes named after people == References ==


id: list-of-geological-phenomena-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geological_phenomena-0.md
category: reference
title: List of geological phenomena
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geological_phenomena
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:47.176867+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-geological-phenomena-20260505-0
summary:
A geological phenomenon is a phenomenon which is explained by or sheds light on the science of geology. Examples of geological phenomena are: Mineralogic phenomena Lithologic phenomena Rock types Igneous rock Igneous formation processes Sedimentary rock Sedimentary formation processes (sedimentation) Quicksand Metamorphic rock Endogenic phenomena Plate tectonics Continental drift Earthquake Oceanic trench Phenomena associated with igneous activity Geysers and hot springs Bradyseism Volcanic eruption Earth's magnetic field Exogenic phenomena Slope phenomena Slump Landslide Weathering phenomena Erosion Glacial and peri-glacial phenomena Glaciation Moraines Hanging valleys Atmospheric phenomena Impact phenomena Impact crater Coupled endogenic-exogenic phenomena Orogeny Drainage development Stream capture


id: outline-of-plate-tectonics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_plate_tectonics-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of plate tectonics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_plate_tectonics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:48.521311+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-plate-tectonics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of articles related to plate tectonics and tectonic plates. == What is plate tectonics? == Plate tectonics (from Latin tectonicus, from Ancient Greek τεκτονικός (tektonikós) 'pertaining to building') is the scientific theory that Earth's lithosphere comprises a number of large tectonic plates, which have been slowly moving since 3–4 billion years ago. The model builds on the concept of continental drift, an idea developed during the first decades of the 20th century. Plate tectonics came to be accepted by geoscientists after seafloor spreading was validated in the mid- to late 1960s. The processes that result in plates and shape Earth's crust are called tectonics. Earth's lithosphere, the rigid outer shell of the planet including the crust and upper mantle, is fractured into seven or eight major plates (depending on how they are defined) and many minor plates or "platelets". Where the plates meet, their relative motion determines the type of plate boundary (or fault): convergent, divergent, or transform. The relative movement of the plates typically ranges from zero to 10 cm annually. Faults tend to be geologically active, with earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation. Tectonic plates are composed of the oceanic lithosphere and


id: outline-of-plate-tectonics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_plate_tectonics-1.md
category: reference
title: Outline of plate tectonics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_plate_tectonics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:48.521311+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-plate-tectonics-20260505-0
summary:
== Continents == Continent – Large geographical region identified by convention Africa – ContinentPages displaying short descriptions with no spaces Antarctica – Earth's southernmost continent Asia – ContinentPages displaying short descriptions with no spaces Australia (continent) – One of Earth's seven main divisions of land Europe – ContinentPages displaying short descriptions with no spaces North America – ContinentPages displaying short descriptions with no spaces South America – ContinentPages displaying short descriptions with no spaces Supercontinent – Landmass comprising more than one continental core, or craton Eurasia – Combined landmasses of Europe and Asia === Paleocontinents === Paleocontinent – Major landmass in the geological past Amazonian Craton – Geologic province in South America Appalachia (Mesozoic) – Mesozoic land mass separated from Laramidia to the west by the Western Interior SeawayPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Arctica – Ancient continent in the Neoarchean era Armorican terrane – Microcontinent or group of continental fragments rifted away from Gondwana Asiamerica – Northern landmass that formed part of the Pangaea supercontinentPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Atlantica – Ancient continent formed during the Proterozoic about 2 billion years ago Australia (continent) – One of Earth's seven main divisions of land (Also known as


id: outline-of-plate-tectonics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_plate_tectonics-2.md
category: reference
title: Outline of plate tectonics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_plate_tectonics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:48.521311+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-plate-tectonics-20260505-0
summary:
Adamastor Ocean – Precambrian "proto-Atlantic" ocean in the Southern Hemisphere Boreal Sea – Mesozoic-era seaway that lay along the northern border of Laurasia Bridge River Ocean – Ancient ocean between North America and the Insular Islands during the Mesozoic Central American Seaway – Body of water Goianides Ocean – Ocean in South America in Neoproterozoic Goiás Ocean – Major shear zone that developed in the PrecambrianPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Hudson Seaway – Major seaway of North America during the Cretaceous Period Iapetus Ocean – Ocean that existed in the late Neoproterozoic and early Paleozoic eras Khanty Ocean – Small Precambrian ocean between Baltica and the Siberian continent Lapland-Kola Ocean – Geology of Norway, Finland and RussiaPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Mirovia – Hypothesized superocean surrounding the supercontinent Rodinia in the Neoproterozoic Era Paleo-Tethys Ocean – Ocean on the margin of Gondwana between the Middle Cambrian and Late Triassic Pan-African Ocean – Hypothesized paleo-ocean whose closure created the supercontinent of Pannotia Pannonian Sea – Shallow ancient sea where the Pannonian Basin in Central Europe is today Panthalassa – Prehistoric superocean that surrounded Pangaea Paratethys – Prehistoric shallow inland sea in Eurasia Pharusian Ocean – Ancient ocean


id: outline-of-plate-tectonics-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_plate_tectonics-3.md
category: reference
title: Outline of plate tectonics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_plate_tectonics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:48.521311+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-plate-tectonics-20260505-0
summary:
Adelaide Rift Complex – Major geological province in AustraliaPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Alpha Ridge – Major volcanic ridge under the Arctic Ocean Aegir Ridge – Extinct mid-ocean ridge in the far-northern Atlantic Ocean Anza trough – Rift in Kenya that was formed in the Jurassic Period Bahr el Arab rift – Major geological feature in the southwest Sudan Benue Trough – Major geological structure underlying a large part of Nigeria Central Lowlands – Geologically defined area of relatively low-lying land in southern Scotland Eastern North America Rift Basins – Assemblage of Upper Triassic and Lower Jurassic sedimentary rocksPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Fundy Basin – Sediment-filled rift basin on the Atlantic coast of southeastern Canada Gulf of Suez Rift – Ancient geological rift Gulf St Vincent – Inlet in South Australia Kula-Farallon Ridge – Ancient mid-ocean ridgePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Melut Basin – Rift basin in South Sudan Midcontinent Rift System – Geological rift in the center of the North American continent Mississippi embayment – Low-lying basin filled with Cretaceous to recent sediments Muglad Basin – Large rift basin in southern Sudan and South Sudan Narmada River – River in central India


id: outline-of-plate-tectonics-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_plate_tectonics-4.md
category: reference
title: Outline of plate tectonics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_plate_tectonics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:48.521311+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-plate-tectonics-20260505-0
summary:
Arctic Alaska-Chukotka terrane – Terrane that includes parts of Alaska, Siberia and the continental shelf between them Arequipa-Antofalla – South American geology Armorican Massif – Geologic massif that covers a large area in the northwest of France Armorican terrane – Microcontinent or group of continental fragments rifted away from Gondwana Avalonia – Microcontinent in the Paleozoic era Briançonnais zone – Piece of continental crust in the Penninic nappes of the Alps Bronson Hill Arc – Bimodal volcanic arc and associated Ordovician sediments Buffalo Head terrane – Terrane in the western Canadian Shield in northern Alberta Cache Creek terrane – Geologic terrane in British Columbia and southern Yukon, Canada Carolina terrane – Exotic terrane from central Georgia to central Virginia in the United States Cassiar terrane – Cretaceous terrane in Canada Chilenia – Ancient microcontinent, containing central Chile and western Argentina Chiloé Block – Tectonic unit under Chile Cuyania – Ancient microcontinent now part of Argentina Cymru terrane – Inferred fault bounded terrane of the basement rocks of the southern United Kingdom Florida Platform – Geological feature Franciscan Assemblage – Late Mesozoic terrane of heterogeneous rocks in the California Coast RangesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Ganderia – Terrane in


id: list-of-geological-features-on-pluto-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geological_features_on_Pluto-0.md
category: reference
title: List of geological features on Pluto
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geological_features_on_Pluto
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:49.802424+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-geological-features-on-pluto-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of named geological features on Pluto, identified by scientists working with data from the New Horizons spacecraft. The International Astronomical Union (IAU) officially approved the first 14 names on 8 August 2017 (announced 7 September 2017), with additional names following in each subsequent year, but many of the names listed on this page are still informal. The IAU has determined that names will be chosen from the following themes: Names for the underworld from the world's mythologies Gods, goddesses, and dwarfs associated with the underworld Heroes and other explorers of the underworld Writers associated with Pluto and the Kuiper belt Pioneering space missions and spacecraft Scientists and engineers associated with Pluto and the Kuiper belt == Cavi == A cavus is a hollow or steep-sided depression. Plutonian cavi are named after underworlds from fiction and mythology. The following is a list of official and unofficial names chosen by the New Horizons team. Names that have been officially approved are labeled as such. == Colles == A collis is a low hill. Plutonian colles are named after spacecraft that operated in Earth orbit. The following is a list of official and unofficial names chosen by the New


id: list-of-rock-textures-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rock_textures-0.md
category: reference
title: List of rock textures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rock_textures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:51.171294+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-rock-textures-20260505-0
summary:
This page is intended to be a list of rock textural and morphological terms. == A == Adcumulate Agglomeritic Adamantine a type of lustre Amygdaloidal Anhedral Antitaxial veins Aphanitic Aplitic; aplite Augen textured gneiss Axiolitic texture == B == Botryoidal Brecciated Bedding fissile; bedding fissility Boudinage; boudins == C == Cataclastic Chilled margin Clastic; see also breccia Cleaved Crenulated Cross-bedding Cross-stratification; also trough-cross stratification. Cumulate; see also layered intrusion == D == Decussate Devitirification; devitrified Dendritic texture; dendrites Diatextite; see also schlieren and migmatite == E == Embayed minerals; see igneous texture Equigranular Euhedral Eutaxitic Epiclastic == F == Fiamme Foliation Fissile; see also Bedding fissility. Fossiliferous == G == Glomeroporphyritic Gneissose; gneissic Granoblastic Granophyric Granulitic Graphic == H == Holocrystalline Hyaline texture Hyalopilitic == I == Imbricate Intergrowth texture == J == Jointed == K == Kelyphitic == L == Lepidoblastic Leucocratic Lineation, lineated L-tectonite == M == Melanocratic Mesocratic Mesocumulate Mylonitic == N == Nematoblastic == O == Ocelli Oolitic; see also limestone Ophitic texture Orbicular texture Orthocumulate == P == Panidiomorphic Pegmatitic Peloidal Perthitic Phaneritic Phyllitic Pisolitic Poikilitic Poikiloblastic Porphyroclastic Porphyroblastic Porphyritic texture; see also porphyry Ptygmatic (folding); see migmatite == Q == Quench textures; see obsidian,


id: list-of-rock-types-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rock_types-0.md
category: reference
title: List of rock types
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rock_types
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:52.347925+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-rock-types-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of rock types recognized by geologists. There is no agreed number of specific types of rock. Any unique combination of chemical composition, mineralogy, grain size, texture, or other distinguishing characteristics can describe a rock type. Additionally, different classification systems exist for each major type of rock. There are three major types of rock: igneous rock, metamorphic rock, and sedimentary rock. == Igneous rocks == Adakite – Volcanic rock type Agpaitic rock – Peralkaline igneous rock Andesite – Type of volcanic rock Alkali feldspar granite – Type of igneous rock rich in alkali feldspar Ankaramite – Type of volcanic rock - Igneous rock belonging to basalt family Anorthosite – Mafic intrusive igneous rock composed predominantly of plagioclase Aplite – Fine-grained intrusive igneous rock type similar to granite Basalt – Magnesium- and iron-rich extrusive igneous rock ʻAʻā – Molten rock expelled by a volcano during an eruptionPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – Basaltic lava with a crumpled appearance Pāhoehoe – Molten rock expelled by a volcano during an eruptionPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – Basaltic lava with a flowing, often ropy appearance Basaltic andesite – Volcanic rock that is intermediate in composition between


id: list-of-rock-types-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rock_types-1.md
category: reference
title: List of rock types
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rock_types
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:52.347925+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-rock-types-20260505-0
summary:
== Sedimentary rocks == Argillite – Sedimentary rock, mostly of indurated clay particles Arkose – Type of sandstone containing at least 25% feldspar Banded iron formation – Layered iron-rich sedimentary rock Breccia – Rock composed of angular fragments Calcarenite – Type of limestone that is composed predominantly of sand-size grains Chalk – Soft carbonate rock Chert – Hard, fine-grained sedimentary rock composed of cryptocrystalline silica Claystone – Clastic sedimentary rock composed primarily of clay-sized particles Coal – Combustible sedimentary rock composed primarily of carbon Conglomerate – Sedimentary rock composed of smaller rock fragments Coquina – Sedimentary rock that is composed mostly of fragments of shells Diamictite – Type of sedimentary rock Diatomite – Soft, siliceous sedimentary rock that is easily crumbled Dolomite (rock), also known as Dolostone – Sedimentary carbonate rock containing a high percentage of the mineral dolomite Evaporite – Water-soluble mineral deposit formed by evaporation from an aqueous solution Flint – Cryptocrystalline form of the mineral quartz Geyserite – Form of opaline silica often found around hot springs and geysers Greywacke – Sandstone with angular grains in a clay-fine matrix Gritstone – Hard, coarse-grained, siliceous sandstone Ironstone – Sedimentary rock that contains a substantial proportion of iron ore


id: list-of-rock-types-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rock_types-2.md
category: reference
title: List of rock types
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_rock_types
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:52.347925+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-rock-types-20260505-0
summary:
Adamellite – Type of igneous rockPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets – A variety of quartz monzonite Appinite – Type of igneous rock – A group of varieties of lamprophyre, mostly rich in hornblende Aphanite – Igneous rock composed of very small crystals invisible to the naked eye Borolanite – Variety of nepheline syenite from Loch Borralan, Scotland – A variety of nepheline syenite from Loch Borralan, Scotland Blue Granite – Variety of monzonite, an igneous rock Epidosite – Hydrothermally altered epidote- and quartz-bearing rock Felsite – Very fine-grained volcanic rock that sometimes contains larger crystals Flint – Cryptocrystalline form of the mineral quartz Ganister – Hard, fine-grained quartzose sandstone, or orthoquartzite Gossan – Intensely oxidized, weathered or decomposed rock Hyaloclastite – Volcanic rock consisting of glass fragments Ijolite – Igneous rock consisting essentially of nepheline and augite Jadeitite – Metamorphic rock found in blueschist-grade metamorphic terranes Jasperoid – Type of rock – A hematite-silica metasomatite analogous to a skarn Kenyte – Type of igneous rock - A variety of phonolite, first found on Mount Kenya Lapis lazuli – Metamorphic rock containing lazurite, prized for its intense blue color - A rock composed of lazurite and other minerals Larvikite


id: list-of-sandstones-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sandstones-0.md
category: reference
title: List of sandstones
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sandstones
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:53.515145+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-sandstones-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of types of sandstone that have been or are used economically as natural stone for building and other commercial or artistic purposes. == Trans-regional == (across state borders) Cornbrash Sandstone: North Rhine-Westphalia, Lower Saxony Elbe Sandstone: Germany (Saxony) and the Czech Republic Red Main Sandstone: Hesse, Baden-Württemberg, Bavaria Wealden Sandstone: Lower Saxony, North Rhine-Westphalia == Australia == Hawkesbury Sandstone: Sydney Basin, Gosford Helidon Sandstone: Helidon and Murphys Creek == Belgium == Balegem Sandstone: Balegem in Oosterzele Ledian Sandstone: Lede Gobertange Sandstone: Gobertange in Jodoigne == Canada == Nepean Sandstone: Ottawa, Ontario Paskapoo Sandstone: Calgary, Alberta == Czech Republic == Božanov Sandstone: near Božanov Niedergrund Sandstone: near Dolní Žleb Libná Sandstone: near Libná Zdoňov Sandstone: near Zdoňov Mšené Sandstone; near Mšené-lázně Podhorní Sandstone: near Podhorní Újezd Těšínský Sandstone: near Řeka == Denmark == Nexø Sandstone (also Neksø Sandstone): near Nexø on Bornholm == Estonia == Devonian Sandstone at Suur Taevaskoda, Põlva County == France == Avessac: near Redon Belleau: near Château-Thierry Bigarré des Vosges: in the Vosges Blavozy: near Puy-en-Velay Champenay: near Saint-Dié Erquy: near Saint-Brieuc Fontainebleau: near Fontainebleau Frain: in the Vosges La Rhune: near Bayonne Moliere: near Rodez Najac: near Villefranche-de-Rouergue Omonville: near Omonville-la-Rogue Rothbach:


id: list-of-sea-stacks-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sea_stacks-0.md
category: reference
title: List of sea stacks
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sea_stacks
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:54.768776+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-sea-stacks-20260505-0
summary:
The following list enumerates and expands on notable sea stacks, including former sea stacks that no longer exist. == Antarctica == Denais Stack, King George Island Cutler Stack, Livingston Island Neptune's Bellow, Deception Island The Monolith, Buckle Island Shag Rocks (South Georgia) Black Rock, South Georgia == Asia == Po Pin Chau, High Island, Hong Kong Tri Brata, Kamchatka, Russia Ko Tapu, Phang Nga Bay, Thailand Bako National Park, Sarawak, Borneo, Malaysia Lot's Wife or Sofugan, Japan (isolated volcanic stack, not a coastal stack) Pigeon's Rock, Raouché Lebanon == Australia == Ball's Pyramid, Lord Howe Island Group (isolated volcanic stack, not a coastal stack) Nobby Islet, Kangaroo Island, South Australia The Twelve Apostles on the Great Ocean Road, Victoria The Nobbies on Phillip Island, Victoria The Totem Pole in Tasmania London Bridge (Victoria) Gibson Steps Loch Ard Gorge The Grotto, Victoria == Europe == (coastal countries only) === Croatia === Cape Kamenjak === Faroe Islands === Drangarnir Risin og Kellingin Stakkurin === France === Les Aiguilles de Port-Coton, Belle-Île L'Aiguille, Étretat, Seine-Maritime Les Jumeaux, Hendaye === Germany === Lange Anna on Heligoland === Greece === Megalos Kalogeros Mikros Kalogeros === Iceland === Hvítserkur, Vatnsnes Reynisdrangar, Vík í Mýrdal === Ireland


id: list-of-shields-and-cratons-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_shields_and_cratons-0.md
category: reference
title: List of shields and cratons
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_shields_and_cratons
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:56.794263+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-shields-and-cratons-20260505-0
summary:
A craton is an ancient part of the Earth's continental crust which has been more or less stable since Precambrian times. Cratons whose ancient rocks are widely exposed at the surface, often with relatively subdued relief, are known as shields. If the ancient rocks are largely overlain by a cover of younger rocks then the 'hidden' craton may be referred to as a platform. == List of shields == Western Ethiopian Shield Amazonian Shield of central South America Guiana Shield Guaporé or Central Brazilian Shield The Angaran Shield of West Siberia Arabian-Nubian Shield (Western) Australian Shield Baltic Shield of Fennoscandia Canadian Shield a.k.a. Laurentian Shield The China-Korean Shield containing the North China Craton The East Antarctic Shield containing the East Antarctic Craton Indian Shield Man Shield == List of named cratons == Listed by modern continent and Gondwana, include: === West Gondwana === ==== South America ==== Amazonian Craton Guiana Shield Amazonian Shield São Francisco Craton (Congo Craton) Rio Apa Craton Río de la Plata Craton Arequipa–Antofalla Craton São Luís cratonic fragment Luís Alves cratonic fragment ==== Africa ==== West African Craton East Saharan Meta-craton Congo Craton, central southern Africa Bangweulu Block, Zambia Tanzanian Craton Kalahari Craton Kaapvaal craton, South


id: list-of-sinkholes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sinkholes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of sinkholes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sinkholes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:58.025837+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-sinkholes-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of sinkholes, blue holes, dolines, crown holes, cenotes, and pit caves. A sinkhole is a depression or hole in the ground caused by some form of collapse of the surface layer. Some are caused by karst processes—for example, the chemical dissolution of carbonate rocks or suffosion processes. Sinkholes can vary in size from 1 to 600 m (3 to 2,000 ft) both in diameter and depth, and vary in form from soil-lined bowls to bedrock-edged chasms. Sinkholes may form gradually or suddenly, and are found worldwide. == Australia == Ewens Ponds – series of three water-filled limestone sinkholes on Eight Mile Creek 25 kilometres (16 mi) south of Mount Gambier and 8.4 km (5+1⁄4 mi) east of Port MacDonnell, South Australia. Fossil Cave – The cave is a karst sinkhole and is largely filled with water. Kilsby sinkhole – in Mount Gambier, Southern Australia. Koonalda Cave – a cave located in the Nullarbor Plain in South Australia. Little Blue Lake – water-filled doline located near Mount Schank in South Australia. Numby Numby – a sinkhole located 25 to 30 kilometres (16 to 19 mi) west-northwest of Borroloola in the Northern Territory. Piccaninnie Ponds Conservation Park


id: list-of-sinkholes-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sinkholes-1.md
category: reference
title: List of sinkholes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_sinkholes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:58.025837+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-sinkholes-20260505-0
summary:
Akhayat sinkhole – sinkhole in Mersin Province Cennet and Cehennem – two large sinkholes in the Taurus Mountains, in Mersin Province Egma Sinkhole – sinkhole and the deepest cave in Turkey Kanlıdivane – ancient city situated around a big sinkhole in Mersin Province Kızören Sinkhole – sinkhole in Konya Province == United States == 2014 National Corvette Museum sinkhole – a sinkhole at 350 Corvette Drive, Bowling Green, Kentucky Amberjack Hole – a blue hole located 48 km (30 mi) off the coast of Sarasota, Florida. Bayou Corne sinkhole – created from a collapsed underground salt dome cavern operated by Texas Brine Company and owned by Occidental Petroleum, discovered on August 3, 2012, and 350 nearby residents were advised to evacuate Bering Sinkhole – natural limestone sinkhole in Texas used for prehistoric burials Big Basin Prairie Preserve – St. Jacob's Well, Kansas, a water-filled sinkhole which lies in the Little Basin, and the Big Basin, a 1.5-kilometre-wide (1 mi) crater-like depression Blue Hole (Castalia) – a fresh water pond located in Castalia, Erie County, Ohio Blue Hole (New Mexico) – circular, bell-shaped pool east of Santa Rosa, New Mexico Bottomless Lakes State Park – Lazy Lagoon Lake, New Mexico, made


id: list-of-tectonic-plates-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates-0.md
category: reference
title: List of tectonic plates
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:59.252490+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-tectonic-plates-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of tectonic plates on Earth's surface. Tectonic plates are pieces of Earth's crust and uppermost mantle, together referred to as the lithosphere. The plates are around 100 km (62 mi) thick and consist of two principal types of material: oceanic crust (also called sima from silicon and magnesium) and continental crust (sial from silicon and aluminium). The composition of the two types of crust differs markedly, with mafic basaltic rocks dominating oceanic crust, while continental crust consists principally of lower-density felsic granitic rocks. == Current plates == Geologists generally agree that the following tectonic plates currently exist on Earth's surface with roughly definable boundaries. Tectonic plates are sometimes subdivided into three fairly arbitrary categories: major (or primary) plates, minor (or secondary) plates, and microplates (or tertiary plates). === Major plates === These plates comprise the bulk of the continents and the Pacific Ocean. For purposes of this list, a major plate is any plate with an area greater than 20 million km2 (7.7 million sq mi). African plate – Tectonic plate underlying Africa – 61,300,000 km2 (23,700,000 sq mi) Antarctic plate – Major tectonic plate containing Antarctica and the surrounding ocean floor – 60,900,000 km2 (23,500,000


id: list-of-tectonic-plates-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates-1.md
category: reference
title: List of tectonic plates
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:59.252490+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-tectonic-plates-20260505-0
summary:
African plate Lwandle plate – Mainly oceanic tectonic microplate off the southeast coast of Africa Rovuma plate – Tectonic microplate in Africa Victoria microplate – Tectonic plate in East Africa Danakil microplate - a microplate at the Afar triple junction Antarctic plate East Antarctic plate Shetland plate – Tectonic microplate off the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula West Antarctic plate Australian plate Capricorn plate – Proposed minor tectonic plate under the Indian Ocean Futuna plate – Very small tectonic plate near the south Pacific island of Futuna Kermadec plate – Tectonic plate in the south Pacific Ocean Macquarie plate Maoke plate – Small tectonic plate in western New Guinea Niuafo'ou plate – Small tectonic plate west of Tonga Tonga plate – Small tectonic plate in the southwest Pacific Ocean Woodlark plate – Small tectonic plate located to the east of the island of New Guinea Caribbean plate Gonâve microplate – Part of the boundary between the North American plate and the Caribbean plate Hispaniola microplate North Hispaniola microplate Panama plate – Small tectonic plate in Central America Puerto Rico-Virgin Islands microplate – Part of the boundary between the North American Plate and the Caribbean PlatePages displaying short descriptions of redirect


id: list-of-tectonic-plates-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates-2.md
category: reference
title: List of tectonic plates
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:59.252490+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-tectonic-plates-20260505-0
summary:
=== African plate === Atlantica – Ancient continent formed during the Proterozoic about 2 billion years ago Bangweulu Block – Part of the Congo craton of central Africa (Zambia) Congo Craton – Precambrian craton that with four others makes up the modern continent of Africa (Angola, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Sudan, and Zambia) Kaapvaal Craton – Archaean craton, possibly part of the Vaalbara supercontinent (South Africa) Kalahari Craton – African geological area (South Africa) Saharan Metacraton – Large area of continental crust in the north-central part of Africa (Algeria) Sebakwe proto-Craton – Old and stable part of the continental lithospherePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets (Zimbabwe) Tanzania Craton – Old and stable part of the continental lithosphere in central Tanzania (Tanzania) West African Craton – One of the five Precambrian cratons that make up the African Plate (Algeria, Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo) Zaire Craton (Congo) Zimbabwe Craton – Area in Southern Africa of ancient continental crust (Zimbabwe) === Antarctic plate === Bellingshausen plate – Ancient tectonic plate that fused onto the Antarctic plate Charcot plate – Fragment of


id: list-of-tectonic-plates-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates-3.md
category: reference
title: List of tectonic plates
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tectonic_plates
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:09:59.252490+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-tectonic-plates-20260505-0
summary:
=== South American plate === Amazonian Craton – Geologic province in South America (Brazil) Guiana Shield – Precambrian geological formation in northeast South America (Brazil, Colombia, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname and Venezuela) Río de la Plata Craton – Medium-sized continental block in Uruguay, eastern Argentina and southern Brazil (Argentina and Uruguay) São Francisco Craton – Ancient craton in eastern South America (Brazil) Arequipa–Antofalla Craton – South American geology (Argentina, Bolivia, Chile and Peru) == See also == Asthenosphere – Highly viscous, ductile, and mechanically weak region of Earth's mantle Continent – Large geographical region identified by convention Craton – Old and stable part of the continental lithosphere Platform – Continental area covered by relatively flat or gently tilted, mainly sedimentary strata Shield – Large stable area of exposed Precambrian crystalline rock Earth's crust – Earth's outer shell of rock Continental crust – Layer of rock that forms the continents and continental shelves Oceanic crust – Uppermost layer of the oceanic portion of a tectonic plate Earth's mantle – Layer of silicate rock Lower mantle – Region from 660 to 2900 km below Earth's surfacePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets Upper mantle – Very thick layer of rock inside EarthPages


id: timeline-of-volcanism-on-earth-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth-0.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of volcanism on Earth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:00.993723+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-volcanism-on-earth-20260505-0
summary:
This timeline of volcanism on Earth includes a list of major volcanic eruptions of approximately at least magnitude 6 on the Volcanic explosivity index (VEI) or equivalent sulfur dioxide emission during the Quaternary period (from 2.58 Mya to the present). Other volcanic eruptions are also listed. Some eruptions cooled the global climate—inducing a volcanic winter—depending on the amount of sulfur dioxide emitted and the magnitude of the eruption. Before the present Holocene epoch, the criteria are less strict because of scarce data availability, partly since later eruptions have destroyed the evidence. Only some eruptions before the Neogene period (from 23 Mya to 2.58 Mya) are listed. Known large eruptions after the Paleogene period (from 66 Mya to 23 Mya) are listed, especially those relating to the Yellowstone hotspot, Santorini caldera, and the Taupō Volcanic Zone. Active volcanoes such as Stromboli, Mount Etna and Kīlauea do not appear on this list, but some back-arc basin volcanoes that generated calderas do appear. Some dangerous volcanoes in "populated areas" appear many times: Santorini six times, and Yellowstone hotspot 21 times. The Bismarck volcanic arc, New Britain, and the Taupō Volcanic Zone, New Zealand, appear often too. In addition to the events listed below,


id: timeline-of-volcanism-on-earth-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth-1.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of volcanism on Earth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:00.993723+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-volcanism-on-earth-20260505-0
summary:
Eifel hotspot, Laacher See, Vulkan Eifel, Germany; 12.9 ka; VEI 6; 6 cubic kilometers (1.4 cu mi) of tephra. Emmons Lake Caldera (size: 11 x 18 km), Aleutian Range, 17 ka ±5; more than 50 km3 (12 cu mi) of tephra. Lake Barrine, Atherton Tableland, North Queensland, Australia; was formed over 17 ka. Menengai, East African Rift, Kenya; 29 ka Morne Diablotins, Commonwealth of Dominica; VEI 6; 30 ka (Grand Savanne Ignimbrite). Phlegraean Fields, Italy; VEI 7; 40 ka (Campanian Ignimbrite eruption). Kurile Lake, Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia; Golygin eruption; about 41.5 ka; VEI 7 Maninjau Caldera (size: 20 x 8 km), West Sumatra; VEI 7; around 52 ka; 220 to 250 cubic kilometers (52.8 to 60.0 cu mi) of tephra. Lake Toba (size: 100 x 30 km), Sumatra, Indonesia; VEI 8; 73 ka ±4; 2,500 to 3,000 cubic kilometers (599.8 to 719.7 cu mi) of tephra; probably six gigatons of sulfur dioxide were emitted (Youngest Toba Tuff). Atitlán Caldera (size: 17 x 20 km), Guatemalan Highlands; Los Chocoyos eruption; formed in an eruption 84 ka; VEI 7; 300 km3 (72 cu mi) of tephra. Mount Aso (size: 24 km wide), island of Kyūshū, Japan; 90 ka; last eruption was more


id: timeline-of-volcanism-on-earth-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth-2.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of volcanism on Earth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:00.993723+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-volcanism-on-earth-20260505-0
summary:
Cerro Guacha, Bolivia; 5.6–5.8 Ma (Guacha ignimbrite). Lord Howe Island, Australia; Mount Lidgbird and Mount Gower are both made of basalt rock, remnants of lava flows that once filled a large volcanic caldera 6.4 Ma. Yellowstone hotspot, Heise volcanic field, Idaho; 5.51 Ma ±0.13 (Conant Creek Tuff). Yellowstone hotspot, Heise volcanic field, Idaho; 5.6 Ma; 500 cubic kilometers (120 cu mi) of Blue Creek Tuff. Cerro Panizos (size: 18 km wide), Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex, Bolivia; 6.1 Ma; 652 cubic kilometers (156 cu mi) of Panizos Ignimbrite. Yellowstone hotspot, Heise volcanic field, Idaho; 6.27 Ma ±0.04 (Walcott Tuff). Yellowstone hotspot, Heise volcanic field, Idaho; Blacktail Caldera (size: 100 x 60 km), Idaho; 6.62 Ma ±0.03; 1,500 cubic kilometers (360 cu mi) of Blacktail Tuff. Pastos Grandes Caldera (size: 40 x 50 km), Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex, Bolivia; 8.3 Ma; 652 cubic kilometers (156 cu mi) of Sifon Ignimbrite. Manus Island, Admiralty Islands, northern Papua New Guinea; 8–10 Ma Banks Peninsula, New Zealand; Akaroa erupted 9 Ma, Lyttelton erupted 12 Ma. Mascarene Islands were formed in a series of undersea volcanic eruptions 8–10 Ma, as the African plate drifted over the Réunion hotspot. Yellowstone hotspot, Twin Fall volcanic field, Idaho; 8.6 to 10


id: timeline-of-volcanism-on-earth-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth-3.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of volcanism on Earth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:00.993723+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-volcanism-on-earth-20260505-0
summary:
Paleogene ends 23 million years ago. The formation of the Chilcotin Group basalts occurs between 10–6 million years ago. The formation of the Columbia River Basalt Group occurs between 17 and 6 million years ago. La Garita Caldera erupts in the Wheeler Geologic Area, Central Colorado volcanic field, Colorado, USA, eruption several VEI 8 events (Possibly as high as a VEI 9), 5,000 cubic kilometers (1,200 cu mi) of Fish Canyon Tuff was blasted out in a single, major eruption about 27.8 million years ago. Unknown source in Ethiopia erupts 29 million years ago with at least 3,000 cubic kilometers (720 cu mi) of Green Tuff and SAM. Sam Ignimbrite in Yemen forms 29.5 million years ago, at least 5,550 cubic kilometers (1,332 cu mi) of distal tuffs associated with the ignimbrites. Jabal Kura’a Ignimbrite in Yemen forms 29.6million years ago, at least 3,700 cubic kilometers (888 cu mi) of distal tuffs associated with the ignimbrites. The Ethiopian Highlands flood basalt begins 30 million years ago About 33.9 million ago, the Oligocene epoch of the Paleogene period begins The Mid-Tertiary ignimbrite flare-up begins 40 million years ago and lasts until 25 million years ago. Bennett Lake Volcanic Complex erupts 50


id: timeline-of-volcanism-on-earth-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth-4.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of volcanism on Earth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:00.993723+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: timeline-of-volcanism-on-earth-20260505-0
summary:
== Notes == The Mackenzie Large Igneous Province contains the largest and best-preserved continental flood basalt terrain on Earth. The Mackenzie dike swarm throughout the Mackenzie Large Igneous Province is also the largest dike swarm on Earth, covering an area of 2,700,000 km2 (1,000,000 mi2). The Bachelor (27.4 Ma), San Luis (27–26.8 Ma), and Creede (26 Ma) calderas partially overlap each other and are nested within the large La Garita (27.6 Ma) caldera, forming the central caldera cluster of the San Juan volcanic field, Wheeler Geologic Area, La Garita Wilderness. Creede, Colorado and San Luis Peak (Continental Divide of the Americas) are nearby. North Pass Caldera is northeastern the San Juan Mountains, North Pass. The Platoro volcanic complex lies southeastern of the central caldera cluster. The center of the western San Juan caldera cluster lies just west of Lake City, Colorado. The Rio Grande rift includes the San Juan volcanic field, the Valles Caldera, the Potrillo volcanic field, and the Socorro-Magdalena magmatic system. The Socorro Magma Body is uplifting the surface at approximately 2 mm/year. The southwestern Nevada volcanic field, or Yucca Mountain volcanic field, includes: Stonewall Mountain caldera complex, Black Mountain Caldera, Silent Canyon Caldera, Timber Mountain – Oasis


id: timeline-of-volcanism-on-earth-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth-5.md
category: reference
title: Timeline of volcanism on Earth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_volcanism_on_Earth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:00.993723+00:00
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parent: timeline-of-volcanism-on-earth-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Ammann, Caspar M.; Philippe Naveau (6 March 2003). "Statistical analysis of tropical explosive volcanism occurrences over the last 6 centuries" (PDF). Geophysical Research Letters. 30 (5): 1210. Bibcode:2003GeoRL..30.1210A. doi:10.1029/2002GL016388. S2CID 135288077. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 19 March 2010. Froggatt, P.C.; Lowe, D.J. (1990). "A review of late Quaternary silicic and some other tephra formations from New Zealand: their stratigraphy, nomenclature, distribution, volume, and age". New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics. 33 (1): 89–109. Bibcode:1990NZJGG..33...89F. doi:10.1080/00288306.1990.10427576. hdl:10289/176. Lipman, P.W. (September 30, 1984). "The Roots of Ash Flow Calderas in Western North America: Windows Into the Tops of Granitic Batholiths". Journal of Geophysical Research. 89 (B10): 8801–8841. Bibcode:1984JGR....89.8801L. doi:10.1029/JB089iB10p08801. Mason, Ben G.; Pyle, David M.; Oppenheimer, Clive (2004). "The size and frequency of the largest explosive eruptions on Earth". Bulletin of Volcanology. 66 (8): 735–748. Bibcode:2004BVol...66..735M. doi:10.1007/s00445-004-0355-9. S2CID 129680497. Newhall, Christopher G.; Dzurisin, Daniel (1988). "Historical unrest at large calderas of the world". USGS Bulletin 1855. p. 1108. Archived from the original on 2009-05-12. Siebert L.; Simkin T. (2002). "Volcanoes of the World: an Illustrated Catalog of Holocene Volcanoes and their Eruptions". Digital Information Series (GVP-3). Smithsonian Institution, Global Volcanism Program.


id: list-of-large-volcanic-eruptions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_large_volcanic_eruptions-0.md
category: reference
title: List of large volcanic eruptions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_large_volcanic_eruptions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:02.296171+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-large-volcanic-eruptions-20260505-0
summary:
This is a sortable list of large eruptions that occurred between 11.7 Ka and 450+ Ma. Uncertainties as to dates and tephra volumes are not restated, and references are not repeated. The inclusion criteria here only covers entries with a Volcanic explosivity index (VEI) of 5 or greater. The given values for events in the Miocene epoch sometimes lack references, and are given as VEI-equivalent, as an estimate of the erupted tephra volume. == <11.7KA (Holocene) == == 11.7 to 49KA == == 50 to 99KA == == 100 to 299KA == == 300 to 999KA == == 1 to 9.9MA == == 10MA and older == == Notes == == See also == Geologic time scale Timeline of volcanism on Earth List of large volume volcanic eruptions in the Basin and Range Province == References == === Bibliography === Ward, Peter L. (2 April 2009). "Sulfur Dioxide Initiates Global Climate Change in Four Ways" (PDF). Thin Solid Films. 517 (11): 3188–3203. Bibcode:2009TSF...517.3188W. doi:10.1016/j.tsf.2009.01.005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 January 2010. Retrieved 2010-03-19. Supplementary Table I: "Supplementary Table to P.L. Ward, Thin Solid Films (2009) Major volcanic eruptions and provinces" (PDF). Teton Tectonics. Archived from the original (PDF)


id: outline-of-geophysics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_geophysics-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of geophysics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_geophysics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:04.019806+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-geophysics-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to geophysics: Geophysics – the physics of the Earth and its environment in space; also the study of the Earth using quantitative physical methods. The term geophysics sometimes refers only to the geological applications: Earth's shape; its gravitational and magnetic fields; its internal structure and composition; its dynamics and their surface expression in plate tectonics, the generation of magmas, volcanism and rock formation. However, modern geophysics organizations have a broader definition that includes the hydrological cycle including snow and ice; fluid dynamics of the oceans and the atmosphere; electricity and magnetism in the ionosphere and magnetosphere and solar-terrestrial relations; and analogous problems associated with the Moon and other planets. == Nature of geophysics == Geophysics can be described as all of the following: An academic discipline – branch of knowledge that is taught and researched at the college or university level. Disciplines are defined (in part), and recognized by the academic journals in which research is published, and the learned societies and academic departments or faculties to which their practitioners belong. A scientific field (a branch of science) – widely recognized category of specialized expertise within science, and


id: list-of-earth-and-atmospheric-sciences-journals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_earth_and_atmospheric_sciences_journals-0.md
category: reference
title: List of earth and atmospheric sciences journals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_earth_and_atmospheric_sciences_journals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:05.325969+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-earth-and-atmospheric-sciences-journals-20260505-0
summary:
This list presents notable scientific journals in earth and atmospheric sciences and its various subfields. == Multi-disciplinary == == Atmospheric science == == Geochemistry == Chemical Geology Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta Geostandards and Geoanalytical Research Geostandards Newsletter Organic Geochemistry Quaternary Geochronology == Geology == === Mineralogy and petrology === American Mineralogist Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology European Journal of Mineralogy Journal of Petrology Mineralium Deposita Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry == Geophysics == == Hydrology == Journal of Hydrology Water Research Water Resources Research == Oceanography == Annual Review of Marine Science Deep Sea Research Journal of Geophysical Research: section C (Oceans) Journal of Marine Research Journal of Physical Oceanography Ocean Science Paleoceanography == Unsorted == Episodes Journal of Glaciology Australian Meteorological Magazine == See also == List of scientific journals == External links == List of geoscience journals and rankings at eigenfactor.org


id: list-of-geodesists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geodesists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of geodesists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geodesists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:06.555921+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-geodesists-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of geodesists, people who made notable contributions to geodesy, whether or not geodesy was their primary field. These include historical figures who laid the foundations for the field of geodesy. == Geodesists before 1900 (arranged by date) == == 20th century geodesists (alphabetically arranged) == == See also == Earth system science – Scientific study of the Earth's spheres and their natural integrated systems Geodesy – Science of measuring the shape, orientation, and gravity of Earth Geodynamics – Study of dynamics of the Earth History of geodesy List of geodesists Planetary science – Science of planets and planetary systems == References ==


id: list-of-geophysicists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysicists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of geophysicists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysicists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:07.775175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-geophysicists-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of geophysicists, people who made notable contributions to geophysics, whether or not geophysics was their primary field. These include historical figures who laid the foundations for the field of geophysics. More recently, some of the top awards for geophysicists are the Vetlesen Prize (intended to be the equivalent of a Nobel Prize for geology or geophysics); the William Bowie Medal (the top award of the American Geophysical Union); the Maurice Ewing Medal (the top award of the Society of Exploration Geophysicists); and the Crafoord Prize for geosciences. Some geophysicists have also won more general prizes such as the Nobel Prize and the Kyoto Prize. == A == Leason Adams (American, 1887–1969) – high pressure mineral physics Thomas J Ahrens (American, 1936–2010) – experimental methods for modeling hypervelocity impacts and materials in the Earth's core and mantle Hannes Alfvén (Swedish, 1908–1995) – Alfvén waves, magnetohydrodynamics of magnetosphere; Nobel Prize in Physics Giuseppina Aliverti (Italian, 1894–1982) – geophysicist remembered for developing the Aliverti-Lovera method of measuring the radioactivity of water Keiiti Aki (Japanese-American, 1930–2005) – seismology; William Bowie Medal Claude Allègre (French, 1937– ) Crafoord Prize Don L. Anderson (American, 1933–2014) – seismology and Earth's interior (including the


id: list-of-geophysicists-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysicists-1.md
category: reference
title: List of geophysicists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysicists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:07.775175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-geophysicists-20260505-0
summary:
Gerhard Fanselau (German, 1904–1982) – geomagnetic observations Joseph Charles Farman (British, 1930–2013) – co-discoverer of the ozone hole Yevgeny Konstantinovich Fyodorov (Russian, 1910–1981) – pioneer in Arctic geophysical survey Osmond Fisher (British, 1817–1914) – continental drift John Adam Fleming (American, 1877–1956) – magnetosphere and atmospheric electricity James David Forbes (British, 1809–1868) – built the first seismometer Scott Forbush (American, 1904–1984) – solar-terrestrial interactions and the Forbush decrease Efi Foufoula-Georgiou (Greek, 1957–) – wavelet analysis Gillian Foulger (English, 1952– ) – plate theory Robert Were Fox the Younger (British, 1789–1877) – discovered the geothermal gradient; constructed a dip circle for use at sea Benjamin Franklin (American, 1706–1790) – established that lightning is electrical == G == Carl Friedrich Gauss (German, 1777–1855) – first mathematical representation of Earth's magnetic field; geodetic surveys Henry Gellibrand (English, 1597–1637) – discovered that magnetic declination varies with time James Freeman Gilbert (American, 1931–2014) – development of geophysical inverse theory; network of seismometers to study Earth's free oscillation William Gilbert (English, 1544–1603) – early magnetic experiments; first to argue that the Earth itself is magnetic George Graham (English 1673 – November 1751) – discovery of the diurnal variation of the Earth's magnetic field; related Aurora borealis to


id: list-of-geophysicists-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysicists-2.md
category: reference
title: List of geophysicists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysicists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:07.775175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-geophysicists-20260505-0
summary:
Gordon J. F. MacDonald (American, 1929–2002) – investigated rotation of the Earth and true polar wander James B. Macelwane (American, 1883–1956) – seismologist; awarded William Bowie Medal Jean-Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan (French, 1678 –1771) – shape of the Earth and aurora Robert Mallet (Irish, 1810–1881) – developed controlled source seismology; coined terms seismology and epicenter Syukuro Manabe (Japanese, 1931– ) – climate models; awarded William Bowie Medal Pierre de Maricourt (Petrus Peregrinus) (French, fl. 1269) – first extant treatise on properties of magnets; detailed study of the compass Edme Mariotte (French, 1620–1684) – one of the pioneers of modern hydrology; used floats to measure river flow Drummond Matthews (British, 1931–1997) – used ocean magnetic anomalies to confirm theory of seafloor spreading Motonori Matuyama (Japanese, 1884–1958) – first to show that a geomagnetic reversal had occurred in the past Dan McKenzie (British, 1942– ) – mathematical framework for plate tectonics; mantle convection; sedimentary basin formation; Crafoord Prize Harry Mayne (American, 1913–1990) – exploration geophysicist, invented CRP stacking for noise reduction; Maurice Ewing Medal (SEG) Marcia McNutt (American, 1952– ) – elastic strength of lithosphere; identified the South Pacific superswell Felix Andries Vening Meinesz (Dutch, 1887–1966) – developed a precise gravimeter and


id: list-of-geophysicists-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysicists-3.md
category: reference
title: List of geophysicists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geophysicists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:07.775175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-geophysicists-20260505-0
summary:
Edward Sabine (Irish, 1788–1883) – measured oblateness of the Earth; established system of magnetic observatories Benjamin D. Santer (American, 1955– ) – climatologist Conrad Schlumberger (French, 1878–1936) – and Marcel Schlumberger (French, 1884–1953) – invented electric well logging Michael Schoenberg (American, 1939–2008) – contributions to seismic anisotropy Alessandro Serpieri (Italian, 1823–1885) – seismologist Nicholas Shackleton (British, 1937–2006) – paleoceanography, climate, Crafoord Prize, Vetlesen Prize Irwin I. Shapiro (American, 1929– ) – awarded William Bowie Medal Otto Schmidt (Russian, 1891–1956) Shen Kuo (Chinese, 1031–1095) – discovered magnetic declination Robert E. Sheriff (American, 1922–2014) – exploration geophysics; Maurice Ewing Medal (SEG) John Sherwood (British) – exploration geophysics; Maurice Ewing Medal (SEG) Eugene Merle Shoemaker (American, 1928–1997) – planetary science; awarded William Bowie Medal Paul G. Silver (American, 1948–2009) – seismic anisotropy and splitting of shear waves Fred Singer (Austrian-American, 1924–2020) – atmospheric physicist, global warming denier Susan Solomon (American, 1956– ) – proposed chlorofluorocarbons as the cause of the Antarctic ozone hole; awarded Nobel Peace Prize and William Bowie Medal David J. Stevenson (New Zealander/American, 1948– ) – theories of internal structure and evolution of planets Balfour Stewart (Scottish, 1828–1887) – observations of solar flares and geomagnetic storms Henry Stommel (American, 1920–1992)


id: outline-of-hydrology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_hydrology-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of hydrology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_hydrology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:09.297016+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-hydrology-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to hydrology: Hydrology – study of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth and other planets, including the hydrologic cycle, water resources and environmental watershed sustainability. == What type of thing is hydrology? == Hydrology can be described as all of the following: a branch of science a branch of natural science a branch of physical science a branch of Earth science a branch of geography a branch of physical geography === Essence of hydrology === Water Hydrologic cycle Cryosphere Origin of water on Earth Water distribution on Earth == Branches of hydrology == Hydrometry – the measurement of the different components of the hydrologic cycle Chemical hydrology – the study of the chemical characteristics of water Ecohydrology – the study of interactions between organisms and the hydrologic cycle Hydrogeology – the study of the presence and movement of water in aquifers Hydroinformatics – the adaptation of information technology to hydrology and water resources applications Hydrometeorology – the study of the transfer of water and energy between land and water body surfaces and the lower atmosphere Isotope hydrology – the study of the isotopic signatures of


id: outline-of-hydrology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_hydrology-1.md
category: reference
title: Outline of hydrology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_hydrology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:09.297016+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-hydrology-20260505-0
summary:
Analyzing the impacts of antecedent moisture on sanitary sewer systems Assessing contaminant transport risk and establishing environmental policy guidelines Assessing the impacts of natural and anthropogenic environmental change on water resources Designing bridges Designing dams for water supply or hydroelectric power generation Designing irrigation schemes and managing agricultural productivity Designing riparian restoration projects Designing sewers and urban drainage system Determining the agricultural water balance Determining the water balance of a region Fog collection Part of the hazard module in catastrophe modeling Predicting and mitigating flood, landslide and drought risk Predicting geomorphologic changes, such as erosion or sedimentation Providing drinking water Real-time flood forecasting and flood warning == Hydrology organizations == === Intergovernmental organizations === International Hydrological Programme (IHP) === International research bodies === International Water Management Institute (IWMI) UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education === National research bodies === Centre for Ecology and Hydrology – UK Centre for Water Science, Cranfield University, UK eawag – aquatic research, ETH Zürich, Switzerland Institute of Hydrology, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg, Germany United States Geological Survey – Water Resources of the United States NOAA's National Weather Service – Office of Hydrologic Development, USA US Army Corps of Engineers Hydrologic Engineering Center, USA Hydrologic Research Center, USA


id: list-of-drainage-basins-by-area-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_drainage_basins_by_area-0.md
category: reference
title: List of drainage basins by area
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_drainage_basins_by_area
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:10.573496+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-drainage-basins-by-area-20260505-0
summary:
The list of drainage basins by area identifies basins (also known as "catchments" or, in North American usage, "watersheds"), sorted by area, which drain to oceans, mediterranean seas, rivers, lakes and other water bodies. All basins larger than 400,000 km2 (150,000 sq mi) are included as well as selected smaller basins. It includes drainage basins which do not flow to the ocean (endorheic basins). It includes oceanic sea drainage basins which have hydrologically coherent areas (oceanic seas are set by IHO convention). The oceans drain approximately 83% of the land in the world. The other 17% – an area larger than the basin of the Arctic Ocean – drains to internal endorheic basins. There are also substantial areas of the world that do not "drain" in the commonly understood sense. In polar deserts, much of the snowfall sublimates directly into the air and does not melt into flowing water, while in tropical deserts precipitation may evaporate before joining any substantial water course. These areas can still be included in topographically defined basins if the hypothetical flow of water (or ice) over the surface of the ground (or ice sheet) is considered. For example, the Antarctic ice sheet can be divided


id: list-of-fluvial-landforms-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fluvial_landforms-0.md
category: reference
title: List of fluvial landforms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fluvial_landforms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:11.781005+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-fluvial-landforms-20260505-0
summary:
Landforms related to rivers and other watercourses include: Channel (geography) – Narrow body of water Confluence – Meeting of two or more bodies of flowing water Cut bank – Outside bank of a water channel, which is continually undergoing erosion Crevasse splay – Sediment deposited on a floodplain by a stream which breaks its levees Drainage basin – Land area where water converges to a common outlet (watershed) Esker – Long, winding ridge of stratified sand and gravel associated with former glaciers Floodplain – Land adjacent to a water body which is flooded during periods of high water Fluvial landforms of streams Fluvial terrace – Elongated terraces that flank the sides of floodplains and river valleys Canyon – Deep chasm between cliffs (Gorge) Gully – Landform created by running water and/or mass movement eroding sharply into soil Island – Piece of subcontinental land surrounded by water Levee § Natural levees Meander – One of a series of curves in a channel of a matured stream Oxbow lake – U-shaped lake or pool left by an ancient river meander Pendant bar – Streamlined gravel bar below an obstruction Plunge pool – Depression at the base of a waterfall Point bar –


id: list-of-water-games-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_water_games-0.md
category: reference
title: List of water games
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_water_games
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:13.036654+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-water-games-20260505-0
summary:
Water games are games played in a body of water, such as a swimming pool, pond, lake, or river. Chicken fight Two person teams: one team member sitting on the shoulders of his or her teammate or riding piggy-back. The object of the game is to knock-down or separate an opposing team through a team effort. Gator One person is chosen to be the first Gator, and treads water on one side of the playing area. The remaining players stand on the pool deck on the side opposite the Gator. These players are prohibited to enter the water until the Gator says the word "gator". Once the word has been said, the players are free to enter the water whenever they wish. Once they enter the water, they must swim to the other side. If the Gator touches (more commonly "tags") any part of the player's body before he touches the other side, he is caught. After all players have crossed to the other side safely or have been caught by the Gator, the round is over. The free players get out of the water and the Gator and whomever he caught swim to the opposite side of the playing


id: list-of-chesapeake-bay-rivers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Chesapeake_Bay_rivers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Chesapeake Bay rivers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Chesapeake_Bay_rivers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:14.318816+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-chesapeake-bay-rivers-20260505-0
summary:
This list of Chesapeake Bay rivers includes the main rivers draining into the Chesapeake Bay estuarine complex on the mid-Atlantic eastern coast of the United States, North America. The three largest rivers in order of both discharge and watershed area are the Susquehanna River, the Potomac River, and the James River. Other major rivers include the Rappahannock River, the Appomattox River (which flows into the lower James River), the York River (a combination of the Pamunkey and Mattaponi tributary rivers), the Patuxent River, and the Choptank River. The entire Chesapeake Bay watershed includes portions of six states (New York, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Maryland, Virginia, and Delaware) and the District of Columbia. The watershed of the entire Chesapeake Bay covers 165,760 km2 (approximately 64,000 mi2 or 41 million acres ). With an estuary water body area of only 11,600 km2 (4,479 mi2), the land-to-water ratio is about 14:1. Therefore, the rivers flowing into the Chesapeake Bay have a large influence on water quality in the estuary. The rivers flowing into the Chesapeake Bay act as sources of nutrients and sediments from land, which affect the health of the downstream estuary. The larger rivers cross the Atlantic seaboard fall line. Over time,


id: list-of-ocean-circulation-models-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ocean_circulation_models-0.md
category: reference
title: List of ocean circulation models
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ocean_circulation_models
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:15.653274+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-ocean-circulation-models-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of ocean circulation models, as used in physical oceanography. Ocean circulation models can also be used to study chemical oceanography, biological oceanography, geological oceanography, and climate science. == Integrated ocean modeling systems == Integrated ocean modeling systems use multiple coupled models. This coupling allows researchers to understand processes that happen among multiple systems that are usually modeled independently, such as the ocean, atmosphere, waves, and sediments. Integrated ocean modeling systems is helpful for specific regions: for example, the ESPreSSO model is used to study the Mid-Atlantic Bight region. Integrated ocean modeling systems often use data from buoys and weather stations for atmospheric forcing and boundary conditions. Two examples of integrated ocean modeling systems are: COAWST: Coupled Ocean Atmosphere Wave Sediment Transport Modeling System (uses ROMS as its ocean circulation component). ESPreSSO: Experimental System for Predicting Shelf and Slope Optics (uses ROMS as its ocean circulation component). == References ==


id: list-of-pseudoscientific-water-fuel-inventions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_pseudoscientific_water_fuel_inventions-0.md
category: reference
title: List of pseudoscientific water fuel inventions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_pseudoscientific_water_fuel_inventions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:16.865558+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-pseudoscientific-water-fuel-inventions-20260505-0
summary:
This article attempts to list pseudoscientific inventions wherein common water is used to either augment or generate a fuel to power an engine, boiler or other source of power. This is not to be confused with legitimate inventions (such as hydroelectricity) in which the kinetic energy of flowing water is used for power. == Electrolysis == The electrolysis of water splits water into hydrogen and oxygen, producing a usable fuel, which, when burned, turns back into water. However, the energy required for electrolysis is greater than the energy released by burning this fuel, so this is not a viable way to manufacture energy. Nonetheless, several people have claimed to create devices that do exactly this. Stanley Meyer, who claimed to run a car on water in 1984. Charles Frazer, an inventor from Ohio who, in 1918 patented a hydrogen booster which claimed to use electrolysis to increase vehicle power and fuel efficiency while greatly reducing exhaust emissions. Daniel Dingel, a Filipino engineer who was involved in water fuel research since 1968. A video interview showed Dingel's Toyota Corolla with an on-board hydrogen water fuel generator. In 2008 he was given a 20-year sentence for fraud. == Submerged gasification == Ruggero


id: 1974-in-spaceflight-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1974_in_spaceflight-0.md
category: reference
title: 1974 in spaceflight
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1974_in_spaceflight
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:18.451135+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 1974-in-spaceflight-20260505-0
summary:
On 29 March 1974 Mariner 10 became the first spacecraft to fly by Mercury, that saw a spacecraft for the first and last time in the 20th century. == Orbital launches == == Suborbital launches == == Deep Space Rendezvous == == EVAs == == References == === Footnotes ===


id: 1975-in-spaceflight-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1975_in_spaceflight-0.md
category: reference
title: 1975 in spaceflight
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1975_in_spaceflight
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:19.749420+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 1975-in-spaceflight-20260505-0
summary:
In 1975, several notable events occurred in spaceflight, including the launches of Venera 9 and 10 and their Venus arrivals, the launches of the Viking Mars missions, the joint American-Soviet Apollo–Soyuz Test Project (ASTP), the failure of Soyuz 7K-T 39, and the launch of Aryabhatta, India's first satellite. The Venera 9 mission was launched 8 June 1975 and on 20 October 1975 became the first spacecraft to orbit Venus; two days later its lander returned the first images from the surface of any planet (other than Earth). Venera 10 was launched on 14 June 1975; it entered orbit of Venus on 23 October 1975 and its lander arrived on the surface of Venus on 25 October 1975. Both Venera 9 and Venera 10 returned various scientific observations of Venus and black-and-white television pictures from the planet's surface. Viking 1 was launched on 20 August 1975 and Viking 2 was launched 9 September 1975. This orbiter/lander mission was to photograph the surface of Mars in 1976. The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project was a collaboration between the United States and the Soviet Union that saw an end to the space race. The mission was launched on 15 July 1975, with the Soyuz returning


id: aitym-formation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aitym_Formation-0.md
category: reference
title: Aitym Formation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aitym_Formation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:20.938311+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aitym-formation-20260505-0
summary:
The Aitym Formation is a geological formation in Uzbekistan which possibly dates to the Santonian stage of the Late Cretaceous period. The formation has not been precisely dated. However, certain fossils suggest the formation was deposited during the Santonian stage of the Late Cretaceous period. == Fossil content == A diverse fauna has been unearthed from the Aitym Formation including oysters, ammonites and many marine vertebrates, including an abundant assemblage of chondrichthyans (cartilaginous fish), a rarer assemblage of osteichthyans (bony fish), and rather infrequent finds of plesiosaurs, and sea turtles. Terrestrial vertebrate remains are extremely rare in the formation. A few bones of salamanders, lizards, crocodiles, possibly terrestrial turtle remains, dinosaurs (including birds), and mammals have been found in the formation. === Mammals === === Molluscs === === Amphibians === == References ==


id: list-of-am-cannabinoids-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_AM_cannabinoids-0.md
category: reference
title: List of AM cannabinoids
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_AM_cannabinoids
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:22.307748+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-am-cannabinoids-20260505-0
summary:
Alexandros Makriyannis is a professor in the Department of Medicinal Chemistry at Northeastern University, where his research group has synthesized many new compounds with cannabinoid activity. Some of those are: == See also == List of CP cannabinoids List of JWH cannabinoids List of HU cannabinoids List of miscellaneous designer cannabinoids == References ==


id: janice-c-beatley-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janice_C._Beatley-0.md
category: reference
title: Janice C. Beatley
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janice_C._Beatley
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:24.135015+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: janice-c-beatley-20260505-0
summary:
Janice Carson Beatley (March 18, 1919 – November 14, 1987) was an American botanist, known for her fieldwork on the forests of Ohio and the flora of the Nevada Atomic Test Site. Beatley was Professor of Biological Sciences at the University of Cincinnati. She has three plant species named in her honour including Astragalus beatleyae. == Early life and education == Janice Carson Beatley was born in Columbus, Ohio to Earle Beatley and Alice Elizabeth (Carson) Beatley. In 1935, she graduated from North High School in Columbus, then went on to obtain three degrees from Ohio State University, a B.A. in zoology (1940), and a M.S. (1948) and a PhD (1953), both in botany with research in plant ecology. == Career == During her early career, Beatley conducted extensive studies of the forests of central and southern Ohio, including a survey of more than 1000 species of wintergreen herbaceous flora. This work, published as "The winter-green herbaceous flowering plants of Ohio" (1956), is believed to be the first comprehensive study of its kind in North America. Other extensive studies of Ohio vegetation followed, but in 1960, Beatley's focus shifted to the Atomic Test Site of south-central Nevada, where she would


id: list-of-esters-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_esters-0.md
category: reference
title: List of esters
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_esters
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:25.402555+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-esters-20260505-0
summary:
In chemistry, an ester is a compound derived from an acid (organic or inorganic) in which the hydrogen atom (H) of at least one acidic hydroxyl group (−OH) of that acid is replaced by an organyl group (−R). Analogues derived from oxygen replaced by other chalcogens belong to the ester category as well (i.e. esters of acidic −SH, −SeH, −TeH, −PoH and −LvH groups). According to some authors, organyl derivatives of acidic hydrogen of other acids are esters as well (e.g. amides), but not according to the IUPAC. An example of an ester formation is the substitution reaction between a carboxylic acid (R−C(=O)−OH) and an alcohol (R'OH), forming an ester (R−C(=O)−O−R'), where R and R′ are organyl groups, or H in the case of esters of formic acid. Glycerides, which are fatty acid esters of glycerol, are important esters in biology, being one of the main classes of lipids, and making up the bulk of animal fats and vegetable oils. Esters of carboxylic acids with low molecular weight are commonly used as fragrances and found in essential oils and pheromones. Phosphoesters form the backbone of DNA molecules. Nitrate esters, such as nitroglycerin, are known for their explosive properties, while polyesters


id: allan-hamilton-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan_Hamilton-0.md
category: reference
title: Allan Hamilton
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan_Hamilton
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:26.684923+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: allan-hamilton-20260505-0
summary:
Allan J. Hamilton (born November 16, 1950) is an American physician and medical consultant to ABC's medical drama Grey's Anatomy based in Tucson, Arizona. A professor of Neurosurgery at the University of Arizona College of Medicine – Tucson, Dr. Hamilton was elected a Fellow of the American College of Surgeons in 1994. In 1995, Dr. Hamilton was promoted to Chief of Neurosurgery and became Chairman of the Department of Surgery in 1998. He currently holds a tenured professorship in Neurosurgery, as well as additional professorships in the Departments of Psychology, Radiation Oncology, and the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering. His book The Scalpel and the Soul: Encounters with Surgery, the Supernatural, and the Healing Power of Hope was released in March 2008. It has been translated into several languages. He is currently at work on a second book on spirituality and horsemanship, specifically on the sexual impulses of mature mares. == Background == Hamilton grew up in Queens, New York, in the neighborhood of Kew Gardens, and received his undergraduate degree at Ithaca College. After graduation, Hamilton worked as a janitor at a church and veterinary hospital in Utica, New York before getting a job teaching English at Whitesboro


id: allan-hamilton-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan_Hamilton-1.md
category: reference
title: Allan Hamilton
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan_Hamilton
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:26.684923+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: allan-hamilton-20260505-0
summary:
Molzahn, Allyson G.; Lovett, Marissa K.; Biffar, David; de Oliveira Almeida, Gustavo; Hamilton, Allan J. (October 2024) [First published online August 4, 2024]. "The Effect of Time Pressure on Surgical Skill Retention in Novices: A Randomized Controlled Trial". Surgical Innovation. 31 (5): 541–549. doi:10.1177/15533506241273359. ISSN 1553-3514. PMID 39097818. Zhu, Xi; Suarez-Jimenez, Benjamin; Zilcha-Mano, Sigal; Lazarov, Amit; Arnon, Shay; Lowell, Ari L.; Bergman, Maja; Ryba, Matthew; Hamilton, Allan J.; Hamilton, Jane F.; Turner, J. Blake; Markowitz, John C.; Fisher, Prudence W.; Neria, Yuval (April 15, 2021). "Neural changes following equine-assisted therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder: A longitudinal multimodal imaging study". Human Brain Mapping. 42 (6): 1930–1939. doi:10.1002/hbm.25360. ISSN 1097-0193. PMC 7978114. PMID 33547694. Clinical trial number NCT03068325 at ClinicalTrials.gov. Lee, Sangyoon; Hua, Hong; Nguyen, Mike; Hamilton, Allan J. (February 2021) [First published online September 7, 2020]. "Further Comparison of 4 Display Modes for a Multi-Resolution Foveated Laparoscope". Surgical Innovation. 28 (1): 85–93. doi:10.1177/1553350620957799. ISSN 1553-3514. PMC 7936989. PMID 32895010. Lee, Sangyoon; Hua, Hong; Nguyen, Mike; Hamilton, Allan J. (January 2019) [Received: 1 May 2018 / Accepted: 5 September 2018 / Published online: 11 September 2018]. "Comparison of six display modes for a multi-resolution foveated laparoscope". Surgical Endoscopy. 33 (1): 341–351. doi:10.1007/s00464-018-6445-0.


id: methocha-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methocha-0.md
category: reference
title: Methocha
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methocha
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:29.253247+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: methocha-20260505-0
summary:
Methocha is a genus of parasitoid wasps in the family Thynnidae. The species of this genus are found worldwide except in Australia, and attack the larvae of tiger beetles. Females are wingless, and can be mistaken for ants, while males are winged. == Biology == Female Methocha actively hunt over the ground for burrows containing tiger beetle larvae, which are ambush predators; the wasp entices the beetle larva into attacking, evades being bitten, and quickly moves in and stings the larva in its vulnerable underside, paralyzing it. It then lays an egg on the immobile beetle larva, and the wasp larva consumes it. == Species == Methocha alutacea Linnaeus Methocha anomala Krombein Methocha californica Westwood, 1881 Methocha formosa Krombein, 1954 Methocha ichneumonides Latreille, 1804 Methocha impolita Krombein, 1958 Methocha krombeini Raveendram, Kumar, Binoy, & Sureshan, 2021 Methocha paraceylonica Raveendram, Kumar, Binoy, & Sureshan, 2021 Methocha shyamagatra Raveendram, Kumar, Binoy, & Sureshan, 2021 Methocha stygia (Say, 1836) Methocha uchinanensis Terayamma & Mita, 2015 Methocha yaeyamensis Terayamma & Mita, 2015 == References ==


id: neisseria-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neisseria-0.md
category: reference
title: Neisseria
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neisseria
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:30.648186+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neisseria-20260505-0
summary:
Neisseria is a large genus of bacteria that colonize the mucous membranes of many animals. Of the 11 species that colonize humans, only two are pathogens: N. meningitidis and N. gonorrhoeae. Neisseria species are Gram-negative bacteria included among the Pseudomonadota, a large group of Gram-negative forms. Neisseria diplococci resemble coffee beans when viewed microscopically. == Pathogenesis and classification == === Pathogens === Species of this genus (family Neisseriaceae) of parasitic bacteria grow in pairs and occasionally fours, and thrive best at 98.6 °F (37 °C) in the animal body or serum media. The genus includes: N. gonorrhoeae (also called the gonococcus) causes gonorrhea. N. meningitidis (also called the meningococcus) is one of the most common causes of bacterial meningitis and the causative agent of meningococcal septicaemia. The immune system's neutrophils are restricted in function due to the ability of Neisseria to evade opsonization by antibodies, and to replicate within neutrophils despite phagocytosis. Neisseria species are also able to alter their antigens to avoid being engulfed by a process called antigenic variation, which is observed primarily in surface-located molecules. The pathogenic species along with some commensal species, have type IV pili which serve multiple functions for this organism. Some functions of


id: nickel-double-salts-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel_double_salts-0.md
category: reference
title: Nickel double salts
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel_double_salts
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:31.913544+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nickel-double-salts-20260505-0
summary:
Nickel can form various double salts. == Tutton's salts == Nickel is one of the metals that can form Tutton's salts. The singly charged ion can be any of the full range of potassium, rubidium, cesium, ammonium (NH4), or thallium. === Mineral forms === As a mineral the ammonium nickel salt, (NH4)2Ni(SO4)2 · 6 H2O, can be called nickelboussingaultite. With sodium, the double sulfate is nickelblödite Na2Ni(SO4)2 · 4 H2O from the blödite family. Nickel can be substituted by other divalent metals of similar sized to make mixtures that crystallise in the same form. == Langbeinites == Anhydrous salts of the formula M2Ni2(SO4)3, which can be termed metal nickel trisulfates, belong to the family of langbeinites. The known salts include (NH4)2Ni2(SO4)3, K2Ni2(SO4)3 and Rb2Ni2(SO4)3, and those of Tl and Cs are predicted to exist. == Double halides == === Fluorides === Double fluorides include the fluoroanion salts, and those fluoronickelates such as NiF4 and NiF6: KNiF3·H2O and NaNiF3·H2O – apple green coloured aluminium nickel pentafluoride (AlNiF5·7H2O) ceric nickelous decafluoride (Ce2NiF10·7H2O) niobium nickel fluoride (Ni3H4Nb2F20·19H2O) vanadium nickel pentafluoride (VNiF5·7H2O) vanadyl nickel tetrafluoride (VONiF4·7H2O) chromic nickelous pentafluoride (CrNiF5·7H2O) molybdenum nickel dioxytetrafluoride (NiMoO2F4·6H2O) tungsten nickel dioxytetrafluoride hexahydrate (NiWO2F4·6H2O) and decahydrate (NiWO2F4·10H2O) manganic nickel


id: p-microphylla-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P._microphylla-0.md
category: reference
title: P. microphylla
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P._microphylla
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:33.148769+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: p-microphylla-20260505-0
summary:
P. microphylla may refer to different species of plants, algae, fungi, and even animals. The specific epithet microphylla derives from Greek μικροϛ (micros) and φυλλον (phyllon) and means 'small leaves'. Pannaria microphylla, a lichen in the family Pannariaceae Paraerva microphylla, a plant in the family Amaranthaceae Paraquilegia microphylla, a plant in the family Ranunculaceae Paratrophis microphylla, a tree in the family Moraceae Paravallaris microphylla, a plant in the family Apocynaceae Parietaria microphylla, a plant in the family Parietarieae Parkinsonia microphylla, a palo verde tree in the family Fabaceae Parmelia microphylla, a lichen in the family Parmeliaceae Parmeliella microphylla, a lichen in the family Pannariaceae Paronychia microphylla, a plant in the family Paronychieae Parosela microphylla, a plant in the family Fabaceae Passerina microphylla, a plant in the family Thymelaeaceae Patellaria microphylla, a fungus in the family Patellariaceae Pauridiantha microphylla, a plant in the family Rubiaceae Pavetta microphylla, a plant in the family Rubiaceae Payena microphylla, a tree in the family Sapotaceae Pedicularis microphylla, a plant in the family Orobanchaceae Peixotoa microphylla, a plant in the family Malpighiaceae Pellaea microphylla, currently called Argyrochosma microphylla, a fern in the family Pteridaceae Pellegrinia microphylla, a plant in the family Ericaceae Peltigera microphylla, a lichen


id: sativum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sativum-0.md
category: reference
title: Sativum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sativum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:34.332549+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sativum-20260505-0
summary:
Sativa, sativus, and sativum are Latin botanical adjectives meaning cultivated. It is often associated botanically with plants that promote good health and used to designate certain seed-grown domestic crops. == Usage == Sativa (ending in -a) is the feminine form of the adjective, but masculine (-us) and neuter (-um) endings are also used to agree with the gender of the nouns they modify; for example, the masculine Crocus sativus and neuter Pisum sativum. == List of plant names containing sativum == Examples of crops incorporating this word and its variations into their Latin name include: Allium sativum, garlic. Avena sativa, the common oat. Cannabis sativa, one of three forms of cannabis. Castanea sativa, sweet chestnut. Coriandrum sativum, coriander, also known as cilantro, an annual herb. Crocus sativus, the saffron crocus. Cucumis sativus, the cucumber. Daucus carota subsp. sativus, the carrot. Eruca sativa, the rocket or arugula, a leaf vegetable. Hordeum sativum, barley. Lactuca sativa, lettuce. Lathyrus sativus, grass pea Lepidium sativum, garden cress. Madia sativa, Chilean tarweed. Medicago sativa, alfalfa. Nigella sativa, a flower whose edible seeds are sometimes known as "black cumin" or "black caraway". Oryza sativa, rice. Pastinaca sativa., parsnip, a root vegetable closely related to the carrot


id: spiroplasma-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiroplasma-0.md
category: reference
title: Spiroplasma
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiroplasma
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:35.702836+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: spiroplasma-20260505-0
summary:
Spiroplasma is a genus of Mollicutes, a group of small bacteria without cell walls. Spiroplasma shares the simple metabolism, parasitic lifestyle, fried-egg colony morphology and small genome of other Mollicutes, but has a distinctive helical morphology, unlike Mycoplasma. It has a spiral shape and moves in a corkscrew motion. Many Spiroplasma are found either in the gut or haemolymph of insects where they can act to manipulate host reproduction, or defend the host as endosymbionts. Spiroplasma are also disease-causing agents in the phloem of plants. Spiroplasmas are fastidious organisms, which require a rich culture medium. Typically they grow well at 30 °C, but not at 37 °C. A few species, notably Spiroplasma mirum, grow well at 37 °C (human body temperature), and cause cataracts and neurological damage in suckling mice. The best studied species of spiroplasmas are Spiroplasma poulsonii, a reproductive manipulator and defensive insect symbiont, Spiroplasma citri, the causative agent of citrus stubborn disease, and Spiroplasma kunkelii, the causative agent of corn stunt disease. == Genus structure == Spiroplasma as currently circumscribeed is not monophyletic and consists of four separate clades: Spiroplasma sensu stricto consists of the large clade around S. citri. This clade has been subdivided into mirum,


id: spiroplasma-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiroplasma-1.md
category: reference
title: Spiroplasma
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiroplasma
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:35.702836+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: spiroplasma-20260505-0
summary:
=== In humans === In 1997, an unnamed species closest to S. taiwanense was found in a newborn with unilateral cataract and anterior uveitis. This is the first known human infection. In 2014, S. turonicum caused a systemic infection in an immunocompromised individual with hypogammaglobulinemia and rheumatoid arthritis, the latter being treated with biologics. This was the first human systemic infection reported. In 2022, an unnamed species closest to S. eriocheiris caused a bloodstream and lung infection in a man who underwent surgery for aortic dissection. The genome has been sequenced. GTDB calls this species Spiroplasma sp040940205, a placeholder name based on the GenBank/RefSeq genome assembly identifier. === Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy theory === There is some disputed evidence for the role of spiroplasmas in the etiology of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs), due primarily to the work of Frank Bastian, summarized below. Other researchers have failed to replicate this work, while the prion model for TSEs has gained very wide acceptance. A 2006 study appears to refute the role of spiroplasmas in the best small animal scrapie model (hamsters). Bastian et al. (2007) have responded to this challenge with the isolation of a spiroplasma species from scrapie-infected tissue, grown it in


id: list-of-steroids-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroids-0.md
category: reference
title: List of steroids
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_steroids
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:36.862843+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-steroids-20260505-0
summary:
List of steroids may refer to: List of androgens/anabolic steroids – steroidal androgens/anabolic steroids List of androgens/anabolic steroids (alternate) – steroidal androgens/anabolic steroids List of steroidal antiandrogens – steroidal antiandrogens List of estrogens – estrogens List of progestogens – progestogens List of corticosteroids – corticosteroids, including both glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids List of neurosteroids – excitatory, inhibitory, mixed, neurotrophic, antineurotrophic, and other neurosteroids, as well as pheromones and pherines List of steroidogenesis inhibitors – steroidogenesis inhibitors, or inhibitors of steroid biosynthesis and metabolism As well as lists of steroid esters, including: List of androgen esters – androgen esters List of estrogen esters – estrogen esters List of progestogen esters – progestogen esters List of corticosteroid esters – corticosteroid esters == See also == List of steroid esters List of steroid medications available in the United States


id: felix-ucko-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felix_Ucko-0.md
category: reference
title: Felix Ucko
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felix_Ucko
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:38.126821+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: felix-ucko-20260505-0
summary:
Felix Alfred Ucko (January 4, 1919 – October 27, 1996) was an American field hockey player. He competed at the 1948 Summer Olympics and the 1956 Summer Olympics. In the 1956 games, he played alongside his brother, Kurt Ucko. Additionally, he was a psychiatrist. He was a member of the American Psychiatric Association, the American Association of Community Psychiatrists, and other professional organizations. == Publications == Ucko, Felix A. (1948). Stand der Herzchirurgie in den Vereinigten Staaten von Nordamerika (Hochschulschrift/Dissertation thesis). Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main. OCLC 720559781. ⁣DNB, Katalog der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek 481675914. Katalog der Bibliotheken der Goethe-Universität PPN 272224251. Ucko, Felix A. (December 1955). "Shock therapy can be safe". Diseases of the Nervous System. 16 (12): 373–4. ISSN 0012-3714. PMID 13270682. Google Books V5sBh2-Zz50C. Ucko, Felix (October 12, 1956). "Zur Witzelsucht in Deutsche Frauen". Arbeiten aus dem Staatinstitut für Experimentelle Therapie und dem Georg Spyer Hause zu Frankfurt. 14. Jena, Germany: 92. Ucko, F.A. (August 1962). "Clinical experience with chlorprothixene, a new psychotherapeutic agent". Diseases of the Nervous System. 23: 453–5. ISSN 0012-3714. PMID 13923425. Gehl, Raymond H.; Welkind, Allen; Ucko, Felix A. (January 1966). "Providing a therapeutic climate by pairing patients. A preliminary report". Mental Hygiene. 50 (1):


id: list-of-inventors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-0.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
This is a of people who are described as being inventors or are credited with an invention. == Alphabetical list == === A === Vitaly Abalakov (1906–1986), Russia – camming devices, Abalakov thread (or V-thread), gearless ice climbing anchor Ernst Karl Abbe (1840–1905), Germany – Condenser (microscope), apochromatic lens, refractometer Hovannes Adamian (1879–1932), USSR/Russia/Armenia – tricolor principle of the color television Samuel W. Alderson (1914–2005), U.S. – crash test dummy Alexandre Alexeieff (1901–1982), Russia/France – Pinscreen animation (with his wife Claire Parker) Rostislav Alexeyev (1916–1980), Russia/USSR – Ekranoplan Randi Altschul (born 1960), U.S. – Disposable cellphone Abram Alikhanov (1904–1970), Armenia/USSR – Soviet atomic bomb, nuclear reactor Bruce Ames (1928–2024), U.S. – Ames test (Cell biology) Giovanni Battista Amici (1786–1863), Italy – Dipleidoscope, Amici prism Ruth Amos (born 1989), UK – StairSteady Mary Anderson (1866–1953), U.S. – windshield wiper blade Momofuku Ando (1910–2007), Japan – Instant noodles Hal Anger (1920–2005), U.S. – Well counter (radioactivity measurements), gamma camera Anders Knutsson Ångström (1888–1981), Sweden – Pyranometer Ottomar Anschütz (1846–1907), Germany – single-curtain focal-plane shutter, electrotachyscope Hermann Anschütz-Kaempfe (1872–1931), Germany – Gyrocompass Virginia Apgar (1909–1974), U.S. – Apgar score (for newborn babies) Nicolas Appert (1749–1841), France – canning (food preservation) using glass bottles,


id: list-of-inventors-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-1.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
=== B === Boris Babayan (born 1933), Armenia/USSR/Russia – Soviet computers, Superscalar processor Charles Babbage (1791–1871), UK – Analytical engine (semi-automatic) Tabitha Babbit (1779–1853), U.S. – Saw mill circular saw Victor Babeș (1854–1926), Romania – Babesia, the founder of serum therapy Leo Baekeland (1863–1944), Belgian–American – Velox photographic paper and Bakelite Ralph H. Baer (1922–2014), German born American – video game console Adolf von Baeyer (1835–1917), Germany – Fluorescein, synthetic Indigo dye, Phenolphthalein John Logie Baird (1888–1946), Scotland – World's first working television, 26 January 1926 and electronic colour television Abi Bakr of Isfahan (c. 1235), Persia/Iran – mechanical geared astrolabe with lunisolar calendar George Ballas (1925–2011), U.S. – String trimmer Oscar H. Banker (1895–1979), Armenia/U.S. – automatic transmission for automobiles Frederick Banting (1891–1941), Canada – technique to isolate Insulin Vladimir Baranov-Rossine (1888–1944), Russia/France – Optophonic Piano John Barber (1734–1801), UK – gas turbine John Bardeen (1908–1991), U.S. – co-inventor of the transistor, with Brattain and Schockley Vladimir Barmin (1909–1993), Russia – first rocket launch complex (spaceport) Anthony R. Barringer (1925–2009), Canada/U.S. – INPUT (Induced Pulse Transient) airborne electromagnetic system Earl W. Bascom (1906–1995), Canada/U.S. – rodeo bucking chute (1916 and 1919), rodeo bronc saddle (1922), rodeo bareback rigging (1924),


id: list-of-inventors-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-2.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
=== C === Ve Elizabeth Cadie (1893–1956), U.S. – heat insulating handle for small home appliances Herminie Cadolle (1845–1926), France – modern brassiere Robert Cailliau (born 1947), Belgium – with Tim Berners-Lee, the World Wide Web Edward A. Calahan (1838–1912), U.S. – Stock ticker tape Nicholas Callan (1799–1864), Ireland – Induction coil Spéranza Calo-Séailles (1885–1949), Greece – "Lap" decorative concrete Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton (1863–1930), Scotland – Television Tullio Campagnolo (1901–1983), Italy – Quick release skewer Charles Cantor (born 1942), U.S. – Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (molecular biology) Mario Ramberg Capecchi (born 1937), together with Sir Martin John Evans (born 1941), and Oliver Smithies (1925–2017), U.S. – Gene targeting Roxey Ann Caplin (1793–1888), UK – Victorian-style corset Arturo Caprotti (1881–1938), Italy – Caprotti valve gear Gerolamo Cardano (1501–1576), Italy – Cardan grille (cryptography) Philip Cardew (1851–1910), UK – Hot-wire galvanometer Chester Carlson (1906–1968), U.S. – Xerographic copier Wallace Carothers (1896–1937), U.S. – Nylon and Neoprene (together with Arnold Collins) Antonio Benedetto Carpano (1764–1815), Italy – Vermouth Mary P. Carpenter (1840–1900), U.S. – mosquito nets, mosquito traps Giovanni Caselli (1815–1891), Italy/France – Pantelegraph George Cayley (1773–1857), UK – tension-spoke wheels Anders Celsius (1701–1744), Sweden – Celsius temperature scale Vint Cerf (born 1943), together


id: list-of-inventors-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-3.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
=== D === Nils Gustaf Dalén (1869–1937), Sweden – AGA cooker, Dalén light, Agamassan, Sun valve for lighthouses and buoys John Frederic Daniell (1790–1845), UK – Daniell cell Corradino D'Ascanio (1891–1981), Italy – Vespa scooter Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519), Italy – helicopter, tanks, and parachutes for safety Raymond Damadian (1936–2022), Armenia/U.S. – Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) Robert Davidson (1804–1894), Scotland – electric locomotive Jacob Davis (1868–1908), U.S. – Riveted jeans Humphry Davy (1778–1829), UK – Davy miners lamp Joseph Day (1855–1946), UK – the crankcase-compression two-stroke engine Lee de Forest (1873–1961), U.S. – Phonofilm, triode Yuri Nikolaevich Denisyuk (1927–2006), Russia – 3D holography Robert H. Dennard (1932–2024), U.S. – Dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) Miksa Déri (1854–1938), Hungary – co-inventor of an improved closed-core transformer Robert DeStefano (born 1962), U.S. – exercise equipment James Dewar (1842–1923), UK – Thermos flask Aleksandr Dianin (1851–1918), Russia – Bisphenol A, Dianin's compound William Kennedy Laurie Dickson (1860–1935), UK – motion picture camera Philip Diehl (1847–1913), U.S. – Ceiling fan Rudolf Diesel (1858–1913), Germany – Diesel engine William H. Dobelle (1943–2004), U.S. – Dobelle Eye Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner (1780–1849), Germany – Döbereiner's lamp (chemistry) Toshitada Doi (born 1943), Japan, together with Joop Sinjou, Netherlands –


id: list-of-inventors-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-4.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
=== F === Charles Fabry (1867–1945), together with Alfred Perot (1863–1925), France – Fabry–Pérot interferometer (physics) Samuel Face (1923–2001), U.S. – concrete flatness/levelness technology; Lightning Switch Federico Faggin (born 1941), Italy – microprocessor Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686–1736), The Netherlands – Fahrenheit temperature scale, Mercury-in-glass thermometer Michael Faraday (1791–1867), UK – electric transformer, electric motor Johann Maria Farina (1685–1766), Germany – Eau de Cologne Myra Juliet Farrell (1878–1957), Australia – stitchless button, Press stud Philo Farnsworth (1906–1971), U.S. – electronic television Marga Faulstich (1915–1998), Germany – optical glass, lightweight lens SF 64 Muhammad al-Fazari (died 796/806), Persia – astrolabe Benedetto Fedeli (1944–), Italy – Security and Armoured doors for domestic use John Bennett Fenn (1917–2010), U.S. – Electrospray ionization Henry John Horstman Fenton (1854–1929), UK – Fenton's reagent (chemistry) James Fergason (1934–2008), U.S. – improved liquid-crystal display Enrico Fermi (1901–1954), Italy – nuclear reactor Humberto Fernández-Morán (1924–1999), Venezuela – Diamond scalpel, Ultra microtome Michele Ferrero (1925–2015), Italy – Kinder Surprise = Kinder Eggs, Nutella Bran Ferren (born 1953), U.S. – Pinch-to-zoom (multi-touch), together with Daniel Hillis Reginald Fessenden (1866–1932), Canada – two-way radio Robert Feulgen (1884–1955), Germany – Feulgen stain (histology) Adolf Gaston Eugen Fick (1829–1901), Germany – contact lens Ethel


id: list-of-inventors-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-5.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
=== G === Dennis Gabor (1900–1979), Hungarian-British – holography Boris Borisovich Galitzine (1862–1916), Russia – electromagnetic seismograph Joseph G. Gall (1928–2024), U.S. – In situ hybridization (cell biology) Alfred William Gallagher (1911–1990), New Zealand – Electric fence for farmers Dmitri Garbuzov (1940–2006), Russia/U.S. – continuous-wave-operating diode lasers (together with Zhores Alferov), high-power diode lasers Elmer R. Gates (1859–1923), U.S. – foam fire extinguisher, electric loom mechanisms, magnetic & diamagnetic separators, educational toy ("box & blocks")* Richard J. Gatling (1818–1903), U.S. – wheat drill, first successful machine gun Georgy Gause (1910–1986), Russia – gramicidin S, neomycin, lincomycin and other antibiotics E. K. Gauzen, Russia – three bolt equipment (early diving costume) Norman Gaylord (1923–2007), U.S. – rigid gas-permeable contact lens Karl-Hermann Geib (1908–1949), Germany / USSR – Girdler sulfide process King Camp Gillette (1855–1932), U.S. – Double-edge safety razor and blade Hans Wilhelm Geiger (1882–1945), Germany – Geiger counter Andrey Geim (born 1958), Russia/United Kingdom – graphene Nestor Genko (1839–1904), Russia – Genko's Forest Belt (the first large-scale windbreak system) Christoph Gerber (born 1942), with Calvin Quate (1923–2019), and with Gerd Binnig (1947–), Germany/U.S./Switzerland – Atomic force microscope Friedrich Clemens Gerke (1801–1888), Germany – current international Morse code David Gestetner (1854–1939),


id: list-of-inventors-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-6.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
=== H === Fritz Haber (1868–1934), Germany – Haber process (ammonia synthesis) John Hadley (1682–1744), UK – octant Waldemar Haffkine (1860–1930), Russia/Switzerland – first anti-cholera and anti-plague vaccines Gunther von Hagens (born 1945), Germany – whole body Plastination Charles Hall (1863–1914), U.S. – aluminum production Robert N. Hall (1919–2016), U.S. – Semiconductor laser Samuel Hall (1782–1863), UK – condenser to enable recycling of water in a ship's steam engine Tracy Hall (1919–2008), U.S. – synthetic diamond Nicholas Halse (died 1636), England – malt kiln Richard Hamming (1915–1998), U.S. – Hamming code John Hays Hammond Jr. (1888–1965), U.S. – radio control Ruth Handler (1916–2002), U.S. – Barbie doll James Hargreaves (1720–1778), UK – spinning jenny John Harington (1561–1612), UK – the flush toilet William Snow Harris (1791–1867), UK – much improved naval Lightning rods John Harrison (1693–1776), UK – marine chronometer Ross Granville Harrison (1870–1959), U.S. – first successful animal Tissue culture, Cell culture Kazuo Hashimoto (died 1995), Japan – Caller-ID, answering machine Victor Hasselblad (1906–1978), Sweden – the 6 x 6 cm single-lens reflex camera Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) (965–1039), Iraq – camera obscura, pinhole camera, magnifying glass George H. Heilmeier (1936–2014), U.S. – liquid-crystal display (LCD) Henry Heimlich (1920–2016), U.S.


id: list-of-inventors-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-7.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
=== K === Mikhail Kalashnikov (1919–2013), Russia – AK-47 and AK-74 assault rifles (the most produced ever) Bob Kahn (born 1938), together with Vint Cerf (born 1943), U.S. – Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) Dawon Kahng (1931–1992), South Korea, together with Simon Sze (1936–2023), Taiwan/U.S. – Floating-gate MOSFET Dean Kamen (born 1951), U.S. – Invented the Segway HT scooter and the IBOT Mobility Device Heike Kamerlingh Onnes (1853–1926), Netherlands – liquid helium Nikolay Kamov (1902–1973), Russia – armored battle autogyro, Ka-series coaxial rotor helicopters Pyotr Kapitsa (1894–1984), Russia – first ultrastrong magnetic field creating techniques, basic low-temperature physics inventions Georgii Karpechenko (1899–1941), Russia – rabbage (the first ever non-sterile hybrid obtained through the crossbreeding) Mihran Kassabian (1870–1910), Armenia/U.S. – Medical use of X-Rays Jamshīd al-Kāshī (c. 1380–1429), Persia/Iran – plate of conjunctions, analog planetary computer Andrew Kay (1919–2014), U.S. – Digital voltmeter Adolphe Kégresse (1879–1943), France/Russia – Kégresse track (first half-track and first off-road vehicle with continuous track), dual-clutch transmission Carl D. Keith (1920–2008), together with John J. Mooney (1930–2020), U.S. – three way catalytic converter Mstislav Keldysh (1911–1978), Latvia/Russia – co-developer of Sputnik 1 (the first artificial satellite) together with Korolyov and Tikhonravov John Harvey Kellogg (1852–1943), cornflake breakfasts John G.


id: list-of-inventors-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-8.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
=== L === Dmitry Lachinov (1842–1902), Russia – mercury pump, economizer for electricity consumption, electrical insulation tester, optical dynamometer, photometer, electrolyser René Laennec (1781–1826), France – stethoscope Georges Lakhovsky (1869–1942), Russia/U.S. – multiple wave oscillator Simon S. Lam (born 1947) U.S. – Secure Sockets invented in 1991 for securing Internet applications (World Wide Web, email, etc.) Hedy Lamarr (1914–2000), Austria and U.S. – Spread spectrum radio Edwin H. Land (1909–1991), U.S. – Polaroid polarizing filters and the Land Camera Samuel P. Langley (1834–1906), U.S. – bolometer Irving Langmuir (1851–1957), U.S. – gas filled incandescent light bulb, hydrogen welding Norm Larsen (1923–1970), U.S. – WD-40 Lewis Latimer (1848–1928), U.S. – improved carbon-filament light bulb Gustav de Laval (1845–1913), Sweden – invented the milk separator and the milking machine Semyon Lavochkin (1900–1960), Russia – La-series aircraft, first operational surface-to-air missile S-25 Berkut John Bennet Lawes (1814–1900), UK – superphosphate or chemical fertilizer Ernest Orlando Lawrence (1901–1958), U.S. – Cyclotron Nikolai Lebedenko, Russia – Tsar Tank, largest armored vehicle in history Sergei Lebedev (1874–1934), Russia – commercially viable synthetic rubber William Lee (1563–1614), UK – Stocking frame knitting machine Edward Leedskalnin (1887–1951), U.S. – construction techniques used to single-handedly lift massive coral blocks


id: list-of-inventors-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-9.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
=== M === Charles Macintosh (1766–1843), Scotland – waterproof raincoat, life vest Theodore Maiman (1927–2007), U.S. – Laser, see also Gordon Gould Ahmed Majan (born 1963), UAE – instrumented racehorse saddle and others Aleksandr Makarov (born 1966), Russia/Germany – Orbitrap mass spectrometer Stepan Makarov (1849–1904), Russia – Icebreaker Yermak, first true icebreaker able to ride over and crush pack ice Victor Makeev (1924–1985), Russia – first submarine-launched ballistic missile Nestor Makhno (1888–1934), Ukraine/Russia – tachanka Dmitri Dmitrievich Maksutov (1896–1964), Russia – Maksutov telescope Annie Malone (1869–1957), U.S. – Cosmetics for African American women Sergey Malyutin (1859–1937), Russia – designed the first matryoshka doll (together with Vasily Zvyozdochkin) Boris Mamyrin (1919–2007), Russia – reflectron (ion mirror) George William Manby (1765–1854), UK – Fire extinguisher Harry Mendell, U.S. – invented the first digital sampling synthesizer Joy Mangano (born 1956), U.S. – household appliances Anna Mangin (1844–1931) – American inventor, educator, caterer and women's rights campaigner Charles Mantoux (1877–1947), France – Mantoux test (tuberculosis) Guglielmo Marconi (1874–1937), Italy – radio telegraphy Gheorghe Marinescu (1863–1938), Romania – first science films in the world in the neurology clinic in Bucharest (1898–1901) Sylvester Marsh (1803–1884), U.S. – Marsh rack railway system Konosuke Matsushita (1894–1989), Japan –


id: list-of-inventors-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-10.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
=== N === Georgi Nadjakov (1896–1981), Bulgaria – wikt:photoelectret Alexander Nadiradze (1914–1987), Georgia/Russia – first mobile ICBM (RT-21 Temp 2S), first reliable mobile ICBM (RT-2PM Topol) Nagai Nagayoshi (1844–1929), Japan – Methamphetamine James Naismith (1861–1939), Canadian born, U.S. – invented basketball and American football helmet Yoshiro Nakamatsu (born 1928), Japan – "PyonPyon" spring shoes, digital watch, CinemaScope, armchair "Cerebrex", sauce pump, taxicab meter Shuji Nakamura (born 1954), Japan – Blue laser John Napier (1550–1617), Scotland – logarithms Andrey Nartov (1683–1756), Russia – first lathe with a mechanic cutting tool-supporting carriage and a set of gears, fast-fire battery on a rotating disc, screw mechanism for changing the artillery fire angle, gauge–boring lathe for cannon-making, early telescopic sight James Nasmyth (1808–1890), Scotland – steam hammer Giulio Natta (1903–1979), together with Karl Ziegler (1898–1973), Italy/Germany – Ziegler–Natta catalyst William Neade (fl.1624–1637), England – weapon combining a longbow and a pike Erwin Neher (born 1944), together with Bert Sakmann (1942–), Germany – Patch clamp technique Ted Nelson (born 1937), U.S. – Hypertext, Hypermedia Sergey Nepobedimiy (1921–2014), Russia – first supersonic anti-tank guided missile Sturm, other Soviet rocket weaponry Karl Nessler (1872–1951), Germany/U.S. – Permanent wave machine, artificial eyebrows Bernard de Neumann (1943–2018), UK –


id: list-of-inventors-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-11.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
=== P === Arogyaswami Paulraj (born 1944), India/U.S. – MIMO Antonio Pacinotti (1841–1912), Italy – Pacinotti dynamo Hilary Page (1904–1957), UK – Self-Locking Building Bricks, the predecessor of Lego Larry Page (born 1973), U.S. – with Sergey Brin invented Google web search engine William Painter (1838–1906), UK/U.S. – Crown cork, Bottle opener Salvatore Pais (born 1967), Romania/U.S. – electromagnetic field generator to deflect asteroids away from the Earth, an inertial mass reduction device, a room-temperature superconductor, a gravitational wave generator, and a compact fusion reactor Alexey Pajitnov (born 1956), Russia/U.S. – Tetris Julio Palmaz (born 1945), Argentina – balloon-expandable, stent Helge Palmcrantz (1842–1880), Sweden – multi-barrel, lever-actuated, machine gun Daniel David Palmer (1845–1913), Canada – chiropractic Luigi Palmieri (1807–1896), Italy – seismometer Frank Pantridge (1916–2004), Ireland – Portable defibrillator Georgios Papanikolaou (1883–1962), Greece / U.S. – Papanicolaou stain, Pap test = Pap smear Alice H. Parker (1895–1920), U.S. – central heating using natural gas furnace Philip M. Parker (born 1960), U.S. – computer automated book authoring Thomas Parker (1843–1915), England – electric car Alexander Parkes (1831–1890), UK – celluloid Florence Parpart (c. 1856–?), U.S. – industrial sweeping machine, electrical refrigerator Forrest Parry (1921–2005), U.S. – Magnetic stripe card Charles Algernon


id: list-of-inventors-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-12.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
=== R === Jacob Rabinow (1910–1999), U.S. – Magnetic particle clutch, various Phonograph-related patents John Goffe Rand (1801–1873), U.S. – Tube (container) Robert Ransome (1753–1830), England – improvement to the plough Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes) (865–965), Persia/Iran – distillation and extraction methods,hydrochloric acid, soap kerosene, kerosene lamp, chemotherapy, sodium hydroxide Alec Reeves (1902–1971), UK – Pulse-code modulation Karl von Reichenbach (1788–1869), Germany – paraffin, creosote oil, phenol Tadeus Reichstein (1897–1996), Poland/Switzerland – Reichstein process (industrial vitamin C synthesis) Ira Remsen (1846–1927), U.S. – saccharin Ralf Reski (born 1958), Germany – Moss bioreactor 1998 Josef Ressel (1793–1857), Czechoslovakia – ship propeller William Reynolds (1758–1803), England – canal inclined plane Ri Sung-gi (1905–1996), North Korea – Vinylon Charles Francis Richter (1900–1985), U.S. – Richter magnitude scale Adolph Rickenbacker (1886–1976), Switzerland – Electric guitar Hyman George Rickover (1900–1986), U.S. – Nuclear submarine Niklaus Riggenbach (1817–1899), Switzerland – Riggenbach rack railway system, Counter-pressure brake Dennis Ritchie (1941–2011), U.S. – C (programming language) Gilles de Roberval (1602–1675), France – Roberval balance John Roebuck (1718–1794) UK – lead chamber process for sulfuric acid synthesis Francis Rogallo (1912–2009), U.S. – Rogallo wing Heinrich Rohrer (1933–2013), together with Gerd Binnig (1947–), Switzerland/Germany – Scanning tunneling microscope Peter


id: list-of-inventors-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-13.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
=== S === Albert Bruce Sabin (1906–1993), U.S. – oral Polio vaccine Alexander Sablukov (1783–1857), Russia – centrifugal fan Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu (1385–1468), Turkey – illustrated surgical atlas Andrei Sakharov (1921–1989), Russia – invented explosively pumped flux compression generator, co-developed the Tsar Bomba and tokamak Jonas Edward Salk (1914–1995), U.S. – injection Polio vaccine Robert Salmon (1763–1821), England – agricultural implements Franz San Galli (1824–1908), Poland/Russia (Italian and German descent) – radiator, central heating Frederick Sanger (1918–2013), U.S. – Sanger sequencing (= DNA sequencing) Yoshiyuki Sankai (born c. 1957), Japan – Robotic exoskeleton for motion support (medicine) Alberto Santos-Dumont (1873–1932), Brazil – non-rigid airship and airplane Arthur William Savage (1857–1938) – radial tires, gun magazines, Savage Model 99 lever action rifle Thomas Savery (1650–1715), UK – steam engine Adolphe Sax (1814–1894), Belgium – saxophone Vincent Joseph Schaefer (1906–1993), U.S. – Cloud seeding by dry ice Bela Schick (1877–1967), Hungary – diphtheria test Wilhelm Schickard (1592–1635), Germany – mechanical calculator Hugo Schiff (1834–1915), Germany – Schiff test (histology) Pavel Schilling (1786–1837), Estonia/Russia – first electromagnetic telegraph, mine with an electric fuse Gilmore Schjeldahl (1912–2002), U.S. – Airsickness bag Hubert Schlafly (1919–2011), U.S. – Teleprompter = Autocue Wilhelm Schlenk (1879–1943), Germany – Schlenk


id: list-of-inventors-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-14.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
=== T === Gyula Takátsy (1914–1980), Hungary – first Microtiter plate Esther Takeuchi (born 1953) – holds more than 150 US-patents, the largest number for any woman in the United States Igor Tamm (1895–1971), Russia – co-developer of tokamak Ching W. Tang (born 1947), Hong Kong/U.S., together with Steven Van Slyke, U.S. – OLED Mardi bin Ali al-Tarsusi (c. 1187), Middle East – counterweight trebuchet, mangonel Gustav Tauschek (1899–1945), Austria – Drum memory Kenyon Taylor (1908–1986), U.S. – Flip-disc display Bernard Tellegen (1900–1990), Netherlands – pentode Edward Teller (1908–2003), Hungary – hydrogen bomb Eli Terry (1772–1852) Michel Ter-Pogossian (1925–1996), Armenia/U.S. – Positron emission tomography (PET) Nikola Tesla (1856–1943), Serbia – induction motor, high-voltage / high-frequency power experiments, the transmission of electrical power Avie Tevanian (born 1961), Armenia/U.S. – Mach kernel, NeXTSTEP, macOS Léon Theremin (1896–1993), Russia – theremin, interlace, burglar alarm, terpsitone, Rhythmicon (first drum machine), The Thing (listening device) Charles Xavier Thomas de Colmar (1785–1870), France – Arithmometer Valerie Thomas (born 1943), U.S. – illusion transmitter Elihu Thomson (1853–1937), UK, U.S. – Prolific inventor, Arc lamp and many others William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin (1824–1907), UK – Kelvin absolute temperature scale Eric Tigerstedt (1887–1925), Finland – Sound-on-film, triode vacuum


id: list-of-inventors-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors-15.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:40.139813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
=== Y === Pavel Yablochkov (1847–1894), Russia – Yablochkov candle (first commercially viable electric carbon arc lamp) Hidetsugu Yagi (1886–1976), together with Shintaro Uda (1896–1976), Japan – Yagi–Uda antenna Alexander Yakovlev (1906–1989), Russia – Yak-series aircraft, including Yakovlev Yak-40 (the first regional jet) Linus Yale Jr. (1821–1868), U.S. – cylinder lock Linus Yale Sr. (1797–1858), U.S. – pin tumbler lock Shunpei Yamazaki (born 1942), Japan – patents in computer science and solid-state physics, see List of prolific inventors Gazi Yaşargil (1925–2025), Turkey – Microneurosurgery Ryōichi Yazu (1878–1908), Japan – Yazu Arithmometer Gunpei Yokoi (1941–1997), Japan – Game Boy Arthur M. Young (1905–1995), U.S. – Bell Helicopter Vladimir Yourkevich (1885–1964), Russia/France/U.S. – ship hull design Tu Youyou (born 1930), China – Artemisinin Sergei Yudin (1891–1954), Russia – cadaveric blood transfusion and other medical operations Muhammad Yunus (born 1940), Bangladesh – microcredit, microfinance Abraham Albert Yuzpe (born 1938), U.S. – Yuzpe regimen (= form of Emergency contraception) === Z === Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (Abulcasis) (936–1013), Islamic Spain – catgut surgical suture, various surgical instruments and dental devices Frank Zamboni (1901–1988), U.S. – Ice resurfacer Giuseppe Zamboni (1776–1846), Italy – Zamboni pile (early battery) Ludwik Łazarz Zamenhof (1859–1917), Russia/Poland – Esperanto Walter Zapp


id: list-of-african-american-inventors-and-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_African-American_inventors_and_scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of African-American inventors and scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_African-American_inventors_and_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:41.417249+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-african-american-inventors-and-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
This list of African-American inventors and scientists documents many of the African-Americans who have invented a multitude of items or made discoveries in the course of their lives. These have ranged from practical everyday devices to applications and scientific discoveries in diverse fields, including physics, biology, math, and medicine. == History == African-Americans have been the victims of oppression, discrimination and persecution throughout American history, with an impact on African-American innovation according to a 2014 study by economist Lisa D. Cook, which linked violence towards African-Americans and lack of legal protections over the period from 1870 to 1940 with lowered innovation. Despite this, many black innovators have been responsible for a large number of major inventions. Among the earliest was George Washington Carver, whose reputation was based on his research into and promotion of alternative crops to cotton, which aided in nutrition for farm families. He wanted poor farmers to grow alternative crops both as a source of their own food and as a source of other products to improve their way of life. The most popular of his 44 practical bulletins for farmers contained 105 food recipes using peanuts. He also developed and promoted about 100 products made from


id: list-of-albanian-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Albanian_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Albanian inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Albanian_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:42.572843+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-albanian-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of Albanian inventors and discoverers. The following incomplete list comprises individuals from Albania, the Albanian diaspora, and those of Albanian heritage who have contributed to the invention, innovation, or discovery of objects, processes, or techniques, either wholly or in part while working locally or abroad. The list is arranged in alphabetical order by surname. == A == Grigor Andoni: Designed and developed Albania's first armored military vehicle, Shota MRAP. == B == Veso Bey: Invented the Gjirokastër alphabet. == C == == D == == E == == F == Carol Folt: Pioneering research on the effects of dietary mercury and arsenic on human and ecosystem health. Her pioneering scientific research profoundly influenced national and global policies, leading to important recommendations on consumption, particularly regarding human health and ecosystem well-being, shaped by dietary factors. == G == Karl Ritter von Ghega: Designed the Semmering railway, the first standard-gauge mountain railway in Europe, commonly known as the world's first true mountain railway. Ghega was awarded the title of (Ritter) in recognition of his exceptional contributions to the country and was appointed as the chief planner for the entire railway network of the Austrian Empire. Savo Gjirja: Innovated


id: list-of-armenian-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Armenian_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Armenian inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Armenian_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:43.942176+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-armenian-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
The following list contains notable inventions and discoveries made by ethnic Armenians, including those not born or living in modern-day Armenia and those of partial Armenian ancestry. == List == Default sorted chronologically == See also == List of Armenians List of Armenian scientists List of Armenian Nobel laureates == References ==


id: list-of-austrian-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Austrian_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Austrian inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Austrian_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:45.136440+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-austrian-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of Austrian inventors and discoverers. The following list comprises people from Austria, and also people of predominantly Austrian heritage, in alphabetical order of the surname. == B == Georg Joseph Beer, introducing a flap operation for treatment of cataracts (Beer's operation), as well as popularizing the instrument used to perform the surgery (Beer's knife). Günther Burstyn, co-inventor of the tank (independent from him William Tritton and Walter Gordon Wilson) == C == Carl Cori (Nobel Prize), co-discovered Cori cycle. Gerty Cori (Nobel Prize), co-discovered Cori cycle. == D == Carl Djerassi, inventor of birth control pills Christian Doppler, discoverer of the Doppler effect == E == Paul Eisler, inventor of the printed circuit board. == F == Otto Frenzl: aeronautical pioneer, developed the area rule in 1943, a design technique for airfoils used to reduce an aircraft's drag at transonic and supersonic speeds. Later it was independently developed again by Richard T. Whitcomb in 1952. Sigmund Freud: neurologist who became known as the founding father of psychoanalysis Karl von Frisch: (Nobel Prize), one of the founders of modern ethology, studies on waggle dance Paul Fürst: inventor of the Mozartkugel == G == David Gestetner, inventor of


id: list-of-bulgarian-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Bulgarian_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Bulgarian inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Bulgarian_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:46.262406+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-bulgarian-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of Bulgarian inventors and discoverers, working locally or overseas, and also a list of Bulgarian inventions and creations. The list comprises people from Bulgaria and also people of predominantly Bulgarian heritage. == Art and architecture == Early Renaissance of the Tărnovo Artistic School – the world famous frescos in the Boyana Church from 1239 AD have been described by Andre Grabar and many scholars, as Early Renaissance or precursors of Renaissance Art well before this period started in Italy. The murals are work of the unknown Boyana Master and his disciples who are believed to have been representatives of the Tarnovo Artistic School of the Second Bulgarian Empire (1185–1396 AD). The frescos have been compared to the work of Giotto who is generally considered the first in a line of great artists who contributed to the Italian Renaissance. The Boyana Church has been declared by UNESCO a World Heritage Site. Architecture of the Tarnovo Artistic School – characteristic for the Second Bulgarian Empire, influenced the architecture in many countries of Southeast Europe and parts of Central Europe. == Medicine and pharmacology == Stamen Grigorov – discovered Lactobacillus bulgaricus, patented bacteria used for the production of yogurt


id: list-of-celebrity-inventors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_celebrity_inventors-0.md
category: reference
title: List of celebrity inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_celebrity_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:47.528733+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-celebrity-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of celebrity inventors and their patents. (For the purposes of this article, an inventor is a person who has been granted a patent.) After Google released a patent search online in December 2006, a website called Ironic Sans, made the public aware of a number of celebrity patents found through the new patent search engine. Additional lists of inventors can be found at List of inventors. See also Category:Inventors. == A == George Antheil, U.S. patent 2,292,387 — with co-inventor Hedy Lamarr, used a code (stored on punched paper tape) to synchronize random frequencies later known as frequency hopping spread spectrum radio for jam-proof remote control of torpedoes. This work led to their posthumous induction into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 2014. == B == Marlon Brando, U.S. patent 6,812,392 — Drumhead tensioning device and method. An invention which makes it possible to tune a drum. Gary Burghoff, U.S. patent 5,235,774 — Enhanced fish attractor device. A way of luring fish up closer, to attract them, so they are easier to fish. == C == Harry Connick, Jr., U.S. patent 6,348,648 — System and method for coordinating music display among players in an


id: list-of-cornish-engineers-and-inventors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Cornish_engineers_and_inventors-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Cornish engineers and inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Cornish_engineers_and_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:48.759095+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cornish-engineers-and-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of engineers and inventors from Cornwall, England, United Kingdom. John Arnold, watchmaker and pioneer of the marine chronometer William Bickford, inventor of the safety fuse Joseph Henry Collins, mining engineer, mineralogist and geologist Sir John Coode, civil engineer William Cookworthy, discoverer of china clay (kaolinite) in Cornwall Sir Humphry Davy, scientist, inventor and President of the Royal Society Sir Goldsworthy Gurney, inventor of limelight Jonathan Hornblower, inventor of the compound engine and the steam valve William Husband, civil and mechanical engineer Thomas Brown Jordan, engineer Michael Loam, inventor of the man engine Sir Thomas Matthews, civil engineer and builder of lighthouses William Murdoch, engineer, inventor and sometime Cornish resident Andrew Pears, inventor of transparent soap William Westcott Rundell, inventor and engineer from Falmouth Adrian Stephens, inventor of the steam whistle Richard Tangye, engineer John Taylor, inventor of the Cornish rolls Joseph Thomas, architect and civil engineer Joseph Treffry, engineer and industrialist Henry Trengrouse, inventor of a rocket-powered maritime rescue system Richard Trevithick, inventor, engineer and builder of the first steam locomotive Robert Trewhella (1830-1909; it:Robert Trewhella), railway engineer and contractor Andrew Vivian, Trevithick's cousin and collaborator, and captain of Dolcoath Mine Arthur Woolf, inventor of the


id: list-of-cornish-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Cornish_scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Cornish scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Cornish_scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:50.006173+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-cornish-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of scientists from Cornwall, a county of England, in the United Kingdom. == Biologists == Henry Charlton Bastian, physiologist and neurologist Lieutenant-Colonel Frederick Nicholson Betts, Indian Army officer and ornithologist George Carter Bignell, entomologist William Borlase, naturalist, geologist and antiquary, Rector of Ludgvan William Clift, naturalist and Fellow of the Royal Society Jonathan Couch, naturalist and physician Richard Quiller Couch, naturalist Frederick Hamilton Davey, botanist Jean Golding, epidemiologist Henry Brougham Guppy, naturalist and botanist Charles Alexander Johns, botanist and clergyman Oscar Kempthorne, statistician and geneticist William Lobb, plant collector John Keast Lord, veterinarian and naturalist Richard Lower, blood transfusion pioneer John Mayow, physiologist William Noye of Paul, entomologist Francis Polkinghorne Pascoe, entomologist John Ralfs, botanist Edward Hearle Rodd, ornithologist John Coulson Tregarthen, naturalist Ethelwynn Trewavas, ichthyologist Sir Richard Vyvyan, Bart, MP for Cornwall and scientist William Wagstaff, ornithologist and naturalist Elizabeth Andrew Warren, botanist == Earth scientists == William Borlase, naturalist, geologist and antiquary, Rector of Ludgvan Edward Budge, geologist and clergyman Elizabeth Carne, geologist and philanthropist Joseph Carne, geologist, industrialist and Fellow of the Royal Society Richard Edmonds, geologist and antiquary Robert Were Fox, geologist William Gregor, discoverer of titanium and clergyman John Hawkins, geologist,


id: list-of-croatian-inventors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Croatian_inventors-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Croatian inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Croatian_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:51.323213+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-croatian-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of Croatian inventors. == B == Zlata Bartl Josip Belušić Ruđer Bošković == D == Ivan Đikić Igor Dvornik == F == Vilim Srećko Feller == G == Marin Getaldić == H == Franjo Hanaman == J == Aleksandar Just == K == Franjo Kajfež Marcel pl. Kiepach Ivo Kolin Benedikt Kotruljević Ferdinand Kovačević == L == Antun Lučić Ivan Lupis-Vukić == M == Ante Maglica Peter Miscovich Andrija Mohorovičić == P == Slavoljub Penkala Herman Potočnik Vladimir Prelog Mario Puratić == R == Mate Rimac Lavoslav Ružička == S == David Schwarz Pavao Skalić Marin Soljačić == U == Tomislav Uzelac == V == Faust Vrančić Ivan Vučetić == External links == Hrvati koji su mijenjali svijet ima ih više nego slutite, Politika plus


id: list-of-english-inventors-and-designers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_English_inventors_and_designers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of English inventors and designers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_English_inventors_and_designers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:52.532703+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-english-inventors-and-designers-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of English inventors and designers. == A == Roma Agrawal, structural engineer who contributed to the design of The Shard building in London Sir Richard Arkwright (1732–1792) invented the spinning frame (also known as the water frame) Joseph Aspdin (1788–1855), Portland cement == B == Roger Bacon (1214–1292), magnifying glass Edward Barber (1969– ), London 2012 Olympic Torch Julia Barfield (1952– ), architect who contributed to the design of the London Eye and the i360 observation tower in Brighton, England Trevor Baylis (1937–2018), wind-up radio Tim Berners-Lee (1955– ), World Wide Web == C == Margaret Calvert (1936– ), graphic designer who designed many of the road signs used throughout the United Kingdom Edmund Cartwright (1743–1823) invented the power loom George Cayley (1773–1854), man-carrying glider, tension spoke wheels, hot air engine, continuous track "universal railway" vehicle propulsion system Imran Chaudhri (1973– ) invented the user interface and interactions of the iPhone, also worked on the Mac, iPod, iPad, Apple TV and Apple Watch John Clark (1785-1853) invented the first automated poetry generator, The Eureka, and patented a method to waterproof fabric for air beds and air cushions in 1813. Terence Conran (1931–2020), Design Museum founder Ilse


id: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of German inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:53.767080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of German inventors and discoverers. The following list comprises people from Germany or German-speaking Europe, and also people of predominantly German heritage, in alphabetical order of the surname. For the list containing items and ideas invented and/or discovered by Germans, see list of German inventions and discoveries. == A == Ernst Abbe: Invented the first refractometer, and many other devices. Donated his shares in the company Carl Zeiss to form Carl-Zeiss-Stiftung, still in existence today. Franz Carl Achard: Developed a process to produce sugar from sugar beet. Built the first factory for the process in 1802. Robert Adler: Invented a better television remote control. Konrad Adenauer: Invented soya sausage (1916; "Kölner Wurst") and, together with Jean and Josef Oebel, [coarse] wholemeal bread (1917; Kölner Brot). Georgius Agricola: Named "the father of mineralogy". Wilhelm Albert: Invented the wire rope 1834. Kurt Alder: Discovery of the Diels–Alder reaction, Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1950. Richard Altmann: Discovery of the Mitochondrion Alois Alzheimer: Psychiatrist who discovered Alzheimer's disease, a degeneration of the brain in old age. Momme Andresen (1857-1951): industrial research chemist who made inventions relating to photography Ottomar Anschütz: in 1883 he patented a camera with an internal roller


id: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-1.md
category: reference
title: List of German inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:53.767080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
Walter Baade: astronomer. With Fritz Zwicky, he identified supernovae as a new category of astronomical objects Karl Ernst von Baer: discovered mammal ovum. Ralph Baer: Inventor of the first home video game console. Adolf von Baeyer: Chemist. Synthesized indigo, discovered the phthalein dyes, and investigated polyacetylenes, oxonium salts, nitroso compounds (1869) and uric acid derivatives (1860 and onwards) including the discovery of barbituric acid (1864). Nobel laureate 1905. Otto Bayer: Chemist. Invented polyurethane. Albert Ballin: Father of modern cruise ship travel Heinrich Band: Developed a musical instrument and called it bandoneón in 1846. It is still used in most tango orchestras. Heinrich Barkhausen: Discovered what is now called the Barkhausen effect, to describe the phenomenon, which is caused by rapid changes of size of magnetic domains in 1919, and Barkhausen stability criterion. Oskar Barnack: The father of the first mass marketed 35mm camera and Leica. Heinrich Anton de Bary: Father of Phytopathology, the science of plant diseases and modern Mycology. Coined the word symbiosis in 1879. Karl Adolph von Basedow: Discovery and description of Graves-Basedow disease Andreas Friedrich Bauer: first functional steam-powered printing press with his colleague Friedrich Koenig Wilhelm Bauer: Inventor and engineer, who built several hand-powered submarines. Eugen


id: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-2.md
category: reference
title: List of German inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:53.767080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
== C == Georg Cantor: Mathematician, discoverer of the set theory (1870s), which has become a fundamental theory in mathematics. Ernst Boris Chain: biochemist, co-recipient of the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for his work on penicillin (together with Fleming). Carl von Clausewitz: The father of modern military theory. Rudolf Clausius: Mathematician and physicist known for the Second law of thermodynamics. Justus Claproth: Jurist and inventor of recyclable paper and deinking. Nicolaus Copernicus: Astronomer, formulated a heliocentric model of the universe which placed the Sun, rather than the Earth, at the centre. Manfred Curry: German American yachtsman, developed the cam cleat used on sailboats to easily and quickly secure a rope, discoverer of the pseudoscientific phenomenon of "geomagnetic lines" called the Curry Grid. == D == Gottlieb Daimler: Invented the first high-speed internal combustion petrol engine and the first four-wheel automobile, also the first internal combustion motorcycle, the Reitwagen. Adolf "Adi" Dassler: Sports shoes with and without spikes; founder of Adidas. Rudolf Dassler: First sport shoes with screw-in shoe spikes, 1949; founder of Puma. Hans Georg Dehmelt: Physicist. Co-developed the non-magnetic quadrupole mass filter which laid the foundation for what we now call an ion trap. Shared the Nobel


id: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-3.md
category: reference
title: List of German inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:53.767080+00:00
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parent: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit: Fahrenheit, temperature scale, Fahrenheit hydrometer Gerd Faltings: Mathematician known for his work in arithmetic algebraic geometry, Fields Medal in 1986 for proving the Mordell conjecture. Otto Feick: Wheel gymnastics in 1925. Wilhelm Emil Fein: Invented the electrically driven hand drill in 1895. Adolf Gaston Eugen Fick: Glass Contact lenses Richard Fiedler: Invented the modern flamethrower in 1901. Artur Fischer: Invented the (split) wallplug made of plastic in 1958. He invented flash light photography. Fischer held over 1100 patents and currently holds the records for most patents for any single human, even more than Thomas Alva Edison. Further inventions are (bone-)plugs for fixing bone fractures and one of Fischer's most recent inventions is a gadget that makes it possible to hold and cut the top off an egg of any size. Hermann Emil Fischer: German chemist and 1902 recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. He discovered the Fischer esterification. He developed the Fischer projection, a symbolic way of drawing asymmetric carbon atoms. He is known for study of sugars & purines. Franz Fischer and Hans Tropsch: Invented a process in 1925 to turn coal into synthesis gas, and still further into liquid hydrocarbons. The process is a


id: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-4.md
category: reference
title: List of German inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:53.767080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
Fritz Haber: German chemist and Nobel laureate who pioneered synthetic ammonia and chemical warfare. Theodor W. Hänsch: Physicist, developed laser-based precision spectroscopy further to determine optical frequency extremely accurately. Nobel laureate in 2005. Otto Hahn: German chemist and Nobel laureate who pioneered the fields of radioactivity and radiochemistry. Considered to be "the father of nuclear chemistry" and the "founder of the atomic age". Discovered many isotopes, Protactinium and nuclear fission. Samuel Hahnemann: Physician, best known for creating a system of alternative medicine called homeopathy. Harald zur Hausen: Virologist, discovered the role of papilloma viruses in the development of cervical cancer. His research made the development of a vaccine against papilloma possible, which will drastically reduce cervical cancer in future. Nobel laureate as of 2008. Werner Heisenberg: Theoretical physicist who made fundamental contributions to quantum mechanics. Discovered a particle's position and velocity cannot be known at the same time. Discovered atomic nuclei are made of protons and neutrons. Wolfgang Helfrich: Co-inventor of Twisted nematic field effect. Rudolf Hell: Inventor of an early printer and fax machine (Hellschreiber). Richard Hellmann: Hellmann's (Blue Ribbon) Mayonnaise, 1905. Hermann von Helmholtz: Discovered the principle of conservation of energy. Peter Henlein: Inventor of the portable watch.


id: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-5.md
category: reference
title: List of German inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:53.767080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
Ferdinand Adolf Kehrer : Introduction of the transverse incision technique to minimize bleeding by modern Caesarean section Donald J. Kessler: Astrophysicist, known for developing the Kessler syndrome. Hermann Kemper: Invented the magnetic levitation train. Patent granted in 1934. Johannes Kepler: Discovered the laws of planetary motion. Wolfgang Ketterle: German-American physicist who developed an "atom laser", amongst other breakthroughs. Nobel laureate 2001. Erhard Kietz: Pioneer discoverer of video technology. Gustav Kirchhoff: Discovery of the principles upon which spectroscopy is founded. He contributed to the fundamental understanding of electrical circuits, spectroscopy, and the emission of black-body radiation by heated objects. He coined the term "black body" radiation in 1862, and two different sets of concepts (one in circuit theory, and one in spectroscopy) are named "Kirchhoff's laws" after him; there is also a Kirchhoff's Law in thermochemistry. The Bunsen–Kirchhoff Award for spectroscopy is named after him and his colleague, Robert Bunsen, who both invented the spectrometer in 1859. Martin Heinrich Klaproth: Discovered the element Uranium. Klaus von Klitzing: Physicist, known for discovery of the integer quantum Hall effect, 1985 Nobel Prize in Physics. Ludwig Knorr: Chemist, who together with Carl Paal, discovered the Paal-Knorr synthesis, and the Knorr quinoline synthesis and Knorr


id: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-6.md
category: reference
title: List of German inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:53.767080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
Maria Goeppert-Mayer: Maria Goeppert Mayer was a German-born American theoretical physicist, and Nobel laureate in Physics for proposing the nuclear shell model of the atomic nucleus. She was the second woman to win a Nobel Prize in physics, after Marie Curie Georg Hans Madelung: Academic and aeronautical engineer; a participant in the development of the Junkers F.13. Karl Marx: Political economist and philosopher, who defined the political/economical background of capitalism and discovered the mechanics of Marxism. J. Heinrich Matthaei: Together with Marshall Nirenberg, they show that a sequence of nucleotide can encode particular amino acid, laying the foundations for deciphering the genetic code. Wilhelm Maybach: Together with Gottlieb Daimler the first gasoline-powered motorcycle, power-engine boat and later, 1902, the Mercedes car model. Ottomar von Mayenburg: Inventor of "Chlorodont", the first commercial brand of toothpaste. Georg Meissner: Discovered Meissner's plexus. Lise Meitner: Nuclear physicist, who, together with Otto Frisch, provided a theoretical account of nuclear fission. Julius Lothar Meyer: With Mendeleev he developed the periodic classification of the elements in order of their atomic weight. Christian Erich Hermann von Meyer: He discovered the Triassic predator Teratosaurus, the earliest bird Archaeopteryx lithographica (1861), the pterosaur Rhamphorhynchus, and the prosauropod dinosaur Plateosaurus Gregor


id: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-7.md
category: reference
title: List of German inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:53.767080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
Wolfgang Paul: Physicist. Co-developed the non-magnetic quadrupole mass filter which laid the foundation for what we now call an ion trap. Shared the Nobel Prize in 1989. Hans von Pechmann: Chemist, renowned for his discovery of diazomethane in 1894. Pechmann condensation and Pechmann pyrazole synthesis. Rudolf Peierls: nuclear physicist. Julius Richard Petri: Bacteriologist who is generally credited with inventing the Petri dish while working as assistant to Robert Koch. Emil Pfeiffer: Discovery of Infectious mononucleosis Fritz Pfleumer: Inventor of magnetic tape for recording sound. He built the world's first practical tape recorder, called Magnetophon K1. Joseph Pilates: inventor of the physical fitness system named after him: Pilates Max Planck: Physicist, Scientist. He is considered to be the founder of the quantum theory, and one of the most important physicists of the twentieth century. Robert Wichard Pohl: In 1938, together with Rudolf Hilsch, built first functioning solid-state amplifier using salt as the semiconductor. Ludwig Prandtl: First to explain the boundary layer and its importance for drag and streamlining in aircraft in 1904. He established and headed the Aerodynamische Versuchsanstalt in Göttingen, now Max Planck Institute for Dynamics and Self-Organization. During his tenure the first wind tunnel in Germany was built here,


id: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers-8.md
category: reference
title: List of German inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:53.767080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-german-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
Otto Schoetensack: Named the Homo heidelbergensis. Otto Schott: Inventor of borosilicate glass. Donated his shares in the company Carl Zeiss to form Carl-Zeiss-Stiftung, still in existence today. Walter H. Schottky: Played a major early role in developing the theory of electron and ion emission phenomena, invented the screen-grid vacuum tube and the pentode. Johannes Heinrich Schultz: developed the desensitization-relaxation technique called Autogenic training. Marx Schwab: Silversmith, invented coining with the screw press around 1550. Theodor Schwann: Discovery of properties of cells in animals. Karl Schwarzschild: astronomer, Schwarzschild metric, Deriving the Schwarzschild solution, Schwarzschild radius Alois Senefelder: He invented the printing technique of lithography in 1796. Friedrich Sertürner: First to isolate morphine from the opium poppy in 1803/1804, discovering morphine. Philipp Franz von Siebold: Physician and naturalist, detailed description and collection of the Japanese flora and fauna. Introduced Western medicine to Japan and opened a medical school. Ernst Werner von Siemens: Dynamo, pointer telegraph that used a needle to point to the right letter, first electric elevator, trolleybus. Max Skladanowsky: Bioscop, German inventor and early filmmaker. Friedrich Soennecken: Invented Hole punch and ring binder. Arnold Sommerfeld: Theoretical physicist who pioneered developments in atomic and quantum physics. Johannes Stark: Discovery of the


id: list-of-italian-inventors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Italian_inventors-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Italian inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Italian_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:55.010938+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-italian-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of Italian inventors: == A == Archimedes Giovanni Battista Amici == B == Flavio Baracchini Eugenio Barsanti Robert Ludvigovich Bartini Enrico Bernardi Gianni Bettini Alfonso Bialetti Lucio Bini Augusto Bissiri Claudio Bordignon Enea Bossi, Sr. Giovanni Branca Francesco Antonio Broccu Luigi Valentino Brugnatelli Tito Livio Burattini Carlo Felice Buzio == C == Temistocle Calzecchi-Onesti Tullio Campagnolo Secondo Campini Mario Capecchi Arturo Caprotti Gerolamo Cardano Antonio Benedetto Carpano Giovanni Caselli Ugo Cerletti Leonardo Chiariglione Alberto Ciaramella Giuseppe Cipriani Francesco Cirio Bartolomeo Cristofori Alessandro Cruto == D == Luigi Dadda Salvino D'Armate Corradino D'Ascanio Leonardo da Vinci Raimondo di Sangro Giuseppe Donati == F == Francesco Faà di Bruno Fabio Perini Gabriele Falloppio Federico Faggin Enrico Fermi Salvatore Ferragamo Galileo Ferraris Pietro Ferrero Carlo Forlanini Enrico Forlanini == G == Galileo Galilei Luigi Galvani Gasparo da Salò Giovanni Francesco Gemelli Careri Flavio Gioja Giuseppe di Giugno Guido of Arezzo == J == Candido Jacuzzi == K == Pedro Kanof == L == Ruggero Lenci Leonardo da Vinci Domingo Liotta Cesare Lombroso Vincenzo Lunardi Giovanni Luppis == M == Amatino Manucci Innocenzo Manzetti Guglielmo Marconi Felice Matteucci Antonio Meucci Guido Monaco Maria Montessori Angelo Moriondo == N == Giulio


id: list-of-inventors-killed-by-their-own-invention-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors_killed_by_their_own_invention-0.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors killed by their own invention
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors_killed_by_their_own_invention
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:56.184974+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-killed-by-their-own-invention-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of people whose deaths were in some manner caused by or directly related to a product, process, procedure, or other technological innovation that they invented or designed. == Ill-fated inventors == === Automotive === Sylvester H. Roper (1823–1896), inventor of the Roper steam velocipede, died of a heart attack or subsequent crash during a public speed trial in 1896. It is unknown whether the crash caused the heart attack, or the heart attack caused the crash. William Nelson (c. 1879–1903), a General Electric employee, invented a new way to motorize bicycles. He then fell off his prototype bike during a test run. Francis Edgar Stanley (1849–1918) was killed while driving a Stanley Steamer automobile. He drove his car into a woodpile while attempting to avoid farm wagons travelling side by side on the road. Fred Duesenberg (1876–1932) was killed in a high-speed road accident in a Duesenberg automobile. David Ogle (1921–1962) was killed in an auto accident when he lost control while driving the Ogle SX1000 he had designed. === Aviation === Ismail ibn Hammad al-Jawhari (died c. 1003–1010), a Kazakh Turkic scholar from Farab, attempted to fly using two wooden wings and a rope. He


id: list-of-inventors-killed-by-their-own-invention-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors_killed_by_their_own_invention-1.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors killed by their own invention
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors_killed_by_their_own_invention
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:56.184974+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-killed-by-their-own-invention-20260505-0
summary:
Henry Winstanley (1644–1703) designed and built the world's first offshore lighthouse on the Eddystone Rocks in Devon, England between 1696 and 1698. Boasting of the safety of his invention, he expressed a desire to shelter inside it "during the greatest storm there ever was". During the Great Storm of 1703, the lighthouse was completely destroyed with Winstanley and five other men inside. No trace of them was found. John Day (c. 1740–1774) was an English carpenter and wheelwright who died during a test of his experimental diving chamber. Horace Lawson Hunley (1823–1863) was a Confederate American marine engineer who built the H. L. Hunley submarine and perished inside it as a member of the second crew to face drownings while testing the experimental vessel. After Hunley's death, the Confederates resurfaced the ship for another mission that proved fatal for its own crew: the successful sinking of the USS Housatonic during the American Civil War. The feat made the H. L. Hunley the first submarine to sink an enemy warship in wartime. Karl Flach (1821–1866) was a German living in Valparaiso, Chile. He built the submarine Flach (brother of the Peruvian "Toro", sunk, refloated by the Chilean Navy and then disappeared,


id: list-of-inventors-killed-by-their-own-invention-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors_killed_by_their_own_invention-2.md
category: reference
title: List of inventors killed by their own invention
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventors_killed_by_their_own_invention
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:56.184974+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-inventors-killed-by-their-own-invention-20260505-0
summary:
== Popular legends and related stories == In Greek mythology, Daedalus built wings made of feathers and blankets to escape the labyrinth of Crete with his son Icarus, who died while ignoring his father's instructions not to "fly too close to the sun". Perillos of Athens (c. 550 BCE), according to legend, was the first to be roasted in the brazen bull he made for Phalaris of Sicily for executing criminals. Li Si (208 BCE), Prime Minister during the Qin dynasty, was executed by the Five Pains method which some sources claim he had devised. However, the history of the Five Pains is traced further back in time than Li Si. Wan Hu, a possibly apocryphal 16th-century Chinese official, is said to have attempted to launch himself into outer space in a chair to which 47 rockets were attached. The rockets exploded, and it is said that neither he nor the chair were ever seen again. João Torto, a most likely apocryphal 16th-century Portuguese man who jumped from the top of Viseu Cathedral wearing a biplane-like flying rig and an eagle-shaped helmet. Orban, the designer and manufacturer of the Basilic, a gigantic cannon used to break down the walls of


id: list-of-national-inventors-hall-of-fame-inductees-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_National_Inventors_Hall_of_Fame_inductees-0.md
category: reference
title: List of National Inventors Hall of Fame inductees
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_National_Inventors_Hall_of_Fame_inductees
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:58.685506+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-national-inventors-hall-of-fame-inductees-20260505-0
summary:
The National Inventors Hall of Fame (NIHF) is an American not-for-profit organization, founded in 1973, which recognizes individual engineers and inventors who hold a U.S. patent of significant technology. The inventor list constitutes historic persons from the past three centuries in addition to living inductees. Nominees must hold a U.S. patent of significant contribution to public welfare, and which advances science and the useful arts. John Fitch (anno 1743) was the earliest born inventor inducted into the NIHF. == Inductees == == References == == External links == The official website of the National Inventors Hall of Fame


id: list-of-new-zealand-inventors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_New_Zealand_inventors-0.md
category: reference
title: List of New Zealand inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_New_Zealand_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:10:59.899853+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-new-zealand-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a list of New Zealand inventors and inventions. Godfrey Bowen – developer of an improved sheep-shearing technique John Britten – designer of the Britten motorcycle Thomas Brydone and William Soltau Davidson – refrigerated shipping pioneers Morton Coutts – invented the continuous fermentation method of brewing Bill Gallagher – developer of the electric fence and founder of Gallagher Group Limited Ernest Godward – improved eggbeater A. J. Hackett – popularised of commercial Bungy jumping Bill Hamilton – developed the modern jetboat Frederick Hanson – inventor of chipseal, known in New Zealand as tar seal Peter Lynn – leading kitemaker, aeronautical theoretician and inventor of the tipping blade portable sawmill Colin Murdoch – inventor of the disposable syringe and the tranquilliser gun Richard Pearse – aviation pioneer Bill Pickering – rocketry and space pioneer, former NASA Jet Propulsion Lab director Alan Prichard – pioneer of aerial topdressing Bill Robinson – inventor of the lead rubber bearing used for seismic base isolation in earthquake engineering == References ==


id: list-of-polish-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Polish_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Polish inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Polish_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:01.301700+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-polish-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of Polish inventors and discoverers. The following incomplete list comprises people from Poland and of Polish origin, and also people of predominantly Polish heritage, in alphabetical order of surname. == A == Bruno Abakanowicz: invented integrapf, a mechanical analog computing device for plotting the integral of a graphically defined function. Osman Achmatowicz Jr.: specialist in the field of organic chemistry. Inventor of the Achmatowicz reaction. Karol Adamiecki: management theorist. Together with Frederick Winslow Taylor and Henry Fayola the creator of organisation and management science. In 1925 Adamiecki founded the Polish Institute of Scientific Management. Albert Wojciech Adamkiewicz: pathologist. His research of the variable vascularity of the spinal cord was an important contribution to the development of modern clinical vascular surgery. He is known for Artery of Adamkiewicz and Adamkiewicz reaction. Henryk Arctowski: scientist and explorer. Living in exile for a large part of his life, he was one of the first persons to reach Antarctica during winter and became an internationally renowned meteorologist. == B == Joseph Babinski: neurologist, discoverer of the Babinski reflex. Stefan Banach: considered one of the world's most important and influential 20th-century mathematicians, creator of Banach space. He was one of the


id: list-of-polish-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Polish_inventors_and_discoverers-1.md
category: reference
title: List of Polish inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Polish_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:01.301700+00:00
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parent: list-of-polish-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
== H == Józef Hofmann: musician, invented Paper clips. Johannes Hevelius: astronomer who gained a reputation as "the founder of lunar topography", and described ten new constellations, seven of which are still used by astronomers. == J == Stefania Jabłońska: physician; in 1972 Jabłońska proposed the association of the human papilloma viruses with skin cancer in epidermodysplasia verruciformis; in 1978 Jabłońska and Gerard Orth discovered HPV-5 in skin cancer; Jabłońska was awarded the 1985 Robert Koch Prize. Wojciech Jastrzębowski: scientist, naturalist and inventor, one of the fathers of ergonomics. Walery Jaworski: one of the pioneers of gastroenterology in Poland who made one of the first observations of Helicobacter pylori and published those findings in 1899 in a book titled Podręcznik chorób żołądka (Handbook of Gastric Diseases). == K == Jacek Karpiński: pioneer in computer engineering and computer science. He became a developer of one of the first machine learning algorithms, techniques for character and image recognition. In 1971, he designed one of the first minicomputers, the K-202. Adam Adamandy Kochański: mathematician, physicist, clockmaker, who found an approximation of π today called the Kochański's Approximation. He also suggested replacing the clock's pendulum with a spring, constructed a clock with a magnetic


id: list-of-polish-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Polish_inventors_and_discoverers-2.md
category: reference
title: List of Polish inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Polish_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:01.301700+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-polish-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
== R == Tadeusz Reichstein: Polish-Swiss chemist and the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine laureate (1950), who was awarded for his work on the isolation of cortisone. Zbigniew Religa: a pioneer in human heart transplantation in Poland, he led the team that performed the first successful heart transplantation in the country, and in June 1995 he was the first surgeon to graft an artificial valve created from materials taken from human corpses. Marian Rejewski: mathematician and cryptologist who reconstructed the sight-unseen German military Enigma cipher machine. Jerzy Rudlicki: aerospace engineer and pilot. He is best known for his inventing and patenting of the V-tail in 1930, which is an aircraft tail configuration that combines the rudder and elevators into one system. Ludwik Rydygier: surgeon, who performed the first in Poland and second in the world successful surgical removal of the pylorus in a patient suffering from stomach cancer, and the first peptic ulcer resection in the world. == S == Andrew Schally: endocrinologist and Nobel Prize laureate (1977) whose research contributed to the discovery that the hypothalamus controls hormone production and release by the pituitary gland, which controls the regulation of other hormones in the body. Michael Sendivogius: pioneer


id: list-of-prolific-inventors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prolific_inventors-0.md
category: reference
title: List of prolific inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_prolific_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:02.576128+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-prolific-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
The 100 known most prolific inventors based on worldwide utility patents are shown in the following table. While in many cases this is the number of utility patents granted by the United States Patent and Trademark Office, it may include utility patents granted by other countries, as noted by the source references for an inventor. == Prolific Inventors == This table is usually updated every Tuesday, and is current as of April 28, 2026. The columns are defined as follows: Inventor: The name of the inventor. Pats: The number of utility patents that have been issued. Only utility patents (or the international equivalent) are listed, as a utility patent is a patent for an invention. Not all patents are for inventions. Other patent types include: design patents for the ornamental design of an object; plant patents for plant varieties; and reissue patents, where a correction is made to an already granted patent. This list does not include patent applications (patents pending) as there is no guarantee that a patent application actually describes a novel invention until the patent is granted. Fams: The number of patent families, which in USPTO data includes an original or continuation-in-part patent by itself or with


id: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:03.955699+00:00
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parent: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
Before Christopher Columbus and the Spanish Conquistadors landed on the island of "Borikén" (Puerto Rico), the Taínos who inhabit the island depended on their astronomical observations for the cultivation of their crops. In 1581, Juan Ponce de León II, the grandson of the Conquistador Juan Ponce de León, studied an eclipse and its effects on the island and was able to establish the exact geographical coordinates of San Juan with his observations. During the 19th century the economies of many countries in the world suffered from the spread of crop failures. Puerto Rico, whose economy depended heavily on its agriculture, felt the effects of some of the crop diseases. Scientists such as Agustín Stahl, Fermín Tangüis and Fernando López Tuero conducted investigations and experiments in the fields of agriculture, botany, ethnology and zoology. The findings of their investigations helped Puerto Rico's agricultural industry. With the advances in medical technologies and the coming of the Space Age of the 20th century, Puerto Ricans have expanded their horizons and have made many contributions in various scientific fields, among them the fields of aerospace and medicine. There are many Puerto Rican scientists involved in the American space program at the National Aeronautics and


id: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-1.md
category: reference
title: List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:03.955699+00:00
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parent: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
Olga D. González-Sanabria is a scientist and inventor. She is the highest ranking Hispanic at NASA Glenn Research Center, and a member of the Ohio Women's Hall of Fame. As Director of the Engineering and Technical Services, she is responsible for planning and directing a full range of integrated services including engineering, fabrication, testing, facility management and aircraft services for the Glenn Research Center. She played an instrumental role in the development of the "Long Cycle-Life Nickel-Hydrogen Battery" that helps enable the International Space Station power system. Among the technical reports that she has authored and or co-authored are:1. Effect of NASA advanced designs on thermal behavior of Ni-H2 cells (1987)2. Component variations and their effects on bipolar nickel-hydrogen cell performance (1987)3. NASA Aerospace Flight Battery Systems Program – Issues and actions (1988)4. Effect of NASA advanced designs on thermal behavior of Ni-H2 cells 2 (1988)5. Energy storage considerations for a robotic Mars surface sampler (1989) Amri Hernández-Pellerano is an electronics engineer and scientist who designs, builds and tests the electronics that will regulate the solar array power in order to charge the spacecraft battery and distribute power to the different loads or users inside various spacecraft at NASA's Goddard


id: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-2.md
category: reference
title: List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:03.955699+00:00
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parent: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
Fermín Tangüis (1851–1930) was a Puerto Rican businessman, agriculturist and scientist who in 1901 developed the seed that would eventually produce the Tanguis cotton in Peru when that nation's cotton industry suffered because of a fungus plague caused by a plant disease known some places as "cotton wilt" and in others as "Fusarium wilt" (Fusarium vasinfectum) saving that nation's cotton industry. Tangüis began to study some species of the plant that were affected by the disease to a lesser extent and experimented in germination with the seeds of various cotton plants. In 1911, after 10 years of experimenting and failures, Tangüis was able to develop a seed that produced a superior cotton plant resistant to the disease. The seeds produced a plant that had a 40% longer (between 29 mm and 33 mm) and thicker fiber that did not break easily and required little water. The cotton grown in Peru (Egyptian cotton) before the fungus plague grew only once a year; the Tangüis cotton grows six times a year. This type of fiber showed a better resistance and performance than other fibers. Tangüis cotton grows in Canete's valley (south of Lima) and in the Central Coast of Peru. The success


id: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-3.md
category: reference
title: List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:03.955699+00:00
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parent: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
Enectalí Figueroa-Feliciano is a mechanical engineer, Astronaut applicant and an Associate Professor of Physics at Northwestern University and the author of various papers including "Position-sensitive low-temperature detectors". Figueroa's research interests revolve around the development of high-energy-resolution imaging spectrometers for space-borne applications in experimental astrophysics and cosmology. Figueroa pioneered the development of position-sensitive detectors that will provide an order of magnitude more pixels (and thus larger field of view) than traditional single-pixel X-ray microcalorimeters." He is an expert and researcher on dark matter. and a researcher with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and a professor of physics Northwestern University. Adolfo Figueroa-Viñas is the first Puerto Rican astrophysicist at NASA working in solar plasma physics. As a senior research scientist, he is involved in many NASA missions, such as Wind, SOHO, Cluster and MMS projects, in which he is the author and co-author of numerous scientific papers in his field. Figueroa-Viñas has served as Guest Co-Investigator of the International Sun Earth Explorer (ISEE-1) mission and the Voyagers program. He is currently a Co-Investigator in the WIND/SWE experiment of the International Solar Terrestrial Program (ISTP) and the Space Physics Theory Program grant entitled The Role of Turbulence in Heliospheric Plasmas. Viñas


id: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-4.md
category: reference
title: List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:03.955699+00:00
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parent: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
== Marine biology == Pablo Clemente-Colon is the first Puerto Rican to serve as Chief Scientist of the National Ice Center (NIC), headquartered in Alexandria Virginia, a position he has held since 2005. As such, he serves the three entities that operate the NIC, the United States Navy, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the United States Coast Guard. Carlos Del Castillo was the Program Scientist for the Ocean Biology and Biogeochemistry Program at NASA Headquarters, in Washington, D.C. Del Castillo is the recipient of the Presidential Early Career Award for Scientists and Engineers (PECASE) award, the highest honor bestowed by the United States government on scientists and engineers beginning their independent careers. He began working in the Mississippi River plume and in the application of remote sensors to study coastal environments. He co-edited with Richard Miller and Brent McKee, Remote Sensing of the Coastal Environment, a book that provides extensive insight on remote sensing of coastal waters from aircraft and space-based platforms Antonio A. Mignucci-Giannoni is a biological oceanographer specializing in the biology, management and conservation of marine mammals. He is the founder of the international conservation organization Red Caribeña de Varamientos (Caribbean Stranding Network) dedicated to


id: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-5.md
category: reference
title: List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:03.955699+00:00
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parent: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
Isaac González Martínez (1871–1954) was one of the first urologist in Puerto Rico and pioneer in the fight against cancer in the island. González Martínez conducted many investigations and experiments in parasitology, bilharzia, leprosy and typhoid fever. González Martínez and Bailey K. Ashford formed the first commission in Puerto Rico to study the causes of anemia. In 1914, he was named director of the biological laboratory of the sanitation service of Puerto Rico. In 1935, González Martínez founded The Puerto Rican League against Cancer. He also promoted the construction of Puerto Rico's first hospital specializing in oncology. Organ transplantation Iván González Cancel is a cardiovascular and thoracic surgeon who is credited with the realization of the first heart transplant in Puerto Rico. He participated in his first heart transplant at the University of Pittsburgh. González Cancel returned to Puerto Rico in 1993 and was named Director of the Department of Surgery of the Cardiovascular Center of Puerto Rico and the Caribbean (Centro Cardiovascular de Puerto Rico y el Caribe). González Cancel implemented a cardiovascular program in the institution and on June 27, 1999, with the help of Hector Banchs Pieretti performed the first heart transplant in Puerto Rico. Diego R.


id: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-6.md
category: reference
title: List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:03.955699+00:00
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parent: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
José F. Cordero is a pediatrician, epidemiologist, teratologist and Dean of the Graduate School of Public Health at the University of Puerto Rico. Cordero was an Assistant Surgeon General of the United States Public Health Service and the Founding Director of the National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities (NCBDDD) at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in Atlanta, Georgia. In 1994, Cordero was appointed deputy director of the National Immunization Program, where he made important and long-lasting contributions in many areas of one of the nation's most successful public health programs. In 2001, he was named the first director of the NCBDDD that was created by the Children's Health Act of 2000. In a few years, NCBDDD became a leading international institution devoted to research and prevention of birth defects and developmental disabilities and health promotion of people of ages living with disabilities. Cordero, whose work has been published in many national and international journals, has promoted the eradication of rubella (German measles), a major cause of birth defects that can be prevented through vaccination. He has also promoted research to determine the causes of birth defects and developmental disabilities, and has promoted efforts to prevent


id: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-7.md
category: reference
title: List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:03.955699+00:00
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parent: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
== Psychology == Carlos Albizu Miranda (1920–1984) was one of the first Hispanics to earn a PhD in Psychology in the United States and the first Hispanic educator to have a North American University renamed in his honor. Albizu Miranda, cousin of the Puerto Rican Nationalist leader Pedro Albizu Campos, was born in Ponce. In 1953, he earned his doctorate degree (PhD) in Clinical Psychology from Purdue University, located in West Lafayette, Indiana, becoming one of the first Hispanics to earn a PhD in Psychology in the United States. He was concerned that the universities in Puerto Rico did not offer graduate programs in psychology and that the few students who pursued a career as psychologist had to study outside of Puerto Rico, where they were trained with models and techniques that were not always sensitive to the needs and sociocultural characteristics of Hispanic clients. In 1966, he established in San Juan, Puerto Rico, the first independent professional school of psychology in North America, initially known as the "Instituto Psicológico de Puerto Rico" (Puerto Rican Institute of Psychology), which is modeled after the institutes of psychology in Europe where the practice and internship are done at the same time. The


id: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-8.md
category: reference
title: List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:03.955699+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
== Inventors == Puerto Rican inventors earned an average of sixteen patents per year in the late 1970s, twenty patents per year in the 1980s, and twenty-seven patents per year in the 199s. The total number of patents issued by the U.S. Patent Office has seen similar increases. === Aerospace === Olga D. González-Sanabria contributed to the development of the "Long Cycle-Life Nickel-Hydrogen Battery" that helps enable the International Space Station power system; Mercedes Reaves contributed to the design of a viable full-scale solar sail and the development and testing of a scale model solar sail; Pedro Rodriguez invented a portable, battery-operated lift seat for people suffering from knee arthritis; Felix Soto Toro developed the Advanced Payload Transfer Measurement System (ASPTMS) (Electronic 3D measuring system) and Juan R. Cruz contributed in the development of entry, descent, and landing (EDL) systems for robotic and human exploration missions. === Art === Ileana Sánchez invented a book for the blind that brings together art and braille. Ms. Sanchez used a new technique called TechnoPrint and TechnoBraille. Rather than punch through heavy paper to create the raised dots of the Braille alphabet for the blind, these techniques apply an epoxy to the page to


id: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors-9.md
category: reference
title: List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:03.955699+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-puerto-rican-scientists-and-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
Jorge Negrón Crespo of San Juan, Puerto Rico, has invented a hydroelectric wave-energy conversion system. According to the U.S. Patent & Trademark Office: "A method and system to capture kinetic energy of the sea waves and convert it to electrical power is presented. The hydrodynamic power of the waves is converted to mechanical power after impacting and moving a special panel. The mechanical power is converted into a controlled-cycle hydraulic power to activate a hydraulic motor, which in turn activates an electrical generator." Semiconductors David O. Ramos of Isabela, and Martin Bresciani of Guaynabo, developed a semiconductor substrate that includes electronic circuitry and has a machined feature formed therein. According to the U.S. Patent & Trademark Office: "A semiconductor substrate is formed by a process which includes providing the semiconductor substrate having the electronic circuitry formed therein, and performing a machining process on the substrate to form the machined feature therein." === Medical technology === Jorge N. Amely Vélez (born 1955) – a native of San German, is an inventor who holds various patents in the field of medical technology. In 1989, Amely Vélez earned his master's degree in electrical engineering from California State University at Northridge. Among Amely Vélez's


id: list-of-romanian-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Romanian_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Romanian inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Romanian_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:05.206884+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-romanian-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of Romanian Inventions and Discoveries of Romanian people or inventors/discoverers of Romanian heritage in alphabetical order. == A == Ion I. Agârbiceanu: designer of the first gas laser in Romania. Andrei Alexandrescu: pioneering work on policy-based design implemented via template metaprogramming; co-inventor of D programming language. Ana Aslan: inventor of Gerovital, an anti-aging product widely used by famous personalities, such as Charles de Gaulle, John F. Kennedy, Indira Gandhi, Charlie Chaplin and Salvador Dalí. Gheorghe Atanasiu: inventor of infrared monochromator and creator of the method of optical determination of heat of dissociation. Ion Atanasiu: known as the originator of cerimetry, an analytical method based on cerium (IV) as titration reagent. == B == Aurel Babeș: discovered the vaginal smear as screening test for cervical cancer. Victor Babeș: he discovered a parasitic sporozoan of the ticks, named Babesia (of the genus Babesiidae), and which causes a rare and severe disease called babesiosis; he also discovered cellular inclusions in rabies-infected nerve cells. Emanoil Bacaloglu: he is known for the "Bacaloglu pseudosphere". This is a surface of revolution for which the "Bacaloglu curvature" is constant. Radu Bălescu: he worked on the statistical physics of charged particles (Bălescu-Lenard collision operator).


id: list-of-romanian-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Romanian_inventors_and_discoverers-1.md
category: reference
title: List of Romanian inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Romanian_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:05.206884+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-romanian-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
George Emil Palade: discoverer of the ribosomes. Nicolae Paulescu: physiologist, research on endocrine pancreas secretion. Gheorghe Paun: prominent for work on membrane computing and the P system. Eugen Pavel: inventor of the Hyper CD-ROM, a 3D optical data storage medium with a claimed initial capacity of 10 TB and with a theoretical capacity of 1 PB on a single disc. Aurel Perșu: built the first car to have wheels inside its aerodynamic line. Ion N. Petrovici: he described the Alternating Asphygmo-Pyramidal Syndrome in occlusions of the carotid arteries. Petrache Poenaru: invented the world's first fountain pen. Ioan Pușcaș: professor proposed the use of carbonic anhydrase (CA) inhibitor acetazolamide to heal peptic ulcers. In 1972 patented the first 100% efficient drug against gastroduodenal ulcer Ulcosilvanil. Dimitrie Pompeiu: His contributions were mainly in the field of mathematical analysis, complex functions theory, and rational mechanics. In an article published in 1929, he posed a challenging conjecture in integral geometry, now widely known as the Pompeiu problem. Nicolae Popescu: known for his contributions to Algebra and the theory of abelian categories with applications to rings and modules. Vasile M. Popov: He is well known for having developed a method to analyze stability of nonlinear


id: list-of-russian-inventors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russian_inventors-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Russian inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russian_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:06.604047+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-russian-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of inventors from the Russian Federation, Soviet Union, Russian Empire, Tsardom of Russia and Grand Duchy of Moscow, including both ethnic Russians and people of other ethnicities. This list also includes those who were born in Russia or its predecessor states but later emigrated, and those who were born elsewhere but immigrated to the country or worked there for a considerable time, (producing inventions on Russian soil). For Russian inventions in chronological order, see the Timeline of Russian inventions and technology records. == Alphabetical list == === A === === B === === C === === D === === E === === F === === G === === H === === I === === J === === K === === L === === M === === N === === O === === P === === R === === S === === T === === U === === V === === W === === Y === === Z === == See also == List of Russian scientists Russian culture Timeline of Russian inventions and technology records == References ==


id: list-of-serbian-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Serbian_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Serbian inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Serbian_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:07.830912+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-serbian-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
This is a List of Serbian inventors and discoverers, working locally or overseas. The list comprises people from Serbia and ethnic Serb people. == Science, Mathematics and Technology == Voja Antonić: Galaksija home computer (1983). Mihajlo Pupin: Loading coil Mihajlo Pupin Institute: HRS-100 CER Computers ATLAS-TIM AT 32 Nikola Tesla: Induction motor Radio-controlled model Wireless power transfer Plasma globe Capacitor discharge ignition Magnifying transmitter Teleforce Telegeodynamics Teleoperation Tesla coil Tesla turbine Tesla's oscillator Tesla valve Wardenclyffe tower World Wireless System Violet ray Vacuum variable capacitor Pioneer in alternating current research Slobodan Ćuk: Ćuk converter Iván Gutman: Graph energy Matching polynomial Jovan Karamata: Karamata's inequality Slowly varying function Improved the Hardy–Littlewood tauberian theorem Đuro Kurepa: Kurepa tree Bogdan Maglich: Migma Milutin Milanković: Milankovitch cycles Revised Julian calendar (second most accurate calendar ever written) Calculated temperatures of the upper layers of the earths atmosphere as well as temperature conditions of planets on the inner solar system as well as depth of the atmosphere of the outer planets. Tihomir Novakov: Father of black carbon Aethalometer Vlatko Vedral: Quantum discord Vladimir Vukićević: webGL APNG Jovan Cvijić: Study of Karst Father of karst geomorphology Petar Gburčik: Author of first mathematical models of the numerical weather


id: list-of-spanish-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Spanish_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Spanish inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Spanish_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:09.131879+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-spanish-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of inventors and discoverers who are of Spanish origin or otherwise reside in continental Spain or one of the country's oversees territories. == A == José de Acosta (1540–1600), one of the first naturalists and anthropologists of the Americas. Andrés Alcázar (1490-1585), neurosurgeon and anatomist, designed new tools for surgical treatments. José María Algué (1856–1930), meteorologist, inventor of the barocyclometer, the nephoscope, and the microseismograph. José Antonio de Artigas Sanz (1887–1977), created luminescence with noble gases. Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont (1553–1613), registered a design for a steam-powered water pump for use in mines. José Luis Ayuso Fernández (1897-1992), inventor, engineer, mechanic, electrician and cinematographic projectionist. He was a pioneer in sound film industry, inventing one of the first systems to synchronize sound and video in films. == B == Ignacio Barraquer (1884–1965), leading ophthalmologist, pioneer of cataract surgery. José Ignacio Barraquer (1916–1998), leading ophthalmologist, father of modern refractive surgery, he invented the microkeratome and the cryolathe, developed the surgical procedures of keratomileusis and keratophakia. Juan Pablo de Bonet (1573-1633), pioneer of education for the deaf, he published Reducción de las letras y arte para enseñar a hablar a los mudos ("Summary of the letters and


id: list-of-spanish-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Spanish_inventors_and_discoverers-1.md
category: reference
title: List of Spanish inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Spanish_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:09.131879+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-spanish-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
== O == Severo Ochoa (1905–1993), doctor and biochemist, achieved the synthesis of ribonucleic acid (RNA), Nobel prize Laureate (1959). Federico Olóriz Aguilera, (1855-1912), doctor, created the primary fingerprint classification system used in Portugal and Spain prior to the use of computer filing systems. Mateu Orfila (1787–1853), doctor and chemist, father of modern toxicology, leading figure in forensic toxicology. Joan Oró (1923–2004), biochemist, carried out important research about the origin of life, he worked with NASA on the Viking missions. == P == Julio Palacios Martínez (1891–1970), physicist and mathematician. Isaac Peral (1851–1895), engineer and sailor, designer of the first fully operative military submarine, with electric propulsion making full propulsion feasible. Juan Tomás Porcell (1528-1580), doctor and anatomist, carried decisive research on the Black Death and wrote influential treaties of epidemiology. == R == Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1852–1934), father of Neuroscience, Nobel prize Laureate (1906). Julio Rey Pastor (1888–1962), mathematician, focusing on geometry. Wifredo Ricart (1897–1974), engineer, designer and executive manager in the automotive industry. Andrés Manuel del Río (1764–1849), geologist and chemist, discovered vanadium (as vanadinite) in 1801. Pío del Río Hortega (1882–1945), neuroscientist, discoverer of the microglia or Hortega cell. Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente (1928–1980), naturalist,


id: list-of-swedish-inventors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Swedish_inventors-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Swedish inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Swedish_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:10.393424+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-swedish-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
Swedish inventors are Swedish people who invented novel ideas, machines or tools. In the 18th century, Sweden's Scientific Revolution took off. Previously, technical progress had mainly come from professionals who had emigrated from mainland Europe. In 1739, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences was founded, with people such as Carl Linnaeus and Anders Celsius as early members. Sweden had a total of 49,974 patents as of 2015 according to the United States Patent and Trademark Office, and only ten other countries had more patents than Sweden. The traditional engineering industry is still a major source of Swedish inventions, but pharmaceuticals, electronics and other high-tech industries are gaining ground. A large portion of the Swedish economy is to this day based on the export of technical inventions, and many large multinational corporations from Sweden have their origins in the ingenuity of Swedish inventors. == 17th century == Christopher Polhem (1661–1751) was a Swedish scientist, inventor and industrialist. He made significant contributions to the economic and industrial development of Sweden, particularly mining. He reinvented the Cardan joint under the name of "Polhem knot" (Polhemknut) independently of Gerolamo Cardano, an Italian mathematician who invented the knot in 1545. His greatest achievement was an


id: list-of-swedish-inventors-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Swedish_inventors-1.md
category: reference
title: List of Swedish inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Swedish_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:10.393424+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-swedish-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
Jonas Offrell (1803–1863) was a Swedish priest who developed a revolver at the same time and independently of Samuel Colt. Martin Wiberg (1826–1905) is known as a computer pioneer for his 1875 invention of a machine the size of a sewing machine that could print logarithmic tables. Apart from this invention, Wiberg invented numerous other devices and gadgets, among these a cream separator and a pulse jet engine. Alfred Nobel (1833–1896) invented dynamite and instituted the Nobel Prizes. Helge Palmcrantz (1842–1880), Swedish inventor and industrialist. In 1873 Palmcrantz patented the multi-barrel, lever-actuated, machine gun that later would be known as the Nordenfelt machine gun. Willgodt Theophil Odhner (1845–1905) was a Swedish mechanic and inventor of the Odhner arithmometer, a mechanical calculator. Lars Magnus Ericsson (1846–1926) started the company bearing his name, Ericsson, still one of the largest telecom companies in the world. Jonas Wenström was an early pioneer in alternating current and is, along with Nikola Tesla, credited as one of the inventors of the three-phase electrical system. Johan Petter Johansson (1853–1943) built and patented the adjustable spanner/wrench in 1892. Gustaf de Laval (1845–1913) was a Swedish engineer and inventor who made important contributions to the design of steam turbines


id: list-of-swedish-inventors-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Swedish_inventors-2.md
category: reference
title: List of Swedish inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Swedish_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:10.393424+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-swedish-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
== 20th century == Laila Ohlgren (1937–2014), inventor of mobile phone call-button dialling based on phone storage of the number to be dialled Arne Asplund (1903–1993) was inventor of the Defibrator pulping refiner and the defibrator-method (also called Asplund-method) for pulping wooden chips. Oscar Kjellberg was a Swedish inventor and industrialist. Founder of ESAB, in 1904, and Kjellberg Finsterwalde, in 1922. He invented the coated electrode used in manual metal arc welding (Swedish Patent: 27152, 29 June 1907), by dipping a bare iron wire in a thick mixture of carbonates and silicates. His pioneering of covered electrode development paved the road during the next twenty years in the research of reliable flux coated electrodes. Nils Alwall (1904–1986), a Swedish professor was a pioneer in hemodialysis and the inventor of one of the first practical dialysis machines. Alwall pioneered the technique of ultrafiltration and introduced the principle of hemofiltration. Alwall is referred to as the "father of extracorporeal blood treatment." Austria's Carl Hellmuth Hertz (1915–80) began research on ultrasound in medical examinations in the early 1950, thereby becoming known throughout the world. A Swedish physician, Inge Edler (b. 1911-2001) told Hertz that he wanted to devise a non-invasive method for examining


id: list-of-swiss-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Swiss_inventors_and_discoverers-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Swiss inventors and discoverers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Swiss_inventors_and_discoverers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:11.569735+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-swiss-inventors-and-discoverers-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of Swiss inventors and discoverers. The following list comprises people from Switzerland, and also people of predominantly Swiss heritage, in alphabetical order of the surname. == A == Carl Roman Abt inventor of Abt rack system Werner Arber, (nobel prize) discovered restriction endonucleases. Their work would lead to the development of recombinant DNA technology. Aimé Argand, inventor of Argand lamp. == B == Maximilian Bircher-Benner, invented modern muesli Felix Bloch, (nobel prize) discovered Bloch equations Johann Georg Bodmer Daniel Bovet (nobel prize), discovered drugs that block the actions of specific neurotransmitters. He is best known for his discovery in 1937 of antihistamines, which block the neurotransmitter histamine and are used in allergy medication. Jacques E. Brandenberger, inventor of cellophane == D == Henry Dunant, (nobel prize), inventor of The Red Cross. He shared the Nobel Peace Prize in 1901 with Frédéric Passy, famous French Peace activist. Jacques Dubochet (chemistry nobel prize 2017), bio-physicist, received a nobel for his work on the development of cryogenic electron microscopy for the high-resolution structure determination of bio-molecules in solution. In 2020, the developments in the field helped to support the fight against COVID-19 pandemic. This technology help to study the


id: list-of-welsh-inventors-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Welsh_inventors-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Welsh inventors
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Welsh_inventors
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:12.840017+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-welsh-inventors-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of people of Welsh origin who are recognised as innovators or inventors who have made notable contributions to technical or theoretical world advancements. Edward George Bowen pioneer of radar. Worked at 'Woomera Rocket Testing Base' in Australia. Born in Gendros, Swansea. David Brunt pioneer of modern meteorology. Head of Meteorological Office, secretary of Royal Society From Penfforddlas, Wales. Martha Hughes Cannon pioneer in women and children's medicine. The State of Utah's Health Department is named in her honour. Born in Llandudno, Wales. Archie Cochrane Founder of Cochrane Collaboration, Cochrane library, Cochrane reviews. UK Cochrane Centre in Oxford. Conducted much of his groundbreaking medical research in Wales. Alan Cox is a programmer heavily involved in the development of the Linux kernel since 1991. Sir Clifford Darby, geographer and leader in promoting the relationships between geography and other subjects. Knighted in 1988. Born in Neath, South Wales. Donald Davies Proposed and developed packet switching, an important technology of the Internet. Born in Treorchy, Rhondda, Wales. Walter Davies (inventor), along with his brother Thomas, invented the 'Stepney Spare Wheel' used on almost all early motor cars. Born in Llanelli, South Wales John Dee Founder of the new school of


id: list-of-creators-of-writing-systems-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_creators_of_writing_systems-0.md
category: reference
title: List of creators of writing systems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_creators_of_writing_systems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:14.001648+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-creators-of-writing-systems-20260505-0
summary:
This is an alphabetical list of any individuals, legendary or real, who are purported by traditions to have invented alphabets or other writing systems, whether this is proven or not. == A == Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa – German alchemist, created the Transitus Fluvii, Malachim, and Celestial Alphabets, c. 1525. Guru Angad – Sikh Guru, ascribed invention of Gurmukhi script c. 1539 according to tradition. Anigouran – Tuareg folk hero, ascribed invention of Tifinagh according to tradition == B == Celadet Bedir Khan – Kurd linguist, developed Bedirxan alphabet in 1932. Alexander Melville Bell – American teacher, invented Visible Speech in 1867 Anton Bezenšek – Slovenian linguist, developed Bezenšek Shorthand c. 1879 Charles K. Bliss – Australian engineer, invented Blissymbolics c. 1949. Lako Bodra – Indian railway clerk and community leader. Invented the Warang Citi script in the mid-1900s. Robert Boyd – American, invented Boyd's Syllabic Shorthand in 1903. Louis Braille – French teacher, invented Braille writing around 1821. Frédéric Bruly Bouabré – Ivorian artist, invented the Bété syllabary in the mid-1950s. Momolu Duwalu Bukele – Liberian, invented Vai syllabary around 1833. John Byrom – British poet, invented a system of shorthand c. 1715. == C == Cadmus – legendary Phoenician


id: list-of-creators-of-writing-systems-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_creators_of_writing_systems-1.md
category: reference
title: List of creators of writing systems
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_creators_of_writing_systems
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:14.001648+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-creators-of-writing-systems-20260505-0
summary:
== O == Odin/*Wōdanaz – the chief god in Scandinavian/Germanic paganism. Associated in the Hávamál with the origins of the Runic alphabet Futhark (Later Futhorc). Ogma – legendary Irish deified chieftain, also ascribed invention of Ogham writing c. 1875 BC (?) according to tradition. == P == Zaya Pandita – – Oirat lama, developed Todo script in 1648. Paracelsus – Swiss alchemist, invented Alphabet of the Magi c. 1520. Chögyal Phagpa – Tibetan monk, invented Phagspa script in 1269. Pharnavaz I of Iberia – Iberian king, ascribed development of Georgian alphabet in 284 BC, according to tradition. Francisco de Pina, and other Portuguese missionaries – created the Vietnamese alphabet c. 1620s. Isaac Pitman – British teacher, invented Pitman shorthand in 1837. Sam Pollard – British missionary, invented Pollard script in 1905. Parley P. Pratt – American Mormon leader, developed Deseret alphabet with George D. Watt c. 1855. George Psalmanazar – European impostor and scholar, invented a (fraudulent) Formosan alphabet in 1704. == R == Ram Khamhaeng the Great – Thai king, ascribed invention of Thai alphabet in 1283, according to tradition. Ronald Kingsley Read – British, invented the Shavian (early 1960s) and Quikscript (1966) writing systems. Jeremiah Rich – English,


id: outline-of-linguistics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_linguistics-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of linguistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_linguistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:15.750363+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-linguistics-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview and topical guide to linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language. Someone who engages in this study is called a linguist. Linguistics has two subdivisions, general and applied. == Branches of linguistics == === Subfields of linguistics === General linguistics Phonetics – the study of the speech faculty Phonology – the usage of vocalized sounds and systems of sounds to form language Morphology – the property of sound and meaning dynamics in language Syntax – the property of grammar that governs sentence structure Semantics – the study of meaning as encoded in grammar Pragmatics – the study of how context contributes to meaning Graphemics – the study of writing systems Graphetics – the study of writing shapes as assigned to sounds or ideas Theoretical linguistics – the study of language as an abstract object Generative linguistics – an approach which seeks to ground grammar in a specialized language module Formalism (linguistics) – the theory of language as a formal system with mathematical-logical rules and a formal grammar Functional linguistics – language as used and coming from use Quantitative linguistics – the study of quantitative language laws and corresponding general theories Formal


id: outline-of-linguistics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_linguistics-1.md
category: reference
title: Outline of linguistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_linguistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:15.750363+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-linguistics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Other subfields of linguistics === Contrastive linguistics – an approach which seeks to analyze a pair of languages via their similarities and differences Corpus linguistics – an empirical linguistic methodology that aims to study language by using large, searchable, annotated databases (corpora) Dialectology – the study of language dialects, i.e, subsets of a language Discourse analysis – an approach that studies language as it is naturally used and constituted within discourses, with discourses considered generally as semiotic structures Grammar – the system of rules and principles governing the composition and usage of a language Interlinguistics – the study of auxiliary and planned languages for the facilitation of communication between speakers of different languages and their design Language acquisition – process by which an individual acquires their first language (L1) Language education – teaching specific language and language science Language for specific purposes – the study of language learning in context of highly specific goals and purposes for which the language is learnt, particularly in education and applied linguistcs Lexicology – the study of the lexicon of a given language and its structure Orthography – sets of conventions for writing a language, including spelling, punctuation, word boundaries, capitalization, hyphenation, and


id: outline-of-linguistics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_linguistics-2.md
category: reference
title: Outline of linguistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_linguistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:15.750363+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-linguistics-20260505-0
summary:
Linguistics can be described as an academic discipline and, at least in its theoretical subfields, as a field of science, being a widely recognized category of specialized expertise, embodying its own terminology, nomenclature, and scientific journals. Many linguists, such as David Crystal, conceptualize the field as being primarily scientific. Linguistics is a multi-disciplinary field of research that combines tools from natural sciences, social sciences, formal sciences, and the humanities. Historically, there has been some lack of consensus on the disciplinary classification of linguistics, particularly theoretical linguistics. Linguistic realists viewed linguistics as a formal science; linguistic nominalists (the American structuralists) viewed linguistics as an empirical or even physical science; linguistic conceptualists viewed linguistics as a branch of psychology and therefore a social science; others yet have argued for viewing linguistics as a mixed science. Linguistics is heterogeneous in its methods of research, so that each area of theoretical linguistics may resemble methodologically either formal science or empirical science, to different degrees. For example, phonetics uses empirical approaches to study the physical acoustics of spoken language. On the other hand, semantically and grammatically, the usability of a formal or natural language is dependent on a formal and arbitrary axiomatization of rules or


id: list-of-animal-sounds-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_animal_sounds-0.md
category: reference
title: List of animal sounds
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_animal_sounds
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:17.039193+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-animal-sounds-20260505-0
summary:
Certain words in the English language represent animal sounds: the noises and vocalizations of particular animals, especially noises used by animals for communication. The words can be used as verbs or interjections in addition to nouns, and many of them are also specifically onomatopoeic. == List of animal sounds == == See also == Animal communication Animal epithet Animal language Bioacoustics Cat organ & piganino Cross-linguistic onomatopoeias Field recording List of animal names List of onomatopoeias "Old MacDonald Had a Farm" "The Fox (What Does the Fox Say?)" == References == == External links == List of animal sounds to download, listen and use for free. Multilingual list of animal sounds Derek Abbott, University of Adelaide


id: list-of-artworks-known-in-english-by-a-foreign-title-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_artworks_known_in_English_by_a_foreign_title-0.md
category: reference
title: List of artworks known in English by a foreign title
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_artworks_known_in_English_by_a_foreign_title
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:18.403847+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-artworks-known-in-english-by-a-foreign-title-20260505-0
summary:
The following is an alphabetical list of works of art that are often called by a non-English name in an English context. (Of course, many such titles are simply the names of people: Don Quixote, Irma la Douce, Madame Bovary, Tosca, Pelléas et Mélisande. These have been omitted, as have examples where the English may easily be inferred: Symphonie fantastique, Les liaisons dangereuses.)


id: list-of-language-related-awards-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_language-related_awards-0.md
category: reference
title: List of language-related awards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_language-related_awards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:19.637037+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-language-related-awards-20260505-0
summary:
This list of language-related awards is an index to articles on notable awards given for language-related work. == List == == See also == Word of the year Lists of awards List of writing awards List of literary awards == References ==


id: list-of-calques-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_calques-0.md
category: reference
title: List of calques
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_calques
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:20.996893+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-calques-20260505-0
summary:
A calque or loan translation is a word or phrase borrowed from another language by literal, word-for-word (Latin: "verbum pro verbo") translation. This list contains examples of calques in various languages. == English == === From Mandarin Chinese === Running dog calques Chinese: 走狗; pinyin: zǒu gǒu. brainwashing calques Chinese: 洗腦; pinyin: xǐ nǎo – usage via U.S. military during Korean War. lose face calques Chinese: 丟臉; pinyin: diū liǎn Paper tiger calques Chinese: 紙老虎; pinyin: zhǐ lǎohǔ Potsticker calques Chinese: 鍋貼; pinyin: guōtiē Long time no see calques Chinese: 好久不見; pinyin: hǎojiǔ bùjiàn. === From French === By heart (or off by heart) probably calques Middle French par cœur Free verse calques vers libre Old Guard calques Vieille Garde (the most senior regiments of the Imperial Guard of Napoleon I) Flea market calques marché aux puces Marriage of convenience calques French mariage de convenance New Wave (artistic period) calques Nouvelle Vague rhinestone calques caillou du Rhin "Rhine pebble" that goes without saying calques cela va sans dire Forget-me-not calques Old French ne m'oubliez mye crime of passion from crime passionnel J. R. R. Tolkien used the name "Bag End" as a calque of "cul-de-sac", to poke fun at the


id: list-of-calques-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_calques-1.md
category: reference
title: List of calques
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_calques
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:20.996893+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-calques-20260505-0
summary:
French courriel (contraction of courrier électronique) calques English email (contraction of electronic mail) French disque dur calques English hard disk French carte mère calques English motherboard French eau de vie calques Latin aqua vitae French en ligne calques English online French hors-ligne (literally: "out of line, off line") calques English offline French haute résolution calques English high resolution French haute tension calques English high voltage French disque compact calques English compact disc French haute fidélité calques English hi-fi (high fidelity) French large bande calques English broadband French modulation de fréquence calques English frequency modulation (FM) French média de masse calques English mass media French seconde main calques English second hand French sortir du placard calques English to come out of the closet French surhomme calques German Übermensch (Nietzsche's concept) French souris calques English mouse (computer peripheral) French OVNI (Objet Volant Non Identifié) calques English UFO (Unidentified Flying Object) In some dialects of French, the English term "weekend" becomes la fin de semaine ("the end of week"), a calque, but in some it is left untranslated as le week-end, a loanword. French cor anglais (literally English horn) is a near-calque of English French horn. In English cor anglais refers to a


id: list-of-calques-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_calques-2.md
category: reference
title: List of calques
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_calques
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:20.996893+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-calques-20260505-0
summary:
=== Macedonian === Macedonian ракопис (rakopis) calques Latin-derived 'manuscript' and 'handwriting': Mac. root рака (raka) = Lat. manus = 'hand' Mac. root пис- (pis-) = Lat. scribo = 'to write' Macedonian правопис (pravopis) calques Greek-derived 'orthography': Mac. root право (pravo) = Gr. ορθός (orthos) = 'correct'; Mac. root пис- (pis-) = Gr. γράφειν (graphein) = 'to write' Macedonian православие (pravoslavie) calques Greek-derived 'orthodoxy': Mac. root право (pravo) = Gr. ορθός (orthos) = 'correct'; Mac. root славие (slavie) = Gr. δοξα (doxa) = 'glorification' In more recent times, the Macedonian language has calqued new words from other prestige languages including German, French and English. Macedonian натчовек (natčovek) = calques German-derived 'overman' (Übermensch) Mac. root над- (nad-) = Ger. über = 'over' Mac. root човек (čovek, man) = Ger. mensch = 'people' Macedonian облакодер (oblakoder) = calques English skyscraper: Mac. root облак (oblak, cloud) Mac. root дере (dere, to flay) Macedonian клучен збор (klučen zbor) = calques English keyword: Mac. root клуч (kluč, key) Mac. root збор (zbor, word) Some words were originally calqued into Russian and then absorbed into Macedonian, considering the close relatedness of the two languages. Therefore, many of these calques can also be considered Russianisms. === Russian ===


id: list-of-calques-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_calques-3.md
category: reference
title: List of calques
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_calques
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:20.996893+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-calques-20260505-0
summary:
mesilat barzel (obsolete term for railway) from German Eisenbahn (iron track); "sach-rachok" (a proposed term for telephone that became famous for not catching on) from German "Fernsprecher" (itself a calque from Greek "telephone") "zarkor" (searchlight) from German "Scheinwerfer" (light-thrower=>zorek-or, contracted to "zarkor") iton (newspaper) from German Zeitung and Yiddish צײַטוּנג tsaytung (Zeit and Et both mean time or era, first syllable e become i with the -on suffix) tappuach adamah (potato) from French pomme-de-terre gan yeladim from German Kindergarten kaduregel (כדורגל) (football, specifically association football/soccer) from English football; "kadursal" (basketball); "kaduryad" (handball);... "kelev yam" (seal) from German "Seehund" ("sea dog") "karnaf" (contraction of "keren af"/"nosehorn") from Greek rhinoceros, possibly via German Nashorn names of many chemical elements are calqued from German and/or Greek: "meiman" (hydrogen) from Wasserstoff, "pachman" (carbon) from Kohlstoff, "chankan" (nitrogen) from Stickstoff, "chamtzan" (oxygen) from Sauerstoff, zarkhan (phosphorus) from Greek, and ashlagan (potassium) from English ("ashlag"=potash) many computing terms are calqued from English: "luach em" (motherboard), "me'abed" (processor), "natav" (router), akhbar (mouse), cartis reshet (network card), sapak koach (power supply), mat'en (charger). According to linguist Ghil'ad Zuckermann, the more contributing languages have a structurally identical expression, the more likely it is to be calqued into the target


id: list-of-common-false-etymologies-of-english-words-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_false_etymologies_of_English_words-0.md
category: reference
title: List of common false etymologies of English words
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_false_etymologies_of_English_words
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:22.234711+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-false-etymologies-of-english-words-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of common contemporary false etymologies for English words. == Profanity == Crap: The word "crap" did not originate as a back-formation of British plumber Thomas Crapper's surname, nor does his name originate from the word "crap", although the surname may have helped popularize the word. The surname "Crapper" is a variant of "Cropper", which originally referred to someone who harvested crops. The word "crap" ultimately comes from Medieval Latin crappa, meaning "chaff". Fuck: The word "fuck" did not originate as an acronym for "For Unlawful Carnal Knowledge", either as a sign posted above adulterers in the stocks, or as a criminal charge against members of the British Armed Forces; nor did it originate during the 15th-century Battle of Agincourt as a corruption of "pluck yew" (an idiom falsely attributed to the English for drawing a longbow). The word also did not originate in Christianized Anglo-Saxon England as an acronym for "Fornication Under Consent of King"; Modern English was not spoken until the 16th century, and the words "fornication" and "consent" are derived from Anglo-Norman and hence did not exist in Old English. The earliest recorded use of "fuck" in English comes from c. 1475, in the


id: list-of-common-false-etymologies-of-english-words-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_false_etymologies_of_English_words-1.md
category: reference
title: List of common false etymologies of English words
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_false_etymologies_of_English_words
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:22.234711+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-false-etymologies-of-english-words-20260505-0
summary:
[Military] Brat: Not an acronym for "British Regiment Attached Traveller". This is just a specific instance of the word brat, meaning child or offspring, first attested in 16th-century Scotland. "Chav": see under "Other" Coma: Some falsely believe that the word coma originates from "cessation of motor activity". Although this describes the condition of coma, this is not the true derivation. The word is actually derived from the Greek kōma, meaning deep sleep. Fuck: see under "Profanity" Golf: did not originate as an acronym of "gentlemen only, ladies forbidden". The word's true origin is unknown, but it existed in the Middle Scots period. News: The word news has been claimed to be an acronym of the four cardinal directions (north, east, west, and south). However, old spellings of the word varied widely (e.g., newesse, newis, nevis, neus, newys, niewes, newis, nues, etc.). Additionally, an identical term exists in French, "les nouvelles", which translates as the plural of "the new". "News" also does not stand for "notable events, weather, and sports". The word "news" is simply a plural form of new, and is attested in this sense from the early 15th century. Pom or pommy is an Australian English, New Zealand English,


id: list-of-common-false-etymologies-of-english-words-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_false_etymologies_of_English_words-2.md
category: reference
title: List of common false etymologies of English words
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_false_etymologies_of_English_words
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:22.234711+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-false-etymologies-of-english-words-20260505-0
summary:
420 did not originate as the Los Angeles police or penal code for marijuana use. Police Code 420 is "juvenile disturbance", and Penal Code 420 defines the prevention, hindrance, or obstruction of legal "entry, settlement, or residence" on "any tract of public land" as a misdemeanor. Some LA police codes that do relate to illegal drugs include 10-50 ("under influence of drugs"), 966 ("drug deal"), 11300 ("narcotics"), and 23105 ("driver under narcotics"). The number's association with marijuana originated with a group of students who would meet on the campus of San Rafael High School at 4:20 pm to smoke. Adamant is often believed to have come from Latin adamare, meaning to love to excess. It is in fact derived from Greek ἀδάμας, meaning indomitable. There was a further confusion about whether the substance referred to is diamond or lodestone. Buck: The use of "buck" to mean "dollar" did not originate from a practice of referring to African slaves as "bucks" (male deer) when trading. "Buck" was originally short for "buckskin", as buckskins were used in trade. Butterfly: The word "butterfly" did not originate from "flutterby". It is, as it appears, a compound of "butter" and "fly", first formed in Old


id: list-of-common-false-etymologies-of-english-words-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_false_etymologies_of_English_words-3.md
category: reference
title: List of common false etymologies of English words
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_common_false_etymologies_of_English_words
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:22.234711+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-common-false-etymologies-of-english-words-20260505-0
summary:
Both forms now have currency, though the form with "rabbit" is in fact the original. Furthermore, the word "Welsh" in this context was used in a pejorative sense, meaning "foreign" or "substandard", and does not indicate that the dish originated in Wales. Wi-Fi is not short-form for 'Wireless Fidelity,' although it was likely co-opting the similar phrase of the time, Hi-Fi, referring to High Fidelity audio systems. Woman does not originate from "woven from man", nor from "womb". It came from the Old English wifmann ("woman human"), a compound of wif ("woman" – cf. "wife") + man ("human being"). Adult human males were called wer (as in weregeld and world, and also the first element in "werewolf", man-wolf). Mann, the word for "person", eventually came to be used for adult human males specifically. Both "wer" and "wyf" may be used to qualify "man", as in this Old English example: God gesceop ða æt fruman twegen men, wer and wif (then at the beginning, God created two human beings, man and woman) Yankee does not originate from the Cherokee word eankke meaning "coward". The word does not exist in the Cherokee language. It also does not come from a native tribe


id: list-of-linguistics-conferences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguistics_conferences-0.md
category: reference
title: List of linguistics conferences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguistics_conferences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:24.779701+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-linguistics-conferences-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of recurring linguistics conferences. Included are also a list of organisations that hold recurring meetings under the same name. == By geographical location == === International === Association for Laboratory Phonology (LabPhon) Formal Approaches to Slavic Linguistics (FASL) International Conference on Sociolinguistics International Congress of Linguists (ICL) International Society for the Linguistics of English (ISLE) Southeast Asian Linguistics Society (SEALS) === North America === American Dialect Society (ADS) Canadian Linguistic Association (CLA) Chicago Linguistic Society (CLS) Linguistic Society of America (LSA) North American Conference on Chinese Linguistics (NACCL) West Coast Conference on Formal Linguistics (WCCFL) Western Conference on Linguistics Workshop on Structure and Constituency in Languages of the Americas (WSCLA) === South America === Associação Brasileira de Linguística (ABRALIN) === Europe === Conference on Mediterranean and European Linguistic Anthropology (COMELA) Days of Swiss Linguistics (DSL) Generative Linguistics in the Old World (GLOW) International Conference on Sociolinguistics ("ICS") 4th International ESP Conference, Nis, Serbia Linguistic Intersections of Language and Gender Conference, (LILG) Moscow Student Conference on Linguistics (MSCL) Annual Meeting of the Societas Linguistica Europaea (SLE) === Asia === Conference on Asian Linguistic Anthropology (CALA) GLOW in Asia === Africa === West African Linguistic Society (WALS) African


id: list-of-consonants-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_consonants-0.md
category: reference
title: List of consonants
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_consonants
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:26.147099+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-consonants-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of all the consonants which have a dedicated letter in the International Phonetic Alphabet, plus some of the consonants which require diacritics, ordered by place and manner of articulation. == Ordered by place of articulation == === Labial consonants === (articulated by using the lips) ==== Bilabial consonants ==== bilabial clicks e.g. [kʘ] bilabial nasal [m] (man) bilabial ejective [pʼ] voiced bilabial implosive [ɓ] voiceless bilabial plosive [p] (spin) voiced bilabial plosive [b] (bed) voiceless bilabial affricate [pɸ] voiced bilabial affricate [bβ] voiceless bilabial fricative [ɸ] voiced bilabial fricative [β] bilabial approximant [β̞] bilabial trill [ʙ] bilabial percussive [ʬ] ==== Labiodental consonants ==== labiodental approximant [ʋ] labiodental nasal [ɱ] (symphony) voiced labiodental fricative [v] (van) Voiced labiodental plosive [b̪] Voiced labiodental affricate [b̪v] voiceless labiodental fricative [f] (fan) voiceless rounded velarized labiodental fricative [ɧ] Voiceless labiodental plosive [p̪] Voiceless labiodental affricate [p̪f] === Bidental consonants === voiceless bidental fricative [h̪͆] === Coronal consonants === (articulated by using the tip of the tongue) ==== Dental consonants ==== dental clicks e.g. [kǀ] dental lateral clicks e.g. [kǁ̪] dental ejective [t̪ʼ] dental nasal [n̪] voiced dental fricative [ð] (this) voiced dental implosive [ɗ̪] voiced dental plosive [d̪] voiceless bidental


id: list-of-consonants-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_consonants-1.md
category: reference
title: List of consonants
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_consonants
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:26.147099+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-consonants-20260505-0
summary:
=== Fricative consonants === Sibilant fricatives voiceless alveolar sibilant [s] voiced alveolar sibilant [z] voiceless palato-alveolar sibilant [ ʃ ] voiced palato-alveolar sibilant [ʒ] voiceless alveolo-palatal sibilant (palatalized postalveolar) [ɕ] voiced alveolo-palatal sibilant [ʑ] voiceless retroflex sibilant [ʂ] voiced retroflex sibilant [ʐ ] Central non-sibilant fricatives voiceless bilabial fricative [ɸ] voiced bilabial fricative [β] voiceless labiodental fricative [f] voiced labiodental fricative [v] voiceless bidental fricative [h̪͆] voiceless dental fricative [θ] voiced dental fricative [ð] voiceless alveolar non-sibilant fricative [θ̠] voiced alveolar non-sibilant fricative [ɹ̝] voiceless palatal fricative [ç] voiced palatal fricative [ ʝ] voiceless velar fricative [x] voiced velar fricative [ɣ] voiceless uvular fricative [χ] voiceless pharyngeal fricative [ħ] voiceless epiglottal fricative [ʜ] voiceless palatal-velar fricative (not possible) [ɧ] Lateral fricatives voiceless alveolar lateral fricative [ɬ] voiced alveolar lateral fricative [ɮ] voiceless retroflex lateral fricative [ꞎ ] voiceless palatal lateral fricative [𝼆]) voiceless velar lateral fricative [𝼄]) voiced velar lateral fricative [ʟ̝] both fricatives and approximants voiced uvular fricative [ʁ] voiced pharyngeal fricative [ʕ] voiced epiglottal fricative [ʢ] Pseudo-fricatives voiceless glottal fricative [h] voiced glottal fricative (murmured) [ɦ] === Affricate consonants === Sibilant affricates voiceless postalveolar affricate [tʃ] voiced postalveolar affricate [dʒ] voiceless alveolar affricate [ts] voiced alveolar affricate [dz]


id: list-of-consonants-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_consonants-2.md
category: reference
title: List of consonants
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_consonants
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:26.147099+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-consonants-20260505-0
summary:
=== Glottalized consonants === ==== Reinforced airstream ==== Voiceless labioglottal plosive[ʔᵖ] Voiceless alveologlottal plosive[ʔᵗ] Voiceless veloglottal plosive[ʔᵏ] ==== Blocked airstream ==== Voiced glottalized alveolar nasal [nˀ] Voiced glottalized alveolar plosive [tˀ] Voiced glottalized dental fricative [ðˀ] ==== Restricted airstream ==== Creaky-voiced bilabial nasal [m̰] ==== Whispery voice ==== Breathy-voiced bilabial nasal [mʱ] Breathy-voiced bilabial plosive [bʱ] Breathy-voiced alveolar plosive [dʱ] Breathy-voiced velar plosive [gʱ] === Click consonants === The less common clicks, such as are found in Taa, are not included. Simple clicks bilabial clicks (= ⟨ɋ⟩) either velar: voiceless bilabial click [ᵏʘ] voiced bilabial click [ᶢʘ] bilabial nasal click [ᵑʘ] or uvular: [𐞥ʘ], [𐞒ʘ], [ᶰʘ] dental clicks (= ⟨ʇ⟩) either velar: voiceless dental click [ᵏǀ] voiced dental click [ᶢǀ] dental nasal click [ᵑǀ] or uvular: [𐞥ǀ], [𐞒ǀ], [ᶰǀ] (post)alveolar click (= ⟨ʗ⟩) either velar: voiceless alveolar click [ᵏǃ] voiced alveolar click [ᶢǃ] alveolar nasal click [ᵑǃ] or uvular: [𐞥ǃ], [𐞒ǃ], [ᶰǃ] alveolar lateral clicks (= ⟨ʖ⟩) either velar: voiceless alveolar lateral click [ᵏǁ] voiced alveolar lateral click [ᶢǁ] alveolar lateral nasal click [ᵑǁ] or uvular: [𐞥ǁ], [𐞒ǁ], [ᶰǁ] retroflex clicks (= ⟨ψ⟩) either velar: voiceless retroflex click [ᵏ𝼊 ] voiced retroflex click [ᶢ𝼊 ] retroflex nasal click [ᵑ𝼊 ]


id: cyrillic-alphabets-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets-0.md
category: reference
title: Cyrillic alphabets
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:27.700181+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cyrillic-alphabets-20260505-0
summary:
Numerous Cyrillic alphabets are based on the Cyrillic script. The early Cyrillic alphabet was developed in the 9th century AD and replaced the earlier Glagolitic script developed by the theologians Cyril and Methodius. It is the basis of alphabets used in various languages, past and present, Slavic origin, and non-Slavic languages influenced by Russian. As of 2011, around 252 million people in Eurasia use it as the official alphabet for their national languages. About half of them are in Russia. Cyrillic is one of the most-used writing systems in the world. The creator is Saint Clement of Ohrid from the Preslav literary school in the First Bulgarian Empire. Some of these are illustrated below; for others, and for more detail, see the links. Sounds are transcribed in the IPA. While these languages largely have phonemic orthographies, there are occasional exceptions—for example, Russian ⟨г⟩ is pronounced /v/ in a number of words, an orthographic relic from when they were pronounced /ɡ/ (e.g. его yego 'him/his', is pronounced [jɪˈvo] rather than [jɪˈɡo]). Spellings of names transliterated into the Roman alphabet may vary, especially й (y/j/i), but also г (gh/g/h) and ж (zh/j). Unlike the Latin script, which is usually adapted to different


id: cyrillic-alphabets-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets-1.md
category: reference
title: Cyrillic alphabets
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:27.700181+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cyrillic-alphabets-20260505-0
summary:
The Bulgarian names for the consonants are [bɤ], [kɤ], [ɫɤ] (bǔ, kǔ, lǔ) etc. instead of [bɛ], [ka], [ɛl] (be, ka, el) etc. Е represents /ɛ/ and is called "е" [ɛ]. Unlike in other Slavic languages, the sound [jɛ] does not exist in native words, being replaced with Е in most cases. The sounds /dʒ/ (/d͡ʒ/) and /dz/ (/d͡z/) are represented by the digraphs дж and дз respectively, as in Belarusian and Ukrainian. Short I (Й, й) represents /j/, as in Russian. Щ represents /ʃt/ (/ʃ͡t/) and is called "щъ" [ʃtɤ] ([ʃ͡tɤ]). Ъ represents the vowel /ɤ/, and is called "ер голям" (IPA: [ˈɛr ɡoˈʎam]) ('big er'). Despite the official name being "big er", the letter is only referred to as that in the context of the alphabet, and is usually called /ɤ/ in common speech. The vowel Ъ /ɤ/ is sometimes approximated to the /ə/ (schwa) sound found in many languages for easier comprehension of its Bulgarian pronunciation for foreigners, but it is actually a back vowel, not a central vowel. Ь is used on rare occasions (only after a consonant [and] before the vowel "о"), such as in the words 'каньон' (canyon), 'шофьор' (driver/chauffeur), etc. It represents the


id: cyrillic-alphabets-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets-2.md
category: reference
title: Cyrillic alphabets
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:27.700181+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cyrillic-alphabets-20260505-0
summary:
Between Ze (З з) and I (И и) is the letter З́, which represents /ʑ/ (voiced alveolo-palatal fricative). It is written ⟨Ź ź⟩ in the corresponding Montenegrin Latin alphabet, previously written ⟨Zj zj⟩ or ⟨Žj žj⟩. Between Es (С с) and Te (Т т) is the letter С́, which represents /ɕ/ (voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative). It is written ⟨Ś ś⟩ in the corresponding Montenegrin Latin alphabet, previously written ⟨Sj sj⟩ or ⟨Šj šj⟩. The letter Dze (Ѕ ѕ), from Macedonian, is used in scientific literature when representing the /d͡z/ phoneme, although it is not officially part of the alphabet. A Latin equivalent was proposed that looks identical to Ze (З з). ==== Macedonian ==== The Macedonian alphabet differs from Serbian in the following ways: Between Ze (З з) and I (И и) is the letter Dze (Ѕ ѕ), which looks like the Latin letter S and represents /d͡z/. Dje (Ђ ђ) is replaced by Gje (Ѓ ѓ), which represents /ɟ/ (voiced palatal stop). In some dialects, it represents /d͡ʑ/ instead, like Dje. It is written ⟨Ǵ ǵ⟩ in the corresponding Macedonian Latin alphabet. Tshe (Ћ ћ) is replaced by Kje (Ќ ќ), which represents /c/ (voiceless palatal stop). In some dialects,


id: cyrillic-alphabets-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets-3.md
category: reference
title: Cyrillic alphabets
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:27.700181+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cyrillic-alphabets-20260505-0
summary:
Ve (В в) represents /ʋ/ (which may be pronounced [w] in a word final position and before consonants). He (Г г) represents a breathy-voiced glottal transition, (/ɦ/), similar to the respective sound in Belarusian. Ge (Ґ ґ) appears after He, representing /ɡ/. It looks like He with an "upturn" pointing up from the right side of the top bar. This letter is generally restricted to loanwords/borrowed words. (This letter was removed in Soviet Ukraine in 1933–1990, so it may be missing from older Cyrillic fonts.) E (Е е) represents /ɛ/. Ye (Є є) appears after E and represents the sound /jɛ/. I (И и) represents the sound /ɪ/, unlike in Russian. Dotted I (І і) appears after И and represents the sound /i/, as in Belarusian. Yi (Ї ї) appears after I and represents the sound /ji/. Jot (Й й) represents /j/, as in Russian Shcha (Щ, щ) represents the cluster /ʃt͡ʃ/. An apostrophe (’) is used to mark the lack of palatalization of the preceding consonant before Ya (Я, я), Yu (Ю, ю), Ye (Є, є), Yi (Ї, ї), the same as how it is used in Belarusian. Before 1990, Ь was positioned at the end of the alphabet


id: cyrillic-alphabets-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets-4.md
category: reference
title: Cyrillic alphabets
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:27.700181+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cyrillic-alphabets-20260505-0
summary:
Ң ң = /ŋ/ (velar nasal) Ү ү = /y/ (close front rounded vowel) Ө ө = /œ/ (open-mid front rounded vowel) Bold letters are used only in loanwords. === Tatar === Tatar has used Cyrillic since 1939, but the Russian Orthodox Tatar community has used Cyrillic since the 19th century. In 2000 a new Latin alphabet was adopted for Tatar, but it is used generally on the Internet. Ә ә = /æ/ Ң ң = /ŋ/ Ө ө = /œ/ У у = /uw/, /yw/, /w/ Ү ү = /y/ Һ һ = /h/ Җ җ = /ʑ/ The Cyrillic letters Ёё, Цц, Щщ are not used in native Tatar words, but only for Russian loans. === Turkmen === Turkmen, written 1940–1994 exclusively in Cyrillic, since 1994 officially in Roman, but in everyday communication Cyrillic is still used along with Roman script. === Uzbek === From 1941 the Cyrillic script was used exclusively. In 1998 the government has adopted a Latin alphabet to replace it. The deadline for making this transition has however been repeatedly changed, and Cyrillic is still more common. It is not clear that the transition will be made at all. В в = /w/ Ж


id: cyrillic-alphabets-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets-5.md
category: reference
title: Cyrillic alphabets
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:27.700181+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cyrillic-alphabets-20260505-0
summary:
=== Buryat === The Buryat (буряад) Cyrillic script is similar to the Khalkha above, but Ьь indicates palatalization as in Russian. Buryat does not use Вв, Кк, Пп, Фф, Цц, Чч, Щщ or Ъъ in its native words (Пп may occur in native onomatopoeic words). Е е = /jɛ/, /jœ/ Ё ё = /jo/ Ж ж = /dʒ/ Й й = the second element of closing diphthongs (ай, ой, etc.), it never indicates /j/ in native words Н н = /n-/, /-ŋ/ Өө өө = /œː/, ө does not occur in short form in literary Buryat based on the Khori dialect У у = /ʊ/ Ү ү = /u/ Һ һ = /h/ Ы ы = /ei/, /iː/ Ю ю = /ju/ === Kalmyk === The Kalmyk (хальмг) Cyrillic script differs from Khalkha in some respects: there are additional letters (Әә, Җҗ, Ңң, Һһ), letters Ээ, Юю and Яя appear only word-initially, long vowels are written double in the first syllable (нөөрин), but single in syllables after the first. Short vowels are omitted altogether in syllables after the first syllable (хальмг = /xaʎmaɡ/). Жж and Пп are used in loanwords only (Russian, Tibetan, etc.), but Пп may occur in native


id: list-of-departments-of-linguistics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_departments_of_linguistics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of departments of linguistics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_departments_of_linguistics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:28.954162+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-departments-of-linguistics-20260505-0
summary:
Australia Australian National University [1] La Trobe University [2] Macquarie University [3] Monash University [4] University of Adelaide [5] University of Melbourne [6] University of Newcastle [7] University of New England [8] University of New South Wales [9] University of Queensland [10] University of Sydney [11] University of Western Australia [12] University of Western Sydney [13] Bangladesh University of Dhaka [14] Brazil Universidade de São Paulo [15] Canada Brock University [16] Carleton University, Ottawa [17] (BA MA) [18] (MA) Concordia University [19] McGill University, Montréal [20] (BA MA PhD) McMaster University [21] Memorial University of Newfoundland [22] Simon Fraser University [23] Trinity Western University [24] Université de Montréal [25] (BA MA PhD) Université du Québec à Chicoutimi [26] (BA MA) Université du Québec à Montréal (BA MA PhD) [27] Université Laval [28] (BA MA PhD) University of Alberta [29] University of British Columbia [30] University of Calgary [31] University of Manitoba [32] (BA MA PhD) University of Ottawa, Ottawa [33] (BA MA PhD) University of Saskatchewan [34] University of Toronto, Toronto [35] (BA MA PhD) University of Victoria [36] York University, Toronto [37] (BA MA PhD) Croatia University of Zadar [38] University of Zagreb [39] Czech Republic Charles University in


id: list-of-dictionaries-by-number-of-words-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_dictionaries_by_number_of_words-0.md
category: reference
title: List of dictionaries by number of words
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_dictionaries_by_number_of_words
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:30.285933+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-dictionaries-by-number-of-words-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of dictionaries considered authoritative or complete by approximate number of total words, or headwords, included number of words in a language. == See also == Comparison of English dictionaries == Notes == == References ==


id: dolgopolsky-list-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolgopolsky_list-0.md
category: reference
title: Dolgopolsky list
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolgopolsky_list
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:31.565992+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dolgopolsky-list-20260505-0
summary:
The Dolgopolsky list is a word list compiled by Aharon Dolgopolsky in 1964 based on a study of 140 languages from across Eurasia. It lists the 15 lexical items that he found have the most semantic stability, i.e. the 15 words least likely to be replaced. == List == The words, with the first being the most stable, are: I/me two/pair you (singular, informal) who/what tongue name eye heart tooth no/not nail (finger-nail) louse/nit tear/teardrop water dead The first item in the list, I/me, has been replaced in none of the 140 languages during their recorded history; the fifteenth, dead, has been replaced in 25% of the languages. The twelfth item, louse/nit, is well kept in the North Caucasian languages, Dravidian and Turkic, but not in some other proto-languages. The Leipzig–Jakarta list of 100 lexical items includes all but five of these words: two/pair, heart, nail (fingernail), tear, die/dead. == See also == Swadesh list Comparative linguistics == References == Trask, Robert Lawrence (2000). The dictionary of historical and comparative linguistics. p. 96. == External links == Concepticon


id: list-of-english-irregular-verbs-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_English_irregular_verbs-0.md
category: reference
title: List of English irregular verbs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_English_irregular_verbs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:32.921300+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-english-irregular-verbs-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of irregular verbs in the English language. == Past tense irregular verbs == For each verb listed, the citation form (the bare infinitive) is given first, with a link to the relevant Wiktionary entry. This is followed by the simple past tense (preterite), and then the past participle. If there are irregular present tense forms (see below), these are given in parentheses after the infinitive. (The present participle and gerund forms of verbs, ending in -ing, are always regular. In English, these are used as verbs, adjectives, and nouns.) In the case of modal verbs the present and preterite forms are listed, since these are the only forms that exist, with the present form identical for all persons. The right-hand column notes whether the verb is weak or strong and whether it belongs to a subclass, and links to descriptions elsewhere. Information about the development of these verbs generally can be found at English irregular verbs; details of the etymology and usage of specific verbs can be found by consulting Wiktionary. In some cases, there are two or more possibilities for a given form. In the table, the preferred or more common usage is generally listed


id: list-of-linguistic-example-sentences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguistic_example_sentences-0.md
category: reference
title: List of linguistic example sentences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguistic_example_sentences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:34.058624+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-linguistic-example-sentences-20260505-0
summary:
The following is a partial list of linguistic example sentences illustrating various linguistic phenomena. == Ambiguity == Different types of ambiguity which are possible in language. === Lexical ambiguity === Demonstrations of words which have multiple meanings dependent on context. Will, will Will will Will Will's will? – Will (a person), will (future tense auxiliary verb) Will (a second person) will (bequeath) [to] Will (a third person) Will's (the second person) will (a document)? (Someone asked Will 1 directly if Will 2 plans to bequeath his own will, the document, to Will 3.) Buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo buffalo buffalo Buffalo buffalo. – Bison (the plural of "buffalos" or "buffalo" is also accepted) from Buffalo, New York, whom bison from Buffalo bully, bully bison from Buffalo. Police police Police police police police Police police. – Police officers from Police, Poland, whom police officers from Police patrol, patrol police officers from Police. Rose rose to put rose roes on her rows of roses. (Robert J. Baran) – Rose [a person] rose [stood] to put rose [pink-colored] roes [fish eggs as fertilizer] on her rows of roses [flower]. James while John had had had had had had had had had had had a


id: list-of-linguistic-example-sentences-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguistic_example_sentences-1.md
category: reference
title: List of linguistic example sentences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguistic_example_sentences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:34.058624+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-linguistic-example-sentences-20260505-0
summary:
Colorless green ideas sleep furiously (Noam Chomsky): example that is grammatically correct but based on semantic combinations that are contradictory and therefore would not normally occur. Hold the news reader's nose squarely, waiter, or friendly milk will countermand my trousers. == Semantics and context == Demonstrations of sentences where the semantic interpretation is bound to context or knowledge of the world. The large ball crashed right through the table because it was made of Styrofoam: ambiguous use of a pronoun: The word "it" refers to the table being made of Styrofoam; but "it" would immediately refer to the large ball if we replaced "Styrofoam" with "steel" without any other change in its syntactic parse. The bee landed on the flower because it had nectar: The pronoun "it" refers to the "flower" but changes to the "bee" if we replace "had" with "wanted". We bought the boys apples because they were so hungry: "they" refers to the boys, but if "hungry" is replaced with "cheap", with no grammatical change, it refers to the apples. St Paul’s Cathedral is amusing, awful, and artificial: The adjectives are contronyms and their main, contemporary meanings conflict with minority meanings of "amazing, awe-inspiring, and artistic." ===


id: list-of-linguistic-example-sentences-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguistic_example_sentences-2.md
category: reference
title: List of linguistic example sentences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguistic_example_sentences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:34.058624+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-linguistic-example-sentences-20260505-0
summary:
=== German === A famous example of lexical ambiguity is the following sentence: "Wenn hinter Fliegen Fliegen fliegen, fliegen Fliegen Fliegen hinterher.", meaning "When flies fly behind flies, then flies fly in pursuit of flies." It takes advantage of some German nouns and corresponding verbs being homonymous. While not noticeable in spoken language, in written language the difference shows: "Fliegen" ("flies"), being a noun, is written with a capital "F", whereas "fliegen" ("to fly"), being a verb, is not. The comma can be left out without changing the meaning. There are several variations of this sentence pattern, although they do not work as smoothly as the original. Dutch language shares this same example, with the noticeable difference of not capitalising the initials of nouns, making it "Als achter vliegen vliegen vliegen, vliegen vliegen vliegen achterna." === Dutch === Kees Torn expanded on the example given in the German section ("Als achter vliegen vliegen vliegen, vliegen vliegen vliegen achterna."), from which he created: "Als, in de plaats waar van de makkelijk te zeven zeven zeven zeven zeven zeven zeven, Zeven, zeven zeven zeven zeven zeven, zeven zeven zeven zeven zeven." which uses the fact that "zeven" has multiple roles: it is


id: list-of-family-name-affixes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_family_name_affixes-0.md
category: reference
title: List of family name affixes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_family_name_affixes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:35.382968+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-family-name-affixes-20260505-0
summary:
Family name affixes are a clue for surname etymology and can sometimes determine the ethnic origin of a person. This is a partial list of affixes. == Prefixes == === Arabic === Abu – (Arabic) "father of"; Al – (Arabic) "Family of" or "House of" (in conjunction with name of ancestor) Bet – (Arabic from "Beyt") "house of" Bint – (Arabic) "daughter of"; Binti, Binte (Malaysian version) El – (Arabic see Al) Ibn – (Arabic) "son of" === Armenian === Ter – (Eastern Armenian) "son/daughter of a Priest" Der – (Western Armenian) "son/daughter of a priest"; (German) "the" (masculine nominative), "of the" (feminine genitive) === Berber === Ayt/At/Ag/Id u- – (Berber) "of" At/n Ath – (Berber) "(son[s]) of" U - (Berber) "son of"/"descendent of" Ult - (Berber) "daughter of" === Dutch === de – (Dutch) "the" 's – (Dutch) "of the"; contraction of des, genitive case of the definite article de. Example: 's Gravesande. 't – (Dutch) "the"; contraction of the neuter definite article het. ter – (Dutch) "at the" van – (Dutch) "of", "from" van de, van den, van der, van 't – (Dutch) "of the", "from the" === French === "of", "of the", "from"; often a sign of


id: list-of-family-name-affixes-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_family_name_affixes-1.md
category: reference
title: List of family name affixes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_family_name_affixes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:35.382968+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-family-name-affixes-20260505-0
summary:
== Suffixes == -a, -ya Kurdish means "of" (female) (by two surnames) -à (Catalan) feminine -ana "of or from [a locality or place]" (Català -Catalan); and also the name of a job (Manyà -ironsmith), from Latin -ānus, -āna -ac (Croatian, Serbian, Slovenian, Southern French) -ach (Ukrainian, Belarusian /Belarusian Latin: -ač/) -acz (Polish) -aei (Persian) (See -i) for words that end in the long vowel A -aitis (Lithuanian) "son of" -aitė (Lithuanian) signifies an unmarried female -aty Americanized form -aj (Albanian) (pronounced AY; meaning “of the") It denotes the name of the family, which mostly comes from the male founder of the family, but also from a place, as in, Lash-aj (from the village Lashaj of Kastrat, MM, Shkodër). It is likely that its ancient form, still found in MM, was an [i] in front of the last name, as in ‘Déda i Lékajve’ (Déd of Lekës). For ease of use, the [i] in front of the last name, and the ending _ve, were dropped. If the last name ends in [a], then removing the [j] would give the name of the patriarch or the place, as in, Grudaj - j = Gruda (place in MM). Otherwise, removing the whole ending


id: list-of-family-name-affixes-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_family_name_affixes-2.md
category: reference
title: List of family name affixes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_family_name_affixes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:35.382968+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-family-name-affixes-20260505-0
summary:
-ik (Estonian) if it follows a tree name, has a meaning "grove" -ikh, -ykh (Russian) -in (Russian (all Eastern Slavic languages), Bulgarian) possessive -ina (female equivalent of -in; especially rare for male names, but the suffix alone is an actual female name) -yn (Russian, Belarusian, Ukrainian) possessive -in (French) diminutive -in (Dutch, German) suffix attached to old Germanic female surnames (e.g. female surname "Mayerin", the wife of "Mayer") -ge (Sinhalese) "From the house of" -ing, ink (Anglo-Saxon, Dutch, German) "descendant" -ino (a common suffix for male Latino and Italian names) -ipa (Abkhazian) "son of" -ipha (Abkhazian) "girl of" -is (Greek, /male/ Lithuanian) -ienė (Lithuanian) female version -ytė (Lithuanian) unmarried female version -ishin, -yshyn (Ukrainian) possessive (e.g. Romanishin = son of wife of Roman) -ishina, -yshyna (female equivalent of -ishin, -yshyn) -iu (Romanian) -ius (Lithuanian) "son of" -iv (Ukrainian) possessive. -iz (Spanish) including Spanish-speaking countries "son of", very unfrequent compared to -ez (Muñiz < Muño) -j (Adygean)"old" -ja (Sindhi, Punjabi) "from, of", often denoting ancestral hometowns and villages. Mostly with the combinations -ija, -uja and -eja (eg. Makhija, Ahuja, Taneja) -jerhin/-jerin (Kyrghyz) "place (of origin)" Usually, this form of the surname is assigned to kairylmans who do not have a surname.


id: list-of-family-name-affixes-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_family_name_affixes-3.md
category: reference
title: List of family name affixes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_family_name_affixes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:35.382968+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-family-name-affixes-20260505-0
summary:
-vich (Belarusian /Belarusian Latin: -vič/, occasionally a respelling of original Serbian, Croatian -vić) "son of" -vych (Ukrainian) -wicz (Polish), -wic (Polish) -vić (Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, Montenegrin) -vič (Slovenian, Slovak, Czech [rarely]), -vic (Slovak, Czech [rarely]) -vici (Romanianized respellings) -vics, -vits (Hungarianized respellings) -vitz, -witz, -witch, -witsch (Germanized or Anglicized respellings) -vičius (Lithuanian) Lithuanianized version of the Belarusian -vich (Belarusian Latin: -vič) and Polish -wicz -vičiutė (Lithuanian) signifies an unmarried female -vičs (Latvian) Latvianized version of the Belarusian -vich (Belarusian Latin: -vič) and Polish –wicz -vedi (Sanskrit, Hindi) "learned in _ Vedas" (e.g. Trivedi = "learned in 3 Vedas") -wala, -wallah, wali, vala, vali (Hindustani, Gujarati, Bengali, Marathi) denotes the occupation or place of origin (Occupation example: Batliwala – one who deals with bottles. Place example: Suratwala – one from Surat) -wan (Indonesian) denotes a male name -war (Marathi), often used to signify members of the Arya Vyshya community, residing in central and western India. -wati (Indonesian) denotes a female name -wi (Arabic) "from" -y (Arabic/Persian) Means descendant of. -y (See -i) -yal -ycz (Polish) -yk (Polish, Belarusian, Ukrainian) -ynas (Lithuanian) "son of" -ys (English) representing i. the archaic plural form, or ii. a diminutive form. Variant forms not limited to


id: father-honorific-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Father_(honorific)-0.md
category: reference
title: Father (honorific)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Father_(honorific)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:36.654088+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: father-honorific-20260505-0
summary:
Father has been used as both title and honorific in various languages, synonyms and historical contexts. It may sometimes denote a title of authority or of honour. == List of uses of "father" in various languages == === By culture and/or language === Ab (Semitic) Bwana ("our father"), from Swahili, meaning an important person or safari leader Abu in Kunya (Arabic), used as epithet for "father of X" Baba, mark of respect in: Indian honorific Hindu and Sikh Baba (honorific) in Persian language In Malaysia as an honorific of respect to address Chinese people born in the British Straits Settlements Batko, a Ukrainian honorific meaning "father" List of people considered father or mother of a field Founding father Father of the Nation/Father of the Country Pater Patriae Fathers of Confederation Founding fathers of the European Union Founding Fathers of the United States Pater familias (Latin), title for head of household in Ancient Rome === Personifications === Father Time Father Christmas Ded Moroz ("Father Frost") === By religion === God the Father ==== Buddhism ==== Abbot (Buddhism) a title for a monk who holds the position of administrator of a Buddhist monastery or Buddhist temple ==== Christianity ==== Patriarch (Greek, literally


id: list-of-formal-language-and-literal-string-topics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_formal_language_and_literal_string_topics-0.md
category: reference
title: List of formal language and literal string topics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_formal_language_and_literal_string_topics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:37.827966+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-formal-language-and-literal-string-topics-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of formal language and literal string topics, by Wikipedia page. == Formal languages == Abstract syntax tree Backus-Naur form Categorial grammar Chomsky hierarchy Concatenation Context-free grammar Context-sensitive grammar Context-sensitive language Decidable language ECLR-attributed grammar Finite language Formal grammar Formal language Formal system Generalized star height problem Kleene algebra Kleene star L-attributed grammar LR-attributed grammar Myhill–Nerode theorem Parsing expression grammar Prefix grammar Pumping lemma Recursively enumerable language Regular expression Regular grammar Regular language S-attributed grammar Star height Star height problem Syntactic monoid Syntax (logic) Tree-adjoining grammar == Literal strings == Anagram Case sensitivity Infinite monkey theorem Lexical analysis Lexeme Lexicography Lexicon Lipogram The Library of Babel Palindrome Pangram Sequence alignment == Classical cryptography == Atbash cipher Autokey cipher Bazeries cylinder Bible code Bifid cipher Caesar cipher Cardan grille Enigma machine Frequency analysis Index of coincidence Playfair cipher Polyalphabetic substitution Polybius square ROT13, ROT47 Scytale Steganography Substitution cipher Tabula recta Transposition cipher Vigenère cipher


id: gardiner-s-sign-list-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardiner's_sign_list-0.md
category: reference
title: Gardiner's sign list
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardiner's_sign_list
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:39.245476+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gardiner-s-sign-list-20260505-0
summary:
Gardiner's sign list is a list of common Egyptian hieroglyphs compiled by Sir Alan Gardiner. It is considered a standard reference in the study of ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs. Gardiner lists only the common forms of Egyptian hieroglyphs, but he includes extensive subcategories, and also both vertical and horizontal forms for many hieroglyphs. He includes size-variation forms to aid with the reading of hieroglyphs in running blocks of text. In contrast, for example, the Budge Reference has about 1,000 hieroglyphs listed in 50 pages, but with no size variations. Gardiner does not cross-index signs; once a sign is put on one of his lists, other significant uses may be overlooked. One example of this is 𓅒 G16, nbtỉ, the ideogram for the Two Ladies, goddesses Wadjet as the cobra and Nekhbet as the white vulture. These are the protective and patron goddesses of the separate Egyptian kingdoms that joined into ancient Egypt, who were both then displayed on the uraeus of Wadjet when the unification occurred and afterward considered jointly to be the protectors of Egypt and the pharaohs. This ideogram is listed only in the bird list (G), and overlooked on the deity list (C) and the reptile list (I).


id: list-of-grammatical-cases-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_grammatical_cases-0.md
category: reference
title: List of grammatical cases
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_grammatical_cases
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:40.445790+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-grammatical-cases-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of grammatical cases as they are used by various inflectional languages that have declension. This list will mark the case, when it is used, an example of it, and then finally what language(s) the case is used in. == Location and movement == Note: Most cases used for location and motion can be used for time as well. === Location === === Motion from === === Motion to === === Motion via === === Time === === Chart for review for the basic cases === == Morphosyntactic alignment == For meanings of the terms agent, patient, experiencer, and instrument, see thematic relation. == Relation == == Semantics == == State == == References ==


id: grammatical-mood-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_mood-0.md
category: reference
title: Grammatical mood
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_mood
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:41.638208+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: grammatical-mood-20260505-0
summary:
In linguistics, grammatical mood is a grammatical feature of verbs, used for signaling modality. In other words, it is the use of verbal inflections that allow speakers to express their attitude toward what they are saying (for example, a statement of fact, of desire, of command, etc.). The term is also used more broadly to describe the syntactic expression of modality – that is, the use of verb phrases that do not involve inflection of the verb itself. Mood is distinct from grammatical tense or grammatical aspect, although the same word patterns are used for expressing more than one of these meanings at the same time in many languages, including English and most other modern Indo-European languages. (See tense–aspect–mood for a discussion of this.) Some examples of moods are indicative, interrogative, imperative, subjunctive, injunctive, optative, and irrealis/potential. These are all finite forms of the verb. Infinitives, gerunds, and participles, which are non-finite forms of the verb, are not considered to be examples of moods. Some Uralic Samoyedic languages have more than ten moods; Nenets has as many as sixteen. The original Indo-European inventory of moods consisted of indicative, subjunctive, optative, and imperative. Not every Indo-European language has all of these


id: grammatical-mood-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_mood-1.md
category: reference
title: Grammatical mood
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_mood
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:41.638208+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: grammatical-mood-20260505-0
summary:
The conditional mood is used for speaking of an event whose realization is dependent upon another condition, particularly, but not exclusively, in conditional sentences. In Modern English, this type of modality is expressed via a periphrastic construction, with the form would + infinitive, (for example, I would buy), and thus is a mood only in the broad sense and not in the more common narrow sense of the term "mood" requiring morphological changes in the verb. In other languages, verbs have a specific conditional inflection. In German, the conditional mood is identical to one of the two subjunctive moods (Konjunktiv II, see above). In the Romance languages, the conditional form is used primarily in the apodosis (main clause) of conditional sentences, and in a few set phrases where it expresses courtesy or doubt. The main verb in the protasis (dependent clause) is usually in the subjunctive or in the indicative mood. However, this is not a universal trait and among others in German (as above), Finnish, and Romanian (even though the last is a Romance language), the conditional mood is used in both the apodosis and the protasis. A further example is a sentence "I would buy a house if


id: grammatical-mood-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_mood-2.md
category: reference
title: Grammatical mood
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_mood
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:41.638208+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: grammatical-mood-20260505-0
summary:
The presumptive mood is used to express presupposition or hypothesis, regardless of the fact denoted by the verb, as well as other more or less similar attitudes: doubt, curiosity, concern, condition, indifference, and inevitability. It is used in Romanian, Hindi, Gujarati, and Punjabi. In Romanian, the presumptive mood conjugations of the verb vrea are used with the infinitive form of verbs. The present tense and the past tense infinitives are respectively used to form the present and the past tense of the presumptive mood. In Hindi, the presumptive mood conjugations of the verb honā (to be) are used with the perfective, habitual, and progressive aspectual participles to form the perfective presumptive, habitual presumptive, and the progressive presumptive moods. The same presumptive mood conjugations are used for present, future, and past tenses. Note: The translations are just the closest possible English approximations and not exact. Only masculine conjugations are shown for Hindi. === Hypothetical === A few languages use a hypothetical mood, which is used in sentences such as "you could have cut yourself", representing something that might have happened but did not. === Inferential === The inferential mood is used to report unwitnessed events without confirming them. Often, there is


id: greenberg-s-linguistic-universals-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenberg's_linguistic_universals-0.md
category: reference
title: Greenberg's linguistic universals
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenberg's_linguistic_universals
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:42.812249+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: greenberg-s-linguistic-universals-20260505-0
summary:
The American linguist Joseph Greenberg (1915–2001) proposed a set of linguistic universals based primarily on a set of 30 languages. The following list is verbatim from the list printed in the appendix of Greenberg's Universals of Language and "Universals Restated", sorted by context. The numbering is fixed to keep Greenberg's number associations as these are commonly referenced by number; e.g.: "Greenberg's linguistic universal number 12". == Typology == "In declarative sentences with nominal subject and object, the dominant order is almost always one in which the subject precedes the object." "In languages with prepositions, the genitive almost always follows the governing noun, while in languages with postpositions it almost always precedes." "Languages with dominant VSO order are always prepositional." "With overwhelmingly greater than chance frequency, languages with normal SOV order are postpositional." "If a language has dominant SOV order and the genitive follows the governing noun, then the adjective likewise follows the noun." "All languages with dominant VSO order have SVO as an alternative or as the only alternative basic order." == Syntax == == Morphology == == References ==


id: index-of-linguistics-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_linguistics_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of linguistics articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_linguistics_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:57.009286+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-linguistics-articles-20260505-0
summary:
Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. Someone who engages in this study is called a linguist. == A == Abbreviation - Abessive case - Ablaut - Absolutive case - Abugida - Accusative case - Acute accent - Accent (phonetics) - Accent (sociolinguistics) - Acronym - Adessive case - Adjective - Adjunct - Adposition - Adpositional phrase - Adverb - Adverbial - Adverbial phrase - Affix - Affricate consonant - Agglutination - Agglutinative language - Allative case - Allomorph - Allophone - Alphabet - Analytic language - Anaphora - Animacy - Anthropological linguistics - Alveolar consonant - Antonym - Aorist - Applied linguistics - Approximant - Areal feature - Article - Articulatory gestures - Articulatory phonetics - Aspect - Asterisk - Attrition - Attraction - Augment (Bantu languages) - Augment (Indo-European) - Auxiliary verb == B == Back-formation - Backronym - Bilabial consonant - Breathy voice - Breve == C == Calque - Capitalization - Capitonym - Cardinal vowel - Case - Case in tiers - Cedilla - Chiasmus - Circumfix - Circumflex - Clefting - Click consonant - Closed-class word - Cognate - Cognitive science - Coherence - Colloquialism - Comitative case - Comparative - Comparative linguistics -


id: iron-metaphor-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_(metaphor)-0.md
category: reference
title: Iron (metaphor)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_(metaphor)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:58.214234+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: iron-metaphor-20260505-0
summary:
Iron, when used metaphorically, refers to certain traits of the metal iron. Used as an adjective and sometimes as a noun, it refers to something stern, harsh, strong, unyielding, inflexible, rigid, sturdy, strong, robust, hard. == List of iron metaphors == === Persons and characters === Iron Duke (disambiguation) Iron Felix (disambiguation) Iron Lady (disambiguation) Iron Man (disambiguation) Iron Mike (disambiguation) Princess Iron Fan (disambiguation) Otto von Bismarck, known as the Iron Chancellor Iron Chef, a Japanese cooking show Joseph LaFlesche, known as Iron Eye Iron Eyes Cody, Sicilian-American actor The Iron Heinrich, a rough translation of the German fairy tale The Frog Prince Iron Heroes, a variant book of rules for the game Dungeons & Dragons Iron John, a German fairy tale Eon Kid, English title of the TV series Iron Kid Iron Lad, a fictional superhero Iron Maniac, an evil alternative universe character of fictional Marvel superhero Iron Man Iron Munro, a fictional superhero Persephone, known as the Iron Queen Hossein Khosrow Ali Vaziri, known as the Iron Sheik Iron Shell, Brule Sioux chief Iron Tail, Oglala Sioux warrior Tigran Petrosian, known as Iron Tigran Timur as a name, meaning iron in Turkic languages, widespread in Western and


id: list-of-language-creators-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_language_creators-0.md
category: reference
title: List of language creators
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_language_creators
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:11:59.391484+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-language-creators-20260505-0
summary:
A language creator, sometimes referred to as a conlanger (), is a person who invents constructed languages (or "conlangs"). == Professional language creators == Individuals who have been hired to create languages. Victoria Fromkin - Paku (a.k.a. Pakuni) Paul Frommer - Na'vi, Barsoomian Madhan Karky - Kiliki Marc Okrand - Klingon, Vulcan, Atlantean Matt Pearson - Thhtmaa David J. Peterson - Dothraki, Valyrian, Kastithanu (Castithan), L'Irathi (Irathient), Indojisnen, Sondiv, Shiväisith, Lishepus, Trigedasleng, Noalath, Inha, Munja'kin John H. G. Scott - Baldung (for Archive 81) Britton Watkins - Yautja (for Predator: Badlands) Wolf Wikeley - Tho Fan == Published international auxiliary language creators == Individuals who have created languages intended for international communication. George Boeree: Lingua Franca Nova Léon Bollack: Bolak Louis Couturat and Louis de Beaufront: Ido language Alexander Gode: Interlingua Lancelot Hogben: Interglossa Otto Jespersen: Novial Francis Lodwick: Common Writing Jackson Moore: Moss François Sudre: Solresol Charles Kay Ogden: Basic English Giuseppe Peano: Latino sine flexione Waldemar Rosenberger: Idiom Neutral Johann Martin Schleyer: Volapük Kenneth Searight: Sona Edgar de Wahl: Interlingue John Wilkins: unnamed universal language L. L. Zamenhof: Esperanto == Published zonal auxiliary language creators == Individuals who have created zonal auxiliary languages intended to facilitate communication speakers


id: list-of-latin-script-alphabets-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Latin-script_alphabets-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Latin-script alphabets
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Latin-script_alphabets
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:01.086550+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-latin-script-alphabets-20260505-0
summary:
The lists and tables below summarize and compare the letter inventories of some of the Latin-script alphabets. In this article, the scope of the word "alphabet" is broadened to include letters with tone marks, and other diacritics used to represent a wide range of orthographic traditions, without regard to whether or how they are sequenced in their alphabet or the table. Parentheses indicate characters not used in modern standard orthographies of the languages, but used in obsolete and/or dialectal forms. == Letters contained in the ISO basic Latin alphabet == === Alphabets that contain only ISO basic Latin letters === Among alphabets for natural languages the English,[36] Indonesian, and Malay alphabets only use the 26 letters in both cases. Among alphabets for constructed languages the Ido and Interlingua alphabets only use the 26 letters, while Toki Pona uses a 14-letter subset. ==== Extended by ligatures ==== German (ß), Scandinavian (æ) ==== Extended by diacritical marks ==== Spanish (ñ), German (ä, ö, and ü) ==== Extended by multigraphs ==== Filipino (ng) Old French (ch) === Alphabets that contain all ISO basic Latin letters === Among alphabets for natural languages the Afrikaans,[54] Aromanian, Azerbaijani (some dialects),[53] Basque,[4] Celtic British, Catalan,[6] Cornish, Czech,[8]


id: list-of-latin-script-alphabets-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Latin-script_alphabets-1.md
category: reference
title: List of Latin-script alphabets
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Latin-script_alphabets
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:01.086550+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-latin-script-alphabets-20260505-0
summary:
=== Notes === ↑↑↑↑ In classical Latin, the digraphs ⟨ch⟩, ⟨ph⟩, ⟨rh⟩, ⟨th⟩ were used in loanwords from Greek, but they were not included in the alphabet. The ligatures ⟨æ⟩, ⟨œ⟩ and ⟨w⟩, as well as lowercase letters, were added to the alphabet only in Middle Ages. The letters ⟨j⟩ and ⟨u⟩ were used as typographical variants of ⟨i⟩ and ⟨v⟩, respectively, roughly until the Enlightenment. ↑↑↑↑ In Afrikaans, ⟨c⟩ and ⟨q⟩ are only (and ⟨x⟩ and ⟨z⟩ almost only) used in loanwords. ↑↑↑↑ Albanian officially has the digraphs ⟨dh, gj, ll, nj, rr, sh, th, xh, zh⟩, which is sufficient to represent the Tosk dialect. The Gheg dialect supplements the official alphabet with 6 nasal vowels, namely ⟨â, ê, î, ô, û, ŷ⟩. ↑↑↑↑ Arbëresh officially has the digraphs ⟨dh, gj, hj, ll, nj, rr, sh, th, xh, zh⟩. Arbëresh has the distinctive ⟨hj⟩, which is considered as a letter in its own right. ↑↑ Achomi also has the digraph ⟨a'⟩. ↑↑↑↑ Azeri only uses the letter ⟨ä⟩ as a substitute for ⟨ə⟩ if the latter cannot be used (it was replaced by the schwa one year later because it is the most common letter). These cases should be


id: list-of-latin-script-alphabets-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Latin-script_alphabets-2.md
category: reference
title: List of Latin-script alphabets
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Latin-script_alphabets
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:01.086550+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-latin-script-alphabets-20260505-0
summary:
Many pairs or triplets are read as digraphs or trigraphs depending on context, but are not treated as such lexicographically: consonants ⟨ph, (ng), th, gu/gü, qu, ce, ch/(sh/sch), rh⟩; vocal vowels ⟨(ee), ai/ay, ei/ey, eu, au/eau, ou⟩; nasal vowels ⟨ain/aim, in/im/ein, un/um/eun, an/am, en/em, om/on⟩; the half-consonant -⟨(i)ll⟩-; half-consonant and vowel pairs ⟨oi, oin/ouin, ien, ion⟩. When rules that govern the French orthography are not observed, they are read as separate letters, or using an approximating phonology of a foreign language for loan words, and there are many exceptions. In addition, most final consonants are mute (including those consonants that are part of feminine, plural, and conjugation endings). ⟨ÿ⟩ and ⟨ü⟩ are only used in certain geographical names and proper names plus their derivatives, or, in the case of ⟨ü⟩ with diaeresis, newly proposed reforms, e.g. capharnaüm 'shambles' is derived from the proper name Capharnaüm. ⟨æ⟩ occurs only in Latin or Greek loanwords. ↑ Fula has ⟨x⟩ as part of the alphabet in all countries except Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, and Sierra Leone (used only in loanwords in these countries). ⟨ɠ⟩, which is used only in loanwords (but still part of the alphabet), is used in Guinea only. Fula also uses


id: list-of-latin-script-alphabets-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Latin-script_alphabets-3.md
category: reference
title: List of Latin-script alphabets
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Latin-script_alphabets
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:01.086550+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-latin-script-alphabets-20260505-0
summary:
Y is used only in certain dialects and not in the standard language. F and H are only used in loanwords. ↑↑↑↑ A nearby language, Pite Sami, uses Lule Sami orthography but also includes the letters ⟨đ⟩ and ⟨ŧ⟩, which are not in Lule Sami. ↑↑↑↑ Lithuanian also has the digraphs: ⟨ch, dz, dž, ie, uo⟩. However, these are not considered separate letters of the alphabet. F, H, and the digraph CH are only used in loanwords. Demanding publications such as dictionaries, maps, schoolbooks etc. need additional diacritical marks to differentiate homographs. Using grave accent on A, E, I, O, U, acute accent on all vowels, and tilde accent on all vowels and on L, M, N and R. Small E and I (also with ogonek) must retain the dot when additional accent mark is added to the character; the use of ì and í (with missing dot) is considered unacceptable. ↑↑↑↑ In Livonian, the letters Ö, Ȫ, Y, Ȳ were used by the older generation, but the younger generation merged these sounds; Around the late 1990s, these letters were removed from the alphabet. ↑↑↑↑ Maltese also has the digraphs: ⟨ie, għ⟩. ↑ Māori only uses ⟨g⟩ in ⟨ng⟩ digraph.


id: list-of-latin-script-alphabets-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Latin-script_alphabets-4.md
category: reference
title: List of Latin-script alphabets
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Latin-script_alphabets
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:01.086550+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-latin-script-alphabets-20260505-0
summary:
⟨i⟩ or ⟨u⟩] and, when both are closed, generally over the first". In this context, the use of ⟨ï⟩ is rare, but part of the normative orthography. ↑ Swedish uses ⟨é⟩ in well integrated loan words like idé and armé, although ⟨é⟩ is considered a modified ⟨e⟩, while ⟨å⟩, ⟨ä⟩, ⟨ö⟩ are letters. ⟨á⟩ and ⟨à⟩ are rarely used words. ⟨w⟩ and ⟨z⟩ are used in some integrated words like webb and zon. ⟨q⟩, ⟨ü⟩, ⟨è⟩, and ⟨ë⟩ are used for names only, but exist in Swedish names. For foreign names ⟨ó⟩, ⟨ç⟩, ⟨ñ⟩ and more are sometimes used, but usually not. Swedish has many digraphs and some trigraphs. ⟨ch, dj, lj, rl, rn, rs, sj, sk, si, ti, sch, skj, stj⟩ and others are usually pronounced as one sound. ↑↑↑↑ Tswana also has the digraphs: ⟨kg, kh, ng, ph, th, tl, tlh, ts, tsh, tš, tšh⟩. The letters ⟨c⟩, ⟨q⟩, and ⟨x⟩ only appear in onomatopoeic and loanwords. The letters ⟨v⟩ and ⟨z⟩ only appear in loanwords. ↑↑↑↑ Turkmen had a slightly different alphabet in 1993–1995 (which used some rare letters) ⟨ý⟩ was written as ⟨ÿ⟩ (capital ⟨¥⟩), ⟨ň⟩ as ⟨ñ⟩, ⟨ş⟩ as ⟨¢⟩ (capital ⟨$⟩), and ⟨ž⟩ as


id: leipzig-jakarta-list-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leipzig–Jakarta_list-0.md
category: reference
title: Leipzig–Jakarta list
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leipzig–Jakarta_list
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:02.231607+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: leipzig-jakarta-list-20260505-0
summary:
The Leipzig–Jakarta list of 100 words is used by linguists to test the degree of chronological separation of languages by comparing words that are resistant to borrowing. The Leipzig–Jakarta list became available in 2009. The word list is named after the cities of Leipzig, Germany, and Jakarta, Indonesia, the places where the list was conceived and created. In the 1950s, the linguist Morris Swadesh published a list of 200 words called the Swadesh list, allegedly the 200 lexical concepts found in all languages that were least likely to be borrowed from other languages. Swadesh later whittled his list down to 100 items. The Swadesh list, however, was based mainly on intuition, according to Martin Haspelmath and Uri Tadmor. In origin, the words in the Swadesh lists were chosen for their universal, culturally independent availability in as many languages as possible, regardless of their "stability". Nevertheless, the stability of the resulting list of "universal" vocabulary under language change and the potential use of this fact for purposes of glottochronology have been analyzed by numerous authors, including Marisa Lohr 1999, 2000. The Swadesh list was put together by Morris Swadesh on the basis of his intuition. Similar more recent lists, such as


id: list-of-language-reforms-of-english-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_language_reforms_of_English-0.md
category: reference
title: List of language reforms of English
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_language_reforms_of_English
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:03.341301+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-language-reforms-of-english-20260505-0
summary:
For centuries, many people have called for language reforms of English, which vary in approach from the radical (completely overhauling existing conventions) to the conservative (preserving most while removing irregularities). Phonetic alphabets limited to English do not belong here. See Category:Phonetic alphabets. == Spelling reforms == Spelling reforms are attempts to regularize English spelling either by reducing the number of irregularities or by making it completely phonemic. This may be done using the existing basic English alphabet more uniformly (basic), by adding diacritics (diacriticized), by adding new letters (extended), by removing letters in the script or writing (squeezed), by removing letters and replacing it by new ones (altered) or by replacing it entirely (replaced). Such proposals include: == Subsets == Subsets are reforms that use a restricted wordlist and grammar. English subsets include: Attempto Controlled English Aviation English Basic English ClearTalk Common Logic Controlled English E-Prime Gellish Formal English Globish Learning English Logical English ModeLang Newspeak (fictional) Plain English Processable English (PENG) Seaspeak SBVR Structured English Simplified Technical English Specialized English == Vocabulary reforms == Vocabulary reforms seek to reform English by changing or restricting its words without changing its grammar. Anglish: the use of native (Germanic) words only, and


id: list-of-linguists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists-0.md
category: reference
title: List of linguists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:04.693680+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-linguists-20260505-0
summary:
A linguist in the academic sense is a person who studies natural language (an academic discipline known as linguistics). Ambiguously, the word is sometimes also used to refer to a polyglot (one who knows several languages), a translator/interpreter (especially in the military), or a grammarian (a scholar of grammar), but these uses of the word are distinct (and one does not have to be multilingual in order to be an academic linguist). The following is a list of notable academic linguists. In the list, the description is presented as: surname, given name (country, year of birth–year of death), main achievement == A == Abbott, Barbara (United States, 1943–), pragmatics, semantics Abel, Carl (Germany, 1837–1906), comparative lexicography Abdul Haq, Maulvi (India, 1870–1961), Urdu language Abrams, Lise (United States), psycholinguistics Abramson, Arthur S. (United States, 1925–2017), phonetics Adamou, Evangelia (France), language contact Adams, Douglas Q. (United States), English language, comparative linguistics, Tocharian language Adler, George J. (Germany/United States, 1821–1868), lexicography, German language, English language Aijmer, Karin (Sweden, 1939–), pragmatics, semantics Aikhenvald, Alexandra Yurievna (Russia, 1957–), syntax, typology, Amazonian languages, Papuan languages, Hebrew language, Russian language Aitken, Adam Jack (UK, 1921–1998), lexicography Ajduković, Jovan (Serbia, 1968–), Slavic languages, sociolinguistics, contact linguistics, Russian language,


id: list-of-linguists-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists-1.md
category: reference
title: List of linguists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:04.693680+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-linguists-20260505-0
summary:
== C == Caland, Willem (Netherlands, 1859–1932), historical linguistics, Sanskrit Campbell, Lyle (United States, 1942–), Native American languages, historical linguistics Canger, Una (Denmark, 1938–), Mesoamerican languages Canonge, Elliott D. (United States, 1921–1971), Comanche, Inuit Capell, Arthur (Australia, 1902–1986), Australian languages, Austronesian languages, Papuan languages Cardona, George (United States, 1936–), Indo-European studies Carnap, Rudolf (Germany, 1891–1970), syntax, constructed languages Carnie, Andrew (Canada, 1969–), syntax Caro Baroja, Julio (1914–1995), Basque language Caro, Miguel A. (Colombia, 1843–1909), Spanish language, Colombian Spanish Carpenter, William Henry (United States, 1853–1936), Icelandic language Cart, Théophile (France, 1855–1931), Esperanto Carter, Hazel (UK, 1928–2016), Bantu languages Catford, J. C. (UK, 1917–2009), phonetics Chadwick, John (UK, 1920–1998), Linear B Chafik, Mohamed (Morocco, 1926–), writer and specialist in the Berber or Amazigh languages, dialects, and literature Chafe, Wallace (United States, 1927–2019), cognitive linguistics, semantics Chao Yuen Ren (China, 1892–1982), Chinese language Chakrabarti, Byomkes (India, 1923–1981), Santali language, Bengali language, comparative linguistics Champollion, Jean-François (France, 1790–1832), Egyptian hieroglyphs Chambers, Jack (Canada, 1938–), sociolinguistics Chatterji, Suniti Kumar (India, 1890–1977), Bengali language Chelliah, Shobhana, Tibeto-Burman languages Chierchia, Gennaro (Italy, 1953–), semantics, pragmatics Choijinzhab (PR China, 1931–2022), Mongolian language Chomsky, Noam (United States, 1928–), syntax, universal grammar Choueiri, Lina (Lebanon), syntax, Lebanese Arabic Chyet, Michael


id: list-of-linguists-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists-2.md
category: reference
title: List of linguists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:04.693680+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-linguists-20260505-0
summary:
== F == Fairuzabadi (Iran, 1329–1414), lexicography, Arabic grammar Farhady, Hossein (Iran, born 1947), Iranian applied linguist Fassi Fehri, Abdelkader (Morocco, 1947–), Arabic syntax Fierz-David, Linda (Germany, 1891–1955), philology Fillmore, Charles J. (United States, 1929–2014), syntax, lexical semantics, cognitive linguistics, lexicography Firbas, Jan (Czech Republic, 1921–2000), English language, functional linguistics Firth, John Rupert (UK, 1890–1960), phonetics, phonology, prosody Fischer-Jørgensen, Eli (Denmark 1911–2010), phonetics, phonology, Danish language Fishman, Joshua (United States, 1926–2015), sociology of language Fiske, Willard (United States, 1831–1904), Northern European languages, Icelandic language Fodor, Janet Dean (United States, 1942–2023), psycholinguistics, semantics, syntax Fodor, Jerry Alan (United States, 1935–2017), psycholinguistics, language of thought Foley, William A. (Australia, 1949–), Papuan languages, Austronesian languages Ford, Jeremiah Denis Mathias (United States, 1873–1958), Spanish language Fowler, Carol A. (United States), phonetics, phonology François, Alexandre (France), Austronesian languages, historical linguistics, language contact Freiman, Aleksandr Arnoldovich (Poland/Russia, 1879–1968), Iranian languages French, David Heath (United States, 1918–1994), Native American languages Friedrich, Johannes (Germany, 1893–1972), Hittite language Fromkin, Victoria (United States, 1923–2000), theoretical linguistics, constructed languages Fujitani Nariakira (Japan, 1738–1779), Japanese language == G == Galloway, Brent D. (United States, 1944–2014), Amerindian languages, Halkomelem language Gamkrelidze, Thomas V. (Georgia, 1929–2021), Indo-European studies, Georgian language Gans, Eric (United States,


id: list-of-linguists-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists-3.md
category: reference
title: List of linguists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:04.693680+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-linguists-20260505-0
summary:
== H == Haarmann, Harald (Germany, 1946–), evolutionary linguistics, language contact Haas, Mary Rosamund (United States, 1910–1996), Native American languages, Thai language, historical linguistics Haase, Martin (Germany, 1962–), Romance languages Hagberg, Carl August (Sweden, 1810–1864), Scandinavian languages Hajič, Jan (Czech Republic), computational linguistics Hajičová, Eva (Czech Republic, 1935–), corpus linguistics Hale, Kenneth Locke (United States, 1934–2001), syntax, phonology Hall, Kira (United States, 1962–), sociocultural linguistics Hall, Robert A., Jr. (United States, 1911–1997), Romance languages, Pidgins and Creoles Halle, Morris (Latvia/United States, 1923–2018), phonology, morphology Halliday, Michael Alexander Kirkwood (UK/Australia, 1925–2018), systemic functional grammar, ecolinguistics, applied linguistics Hammarström, Harald (Sweden, 1977–), computational linguistics, historical linguistics, linguistic typology Hammond, Michael (United States, 1957–), phonology, computational linguistics, syntax Hamp, Eric P. (United States, 1920–2019), Indo-European languages, Native American languages Hanzeli, Victor (United States, 1925–1991), Romance languages Haq, Mehr Abdul (Pakistan, 1915–1995), Saraiki language Harder, Peter (Denmark, 1950–), English language, functional linguistics Harkavy, Alexander (Belarus/United States, 1863–1939), Yiddish language, lexicography Harley, Heidi B. (United States, 1969–), distributed morphology, syntax Harrington, John Peabody (United States, 1884–1961), Native American languages, phonetics Alice C. Harris (United States, 1947-), Kartvelian languages, historical linguistics Harris, Roy (UK, 1931–2015), semiology, integrationism Harris, Zellig Sabbetai (Ukraine/United States, 1909–1992), structural linguistics, discourse


id: list-of-linguists-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists-4.md
category: reference
title: List of linguists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:04.693680+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-linguists-20260505-0
summary:
== K == Kaplan, Ronald M. (United States, 1946—), computational linguistics Karadžić, Vuk Stefanović (Serbia, 1787—1864), Serbian language, lexicography Kari, James (United States), Native American languages Kasravi, Ahmad (Iran, 1890—1946), ancient languages, Iranian languages Katz, Jerrold J. (United States, 1932—2002), semantics, generative grammar Kaufman, Terrence (United States, 1937—2022), historical linguistics, contact linguistics, Mesoamerican languages Kay, Martin (UK, United States, 1935–2021), computational linguistics Kay, Paul (United States, 1934—), construction grammar Kayne, Richard S. (United States, 1944—), syntax, transformational grammar Kazama Kiyozō (Japan, 1928–), Japanese language Keating, Patricia (United States, 1952—), phonetics Kellogg, Samuel H. (United States, 1839–1899), Hindi language Kenyon, John Samuel (United States, 1874—1959), English language, lexicography, phonology Keyser, Samuel Jay (United States, 1935–), phonology, English language Kiesling, Scott Fabius (United States), sociolinguistics Kindaichi Haruhiko (Japan, 1913–2004), Japanese language Kindaichi Kyōsuke (Japan, 1882–1971), Ainu language Kinkade, M. Dale (United States, 1933—2004), Salishan languages Kiparsky, Paul (Finland/United States, 1941–), phonology, morphology Kirby, Simon (UK), computational linguistics, evolutionary linguistics Klima, Edward (United States, 1931—2008), sign language Klinkenberg, Jean-Marie (Belgium, 1944–), rhetorics, semiotics, stylistics Kloekhorst, Alwin (Netherlands, 1978–), Anatolian languages Knechtges, David R. (United States, 1942–), East Asian languages, Chinese language Knorozov, Yuri Valentinovich (Russia, 1922—1999), Maya hieroglyphics, writing systems Kober, Alice (UK/United


id: list-of-linguists-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists-5.md
category: reference
title: List of linguists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:04.693680+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-linguists-20260505-0
summary:
== M == MacWhinney, Brian (United States, 1945–), language acquisition, second-language acquisition, corpus linguistics Maddieson, Ian (United States, 1942–), phonetics Fray Francisco Maldonado (1571– c. 1640), Guatemalan Franciscan linguist and historian Manzini, Rita (Italy), generative syntax, Romance languages Malkiel, Yakov (United States, 1914–1998), etymology, philology Manaster Ramer, Alexis (United States/Poland, 1956–), phonology, syntax, poetics, etymology Marantz, Alec (United States, 1959–), distributed morphology March, Francis Andrew (United States, 1825–1911), comparative linguistics, lexicography, Old English language, English language Margolis, Max Leopold (Lithuania/United States, 1866–1932), Semitic languages Marr, Nikolay Yakovlevich (Georgia/Russia, 1865–1934), historical linguistics, comparative linguistics, origin of language Martin, James (Sydney, Australia, 1950–), genre Martin, Samuel Elmo (United States, 1924–2009), Korean language, Japanese language Martinet, André (France, 1908–1999), structuralism, historical linguistics, constructed languages Martinet, Jeanne (France, 1920–2018), semiotics, constructed languages Massam, Diane (Canada), syntax, Austronesian languages Matasović, Ranko (Croatia, 1968–), historical linguistics, Celtic languages Mathesius, Vilém (Czech Republic, 1882– 1945), phonology, syntax, English language, Czech language Matisoff, James A. (United States, 1937–), Tibeto-Burman languages, phonology Matthews, Peter Hugoe (UK, 1934–2023), morphology, syntax Matthews, Stephen (UK/PR China), typology, syntax, semantics, Cantonese language Mattingly, Ignatius G. (United States, 1927–2004), phonetics, speech synthesis, speech perception Matveyev, Aleksandr (Russia, 1926–2010), onomastics, etymology McArthur, Tom (UK, 1938–2020),


id: list-of-linguists-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists-6.md
category: reference
title: List of linguists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:04.693680+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-linguists-20260505-0
summary:
== P == Pāṇini (India, ca. 520–460 BC), Sanskrit, morphology, descriptive linguistics, generative linguistics Frank R. Palmer (England, 1922–2019), semantics, English language, Ethiopian languages Partee, Barbara Hall (United States, 1940–), semantics Paul, Hermann Otto Theodor (Germany, 1846–1921), lexicography, German language Pawley, Andrew Kenneth (Australia/New Zealand, 1941–2026), Austronesian languages, Papuan languages, lexicography, phraseology Peacock, Dmitri Rudolf (Britain, 1842–1892), Kartvelian languages Pedersen, Holger (Denmark, 1867–1953), Celtic languages, historical linguistics, Nostratic languages Pedersen, Johannes (Denmark, 1883–1977), Hebrew language Pei, Mario Andrew (Italy/United States, 1901–1978), Italian language, Indo-European languages Pesetsky, David Michael (United States, 1957–), transformational grammar Keith Malcolm Petyt (UK, 1941–), sociolinguistics Phillipson, Robert (UK/Denmark, 1942–), language policy Pierrehumbert, Janet (United States, 1954–), phonetics, phonology Piller, Ingrid (Australia, 1967–), applied linguistics, sociolinguistics, intercultural communication Pinault, Georges-Jean (France, 1955–), Tokharian, Indo-European linguistics Pike, Kenneth Lee (United States, 1912–2000), English language, constructed languages, tagmemics Pilch, Herbert (Germany, 1927–2018), Old English, Celtic languages, phonetics Pimsleur, Paul (United States, 1927–1976), language acquisition, French language, phonetics Pinker, Steven (Canada/United States, 1954–), language acquisition, syntax, semantics Piron, Claude (Switzerland, 1931–2008), Esperanto, psycholinguistics Polinsky, Maria (United States), syntax, Austronesian languages Pollard, Carl Jesse (United States, 1947–), syntax, semantics Pollock, Jean-Yves (France, 1946–), syntax Poplack, Shana (United States), sociolinguistics Poppe, Nicholas


id: list-of-linguists-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists-7.md
category: reference
title: List of linguists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:04.693680+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-linguists-20260505-0
summary:
== S == Sacks, Harvey (United States, 1935–1975), conversation analysis Sadock, Jerrold (United States), syntax, morphology, pragmatics, Greenlandic language, Yiddish language Sag, Ivan (United States, 1949–2013), syntax, construction grammar Sagart, Laurent (France, 1951–), Chinese linguistics and Austronesian languages Sakaguchi, Alicja (Poland/Germany, 1954–), interlinguistics, Esperanto Shakirova, Liya (Soviet Union/Russia, 1921–2015), Russian language Salo, David (United States, 1969–), constructed languages, Tocharian languages, Elvish languages Sampson, Geoffrey (UK, 1944–), philosophy of language Sánchez Carrión, José María (Spain, 1952–), Basque language, sociolinguistics, historical linguistics Sanders, Ted (Netherlands, 1963–), Coherence in text, discourse Sankoff, Gillian (Canada, 1943–), sociolinguistics Sankrityayan, Rahul (India, 1893–1963), Tibetan language, Hindi language Sapir, Edward (Germany/United States, 1884–1939), Native American languages, constructed languages, semantics Sarkar, Prabhat Ranjan (India, 1921–1990), Transliteration, Science of Letters Saunders, Irene (United States/PR China), lexicography, Chinese language de Saussure, Ferdinand (Switzerland/France, 1857–1913), semantics, Indo-European studies, structural linguistics Saxon, Leslie (Canada), First Nations languages Sayce, Archibald Henry (UK, 1846–1933), Akkadian language Schegloff, Emanuel (United States, 1937–), conversation analysis Schleicher, August (Germany, 1821–1868), Indo-European studies, language development, historical linguistics Schmidt, Johannes (Germany, 1843–1901), historical linguistics, Indo-European studies Schmidt, Richard (United States, 1941–2017), second-language acquisition Schmidt, Wilhelm (Germany/Austria/Switzerland, 1868–1954), Mon–Khmer languages Searle, John Rogers (United States, 1932–), philosophy of language, pragmatics


id: list-of-linguists-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists-8.md
category: reference
title: List of linguists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_linguists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:04.693680+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-linguists-20260505-0
summary:
== W == Wackernagel, Jacob (Switzerland, 1853–1938), Indo-European studies, Sanskrit Wang Li (PR China, 1900–1986), Chinese language Watanabe Shōichi (Japan, 1930–2017), Japanese language Watkins, Calvert (United States, 1933–2013), comparative linguistics, Indo-European languages Weeks, Raymond (United States, 1863–1954), phonetics, French language Weinreich, Max (Latvia/United States, 1893– 1969), Yiddish language Weinreich, Uriel (Poland/United States, 1926–1967), sociolinguistics, dialectology, semantics, Yiddish language Wells, John Christopher (UK, 1939–), phonetics, Esperanto Westermann, Diedrich Hermann (Germany, 1875–1956), languages of Africa, typology Westphal, Ernst Oswald Johannes (South Africa/UK, 1919–1990), Bantu languages, Khoisan languages Whalen, Douglas H. (United States), phonology, endangered languages Wheeler, Benjamin Ide (United States, 1854–1927), historical linguistics, comparative linguistics, Greek language White, Lydia (UK/Canada, 1946–), second-language acquisition Whitney, William Dwight (United States, 1827–1894), lexicography, Sanskrit, English language Wilks, Yorick (UK, 1939–2023), artificial intelligence, computational linguistics, natural language processing, semantics Whorf, Benjamin Lee (United States, 1897–1941), Native American languages, Maya script, linguistic relativity Wichmann, Søren (Denmark, 1964–), Mesoamerican languages, Mixe–Zoque languages, Mayan languages, Maya script Widdowson, Henry G. (UK, 1935–), English language, discourse analysis Wierzbicka, Anna (Poland/Australia, 1938–), semantics, pragmatics Wiese, Richard (Germany, 1953–), phonology, morphology, neurolinguistics Williams, Nicholas Jonathan Anselm (UK/Ireland, 1942–), Cornish language, Irish language, Manx language, phonology Williams, Samuel Wells (United States/China, 1812–1884), Chinese


id: lists-of-countries-and-territories-by-official-language-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_countries_and_territories_by_official_language-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of countries and territories by official language
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_countries_and_territories_by_official_language
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:05.950216+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-countries-and-territories-by-official-language-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of lists of countries and territories by official language. List of countries and territories where Afrikaans or Dutch are official languages List of countries and territories where Arabic is an official language List of countries and territories where Chinese is an official language List of countries and territories where English is an official language List of countries and territories where French is an official language List of countries and territories where German is an official language List of countries and territories where Persian is an official language List of countries and territories where Romanian is an official language List of countries and territories where Russian is an official language List of countries and territories where Spanish is an official language List of countries and territories where Tamil is an official language == Other official languages == === Greek === === Hindustani === === Italian === === Malay === === Portuguese === === Turkish === == See also == List of official languages by country and territory De facto == References ==


id: list-of-multilingual-countries-and-regions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions-0.md
category: reference
title: List of multilingual countries and regions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:07.199573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-multilingual-countries-and-regions-20260505-0
summary:
This is an incomplete list of areas with either multilingualism at the community level or at the personal level. There is a distinction between social and personal bilingualism. Many countries, such as Belarus, Belgium, Canada, Finland, India, Ireland, South Africa and Switzerland, which are officially multilingual, may have many monolinguals in their population (Canada exemplifies this situation, as it is a country in which western provinces are predominantly anglophone while the province of Quebec, along with the bilingual New Brunswick, emphasize French prominence in the eastern side). Officially monolingual countries, on the other hand, such as France, can have sizable multilingual populations. Some countries have official languages but also have regional and local official languages, notably Brazil, China, Indonesia, Mexico, Philippines, Russia, Spain and Taiwan. == Africa == === Central Africa === Cameroon: French and English (both official), as well as Cameroonian Pidgin. Many ethnic and tribal languages including Basaa, Duala, Manenguba, Bikya, Bung, Fula, Kanuri, Ngumba, Yeni, Bamum, Bafia, Bakweri language and many others. Some also have fluency in the German, Portuguese and Spanish languages. Central African Republic: French & Sango (both official) and 50 other African languages. Chad: French and Arabic (both official) + more than 100 African


id: list-of-multilingual-countries-and-regions-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions-1.md
category: reference
title: List of multilingual countries and regions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:07.199573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-multilingual-countries-and-regions-20260505-0
summary:
=== West Africa === Benin: French (official) and many indigenous languages including Fon, Yoruba & Songhay (specifically Dendi). Burkina Faso: French (official), Moore and Jula (regional languages) and indigenous Sudanic languages. Cape Verde: Portuguese and Cape Verdean Creole. Côte d'Ivoire: French (official), Baule, Jula, and 60 other indigenous languages. Gambia: English (official), Mandinka, Wolof, Fula and others. Ghana: English (official), Akan, Dagaare/Wale, Dagbane, Dangme, Ewe, Ga, Gonja, Kasem, Nzema and 70 others. Guinea: French (official), Maninka, Fula and Susu. Guinea-Bissau: Portuguese (official), Kriol and indigenous languages. Liberia: English (official) and 20 African languages. Mali: French (official), Bambara (most widely spoken), Fula and Songhay (specifically Dendi). 11 languages are used as mediums of instruction in primary schools Niger: French (official) plus ten other languages recognised as national ones, including Hausa (spoken by half the population) and Songhay (specifically Zarma) Nigeria: English (official), Yoruba, Hausa and Igbo are the four languages of the parliament (each of which has over 20 million speakers) plus 529 other African languages (some of which have over a million speakers) and Pidgin. Senegal: French (official), Wolof (widely spoken), Fula (specifically Pulaar), Diola, Malinké, Sérère, Soninké (national languages) plus other African languages Sierra Leone: English (official), Krio (most


id: list-of-multilingual-countries-and-regions-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions-2.md
category: reference
title: List of multilingual countries and regions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:07.199573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-multilingual-countries-and-regions-20260505-0
summary:
=== North America === Canada is officially bilingual under the Official Languages Act and the Constitution of Canada that require the federal government to deliver services in both official languages: English and French. As well, minority language rights are guaranteed where numbers warrant. 56.9% of the population speak English as their first language while 22.9% are native speakers of French. The remaining population belong to some of Canada's many immigrant populations or to the indigenous population. See Bilingualism in Canada Alberta has a specific French policy since 2017. The Canadian province of British Columbia has a sizable population that speaks Mandarin or Cantonese, particularly in the city of Vancouver and its satellite town of Richmond. There is a provincial law on First Nations languages. The Canadian province of New Brunswick, with a large Acadian population (33% French-speaking) is officially bilingual. The Canadian province of Quebec, (7.9% English-speaking) Note: Quebec's largest city, Montreal, is a multilingual city with half the population having French as their mother tongue, and the other half having other languages (including English) as their mother tongue (see Language demographics of Quebec). A majority of Montrealers, whether they call themselves francophone, anglophone or allophone, know both French and


id: list-of-multilingual-countries-and-regions-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions-4.md
category: reference
title: List of multilingual countries and regions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:07.199573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-multilingual-countries-and-regions-20260505-0
summary:
=== South America === Argentina has several ethnic communities of European, Asian and indigenous origins (the Andean and northeast regions), who speak their own languages, but uses de facto Spanish as the official language of the country. In most of the country, there is a sizable but bilingual Italian-speaking population. Chaco Province recognises Qom, Moqoit y Wichi as official languages of the province along with Spanish Corrientes Province Guarani is recognised as the second official language Santiago del Estero Province gives official recognition to Quechua in its constitution Bolivia is officially multilingual, supporting Spanish and 36 native languages. Brazil, Portuguese (official) and upwards to 100 languages spoken mainly in the urban areas (European and Asian) and indigenous languages in the Amazon. The use of indigenous languages in primary education is enshrined in the constitution. Espírito Santo – German and East Pomeranian are recognized by constitution as part of the state's cultural heritage Rio de Janeiro – Yoruba, Bantu and Jeje (African Languages) are recognized by constitution as part of the state's cultural heritage Rio Grande do Sul – Talian (Italian dialect) and Riograndense Hünsrick (German dialect) are recognized by constitution as part of the state's cultural heritage Santa Catarina –


id: list-of-multilingual-countries-and-regions-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions-5.md
category: reference
title: List of multilingual countries and regions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:07.199573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-multilingual-countries-and-regions-20260505-0
summary:
=== East Asia === In Mainland China, Standard Mandarin (Putonghua) is the official language and is spoken in all regions. It is used for official and formal purposes, by the media, and in education as the language of instruction. However, on money notes, there are texts both in Mandarin (Han) and in Mongolian, Tibetan, Uyghur, and Zhuang. In every locality and region, local varieties of Chinese are spoken in daily life. These range from being quite similar to Putonghua, such as Tianjin dialect, to those that are mutually unintelligible with Putonghua such as Jiangsu, Zhejiang and Shanghai dialect (Wu) or Guangzhou dialect (Cantonese). In the autonomous regions, minority languages are used (such as Tibetan in Tibet or Mongolian in Inner Mongolia, Uyghur, Kazakh and others in Xinjiang). Japan: a special law provides for promotion of Ainu in Hokkaido Taiwan: A national language in Taiwan is legally defined as "a natural language used by an original people group of Taiwan and the Taiwan Sign Language". This includes Formosan languages, Hakka, Mandarin and Taiwanese. In Hong Kong, English and Chinese are official languages. All road signs are written in both languages. English is the dominant language in the judiciary and in higher


id: list-of-multilingual-countries-and-regions-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions-6.md
category: reference
title: List of multilingual countries and regions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:07.199573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-multilingual-countries-and-regions-20260505-0
summary:
Afghanistan: Pashto and Dari (Afghan Persian) are the official and most widely spoken languages in Afghanistan, with the former serving as a national language and the latter spoken as a lingua franca. Other minor languages include Uzbek and Turkmen, Balochi and Pashayi, Nuristani (Askunu, Kamkata-viri, Vasi-vari, Tregami and Kalasha-ala), Pamiri (Shughni, Munji, Ishkashimi and Wakhi), Brahui, Hindko, Kyrgyz. Bangladesh: Noidien Bengali is the official and most widely spoken language. However, there are many local languages (some of which are considered Bengali dialects, like Seletino, Nueklikos and Chetgonien) spoken in different regions of Bangladesh, as well as minority languages. Speakers of these languages are often bilingual in their local language and Standard Bangla. Additionally, the use of English is widespread in education and the judiciary in the country. In the CHT region, tribal languages like Genmanoos, Mouge/Reccen, Cucbarooco, Meru, Tensankês, Bomsche/Bomiano, Shö, Xumi, Sac, Penkaans, Lušei/Mizo, et cetera are spoken. Chetgonien and Nodien Bengali are the main dialects spoken in lower Chittagong. Chetgonien has a noticeable influence from Portuguese due to the historical presence of Portuguese traders and settlers in the area, which is much more pronounced in Chetgonien Bengali than Nodien Bengali. Chetgonien, as well as Seletino and other Bengali


id: list-of-multilingual-countries-and-regions-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions-7.md
category: reference
title: List of multilingual countries and regions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multilingual_countries_and_regions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T08:12:07.199573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-multilingual-countries-and-regions-20260505-0
summary:
=== Southeast Asia === Brunei: Malay (official) and English Cambodia: Khmer is the official language, but French is spoken by a minority and sometimes used in government and education. Mandarin is spoken in business and commerce. East Timor – Tetum and Portuguese are the official languages; English and Indonesian "shall be working languages within the public administration side by side with official languages as long as it is deemed necessary" Indonesia is the largest bilingual country in the world, with approximately 200 million people speak more than one language. Indonesians speak about 746 different languages. Javanese has the most users in terms of native speakers (about 80 million). However, the sole official (or so-called "unity language") is Indonesian which has only 30 million L1 speakers (compared to Indonesia 260 million population). The role of Indonesian is important to glue together different ethnics and languages in Indonesia. Though Indonesian is considered the nation's only official language, regional governments have rights to conduct regional languages study at schools. Many people in Indonesia are bilingual at an early age. They speak a local native language with their families whereas the official Indonesian language is used to communicate with people from other regions and


