# kb

id: mircen-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIRCEN-0.md
category: reference
title: MIRCEN
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIRCEN
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:37.630787+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mircen-20260505-0
summary:
MIRCEN (Microbial Resources Centers) is an international network of microbiology and biotechnology centres established with support from UNESCO. == See also == UNESCO World Federation for Culture Collections Culture collection Biotechnology == References ==


id: observatory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory-0.md
category: reference
title: Observatory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:38.955199+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: observatory-20260505-0
summary:
An observatory is a location used for observing terrestrial, marine, or celestial events. Astronomy, climatology/meteorology, geophysics, oceanography and volcanology are examples of disciplines for which observatories have been constructed. The term observatoire has been used in French since at least 1976 to denote any institution that compiles and presents data on a particular subject (such as public health observatory) or for a particular geographic area (European Audiovisual Observatory). == Astronomical observatories == Astronomical observatories are mainly divided into four categories according to location: space-based, airborne, ground-based, and underground-based. Historically, ground-based observatories were as simple as containing a mural instrument (for measuring the angle between stars) or Stonehenge (which has some alignments on astronomical phenomena). Astronomical observatories may be private or they may be public. === Ground-based observatories === Ground-based observatories, located on the surface of Earth, are used to make observations in the radio and visible light portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Most optical telescopes are housed within a dome or similar structure, to protect the delicate instruments from the elements. Telescope domes have a slit or other opening in the roof that can be opened during observing, and closed when the telescope is not in use. In most cases,


id: observatory-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory-1.md
category: reference
title: Observatory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:38.955199+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: observatory-20260505-0
summary:
825: Al-Shammisiyyah Observatory, Baghdad, Iraq 869: Mahodayapuram Observatory, Kerala, India 1259: Maragheh Observatory, Azerbaijan, Iran 1276: Gaocheng Astronomical Observatory, China 1420: Ulugh Beg Observatory, Samarqand, Uzbekistan 1442: Beijing Ancient Observatory, China 1577: Constantinople Observatory of Taqi ad-Din, Turkey 1580: Uraniborg, Denmark (present-day Sweden) 1581: Stjärneborg, Denmark (present-day Sweden) 1633: Leiden Observatory, Netherlands 1642: Panzano Observatory, Italy 1642: Round Tower, Denmark 1667: Paris Observatory, France 1675: Royal Greenwich Observatory, England 1695: Sukharev Tower, Russia 1711: Berlin Observatory, Germany 1724: Jantar Mantar, India 1753: Stockholm Observatory, Sweden 1753: Vilnius University Observatory, Lithuania 1753: Real Instituto y Observatorio de la Armada, Spain 1759: Trieste Observatory, Italy. 1757: Macfarlane Observatory, Scotland. 1759: Turin Observatory, Italy. 1764: Brera Astronomical Observatory, Italy. 1765: Mohr Observatory, Indonesia. 1771: Lviv Observatory, Ukraine. 1774: Observatory of the Vatican, Italy. 1785: Dunsink Observatory, Ireland. 1786: Madras Observatory, India. 1789: Armagh Observatory, Northern Ireland. 1790: Royal Observatory of Madrid, Spain, 1803: National Astronomical Observatory, Bogotá, Colombia. 1811: Tartu Old Observatory, Estonia 1812: Astronomical Observatory of Capodimonte, Naples, Italy 1830/1842: Depot of Charts & Instruments/US Naval Observatory, US 1830: Yale University Observatory Atheneum, US 1834: Helsinki University Observatory, Finland 1838: Hopkins Observatory, Williams College, US 1838: Loomis Observatory, Western Reserve Academy, US


id: observatory-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory-2.md
category: reference
title: Observatory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:38.955199+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: observatory-20260505-0
summary:
A volcano observatory is an institution that conducts the monitoring of a volcano as well as research in order to understand the potential impacts of active volcanism. Among the best known are the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory and the Vesuvius Observatory. Mobile volcano observatories exist with the USGS VDAP (Volcano Disaster Assistance Program), to be deployed on demand. Each volcano observatory has a geographic area of responsibility it is assigned to whereby the observatory is tasked with spreading activity forecasts, analyzing potential volcanic activity threats and cooperating with communities in preparation for volcanic eruption. == See also == == References == == Further reading == Aubin, David; Charlotte Bigg, and H. Otto Sibum, eds. The Heavens on Earth: Observatories and Astronomy in Nineteenth-Century Science and Culture (Duke University Press; 2010) 384 pages; Topics include astronomy as military science in Sweden, the Pulkovo Observatory in the Russia of Czar Nicholas I, and physics and the astronomical community in late 19th-century America. Brunier, Serge, et al. Great Observatories of the World (2005). Dick, Steven. Sky and Ocean Joined: The U.S. Naval Observatory 1830–2000 (2003). Gressot Julien and Jeanneret Romain, « Determining the right time, or the establishment of a culture of astronomical precision


id: research-site-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_site-0.md
category: reference
title: Research site
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_site
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:41.242537+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: research-site-20260505-0
summary:
CHALLENGES of MATHEMATICS LEARNING In joining extracurricular activities == Clinical research == In clinical research a research site conducts all or part of a clinical trial. For clinical trials which recruit research participants in multiple locations, often the research will have a headquarters then multiple regional research sites to conduct the research in that region. In a network of research sites where all are recruiting study participants, sites with low recruitment benefit from coaching from sites with high recruitment. Characteristics of good clinical research sites include setting good timelines, early participant recruitment, and having a management plan for efficiency. Researchers in nursing have reported challenges accessing the facilities designated for conventional medical research. The design of a research site should have a means of detecting fraud. == Ethnographic research == Researchers who do not have a cultural tie to a research population may have difficulty doing ethnographic research with that community. == References == == External links == Basic Requirements for Starting a Research Site from American Society of Clinical Oncology


id: virtual-scientific-community-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_scientific_community-0.md
category: reference
title: Virtual scientific community
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_scientific_community
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:46.134380+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: virtual-scientific-community-20260505-0
summary:
A virtual scientific community is a group of people, often researchers and students, who share multiple resources related to the scientific field, and whose main medium of communication is the internet. Examples of such communities include the Computational Intelligence and Machine Learning Portal or the Biomedical Informatics Research Network. There are numerous scientific repositories and websites in existence that, while useful, do not meet the definition of a virtual scientific community. Examples of such are data and scientific literature repositories as well as open access journals. == Further reading == Jacek M. Zurada, Janusz Wojtusiak, Maciej A. Mazurowski, Devendra Mehta, Khalid Moidu, Steve Margolis, Toward Multidisciplinary Collaboration in the CIML Virtual Community, Proceedings of the 2008 Workshop on Building Computational Intelligence and Machine Learning Virtual Organizations, pp. 62–66 == See also == Science Community CIML community portal == External links == The Computational Intelligence and Machine Learning Virtual Community Archived 2009-10-04 at the Wayback Machine What is BIRN? == References ==


id: list-of-effects-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-0.md
category: reference
title: List of effects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:48.360559+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-effects-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of names for observable phenomena that contain the word “effect”, amplified by reference(s) to their respective fields of study. == A == Abscopal effect (cancer treatments) (immune system) (medical treatments) (radiation therapy) Accelerator effect (economics) Accordion effect (physics) (waves) Acousto-optic effect (nonlinear optics) (waves) Additive genetic effects (genetics) Aharonov–Bohm effect (quantum mechanics) Al Jazeera effect (Al Jazeera) (media issues) Alienation effect (acting techniques) (Bertolt Brecht theories and techniques) (film theory) (metafictional techniques) (theatre) Allais effect (fringe physics) Allee effect (biology) Ambiguity effect (cognitive biases) Anrep effect (cardiology) (medicine) Antenna effect (digital electronics) (electronic design automation) Anti-greenhouse effect (atmospheric dynamics) (atmospheric science) (astronomy) (planetary atmospheres) Askaryan effect (particle physics) Asymmetric blade effect (aerodynamics) Audience effect (psychology) (social psychology) Auger effect (atomic physics) (foundational quantum physics) Aureole effect (atmospheric optical phenomena) (scientific terminology) Autler–Townes effect (atomic, molecular, and optical physics) (atomic physics) (quantum optics) Autokinetic effect (vision) Avalanche effect (cryptography) Averch–Johnson effect (economics) == B == Baader-Meinhof effect / Baader-Meinhof phenomenon (psychology) Balassa–Samuelson effect (economics) Baldwin effect (evolutionary biology) (selection) Balloon-carried light effect (balloons) (culture) (entertainment) Bambi effect (hunting) (psychology stubs) Bandwagon effect (cognitive biases) (crowd psychology) (economics effects) (metaphors) (propaganda techniques) Bank effect (marine propulsion) (nautical terms)


id: list-of-effects-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-1.md
category: reference
title: List of effects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:48.360559+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-effects-20260505-0
summary:
== F == Fahraeus–Lindquist effect (blood) (fluid dynamics) (molecular and cellular biology) False consensus effect (cognitive biases) (futurology) (group processes) (psychological theories) (sustainability) Faraday effect (magnetism) (optics) Ferroelectric effect (condensed matter physics) (electrical phenomena) Fink effect (anesthesia) (diffusion) Floating body effect (electronics) (semiconductors) Floodgate effect (social phenomena) (sociology) Floor effect (statistics) Florence Nightingale effect (Florence Nightingale) (love) (psychology) Flutie effect (student sport) Flux pinning (Physics) Flynn effect (futurology) (intelligence) (psychological theories) (psychometrics) (race and intelligence controversy) Focusing effect (cognitive biases) Forbush effect (cosmic rays) (solar phenomena) Forer effect (cognitive biases) (history of astrology) (psychological theories) Founder effect (ecology) (population genetics) Fractional quantum Hall effect (physics) Franssen effect (acoustics) (sound perception) Franz–Keldysh effect (condensed matter) (electronic engineering) (electronics) (optics) (optoelectronics) Free surface effect (fluid mechanics) Front projection effect (film production) Fujiwhara effect (tropical cyclone meteorology) (vortices) Full screen effect (computer graphics) (demo effects) == G == Garshelis effect (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (magnetism) (physics) Gauche effect (stereochemistry) Gell-Mann amnesia effect (journalism) Generation effect (cognitive biases) (memory biases) (psychological theories) Geodetic effect (general relativity) Gerschenkron effect (economic development) (economic systems) (economics and finance) (econometrics) (index numbers) (national accounts)r Giant magnetoresistive effect (condensed matter physics) (electric and magnetic fields in matter)


id: list-of-effects-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-2.md
category: reference
title: List of effects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:48.360559+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-effects-20260505-0
summary:
== M == Magali effect Magneto-optic effect (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (optical phenomena) Magneto-optic Kerr effect (condensed matter physics) (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (optical phenomena) magnetocaloric effect (physical phenomena) (electric and magnetic fields in matter) (thermodynamics) Magnus effect (fluid dynamics) Malmquist effect (astronomy) Malter effect (physics) Mandela effect (psychology) (paranormal) Marangoni effect (fluid dynamics) (fluid mechanics) (physical phenomena) Marchywka effect (electrochemistry) (ultraviolet sensor production) Mark Twain effect (economics and finance) (stock market) Martha Mitchell effect (psychological theories) (psychosis) Massenerhebung effect (trees) Maternal age effect (developmental biology) Maternal effect (developmental biology) Matthew effect (education) (education) Matilda effect (Research) Matthew effect (sociology) (adages) (social phenomena) (sociology of scientific knowledge) McClintock effect (menstruation) McCollough effect (optical illusions) McGurk effect (auditory illusions) (perception) (psychological theories) Meissner effect (levitation) (magnetism) (superconductivity) Meitner–Hupfeld effect (particle physics) Mellanby effect (health) (alcohol intoxication) Memory effect (electric batteries) Mesomeric effect (chemical bonding) Microwave auditory effect (cognitive neuroscience) (espionage) (hearing) (human psychology) (less-lethal weapons) (mind control) (sound) Mid-domain effect (macroecology) (biogeography) (biodiversity) Mikheyev–Smirnov–Wolfenstein effect (particle physics) Milky seas effect (aquatic biology) (biological oceanography) (bioluminescence) Miller effect (electrical engineering) (electronics terms) Miniature effect (film and video technology) (film techniques) (scale modeling) (scientific modeling) (special effects) (visual effects)


id: list-of-effects-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects-3.md
category: reference
title: List of effects
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_effects
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:48.360559+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-effects-20260505-0
summary:
== S == Sabattier effect (solarization) (photographic processes) (science of photography) Sachs–Wolfe effect (astronomy) (physical cosmology) Sagnac effect (optics) (relativity) Sailing Ship Effect (business) (economics) Samba effect (Brazil) (economy of Brazil) (history of Brazil) Sandbox effect (Internet technology) (search engine optimization) Scharnhorst effect (quantum field theory) Schottky effect (diodes) Schwinger effect (particle physics) (hypothetical processes) (quantum electrodynamics) Screen-door effect (display technology) (technology) Second gas effect (anesthesia) Second-system effect (software development) Seeliger effect (astronomy) (observational astronomy) Serial position effect (cognitive biases) (psychological theories) (psychologicy) Shaft effect (motorcycle) Shapiro effect (effects of gravitation) Shielding effect (atomic, molecular, and optical physics) (atomic physics) (chemistry) (quantum chemistry) Shower-curtain effect (fluid dynamics) Shubnikov–de Haas effect (science) Side effect (computer science) (computer programming) Side effect (disambiguation) Signor–Lipps effect (extinction) (fossils) (paleontology) Silk screen effect (technology) Silo effect (management) (systems theory) Simon effect (psychology) Simpson's paradox aka Yule–Simpson effect (probability) (statistics) Skin effect (electronics) Slashdot effect (denial-of-service attacks)(Internet terminology) (Slashdot) Sleeper effect (social psychology) Smith–Purcell effect (physics) (quantum optics) Snackwell effect (consumer behaviour) (psychology) Snob effect (consumer theory) (economics and finance) Snowball effect (language) (metaphors) Somogyi effect (diabetes) Sound effect (film techniques) (sound effects) (sound production) (special effects) Soap opera effect (film techniques) (television terminology) (filming) (film


id: intrinsic-and-extrinsic-properties-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrinsic_and_extrinsic_properties-0.md
category: reference
title: Intrinsic and extrinsic properties
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrinsic_and_extrinsic_properties
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:49.612401+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intrinsic-and-extrinsic-properties-20260505-0
summary:
In science and engineering, an intrinsic property is a property of a specified subject that exists itself or within the subject. An extrinsic property is not essential or inherent to the subject that is being characterized. For example, mass is an intrinsic property of any physical object, whereas weight is an extrinsic property that depends on the strength of the gravitational field in which the object is placed. == Applications == In materials science, an intrinsic property is independent of how much of a material is present and is independent of the form of the material, e.g., one large piece or a collection of small particles. Intrinsic properties are dependent mainly on the fundamental chemical composition and structure of the material. Extrinsic properties are differentiated as being dependent on the presence of avoidable chemical contaminants or structural defects. In biology, intrinsic effects originate from inside an organism or cell, such as an autoimmune disease or intrinsic immunity. In electronics and optics, intrinsic properties of devices (or systems of devices) are generally those that are free from the influence of various types of non-essential defects. Such defects may arise as a consequence of design imperfections, manufacturing errors, or operational extremes and


id: rayleigh-scattering-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayleigh_scattering-0.md
category: reference
title: Rayleigh scattering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayleigh_scattering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:50.823381+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rayleigh-scattering-20260505-0
summary:
Rayleigh scattering ( RAY-lee) is the scattering or deflection of light, or other electromagnetic radiation, by particles with a size much smaller than the wavelength of the radiation. For light frequencies well below the resonance frequency of the scattering medium (normal dispersion regime), the amount of scattering is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength (e.g., a blue color is scattered much more than a red color as light propagates through air). The phenomenon is named after the 19th-century British physicist Lord Rayleigh (John William Strutt). Rayleigh scattering results from the electric polarizability of the particles. The oscillating electric field of a light wave acts on the charges within a particle, causing them to move at the same frequency. The particle, therefore, becomes a small radiating dipole whose radiation we see as scattered light. The particles may be individual atoms or molecules; it can occur when light travels through transparent solids and liquids, but is most prominently seen in gases. Rayleigh scattering of sunlight in Earth's atmosphere causes diffuse sky radiation. Since blue light wavelengths scatter more, the diffuse sky seen in daytime is blue. At twilight the sunlight on the horizon is missing the scattered blue light


id: rayleigh-scattering-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayleigh_scattering-1.md
category: reference
title: Rayleigh scattering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayleigh_scattering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:50.823381+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rayleigh-scattering-20260505-0
summary:
I s = I 0 π 2 α 2 ε 0 2 λ 4 R 2 1 + cos 2 ⁡ θ 2 . {\displaystyle I_{s}=I_{0}{\frac {\pi ^{2}\alpha ^{2}}{{\varepsilon _{0}}^{2}\lambda ^{4}R^{2}}}{\frac {1+\cos ^{2}\theta }{2}}.} == Effect of fluctuations == When the dielectric constant ϵ {\displaystyle \epsilon } of a certain region of volume V {\displaystyle V} is different from the average dielectric constant of the medium ϵ ¯ {\displaystyle {\bar {\epsilon }}} , then any incident light will be scattered according to the following equation I = I 0 π 2 V 2 σ ϵ 2 2 λ 4 R 2 ( 1 + cos 2 ⁡ θ ) {\displaystyle I=I_{0}{\frac {\pi ^{2}V^{2}\sigma _{\epsilon }^{2}}{2\lambda ^{4}R^{2}}}{\left(1+\cos ^{2}\theta \right)}} where σ ϵ 2 {\displaystyle \sigma _{\epsilon }^{2}} represents the variance of the fluctuation in the dielectric constant ϵ {\displaystyle \epsilon } . == Cause of the blue color of the sky == The blue color of the sky is a consequence of three factors: the blackbody spectrum of sunlight coming into the Earth's atmosphere, Rayleigh scattering of that light off oxygen and nitrogen molecules, and the response of the human visual system. The strong wavelength dependence of the Rayleigh scattering (~λ−4)


id: recovery-effect-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recovery_effect-0.md
category: reference
title: Recovery effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recovery_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:52.101449+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: recovery-effect-20260505-0
summary:
The recovery effect is a phenomenon observed in battery usage where the available energy is less than the difference between energy charged and energy consumed. == Mechanism == Intuitively, this is because the energy has been consumed from the edge of the battery and the charge has not yet diffused evenly around the battery. When power is extracted continuously voltage decreases in a smooth curve, but the recovery effect can result in the voltage partially increasing if the current is interrupted. == In non-lead-acid batteries == The KiBaM battery model describes the recovery effect for lead-acid batteries and is also a good approximation to the observed effects in Li-ion batteries. In some batteries, the gains from the recovery life can extend battery life by up to 45% by alternating discharging and inactive periods rather than constantly discharging. The size of the recovery effect depends on the battery load, recovery time and depth of discharge. Even though the recovery effect phenomenon is prominent in the lead acid battery chemistry, its existence in alkaline, Ni-MH and Li-Ion batteries is still questionable. For instance, a systematic experimental case study shows that an intermittent discharge current in case of alkaline, Ni-MH and Li-ion batteries


id: jos-miguel-camacho-gonz-lez-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/José_Miguel_Camacho_González-0.md
category: reference
title: José Miguel Camacho González
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/José_Miguel_Camacho_González
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:55.160998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: jos-miguel-camacho-gonz-lez-20260505-0
summary:
José Miguel Camacho González (born 17 January 1951) is a Spanish ophthalmologist, medical director, and pioneer on intraocular lens. He was born in Cúllar, Granada. He studied at Universidad de Granada, in 1976 he got a bachelor's degree in Medicine and in 1979 he specialized on Surgery. In 1970s he worked as ophthalmologist at Bola Azul and Hospital Torrecárdenas in Almería, and he cooperated with Instituto de Oftalmología Barraquer. He opened Vista Camacho, which works with the latest and innovated ophthalmological technologies, including VisX STAR S4 IR CustomVue laser with the Wave Scan aberrometer, and the Spectralis(R) platform, which is a tomograph to make micro-thousandth eye studies. He is one of the most rated ophthalmologist in the province of Almería by Doctoralia. Manuel Camacho Sampelayo, his son, who followed his steps and also studied at Universidad de Granada and Instituto de Oftalmología Barraquer, holds the eighth place in the ranking, and his brother José Miguel holds the ninth place. In 2010 he got the 3rd Videofestival Secoir Cádiz Award alongside Jaime Campello Lluch and José Miguel Camacho Sampelayo. In March 2022 he provided free services to Ukrainian refugees in Almería due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine, and he was


id: list-of-pioneers-in-computer-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_pioneers_in_computer_science-0.md
category: reference
title: List of pioneers in computer science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_pioneers_in_computer_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:56.325384+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-pioneers-in-computer-science-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of people who made transformative breakthroughs in the creation, development and imagining of what computers could do. == Pioneers == ~ Items marked with a tilde are circa dates. == See also == Computer Pioneer Award IEEE John von Neumann Medal Grace Murray Hopper Award History of computing History of computing hardware History of computing hardware (1960s–present) History of software List of computer science awards List of computer science journals List of computer scientists List of Internet pioneers List of pioneers in computer science List of people considered father or mother of a field § Computing The Man Who Invented the Computer (2010 book) List of Russian IT developers List of Women in Technology International Hall of Fame inductees Timeline of computing Turing Award Women in computing == References == === Sources === Hamming, Richard W. (1950). "Error detecting and error correcting codes" (PDF). Bell System Technical Journal. 29 (2): 147–160. Bibcode:1950BSTJ...29..147H. doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1950.tb00463.x. hdl:10945/46756. MR 0035935. S2CID 61141773. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-05-25. Ling, San; Xing, Chaoping (2004). Coding Theory: a First Course. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-82191-9. Pless, Vera (1982). Introduction to the Theory of Error-Correcting Codes. New York: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-08684-0.


id: birds-in-a-truck-riddle-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birds_in_a_truck_riddle-0.md
category: reference
title: Birds in a truck riddle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birds_in_a_truck_riddle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:57.867658+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: birds-in-a-truck-riddle-20260505-0
summary:
The birds in a truck riddle is a riddle that asks whether a container or a truck carrying birds changes in weight when the birds inside are flying. The television series MythBusters investigated the question in a 2007 episode, testing it both with a box of pigeons and again with a model helicopter. They concluded that the contents being in flight made no difference to the weight, and theorised that the downdraft of air from the wings or rotors pressed down against the base of the box with the same force as the resting bird or helicopter. A drone research team from Stanford University measured the forces involved in a bird's hovering and found that it created "double the lift during the downstroke [of the wings] so that the birds did not have to lift their weight during the upstroke", with the amount of lift on the upstroke being "almost none". They concluded that a truck containing a few birds would fluctuate in weight over time, but a larger flock flapping at random would cancel one another and leave the truck's weight unaffected. == References ==


id: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-chemistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_chemistry-0.md
category: reference
title: List of unsolved problems in chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:50:59.139871+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-unsolved-problems-in-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of unsolved problems in chemistry. Problems in chemistry are considered unsolved when an expert in the field considers it unsolved or when several experts in the field disagree about a solution to a problem. == Physical chemistry problems == Can the transition temperature of high-temperature superconductors be brought up to room temperature? How do the spin–orbit coupling, other relativistic corrections, and inter-electron effects modify the chemistry of the trans-actinides? Is it possible to create a practically useful lithium–air battery? == Organic chemistry problems == What is the origin of homochirality in biomolecules? Why are accelerated kinetics observed for some organic reactions at the water-organic interface? Do replacement reactions of aryl diazonium salts (dediazotizations) predominantly undergo SN1 or a radical mechanism? Can an electrochemical cell reliably perform organic redox reactions? Which "classic organic chemistry" reactions admit chiral catalysts? Is it possible to construct a quaternary carbon atom with arbitrary (distinguishable) substituents and stereochemistry? Can artificial enzymes replace the need for protecting groups when modifying sensitive compounds? == Inorganic chemistry problems == Are there any molecules that certainly contain a phi bond? Is there a less labor- or energy-intensive technique for titanium refinement than the Kroll process? Does


id: magmatic-water-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magmatic_water-0.md
category: reference
title: Magmatic water
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magmatic_water
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:04.106847+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: magmatic-water-20260505-0
summary:
Magmatic water, also known as juvenile water, is an aqueous phase in equilibrium with minerals that have been dissolved by magma deep within the Earth's crust and is released to the atmosphere during a volcanic eruption. It plays a key role in assessing the crystallization of igneous rocks, particularly silicates, as well as the rheology and evolution of magma chambers. Magma is composed of minerals, crystals and volatiles in varying relative natural abundance. Magmatic differentiation varies significantly based on various factors, most notably the presence of water. An abundance of volatiles within magma chambers decreases viscosity and leads to the formation of minerals bearing halogens, including chloride and hydroxide groups. In addition, the relative abundance of volatiles varies within basaltic, andesitic, and rhyolitic magma chambers, leading to some volcanoes being exceedingly more explosive than others. Magmatic water is practically insoluble in silicate melts but has demonstrated the highest solubility within rhyolitic melts. An abundance of magmatic water has been shown to lead to high-grade deformation, as a result of altering the composition of hydrogen isotope biogeochemistry (δ2H) and stable oxygen isotope ratios (δ18O) within host rocks. == Composition == Magma exists in three main forms that vary in composition. When


id: origin-of-water-on-earth-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth-0.md
category: reference
title: Origin of water on Earth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:05.225138+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: origin-of-water-on-earth-20260505-0
summary:
The origin of water on Earth is the subject of a body of research in the fields of planetary science, astronomy, and astrobiology. Earth is unique among known planets in having oceans of liquid water on its surface. Liquid water, which is necessary for all known forms of life, continues to exist on the surface of Earth because the planet is at a far enough distance (known as the habitable zone) from the Sun that it does not lose its water, but not so far that low temperatures cause all water on the planet to freeze. It was long thought that Earth's water did not originate from the planet's region of the protoplanetary disk. Instead, it was hypothesized water and other volatiles must have been delivered to Earth from the outer Solar System later in its history. Recent research, however, indicates that hydrogen inside the Earth played a role in the formation of the ocean. The two ideas are not mutually exclusive, as there is also evidence that water was delivered to Earth by impacts from icy planetesimals similar in composition to asteroids in the outer edges of the asteroid belt. == History of water on Earth == One factor


id: origin-of-water-on-earth-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth-1.md
category: reference
title: Origin of water on Earth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:05.225138+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: origin-of-water-on-earth-20260505-0
summary:
While the majority of Earth's surface is covered by oceans, those oceans make up just a small fraction of the mass of the planet. The mass of Earth's oceans is estimated to be 1.37 × 1021 kg, which is 0.023% of the total mass of Earth, 6.0 × 1024 kg. An additional 5.0 × 1020 kg of water is estimated to exist in ice, lakes, rivers, groundwater, and atmospheric water vapor. A significant amount of water is also stored in Earth's crust, mantle, and core. Unlike molecular H2O that is found on the surface, water in the interior exists primarily in hydrated minerals or as trace amounts of hydrogen bonded to oxygen atoms in anhydrous minerals. Hydrated silicates on the surface transport water into the mantle at convergent plate boundaries, where oceanic crust is subducted underneath continental crust. While it is difficult to estimate the total water content of the mantle due to limited samples, approximately three times the mass of the Earth's oceans could be stored there. Similarly, the Earth's core could contain four to five oceans' worth of hydrogen. While not considered to be one of the major sources of water on the planet, it should also be


id: origin-of-water-on-earth-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth-2.md
category: reference
title: Origin of water on Earth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:05.225138+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: origin-of-water-on-earth-20260505-0
summary:
One problem with this hypothesis is that the noble gas isotope ratios of Earth's atmosphere are different from those of its mantle, which suggests they were formed from different sources. To explain this observation, a so-called "late veneer" theory has been proposed in which water was delivered much later in Earth's history, after the Moon-forming impact. However, the current understanding of Earth's formation allows for less than 1% of Earth's material accreting after the Moon formed, implying that the material accreted later must have been very water-rich. Models of early Solar System dynamics have shown that icy asteroids could have been delivered to the inner Solar System (including Earth) during this period if Jupiter migrated closer to the Sun. Jupiter's relatively quick development, however, made it difficult for the inner solar system to receive matter from the outer solar system, limiting the accumulation of water on the terrestrial planets. This is in addition to other factors, such as the conditions for the goldilocks zone, where liquid water, and by extension life as we know it, can exist, as opposed to solid ice forming snowball planets or gaseous water vapor forming gas giants. Yet a third hypothesis, supported by evidence from


id: origin-of-water-on-earth-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth-3.md
category: reference
title: Origin of water on Earth
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:05.225138+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: origin-of-water-on-earth-20260505-0
summary:
=== Comets === Comets are kilometer-sized bodies made of dust and ice that originate from the Kuiper belt (20-50 AU) and the Oort cloud (>5,000 AU), but have highly elliptical orbits which bring them into the inner solar system. Their icy composition and trajectories which bring them into the inner solar system make them a target for remote and in situ measurements of D/H ratios. It is implausible that Earth's water originated only from comets, since isotope measurements of the deuterium to hydrogen (D/H) ratio in comets Halley, Hyakutake, Hale–Bopp, 2002T7, and Tuttle, yield values approximately twice that of oceanic water. This is also supported by analysis using the comparison of isotopic ratios for both carbon and nitrogen isotopes, which attribute only a few percent of the water present on earth to comet sources, indicating a much higher reliance on incoming asteroid matter. Using the cometary D/H ratio, models predict that less than 10% of Earth's water was supplied from comets. Other, shorter period comets (<20 years) called Jupiter family comets likely originate from the Kuiper belt, but have had their orbital paths influenced by gravitational interactions with Jupiter or Neptune. 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko is one such comet that was the subject


id: scientific-school-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_school-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific school
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_school
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:06.886937+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-school-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific school (school of scientific traditions) is an established system of scientific views, as well as a scientific community adhering to these views. The formation of a scientific school occurs under the influence of a leader, whose erudition, range of interests, and working style are decisive for attracting new collaborators. Relationships within such a scientific team facilitate the exchange of information at the level of ideas (rather than final research results), which significantly increases the efficiency of creative scientific work. == History == At the stage of protoscience, the schools that existed at that time could act as independent centers or institutes. Later, scientific schools came to be understood as real informal collectives of scientists. In antiquity, schools of arts and philosophical thought arose, such as the Aristotelian Peripatetics. In the Middle Ages, the printing press created an important technical prerequisite for the emergence of schools of thought spanning several geographical centers. This facilitated the process of learning and disseminating the ideas of different schools. Each of them acquired a propaganda tool - periodically published collections, journals, bulletins, and other scientific periodicals. Its own printed organ is a significant feature of a school of scientific thought. It is reflected in


id: center-of-excellence-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_of_excellence-0.md
category: reference
title: Center of excellence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_of_excellence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:07.993586+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: center-of-excellence-20260505-0
summary:
A center of excellence (COE or CoE), also called an excellence center, is a team, a shared facility or an entity that provides leadership, best practices, research, support, or training for a focus area. Due to its broad usage and vague legal precedent, a "center of excellence", in one context, may have completely different characteristics from another. The focus area might be a technology (such as the Java software platform), a business concept (such as business process management), a skill (such as negotiation) or a broad area of study (such as women's health). A center of excellence may also be formed to revitalize stalled initiatives. The term may also refer to a network of institutions collaborating with each other to pursue excellence in a particular area. (e.g. the Rochester Area Colleges Center for Excellence in Math and Science). == Organizations == Within an organization, a center of excellence may refer to a group of people, a department or a shared facility. It may also be known as a competency center, or as a capability center, or as an excellence center. Stephen Jenner and Craig Kilford, in Management of Portfolios, mention COE as a coordinating function which ensures that change initiatives


id: center-of-excellence-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_of_excellence-1.md
category: reference
title: Center of excellence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_of_excellence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:07.993586+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: center-of-excellence-20260505-0
summary:
=== Europe === In the European defense community, the European Centre of Excellence for Countering Hybrid Threats is a response to hybrid warfare on its periphery; the COE seeks to inform, and also protect its non-NATO components, as well as its non-PESCO members. The US Department of Defense (DoD) intends to use CoEs that focus on key technologies, such as drones, and commercial satellite imagery. === United States Army === The Army maintains numerous Centers of Excellence (CoE) at major universities, training installations, and other locations: Acquisition COE - Huntsville, Alabama Aviation COE - Fort Novosel, Alabama Cyber COE - Fort Gordon, Georgia Fires COE - Fort Sill, Oklahoma Human Resource COE - Fort Knox, Kentucky Initial Military Training COE - Fort Eustis, Virginia Intelligence COE - Fort Huachuca, Arizona Maneuver COE - Fort Moore, Georgia Maneuver Support COE Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri Medical COE - Joint Base San Antonio (JBSA), Texas Mission Command COE - Fort Leavenworth, Kansas NCO Leadership COE - Fort Bliss, Texas Space and Missile Defense CoE - Peterson Space Force Base, Colorado Special Operations COE - Fort Bragg, North Carolina Sustainment COE - Fort Gregg-Adams, Virginia TRADOC oversees ten of these Centers of Excellence, each


id: chandler-scientific-school-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandler_Scientific_School-0.md
category: reference
title: Chandler Scientific School
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandler_Scientific_School
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:09.172264+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chandler-scientific-school-20260505-0
summary:
Abiel Chandler School of Science and the Arts was established in 1852 by Abiel Chandler, a Boston commission merchant and New Hampshire native. The school was as a separate undergraduate college at Dartmouth College comparable to the earlier Lawrence Scientific School (1847) at Harvard University and the later Sheffield Scientific School (1854) at Yale University. Chandler students established their own fraternities: Phi Zeta Mu (later Eta Eta chapter of Sigma Chi, now The Tabard) and Sigma Delta Pi (later Beta Theta Pi); sat in their own pews for morning services in the Old Chapel in Dartmouth Hall; and had their own sports teams. Classes took place in Chandler Hall, which stood between Parkhurst Hall and the Blunt Alumni Center. The building, built by Moor's Charity School in 1835 and designed by Ammi B. Young, was remodeled with a Mansard roof by Chandler mathematics professor Frank Asbury Sherman in 1871 and received a rear addition in 1898, designed by Charles Alonzo Rich, a Chandler graduate of 1876 and designing partner of the New York architects Lamb & Rich. Dartmouth absorbed the Chandler Scientific School in 1893 and continued as the Departments of Zoology, Botany, and Geology. The Chandler Fund continues to


id: sheffield-scientific-school-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheffield_Scientific_School-0.md
category: reference
title: Sheffield Scientific School
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheffield_Scientific_School
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:10.717906+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sheffield-scientific-school-20260505-0
summary:
Sheffield Scientific School was founded in 1847 as a school of Yale College in New Haven, Connecticut, for instruction in science and engineering. Originally named the Yale Scientific School, it was renamed in 1861 in honor of Joseph E. Sheffield, a railroad executive. The school was incorporated in 1871. The Sheffield Scientific School helped establish a model of American higher education which incorporated both the sciences and the liberal arts. Following World War I, its curriculum gradually became completely integrated with Yale College. "The Sheff" ceased to function as a separate entity in 1956. == History == After technological developments in the early nineteenth century, such as the electric telegraph, an interest was fostered in teaching applied science at universities. Harvard established the Lawrence Scientific School in 1846 and Dartmouth began the Chandler Scientific School in 1852. The stage was set at Yale for the transition in education beginning in 1846, when professorships of agricultural chemistry (John Pitkin Norton) and practical chemistry (Benjamin Silliman Jr.) were established. In 1847, the School of Applied Chemistry became part of a newly created Department of Philosophy and the Arts (later, the Yale Graduate School). Classes and labs were hosted in the Second President's


id: sheffield-scientific-school-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheffield_Scientific_School-1.md
category: reference
title: Sheffield Scientific School
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheffield_Scientific_School
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:10.717906+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sheffield-scientific-school-20260505-0
summary:
During the 1918-1919 reorganization of the educational structure of Yale University, the three years "select" course at Sheffield Scientific School was eliminated and a four-year course of study for those studying "professional science" and "engineering" was approved, while graduate courses were transferred to the Graduate School, leaving only undergraduate courses taught at Sheffield Scientific School from 1919 to 1945, coexisting with Yale College's science programs. The centennial was celebrated in 1947 with the Silliman lectures given by Ernest O. Lawrence, Linus Pauling, W. M. Stanley and George Wells Beadle. The first degree of Bachelor of Science was awarded in 1922 to the graduating class of the Sheffield Scientific School. In 1932, the School of Engineering was reestablished and Sheffield Scientific School engineering classes were transferred to the new school. In 1945, the Sheffield Scientific School resumed its original function of graduate level instruction in science. Undergraduate courses for the Bachelor of Science degree were transferred to Yale College, and undergraduate courses for a Bachelor of Science in industrial administration were transferred to the School of Engineering. This transition occurred gradually, through the influence of "aggressive, powerful alumni" (including Edwin Oviatt, editor of the Yale Alumni Weekly) who "took control out


id: artificial-gravity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_gravity-0.md
category: reference
title: Artificial gravity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_gravity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:12.372756+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: artificial-gravity-20260505-0
summary:
Artificial gravity is the creation of an inertial force that mimics the effects of a gravitational force, usually by rotation. Artificial gravity, or rotational gravity, is thus the appearance of a centrifugal force in a rotating frame of reference (the transmission of centripetal acceleration via normal force in the non-rotating frame of reference), as opposed to the force experienced in linear acceleration, which by the equivalence principle is indistinguishable from gravity. In a more general sense, "artificial gravity" may also refer to the effect of linear acceleration, e.g. by means of a rocket engine. Rotational simulated gravity has been used in simulations to help astronauts train for extreme conditions. Rotational simulated gravity has been proposed as a solution in human spaceflight to the adverse health effects caused by prolonged weightlessness. However, there are no current practical outer space applications of artificial gravity for humans due to concerns about the size and cost of a spacecraft necessary to produce a useful centripetal force comparable to the gravitational field strength on Earth (g). Scientists are concerned about the effect of such a system on the inner ear of the occupants. The concern is that using centripetal force to create artificial gravity will


id: artificial-gravity-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_gravity-1.md
category: reference
title: Artificial gravity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_gravity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:12.372756+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: artificial-gravity-20260505-0
summary:
Artificial gravity has been suggested as a solution to various health risks associated with spaceflight. In 1964, the Soviet space program believed that a human could not survive more than 14 days in space for fear that the heart and blood vessels would be unable to adapt to the weightless conditions. This fear was eventually discovered to be unfounded as spaceflights have now lasted up to 437 consecutive days, with missions aboard the International Space Station commonly lasting 6 months. However, the question of human safety in space did launch an investigation into the physical effects of prolonged exposure to weightlessness. In June 1991, the Spacelab Life Sciences 1 on the Space Shuttle flight STS-40 flight performed 18 experiments on two men and two women over nine days. In an environment without gravity, it was concluded that the response of white blood cells and muscle mass decreased. Additionally, within the first 24 hours spent in a weightless environment, blood volume decreased by 10%. Long periods of weightlessness can cause brain swelling and eyesight problems. Upon return to Earth, the effects of prolonged weightlessness continue to affect the human body as fluids pool back to the lower body, the heart rate


id: artificial-gravity-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_gravity-2.md
category: reference
title: Artificial gravity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_gravity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:12.372756+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: artificial-gravity-20260505-0
summary:
==== Issues with implementation ==== Some of the reasons that artificial gravity remains unused today in spaceflight trace back to the problems inherent in implementation. One of the realistic methods of creating artificial gravity is the centrifugal effect caused by the centripetal force of the floor of a rotating structure pushing up on the person. In that model, however, issues arise in the size of the spacecraft. As expressed by John Page and Matthew Francis, the smaller a spacecraft (the shorter the radius of rotation), the more rapid the rotation that is required. As such, to simulate gravity, it would be better to utilize a larger spacecraft that rotates slowly. The requirements on size about rotation are due to the differing forces on parts of the body at different distances from the axis of rotation. If parts of the body closer to the rotational axis experience a force that is significantly different from parts farther from the axis, then this could have adverse effects. Additionally, questions remain as to what the best way is to initially set the rotating motion in place without disturbing the stability of the whole spacecraft's orbit. At the moment, there is not a ship massive


id: artificial-gravity-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_gravity-3.md
category: reference
title: Artificial gravity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_gravity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:12.372756+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: artificial-gravity-20260505-0
summary:
Linear acceleration is another method of generating artificial gravity, by using the thrust from a spacecraft's engines to create the illusion of being under a gravitational pull. A spacecraft under constant acceleration in a straight line would have the appearance of a gravitational pull in the direction opposite to that of the acceleration, as the thrust from the engines would cause the spacecraft to "push" itself up into the objects and persons inside of the vessel, thus creating the feeling of weight. This is because of Newton's third law: the weight that one would feel standing in a linearly accelerating spacecraft would not be a true gravitational pull, but simply the reaction of oneself pushing against the craft's hull as it pushes back. Similarly, objects that would otherwise be free-floating within the spacecraft if it were not accelerating would "fall" towards the engines when it started accelerating, as a consequence of Newton's first law: the floating object would remain at rest, while the spacecraft would accelerate towards it, and appear to an observer within that the object was "falling". To emulate artificial gravity on Earth, spacecraft using linear acceleration gravity may be built similar to a skyscraper, with its engines


id: breakthrough-propulsion-physics-project-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakthrough_Propulsion_Physics_Project-0.md
category: reference
title: Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Project
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakthrough_Propulsion_Physics_Project
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:13.631400+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: breakthrough-propulsion-physics-project-20260505-0
summary:
The Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Project (BPP) was a research project funded by NASA from 1996 to 2002 to study various proposals for revolutionary methods of spacecraft propulsion that would require breakthroughs in physics before they could be realized. The project ended in 2002, when the Advanced Space Transportation Program was reorganized and all speculative research (less than Technology readiness level 3) was cancelled. During its six years of operational funding, this program received a total investment of $1.2 million. The Breakthrough Propulsion Physics project addressed a selection of "incremental and affordable" research questions towards the overall goal of propellantless propulsion, hyperfast travel, and breakthrough propulsion methods. It selected and funded five external projects, two in-house tasks and one minor grant. At the end of the project, conclusions into fourteen topics, including these funded projects, were summarized by program manager Marc G. Millis. Of these, six research avenues were found to be nonviable, four were identified as opportunities for continued research, and four remain unresolved. == Non-viable approaches == One in-house experiment tested the Schlicher thruster antenna, claimed by Schlicher to generate thrust. No thrust was observed. Another experiment examined a gravity shielding mechanism claimed by Podkletnov and Nieminen. Experimental investigation


id: cryonics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryonics-0.md
category: reference
title: Cryonics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryonics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:15.099798+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cryonics-20260505-0
summary:
Cryonics (from Greek: κρύος kryos, meaning "cold") is the low-temperature freezing (usually at −196 °C or −320.8 °F or 77.1 K) and storage of human remains in the hope that resurrection may be possible in the future. Cryonics is regarded with skepticism by the mainstream scientific community. It is generally viewed as a pseudoscience, and its practice has been characterized as quackery. Cryonics procedures can begin only after the "patients" are clinically and legally dead. Procedures may begin within minutes of death, and use cryoprotectants to try to prevent ice formation during cryopreservation. It is not possible to reanimate a corpse that has undergone vitrification (ultra-rapid cooling), as this damages the brain, including its neural circuits. The first corpse to be frozen was that of James Bedford, in 1967. As of 2014, remains from about 250 bodies had been cryopreserved in the United States, and 1,500 people had made arrangements for cryopreservation of theirs. Even if the resurrection promised by cryonics were possible, economic considerations make it unlikely cryonics corporations could remain in business long enough to deliver. The "patients", being dead, cannot continue to pay for their own preservation. Early attempts at cryonic preservation were made in the 1960s


id: cryonics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryonics-1.md
category: reference
title: Cryonics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryonics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:15.099798+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cryonics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Revival === Revival would require repairing damage from lack of oxygen, cryoprotectant toxicity, thermal stress (fracturing), and freezing in tissues that do not successfully vitrify, followed by reversing the cause of death. In many cases, extensive tissue regeneration would be necessary. This revival technology remains speculative. === Legal issues === Historically, people had little control over how their bodies were treated after death, as religion held jurisdiction over the matter. Later, secular courts began to exercise jurisdiction over corpses and use discretion in carrying out deceased people's wishes. Most countries legally treat preserved bodies as deceased persons because of laws that forbid vitrifying someone who is medically alive. In France, cryonics is not considered a legal mode of body disposal; only burial, cremation, and formal body donation to science are allowed, though bodies may legally be shipped to other countries for cryonic freezing. As of 2015, British Columbia prohibits the sale of arrangements for cryonic body preservation. In Russia, cryonics falls outside both the medical industry and the funeral services industry, making it easier than in the U.S. to get hospitals and morgues to release cryonics candidates. In 2016, the English High Court ruled in favor of a mother's


id: cryonics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryonics-2.md
category: reference
title: Cryonics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryonics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:15.099798+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cryonics-20260505-0
summary:
== Reception == Cryonics is generally regarded as a fringe pseudoscience. Between 1982 and November 2018, the Society for Cryobiology rejected members who practiced cryonics, and issued a public statement saying that cryonics "is an act of speculation or hope, not science", and as such outside the scope of the Society. Russian company KrioRus is the first non-U.S. vendor of cryonics services. Yevgeny Alexandrov, chair of the Russian Academy of Sciences commission against pseudoscience, said there was "no scientific basis" for cryonics, and that the company was based on "unfounded speculation". Scientists have expressed skepticism about cryonics in media sources, and the Norwegian philosopher Ole Martin Moen has written that the topic receives a "minuscule" amount of attention in academia. While some neuroscientists contend that all the subtleties of a human mind are contained in its anatomical structure, few will comment directly on cryonics due to its speculative nature. People who intend to be frozen are often "looked at as a bunch of kooks". Cryobiologist Kenneth B. Storey said in 2004 that cryonics is impossible and will never be possible, as cryonics proponents are proposing to "overturn the laws of physics, chemistry, and molecular science". Neurobiologist Michael Hendricks has said,


id: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life-0.md
category: reference
title: Extraterrestrial life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:16.499650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-0
summary:
Extraterrestrial life, or alien life (colloquially aliens), is life that originates from another world rather than on Earth. No extraterrestrial life has yet been scientifically or conclusively detected. Such life might range from simple forms such as prokaryotes to intelligent beings, possibly bringing forth civilizations that might be far more, or far less, advanced than humans. The Drake equation speculates about the existence of sapient life elsewhere in the universe. The science of extraterrestrial life is known as astrobiology. Speculation about inhabited worlds beyond Earth dates back to antiquity. Early Christian writers, including Augustine, discussed ideas from thinkers like Democritus and Epicurus about countless worlds in the vast universe. Pre-modern writers typically assumed extraterrestrial "worlds" were inhabited by living beings. William Vorilong, in the 15th century, acknowledged the possibility Jesus could have visited extraterrestrial worlds to redeem their inhabitants. In 1440, Nicholas of Cusa suggested Earth is a "brilliant star"; he theorized that all celestial bodies, even the Sun, could host life. Descartes wrote that there were no means to prove the stars were not inhabited by "intelligent creatures", but their existence was a matter of speculation. In comparison to the life-abundant Earth, the vast majority of intrasolar and extrasolar


id: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life-1.md
category: reference
title: Extraterrestrial life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:16.499650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-0
summary:
Using Big Bang models for the timeline of the universe, it was too hot for life for the first 15 million years and the elements of organic life, created through stellar fusion, did not exist until at least 50 million years. The first organic compounds may have formed in the protoplanetary disk of dust grains that would eventually create rocky planets like Earth. Although Earth was in a molten state after its birth and may have burned any organics that fell on it, it would have been more receptive once it cooled down. Once the right conditions on Earth were met, life started by a chemical process known as abiogenesis. During most of its stellar evolution, stars combine hydrogen nuclei to make helium nuclei by stellar fusion, and the comparatively lighter weight of helium allows the star to release the extra energy. The process continues until the star uses all of its available fuel, with the speed of consumption being related to the size of the star. During its last stages, stars start combining helium nuclei to form carbon nuclei. The larger stars can further combine carbon nuclei to create oxygen and silicon, oxygen into neon and sulfur, and so


id: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life-2.md
category: reference
title: Extraterrestrial life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:16.499650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-0
summary:
Life in the cosmos beyond Earth has never been observed, but it is expected. The hypothesis of ubiquitous extraterrestrial life relies on three main ideas. The first one, the size of the universe, allows for plenty of planets to have a similar habitability to Earth, and the age of the universe gives enough time for a long process analog to the history of Earth to happen there. The second is that the substances that make life, such as carbon and water, are ubiquitous in the universe. The third is that the physical laws are universal, which means that the forces that would facilitate or prevent the existence of life would be the same ones as on Earth. According to this argument, made by scientists such as Carl Sagan and Stephen Hawking, it would be improbable for life not to exist somewhere else other than Earth. This argument is embodied in the Copernican principle, which states that Earth does not occupy a unique position in the Universe, and the mediocrity principle, which states that there is nothing special about life on Earth. Other authors consider instead that life in the cosmos, or at least multicellular life, may actually be rare. The


id: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life-3.md
category: reference
title: Extraterrestrial life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:16.499650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-0
summary:
If extraterrestrial life exists, it could range from simple microorganisms and multicellular organisms similar to animals or plants, to complex alien intelligences akin to humans. When scientists talk about extraterrestrial life, they consider all those types. Although it is possible that extraterrestrial life may have other configurations, scientists use the hierarchy of lifeforms from Earth for simplicity, as it is the only one known to exist. The first basic requirement for life is an environment with non-equilibrium thermodynamics, which means that the thermodynamic equilibrium must be broken by a source of energy. The traditional sources of energy in the cosmos are the stars, such as for life on Earth, which depends on the energy of the sun. However, there are other alternative energy sources, such as volcanoes, plate tectonics, and hydrothermal vents. There are ecosystems on Earth in deep areas of the ocean that do not receive sunlight, and take energy from black smokers instead. Magnetic fields and radioactivity have also been proposed as sources of energy, although they would be less efficient ones. Life on Earth requires water in a liquid state as a solvent in which biochemical reactions take place. It is highly unlikely that an abiogenesis process


id: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life-4.md
category: reference
title: Extraterrestrial life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:16.499650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-0
summary:
=== Harsh environmental conditions on Earth harboring life === It is common knowledge that the conditions on other planets in the solar system, in addition to the many galaxies outside of the Milky Way galaxy, are very harsh and seem to be too extreme to harbor any life. The environmental conditions on these planets can have intense UV radiation paired with extreme temperatures, lack of water, and much more that can lead to conditions that don't seem to favor the creation or maintenance of extraterrestrial life. However, there has been much historical evidence that some of the earliest and most basic forms of life on Earth originated in some extreme environments that seem unlikely to have harbored life at least at one point in Earth's history. Fossil evidence as well as many historical theories backed up by years of research and studies have marked environments like hydrothermal vents or acidic hot springs as some of the first places that life could have originated on Earth. These environments can be considered extreme when compared to the typical ecosystems that the majority of life on Earth now inhabit, as hydrothermal vents are scorching hot due to the magma escaping from the Earth's


id: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life-5.md
category: reference
title: Extraterrestrial life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:16.499650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-0
summary:
The Solar System has a wide variety of planets, dwarf planets, and moons, and each one is studied for its potential to host life. Each one has its own specific conditions that may benefit or harm life. So far, the only lifeforms found are those from Earth. No extraterrestrial intelligence other than humans exists or has ever existed within the Solar System. Astrobiologist Mary Voytek points out that it would be unlikely to find large ecosystems, as they would have already been detected by now. The inner Solar System is likely devoid of life. However, Venus is still of interest to astrobiologists, as it is a terrestrial planet that was likely similar to Earth in its early stages and developed in a different way. There is a greenhouse effect, the surface is the hottest in the Solar System, sulfuric acid clouds, all surface liquid water is lost, and it has a thick carbon-dioxide atmosphere with huge pressure. Comparing both helps to understand the precise differences that lead to beneficial or harmful conditions for life. And despite the conditions against life on Venus, there are suspicions that microbial life-forms may still survive in high-altitude clouds. Mars is a cold and almost


id: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life-6.md
category: reference
title: Extraterrestrial life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:16.499650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-0
summary:
Scientists search for biosignatures within the Solar System by studying planetary surfaces and examining meteorites. Some claim to have identified evidence that microbial life has existed on Mars. In 1996, a controversial report stated that structures resembling nanobacteria were discovered in a meteorite, ALH84001, formed of rock ejected from Mars. Although all the unusual properties of the meteorite were eventually explained as the result of inorganic processes, the controversy over its discovery laid the groundwork for the development of astrobiology. An experiment on the two Viking Mars landers reported gas emissions from heated Martian soil samples that some scientists argue are consistent with the presence of living microorganisms. Lack of corroborating evidence from other experiments on the same samples suggests that a non-biological reaction is a more likely hypothesis. In February 2005 NASA scientists reported they may have found some evidence of extraterrestrial life on Mars. The two scientists, Carol Stoker and Larry Lemke of NASA's Ames Research Center, based their claim on methane signatures found in Mars's atmosphere resembling the methane production of some forms of primitive life on Earth, as well as on their own study of primitive life near the Rio Tinto river in Spain. NASA officials


id: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life-7.md
category: reference
title: Extraterrestrial life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:16.499650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-0
summary:
Although most searches are focused on the biology of extraterrestrial life, an extraterrestrial intelligence capable enough to develop a civilization may be detectable by other means as well. Technology may generate technosignatures, effects on the native planet that may not be caused by natural causes. There are three main types of techno-signatures considered: interstellar communications, effects on the atmosphere, and planetary-sized structures such as Dyson spheres. Organizations such as the SETI Institute search the cosmos for potential forms of communication. They started with radio waves, and now search for laser pulses as well. The challenge for this search is that there are natural sources of such signals as well, such as gamma-ray bursts and supernovae, and the difference between a natural signal and an artificial one would be in its specific patterns. Astronomers intend to use artificial intelligence for this, as it can manage large amounts of data and is devoid of biases and preconceptions. Besides, even if there is an advanced extraterrestrial civilization, there is no guarantee that it is transmitting radio communications in the direction of Earth. The length of time required for a signal to travel across space means that a potential answer may arrive decades or


id: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life-8.md
category: reference
title: Extraterrestrial life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:16.499650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-0
summary:
The modern concept of extraterrestrial life is based on assumptions that were not commonplace during the early days of astronomy. The first explanations for the celestial objects seen in the night sky were based on mythology. Scholars from Ancient Greece were the first to consider that the universe is inherently understandable and rejected explanations based on supernatural incomprehensible forces, such as the myth of the Sun being pulled across the sky in the chariot of Apollo. They had not developed the scientific method yet and based their ideas on pure thought and speculation, but they developed precursor ideas to it, such as that explanations had to be discarded if they contradict observable facts. The discussions of those Greek scholars established many of the pillars that would eventually lead to the idea of extraterrestrial life, such as Earth being round and not flat. The cosmos was first structured in a geocentric model that considered that the sun and all other celestial bodies revolve around Earth. However, they did not consider them as worlds. In Greek understanding, the world was composed by both Earth and the celestial objects with noticeable movements. Anaximander thought that the cosmos was made from apeiron, a substance


id: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life-9.md
category: reference
title: Extraterrestrial life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:16.499650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-0
summary:
By the time of the late Middle Ages there were many known inaccuracies in the geocentric model, but it was kept in use because naked eye observations provided limited data. Nicolaus Copernicus started the Copernican Revolution by proposing that the planets revolve around the sun rather than Earth. His proposal had little acceptance at first because, as he kept the assumption that orbits were perfect circles, his model led to as many inaccuracies as the geocentric one. Tycho Brahe improved the available data with naked-eye observatories, which worked with highly complex sextants and quadrants. Tycho could not make sense of his observations, but Johannes Kepler did: orbits were not perfect circles, but ellipses. This knowledge benefited the Copernican model, which worked now almost perfectly. The invention of the telescope a short time later, perfected by Galileo Galilei, clarified the final doubts, and the paradigm shift was completed. Under this new understanding, the notion of extraterrestrial life became feasible: if Earth is but just a planet orbiting around a star, there may be planets similar to Earth elsewhere. The astronomical study of distant bodies also proved that physical laws are the same elsewhere in the universe as on Earth, with nothing


id: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life-10.md
category: reference
title: Extraterrestrial life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:16.499650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-0
summary:
The search and study of extraterrestrial life became a science of its own, astrobiology. Also known as exobiology, this discipline is studied by the NASA, the ESA, the INAF, and others. Astrobiology studies life from Earth as well, but with a cosmic perspective. For example, abiogenesis is of interest to astrobiology, not because of the origin of life on Earth, but for the chances of a similar process taking place in other celestial bodies. Many aspects of life, from its definition to its chemistry, are analyzed as either likely to be similar in all forms of life across the cosmos or only native to Earth. Astrobiology, however, remains constrained by the current lack of extraterrestrial life-forms to study, as all life on Earth comes from the same ancestor, and it is hard to infer general characteristics from a group with a single example to analyse. The 20th century came with great technological advances, speculations about future hypothetical technologies, and an increased basic knowledge of science by the general population thanks to science divulgation through the mass media. The public interest in extraterrestrial life and the lack of discoveries by mainstream science led to the emergence of pseudosciences that provided affirmative,


id: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life-11.md
category: reference
title: Extraterrestrial life
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrial_life
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:16.499650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: extraterrestrial-life-20260505-0
summary:
The 1967 Outer Space Treaty and the 1979 Moon Agreement define rules of planetary protection against potentially hazardous extraterrestrial life. COSPAR also provides guidelines for planetary protection. A committee of the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs had in 1977 discussed for a year strategies for interacting with extraterrestrial life or intelligence. The discussion ended without any conclusions. As of 2010, the UN lacks response mechanisms for the case of an extraterrestrial contact. One of the NASA divisions is the Office of Safety and Mission Assurance (OSMA), also known as the Planetary Protection Office. A part of its mission is to "rigorously preclude backward contamination of Earth by extraterrestrial life." In 2016, the Chinese Government released a white paper detailing its space program. According to the document, one of the research objectives of the program is the search for extraterrestrial life. It is also one of the objectives of the Chinese Five-hundred-meter Aperture Spherical Telescope (FAST) program. In 2020, Dmitry Rogozin, the head of the Russian space agency, said the search for extraterrestrial life is one of the main goals of deep space research. He also acknowledged the possibility of existence of primitive life on other planets of the


id: the-future-is-wild-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Future_Is_Wild-0.md
category: reference
title: The Future Is Wild
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Future_Is_Wild
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:21.564426+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-future-is-wild-20260505-0
summary:
The Future Is Wild (also referred to by the acronym FIW) is a 2002 speculative evolution docufiction miniseries and an accompanying multimedia entertainment franchise. The Future Is Wild explores the ecosystems and wildlife of three future time periods: 5 million, 100 million, and 200 million years in the future, in the format of a nature documentary. Though the settings and animals are fictional, the series has an educational purpose, serving as an informative and entertaining way to explore concepts such as evolution and climate change. The Future Is Wild was first conceived by independent producer Joanna Adams in 1996 and developed together with various scientists, including Dougal Dixon, best known as the author of the 1981 book After Man, which also explored future wildlife. The 2002 series was an international co-production, involving the Franco-German channel Arte, the German ZDF, the Austrian ORF, the Italian MFE - MediaForEurope (via their Mediaset division), and the American Animal Planet and Discovery Channel. Wildly successful, The Future Is Wild continues to be broadcast to this day and has been shown on TV in more than 60 countries. The success of The Future Is Wild spawned a large multimedia franchise, including books, children's entertainment, exhibitions,


id: the-future-is-wild-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Future_Is_Wild-1.md
category: reference
title: The Future Is Wild
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Future_Is_Wild
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:21.564426+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-future-is-wild-20260505-0
summary:
== Development and production == The idea for The Future Is Wild was first conceived in 1996 by Joanna Adams, a British entrepreneur who has previously produced documentaries on modern and extinct animals. As an independent producer, Adams wanted to create a documentary series different from anything that had come before, and something that could not be copied by larger production companies. The series was envisioned as an entertaining, informative and inspirational way to explain planetary change and evolution, suitable for the popular market worldwide. In 1996, the concept of the series, and ideas for an accompanying multimedia franchise, was first unveiled at the Frankfurt Book Fair and the MIPTV Media Market. The Future Is Wild was influenced by Scottish geologist and paleontologist Dougal Dixon's 1981 book After Man, which imagines wildlife and ecosystems 50 million years in the future. Dixon was brought in as a consultant early on in the development of the series and designed many of the creatures featured. The series was not able to use any of Dixon's creatures from After Man, given that the rights to adapting After Man were at this time owned by DreamWorks SKG. Nevertheless, several creatures were similar to Dixon's earlier


id: the-future-is-wild-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Future_Is_Wild-2.md
category: reference
title: The Future Is Wild
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Future_Is_Wild
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:21.564426+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-future-is-wild-20260505-0
summary:
In 2007, a 3D animated children's series (targeted at children aged six to twelve) based on The Future Is Wild premiered on Discovery Kids. Consisting of 26 episodes, each 22 minutes in length, the series was also simply called The Future Is Wild, and followed the four children C.G., Ethan, Emily and Luis, and their pet Squibbon, as they travelled through time and explored the settings and animals seen in the original series. According to Joanna Adams, the animated series, just like the original series, encourages viewers to think about the future of the planet, but "this time it is devoted particularly to kids and our future science is woven into some really fun stories about a group of time travelling kids." Portions of the original The Future Is Wild team worked on the series, and it was jointly produced by the Singaporean company iVL Animation and the Canadian company Nelvana. It was the first co-produced Singaporean 3D-animated TV programme to be broadcast in the United States and Germany. === Exhibitions === The Future Is Wild has been adapted into exhibition form, both for use as a temporary exhibition or short-term events, and for long-term high-profile attractions. There have been


id: the-future-is-wild-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Future_Is_Wild-3.md
category: reference
title: The Future Is Wild
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Future_Is_Wild
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:21.564426+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-future-is-wild-20260505-0
summary:
=== Cancelled projects === Following the success of The Future Is Wild, plans were made to adapt the series into a feature film with Warner Bros., but those plans fell through after the release of the film Avatar (2009), when Warner Bros. felt that the bar for such a film had been raised too high. Joanna Adams and the team at one point also worked on developing a sequel documentary series to the original The Future Is Wild series, dubbed The Future Is Wild 2, and had raised the necessary funding, but the project collapsed when Discovery Channel announced that they would no longer be making documentaries. In 2015, the virtual reality and augmented reality developer Cornel Hillmann, and his studio, STUDIO CGARTIST, began developing The Future Is Wild for virtual reality, initially focusing on small-scale preview projects. The first completed project was a small preview programme for Google Cardboard, which met with positive response at the 2016 Frankfurt Book Fair. A The Future Is Wild virtual reality game, The Future Is Wild VR, was in development in 2016. According to Hillmann, the game was intended to be a first-person exploration game with survival elements, with players able to travel


id: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry-0.md
category: reference
title: Hypothetical types of biochemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:22.917946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
summary:
Several forms of biochemistry are agreed to be scientifically viable, but are not proven to exist at this time. The kinds of living organisms known on Earth, as of 2026, all use carbon compounds for basic structural and metabolic functions, water as a solvent, and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or ribonucleic acid (RNA) to define and control their form. If life exists on other celestial bodies (planets, moons), it may be chemically similar, though it is also possible that there are organisms with quite different chemistries – for instance, involving other classes of carbon compounds, compounds of another element, and/or another solvent in place of water. The possibility of life-forms being based on "alternative" biochemistries is the topic of an ongoing scientific discussion, informed by what is known about extraterrestrial environments and about the chemical behaviour of various elements and compounds. It is of interest in synthetic biology and is also a common subject in science fiction. The element silicon has been much discussed as a hypothetical alternative to carbon. Silicon is in the same group as carbon on the periodic table and, like carbon, it is tetravalent. Hypothetical alternatives to water include ammonia, which, like water, is a polar molecule,


id: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry-1.md
category: reference
title: Hypothetical types of biochemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:22.917946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
summary:
The silicon atom has been much discussed as the basis for an alternative biochemical system, because silicon has many chemical similarities to carbon and is in the same group of the periodic table. Like carbon, silicon can create molecules that are sufficiently large to carry biological information. However, silicon has several drawbacks as a carbon alternative. Carbon is ten times more cosmically abundant than silicon, and its chemistry appears naturally more complex. By 1998, astronomers had identified 84 carbon-containing molecules in the interstellar medium, but only 8 containing silicon, of which half also include carbon. Even though Earth and other terrestrial planets are exceptionally silicon-rich and carbon-poor (silicon is roughly 925 times more abundant in Earth's crust than carbon), terrestrial life bases itself on carbon. This might be due to the comparatively lower diversity of functional groups observed in naturally-occurring Silicon-based polymers. Relative to carbon, silicon has a much larger atomic radius, and forms much weaker covalent bonds to atoms — except oxygen and fluorine, with which it forms very strong bonds. Almost no multiple bonds to silicon are stable, although silicon does exhibit varied coordination number. Silanes, silicon analogues to the alkanes, react rapidly with water, and long-chain silanes


id: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry-2.md
category: reference
title: Hypothetical types of biochemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:22.917946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
summary:
== Non-water solvents == In addition to carbon compounds, all currently known terrestrial life also requires water as a solvent. This has led to discussions about whether water is the only liquid capable of filling that role. The idea that an extraterrestrial life-form might be based on a solvent other than water has been taken seriously in recent scientific literature by the biochemist Steven Benner, and by the astrobiological committee chaired by John A. Baross. Solvents discussed by the Baross committee include ammonia, sulfuric acid, formamide, hydrocarbons, and (at temperatures much lower than Earth's) liquid nitrogen, or hydrogen in the form of a supercritical fluid. Water as a solvent limits the forms biochemistry can take. For example, Steven Benner, proposes the polyelectrolyte theory of the gene that claims that for a genetic biopolymer such as DNA to function in water, it requires repeated ionic charges. If water is not required for life, these limits on genetic biopolymers are removed. Carl Sagan once described himself as both a carbon chauvinist and a water chauvinist; however, on another occasion he said that he was a carbon chauvinist but "not that much of a water chauvinist". He speculated on hydrocarbons, hydrofluoric acid, and


id: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry-3.md
category: reference
title: Hypothetical types of biochemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:22.917946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
summary:
=== Ammonia === The ammonia molecule (NH3), like the water molecule, is abundant in the universe, being a compound of hydrogen (the simplest and most common element) with another very common element, nitrogen. The possible role of liquid ammonia as an alternative solvent for life is an idea dating back to 1954 at least, when J. B. S. Haldane raised the topic at a symposium about life's origin. Many chemical reactions can occur in an ammonia solution, and liquid ammonia has chemical similarities with water. Ammonia dissolves most organic molecules at least as well as water does, and many elemental metals. Haldane indicated that various common water-related organic compounds have ammonia-related analogues; for instance, the ammonia-related amine group (−NH2) is analogous to the water-related hydroxyl group (−OH). Ammonia, like water, can either accept or donate an H+ ion. When ammonia accepts an H+, it forms the ammonium cation (NH4+), analogous to hydronium (H3O+). When it donates an H+ ion, it forms the amide anion (NH2−), analogous to the hydroxide anion (OH−). Compared to water, however, ammonia is more inclined to accept an H+ ion, and less inclined to donate one; it is a stronger nucleophile. Ammonia added to water functions


id: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry-4.md
category: reference
title: Hypothetical types of biochemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:22.917946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
summary:
=== Methane and other hydrocarbons === Methane (CH4) is a simple hydrocarbon: that is, a compound of two of the most common elements in the cosmos: hydrogen and carbon. It has a cosmic abundance comparable with ammonia. Hydrocarbons could act as a solvent over a wide range of temperatures but would lack polarity. Isaac Asimov, the biochemist and science fiction writer, suggested in 1981 that poly-lipids could form a substitute for proteins in a non-polar solvent such as methane. Lakes composed of a mixture of hydrocarbons, including methane and ethane, have been detected on the surface of Titan by the Cassini spacecraft. There is debate about the effectiveness of methane and other hydrocarbons as a solvent for life compared to water or ammonia. Water is a stronger solvent than the hydrocarbons, enabling easier transport of substances in a cell. However, water is also more chemically reactive and can break down large organic molecules through hydrolysis. A life-form which solvent was a hydrocarbon would not face the threat of its biomolecules being destroyed in this way. Also, the water molecule's tendency to form strong hydrogen bonds can interfere with internal hydrogen bonding in complex organic molecules. Life with a hydrocarbon solvent


id: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry-5.md
category: reference
title: Hypothetical types of biochemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:22.917946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
summary:
=== Silicon dioxide and silicates === Silicon dioxide, also known as silica and quartz, is very abundant in the universe and has a large temperature range where it is liquid. However, its melting point is 1,600 to 1,725 °C (2,912 to 3,137 °F), so it would be impossible to make organic compounds in that temperature, because all of them would decompose. Silicates are similar to silicon dioxide and some have lower melting points than silica. Feinberg and Shapiro have suggested that molten silicate rock could serve as a liquid medium for organisms with a chemistry based on silicon, oxygen, and other elements such as aluminium. === Other solvents or cosolvents === Other solvents sometimes proposed: Supercritical fluids: supercritical carbon dioxide and supercritical hydrogen. Simple hydrogen compounds: hydrogen chloride. More complex compounds: sulfuric acid, formamide, methanol. Very-low-temperature fluids: liquid nitrogen and hydrogen. High-temperature liquids: sodium chloride. Sulfuric acid in liquid form is strongly polar. It remains liquid at higher temperatures than water, its liquid range being 10 °C to 337 °C at a pressure of 1 atm, although above 300 °C it slowly decomposes. Sulfuric acid is known to be abundant in the clouds of Venus, in the form of aerosol


id: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry-6.md
category: reference
title: Hypothetical types of biochemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothetical_types_of_biochemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:22.917946+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hypothetical-types-of-biochemistry-20260505-0
summary:
== Scientists who have published on this topic == Scientists who have considered possible alternatives to carbon-water biochemistry include: J. B. S. Haldane (1892–1964), a geneticist noted for his work on abiogenesis. V. Axel Firsoff (1910–1981), British astronomer. cited in Ammonia-based Life. Isaac Asimov (1920–1992), biochemist and science fiction writer. Fred Hoyle (1915–2001), astronomer, science fiction writer, panspermia proponent. Norman Horowitz (1915–2005), Caltech geneticist who devised the first experiments done to detect life on Mars. George C. Pimentel (1922–1989), American chemist, University of California, Berkeley. Peter Sneath (1923–2011), microbiologist, author of the book Planets and Life. Gerald Feinberg (1933–1992), physicist and Robert Shapiro (1935–2011), chemist, co-authors of the book Life Beyond Earth. Carl Sagan (1934–1996), astronomer, science popularizer, and SETI proponent. Jonathan Lunine (born 1959), American planetary scientist and physicist. Robert Freitas (born 1952), specialist in nanotechnology and nanomedicine.This work is acknowledged the partial basis of the article Ammonia-based Life. John Baross (born 1940), oceanographer and astrobiologist, who chaired a committee of scientists under the United States National Research Council that published a report on life's limiting conditions in 2007. == See also == == References == == Further reading == Bains, William (2004). "Many Chemistries Could Be Used to


id: discrete-time-and-continuous-time-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_time_and_continuous_time-0.md
category: reference
title: Discrete time and continuous time
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_time_and_continuous_time
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:24.635876+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: discrete-time-and-continuous-time-20260505-0
summary:
In mathematical dynamics, discrete time and continuous time are two alternative frameworks within which variables that evolve over time are modeled. == Discrete time == Discrete time views values of variables as occurring at distinct, separate "points in time", or equivalently as being unchanged throughout each non-zero region of time ("time period")—that is, time is viewed as a discrete variable. Thus a non-time variable jumps from one value to another as time moves from one time period to the next. This view of time corresponds to a digital clock that gives a fixed reading of 10:37 for a while, and then jumps to a new fixed reading of 10:38, etc. In this framework, each variable of interest is measured once at each time period. The number of measurements between any two time periods is finite. Measurements are typically made at sequential integer values of the variable "time". A discrete signal or discrete-time signal is a time series consisting of a sequence of quantities. Unlike a continuous-time signal, a discrete-time signal is not a function of a continuous argument; however, it may have been obtained by sampling from a continuous-time signal. When a discrete-time signal is obtained by sampling a sequence


id: discrete-time-and-continuous-time-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_time_and_continuous_time-1.md
category: reference
title: Discrete time and continuous time
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_time_and_continuous_time
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:24.635876+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: discrete-time-and-continuous-time-20260505-0
summary:
== Relevant contexts == Discrete time is often employed when empirical measurements are involved, because normally it is only possible to measure variables sequentially. For example, while economic activity actually occurs continuously, there being no moment when the economy is totally in a pause, it is only possible to measure economic activity discretely. For this reason, published data on, for example, gross domestic product will show a sequence of quarterly values. When one attempts to empirically explain such variables in terms of other variables and/or their own prior values, one uses time series or regression methods in which variables are indexed with a subscript indicating the time period in which the observation occurred. For example, yt might refer to the value of income observed in unspecified time period t, y3 to the value of income observed in the third time period, etc. Moreover, when a researcher attempts to develop a theory to explain what is observed in discrete time, often the theory itself is expressed in discrete time in order to facilitate the development of a time series or regression model. On the other hand, it is often more mathematically tractable to construct theoretical models in continuous time, and often


id: return-period-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Return_period-0.md
category: reference
title: Return period
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Return_period
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:25.813539+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: return-period-20260505-0
summary:
A return period, also known as a recurrence interval or repeat interval, is an average time or an estimated average time between events such as earthquakes, floods, landslides, or river discharge flows to occur. The reciprocal value of return period is called the frequency of occurrence. It is a statistical measurement typically based on historic data over an extended period, and is used usually for risk analysis. Examples include deciding whether a project should be allowed to go forward in a zone of a certain risk or designing structures to withstand events with a certain return period. The following analysis assumes that the probability of the event occurring does not vary over time and is independent of past events. == Estimating a return period == Recurrence interval = n + 1 m {\displaystyle ={n+1 \over m}} n number of years on record; m is the rank of observed occurrences when arranged in descending order For floods, the event may be measured in terms of m3/s or height; for storm surges, in terms of the height of the surge, and similarly for other events. This is Weibull's Formula. == Return period as the reciprocal of expected frequency == The theoretical return


id: return-period-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Return_period-1.md
category: reference
title: Return period
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Return_period
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:25.813539+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: return-period-20260505-0
summary:
== Binomial == In a given period of n × τ {\displaystyle n\times \tau } for a unit time τ {\displaystyle \tau } (e.g. τ = 1 year {\displaystyle \tau =1{\text{year}}} ), the probability of a given number r of events of a return period μ {\displaystyle \mu } is given by the binomial distribution as follows. P ( X = r ) = ( n r ) μ r ( 1 − μ ) n − r . {\displaystyle P(X=r)={n \choose r}\mu ^{r}(1-\mu )^{n-r}.} This is valid only if the probability of more than one occurrence per unit time τ {\displaystyle \tau } is zero. Often that is a close approximation, in which case the probabilities yielded by this formula hold approximately. If n → ∞ , μ → 0 {\displaystyle n\rightarrow \infty ,\mu \rightarrow 0} in such a way that n μ → λ {\displaystyle n\mu \rightarrow \lambda } then n ! ( n − r ) ! r ! μ r ( 1 − μ ) n − r → e − λ λ r r ! . {\displaystyle {\frac {n!}{(n-r)!r!}}\mu ^{r}(1-\mu )^{n-r}\rightarrow e^{-\lambda }{\frac {\lambda ^{r}}{r!}}.} Take μ = 1 T = m n + 1


id: world-line-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_line-0.md
category: reference
title: World line
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_line
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:27.089519+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-line-20260505-0
summary:
The world line (or worldline) of an object is the path that an object traces in 4-dimensional spacetime. It is an important concept of modern physics, and particularly theoretical physics. The concept of a "world line" is distinguished from concepts such as an "orbit" or a "trajectory" (e.g., a planet's orbit in space or the trajectory of a car on a road) by inclusion of the dimension time, and typically encompasses a large area of spacetime wherein paths which are straight perceptually are rendered as curves in spacetime to show their (relatively) more absolute position states—to reveal the nature of special relativity or gravitational interactions. The idea of world lines was originated by physicists and was pioneered by Hermann Minkowski. The term is now used most often in the context of relativity theories (i.e., special relativity and general relativity). == Usage in physics == A world line of an object (generally approximated as a point in space, e.g., a particle or observer) is the sequence of spacetime events corresponding to the history of the object. A world line is a special type of curve in spacetime. Below an equivalent definition will be explained: A world line is either a time-like


id: world-line-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_line-1.md
category: reference
title: World line
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_line
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:27.089519+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-line-20260505-0
summary:
defining a world line, are real number functions of a real variable τ {\displaystyle \tau } and can simply be differentiated by the usual calculus. Without the existence of a metric (this is important to realize) one can imagine the difference between a point p {\displaystyle p} on the curve at the parameter value τ 0 {\displaystyle \tau _{0}} and a point on the curve a little (parameter τ 0 + Δ τ {\displaystyle \tau _{0}+\Delta \tau } ) farther away. In the limit Δ τ → 0 {\displaystyle \Delta \tau \to 0} , this difference divided by Δ τ {\displaystyle \Delta \tau } defines a vector, the tangent vector of the world line at the point p {\displaystyle p} . It is a four-dimensional vector, defined in the point p {\displaystyle p} . It is associated with the normal 3-dimensional velocity of the object (but it is not the same) and therefore termed four-velocity v → {\displaystyle {\vec {v}}} , or in components: v → = ( v 0 , v 1 , v 2 , v 3 ) = ( d x 0 d τ , d x 1 d τ , d x 2 d τ ,


id: world-line-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_line-2.md
category: reference
title: World line
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_line
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:27.089519+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-line-20260505-0
summary:
=== Simultaneous hyperplane === Since a world line w ( τ ) ∈ R 4 {\displaystyle w(\tau )\in R^{4}} determines a velocity 4-vector v = d w d τ {\displaystyle v={\frac {dw}{d\tau }}} that is time-like, the Minkowski form η ( v , x ) {\displaystyle \eta (v,x)} determines a linear function R 4 → R {\displaystyle R^{4}\rightarrow R} by x ↦ η ( v , x ) . {\displaystyle x\mapsto \eta (v,x).} Let N be the null space of this linear functional. Then N is called the simultaneous hyperplane with respect to v. The relativity of simultaneity is a statement that N depends on v. Indeed, N is the orthogonal complement of v with respect to η. When two world lines u and w are related by d u d τ = d w d τ , {\displaystyle {\frac {du}{d\tau }}={\frac {dw}{d\tau }},} then they share the same simultaneous hyperplane. This hyperplane exists mathematically, but physical relations in relativity involve the movement of information by light. For instance, the traditional electro-static force described by Coulomb's law may be pictured in a simultaneous hyperplane, but relativistic relations of charge and force involve retarded potentials. == World lines in general relativity


id: world-line-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_line-3.md
category: reference
title: World line
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_line
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:27.089519+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-line-20260505-0
summary:
He stepped up to one of the reporters. "Suppose we take you as an example. Your name is Rogers, is it not? Very well, Rogers, you are a space-time event having duration four ways. You are not quite six feet tall, you are about twenty inches wide and perhaps ten inches thick. In time, there stretches behind you more of this space-time event, reaching to perhaps nineteen-sixteen, of which we see a cross-section here at right angles to the time axis, and as thick as the present. At the far end is a baby, smelling of sour milk and drooling its breakfast on its bib. At the other end lies, perhaps, an old man someplace in the nineteen-eighties. "Imagine this space-time event that we call Rogers as a long pink worm, continuous through the years, one end in his mother's womb, and the other at the grave..." Heinlein's Methuselah's Children uses the term, as does James Blish's The Quincunx of Time (expanded from "Beep"). A visual novel named Steins;Gate, produced by 5pb., tells a story based on the shifting of world lines. Steins;Gate is a part of the "Science Adventure" series. World lines and other physical concepts like the Dirac


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-0.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:30.301743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
The contributions of women in climate change have received increasing attention in the early 21st century. Feedback from women and the issues faced by women have been described as "imperative" by the United Nations and "critical" by the Population Reference Bureau. A report by the World Health Organization concluded that incorporating gender-based analysis would "provide more effective climate change mitigation and adaptation." Many studies have documented the gender gap in science and investigated why women are not included or represented, particularly at higher levels of research. Despite significant progress, female scientists continue to endure discrimination, unequal pay, and funding inequities, according to a special report published in the journal Nature in 2013. It also states that 70 percent of men and women around the world regard science as a male endeavor. Women encounter hurdles due to their family obligations, and they are underrepresented in publications and citations. == Overview == Women have made major contributions to climate change research and policy and to broader analysis of global environmental issues. They include many women scientists as well as policy makers and activists. Women researchers have made significant contributions to major scientific assessments such as those of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-1.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:30.301743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
== Arguments for women in science and climate change == It is argued that when women are overlooked as scholars and decision makers the world fails to take advantage of its full human capacity, which is needed for issues as urgent as climate change. Women may also take more collaborative approaches, especially in negotiations, and may pay more attention to disadvantaged groups and to the natural environment. Gender has become an issue because of women's essential roles in managing resources such as water, forests and energy and as women lead fights for environmental protection. A general concern has been expressed about the need to highlight the work of women and to include more women in major committees in order to provide gender balance, social justice, and inspiration to young women to enter careers in science. This reflects more general arguments about the barriers to women's advancement and the need for women to "Lean in" to leadership positions. Another argument focuses on the effects climate change on reproductive health. It was not until recently that these issues were discovered and brought to light however, they are currently affecting many women all around the world and in turn will eventually have population


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-2.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:30.301743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
== Women working in climate change == There are a variety of ways to identify women who have made major contributions to climate change. The first is the list of authors of the high level international assessments for the UN and other organizations such as the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The second is to examine women who have been invited to join the editorial boards of climate change refereed journals. A third is to look at the membership of the global change committees of the International Council for Science (ICSU). And a fourth is to recognize women that are members of their National Academy of Sciences who work on climate change. Many of them are IPCC or other report authors, and also members of ICSU committees, members of their National Academy and other marks of accomplishment. Seven cities around the world have appointed women as Chief Heat Officers (CHOs) to take action against extreme heat due to climate change. In February 2024, the EIB Group established the Women Climate Leaders Network, bringing together 47 women leaders from the commercial sector from all 27 EU Member States, to collaborate on innovative


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-3.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:30.301743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
== The Greta Thunberg effect == Greta Thunberg has been credited with inspiring young girl to take more action on climate change, which has become known as the "Greta Thunberg effect." Thunberg is well known for her work on fighting climate change, and is seen as a role model for younger girls. These new generations of girls are being called "eco-warriors", they are taking actions for the environment in various ways. In Kazakhstan, a group of young girls named Team Coco have come together to fight the ecological problems that pollute their nation, in order to accomplish this they have created an app known as TECO which is an "augmented reality game that merges educational and entertainment tools to help players change their behavior and become more eco-conscious". More girls have been taking action against climate change by using technology, and in turn help encourage other political leaders to take action for climate change and business corporations to reduce the carbon foot print they leave behind. == Women climate researchers == Following is a comprehensive list of women researchers in the climate change field. Note that not all women researchers have their individual Wikipedia pages that showcase their work (red


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-4.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:30.301743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
Ibidun Adelekan: Associate Professor in the Department of Geography at University of Ibadan, Nigeria. Her research focuses on climate-society interactions, human dimensions of global environmental change, vulnerability and resilience of human-environment systems to climate change. She is a lead author of the IPCC AR6 and a contributing author to the IPCC AR5 - Africa Chapter. Carolina Adler: Executive Director of Mountain Research Initiative (MRI), Switzerland where she oversees the work of the MRI coordination office, promotes global change research agenda and supports regional and thematic collaborations across mountain communities worldwide. She is an Environmental Scientist and Geographer by background and has vast experience in international career, both in public and private sector. She is a lead author of the IPCC Special Report on Ocean and Cryosphere and Working Group II of IPCC AR6. Paulina Aldunce: Associate Professor of the Department of Environmental Science and Natural Resources and the Deputy Director of the Center of Disaster Risk Reduction, CITRID at University of Chile, Chile. Her research interests include the social and institutional dimension of disaster management and climate change, with a focus on adaptation, resilience, transformation, and local and community management. She is a leading author of three IPCC reports including


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-5.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:30.301743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
She is a lead author of the IPCC AR6 Working Group I: The Physical Science Basis. She completed her PhD from University of Oxford in Atmospheric, Oceanic and Planetary Physics. Noemí Chacón: Researcher at Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas (IVIC), Venezuela. She is a lead author of the IPCC AR6 report. Elizabeth Chatterjee: She is an Environmental Historian expert. She works with a focus on energy histories,specifically in India. She wrote one book called Electric Democracy about the history of India's energy- centered transformation over time and is currently working on her second book about worldwide energy and environmental crises starting from the 1970s. She is currently teaching at the University of Chicago. Lynette Cheah: Associate Professor at Singapore University of Technology and Design, Singapore. She leads the Sustainable Urban Mobility research group to reduce environmental impacts of passengers and urban freight transport. Her expertise lies in transport modeling and simulation, life cycle energy and environmental assessment of products and systems, and urban metabolism. She is a review editor of the IPCC AR6. Ying Chen: Professor at Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS) Graduate School and a Senior Research Fellow at Institute for Urban and Environmental Studies (IUE), CASS, China.


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-6.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:30.301743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
She is also a visiting lecturer at United Nations University - Institute for the Advanced Study of Sustainability. Her research focuses on sustainable development, governance, disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation. Currently, she is a fellow of the Earth System Governance Network and is a lead author of IPCC AR6. Fatima Driouech: Associate Professor and the Executive Coordinator of the Adaptation Metrics and Techniques Cluster at the Mohammed VI Polytechnic University, Morocco. Her research interests include climate variability, regional climate modeling and climate science. Previously, she was the Head of the Meteorological Research Center of the Moroccan Meteorology and the National Climate Centre. She was also Vice-Chair of Working Group I of the IPCC and she was lead author of the fifth IPCC report. For the recent IPCC AR6, she serves as a review editor. She is currently acting as co-coordinator of MedECC, the independent network of Mediterranean Experts on Climate and environmental Change. Opha Pauline Dube: Professor of Environmental Science, University of Botswana. Dube has expertise in sustainable development, community-inclusive environmental management, and climate change adaptation. She is an IPCC contributing author. Carolina Dubeux: Social Scientist and a Senior Researcher at the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro,


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-7.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:30.301743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
Jacobs is a full professor in Soil, Water and Environmental Science at the University of Arizona. From 2009 - 2013 Jacobs served as director of the U.S. National Climate Assessment and Assistant Director, Energy and Environment Division, Office of Science and Technology Policy, Executive Office of the President, USA. Jill Jager (Williams): Independent Scholar, former executive director of the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change (IHDP) (1999 until 2002) and senior researcher at the Sustainable Europe Research Institute (SERI), Austria (2004 until 2008). She studies research themes ranging from energy and climate, biodiversity, global responsibility, public and stakeholder participation, integrating policies to linkages between knowledge and action for sustainable development. Hui Ju: Based at the Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, China. Her research includes studying wheat quality, drought characteristics and impacts of climate change on evapotranspiration in the Huang-Huai-Hai plain in China. She is a lead author of the IPCC AR6. Suzana Kahn Ribeiro: Professor at COPPE, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. She researches renewable energy, climate change, urban mitigation alternatives and sustainable mobility. She is the coordinator of UFRJ Green Fund and the president of the Scientific


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-8.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:30.301743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
Diana Liverman: Professor of Geography and Development and formerly co-director of the Institute of the Environment at the University of Arizona USA and expert on the human dimensions of climate change. IPCC author. ICSU. Emma Liwenga: Senior Lecturer at the Institute of Resource Assessment, University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Her research focuses on agriculture, food and livelihood security, natural resource management and climate change adaptation. She was an author of the IPCC Special Report on Land and Climate Change and currently serves as a coordinating lead author of IPCC AR6 report. Jane Lubchenco: Professor of environmental science and marine ecology at Oregon State University. Former Administrator of NOAA and Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere (2009-2013). Her research interests include interactions between the environment and human well-being, biodiversity, climate change, and sustainable use of oceans and the planet. Nominated by President Obama in December 2008 as part of his "Science Dream Team". Amanda Lynch: Professor of Earth, Environmental and Planetary Sciences at Brown University and the founding director of the Institute at Brown for Environment and Society. She is an expert in polar climate system modelling, indigenous environmental knowledge and climate policy analysis. She is a Fellow


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-9.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:30.301743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
Her research focuses on strengthening science, policy and practice alignment/interface for optimal land use, infrastructure provision and environmental management. Soojeong Meong: Senior Research Fellow at Korea Environment Institute, Korea. She is a review editor of the IPCC AR6 report. Sarah Myhre: climate and ocean scientist with expertise in the physical, biological, and chemical consequences of abrupt climate warming. A Ph.D. holder from the University of California at Davis, and has worked as a research associate at the University of Washington's School of Oceanography. She is a Kavli Fellow with the National Academy of Science. Sasha Naidoo: Researcher at the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, South Africa. Her expertise lies in forest, wood anatomy, silviculture, wood science, climate change and environmental science. She is a lead author of the IPCC AR6 report. Sunita Narain: Director general of the India-based Centre for Science and Environment and the director of the Society for Environmental Communications and publisher of the bimonthly magazine, Down To Earth. She is an influential environmental activist with interests in democracy at different scales, climate change, and natural resource management.


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-10.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:30.301743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
Gemma Terersa Narisma: Executive Director of the Manila Observatory, Philippines and the Head of the Regional Climate Systems programme from 2017 - 2021. She was also an associate professor of the Physics Department at Ateneo de Manila University. She served as a coordinating lead author of the IPCC AR6 Working Group I. Grace Ngaruiya: Head of the Ecology and Conservation Biology Section and a Lecturer in the Department of Plant Sciences at Kenyatta University, Kenya. She is also an IPCC AR6 lead author. Her research is focused on the relationship between climate change and Africa's heritage. Isabelle Niang: Professor at the University of Chiekh Anta Diop in Dakar. An expert in coastal erosion and climate change; coordinating lead author of the chapters on "Afrique du Groupe de travail II" for IPCC, in the 4th and 5th reports. Since 2008, she has been coordinating regional project ACCC (Adaptation au Changements Climatiques et Côtiers en Afrique de l'Ouest) and is based in BREDA/UNESCO. She is also Chair of the Pan-African Regional Committee for START (PACOM) through the Pan-African START Secretariat (PASS) based at the Institute for Resource Assessment (IRA) of the University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Andrea J. Nightingale: Professor of


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-11.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:30.301743+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
There is a give and take from each side that cannot be passed without consequences. She founded Doughnut Economics Action Lab which works to bring communities around the country to work within these donut rings. Maureen Raymo: Paleoclimatologist and marine geologist. Interim Director of the Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory. She is the G. Unger Vetlesen Professor of Earth & Environmental Sciences and the director of the Lamont–Doherty Core Repository. She is best known for the Uplift-Weathering Hypothesis. Katherine Richardson Christensen: Professor in Biological Oceanography at the University of Copenhagen's Sustainability Science Center. She was one of the main organizers of the scientific conference, "Climate Change: Global Risks, Challenges and Decisions," which sought to inform the 2010 United Nations Climate Change Conference. She studies carbon cycling in the upper ocean and how biological processes impact food webs. She also researches planetary boundaries. Maisa Rojas: Associate Professor at the Department of Geophysics, University of Chile, Chile. Her research interests include paleoclimate study of the evolution and dynamics of the climate system in the southern hemisphere over the last 25,000 years, regional climate modeling and climate change impacts on different sectors of society. She contributed to IPCC's work during the 5th Assessment Report as


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-12.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:30.301743+00:00
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Susan Solomon: Ellen Swallow Richards Professor of Atmospheric Chemistry & Climate Science known for her work on atmospheric chemistry and ozone and for leading the IPCC 4th assessment report on climate science. Member US National Academy of Sciences. She won the Volvo Environment and Blue Planet prizes. Anna Amelia Sörensson: Researcher at the Center for Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences (CIMA / CONICET-UBA), Argentina. Her research interests include climate change, climate modeling and variability, hydrology and precipitation. In the latest IPCC Sixth Assessment Report, she is serving as a coordinating lead author of Working Group I - Chapter 10: Linking global to regional climate change. Tannecia Stephenson: Senior Lecturer/Professor of Physics at The University of West Indies, Jamaica. Her research focuses on climate variability and seasonal prediction, climate extremes, climate change impacts and solar energy. She is a lead author of the IPCC AR6 report - Working Group I. Nicole Stevens: Ecologist and Trapnell Fellow at Environmental Change Institute, University of Oxford, UK. She is also affiliated with Stellenbosch University, South Africa. Her work examines the impact of global change on non-forested ecosystems in Africa and seeks to understand the mechanisms that shape plant distribution ranges. She is a lead author


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-13.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:30.301743+00:00
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parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
Kirsten Zickfeld: Associate Professor at Simon Fraser University, Canada, working on the effects of anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols on climate on centennial to millennial timescales. Gina Ziervogel: Associate Professor in the Department of Environmental and Geographical Science at the University of Cape Town, South Africa. Her research interests include climate change adaptation and resilience across scales, multi-level governance of urban adaptation, and social justice. She is a lead author of the IPCC AR6 report. Zinta Zommers: Mercy Corp's Head of the Zurich Flood Resilience Alliance and is a Rhodes and Commonwealth Scholar from Latvia. Her work experience includes providing support to the United Nations' Secretary-General's support team during the Paris Negotiation with the United Nations Environment and Food and Agriculture Organization, advising the United States' Government and the Government of Sierra Leone and co-editing a book on early warning systems for climate change. She is a review editor of the IPCC AR6. Zhiyan Zuo: Professor in the Department of Atmospheric and Ocean Sciences, Fudan University, China. She was formerly a researcher at the Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences. Her research focuses on land-atmosphere interaction, climate change, extreme events and asian monsoon. She currently serves as a lead


id: women-in-climate-change-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change-14.md
category: reference
title: Women in climate change
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_climate_change
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:30.301743+00:00
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parent: women-in-climate-change-20260505-0
summary:
== Women climate change policy makers and activists == Franny Armstrong: British documentary film director known for films including The Age of Stupid, a reflection from 2055 about climate change. She founded the carbon reduction campaign 10:10 in 2009. Gro Harlem Brundtland: Former prime minister of Norway and author of the Brundtland report on Sustainable Development who has served on countless international committees on the environment. Kotchakorn Voraakhom: Thai landscape architect, public green space campaigner, Echoing Green Climate Fellow and chief executive officer of Porous City Network. She is also the founder of the Koungkuey Design Initiative. Helen Clark: Administrator of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and the 37th Prime Minister of New Zealand (1999-2008). Clark's government implemented several major economic initiatives including the New Zealand Emissions Trading Scheme. Sheila Watt-Cloutier: Canadian Inuit activist who has focused on persistent organic pollutants and global warming, among other issues. Christiana Figueres: Costa Rican diplomat who has served in negotiations over climate change instruments since 1995. She became the Executive Secretary of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 2010. She was the founder of the Global Optimism group and was also the head of the UN climate change convention


id: beyond-bias-and-barriers-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Bias_and_Barriers-0.md
category: reference
title: Beyond Bias and Barriers
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyond_Bias_and_Barriers
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:31.683766+00:00
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parent: beyond-bias-and-barriers-20260505-0
summary:
Beyond Bias and Barriers: Fulfilling the Potential of Women in Academic Science and Engineering (ISBN 0309100429) is a major report about the status of women in science from the United States National Academy of Sciences. Published in 2006, the report closely examines the data, proposed explanations, and possible responses to the relative dearth of women in science and engineering higher education in the United States. == History == The report was written by the "Committee on Maximizing the Potential of Women in Academic Science and Engineering", a panel at the National Academy of Sciences. The committee was chaired by Donna Shalala, and included college presidents, provosts, professors, scientists, and policy analysts. Committee members included: Alice M. Agogino, Lotte Bailyn, Robert J. Birgeneau, Ana Mari Cauce, Catherine D. DeAngelis, Denice Denton (who committed suicide before the release of the report), Barbara Grosz, Jo Handeslman, Nan Keohane, Shirley Malcom, Geraldine Richmond, Alice M. Rivlin, Ruth Simmons, Elizabeth Spelke, Joan Steitz, Elaine Weyuker, and Maria T. Zuber. As is typical with NAS reports, after the Committee drafted the report, it underwent a peer review process within the NAS, in this case reviewed by another Committee of nineteen members. == Conclusions == The report


id: finkbeiner-test-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finkbeiner_test-0.md
category: reference
title: Finkbeiner test
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finkbeiner_test
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:32.907127+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: finkbeiner-test-20260505-0
summary:
The Finkbeiner test, named for the science journalist Ann Finkbeiner, is a checklist to help science journalists avoid gender bias in articles about women in science. It asks writers to avoid describing women scientists in terms of stereotypically feminine traits, such as their family arrangements. The Finkbeiner test has been linked to affirmative action, because writing can cause readers to view women in science as different from men in negative or unfair ways. The test helps avoid gender bias in science reporting similarly to various tests that focus on under-representation of marginalized groups in different career fields. == Checklist == The Finkbeiner test is a checklist proposed by freelance journalist Christie Aschwanden to help journalists avoid gender bias in media articles about women in science. To pass the test, an article about a female scientist must not mention: That she is a woman Her husband's job Her childcare arrangements How she nurtures her underlings How she was taken aback by the competitiveness in her field How she is a role model for other women How she's the "first woman to ..." == History == Aschwanden formulated the test in a 2013 article for the online magazine Double X Science. She


id: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women-0.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions and discoveries by women
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:34.164784+00:00
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parent: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-0
summary:
This page aims to list inventions and discoveries in which women played a major role. == Medicine == === Pharmaceuticals === Aciclovir Gertrude B. Elion contributed to the development of aciclovir, an antiviral drug used for the treatment of herpes simplex virus infections, chickenpox, and shingles. Artemisinin and dihydroartemisinin Tu Youyou discovered artemisinin and dihydroartemisinin, both now standard treatments for malaria. Artemisinin is isolated from the plant Artemisia annua, sweet wormwood, a herb employed in Chinese traditional medicine. Azathioprine Azathioprine is an Immunosuppressive drug used in rheumatoid arthritis, granulomatosis with polyangiitis, Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, and in kidney transplants to prevent rejection first synthesized by George H. Hitchings and Gertrude B. Elion in 1957 . AZT Flossie Wong-Staal was the first scientist to clone HIV and map its genes. Gertrude Elion made foundational contributions to the development of AZT, one of the first antiretroviral medications used in the prevention and treatment of HIV/AIDS. Chemotherapy Jane C. Wright was the first to identify methotrexate, one of the foundational chemotherapy drugs, as an effective tool against cancerous tumors. feeding tube Bessie Blount Griffin used plastic, boiling water to mold the material, a file, ice pick, hammer, and some dishes to create the


id: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women-1.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions and discoveries by women
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:34.164784+00:00
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parent: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-0
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Chien-Shiung Wu was the first scientist to confirm Enrico Fermi’s theory of radioactive beta decay. She also overturned the theory of parity in physics. Radon In 1901, Harriet Brooks and Ernest Rutherford contributed to the discovery of the element radon by finding evidence that the "emanation" emitted by thorium compounds was likely to be a gas. This follows work in 1899 by Pierre and Marie Curie, who observed that the gas emitted by radium remained radioactive for a month. Kinetic energy Emilie du Châtelet (born Gabrielle Émilie Le Tonnelier de Breteuil) translated Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica from Latin to French during the 18th century. She carried out physics experiments, popularizing the work of Leibniz. She demonstrated that the kinetic energy of an object was proportional to its mass and the square of its velocity, and postulated a conservation law for the total energy of a system. Heavy elements in cosmic radiation As a graduate student, Phyllis S. Freier found evidence for the existence of elements heavier than helium in cosmic radiation. Her work was published in Physical Review in 1948 with co-authors Edward J. Lofgren, Edward P. Ney, and Frank Oppenheimer. Beta particles are electrons. Gertrude Scharff Goldhaber and her


id: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women-2.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions and discoveries by women
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:34.164784+00:00
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parent: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-0
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== Chemistry == Catalysis The concept of catalysis invented by Scottish chemist Elizabeth Fulhame Kevlar A powerful para-aramid synthetic fiber, developed by Stephanie Kwolek at DuPont in 1965 Polonium and radium The discoveries of elements radium and polonium were made by Polish chemist Marie Curie through the deep study of their nature and their compounds. Rhenium Rhenium, a d-block transition metal with Atomic number 75, was first isolated by Ida Noddack and her husband. The existence of this element was predicted by Dmitri Mendeleev. Ida Noddack was nominated three times for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Seaborgium Carol Alonso was a co-discoverer of seaborgium, a synthetic chemical element with symbol Sg and atomic number 106. Scotchgard This stain repellent and durable water repellent was co-invented by chemists Patsy Sherman and Samuel Smith while working for 3M. Langmuir–Blodgett film The technique for making Langmuir–Blodgett film, which involves immersing a substrate into a solution to deposit a monolayer of molecules onto a substrate, was co-invented by Katharine Burr Blodgett and Irving Langmuir while working for General Electric. Earlier work by Agnes Pockels influenced the development of the trough. Zeolite Y Zeolite Y, a molecular sieve used to catalyse fractional distillation in petroleum


id: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women-3.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions and discoveries by women
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:34.164784+00:00
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parent: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-0
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== Household == Square-bottom paper bag In 1868, Margaret E. Knight invented a machine that folded and glued flat-bottomed brown paper bags familiar to shoppers today. She obtained 87 US patents that include lid-removing pliers, a numbering machine, a window frame and sash, and variants on rotary engines. Dishwasher Josephine Cochrane developed in 1887 the first commercially successful dishwasher, together with mechanic George Butters. Home security system Marie VanBrittan Brown, mid 1960's. Electric refrigerator Florence Parpart, 1914. Pedal bin Lillian Gilbreth invented the pedal bin in 1914 for the disposal of kitchen waste. The foot pedal enables the user to open the lid without touching it with their hands. Improved ironing board In 1892, Sarah Boone obtained a patent in the United States for improvements to the ironing board, allowing for better quality ironing for shirt sleeves. Central heating In 1919, Alice Parker invented a system of gas-powered central heating. While her particular design was never built, it was the first time an inventor had conceived of using natural gas to heat a personal home, which inspired the future central heating systems. Automatic Rotimaker In 2008, Pranoti Nagarkar-Israni invented a kitchen robot called Rotimatic, which makes rotis, tortillas, pizza crusts


id: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women-4.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions and discoveries by women
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:34.164784+00:00
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parent: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-0
summary:
== Mathematics == Daubechies wavelet Ingrid Daubechies introduced the Daubechies wavelet and contributed to the development of the CDF wavelet, important tools in image compression. You can't hear the shape of a drum. In 1966, Mark Kac asked whether the shape of a drum could be determined by the sound it makes (whether a Riemannian manifold is determined by the spectrum of its Laplace–Beltrami operator). John Milnor observed that a theorem due to Witt implied the existence of a pair of 16-dimensional tori that have the same spectrum but different shapes. However, the problem in two dimensions remained open until 1992, when Carolyn S. Gordon with coauthors Webb and Wolpert, constructed a pair of regions in the Euclidean plane that have different shapes but identical eigenvalues (see figure on right). Cauchy–Kovalevskaya theorem In mathematics, the Cauchy–Kowalevski theorem (also written as the Cauchy–Kovalevskaya theorem) is the main local existence and uniqueness theorem for analytic partial differential equations associated with Cauchy initial value problems. A special case was proven by Augustin Cauchy (1842), and the full result by Sophia Kovalevskaya (1875). Kovalevskaya top In classical mechanics, the precession of a rigid body such as a top under the influence of gravity is


id: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women-5.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions and discoveries by women
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:34.164784+00:00
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That is, two moments of inertia are equal, the third is half as large, and the center of gravity is located in the plane perpendicular to the symmetry axis (parallel to the plane of the two equal points). QR algorithm In numerical linear algebra, the QR algorithm is an eigenvalue algorithm: that is, a procedure to calculate the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a matrix. The QR algorithm was developed in the late 1950s by John G. F. Francis and by Vera N. Kublanovskaya, working independently. The basic idea is to perform a QR decomposition, writing the matrix as a product of an orthogonal matrix and an upper triangular matrix, multiply the factors in the reverse order, and iterate. Navier–Stokes equations Olga Ladyzhenskaya provided the first rigorous proofs of the convergence of a finite difference method for the Navier–Stokes equations. Ladyzhenskaya was on the shortlist for potential recipients for the 1958 Fields Medal, ultimately awarded to Klaus Roth and René Thom. Braid groups are linear Ruth Lawrence's 1990 paper, "Homological representations of the Hecke algebra", in Communications in Mathematical Physics, introduced, among other things, certain novel linear representations of the braid group — known as Lawrence–Krammer representation. In papers published in


id: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women-6.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions and discoveries by women
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:34.164784+00:00
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parent: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-0
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Van der Waerden credited lectures by Noether on group theory and Emil Artin on algebra, as well as a seminar conducted by Artin, Wilhelm Blaschke, Otto Schreier, and van der Waerden himself on ideals as the main references. The three isomorphism theorems, called homomorphism theorem, and two laws of isomorphism when applied to groups, appear explicitly. Lasker–Noether theorem In mathematics, the Lasker–Noether theorem states that every Noetherian ring is a Lasker ring, which means that every ideal can be decomposed as an intersection, called primary decomposition, of finitely many primary ideals (which are related to, but not quite the same as, powers of prime ideals). The theorem was first proven by Emanuel Lasker (1905) for the special case of polynomial rings and convergent power series rings, and was proven in its full generality by Emmy Noether (1921). The Lasker–Noether theorem is an extension of the fundamental theorem of arithmetic, and more generally the fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian groups to all Noetherian rings. The Lasker–Noether theorem plays an important role in algebraic geometry, by asserting that every algebraic set may be uniquely decomposed into a finite union of irreducible components. Albert–Brauer–Hasse–Noether theorem In algebraic number theory, the Albert–Brauer–Hasse–Noether theorem


id: list-of-inventions-and-discoveries-by-women-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women-7.md
category: reference
title: List of inventions and discoveries by women
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_by_women
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:34.164784+00:00
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summary:
== Wireless transmission == Torpedoes Radio guidance device Austrian-American Hollywood actress Hedy Lamarr, together with musician and author George Antheil, developed a mechanism for radio guidance system for Allied torpedoes which used spread spectrum and frequency hopping technology to defeat the threat of jamming by the Axis powers. Though the US Navy did not adopt frequency-hopping until the 1960s, the principles of it are now incorporated into modern Wi-Fi, CDMA and Bluetooth technology. == Food and food appliances == Chocolate-chip cookies Invented by Ruth Graves Wakefield in 1938. Pizza saver Patented in 1985 by Carmela Vitale of Dix Hills, New York. Mint chocolate chip Invented by Marilyn Ricketts in 1973. Ice cream maker Invented by Nancy M. Johnson in 1843. Coffee filter Invented by Melitta Bentz, 1908. == Biology == DNA structure Rosalind Franklin was a British molecular biologist who was instrumental in the discovery of the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) in 1951. At King's College London where she applied X-ray diffraction to the study of biological materials, she performed several X-ray radiographs of the DNA. Sex chromosomes Nettie Maria Stevens is credited with the discovery of sex chromosomes. The Cori cycle (lactic acid cycle) Gerty Cori, together with


id: muslim-women-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_women_in_science_and_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: Muslim women in science and technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_women_in_science_and_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:39.595524+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: muslim-women-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Since the Islamic Golden Age, Muslims, including women, have been actively participating in various sciences. Despite being involved in politics throughout Islamic history, women have experienced—and still continue to experience—gender-based discrimination in many Muslim countries because of the belief that certain discriminatory practices have a basis in Islam even though the Quran, hadiths, and sunnah advocate for the equal rights of men and women to seek knowledge. == Individuals == === Rufayda al-Aslamiyyah === Also known as the first nurse in Islamic history, Rufayda al-Aslamiyyah led a team of volunteer nurses in the battles of Badr, Uhud, Ditch, Khaybar, and other conflicts to take care of the wounded and dying. She further played a role in the development of the first mobile medical units to satisfy the requirements of the community for medical care. Through assisting her father, Saad Al-Aslamy, Rufayda learnt most of her knowledge. She became a healer after devoting her time to nursing and taking care of the ill. She used to practice her skills in her tent during the battles. Muhammad used to demand that all casualties be sent to her tent as she had high expertise in the field. The Aga Khan University named the


id: alphonse-rebi-re-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphonse_Rebière-0.md
category: reference
title: Alphonse Rebière
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphonse_Rebière
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:40.737721+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alphonse-rebi-re-20260505-0
summary:
Alphonse Michel Rebière (Tulle, 1842 – Paris, 1900) was a nineteenth-century advocate for women's scientific abilities. He wrote the book Les Femmes dans la science, published in 1894. Rebière's piece followed the encyclopedia format, listing the woman alphabetically, giving their names, dates of birth, the social conditions under which they had lived, their contributions and publications. He included "professional and amateur" scientists and those who aided in contributions in "the progress of science." Included in Rebière's book was a section of appended works filled with opinions of famous people on the question "whether or not woman is capable of scientific pursuits." His work was revolutionary in that other works with similar information were never published, and he was one of the first to include women in the field of science. == Les Femmes dans la science == Translated: Women in Science Rebière's work Les Femmes dans la science was inspired by the women's movement and renewed interest in women's scientific abilities. == Mathématiques et mathématiciens: Pensées et curiosities == According to R. C. Archibald: ... A. M. Rebière published ... a pioneer work entitled: Mathématiques et mathématiciens. Pensées et curiosities. ... The second edition (in later editions there is practically


id: safe13-study-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAFE13_study-0.md
category: reference
title: SAFE13 study
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAFE13_study
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:42.006322+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: safe13-study-20260505-0
summary:
The Survey of Academic Field Experiences study, also known as the SAFE13 study, was a survey conducted between February and May 2013 in order to characterize experiences of scientists working at field sites as they relate to sexual harassment and sexual assault. It has had a significant impact on collective responses to sexual harassment and sexual assault in Western academic science. Published in 2014 by a team of anthropologists, Kathryn B. H. Clancy, Robin G. Nelson, Julienne N. Rutherford and Katie Hinde, the SAFE13 study is the first empirical investigation into scientists' experiences of harassment during fieldwork. The researchers identify three key takeaways from their work. First, women scientists are targeted more often than men, and junior scientists are also more likely to be harassed relative to senior scientists. Second, women are more likely to be harassed by senior staff, while men are harassed by their peers. Third, the majority of field scientists do not know how to report harassment. == Methods == The study included responses from 666 field scientists (77.5% were women and 85.9% of participants identified as heterosexual). The survey was conducted in two waves. The first wave ran from February 21 to April 12, 2013, and


id: safe13-study-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAFE13_study-1.md
category: reference
title: SAFE13 study
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAFE13_study
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:42.006322+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: safe13-study-20260505-0
summary:
== SAFE2 == In 2017, the qualitative findings of SAFE13 were published. Authored by Nelson, Rutherford, Hinde and Clancy, the study focused on the experiences of 26 interviewees, who were mostly anthropologists or archaeologists (23 of 26 interviewees), women (23 of 26), and white (21 of 26). Some participants described incidents of sexual harassment in multiple fieldwork sites, so fifty-four field contexts are represented in their narratives. Twelve participants recalled working at field sites with clear anti-harassment rules (representing 18 fieldwork sites). These sites had training, explicit conversations, and senior researchers modelled proactive behaviour to redress sexual harassment. Actively enforced anti-harassment policies were associated with positive fieldwork experiences where scientists felt safe, valued and equal. These sites were categorised by the researchers as "green" contexts where best practice was enforced by senior members of the research team. As a result there were fewer negative experiences, and transgressions were acted upon by leaders. The rest of the participants described ambiguity or lack of clarity about codes of conduct. Even if they had some rules, sexual harassment still took place because were no consequences. Ambiguity led to repercussions for scientists who resisted sexual coercion, such as being alienated from colleagues and being


id: stemettes-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stemettes-0.md
category: reference
title: Stemettes
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stemettes
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:43.198923+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stemettes-20260505-0
summary:
Stemettes is a social enterprise which encourages girls and young women aged 5–25 to pursue careers in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Maths (STEM). Stemettes runs panel events, hackathons, the Student to Stemette mentoring programme supported by Deutsche Bank, Outbox Incubator and an app, OtotheB, an online platform for girls interested in STEM and entrepreneurship. == History == Stemettes was started in 2013 by British mathematics and computing child prodigy Anne-Marie Imafidon. In 2015, Jacquelyn Guderley became co-founder of Stemettes alongside Imafidon. Stemettes has partnered with organisations including Deutsche Bank, Salesforce, Accenture, Bank of America Merrill Lynch, BP and Microsoft. The organisation is regularly called upon by the UK Government and European Commission to consult on matters related to women in STEM. == Outbox Incubator == For six weeks from July–August 2015, Stemettes ran Outbox Incubator in London. This residential business incubator for girls with STEM start-ups became known as the "X-men house for girls". In February 2016, the Outbox Incubator spin-off app, OtotheB, was officially launched. The app is an online platform for girls interested in STEM and entrepreneurship. The app has been well received by some STEM figures such as academic and campaigner Sue Black, who described the app


id: sylvia-m-stoesser-lecturer-in-chemistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sylvia_M._Stoesser_Lecturer_in_Chemistry-0.md
category: reference
title: Sylvia M. Stoesser Lecturer in Chemistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sylvia_M._Stoesser_Lecturer_in_Chemistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:44.406650+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: sylvia-m-stoesser-lecturer-in-chemistry-20260505-0
summary:
The Sylvia M. Stoesser Lecture series was established in 2000 by the Department of Chemistry at the University of Illinois. It is supported by alumna Yulan Tong and by Dow AgroSciences. It is named after the first woman chemist to work at Dow, Sylvia M. Stoesser. The lectureship is given every two years to "an individual who has made outstanding contributions to the chemical community and provides new perspectives in the chemical field outside academia." == Lecturers == == References ==


id: tai-s-model-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tai's_model-0.md
category: reference
title: Tai's model
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tai's_model
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:45.697790+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tai-s-model-20260505-0
summary:
In 1994, nutrition scholar Mary M. Tai published a paper in the journal Diabetes Care entitled "A Mathematical Model for the Determination of Total Area Under Glucose Tolerance and Other Metabolic Curves". In the paper, Tai proposes "Tai's model" as a method of estimating the area under a curve by dividing the area into simple polygons and summing their totals. Apparently unbeknownst to Tai, and not noted by peer reviewers or the journal's editors, her method is in fact the trapezoidal rule, a basic method of calculus used by Babylonian astronomers before 50 BCE and later independently by English and French astronomers in the 14th century. Several scholars replied to the paper in letters to the journal, objecting to the naming of "Tai's model" and the treatment of a method "used in undergraduate calculus courses" as a novel discovery in the field of diabetes care. A letter entitled "Tai's Formula is the Trapezoidal Rule" pointed out errors in Tai's representation of the underlying mathematics (such as referring to a count of square units below the curve as the "true value" of the area, against which to measure the accuracy of Tai's model) and problems with the method's applicability to glucose


id: technofeminism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technofeminism-0.md
category: reference
title: Technofeminism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technofeminism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:47.246904+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technofeminism-20260505-0
summary:
Technofeminism is a theoretical and practical framework that explores the intersections between technology, gender, and power. Rooted in feminist thought, it critically examines how technology shapes, reinforces, or disrupts gender inequalities and seeks to envision more equitable futures through technological design and use. The term is widely attributed to Judy Wajcman, a sociologist and feminist scholar. Wajcman introduced the concept in her influential 2004 book, TechnoFeminism. Historically, technofeminism is closely linked to cyberfeminism, a concept which emerged in the early 1990s. The origins of cyber- and technofeminism are strongly attributed to the references of Donna Haraway's A Cyborg Manifesto. Since the 1990s, numerous feminist movements developed, addressing feminism and technology in various ways, and through different perspectives. Networks, ideas and concepts can overlap. Technofeminism is often examined in conjunction with intersectionality, a term coined by Kimberlé Crenshaw which analyzes the relationships among various identities, such as race, socioeconomic status, sexuality, gender, and more. == TechnoFeminism book == === Overview === TechnoFeminism is a book by academic sociologist Judy Wajcman which reframes the relationship between gender and technologies, and presents a feminist reading of the woman-machine relationship. It argues against a technocratic ideology, posing instead a thesis of society and technology


id: teen-turn-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teen_Turn-0.md
category: reference
title: Teen Turn
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teen_Turn
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:48.419928+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: teen-turn-20260505-0
summary:
Teen Turn is an Irish charity which encourages teenage girls to pursue careers in technology. == History == Teen Turn is an Irish charity which was founded in 2016 by Joanne Dolan and Niambh Scullion with the aim of promoting technology and computer skills to girls in disadvantaged areas. It was first trialed in the summer of 2016 with 20 girls from five schools, and since has expanded to 18 schools and 30 tech companies. == Activities == In particular the group aim to work with girls from communities with low uptake of university or third level education. They partner with technology and digital companies to provide work placements and mentoring. They provide two week work placements. The charity also run after school programs. Participants from this program in Limerick went on to win the BT Young Pioneer Award in 2018. In 2018, Teen Turn partnered with The Digital Hub and Gaisce to take part in the Technovation Challenge. === Awards === 2017 EU Digital Impact Organisation of the Year. == References == == External links == Official Twitter account


id: woman-in-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woman_in_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Woman in Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woman_in_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:49.683776+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: woman-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
Woman in Science is a book written by John Augustine Zahm (under the pen name H. J. Mozans) in 1913. It is an account of women who have contributed to the sciences, up to the time when it was published. == Themes == The comprehensive theme that is depicted throughout Woman in Science is that of women's equal biological capacity. It is asserted that women being less prominent than men in science is due to the lack of educational and career opportunities available rather than the biological aspects of brain size or structure. In addition, the book encompasses the many developments of science throughout history. The main objective of the author/book was for women to become more involved and gain a respected position in the scientific field, in addition to increasing educational and career opportunities for women interested in science. It was one of the first collaborations of women's contributions to the scientific community, and it "explored the barriers to women's participation in science." == Quotations == "H. J. Mozans, in his Woman in Science, gives us a most comprehensive survey of the scientific activity and attainments of women. Primarily inspired to his investigation by extensive travels in Greece and


id: women-of-outstanding-achievement-photographic-exhibition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_of_Outstanding_Achievement_Photographic_Exhibition-0.md
category: reference
title: Women of Outstanding Achievement Photographic Exhibition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_of_Outstanding_Achievement_Photographic_Exhibition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:50.871689+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: women-of-outstanding-achievement-photographic-exhibition-20260505-0
summary:
The Women of Outstanding Achievement Photographic Exhibition was an annual event organised by the UKRC between 2006 and 2012, when it was subsumed into the WISE Campaign awards. It comprised creative photographs of outstanding women within science, engineering and technology (SET). Between four and seven women were chosen each year to be photographed by Robert Taylor. Nominations occurred in the Autumn of each year and the recipients were announced at a ceremony in March of the following year. Many of the portraits are on permanent loan to institutions such as the University of Oxford and The Royal Society;those of Joanna Kennedy, Julia King and Wendy Hall were hung in the Royal Academy of Engineering. The portrait of Nancy Rothwell was purchased by the National Portrait Gallery. == Award Recipients == Recipients were (with job titles at the time): 2012 Maggie Philbin, BBC Journalist and CEO TeenTech Belinda Swain, Chief Airworthiness Engineer at Rolls-Royce Angela Brady, President of the Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) and founder of Women in Architecture Fiona Marshall, Founder and Chief Scientific Officer at Heptares Therapeutics Ltd 2011 Dame Ann Dowling, Head of Engineering department at the University of Cambridge Dame Athene Donald, Professor at the


id: abenics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABENICS-0.md
category: reference
title: ABENICS
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABENICS
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:51:59.311560+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: abenics-20260505-0
summary:
ABENICS (Active Ball Joint Mechanism With Three-DoF Based on Spherical Gear Meshings) is a ball joint system which uses a cross-spherical gear in conjunction with a monopole gear in order to be able to manipulate the spherical gear in three dimensions of freedom (pitch, roll, and yaw). Adding a second monopole gear makes the system more robust and capable of highly accurate movement with high torque. The spherical gear is essentially a pair of 2D gears which have been rotated around their axes, resulting in something resembling a golf ball. Potential uses include any situation requiring accurate, powerful control over three degrees of freedom, such as in replication human joints. The design was published in IEEE Transactions on Robotics in October 2021. The mechanism has been replicated using 3D printing by enthusiasts. == References == == External links == Kazuki Abe; Kenjiro Tadakuma; Riichiro Tadakuma (October 2021). "ABENICS: Active Ball Joint Mechanism With Three-DoF Based on Spherical Gear Meshings". IEEE Transactions on Robotics. 37 (5). Video from Tadakuma Laboratory, Yamagata University, Japan


id: aesthetics-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics_of_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Aesthetics of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:00.560746+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aesthetics-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Aesthetics of science is the study of beauty and matters of taste within the scientific endeavour. Aesthetic features like simplicity, elegance and symmetry are sources of wonder and awe for many scientists, thus motivating scientific pursuit. Conversely, theories that have been empirically successful may be judged to lack aesthetic merit, which contributes to the desire to find a new theory that subsumes the old. The topic has been addressed by several publications discussing how aesthetic values are related to scientific experiments and theories. == See also == Aesthetics Mathematical beauty == References ==


id: agbiotechnet-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AgBiotechNet-0.md
category: reference
title: AgBiotechNet
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AgBiotechNet
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:02.898304+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: agbiotechnet-20260505-0
summary:
AgBiotechNet is a searchable online database of scientific literature on topics related to agricultural biotechnology. Its target audience consists of biotechnology researchers and policymakers. Though some features on the site are available for free, others can only be accessed by paid subscribers. First launched in January 1999, AgBiotechNet is run by the Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International (also known as CABI), which founded it along with Michigan State University's Agricultural Biotechnology Support Project. == References == == External links == Official website


id: antweb-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AntWeb-0.md
category: reference
title: AntWeb
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AntWeb
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:04.258926+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: antweb-20260505-0
summary:
AntWeb is the leading online database on ants: storing specimens images and records, and natural history information, and documenting over 490,000 specimens across over 35,000 taxa of ants in its open source and community driven repository as of November 2014. It was set up by Brian L. Fisher in 2002, and cost US$30,000 to build. == References == == External links == Website


id: apec-youth-science-festival-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APEC_Youth_Science_Festival-0.md
category: reference
title: APEC Youth Science Festival
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APEC_Youth_Science_Festival
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:05.575942+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: apec-youth-science-festival-20260505-0
summary:
APEC Youth Science Festival is a science fair run by the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC). It is for 15–18-year-olds with an interest in science–technology, and seeks to break down cultural barriers for learning. It began in 1998 in Seoul. The president of the Republic of Korea proposed to host the APEC Youth Science Festival at the 2nd APEC Science and Technology Ministers' Conference on November 13, 1996. == List of festivals == == References == == External links == https://web.archive.org/web/20100917232134/http://apec.org/apec/news___media/2004_media_releases/050804_youthsciencefest.html


id: brassboard-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brassboard-0.md
category: reference
title: Brassboard
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brassboard
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:07.997653+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: brassboard-20260505-0
summary:
A brassboard or brass board is an experimental or demonstration test model, intended for field testing outside the laboratory environment. A brassboard follows an earlier prototyping stage called a breadboard. A brassboard contains both the functionality and approximate physical configuration of the final operational product. Unlike breadboards, brassboards typically recreate geometric and dimensional constraints of the final system which are critical to its performance, as is the case in radio frequency systems. While representative of the physical layout of the production-grade product, a brassboard will not necessarily incorporate all final details, nor represent the physical size and quality level of the final deliverable product. Exact definition of a brassboard depends on the industry and has changed with time. A 1992 guide book on proposal preparation defined a brassboard or a breadboard as "a laboratory or shop working model that may or may not look like the final product or system, but that will operate in the same way as the final system". The definition of a breadboard was further narrowed to purely electronic systems, while a brassboard was treated as "a similar arrangement for hydraulic, pneumatic or mechanically interconnected components". In modern system-on-a-chip prototyping, brassboard is defined as a second


id: cambridge-science-festival-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_Science_Festival-0.md
category: reference
title: Cambridge Science Festival
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_Science_Festival
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:09.254813+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cambridge-science-festival-20260505-0
summary:
The Cambridge Science Festival was a series of events typically held annually in March in Cambridge, England and was the United Kingdom's largest free science festival. In 2019 it was announced that the Cambridge Science Festival and the Cambridge Festival of Ideas would be combined into one festival. The Cambridge Festival took place for the first time in March 2021. The festival attracts more than 30,000 visitors to over 250 events. University researchers and students open their lecture halls and laboratories to the general public, and hold Talks, Exhibitions and Demonstrations, mostly free of charge. Started in 1994 by scientists of the University of Cambridge and backed by local businesses, the festival was inspired by National Science Week and is aimed making science and engineering more accessible, showcasing research performed at Cambridge University, and encouraging young people to pursue careers in engineering and science. == Gallery == == References == == External links == Official website 2016 planner


id: cameroon-academy-of-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameroon_Academy_of_Sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: Cameroon Academy of Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameroon_Academy_of_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:10.425467+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cameroon-academy-of-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
The Cameroon Academy of Sciences (CAS) is a non-governmental organization that supports the progression of science and technology for the economic, social, and cultural development of Cameroon. It was established in 1990 by a group of Cameroonian scholars during a symposium on agriculture and agricultural research in Sub-Saharan Africa in Douala, Cameroon. The academy provides unbiased advice to the government and other stakeholders on issues related to science and technology. == History == The idea of creating a national academy of sciences in Cameroon was first proposed in 1972 by the Council for Higher Education and Scientific Research. In 1982, the council proposed a draft decree for the creation of the academy. However, it was not until 1990 that the academy was formed by a group of Cameroonian scholars during a symposium on agriculture and agricultural research in Sub-Saharan Africa in Douala, Cameroon. The symposium was organized by the International Foundation for Science and the Third World Academy of Sciences. The founding members of the academy, 25 scientists from various disciplines, elected Jean-Pierre Tignol as the first president of the academy. The academy was officially inaugurated on 10 February 1993 in Yaoundé, Cameroon, by then Prime Minister Simon Achidi Achu.


id: cello-scrotum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cello_scrotum-0.md
category: reference
title: Cello scrotum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cello_scrotum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:15.460812+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cello-scrotum-20260505-0
summary:
Cello scrotum is a hoax medical condition originally published as a brief case report in the British Medical Journal in 1974. As its name suggests, it was purportedly an affliction of the scrotum affecting male players of the cello. == History == The original letter was written by Elaine Murphy but signed by her husband John. The journal had printed an earlier report about 'guitar nipple', a condition said to occur when some styles of guitar playing excessively irritate the player's nipple (a form of contact dermatitis similar to jogger's nipple), which Murphy and her husband believed was likely a joke. Murphy now points out that even a cursory study of the cellist's posture would show that the 'cello scrotum' complaint would not occur. The unlikelihood of a cellist's posture contributing to scrotal injury was raised back in 1974, but seems to have been overlooked. Murphy admitted the hoax in 2009 in another letter to the BMJ after an article in the 2008 Christmas edition of the BMJ made reference to the complaint. The truth of the case report had already been questioned in the medical literature in 1991. Others have cited it, although expressing scepticism. The implications of this


id: chemrxiv-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ChemRxiv-0.md
category: reference
title: ChemRxiv
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ChemRxiv
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:17.898205+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chemrxiv-20260505-0
summary:
ChemRxiv (pronounced "chem archive"—the X represents the Greek letter chi [χ]) is an open access preprint archive for chemistry. It is operated by the American Chemical Society, Royal Society of Chemistry and German Chemical Society. The new preprint server was announced already in 2016, but was only opened online in 2017. Initially, editors of ACS journals were skeptical and only 80% of the editors allowed submissions to be uploaded to the preprint server in 2017. In 2019 the Chinese Chemical Society and the Chemical Society of Japan joined as co-owners of the preprint server. The initial reception of ChemRxiv was one of hesitation, with several major journals of the founding organizations initially unsupportive: Angewandte Chemie gave support in March 2018 and JACS only gave support in August 2018. However, ChemRxiv received more than 1,000 submissions in the first eighteen months, growing to 2,314 in 2019. Like other preprint servers, it saw a surge in COVID-19 preprints in 2020. == See also == List of preprint repositories == References == == External links == Official website


id: chief-scientist-of-south-australia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Scientist_of_South_Australia-0.md
category: reference
title: Chief Scientist of South Australia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Scientist_of_South_Australia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:19.085770+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: chief-scientist-of-south-australia-20260505-0
summary:
The Chief Scientist of South Australia is an independent advisory role to the Government of South Australia, providing advice to the Premier and Cabinet on matters of science, technology, innovation and research. The Chief Scientist chairs the South Australian Science Council and recommends to the government new members for the Council. == Incumbents == == References ==


id: china-hi-tech-fair-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_Hi-Tech_Fair-0.md
category: reference
title: China Hi-Tech Fair
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_Hi-Tech_Fair
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:20.402618+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: china-hi-tech-fair-20260505-0
summary:
The Shenzhen High-Tech Fair (Chinese: 深圳高交会, 高交会), officially known as the China Hi-Tech Fair (中国国际高新技术成果交易会, CHTF), is one of the most influential technology fairs in Shenzhen, China. It is jointly organized by Chinese National and Shenzhen municipal government departments and research institutions. == Description == Since its inception in 1999, the fair has been held annually in Shenzhen, usually at the Shenzhen Convention and Exhibition Center in mid-November. The fair serves not only as a platform for technological exchange but also as an important venue for connecting innovative startups with capital. The fair covers multiple fields, including but not limited to electronic information, environmental protection, new energy, biotechnology, and advanced manufacturing. Additionally, the CHTF includes forums, technical seminars, product launches, and international cooperation exchanges, attracting numerous domestic and international enterprises, research institutions, and investors. == References ==


id: code-break-procedure-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code-break_procedure-0.md
category: reference
title: Code-break procedure
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code-break_procedure
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:21.649031+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: code-break-procedure-20260505-0
summary:
A code-break procedure is a set of rules which determine when planned unblinding should occur in a blinded experiment. FDA guidelines recommend that sponsors of blinded trials include a code-break procedure in their standard operating procedure. A code-break procedure should only allow a participant to be unblinded before the conclusion of a trial in the event of an emergency. Code-break usually refers to the unmasking of treatment allocation, but can refer to any form of unblinding. Traditionally, each patient's treatment allocation data was stored in a sealed envelopes, which was to be opened to break code. However, this system is prone to abuse. Reports of researchers opening envelopes prematurely or holding the envelopes up to lights to determine their contents has led some researchers to say that the use of sealed envelopes is no longer acceptable. As of 2016, sealed envelopes were still in use in some clinical trials. Modern clinical trials usually store this information in computer files. == See also == Sealedenvelope.com – a provider of code-break services == References ==


id: color-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Color science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:22.773568+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: color-science-20260505-0
summary:
Color science is the scientific study of color including lighting and optics; measurement of light and color; the physiology, psychophysics, and modeling of color vision; and color reproduction. It is the modern extension of traditional color theory. == Organizations == International Commission on Illumination (CIE) Illuminating Engineering Society (IES) Inter-Society Color Council (ISCC) Society for Imaging Science and Technology (IS&T) International Colour Association (AIC) Optica, formerly the Optical Society of America (OSA) The Colour Group Society of Dyers and Colourists (SDC) American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists (AATCC) Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology (ARVO) ACM SIGGRAPH Vision Sciences Society (VSS) Council for Optical Radiation Measurements (CORM) == Journals == The preeminent scholarly journal publishing research papers in color science is Color Research and Application, started in 1975 by founding editor-in-chief Fred Billmeyer, along with Gunter Wyszecki, Michael Pointer and Rolf Kuehni, as a successor to the Journal of Colour (1964–1974). Previously most color science work had been split between journals with broader or partially overlapping focus such as the Journal of the Optical Society of America (JOSA), Photographic Science and Engineering (1957–1984), and the Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists (renamed Coloration Technology in 2001).


id: community-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_of_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Community of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:24.053257+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: community-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Community of Science was a collection of online databases, providing research information to both the public and subscribers, and services for the research community. It is owned by ProQuest. == History == Community of Science was founded in 1988 by Johns Hopkins University. The Community of Science databases were originally hosted online at http://cos.gdb.org/, on the webserver of the GDB Human Genome Database. Community of Science was also accessible via U.S. Department of Agriculture CRIS, National Science Foundation, and Department of Health and Human Services. As of 1997 the CEO and president was Huntington Williams, and the organisation was located in Baltimore, Maryland. == Databases == Community of Science Expertise Community of Science Funding Opportunities – categorised according to a standardised list of keywords Canadian editions of these databases also existed. == Services == Community of Science Funding Alert Community of Science Funding News – published biweekly == Access == The following organisations are subscribed: Association of Commonwealth Universities == See also == List of funding opportunity databases == References ==


id: compressorium-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compressorium-0.md
category: reference
title: Compressorium
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compressorium
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:25.372984+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: compressorium-20260505-0
summary:
The compressorium (plural: compressoria) is a scientific apparatus for applying pressure to a sample for examination with a microscope. Widely used by microscopists in the 19th century, they were produced by companies such as Bausch and Lomb. Many versions of compressoria were developed over the years, with one of the first attributed to the famous histologist Jan Evangelista Purkyně, see picture. Compressoria were still used in the twenty-first century for the identification of Trichinella worms in samples. == References ==


id: computational-representational-understanding-of-mind-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational-representational_understanding_of_mind-0.md
category: reference
title: Computational-representational understanding of mind
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational-representational_understanding_of_mind
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:26.576487+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: computational-representational-understanding-of-mind-20260505-0
summary:
Computational representational understanding of mind (CRUM) is a hypothesis in cognitive science which proposes that thinking is performed by computations operating on representations. This hypothesis assumes that the mind has mental representations analogous to data structures and computational procedures analogous to algorithms, such that computer programs using algorithms applied to data structures can model the mind and its processes. CRUM takes into consideration several theoretical approaches of understanding human cognition, including logic, rule, concept, analogy, image, and connectionist-based systems based on artificial neural networks. These serve as the representation aspects of CRUM theory which are then acted upon to simulate certain aspects of human cognition, such as the use of rule-based systems in neuroeconomics. There is much disagreement on this hypothesis, but CRUM has high regard among some researchers. Philosopher Paul Thagard called it "the most theoretically and experimentally successful approach to mind ever developed". == See also == Cognitive science Computational neuroscience == References == == External links == Glossary for Cognitive Science at the University of Waterloo Paul Thagard


id: conical-refiner-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conical_refiner-0.md
category: reference
title: Conical refiner
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conical_refiner
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:31.606761+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conical-refiner-20260505-0
summary:
The conical refiner is a machine used in the refining of pulp in the papermaking process. It may also be referred to as a Jordan refiner, after the American inventor Joseph Jordan who patented the device in 1858. The conical refiner is a chamber with metal bars mounted around the inside of the container. The material to be refined is pumped into the chamber at high-pressure rate in order to create an abrasive effect as the material is forced through the machine, abraided by the metal bars. At the opposite end of the chamber the resulting pulp is pumped out. == References ==


id: core-facility-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Core_facility-0.md
category: reference
title: Core facility
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Core_facility
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:32.826369+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: core-facility-20260505-0
summary:
A core facility (also known as core laboratory or simply "core", like in "flow cytometry core", occasionally technological platform) is a centralized shared research resource that provides scientific community with access to unique and highly specialized instruments, technologies, services, and experts. Cores are frequently built around a specific technology or instrumentation, but not always (for example, biostatistics cores offer services of experts skilled in the use of software packages). A database of US core facilities is maintained by the Association of Biomolecular Resource Facilities. By the late 20th century, the researchers in the life sciences were increasingly dependent on the use of expensive and complex instruments and techniques that cannot be economically replicated inside each laboratory. In many areas (for example, in translational science) access to core laboratories became essential. Once the research institutions recognized the potential cost savings of provisioning state-of-the-art instrumentation and services in a centralized way, multiple shared facilities were established, prompting discussions about the best ways to administer and finance them. The high-value and difficult-to-operate equipment typically used in a core setting in the beginning of the 21st century included NMR spectrometers, mass spectrometers, Raman spectrometers and microscopes, transmission and Auger electron microscopes, X-ray diffraction spectrometers,


id: curie-s-principle-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curie's_principle-0.md
category: reference
title: Curie's principle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curie's_principle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:33.986657+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: curie-s-principle-20260505-0
summary:
Curie's principle, or Curie's symmetry principle, is a maxim about cause and effect formulated by Pierre Curie in 1894: the symmetries of the causes are to be found in the effects. The idea was based on the ideas of Franz Ernst Neumann and Bernhard Minnigerode. Thus, it is sometimes known as the Neumann–Minnigerode–Curie principle. Later physicists have interpreted Curie's principle in the context of thermodynamics. Dynamics close to equilibrium are described by a set of transport coefficients whose symmetries must match the symmetries of the system, according to Curie's principle. == References ==


id: data-clarification-form-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_clarification_form-0.md
category: reference
title: Data clarification form
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_clarification_form
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:35.225704+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: data-clarification-form-20260505-0
summary:
A data clarification form (DCF) or data query form is a questionnaire specifically used in clinical research. The DCF is the primary data clarification tool from the trial sponsor or contract research organization (CRO) towards the investigator to clarify discrepancies and ask the investigator for clarification. The DCF is part of the data validation process in a clinical trial. == See also == == References == == Further reading == Celine Clive (2004), Handbook of SOPs for Good Clinical Practice, CRC, ISBN 0-8493-2181-6 == External links == DCF entry in Clinical Research Dictionary


id: degree-of-frost-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degree_of_frost-0.md
category: reference
title: Degree of frost
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degree_of_frost
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:36.426459+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: degree-of-frost-20260505-0
summary:
A degree of frost is a non-standard unit of measure for air temperature meaning degrees below melting point (also known as "freezing point") of water (0 degrees Celsius or 32 degrees Fahrenheit). "Degree" in this case can refer to degree Celsius or degree Fahrenheit. When based on Celsius, 0 degrees of frost is the same as 0 °C, and any other value is simply the negative of the Celsius temperature. When based on Fahrenheit, 0 degrees of frost is equal to 32 °F. Conversion formulas: T [degrees of frost] = 32 °F − T [°F] T [°F] = 32 °F − T [degrees of frost] The term "degrees of frost" was widely used in accounts of the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration in the early 20th century. The term appears frequently in Ernest Shackleton's books South and Heart of the Antarctic, Apsley Cherry-Garrard's account of his Antarctic adventures in The Worst Journey in the World (wherein he recorded 109.5 degrees [Fahrenheit] of frost, −77.5 °F or −60.8 °C), in Jack London's "To Build A Fire", as well as Admiral Richard E. Byrd's book Alone. == References ==


id: degrees-of-freedom-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degrees_of_freedom-0.md
category: reference
title: Degrees of freedom
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degrees_of_freedom
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:37.551658+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: degrees-of-freedom-20260505-0
summary:
In many scientific fields, the degrees of freedom of a system is the number of parameters of the system that may vary independently. For example, a point in the plane has two degrees of freedom for translation: its two coordinates; a non-infinitesimal object on the plane might have additional degrees of freedoms related to its orientation. In mathematics, this notion is formalized as the dimension of a manifold or an algebraic variety. When degrees of freedom is used instead of dimension, this usually means that the manifold or variety that models the system is only implicitly defined. See: Degrees of freedom (mechanics), number of independent motions that are allowed to the body or, in case of a mechanism made of several bodies, number of possible independent relative motions between the pieces of the mechanism Degrees of freedom (physics and chemistry), a term used in explaining dependence on parameters, or the dimensions of a phase space Degrees of freedom (statistics), the number of values in the final calculation of a statistic that are free to vary Degrees of freedom problem, the problem of controlling motor movement given abundant degrees of freedom == See also == Six degrees of freedom == References


id: dematerialization-products-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dematerialization_(products)-0.md
category: reference
title: Dematerialization (products)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dematerialization_(products)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:38.793920+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dematerialization-products-20260505-0
summary:
The dematerialization of a product literally means less, or better yet, no material is used to deliver the same level of functionality to the user. Sharing, borrowing and the organization of group services that facilitate and cater for communities needs could alleviate the requirement of ownership of many products. In his book In The Bubble: Designing In A Complex World, John Thakara states that "the average consumer power tool is used for ten minutes in its entire life—but it takes hundreds of times its own weight to manufacture such an object". A product service system with shared tools could simply offer access to them when needed. This shift from a reliance on products to services is the process of dematerialization. Digital music distribution systems, car clubs, bike hire schemes and laundry services all can be examples of dematerialization. == References == == External links == Dematerialization pattern from the Liberating Voices pattern language discusses problems and solutions related to dematerialization


id: distinguished-professor-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distinguished_professor-0.md
category: reference
title: Distinguished professor
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distinguished_professor
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:40.045046+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: distinguished-professor-20260505-0
summary:
Distinguished professor is an academic title given to some top tenured professors in American universities, schools, or departments. Some distinguished professors may have endowed chairs. Often specific to one institution, titles such as "president's professor", "university professor", "distinguished professor", "distinguished research professor", "distinguished teaching professor", "distinguished university professor", or "regents professor" are granted to a small percentage of the top tenured faculty who are regarded as particularly important in their respective fields of research. Some institutions grant more university-specific, formal titles such as M.I.T.'s "Institute Professor", Yale University's "Sterling Professor", or Duke University's "James B. Duke Professor". Some academic and/or scholarly organizations may also bestow the title "distinguished professor" in recognition of achievement over the course of an academic career. For example, the Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture annually recognizes up to five faculty members at architecture schools in the United States and Canada with the ACSA Distinguished Professor Award. == References ==


id: elicitation-technique-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elicitation_technique-0.md
category: reference
title: Elicitation technique
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elicitation_technique
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:41.304520+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: elicitation-technique-20260505-0
summary:
An elicitation technique is any of a number of data collection techniques used in anthropology, cognitive science, counseling, education, knowledge engineering, linguistics, management, philosophy, psychology, or other fields to gather knowledge or information from people. Recent work in behavioral economics has purported that elicitation techniques can be used to control subject misconceptions and mitigate errors from generally accepted experimental design practices. Elicitation, in which knowledge is sought directly from human beings, is usually distinguished from indirect methods such as gathering information from written sources. A person who interacts with human subjects in order to elicit information from them may be called an elicitor, an analyst, experimenter, or knowledge engineer, depending on the field of study. Elicitation techniques include interviews, observation of either naturally occurring behavior (including as part of participant observation) or behavior in a laboratory setting, or the analysis of assigned tasks. == List of elicitation techniques == Interviews Existing System Project Scope Brain Storming Focus Groups Exploratory Prototypes User Task Analysis Observation Surveys Questionnaire Story Board == References == Elisitasi: Proses dan Metode untuk Merancang Sistem Baru yang Efektif


id: ergonomic-glove-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergonomic_glove-0.md
category: reference
title: Ergonomic glove
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ergonomic_glove
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:42.532453+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ergonomic-glove-20260505-0
summary:
An ergonomic glove, also known as a computer glove or support glove, is a stiff glove worn to try to prevent or remedy carpal tunnel syndrome by holding the wrist in a certain position while typing. == References ==


id: evidence-gap-map-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_gap_map-0.md
category: reference
title: Evidence gap map
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_gap_map
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:47.716732+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-gap-map-20260505-0
summary:
An evidence gap map (EGM) is a systematic display of the evidence for a domain which highlights the lack of evidence in particular areas. The evidence gaps typically appear as holes in a matrix of cross-referenced results. == References ==


id: experiment-website-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiment_(website)-0.md
category: reference
title: Experiment (website)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiment_(website)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:48.933373+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: experiment-website-20260505-0
summary:
Experiment, formerly called Microryza, is a US website for crowdfunding science-based research projects. Researchers can post their research projects to solicit pledges. Experiment works on the all-or-nothing funding model. The backers are only charged if the research projects reach their funding target during a set time frame. In February 2014, the site changed its name from Microryza to Experiment.com. == History == It was founded in 2012 by Denny Luan and Cindy Wu, former University of Washington students. The former name Microryza is inspired by Mycorrhizae and symbiotic fungi that lives in the roots of plants. Unlike the popular crowdfunding site Kickstarter, backers of Experiment projects do not get tangible rewards for backing. Researchers share the scientific process directly with the backers and become a part of the project.Additionally, all proposals are subject to review and approval by the site's staff, and any work involving human or animal subjects must by supported by an institutional review board. Experiment charges 11-13% in fees (8% for platform fees and 3-5% for payment processing) only if the campaign is successful. If the campaign does not reach the funding goal, no one is charged. As of Aug 7, 2015, more than 5,000 projects were


id: expert-elicitation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expert_elicitation-0.md
category: reference
title: Expert elicitation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expert_elicitation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:50.238114+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: expert-elicitation-20260505-0
summary:
In science, engineering, and research, expert elicitation is the synthesis of opinions of authorities of a subject where there is uncertainty due to insufficient data or when such data is unattainable because of physical constraints or lack of resources. Expert elicitation is essentially a scientific consensus methodology. It is often used in the study of rare events. Expert elicitation allows for parametrization, an "educated guess", for the respective topic under study. Expert elicitation generally helps quantify uncertainty. Expert elicitation tends to be multidisciplinary as well as interdisciplinary, with practically universal applicability, and is used in a broad range of fields. Prominent recent expert elicitation applications include climate change, modeling seismic hazard and damage, association of tornado damage to wind speed in developing the Enhanced Fujita scale, risk analysis for nuclear waste storage. In performing expert elicitation certain factors need to be taken into consideration. The topic must be one for which there are people who have predictive expertise. Furthermore, the objective should be to obtain an experts' carefully considered judgment based on a systematic consideration of all relevant evidence. For this reason one should take care to adopt strategies designed to help the expert being interviewed to avoid overlooking relevant


id: extinction-cross-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_cross-0.md
category: reference
title: Extinction cross
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extinction_cross
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:51.553356+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: extinction-cross-20260505-0
summary:
The extinction cross is an optical phenomenon that is seen when trying to extinguish a laser beam or non-planar white light using crossed polarizers. Ideally, crossed (90° rotated) polarizers block all light, because light that is polarized along the polarization axis of the first polarizer is perpendicular to the polarization axis of the second. When the beam is not perfectly collimated, however, a characteristic fringing pattern is produced. == See also == Polarization (waves) == Further reading == Mineralogy notes 6 See "6.3.5. Review of Uniaxial Optical Properties" Nikon MicroscopyU See Figure 1a


id: forced-convection-in-porous-media-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forced_convection_in_porous_media-0.md
category: reference
title: Forced convection in porous media
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forced_convection_in_porous_media
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:52.743751+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: forced-convection-in-porous-media-20260505-0
summary:
Forced convection is type of heat transport in which fluid motion is generated by an external source like a (pump, fan, suction device, etc.). Heat transfer through porus media is very effective and efficiently. Forced convection heat transfer in a confined porous medium has been a subject of intensive studies during the last decades because of its wide applications. The basic problem in heat convection through porous media consists of predicting the heat transfer rate between a deferentially heated, solid impermeable surface and a fluid-saturated porous medium. Beginning with constant wall temperature. In 2D steady state system ∂ u / ∂ x + ∂ v / ∂ y = 0 {\displaystyle \partial u/\partial x+\partial v/\partial y=0} According to Darcy's law u = − ( K / μ ) ∂ P / ∂ x {\displaystyle u=-(K/\mu )\partial P/\partial x} v = − ( K / μ ) ∂ P / ∂ y {\displaystyle v=-(K/\mu )\partial P/\partial y} u ∂ T / ∂ x + v ∂ T / ∂ y = α ∂ 2 ∂ x 2 T {\displaystyle u\partial T/\partial x+v\partial T/\partial y={\boldsymbol {\alpha }}{\partial ^{2} \over \partial x^{2}}T} u = {\displaystyle u=} U ∞ {\displaystyle U_{\infty }} v =


id: free-fall-machine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_fall_machine-0.md
category: reference
title: Free fall machine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_fall_machine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:53.947295+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: free-fall-machine-20260505-0
summary:
A free fall machine (FFM) is a mechanism designed to permit the development of small biological samples, such as cell cultures, with a simulated effect of micro-gravity under free fall conditions. == Description == The free fall machine (FFM) addresses some of the problems of the simple horizontal clinostat or random positioning machines (RPM). In a typical machine samples are allowed to cycle between free fall for about a metre down a column (micro-gravity simulation, near "0 g") and a "bounce" back to the top of the column that is intended to be so fast (c. 20 g for 20 ms) that it is undetected by the biological sample. The sample therefore experiences an average gravity of near 0 g. Long duration of hyper-gravity is often simulated by machines such as the large diameter centrifuge (LDC) at ESA. To simulate partial-gravity (between simulated 0 and Earth's gravity, 1, such as Mars or Moon gravitational strengths) conditions, an RPM can also be used. == See also == Clinostat Gravitropism Large Diameter Centrifuge Random Positioning Machine == References == == External links == ETH Space Biology Free Fall Machine


id: genome-news-network-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome_News_Network-0.md
category: reference
title: Genome News Network
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome_News_Network
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:55.107652+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: genome-news-network-20260505-0
summary:
The Genome News Network (abbreviated GNN) is an online magazine that publishes news articles and educational resources about genomics and medicine. It was founded in 1999, with Barbara Culliton as the founding editor-in-chief. It was originally published by Celera Genomics. In 2001, the Institute for Genomic Research became the magazine's new publisher. An article published in the Lancet Oncology that year stated that the magazine "...offers news, original articles, the online reference book, What’s a genome?, and primers on sequencing and assembling the genome – all well written and illustrated". As of 2010, new issues of the magazine were published biweekly. == References == == External links == Official website


id: gikii-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GikII-0.md
category: reference
title: GikII
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GikII
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:56.238713+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gikii-20260505-0
summary:
GikII is a series of European conferences on the intersections between law, technology and popular culture. It is hosted at a different institution every year. The first conference was in 2006 and was held in Edinburgh, and was organised by Lilian Edwards and Andres Guadamuz. The conference has been held in several European universities and institutions, including University College London, University of Oxford, University of Edinburgh, University of Amsterdam, Alexander von Humboldt Institute for Internet and Society, University of Vienna and University of Sussex. Spin-off workshops are regularly held in addition to the main yearly conference in other parts of the world or as tracks in other conferences, such as at TILTing 2019 at Tilburg University and SoGikII 2009 at the University of New South Wales. The conference deals with what the organisers describe as "geek law", studying the intersection of law, regulation, popular culture and technology. The covered topics include artificial intelligence, cryptocurrencies, virtual worlds, games, tattoos, 3D printing, fan fiction, digital privacy, avatar rights, augmented reality, and robots. == Name == The Call for Papers of the first workshop gave the following explanation: Geeks are the people who contribute to this knowledge: fellow travellers on the digital omnibus,


id: gustatory-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustatory_technology-0.md
category: reference
title: Gustatory technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustatory_technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:52:57.467269+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gustatory-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Gustatory technology is the engineering discipline dealing with gustatory representation. == Description == Virtual taste refers to a taste experience generated by a digital taste simulator. Electrodes are used to simulate the taste and feel of real food in the mouth. In 2012, Dr. Nimesha Ranasinghe and a team of researchers at the National University of Singapore developed the digital lollipop, an electronic device capable of transmitting four major taste sensations (salty, sour, sweet and bitter) to the tongue. In 2016 the same team created a square with thermoelectric elements to simulate the sensation of sweetness through changes in temperature. If this system is implemented in mugs or drinking glasses, it could make low-sugar drinks taste sweeter helping people reduce sugar intake. A team from the University of Tokyo created a device that simulates the different textures of food through electricity. The device uses electrodes place on the masseter muscle (a jaw muscle used for chewing) and simulates the texture by changing this muscle frequency. For example, a higher frequency gives the food a harder texture. == References ==


id: high-altitude-research-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-altitude_research-0.md
category: reference
title: High-altitude research
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-altitude_research
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:03.817026+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: high-altitude-research-20260505-0
summary:
There are a wide range of potential applications for research at high altitude, including medical, physiological, and cosmic physics research. == High-altitude medical research == The most obvious and direct application of high-altitude research is to understand altitude illnesses such as acute mountain sickness, and the rare but rapidly fatal conditions, high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) and high-altitude cerebral edema (HACE). Research at high altitude is also an important way to learn about sea level conditions that are caused or complicated by hypoxia such as chronic lung disease and sepsis. Patients with these conditions are very complex and usually suffer from several other diseases at the same time, so it is virtually impossible to work out which of their problems is caused by lack of oxygen. Altitude research gets round this by studying the effects of oxygen deprivation on otherwise healthy people. Travelling to high altitude is often used as a way of studying the way the body responds to a shortage of oxygen. It is difficult and prohibitively expensive to conduct some of this research at sea level. Although the shortage of air contributes to the effects on the human body, research has found that most altitude sicknesses can be


id: incompatibility-thesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incompatibility_thesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Incompatibility thesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incompatibility_thesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:04.978566+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: incompatibility-thesis-20260505-0
summary:
Incompatibility thesis is an argument in research methodology about incompatibility of quantitative research and qualitative research paradigms in the same research. This thesis is based on philosophies of post-structuralism and post-modernism (among others). Arguments from those philosophies support exclusive superiority of one orientation (usually, the qualitative one) are oppose mixing it with quantitative research (as is advocated by the proponents of mixed-method research who support the compatibility thesis). == Information == Incompatibilists maintain that problems arise not so much at the level of practice, but at the level of epistemological paradigms. In particular, they propose that quantitative and qualitative methods are incompatible on an epistemological level; therefore, the two kinds of methods are incompatible. HOWE 1998, argues that a principle implicit in the incompatibilist's argument ‘that abstract paradigms should determine research methods in a one-way fashion—is untenable’. That paradigms must demonstrate their worth in terms of how they inform, and are informed by, research methods that are successfully employed. Given such a two-way relationship between methods and paradigms, paradigms are evaluated in terms of how well they square with the demands of research practice and incompatibilism vanishes. == References == Onwuegbuzie, Anthony J.; Leech, Nancy L. (2005). "Taking the "Q"


id: infrared-science-archive-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_Science_Archive-0.md
category: reference
title: Infrared Science Archive
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_Science_Archive
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:06.233747+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: infrared-science-archive-20260505-0
summary:
The Infrared Science Archive (IRSA) is the primary archive for the infrared and submillimeter astronomical projects of NASA, the space agency of the United States. IRSA curates the science products of over 15 missions, including the Spitzer Space Telescope, the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE), the Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS), and the Two Micron All-Sky Survey (2MASS). It also serves data from infrared and submillimeter European Space Agency missions with NASA participation, including the Infrared Space Observatory (ISO), Planck, and the Herschel Space Observatory. As of 2019, IRSA provides access to more than 1 petabyte of data consisting of roughly 1 trillion astronomical measurements, which span wavelengths from 1 micron to 10 millimeters and include all-sky coverage in 24 bands. Approximately 10% of all refereed astronomical journal articles cite data sets curated by IRSA. IRSA is part of the Infrared Processing and Analysis Center (IPAC) and is located on the campus of the California Institute of Technology. It is one of NASA's Astrophysics Data Centers, along with the High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center (HEASARC), the Mikulski Archive for Space Telescopes (MAST), and others. == References == == External links == Infrared Science Archive Infrared Processing and Analysis Center


id: infrastructure-bias-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure_bias-0.md
category: reference
title: Infrastructure bias
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure_bias
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:07.459896+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: infrastructure-bias-20260505-0
summary:
In economics and social policy, infrastructure bias is the influence of the location and availability of pre-existing infrastructure, such as roads and telecommunications facilities, on social and economic development. In science, infrastructure bias is the influence of existing social or scientific infrastructure on scientific observations. In astronomy and particle physics, where the availability of particular kinds of telescopes or particle accelerators acts as a constraint on the types of experiments that can be done, the data that can be retrieved is biased towards that which can be obtained by the equipment. Procedural bias, related to infrastructure bias, is shown by a case of irregular genetic sampling of Bolivian wild potatoes. A 2000 report of previous studies' sampling found that 60% of samples had been taken near towns or roads, where 22% would be the average, had the samples been taken at random (or from equidistant points, or at specifically varying distances from towns, representative of the average terrain density). == References ==


id: instructional-manipulation-check-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_manipulation_check-0.md
category: reference
title: Instructional manipulation check
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructional_manipulation_check
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:08.715364+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: instructional-manipulation-check-20260505-0
summary:
An instructional manipulation check, often abbreviated IMC, is a special kind of question inserted in a questionnaire among the regular questions, designed to check whether respondents are paying attention to the instructions. Discarding responses by participants who fail to read the instructions increases the signal-to-noise ratio and can thereby increase the statistical power of an experiment. The tool was developed by Oppenheimer et al. Eliminating random responses this way before performing statistical hypothesis testing may be considered a legitimate form of data manipulation, but should be duly mentioned in publications reporting on the outcome of the experiment in question. == Blue-dot task == Among several forms an IMC can take, a popular one is the so-called blue-dot task, suitable for on-line questionnaires. A number of larger blue circles are arranged according to a Likert scale from (say) "very rarely" to "very frequently". Participants who ignore the instructions and merely want to finish the task will just click any one of these circles. The instructions, however, ask the participants to ignore the larger circles and instead click a little blue dot at the bottom of the screen. Oppenheimer et al. report that in a large sample of undergraduate participants, approximately 7%


id: instrument-effect-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrument_effect-0.md
category: reference
title: Instrument effect
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrument_effect
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:09.812579+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: instrument-effect-20260505-0
summary:
The instrument effect is an issue in experimental methodology meaning that any change during the measurement, or, the instrument, may influence the research validity. For example, in a control group design experiment, if the instruments used to measure the performance of the experiment group and the control group are different, a wrong conclusion about the experiment would be reached, the research result would be invalid. == References ==


id: the-internet-pilot-to-physics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Internet_Pilot_to_Physics-0.md
category: reference
title: The Internet Pilot to Physics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Internet_Pilot_to_Physics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:12.270752+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-internet-pilot-to-physics-20260505-0
summary:
TIPTOP (fully known as The Internet Pilot to Physics) was a web site operated in collaboration between Kenneth Bodin-Holmlund at Umeå University, Mikko Karttunen at McGill University and Guenther Nowotny at the Technical University of Vienna during 1994–1998, and it was originally derived from Physics Around the World (PAW) that was initiated by Karttunen at McGill University. In a historical perspective, PAW was one of the first web directories, listing various physics related resources. TIPTOP utilized (at the time) new technologies to handle a news system, a job database, a conference database, and an improved web directory for physics. TIPTOP was the first major site to use PHP with mySQL, today a highly popular combination. Already in 1995, TIPTOP also had one of the first embryos of a wiki, called the Living Encyclopedia of Physics, that offered community based-editing, an editorial system and peer review, as well as automatic cross linking. == References == == Further reading == A page entitled "About PhysicsWeb", that mentions TIPTOP A position paper in Journal of Physics C from 1996, by the creators of TIPTOP, that describes the initiative.


id: light-ergonomics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_ergonomics-0.md
category: reference
title: Light ergonomics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_ergonomics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:13.513764+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: light-ergonomics-20260505-0
summary:
Light ergonomics is the relationship between the light source and the individual. Poor light can be divided into the following: Individual or socio-cultural expectations Insufficient light Poor distribution of light Improper contrast Glare Flicker Thermal heating (over or under) Acoustic noise (especially fluorescents) Color spectrum (full-spectrum light, color temperature, etc.) == Effects of poor light == The effects of poor light can include the following: low productivity high human error rates inability to match or select correct colors eyestrain headache a reduction in mental alertness general malaise low employee morale == Types of light sources == == See also == Ergonomics Full-spectrum light Artificial sunlight == References ==


id: lilian-date-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lilian_date-0.md
category: reference
title: Lilian date
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lilian_date
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:14.628810+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lilian-date-20260505-0
summary:
A Lilian date is a day numbering system that counts the number of days elapsed since 15 October 1582, the first day of the Gregorian calendar, which is designated as Lilian date 1. The system was introduced in 1986 by Bruce G. Ohms, an engineer at IBM, to simplify date calculations in computing environments. Named after Aloysius Lilius, the principal author of the Gregorian Calendar reform, the Lilian date represents calendar dates as continuous integers rather than as year–month–day components. It is currently used by date conversion routines that are part of IBM Language Environment (LE) software and in IBM AIX COBOL. Lilius’s reform addressed accumulated drift in the Julian calendar and was promulgated by Pope Gregory XIII. In the first countries to implement the reform, Thursday 4 October 1582 (Julian) was followed by Friday 15 October 1582 (Gregorian). The Lilian epoch aligns with this first Gregorian day. == Definition == The Lilian date represents a calendar day as a single integer: 1 corresponds to 15 October 1582 (Gregorian), 2 to 16 October 1582, and so on, increasing by one each day. IBM documentation describes 14 October 1582 as day 0 for internal calculations, while public interfaces typically accept and


id: malta-2021-stratospheric-balloon-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malta_2021_Stratospheric_Balloon-0.md
category: reference
title: Malta 2021 Stratospheric Balloon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malta_2021_Stratospheric_Balloon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:19.506767+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: malta-2021-stratospheric-balloon-20260505-0
summary:
The Malta 2021 Stratospheric Balloon was a stratospheric upper-atmosphere weather balloon launched on 13 August 2021 from the Esplora Complex in the small, island-nation of Malta. A false-advertising campaign before the launch stated that the balloon would be a "space balloon" despite the fact the stratospheric balloon only climbed to 37 kilometres (23 mi), 63 kilometres (39 mi) short of the Kármán line. The launch succeeded an earlier, failed launch in which the balloon detached from its sensory payload due to an imbalance of forces acting on the balloon. == References ==


id: micro-pulling-down-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micro-pulling-down-0.md
category: reference
title: Micro-pulling-down
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micro-pulling-down
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:20.674976+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: micro-pulling-down-20260505-0
summary:
The micro-pulling-down (μ-PD) method is a crystal growth technique based on continuous transport of the melted substance through micro-channel(s) made in a crucible bottom. Continuous solidification of the melt is progressed on a liquid/solid interface positioned under the crucible. In a steady state, both the melt and the crystal are pulled-down with a constant (but generally different) velocity. Many different types of crystal are grown by this technique, including Y3Al5O12, Si, Si-Ge, LiNbO3, α-Al2O3, Y2O3, Sc2O3, LiF, CaF2, BaF2, etc. == Crystal growth routine == Standard routine procedure used in the growth of most of μ-PD crystals is well developed. The general stages of the growths include: Charging of the crucible with starting materials (mixture of powders) Heating of the crucible until starting materials in the crucible are completely melted Upward displacement of the seed until its contact with the meniscus or crucible Formation of the meniscus and partial melting of the seed top Correction of the shape of the meniscus through appropriate adjustment of crucible temperature and position of the seed crystal Crystal growth through pulling of the seed in downward direction Separation of the as grown crystal from the meniscus Cooling of the system (including the crystal and


id: microbalance-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbalance-0.md
category: reference
title: Microbalance
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbalance
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:21.930978+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: microbalance-20260505-0
summary:
A microbalance is an instrument capable of making precise measurements of weight of objects of relatively small mass: of the order of a million parts of a gram. In comparison, a standard analytical balance is 100 times less sensitive; i.e. it is limited in precision to 0.1 milligrams. Microbalances are generally used in a laboratory as standalone instruments but are also incorporated into other instruments, such as thermogravimetry, sorption/desorption systems, and surface property instruments. It is the precision of the microbalance that distinguishes it from other weighing devices. == Types == A quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) is a very sensitive mass deposition sensor based on the piezoelectric properties of the quartz crystal. This technique uses the changes in resonance frequency of the crystal to measure the mass on the surface because the resonance frequency is highly dependent on any changes of the crystal mass. A quartz crystal microbalance is capable of measuring mass deposition down to 0.1 nanograms. The sensitivity of the microbalance is lessened the closer the fulcrum is to the middle. A tapered element oscillating microbalance (TEOM) is an instrument used for real-time detection of aerosol particles by measuring their mass concentration. It makes use of a small


id: microparticle-performance-rating-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microparticle_performance_rating-0.md
category: reference
title: Microparticle performance rating
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microparticle_performance_rating
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:23.129411+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: microparticle-performance-rating-20260505-0
summary:
The Microparticle Performance Rating (MPR) is an air filter rating system created by the company 3M. It rates the ability of an air filter to filter out micro particles. Because MPR was created by 3M, it only applies to filters produced by the 3M brand. The higher the MPR, the better the filter's ability to capture particles from the air as it passes through the filter. MPR is different from MERV, the Minimum Efficiency Reporting Value. The MERV system measures a filter's ability to capture large particles. The MPR only takes into account the microscopic particles between 0.3 and 1 μm. == References == == External links == MPR vs. MERV, a piece of 3M promotional material giving some minimum capture rates for rating levels.


id: multiple-classification-ripple-down-rules-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple-classification_ripple-down_rules-0.md
category: reference
title: Multiple-classification ripple-down rules
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple-classification_ripple-down_rules
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:25.482401+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: multiple-classification-ripple-down-rules-20260505-0
summary:
Multiple-classification ripple-down rules (MCRDR) is an incremental knowledge acquisition technique which preserves the benefits and essential strategy of ripple-down rules (RDR) in handling the multiple classifications. MCRDR, the extension of RDR, is based on the assumption that the knowledge an expert provides is essentially a justification for a conclusion in a particular context. == Implementations == Below is a list of implementations of MCRDR The alpha version of RDR(MCRDR) Framework was developed by UNSW and UTAS Research Team and funded by ARC (System available at BESTRDR) RDR(MCRDR) document classifier was developed by Dr.Yang Sok Kim and AProf.Byeong Ho Kang (System available at BESTRDR) RDR(MCRDR) smart expert system was developed by UTAS Research Team and funded by Hyundai Steel. Pacific Knowledge Systems (PKS) uses a commercial product called RippleDown Expert that is based on Multiple Classification Ripple Down Rules Medscope Medication Review Mentor uses Multiple Classification Ripple Down Rules to identify adverse drug interactions with a patient's medicines regimen == BEST RDR Warehouse == BEST-RDR (Best Expert System Technique – Ripple Down Rule) website is freely accessible RDR publication and system warehouse that helps you to find programs and publications about RDR. A great amount of publications and programs based on


id: multistability-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multistability-0.md
category: reference
title: Multistability
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multistability
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:26.577003+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: multistability-20260505-0
summary:
In a dynamical system, multistability is the property of having multiple stable equilibrium points in the vector space spanned by the states in the system. By mathematical necessity, there must also be unstable equilibrium points between the stable points. Points that are stable in some dimensions and unstable in others are termed unstable, as is the case with the first three Lagrangian points. == Bistability == Bistability is the special case with two stable equilibrium points. It is the simplest form of multistability, and can occur in systems with only one state variable, as it only takes a one-dimensional space to separate two points. == Initial instability == Near an unstable equilibrium, any system will be sensitive to noise, initial conditions and system parameters, which can cause it to develop in one of multiple divergent directions. In economics and social sciences, path dependence gives rise to divergent directions of development. Some path dependent processes are adequately described by multistability, by being initially sensitive to input, before reaching a stagnant state – for example market share instability, which can develop into a stable monopoly for one of multiple possible vendors. == External links == Definition of multistability from icbm.de


id: natcarb-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NatCarb-0.md
category: reference
title: NatCarb
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NatCarb
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:27.736271+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: natcarb-20260505-0
summary:
The NatCarb geoportal provides access to geospatial information and tools concerning carbon sequestration in the United States. == External links == National Energy Technology Laboratory Carbon Sequestration Regional Partnerships == References == Carr, T.R., P.M. Rich, and J.D. Bartley. 2007. The NATCARB geoportal: linking distributed data from the Carbon Sequestration Regional Partnerships. Journal of Map and Geography Libraries (Geoscapes), "Special Issue on Department of Energy (DOE) Geospatial Science Innovations". In Press.


id: nurse-scientist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nurse_scientist-0.md
category: reference
title: Nurse scientist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nurse_scientist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:28.918820+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nurse-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
A nurse scientist is a nurse with advanced preparation such as a Ph.D. in nursing or related field including research principles and methodology, who also has expert content knowledge in a specific clinical area. The primary focus of the role is to provide leadership in the development, coordination and management of clinical research studies; provide mentorship for nurses in research; lead evaluation activities that improve outcomes for patients participating in research studies; contribute to the overall health sciences literature. Nurse scientists have been regarded as knowledge brokers. They participate in nursing research. == See also == Biomedical scientist == References ==


id: oil-bath-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_bath-0.md
category: reference
title: Oil bath
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_bath
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:30.100315+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: oil-bath-20260505-0
summary:
An oil bath is a type of heated bath used in a laboratory, most commonly used to heat up chemical reactions. It is a container of oil that is heated by a hot plate or (in rare cases) a Bunsen burner. == Use == These baths are commonly used to heat reaction mixtures more evenly than would be possible with a hot plate alone, as the entire outside of the reaction flask is heated. Generally, silicone oil is used in modern oil baths, although mineral oil, cottonseed oil and even phosphoric acid have been used in the past. == Hazards == Overheating the oil bath can result in a fire hazard, especially if mineral oil is being used. Generally, the maximum safe operating temperature of a mineral oil bath is approximately 160 °C (320 °F), the oil's flash point. Mineral oil cannot be used above 310 °C (590 °F) due to the compound's boiling point. If higher temperatures are needed, a silicone oil or a sand bath may be used instead. Silicone oil baths are effective in the 25 °C (77 °F) - 230 °C (446 °F) range. Sand baths are effective from 25 °C (77 °F) to above 500


id: open-assessment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_assessment-0.md
category: reference
title: Open assessment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_assessment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:35.117763+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: open-assessment-20260505-0
summary:
Open assessment is a method for making impact assessments where anyone can participate and contribute. Most open assessments have been made in Opasnet, which is a wiki-based web-workspace specifically designed for this purpose. The open assessment method has been developed in the Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare (THL, Finnish: Terveyden ja hyvinvoinnin laitos) in Finland originally for providing guidance in complex environmental health problems. So far, it has been applied on e.g. air pollution and pollutants in fish. Opasnet has won the World Summit Award Finland competition, the eGovernment and Institutions category. == See also == Opasnet Health impact assessment Risk assessment Environmental health == References == == External links == Description of open assessment in Opasnet


id: openwetware-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenWetWare-0.md
category: reference
title: OpenWetWare
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenWetWare
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:36.277616+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: openwetware-20260505-0
summary:
OpenWetWare is a wiki whose mission is "to support open research, education, publication, and discussion in biological sciences and engineering." OpenWetWare was created by graduate students at MIT on April 20, 2005. Initially, it served as a private lab wiki for the labs of Drew Endy and Tom Knight at MIT. The site was opened up to allow any lab to join on June 22, 2005. As of April 6, 2007, the site hosted 100 research laboratories from over 40 institutions, including Boston University, Brown University, Caltech, University of Cambridge, CNRS, Duke University, and many others. The server was shut down on April 15, 2025 due to a lack of funding, but returned on October 27th. In addition to laboratories, a number of scientific communities are based on the site, including synthetic biology, Mimulus, and the BioBricks Foundation. One scientific community is the iGEM community with over 60 different teams represented on June 28, 2013, including the NRP-UEA-Norwich team and the Groningen team. OpenWetWare runs on MediaWiki software on Linux servers. All content is available under free content licenses, specifically the GNU Free Documentation License (GFDL) and the Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike (CC-BY-SA) license. == External links == OpenWetWare ==


id: output-radio-frequency-spectrum-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Output_Radio_Frequency_Spectrum-0.md
category: reference
title: Output Radio Frequency Spectrum
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Output_Radio_Frequency_Spectrum
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:37.609092+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: output-radio-frequency-spectrum-20260505-0
summary:
ORFS stands for Output RF Spectrum, where 'RF' stands for Radio Frequency. The acronym ORFS is used in the context of mobile communication systems, e.g., GSM. It stands for the relationship between (a) the frequency offset from the carrier and (b) the power, measured in a specific bandwidth and time, produced by the mobile station due to effects in modulation and power ramping and switching. ORFS measurements are defined and required in order to prove conformance by various institutions, e.g., the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) or ETSI. == References ==


id: palaeos-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palaeos-0.md
category: reference
title: Palaeos
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palaeos
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:38.863746+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: palaeos-20260505-0
summary:
Palaeos.com is a web site on biology, paleontology, phylogeny and geology and which covers the history of Earth. The site is well respected and has been used as a reference by professional paleontologists such as Michael J. Benton, the professor of vertebrate palaeontology in the Department of Earth Sciences at the University of Bristol. It is frequently cited in Science Online. Palaeos.com was started by Toby White and Alan Kazlev; the pair were later joined by Chris Taylor, Mikko Haaramo of the Department of Geology at the University of Helsinki, and Chris Clowes. It features professional-level, yet readable articles about: Palaeontology, evolution and systematics Geochronology, earth systems and time scale Diversity of life and ecology The site's developers have started a wiki, Palaeos.org, which uses MediaWiki software to provide conventional voluntary membership. Some pages use images from websites run by David Peters, whose works sometimes considered as highly unreliable. == References == == External links == Palaeos.com Palaeos.org (wiki)


id: paradigm-experimental-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradigm_(experimental)-0.md
category: reference
title: Paradigm (experimental)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradigm_(experimental)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:40.116638+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: paradigm-experimental-20260505-0
summary:
In the behavioural sciences (e.g. psychology, biology, neurosciences), an experimental paradigm is an experimental setup or way of conducting a certain type of experiment (a protocol) that is defined by certain fine-tuned standards, and often has a theoretical background. A paradigm in this technical sense, however, is not a way of thinking as it is in the epistemological meaning (paradigm). In the social sciences empiricist experimentation has independent [and dependent] variables and control conditions...What is the origin of the hypotheses which are studied? Given the basic design, the hypothesis and the particular conditions for the experiment, an experimental paradigm must be made up. The paradigm typically includes factors such as experimental instructions for the subjects, the physical design of the experiment room, and the rules for process of the trial or trials to be carried out. The more paradigms which are attempted, and the more variables within a single paradigm are attempted, with the same results, the more sure one is of the results, that, "the effect is a true one and not merely a product of artifacts engendered by the use of a particular paradigm." The three core factors of paradigm design may be considered: "(a) ...the 'nuts and


id: pen-tilt-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pen_tilt-0.md
category: reference
title: Pen tilt
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pen_tilt
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:41.351949+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pen-tilt-20260505-0
summary:
Pen tilt refers to the angle of a writing instrument during handwriting and drawing, which can vary over time. In a coordinate system which is determined by the writing surface plane { X , Y } {\displaystyle \{X,Y\}} and the vertical pen-tip movement along the { Z } {\displaystyle \{Z\}} axis, all three two-dimensional planes can be discerned, and the angular signals can be delivered by a digitizer. It is part of the ISO/IEC standard 19794-7 for biometric data in signatures. == See also == Graphonomics == References ==


id: phenom-electron-microscope-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenom_(electron_microscope)-0.md
category: reference
title: Phenom (electron microscope)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenom_(electron_microscope)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:42.596701+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: phenom-electron-microscope-20260505-0
summary:
Phenom is a small, table-top sized scanning electron microscope (SEM) originally developed by Philips and FEI and further developed by Phenom-World. == Features == The microscope features a combination of optical and electron-optical images; the optical image enables a "Neverlost" function so operators may navigate to any point on the sample. Sample loading takes place in four seconds (to obtain the CMOS overview image) and 30 seconds into the vacuum space via rapid transfer technology (no conventional load lock). The Phenom system user interface is controlled with a touch screen. It achieves magnifications of up to 100,000 times with a resolution of down to 15 nm. An optional fully integrated X-ray analysis (EDS) system shows the composition of the sample in a few seconds.. == Gallery == == References == == External links == US Patent #7906762 - Compact scanning electron microscope Publication in: Systems Research Forum (SRF) Vol. 1 (2006) of the Stevens Institute of technology


id: piezo-ignition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piezo_ignition-0.md
category: reference
title: Piezo ignition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piezo_ignition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:44.098770+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: piezo-ignition-20260505-0
summary:
Piezo ignition is a type of ignition that is used in portable camping stoves, gas grills and some lighters. Piezo ignition uses the principle of piezoelectricity, which is the electric charge that accumulates in some materials in response to mechanical deformation. It consists of a small, spring-loaded hammer which, when a button is pressed, hits a crystal of PZT. This sudden forceful deformation produces a high voltage and subsequent electrical discharge, which ignites the gas. No external electric connection is required, though wires are sometimes used to place the sparking location away from the crystal itself. Piezo ignition systems can be operated by either a lever, push-button or built into the control knob. An electric spark is usually generated once per turn of the knob or press of the button. Eventually, the crystal will no longer be able to emit an electric discharge. However, this takes a long time — piezoelectric igniters usually stop sparking after several tens of thousands of strikes. The most common material used in piezo ignition systems is lead zirconate titanate (PZT). However, other materials such as quartz and certain types of ceramics can also exhibit piezoelectric properties. These materials generate an electric charge in response


id: pneumatic-trough-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumatic_trough-0.md
category: reference
title: Pneumatic trough
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumatic_trough
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:45.311972+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pneumatic-trough-20260505-0
summary:
A pneumatic trough is a piece of laboratory apparatus used for collecting gases, such as hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. It is mainly made of glass or various fibres and are of various sizes. It was invented by Stephen Hales. == Description == Four items are required for gas collection with a pneumatic trough: The trough itself, which is a large glass dish or a similar container. A gas bottle (or bulb), to hold the gas collected. A way to support the gas bottle or bulb, such as a beehive shelf or a hanger (as with Stephen Hales' design). A liquid in the trough. === Liquid === Pneumatic troughs require a liquid such as water. Scientists also have used mercury in pneumatic troughs, but usually only for the collection of water-soluble gases. Health and safety issues surrounding mercury generally prohibit its use in modern-day pneumatic troughs. == Usage == The bottle is filled with water, inverted, and placed into the pneumatic trough already containing water. The outlet tube from the gas-generating apparatus is inserted into the opening of the bottle so that gas can bubble up through it, displacing the water within. == See also == Eudiometer Pneumatic chemistry Joseph Priestley


id: principle-of-similitude-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_similitude-0.md
category: reference
title: Principle of similitude
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle_of_similitude
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:46.558647+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: principle-of-similitude-20260505-0
summary:
The principle of similitude is a supplement to the scientific method advocated by John Strutt (Lord Rayleigh) (1842–1919) that requires that any suggested scientific law be examined for its relationship to similar laws. The principle of similitude is very often used in scientific studies. For example, the study of blood flow known as hemodynamics. This study sometimes require the modeling of blood vessels in vitro. Here, the principle of similitude plays a huge role in ensuring the conditions of the model reproduces all aspects of behavior as the blood vessel in study. Various techniques are implemented when applying the principle of similitude. A well known technique is dimensional analysis. == References == Lord Rayleigh (1915). "The principle of similitude". Nature. 95 (66): 591. Bibcode:1915Natur..95...66R. doi:10.1038/095066c0.


id: problem-shaping-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_shaping-0.md
category: reference
title: Problem shaping
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_shaping
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:51.817507+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: problem-shaping-20260505-0
summary:
Problem shaping means revising a question so that the solution process can begin or continue. It is part of the larger problem process that includes problem finding and problem solving. Problem shaping (or problem framing) often involves the application of critical thinking. Algorithmic approach to technical problems reformulation was introduced by G. S. Altshuller in ARIZ. == See also == == References ==


id: proteomimetic-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteomimetic-0.md
category: reference
title: Proteomimetic
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteomimetic
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:54.236997+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: proteomimetic-20260505-0
summary:
Proteomimetics are molecules that mimic certain protein characteristics such as shape, binding properties or enzymatic activity. While conceptually linked to peptidomimetics which mimic short peptide sequences or secondary structures, proteomimetics recapitulate tertiary structures. This can involve the mimicry of entire protein domains or fragments thereof. Proteomimetic approaches can range from entirely abiotic scaffolds to specific main chain and side chain-modifications. == References ==


id: proteus-phenomenon-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteus_phenomenon-0.md
category: reference
title: Proteus phenomenon
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteus_phenomenon
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:55.430361+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: proteus-phenomenon-20260505-0
summary:
The Proteus phenomenon is the tendency in science for early replications of a work to contradict the original findings, a consequence of publication bias. It is akin to the winner's curse. The term was coined by John Ioannidis and Thomas A. Trikalinos in 2005 named after the Greek god Proteus who could rapidly change his appearance. A 2013 paper argued that the phenomenon might be "desirable or even optimal" from a scientific standpoint. == See also == Reproducibility Reproducibility Project Metascience == References ==


id: public-lecture-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_lecture-0.md
category: reference
title: Public lecture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_lecture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:56.728569+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: public-lecture-20260505-0
summary:
A public lecture (also known as an open lecture) is one means employed for educating the public. Gresham College, in London, has been providing free public lectures since its founding in 1597 through the will of Sir Thomas Gresham. The Royal Society held its first ever meeting at Gresham College in November 1660, after one of Christopher Wren's lectures, and continued to meet there for the next fifty years. The Royal Institution of Great Britain has a long history of public lectures and demonstrations given by prominent experts in the field. In the 19th century, the popularity of the public lectures given by Sir Humphry Davy at the Royal Institution was so great that the volume of carriage traffic in Albemarle Street caused it to become the first one-way street in London. The Royal Institution's Christmas Lectures for young people are nowadays also shown on television. Alexander von Humboldt delivered a series of public lectures at the University of Berlin in the winter of 1827–1828, that formed the basis for his later work Kosmos. == Public autopsies == Besides public lectures, public autopsies have been important in promoting knowledge of medicine. The autopsy of Dr. Johann Gaspar Spurzheim, advocate of


id: qualimetry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualimetry-0.md
category: reference
title: Qualimetry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualimetry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:57.995916+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qualimetry-20260505-0
summary:
Qualimetry is a scientific discipline which concerns itself with the methods and problems of quantification of the quality of any object: things or processes, whether natural or man-made, products of labour or nature, whether living or inanimate, etc. It is a scientific theory of the quantitative determination of quality developed in the former USSR by G.G.Azgaldov and currently used in development of Russian standards (GOST), etc. == Discussion == "The term qualimetry (from the Latin quale, “of what kind”), which designates a scientific discipline studying the methodology and problems of quantitative assessment of the quality of any kind of object (primarily, products), was first used in 1968. That this initiative was timely and justifiable was borne out by a series of international scholarly conferences fully or partly devoted to issues of qualimetry, e.g., in Moscow, Oslo, Varna, Yerevan, Madrid or Tallinn. The term qualimetry is being gradually admitted into the scientific and engineering vocabularies of many countries. According to Google, tens of thousands of references to publications in 32 languages contain this term. " == References ==


id: reagent-bottle-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reagent_bottle-0.md
category: reference
title: Reagent bottle
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reagent_bottle
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:53:59.195121+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: reagent-bottle-20260505-0
summary:
Reagent bottles, also known as media bottles or graduated bottles, are containers made of glass, plastic, borosilicate or related substances, and topped by special caps or stoppers. They are intended to contain chemicals in liquid or powder form for laboratories and stored in cabinets or on shelves. Some reagent bottles are tinted amber (actinic), brown or red to protect light-sensitive chemical compounds from visible light, ultraviolet and infrared radiation which may alter them; other bottles are tinted blue (cobalt glass) or uranium green for decorative purposes - mostly vintage apothecary sets, from centuries in which a doctor or apothecary was a prominent figure. The bottles are called "graduated" when they have marks on the sides indicating the approximate (often with a 10% error) amount of liquid at a given level within the container. A reagent bottle is a type of laboratory glassware. The term "reagent" refers to a substance that is part of a chemical reaction (or an ingredient of which), and "media" is the plural form of "medium" which refers to the liquid or gas which a reaction happens within, or is a processing chemical tool such as (for example) a flux. Several companies produce reagent bottles, including Wheaton,


id: recover-initiative-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RECOVER_Initiative-0.md
category: reference
title: RECOVER Initiative
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RECOVER_Initiative
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:00.353603+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: recover-initiative-20260505-0
summary:
The RECOVER Initiative is a research program run by the United States National Institutes of Health that aims to understand the causes of, discover treatments for and prevent Long COVID. RECOVER's initial studies were observational, but others focused on pathology of treatments have been performed. Plans for a series of treatment studies were announced in July 2023. == Funding == A December 2020 allocation by Congress funded the creation of the program with $1.15 billion USD. In February 2024, the program received a further infusion of $515 million USD, extending the program until 2028. == References ==


id: regionalized-variable-theory-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regionalized_variable_theory-0.md
category: reference
title: Regionalized variable theory
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regionalized_variable_theory
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:01.601690+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: regionalized-variable-theory-20260505-0
summary:
Regionalized variable theory (RVT) is a geostatistical method used for interpolation in space. The concept of the theory is that interpolation from points in space should not be based on a smooth continuous object. It should be, however, based on a stochastic model that takes into consideration the various trends in the original set of points. The theory considers that within any dataset, three types of relationships can be detected: Structural part, which is also called the trend. Correlated variation. Uncorrelated variation, or noise. After defining the above three relationships, RVT then applies the first law of geography, in order to predict the unknown values of points. The major application of this theory is the Kriging method for interpolation. == References == David, MICHEL, ed. (1977-01-01), "Chapter 5 - Theoretical Basis of the Approach: The Theory of Regionalized Variables", Developments in Geomathematics, Geostatistical Ore Reserve Estimation, Elsevier, vol.2, pp. 91–114, retrieved 2022-01-23


id: research-group-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_group-0.md
category: reference
title: Research group
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_group
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:02.770933+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: research-group-20260505-0
summary:
A research group is a group of researchers often from the same faculty, specialized on the same subject, working together on the issue or topic. The success of a research group depends on several factors: clearly defined goals, research emphasis, group climate, participative governance, decentralized organization, communication, resources, recruitment, selection, and leadership. Research groups may be mistaken for study groups, which tend to be more casual and more frequently used by younger students. == References ==


id: research-synthesis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_synthesis-0.md
category: reference
title: Research synthesis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_synthesis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:07.893817+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: research-synthesis-20260505-0
summary:
Research synthesis or evidence synthesis is the process of combining the results of multiple primary research studies aimed at testing the same conceptual hypothesis. It may be applied to either quantitative or qualitative research. Its general goals are to make the findings from multiple different studies more generalizable and applicable. It aims to generate new knowledge by combining and comparing the results of multiple studies on a given topic. One approach is to use a systematic review method. == Techniques == Meta-analysis is the preferred technique of quantitative research synthesis in many fields, such as medical science. It is a statistical technique that combines measures of effect size from a number of studies to calculate an overall measure. This measure of effect has greater precision (less uncertainty) than the individual studies, but it may be biased by differences between the studies in study design, the type of evidence, or other key characteristics. In qualitative research, methods of synthesis include narrative synthesis and meta-ethnography. Narrative synthesis allows researchers to address a wide range of questions in their review, while meta-ethnography aims to preserve the cultural context in which the original findings of the included studies were generated. The narrative synthesis approach


id: retraction-index-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retraction_index-0.md
category: reference
title: Retraction index
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retraction_index
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:09.050292+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: retraction-index-20260505-0
summary:
The retraction index is a measure of how likely an article published in a given academic journal will be retracted. It is calculated by multiplying the number of retracted articles in a journal during a given time period by 1,000, and then dividing the result by the total number of articles published in that journal during the same period. The term was coined in a 2011 editorial by Ferric Fang and Arturo Casadevall, the co-editors-in-chief of the journal Infection and Immunity. In their original editorial, Fang and Casadevall also showed a strong positive correlation between a journal's retraction index and its impact factor. Among the 17 journals they analyzed, the New England Journal of Medicine had the highest retraction index. The New England Journal of Medicine responded to the Feng and Casadevall editorial with a statement criticizing it for only considering papers with abstracts. The statement argued that because most articles published in each issue of the Journal do not have abstracts, the journal's retraction index appeared artificially high. They did not identify a mechanism for why this relationship might exist, but suggested that it might be because researchers are more willing to cut corners to get a paper published


id: rod-koh-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rod_Koh-0.md
category: reference
title: Rod Koh
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rod_Koh
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:11.314622+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rod-koh-20260505-0
summary:
Rod Koh or Rod Kohi (Persian: راد کوہ) is a form of irrigation system in Pakistan. Rod means channel and Koh means mountain in Persian. The Rod Kohi system based on Kulyat Riwajat (Fromulae and Traditions) which governed the irrigation system ever since the Pashtun tribes moved into Damaan. The British officers moved all these to writing during their Land Settlements in the later part of the nineteenth century. The Bolton Irrigation Notes of 1908 are still considered the Bible of Rod Kohi irrigation. Rod Koh is the main torrent bed which usually remains dry, when there is no flood, whereas Zam means the flow of perennial water coming out of springs. The flood and perennial water of the Zam is used for irrigation and drinking purpose. Zam water is classified into two categories: Buga Pani (flood water) and Kala Pani (perennial water). Rod Koh (torrent-spate-irrigation) systems go back at least as early as 330 BC and provided economic basis for some of the early civilisations. Alexander the Great, according to Arrian, sailed down the river Jhelum to its junction with Indus River. His land forces marched in two bodies on either side of the river. They noticed some form


id: rsvp-cycles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RSVP_cycles-0.md
category: reference
title: RSVP cycles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RSVP_cycles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:12.458299+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rsvp-cycles-20260505-0
summary:
RSVP cycles is a system of creative methodology for collaboration. It was developed by Lawrence Halprin and Anna Halprin. Lawrence Halprin presented the system in a 1969 book The RSVP Cycles: Creative Processes in the Human Environment.(Halprin 1970) The name is an initialism referring to its four components: Resources Anything that can be used in the process, including time, physical materials, other people, ideas, limitations etc. Score Instructions for the work. This can be identified along a gradient scale of being an Open or a Closed score. Valuaction A process of dynamically responding to the work based on values. Performance Setting the work in motion. Within each stage there is a micro-cycle, which includes all the other elements (e.g. scoring the resources, resourcing the performance, performing the score etc.). There is no set order in which stages should be completed, and one can jump from any element to any other element as long as there is consensus. == References == === Cross-reference === === Sources used === == Further reading == Halprin, Lawrence (1970). The RSVP Cycles: Creative Processes in the Human Environment. G. Braziller. Kupper, Eugene (June 1971). "Review Symposium : The RSVP Cycles: Creative Processes in the Human


id: scale-analytical-tool-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_(analytical_tool)-0.md
category: reference
title: Scale (analytical tool)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_(analytical_tool)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:13.738828+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scale-analytical-tool-20260505-0
summary:
In the study of complex systems and hierarchy theory, the concept of scale refers to the combination of (1) the level of analysis (for example, analyzing the whole or a specific component of the system); and (2) the level of observation (for example, observing a system as an external viewer or as an internal participant). The scale of analysis encompasses both the analytical choice of how to observe a given system or object of study, and the role of the observer in determining the identity of the system. This analytical tool is central to multi-scale analysis (see for example, MuSIASEM, land-use analysis). For example, on at the scale of analysis of a given population of zebras, the number of predators (e.g. lions) determines the number of prey that survives after hunting, while at the scale of analysis of the ecosystem, the availability of prey determines how many predators can survive in a given area. The semantic categories of "prey" and "predator" are not given, but are defined by the observer. == See also == Overview effect Scale (social sciences) == References ==


id: science-and-technology-in-asia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Asia-0.md
category: reference
title: Science and technology in Asia
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Asia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:16.009537+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-and-technology-in-asia-20260505-0
summary:
Science and technology in Asia is varied depending on the country and time. In the past, among Asian civilizations considered particularly notable for their contributions to science and technology were India, China and the West Asian civilizations. Countries such as Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan are recently known for technology, while China and India are also major contributors to science and technology. Other countries are also notable in other scientific fields such as chemical and physical achievements. For the science and technology of various Asian countries and civilizations, see: == East Asia == History of science and technology in China Science and technology of the Han dynasty Science and technology of the Song dynasty Science and technology of the Tang dynasty History of science and technology in the People's Republic of China Science and technology in contemporary China Science and technology in Japan History of science and technology in Japan Science and technology in South Korea History of science and technology in Korea == South Asia == History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent Science and technology in India Science and technology in Bangladesh Science and technology in Pakistan == Middle East == Timeline of science and engineering


id: science-hack-day-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Hack_Day-0.md
category: reference
title: Science Hack Day
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Hack_Day
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:17.327276+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-hack-day-20260505-0
summary:
Science Hack Day is a hack day specifically for "making weird, silly or serious things with science". The first was organized by Jeremy Keith and held at the London offices of The Guardian newspaper over the weekend 19/20 June 2010. The event was attended by around 100 participants who had 24 hours to build new hacks. Many stayed overnight at the venue and over 25 hacks were built, submitted and demo'ed by the end of the weekend. Soon thereafter a second Science Hack Day was organized by Ariel Waldman in San Francisco, and several years since, often filling up with a waitlist. Since that first year, more than 50 Science Hack Day events have taken place around the world, including a recent 2020 March Science Hack Day Dublin. The events are attended by a diverse range of science enthusiasts. == Further reading == 2010-06-21 Science Hack Day at the Guardian (The Guardian) 2013-12-03 200 Geeks, 24 Hours: Science Hack Day in San Francisco (KQED Science) == External links == Science Hack Day official site == See also == Science Foo Camp == References ==


id: scientific-lacuna-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_lacuna-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientific lacuna
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_lacuna
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:21.080093+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientific-lacuna-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific lacuna describes an area of science that has not been studied but has the potential to be studied scientifically. Often, this may be the case because it falls between different areas of sciences, such that it doesn't fall into a single specific discipline of science. However, it also may be the case that the right situation for study has not yet occurred, or the conditions for study have been too ephemeral. Scientific lacunae often have the potential to be studied in the future when more areas of sciences are explicitly defined or the right conditions do occur, yet this can be made difficult if the area of science is commonly not considered a proper area for scientific study. == References ==


id: silicon-quantum-electronics-workshop-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_Quantum_Electronics_Workshop-0.md
category: reference
title: Silicon Quantum Electronics Workshop
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_Quantum_Electronics_Workshop
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:27.230425+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: silicon-quantum-electronics-workshop-20260505-0
summary:
The Silicon Quantum Electronics Workshop (SiQEW) is a series of workshops on silicon quantum computing that date back to 2007. == References ==


id: intelligence-source-and-information-reliability-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_source_and_information_reliability-0.md
category: reference
title: Intelligence source and information reliability
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence_source_and_information_reliability
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:28.421422+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: intelligence-source-and-information-reliability-20260505-0
summary:
Intelligence source and information reliability rating systems are used in intelligence analysis. This rating is used for information collected by a human intelligence collector. This type of information collection and job duty exists within many government agencies around the world. According to Ewen Montagu, John Godfrey devised this system when he was director of the Naval Intelligence Division (N.I.D.) around the time of World War II. The system employed by the United States Armed Forces rates the reliability of the source as well as the information. The source reliability is rated between A (history of complete reliability) to E (history of invalid information), with F for source without sufficient history to establish reliability level. The information content is rated between 1 (confirmed) to 5 (improbable), with 6 for information whose reliability can not be evaluated. For example, a confirmed information from a reliable source has rating A1, an unknown-validity information from a new source without reputation is rated F6, an inconsistent illogical information from a known liar is E5, a confirmed information from a moderately doubtful source is C1. The evaluation matrix as described in the Field Manual FM 2-22.3 (see also Admiralty code): == Source reliability == == Information


id: spatial-power-combiner-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial_power_combiner-0.md
category: reference
title: Spatial power combiner
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatial_power_combiner
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:29.589963+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: spatial-power-combiner-20260505-0
summary:
A spatial power combiner generally refers to a microwave system in which the output power of several solid state circuits are combined in free space as opposed to in a lossy substrate. Many spatial power combiners use concepts from free-space optics in which dielectric lenses are used to focus a microwave beam into and out of a solid-state circuit array. For this reason, this field of research is also known as quasioptics. == References ==


id: stereokinetic-stimulus-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereokinetic_stimulus-0.md
category: reference
title: Stereokinetic stimulus
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereokinetic_stimulus
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:30.684411+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stereokinetic-stimulus-20260505-0
summary:
Stereokinetic stimulus, stereokinetic depth, stereokinetic illusion is an illusion of depth induced by moving two-dimensional stimuli. A stereokinetic stimulus generates the perception of 3D based on 2D rotational motion. A stereokinetic effect is created when flat displays are rotated in the frontal plane and are perceived as having three-dimensional structure. == History == Ernst Mach first reported a depth effect produced by motion in the frontoparallel plane in 1886. Marcel Duchamp first experimented with stereokinetic depth in 1935. == References ==


id: synthetically-thinned-aperture-radar-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetically_thinned_aperture_radar-0.md
category: reference
title: Synthetically thinned aperture radar
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetically_thinned_aperture_radar
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:31.946289+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: synthetically-thinned-aperture-radar-20260505-0
summary:
Synthetic thinned aperture radiometry (STAR) is a method of radar in which the coherent product (correlation) of the signal from pairs of antennas is measured at different antenna-pair spacings (baselines). These products yield sample points in the Fourier transform of the brightness temperature map of the scene, and the scene itself is reconstructed by inverting the sampled transform. The reconstructed image includes all of the pixels in the entire field-of-view of the antennas. The main advantage of the STAR architecture is that it requires no mechanical scanning of an antenna. Using a static antenna simplifies the antenna system dynamics and improves the time-bandwidth product of the radiometer. Furthermore, aperture thinning reduces the overall volume and mass of the antenna system. A disadvantage is the reduction of radiometric sensitivity (or increase in rms noise) of the image due to a decrease in signal-to-noise ratio for each measurement compared to a filled aperture. Pixel averaging is required for good radiometric sensitivity. == See also == Beamforming Microwave Imaging Radiometer with Aperture Synthesis (MIRAS), an example of a spaceborne STAR Synthetic aperture radar == References ==


id: terminology-for-the-description-of-dynamics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminology_for_the_Description_of_Dynamics-0.md
category: reference
title: Terminology for the Description of Dynamics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminology_for_the_Description_of_Dynamics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:33.130789+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: terminology-for-the-description-of-dynamics-20260505-0
summary:
Terminology for the Description of Dynamics (TEDDY) aims to provide an ontology for dynamical behaviours, observable dynamical phenomena, and control elements of bio-models and biological systems in Systems Biology and Synthetic Biology. == References ==


id: tower-testing-station-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower_testing_station-0.md
category: reference
title: Tower testing station
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower_testing_station
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:34.212526+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tower-testing-station-20260505-0
summary:
A tower testing station is a special plant for testing various design for towers for transmission lines and similar uses. A tower testing station consists of two steel stands and one or more foundations, on which a sample of the tower can be built. The number of test conditions is normally limited to between six and eight individual cases, with loading condition such as reduced wind and ice. The towers to be tested are erected on rigid foundation and the wire ropes attached to the loading point required. Loading may either be applied by 'dead' weights using scale pans, winches or hydraulic rams. In the latter cases a load cell or dynamometer is placed in the rigging adjacent to the point of loading at the structure. The loading methods induce strain by pulling cables away from the tower to the specified loads. The pulling load is indicated through a strain gauge placed on the pulling point. Loading points on a tower naturally encompasses longitudinal, transverse and vertical components, either as individual or a combined resultant load. The degree of sophistication of the control equipment for the application and recording of the load varies considerably at individual test stations. From individual


id: turnover-number-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turnover_number-0.md
category: reference
title: Turnover number
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turnover_number
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:35.372004+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: turnover-number-20260505-0
summary:
In chemistry, the term "turnover number" has two distinct meanings. In enzymology, the turnover number (kcat) is defined as the limiting number of chemical conversions of substrate molecules per second that a single active site will execute for a given enzyme concentration [ET] for enzymes with two or more active sites. For enzymes with a single active site, kcat is referred to as the catalytic constant. It can be calculated from the limiting reaction rate Vmax and catalyst site concentration e0 as follows: k c a t = V max e 0 {\displaystyle k_{\mathrm {cat} }={\frac {V_{\max }}{e_{0}}}} (See Michaelis–Menten kinetics). In other chemical fields, such as organometallic catalysis, turnover number (TON) has a different meaning: the number of moles of substrate that a mole of catalyst can convert before becoming inactivated: T O N = n p r o d u c t n c a t {\displaystyle \mathrm {TON} ={\frac {n_{\mathrm {product} }}{n_{\mathrm {cat} }}}} An ideal catalyst would have an infinite turnover number in this sense, because it would never be consumed. The term turnover frequency (TOF) is used to refer to the turnover per unit time, equivalent to the meaning of turnover number in enzymology. T


id: urbach-tail-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbach_tail-0.md
category: reference
title: Urbach tail
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbach_tail
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:36.574002+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: urbach-tail-20260505-0
summary:
In the solid-state physics of semiconductors, the Urbach tail is an exponential part in the energy spectrum of the absorption coefficient. This tail appears near the optical band edge in amorphous, disordered and crystalline materials. == History == Researchers began questioning the nature of "tail states" in disordered semiconductors in the 1950s. It was found that such tails arise from the strains sufficient to push local states past the band edges. In 1953, the Austrian-American physicist Franz Urbach (1902–1969) found that such tails decay exponentially into the gap. Later, photoemission experiments delivered absorption models revealing temperature dependence of the tail. A variety of amorphous crystalline solids expose exponential band edges via optical absorption. The universality of this feature suggested a common cause. Several attempts were made to explain the phenomenon, but these could not connect specific topological units to the electronic structure. == See also == Tauc plot Urbach energy == References ==


id: vacuum-dry-box-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_dry_box-0.md
category: reference
title: Vacuum dry box
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_dry_box
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:41.192336+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vacuum-dry-box-20260505-0
summary:
A vacuum dry box is a piece of safety equipment which can provide an inert, or controlled atmosphere for handling sensitive materials. These devices can commonly be found in the fume hoods of chemistry labs, in facilities handling deadly pathogens, in NASA Moon rock handling facilities and in industrial applications. Inert atmosphere glove boxes are also used for painting and sandblasting. == See also == Laboratory equipment Glovebox Dry box == References ==


id: virtual-metrology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_metrology-0.md
category: reference
title: Virtual metrology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_metrology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:42.378077+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: virtual-metrology-20260505-0
summary:
In semiconductor manufacturing, virtual metrology refers to methods to predict the properties of a wafer based on machine parameters and sensor data in the production equipment, without performing the (costly) physical measurement of the wafer properties. Statistical methods such as classification and regression are used to perform such a task. Depending on the accuracy of this virtual data, it can be used in modelling for other purposes, such as predicting yield, preventative analysis, etc. This virtual data is helpful for modelling techniques that are adversely affected by missing data. Another option to handle missing data is to use imputation techniques on the dataset, but virtual metrology in many cases, can be a more accurate method. Examples of virtual metrology include: the prediction of the silicon nitride ( S i 3 N 4 {\displaystyle Si_{3}N_{4}} ) layer thickness in the chemical vapor deposition process (CVD), using multivariate regression methods; the prediction of critical dimension in photolithography, using multi-level and regularization approaches; the prediction of layer width in etching. == References ==


id: vision-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vision_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Vision science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vision_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:43.503319+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vision-science-20260505-0
summary:
Vision science is the scientific study of visual perception. Researchers in vision science can be called vision scientists, especially if their research spans some of the science's many disciplines. Vision science encompasses all studies of vision, such as how human and non-human organisms process visual information, how conscious visual perception works in humans, how to exploit visual perception for effective communication, and how artificial systems can do the same tasks. Vision science overlaps with or encompasses disciplines such as ophthalmology and optometry, neuroscience(s), psychology (particularly sensation and perception psychology, cognitive psychology, linguistics, biopsychology, psychophysics, and neuropsychology), physics (particularly optics), ethology, and computer science (particularly computer vision, artificial intelligence, and computer graphics), as well as other engineering related areas such as data visualization, user interface design, and human factors and ergonomics. Below is a list of pertinent journals and international conferences. == Journals == Scientific journals exclusively or predominantly concerned with vision science include: Acta Ophthalmologica American Journal of Ophthalmology Annual Review of Vision Science Attention Perception & Psychophysics (previously Perception & Psychophysics) British Journal of Ophthalmology Clinical & Experimental Ophthalmology Current Opinion in Ophthalmology European Journal of Ophthalmology Experimental Eye Research Eye Graefe's Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology Investigative


id: wiley-mill-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiley_mill-0.md
category: reference
title: Wiley mill
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiley_mill
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:44.807814+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wiley-mill-20260505-0
summary:
The Wiley mill is a laboratory-scale machine for grinding materials to a powder, and belongs to the family of cutting mills. These mills prepare materials for analysis with minimal moisture loss. Well-dried samples are preferred. In the grinding mill, the material is loaded cut into crude pieces or lumps and loaded into a hopper. From the hopper, the material drops by gravity into the path of a set of revolving hard tool steel blades driven by an electric motor. The revolving knives work against stationary knives and the resulting powder is forced through a steel screen. The powdered material then drops into a waiting collection vessel underneath. The Wiley mill is most commonly used in agriculture and soil science laboratories but can be used on a wide variety of materials. The Wiley mill was originally designed for grinding fertilizer materials, animal hair, hoofs and other materials. == Materials == The hard, tool steel cutting edges of the knives of a Wiley mill allow for milling a wide range of materials, including plant-based and fibrous materials such as soft and dry wood, particles or sawdust, leaves, stems, and roots, bark and grasses, forage samples (like hay, silage), seeds (like wheat, rice,


id: working-paper-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_paper-0.md
category: reference
title: Working paper
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_paper
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:46.098316+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: working-paper-20260505-0
summary:
A working paper or work paper may be: A working paper or technical paper. This encompasses literature that has not been peer reviewed or published in an academic journal. Working papers may be disseminated for the purpose of receiving feedback to improve the publication. They are often the basis for related works, and may themselves be cited by peer-reviewed papers. They may be considered as grey literature. Sometimes the term working paper is used synonymously as technical report. Working papers are typically hosted on websites belonging either to the author or the author's affiliated institution. The United Nations uses the term "working paper" in approximately this sense for the draft of a resolution. Documents required for a minor to get a job in certain states within the United States. Such papers usually require the employer, parent/guardian, school, and a physician to agree to the terms of work laid out by the employer. Audit working papers: Documents required on an audit of a company's financial statements. In an external audit, the working papers are the property of the accounting firm conducting the audit; in an internal audit, they belong to the organisation. These papers are formally referred to as audit documentation


id: applied-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Applied science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:48.158510+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: applied-science-20260505-0
summary:
Applied science is the application of the scientific method and scientific knowledge to attain practical goals. It includes a broad range of disciplines, such as engineering and medicine. Applied science is often contrasted with basic science, which is focused on advancing scientific theories and laws that explain and predict natural or other phenomena. There are applied natural sciences, as well as applied formal and social sciences. Applied science examples include genetic epidemiology which applies statistics and probability theory, and applied psychology, including criminology. == Applied research == Applied research is the use of empirical methods to collect data for practical purposes. It accesses and uses accumulated theories, knowledge, methods, and techniques for a specific state, business, or client-driven purpose. In contrast to engineering, applied research does not include analyses or optimization of business, economics, and costs. Applied research can be better understood in any area when contrasting it with basic or pure research. Basic geographical research strives to create new theories and methods that aid in explaining the processes that shape the spatial structure of physical or human environments. Instead, applied research utilizes existing geographical theories and methods to comprehend and address particular empirical issues. Applied research usually has specific


id: outline-of-applied-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_applied_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Outline of applied science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_applied_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:50.711493+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-applied-science-20260505-0
summary:
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to applied science: Applied science – the branch of science that applies existing scientific knowledge to develop more practical applications, including inventions and other technological advancements. Science itself is the systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe.


id: outline-of-applied-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_applied_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Outline of applied science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_applied_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:50.711493+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-applied-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Branches of applied science == Applied cryptography – applications of cryptography. Applied science – application of scientific knowledge transferred into a physical environment. Actuarial science — application of mathematical and statistical methods to assess risk in the insurance, finance, and other industries Agricultural science Agronomy – science and technology of producing and using plants for food, fuel, feed, fiber, and reclamation. Animal husbandry – agricultural practice of breeding and raising livestock. Aquaculture – also known as aquafarming, is the farming of aquatic organisms such as fish, crustaceans, molluscs and aquatic plants. Algaculture – form of aquaculture involving the farming of species of algae. Mariculture – cultivation of marine organisms for food and other products in the open ocean, an enclosed section of the ocean, or in tanks, ponds or raceways which are filled with seawater. Agriculture – science of farming Cuniculture – also known as rabbit farming, is the breeding and raising domestic rabbits, usually for their meat or fur. Fungiculture – process of producing food, medicine, and other products by the cultivation of mushrooms and other fungi. Heliciculture – also called snail farming, is the process of farming or raising land snails specifically for human consumption, and more


id: outline-of-applied-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_applied_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Outline of applied science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_applied_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:50.711493+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-applied-science-20260505-0
summary:
Language engineering – deliberate effort to influence the function, structure, or acquisition of languages or language variety within a speech community. Marine engineering – engineering of boats, ships, oil rigs and any other marine vessel Materials science and engineering – interdisciplinary field applying the properties of matter to various areas of science and engineering. This scientific field investigates the relationship between the structure of materials at atomic or molecular scales and their macroscopic properties. Mechanical engineering – discipline of engineering that applies the principles of physics and materials science for analysis, design, manufacturing, and maintenance of mechanical systems. Mining engineering – engineering discipline that involves the practice, the theory, the science, the technology, and application of extracting and processing minerals from a naturally occurring environment. Nuclear engineering – branch of engineering concerned with the application of the breakdown (fission) as well as the fusion of atomic nuclei and/or the application of other sub-atomic physics, based on the principles of nuclear physics. Polymer engineering – subfield of materials science concerned with polymers, primarily synthetic polymers such as plastics. Engineering physics – study of the combined disciplines of physics, engineering and mathematics in order to develop an understanding of the interrelationships of


id: outline-of-applied-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_applied_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Outline of applied science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_applied_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:50.711493+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-applied-science-20260505-0
summary:
Human resource management – strategic approach to the effective management of people in a company or organization Operations – those ongoing recurring (cyclic) activities involved in the running of a business for the purpose of producing value for the stakeholders. Strategic management – field that deals with the major intended and emergent initiatives taken by general managers on behalf of owners, involving utilization of resources, to enhance the performance of firms in their external environments. Metrology Applied mathematics – branch of mathematics concerned with mathematical methods that are typically used in science, engineering, business, and industry. Thus, "applied mathematics" is a mathematical science with specialized knowledge. Microtechnology – technology with features near one micrometre (one millionth of a metre, or 1μm). Military science – study of the technique, psychology, practice and other phenomena which constitute war and armed conflict. Military organization – structuring of the armed forces of a state so as to offer military capability required by the national defence policy. Military history – humanities discipline within the scope of general historical recording of armed conflict in the history of humanity, and its impact on the societies, their cultures, economies and changing intra and international relationships. Military engineering –


id: outline-of-applied-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_applied_science-4.md
category: reference
title: Outline of applied science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_applied_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:50.711493+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: outline-of-applied-science-20260505-0
summary:
== History of applied science == History of applied linguistics History of applied mathematics History of applied physics History of artificial intelligence Timeline of artificial intelligence History of ceramic engineering History of computing technology History of computing History of computing hardware History of electronics Early electronic components History of electronic engineering History of energy History of energy storage History of environmental engineering History of forensic science History of forestry History of materials science History of medicine History of nanotechnology History of nuclear technology History of optics History of software engineering == Applied science education == Fachhochschule Institute of technology === Degrees and certificates === Bachelor of Applied Science – undergraduate degree awarded for a course of study that generally lasts three to four years in the United Kingdom and Australia, and four to six years in Canada, the Netherlands and the United States. Applied science technician Applied science technologist === Applied science schools === University of applied sciences (Finland) == Applied science organizations == Fraunhofer Society Saskatchewan Applied Science Technologists & Technicians == Applied science publications == American Journal of Applied Sciences Foresight: The International Journal of Applied Forecasting Intégral: The Journal of Applied Musical Thought International Journal of Applied


id: agronomy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agronomy-0.md
category: reference
title: Agronomy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agronomy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:51.887302+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: agronomy-20260505-0
summary:
Agronomy is the science and technology of producing and using plants, animals and soils by agriculture for food, fuel, fiber, chemicals, recreation, or land conservation. Agronomy has come to include research of plant genetics, plant physiology, meteorology, and soil science. It is the application of a combination of sciences such as biology, chemistry, economics, ecology, earth science, and genetics. Professionals in the field are known as agronomists. == Plant breeding == This topic of agronomy involves selective breeding of plants to produce the best crops for various conditions. Plant breeding has increased crop yields and has improved the nutritional value of numerous crops, including corn, soybeans, and wheat. It has also resulted in the development of new types of plants. For example, a hybrid grain named triticale was produced by crossbreeding rye and wheat. Triticale contains more usable protein than does either rye or wheat. Agronomy has also been instrumental for fruit and vegetable production research. Furthermore, the application of plant breeding for turfgrass development has resulted in a reduction in the demand for fertilizer and water inputs (requirements), as well as turf-types with higher disease resistance. == Biotechnology == Agronomists use biotechnology to extend and expedite the development of


id: applied-anthropology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_anthropology-0.md
category: reference
title: Applied anthropology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_anthropology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:53.174621+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: applied-anthropology-20260505-0
summary:
Applied anthropology is the practical application of anthropological theories, methods, and practices to the analysis and solution of practical problems. The term was first put forward by Daniel G. Brinton in his paper "The Aims of Anthropology". John Van Willengen defined applied anthropology as "anthropology put to use". Applied anthropology includes conducting research with a primary or tertiary purpose to solve real-world problems in areas such as public health, education, government, and business. In Applied Anthropology: Domains of Application, Kedia and Van Willigen define the process as a "complex of related, research-based, instrumental methods which produce change or stability in specific cultural systems through the provision of data, initiation of direct action, and/or the formulation of policy". In other words, applied anthropology is the praxis-based side of anthropological research; it includes researcher involvement and activism within the participating community. == Spanning academic disciplines == The American Anthropological Association (AAA) website describes anthropology as a focus on "the study of humans, past and present. To understand the full sweep and complexity of cultures across all of human history, anthropology draws and builds upon knowledge from the social and biological sciences as well as the humanities and physical sciences." Thus, the field


id: applied-anthropology-research-methods-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_anthropology_research_methods-0.md
category: reference
title: Applied anthropology research methods
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_anthropology_research_methods
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:54:54.480564+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: applied-anthropology-research-methods-20260505-0
summary:
Anthropology is the study of human societal and cultural development in the past, present, and future with a number of facets that are categorized into five different fields. These fields include: biological (physical) anthropology, cultural (socio-cultural) anthropology, linguistic anthropology (linguistics), archaeology, and applied anthropology. Applied anthropology is the analysis of human interaction with the purpose of solving practical problems that affect and arise throughout time between cultures and societies. Applied anthropologists use many different methods to conduct research on agriculture, health and medicine, housing, social services, political-economic development, displacement and resettlement, business and industry, education, nutrition, environment, and aging. Applied anthropology research methods are: policy research, evaluation research, cultural intervention, activist (action) research, participatory action research (PAR). == Background and history == Applied anthropology was first established in the 19th century in Europe and continued to expand to other cultures around the world. Applied anthropology was first seen in North America by the Mexican government in 1917 and continues to grow. Applied anthropology was more prevalent after WWII, this was due to the loss of Britain's occupations in Africa, Asia, and the Caribbean. These regions were under British rule until the 1930s, and once that ended, societal and practical problems


id: artes-mechanicae-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artes_mechanicae-0.md
category: reference
title: Artes mechanicae
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artes_mechanicae
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:00.863363+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: artes-mechanicae-20260505-0
summary:
Artes mechanicae (mechanical arts) are a medieval concept of ordered practices or skills, often juxtaposed to the traditional seven liberal arts (artes liberales). Also called "servile" and "vulgar", from antiquity they had been deemed "unbecoming" for a free man, as they minister to basic needs. == Overview == Johannes Scotus Eriugena (9th century) divided them into seven parts: vestiaria (tailoring, weaving) agricultura (agriculture) architectura (architecture, masonry) militia and venatoria (warfare and hunting, military education, "martial arts") mercatura (trade) coquinaria (cooking) metallaria (blacksmithing, metallurgy) In his Didascalicon, Hugh of St Victor (12th century) includes navigation, medicine and theatrical arts instead of commerce, agriculture and cooking. Hugh's treatment somewhat elevates the mechanical arts as ordained to the improvement of humanity, a promotion which was to represent a growing trend among late medievals. The classification of the artes mechanicae as applied geometry was introduced to Western Europe by Dominicus Gundissalinus (12th century) under the influence of his readings in Arabic scholarship. In the 19th century, "mechanic arts" referred to some of the fields that are now known as engineering. Use of the term was apparently an attempt to distinguish these fields from creative and artistic endeavors like the performing arts and the fine


id: artificial-neural-membrane-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_neural_membrane-0.md
category: reference
title: Artificial neural membrane
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_neural_membrane
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:02.106965+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: artificial-neural-membrane-20260505-0
summary:
Artificial neural membrane (ANM) refers to a new class of functional structure developed through research adaptive and evolutionary neural networks and programmable materials. The greatest interest in ANM structures surround their potential as open architecture environments for the integration of microscale and nanoscale devices. Originally based on the Neurogenesis Algorithms developed by mathematician and engineering physicist Dr. P. A. Menges. While working as a postdoctoral research associate at Los Alamos National Laboratory, Dr. Menges became interested in thin film materials used in specialized sensors also referred to as smart skins. After leaving the laboratory she established a computational method allowing networks to automatically embed or simulate on other networks based in functional materials. Artificial neural membrane technology development has been funded by the NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts, for application to flapping wing flight. Currently Aerospace Research Systems, Inc – the agency that pioneered work in developing artificial neurons for use in control of multifunctional smart structures – is applying the technology to reusable launch vehicles. Other applications include biotechnology processes, morphing aircraft and spacecraft, adaptive wind generators, and artificial organs. Recent research also indicates that ANM systems may provide the first truly automated intentional or conceptual programming environment. The


id: center-of-excellence-in-regulatory-science-and-innovation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_of_Excellence_in_Regulatory_Science_and_Innovation-0.md
category: reference
title: Center of Excellence in Regulatory Science and Innovation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_of_Excellence_in_Regulatory_Science_and_Innovation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:03.329632+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: center-of-excellence-in-regulatory-science-and-innovation-20260505-0
summary:
A Center of Excellence in Regulatory Science and Innovation (CERSI) is a type of research centre focused on regulatory science to support innovation. They were invented by the Food and Drug Administration in the US in 2016 to support their work, with the creation of four CERSIs. The UK launched equivalent bodies (Centres of Excellence in Regulatory Science and Innovation) in 2025 to work with the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA). == References == == External links == US CERSIs: M-CERSI, University of Maryland Johns Hopkins CERSI UCSF-Stanford CERSI Yale University-Mayo Clinic CERSI Triangle CERSI UK CERSIs: CERSI AI InSilicoUK RADIANT CERSI


id: conservation-science-cultural-property-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_science_(cultural_property)-0.md
category: reference
title: Conservation science (cultural property)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_science_(cultural_property)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:04.570765+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conservation-science-cultural-property-20260505-0
summary:
With respect to cultural property, conservation science is the interdisciplinary study of the conservation of art, architecture, technical art history and other cultural works through the use of scientific inquiry. General areas of research include the technology and structure of artistic and historic works. In other words, the materials and techniques from which cultural, artistic and historic objects are made. There are three broad categories of conservation science with respect to cultural heritage: understanding the materials and techniques used by artists, study of the causes of deterioration, and improving techniques and materials for examination and treatment. Conservation science includes aspects of materials science, chemistry, physics, biology, and engineering, as well as art history and anthropology. Institutions such as the Getty Conservation Institute specialize in publishing and disseminating information relating to both tools used for and outcomes of conservation science research, as well as recent discoveries in the field. == Introduction == Prior to thorough scientific analysis, a detailed visual assessment of the object, heritage site, or artwork is necessary in addition to gathering all relevant historic and current documentation. Diagnosing the current state in a non-invasive way allows both conservators and conservation scientists to determine exactly what further analysis would


id: conservation-science-cultural-property-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_science_(cultural_property)-1.md
category: reference
title: Conservation science (cultural property)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_science_(cultural_property)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:04.570765+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conservation-science-cultural-property-20260505-0
summary:
=== Glass and ceramics === Glass and ceramics can be maintained for much longer periods of time and are two of the most durable materials. The biggest risk to glass and ceramics is breakage, however improper display and storage can lead to stains and discoloration. Ceramics can become stained from inappropriate cleaning and repair while porous or cracked ceramics can develop stains from being soaked in water during cleaning. Increased temperatures can cause darkening of already existing stains and can lead to cracks. Glass can become damaged from 'weeping glass' wherein droplets of moisture form on glass surfaces. This can lead to a leaching out of unstable components that produce an alkaline solution. If allowed to remain on the glass for an extended period of time, this solution can produce fine cracks known as crizzling. Careful handling and storage is the surest means to preventing damage to glass and ceramics. The below table displays recommended storage conditions for damaged and unstable objects: === Metals === Metals are produced from ores that are found naturally in the environment. Most metal objects are made from a combination of individual metals called alloys and exhibit different strengths and colors based on their composition.


id: conservation-science-cultural-property-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_science_(cultural_property)-2.md
category: reference
title: Conservation science (cultural property)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_science_(cultural_property)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:04.570765+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conservation-science-cultural-property-20260505-0
summary:
=== Water === Water primarily causes physical changes such as warping, stains, discoloration, and other weakening to both inorganic and organic materials. Water can come from natural sources such as flooding, mechanical/technological failures, or human error. Water damage to organic material may lead to the growth of other pests such as mold. In addition to the physical effects of water directly on an object or artwork, moisture in the air directly affects relative humidity which can in turn exacerbate deterioration and damage. === Light === Light causes cumulative and irreversible damage to light-sensitive objects. The energy from light interacts with objects at the molecular level and can lead to both physical and chemical damage such as fading, darkening, yellowing, embrittlement, and stiffening. Ultraviolet radiation and Infrared radiation, in addition to visible light, can be emitted from light sources and can also be damaging to material culture. Cultural institutions are tasked with finding the balance between needing light for patrons and guests and exposure to the collection. Any amount of light can be damaging to a variety of objects and artworks and the effects are cumulative and irreversible. Conservation science has helped establish 50 Lux as the benchmark level of light


id: conservation-science-cultural-property-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_science_(cultural_property)-3.md
category: reference
title: Conservation science (cultural property)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_science_(cultural_property)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:04.570765+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conservation-science-cultural-property-20260505-0
summary:
=== Physical forces === Physical forces are any interaction with an object that changes its current state of motion. Physical forces can cause a range of damage from small cracks and fissures to complete destruction or disintegration of material. The level of damage is dependent on the brittleness or hardness of the object's material and the magnitude of the force being inflicted. Impact, shock, vibration, pressure, and abrasion are a few examples of physical forces that can have adverse effects on material culture. Physical forces can occur from natural disasters like earthquakes, working forces like handling, cumulative forces like gravity, or low-level forces like building vibrations. During an object's risk assessment, the material properties of the object will inform the necessary steps (i.e. building, housing, and handling) that need to take place to mitigate the effects of physical forces. === Theft and vandalism === Theft, the removal of an asset, and vandalism, the deliberate destruction or disfigurement of an asset, are directly controlled and limited by the security measures put in place at a cultural institution. Conservation science can aid in the authentication or identification of stolen objects. In addition, the research of the field can help inform decisions as


id: criminal-investigation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminal_investigation-0.md
category: reference
title: Criminal investigation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminal_investigation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:05.750228+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: criminal-investigation-20260505-0
summary:
Criminal investigation is an applied science that involves the study of facts that are then used to inform criminal trials. A complete criminal investigation can include searching, interviews, interrogations, evidence collection and preservation, and various methods of investigation. Modern-day criminal investigations commonly employ many modern scientific techniques known collectively as forensic science. Criminal investigation is an ancient science that may have roots as far back as c. 1700 BCE in the writings of the Code of Hammurabi. In the code, it is suggested that both the accuser and the accused had the right to present evidence they collected. In the modern era, criminals investigations are most often done by government police forces. Private investigators are also commonly hired to complete or assist in criminal investigations. An early recorded professional criminal investigator was the English constable. Around 1250 CE, it was recorded that the constable was to "... record...matters of fact, not matters of judgment and law." Use of on-site methods to investigate crimes is nicknamed 'shoe leather'. == Investigative techniques == In determining the course of investigation, many law enforcement organizations use three "indicators of suspicion" describing potential suspects, jointly known as MMO: means to commit the crime (including tools


id: discover-applied-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discover_Applied_Sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: Discover Applied Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discover_Applied_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:08.318272+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: discover-applied-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
Discover Applied Sciences, formerly known as SN Applied Sciences is a peer-reviewed scientific journal that publishes papers from all areas of applied science. It was established in 2019 and is published by Springer Science+Business Media. The journal publishes research articles, reviews, case studies, and short communications. The senior editor is Thomas von Larcher. == Abstracting and indexing == The journal is abstracted and indexed in: Ei Compendex Emerging Sources Citation Index Food Science & Technology Abstracts Inspec Scopus == References == == External links == Official website


id: applied-ecology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_ecology-0.md
category: reference
title: Applied ecology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_ecology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:09.491265+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: applied-ecology-20260505-0
summary:
Applied ecology is a sub-field within ecology that considers the application of the science of ecology to real-world (usually management) questions. It is also described as a scientific field that focuses on the application of concepts, theories, models, or methods of fundamental ecology to environmental problems. == Concept == Applied ecology is an integrated treatment of the ecological, social, and biotechnological aspects of natural resource conservation and management. Applied ecology typically focuses on geomorphology, soils, and plant communities as the underpinnings for vegetation and wildlife (both game and non-game) management. Applied ecology includes all disciplines that are related to human activities so that it does not only cover agriculture, forestry and fisheries but also global change. It has two study categories. The first involves the outputs or those fields that address the use and management of the environment, particularly for its ecosystem services and exploitable resources. The second are the inputs or those that are concerned with the management strategies or human influences on the ecosystem or biodiversity. The discipline is often linked to ecological management on the grounds that the effective management of natural ecosystems depends on ecological knowledge. It often uses an ecological approach to solve problems of


id: applied-economics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_economics-0.md
category: reference
title: Applied economics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_economics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:10.777450+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: applied-economics-20260505-0
summary:
Applied economics is the application of economic theory and econometrics in specific settings. As one of the two sets of fields of economics (the other set being the core), it is typically characterized by the application of the core, i.e. economic theory and econometrics to address practical issues in a range of fields including demographic economics, labour economics, business economics, industrial organization, agricultural economics, development economics, education economics, engineering economics, financial economics, health economics, monetary economics, public economics, and economic history. From the perspective of economic development, the purpose of applied economics is to enhance the quality of business practices and national policy making. The process often involves a reduction in the level of abstraction of this core theory. There are a variety of approaches including not only empirical estimation using econometrics, input-output analysis or simulations but also case studies, historical analogy and so-called common sense or the "vernacular". This range of approaches is indicative of what Roger Backhouse and Jeff Biddle argue is the ambiguous nature of the concept of applied economics. It is a concept with multiple meanings. Among broad methodological distinctions, one source places it in neither positive nor normative economics but the art of economics, glossed


id: applied-economics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_economics-1.md
category: reference
title: Applied economics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_economics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:10.777450+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: applied-economics-20260505-0
summary:
relabeling variables as more specific, concrete concepts; providing some structure to allow the drawing of more detailed conclusions; producing numerical estimates for some of the parameters; using the analysis to interpret the real world phenomena which are interpreted as examples of some more general class of events that the core theory might be used to examine. === Economics as a science === Pesaran and Harcourt (2000) describe Stone's attempt to face the challenge of making economics into a science by combining theory and measurement within a cohesive framework. They report Stone's proposal for the establishment of the now famous Department of Applied Economics at Cambridge. Stone argued that: "The ultimate aim of applied economics is to increase human welfare by the investigation and analysis of economic problems of the real world. It is the view of the Department that this can best be achieved by the synthesis of three types of study which now tend to be pursued in isolation. The Department will concentrate simultaneously on the work of observations, i.e. the discovery and preparation of data; the theoretical appraisal of problems, i.e. the framing of hypotheses in a form suitable for quantitative testing; and the development of statistical methods


id: applied-economics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_economics-2.md
category: reference
title: Applied economics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_economics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:10.777450+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: applied-economics-20260505-0
summary:
Examples of problems of applied economics: Macroeconomics One example of this is macroeconomics. In the 1960s and 1970s, macroeconomics was a part of the core of the subject. Why? Because macroeconomics was not only sufficiently important to be part of any economist's training, but also embodied a set of concepts and principles not found in microeconomic theory. However the replacement of Keynesian approach to macroeconomics with new classical macroeconomics and its successors, macroeconomics might now be regarded by the mainstream as merely an application of microeconomic theory. Examples of problems of applied economics: Development Economics Another example is the situation within Development Economics. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s most development economist regarded the application of standard "core" microeconomic theory to their area as being entirely inappropriate. An alternative set of models provided their core. This might be best described as the structuralist approach. More recently development economics texts have provided applications of mainstream core theory. Examples of problems of applied economics: Economic Growth Theory Comim uses the history of the economics of growth in order to illustrate the historical nature of the concept of applied economics. He first discusses the perspective of the theorists' views of the applied dimension of


id: ecosystem-based-adaptation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem-based_adaptation-0.md
category: reference
title: Ecosystem-based adaptation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem-based_adaptation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:12.230119+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecosystem-based-adaptation-20260505-0
summary:
Ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) encompasses a broad set of approaches to adapt to climate change. They all involve the management of ecosystems and their services to reduce the vulnerability of human communities to the impacts of climate change. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) defines EBA as "the use of biodiversity and ecosystem services as part of an overall adaptation strategy to help people to adapt to the adverse effects of climate change". EbA involves the conservation, sustainable management and restoration of ecosystems, such as forests, grasslands, wetlands, mangroves or coral reefs to reduce the harmful impacts of climate hazards including shifting patterns or levels of rainfall, changes in maximum and minimum temperatures, stronger storms, and increasingly variable climatic conditions. EbA measures can be implemented on their own or in combination with engineered approaches (such as the construction of water reservoirs or dykes), hybrid measures (such as artificial reefs) and approaches that strengthen the capacities of individuals and institutions to address climate risks (such as the introduction of early warning systems). Collaborative planning among scientists, policy makers, and community members is an essential element of Ecosystem-based Adaptation. By drawing on the expertise of outside experts and local residents alike, EbA seeks


id: ecosystem-based-adaptation-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem-based_adaptation-1.md
category: reference
title: Ecosystem-based adaptation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem-based_adaptation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:12.230119+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecosystem-based-adaptation-20260505-0
summary:
=== Principles and standards for implementing EBA === Since the evolution of the concept and practice of EBA, various principles and standards have been developed to guide best practices for implementation. The guidelines adopted by the CBD build on these efforts and include a set of principles to guide planning and implementation. The principles are broadly clustered into four themes: Building resilience and enhancing adaptive capacity through EBA interventions; Ensuring inclusivity and equity in planning and implementation; Consideration of multiple spatial and temporal scales in the design of EBA interventions; Improving the effectiveness and efficiency of EBA, for example, by incorporating adaptive management, identifying limitations and trade-offs, integrating the knowledge of indigenous peoples and local communities. These principles are complemented by safeguards, which are social and environmental measures to avoid unintended consequences of EBA to people, ecosystems and biodiversity. Standards have also been developed to help practitioners understand what interventions qualify as EBA, including the elements of helping people adapt to climate change, making active use of biodiversity and ecosystem services, and being part of an overall adaptation strategy. ==== Challenges ==== Although interest in Ecosystem-based Adaptation has grown, and meta-analyses of case studies are demonstrating the efficacy and cost-effectiveness


id: field-propulsion-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_propulsion-0.md
category: reference
title: Field propulsion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_propulsion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:18.670066+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: field-propulsion-20260505-0
summary:
Field propulsion refers to propulsion system concepts in which thrust arises from interactions with external fields or ambient media, rather than primarily from onboard chemical propellant. The idea developed alongside conventional rocketry as a parallel line of thought in which a vehicle would "push off" its surroundings rather than rely entirely on carried propellant. Early ideas grew from studies of radiation pressure and electrically driven motion; later contractor and agency surveys organized advanced concepts under thermal, field, and photon headings. Several related propulsion systems discussed alongside field propulsion in the broader historical literature surveyed here have since been demonstrated in practice, including electrodynamic tethers in orbit, solar sail spacecraft such as IKAROS, and terrestrial applications such as maglev transport, MHD ship propulsion, and EHD thrust devices. In narrower modern literature, related propellant-less propulsion discussions often focus on environment-coupled systems, while the historical contractor and survey literature treated field propulsion more broadly and sometimes grouped related terrestrial electromagnetic propulsion and some beamed-energy concepts within the same analytical framework. Related research has also examined beamed-energy propulsion, in which lasers, microwaves, or particle beams transmit power to a vehicle from a remote source, and more speculative proposals involving spacetime curvature, vacuum polarization, or


id: field-propulsion-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_propulsion-1.md
category: reference
title: Field propulsion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_propulsion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:18.670066+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: field-propulsion-20260505-0
summary:
In 1921, Tsiolkovsky published Extension of Man into Outer Space, further exploring photon-based propulsion concepts. Перелеты на другие планеты (Flights to Other Planets) by Friedrich Zander was published in 1924 in Техника и жизнь, a Russian science journal, describing concepts to achieve interplanetary flight by use of light-propelled "screens made of extremely thin sheets". Zander was reportedly inspired in this work by his colleague Tsiolkovsky's own research on the topic. Between 1928 and 1932, Nikolai Rynin published Mezhplanetnye Soobshcheniya (Interplanetary Flight and Communication), a nine-volume Russian-language encyclopedia that the National Air and Space Museum described as the first encyclopedia on the history and theory of aerospace technology and spaceflight. Its coverage included radiation-pressure propulsion and beamed-energy concepts, and the work of Lebedev, Tsiolkovsky, Goddard, Hermann Oberth, and Robert Esnault-Pelterie. Rynin's first volume, Dreams, legends, and early fantasies (1928), organized spacecraft energy sources into three categories: energy transmitted from Earth to the vehicle, energy carried onboard, and energy derived from outer space; the last including "radiation pressure to bear on special large screens around the vehicle," an explicit description of photon-pressure propulsion. Rynin observed that the work surveyed in his encyclopedia "clearly shows that different people in different countries independently came


id: field-propulsion-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_propulsion-2.md
category: reference
title: Field propulsion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_propulsion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:18.670066+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: field-propulsion-20260505-0
summary:
=== 1980s === In the 1980s, earlier classification frameworks began giving way to attempts to identify and organize specific physical coupling mechanisms capable of producing measurable thrust. In 1980, NASA scientist Al Holt noted that proposed models for field propulsion interactions in this era ranged from Albert Einstein's united field theory efforts to work by "serious 'amateurs'," reflecting how wide the speculative literature around such ideas had become by that period. That year, Holt was quoted by the Chicago Tribune in his advocacy of field propulsion: "One of the most important things to me is to help break down the inhibiting mental attitude that space-time field interactions will remain in the realm of science fiction for hundreds of years." Holt argued that progress toward field-dependent propulsion would require a dedicated "field physics laboratory" to quantify relationships among gravitation, electromagnetism, and spacetime structure, framing the potential payoff as performance beyond then-leading aircraft and spacecraft such as the Space Shuttle, SR-71A, and F-16. Solar sail engineering also advanced institutionally during this period: JPL's Halley studies compared square and heliogyro sail architectures, with the latter using long rotating blades as sails and favored for deployment, while the World Space Foundation fabricated and ground-deployed


id: field-propulsion-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_propulsion-3.md
category: reference
title: Field propulsion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_propulsion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:18.670066+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: field-propulsion-20260505-0
summary:
The British National Space Centre and Society of British Aerospace Companies began organizing an annual field propulsion research conference in 2001, inaugurated in Brighton at the Institute of Development Studies, with initial delegates including Harry Kroto. British Aerospace was confirmed in 2001 to have initiated a research program called "Project Greenglow" to research "the possibility of the control of gravitational fields." As demonstrated systems accumulated flight heritage, research programs continued exploring more speculative coupling mechanisms. Subsequent work largely extended this research, examining whether identifiable environmental interactions could meet the same conservation law and measurement criteria. Later NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts (NIAC) studies continued in the same mold, examining whether Alfvén wave plasma interactions might provide quasi-propellantless thrust. Yoshinari Minami of the Advanced Space Propulsion Investigation Committee argued in 2003 that a potential propulsion "breakthrough" could rely on field propulsion, defined as employing "a physical means to asymmetrically interact with the space vacuum." By 2009, a recognized category of 'breakthrough propulsion concepts' had emerged in the interstellar transport literature, encompassing warp drive, traversable wormholes, and vacuum-energy ideas, though the same literature noted strong skepticism about claims that appeared to conflict with conventional demonstrated physics. Millis summarized the matter as: "For


id: field-propulsion-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_propulsion-4.md
category: reference
title: Field propulsion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_propulsion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:18.670066+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: field-propulsion-20260505-0
summary:
Field propulsion concepts have appeared across literature, film, and television, in many cases predating or paralleling the technical development of the technologies and theories described in this article. Several fictional propulsion systems bear recognizable resemblances to environment-coupled, electromagnetic, or spacetime-interaction concepts later studied in aerospace research. Fictional antigravity and photon-propulsion ideas emerged well before the underlying physics was formalized. The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction traces fictional gravity counteraction from Francis Godwin's The Man in the Moone (1638), through George Tucker's A Voyage to the Moon (1827) and its antigravity metal "lunarium," to Percy Greg's coinage of "apergy" as an antigravity spacecraft propulsion force in Across the Zodiac (1880). The earliest of these treated the concept in quasi-scientific rather than purely magical terms. A more direct link between fiction and physics appeared in Aventures extraordinaires d'un savant russe (The Extraordinary Adventures of a Russian Scientist, 1888–1896) by Georges Le Faure and Henry de Graffigny, which featured photon-propelled mirror spacecraft; Colin R. McInnes noted in his 1999 book Solar Sailing that the story may have been inspired by James Clerk Maxwell's 1873 research into radiation pressure, an early forebear of field propulsion. As technical rocketry advanced in the early 20th century, pulp


id: field-propulsion-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_propulsion-5.md
category: reference
title: Field propulsion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_propulsion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:18.670066+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: field-propulsion-20260505-0
summary:
== Definitions == Advanced-propulsion survey frameworks have grouped candidate concepts under headings such as thermal propulsion, field propulsion, and photon propulsion. In that broader historical literature, field propulsion was not always used as a strict synonym for modern propellantless propulsion; depending on the framework, it could also encompass related beamed-energy concepts and terrestrial field-matter coupling systems treated within the same analytical family. By contrast, propellantless propulsion in the narrower modern sense produces thrust through interaction with the surrounding environment rather than by expelling reaction mass. Later usage, as in NIAC studies of environment-coupled momentum exchange, restricts the term to systems that derive thrust from external fields or media without expelling onboard reaction mass. The boundaries of the term have therefore varied across successive classification frameworks, program definitions, and research criteria over more than a century of use. This article discusses the subject across that full historical range as documented in the source literature. Examples of field propulsion technologies include systems that attempt to draw on the photon field of sunlight, the charged particles of the solar wind, or the magnetic fields of planetary environments. Broad definitions often include solar sail systems. Magnetic sail concepts, proposed by Dana Andrews and Robert


id: field-propulsion-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_propulsion-6.md
category: reference
title: Field propulsion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_propulsion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:18.670066+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: field-propulsion-20260505-0
summary:
NASA's Breakthrough Propulsion Physics (BPP) memo framed research questions at the limits of physics, no-propellant propulsion, ultimate transit speeds, and breakthrough energy production, explicitly to sort physically testable ideas from non-viable claims. Field propulsion alone was described as insufficient for practical interstellar exploration because no propulsion theory currently exceeds the speed of light, requiring a navigation theory as a secondary solution alongside propulsion theory. Practical interstellar exploration was framed as a combined problem of propulsion theory and navigation theory, rather than as a propulsion-only problem. A 2009 propulsion survey framed one motivation for field propulsion research in operational terms, arguing that if field interactions could reduce effective gravitational and inertial resistance, rocket thrust and propellant requirements for Earth-to-orbit flight would be substantially reduced. Minami's navigation theory framing was situated within similar extra-dimensional theory discussions, including Kaluza-Klein theory, supergravity theory, superstring theory, M theory, and D-brane-related superstring theory, as part of the paper's conceptual background for interstellar navigation. Minami and Musha reviewed proposals outlined further below, including vacuum polarization (a quantum effect in which strong fields produce short-lived virtual particle pairs), engineered spacetime curvature, and zero-point-field interactions; they distinguish between two field propulsion concepts: one framed in terms of general relativity


id: field-propulsion-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_propulsion-7.md
category: reference
title: Field propulsion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_propulsion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:18.670066+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: field-propulsion-20260505-0
summary:
These systems generate thrust by exchanging momentum with external fields (magnetic, plasma, or photon), without expelling onboard reaction mass. Solar sails are a propellant-less propulsion method that produces thrust from solar photon pressure, rather than by expelling reaction mass. As with other environment coupled concepts, sail performance depends on local solar pressure: the interstellar probe concept uses a very close solar flyby to take advantage of "increased solar flux" and the resultant "increased solar photon pressure", and scaling to a 160,000 m2 sail would require advances in sail materials, deployment, and attitude control systems. Sailcraft engineering couples ultra-light structures to stringent pointing and thermal constraints. Once deployed, thrust is almost normal to the sail, so small attitude changes steer the thrust vector. Performance evolves with materials science and control: lower areal density (mass per unit sail area) directly increases acceleration, and by tilting the sail the small continuous thrust can be steered for precise trajectory shaping. Square and heliogyro designs use thin film sails on deployable booms; reliable deployment of large, low-mass structures and thin films is a key challenge. Typical sail films have reflective front coats and high-emissivity back coats; wrinkling and billowing reduce efficiency. Forward (Journal of Spacecraft


id: field-propulsion-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_propulsion-8.md
category: reference
title: Field propulsion
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_propulsion
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:18.670066+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: field-propulsion-20260505-0
summary:
Broad historical treatments of field propulsion placed terrestrial field-matter coupling systems alongside space-oriented concepts, even though these operate in dense media rather than as propellantless spacecraft. Although not presently in wide use for space, there exist proven terrestrial examples of field propulsion in which electromagnetic fields act upon a conducting medium such as seawater or plasma for propulsion, known collectively as magnetohydrodynamics (MHD). MHD is similar in operation to electric motors, however, rather than using moving parts or metal conductors, fluid or plasma conductors are employed. The EMS-1 and more recently the Yamato 1 are examples of such electromagnetic field-propulsion systems, first described in 1994. Electrohydrodynamics (EHD) is another method where electrically charged fluids are accelerated for propulsion and flow control; laboratory and flight demonstrations include ion devices driven by corona discharge, in which a strong electric field ionizes surrounding air to create a thrust-producing flow of charged particles. Magnetohydrodynamic interaction concepts extending magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) to space plasma propose generating thrust by exchanging momentum with ambient charged particles via Lorentz-force coupling. If the interacting plasma is external (e.g., ionospheric or solar wind), the system qualifies as field propulsion. Magnetic levitation (maglev) ground transport systems are another terrestrial example of propulsion


id: food-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Food science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:19.879141+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: food-science-20260505-0
summary:
Food science (or bromatology) is the study of food and its chemical properties. Its scope overlaps with agricultural science and nutritional science and extends to the scientific aspects of food safety and food processing, informing the development of food technology. Food science is an interdisciplinary field that integrates concepts from chemistry, physics, physiology, microbiology, and biochemistry. It evolved from early preservation practices such as salting to an organized research-driven field central to modern food production. The field includes several subdisciplines such as food chemistry, food technology, and molecular gastronomy, which examine the composition and processes used to produce and preserve food. Food scientists develop new products, design processing methods to produce these foods, select packaging materials, conduct shelf life and sensory evaluation studies of products using survey panels or potential consumers, and perform microbiological and chemical testing. They may study more fundamental phenomena that are directly linked to the production of food products and its properties. == Definition == The Institute of Food Technologists defines food science as "the discipline in which the engineering, biological, and physical sciences are used to study the nature of foods, the causes of deterioration, the principles underlying food processing, and the improvement of foods


id: food-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Food science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:19.879141+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: food-science-20260505-0
summary:
The European Federation of Food Science and Technology, or EFFoST, is a European network that brings together professionals working in food science, food engineering, and related disciplines. EFFoST seeks to contribute to the development of safe, nutritious, and sustainable food systems in response to changing global demands. As a regional branch of the International Union of Food Science and Technology (IUFoST), EFFoST partners with over 130 institutions across Europe. === Australia === The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) is the federal government agency for scientific research in Australia. CSIRO maintains more than 50 sites across Australia and biological control research stations in France and Mexico. It has nearly 6,500 employees. === South Korea === The Korean Society of Food Science and Technology, or KoSFoST, is a South Korean nonprofit organization that supports academic and professional collaboration in food science. Established in 1968, it serves as a forum for scientists and engineers working in areas related to food production, biotechnology, and product development. KoSFoST serves as the Korean regional branch of the International Union of Science and Technology. === United States === The Institute of Food Technologists (IFT), headquartered in Chicago, Illinois, is a major U.S. professional society for


id: forensic-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Forensic science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:21.311464+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: forensic-science-20260505-0
summary:
Forensic science, often known as with criminalistics, is the application of science principles and methods to support decision-making related to rules or law, generally criminal and civil law. During criminal investigation in particular, it is governed by the legal standards of admissible evidence and criminal procedure. It is a broad field utilizing numerous practices such as the analysis of DNA, fingerprints, bloodstain patterns, firearms, ballistics, toxicology, microscopy, and fire debris analysis. Modern forensic analysis is also conducted on cybersecurity related incidents where major breach has occurred leading to substantial financial loss. Forensic scientists collect, preserve, and analyze evidence during the course of an investigation. While some forensic scientists travel to the scene of the crime to collect the evidence themselves, others occupy a laboratory role, performing analysis on objects brought to them by other individuals. Others are involved in analysis of financial, banking, or other numerical data for use in financial crime investigation, and can be employed as consultants from private firms, academia, or as government employees. In addition to their laboratory role, forensic scientists testify as expert witnesses in both criminal and civil cases and can work for either the prosecution or the defense. While any field could technically


id: forensic-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science-1.md
category: reference
title: Forensic science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:21.311464+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: forensic-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Education and training == Initial glance, forensic intelligence may appear as a nascent facet of forensic science facilitated by advancements in information technologies such as computers, databases, and data-flow management software. However, a more profound examination reveals that forensic intelligence represents a genuine and emerging inclination among forensic practitioners to actively participate in investigative and policing strategies. In doing so, it elucidates existing practices within scientific literature, advocating for a paradigm shift from the prevailing conception of forensic science as a conglomerate of disciplines merely aiding the criminal justice system. Instead, it urges a perspective that views forensic science as a discipline studying the informative potential of traces—remnants of criminal activity. Embracing this transformative shift poses a significant challenge for education, necessitating a shift in learners' mindset to accept concepts and methodologies in forensic intelligence. Recent calls advocating for the integration of forensic scientists into the criminal justice system, as well as policing and intelligence missions, underscore the necessity for the establishment of educational and training initiatives in the field of forensic intelligence. This article contends that a discernible gap exists between the perceived and actual comprehension of forensic intelligence among law enforcement and forensic science managers, positing that


id: forensic-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science-2.md
category: reference
title: Forensic science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:21.311464+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: forensic-science-20260505-0
summary:
James Marsh was the first to apply this new science to the art of forensics. He was called by the prosecution in a murder trial to give evidence as a chemist in 1832. The defendant, John Bodle, was accused of poisoning his grandfather with arsenic-laced coffee. Marsh performed the standard test by mixing a suspected sample with hydrogen sulfide and hydrochloric acid. While he was able to detect arsenic as yellow arsenic trisulfide, when it was shown to the jury it had deteriorated, allowing the suspect to be acquitted due to reasonable doubt. Annoyed by that, Marsh developed a much better test. He combined a sample containing arsenic with sulfuric acid and arsenic-free zinc, resulting in arsine gas. The gas was ignited, and it decomposed to pure metallic arsenic, which, when passed to a cold surface, would appear as a silvery-black deposit. So sensitive was the test, known formally as the Marsh test, that it could detect as little as one-fiftieth of a milligram of arsenic. He first described this test in The Edinburgh Philosophical Journal in 1836. === Ballistics and firearms === Ballistics is "the science of the motion of projectiles in flight". In forensic science, analysts examine the


id: forensic-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science-3.md
category: reference
title: Forensic science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:21.311464+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: forensic-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Uhlenhuth test === The Uhlenhuth test, or the antigen–antibody precipitin test for species, was invented by Paul Uhlenhuth in 1901 and could distinguish human blood from animal blood, based on the discovery that the blood of different species had one or more characteristic proteins. The test represented a major breakthrough and came to have tremendous importance in forensic science. The test was further refined for forensic use by the Swiss chemist Maurice Müller in the year 1960s. === DNA === Forensic DNA analysis was first used in 1984. It was developed by Sir Alec Jeffreys, who realized that variation in the genetic sequence could be used to identify individuals and to tell individuals apart from one another. The first application of DNA profiles was used by Jeffreys in a double murder mystery in the small English town of Narborough, Leicestershire, in 1985. A 15-year-old school girl by the name of Lynda Mann was raped and murdered in Carlton Hayes psychiatric hospital. The police did not find a suspect but were able to obtain a semen sample. In 1986, Dawn Ashworth, 15 years old, was also raped and strangled in the nearby village of Enderby. Forensic evidence showed that both


id: forensic-science-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science-4.md
category: reference
title: Forensic science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:21.311464+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: forensic-science-20260505-0
summary:
Handbook for Coroners, police officials, military policemen was written by the Austrian criminal jurist Hans Gross in 1893, and is generally acknowledged as the birth of the field of criminalistics. The work combined in one system fields of knowledge that had not been previously integrated, such as psychology and physical science, and which could be successfully used against crime. Gross adapted some fields to the needs of criminal investigation, such as crime scene photography. He went on to found the Institute of Criminalistics in 1912, as part of the University of Graz' Law School. This Institute was followed by many similar institutes all over the world. In 1909, Archibald Reiss founded the Institut de police scientifique of the University of Lausanne (UNIL), the first school of forensic science in the world. Dr. Edmond Locard, became known as the "Sherlock Holmes of France". He formulated the basic principle of forensic science: "Every contact leaves a trace", which became known as Locard's exchange principle. In 1910, he founded what may have been the first criminal laboratory in the world, after persuading the Police Department of Lyon (France) to give him two attic rooms and two assistants. Symbolic of the newfound prestige of


id: forensic-science-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science-5.md
category: reference
title: Forensic science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:21.311464+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: forensic-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== 21st century === In the past decade, documenting forensics scenes has become more efficient. Forensic scientists have started using laser scanners, drones and photogrammetry to obtain 3D point clouds of accidents or crime scenes. Reconstruction of an accident scene on a highway using drones involves data acquisition time of only 10–20 minutes and can be performed without shutting down traffic. The results are not just accurate, in centimeters, for measurement to be presented in court but also easy to digitally preserve in the long term. Now, in the 21st century, much of forensic science's future is up for discussion. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has several forensic science-related programs: CSAFE, a NIST Center of Excellence in Forensic Science, the National Commission on Forensic Science (now concluded), and administration of the Organization of Scientific Area Committees for Forensic Science (OSAC). One of the more recent additions by NIST is a document called NISTIR-7941, titled "Forensic Science Laboratories: Handbook for Facility Planning, Design, Construction, and Relocation". The handbook provides a clear blueprint for approaching forensic science. The details even include what type of staff should be hired for certain positions. == Subdivisions == Art forensics concerns the art


id: forensic-science-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science-6.md
category: reference
title: Forensic science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:21.311464+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: forensic-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Questionable techniques == Some forensic techniques, believed to be scientifically sound at the time they were used, have turned out later to have much less scientific merit or none. Some such techniques include: Comparative bullet-lead analysis was used by the FBI for over four decades, starting with the John F. Kennedy assassination in 1963. The theory was that each batch of ammunition possessed a chemical makeup so distinct that a bullet could be traced back to a particular batch or even a specific box. Internal studies and an outside study by the National Academy of Sciences found that the technique was unreliable due to improper interpretation, and the FBI abandoned the test in 2005. Forensic dentistry has come under fire: in at least three cases bite-mark evidence has been used to convict people of murder who were later freed by DNA evidence. A 1999 study by a member of the American Board of Forensic Odontology found a 63 percent rate of false identifications and is commonly referenced within online news stories and conspiracy websites. The study was based on an informal workshop during an ABFO meeting, which many members did not consider a valid scientific setting. The theory is


id: forensic-science-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science-7.md
category: reference
title: Forensic science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:21.311464+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: forensic-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Controversies == Questions about certain areas of forensic science, such as fingerprint evidence and the assumptions behind these disciplines have been brought to light in some publications including the New York Post. The article stated that "No one has proved even the basic assumption: That everyone's fingerprint is unique." The article also stated that "Now such assumptions are being questioned—and with it may come a radical change in how forensic science is used by police departments and prosecutors." Law professor Jessica Gabel said on NOVA that forensic science "lacks the rigors, the standards, the quality controls and procedures that we find, usually, in science". The National Institute of Standards and Technology has reviewed the scientific foundations of bite-mark analysis used in forensic science. Bite mark analysis is a forensic science technique that analyzes the marks on the victim's skin compared to the suspects teeth. NIST reviewed the findings of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine 2009 study. The National Academics of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine conducted research to address the issues of reliability, accuracy, and reliability of bitemark analysis, where they concluded that there is a lack of sufficient scientific foundation to support the data. Yet the


id: forensic-science-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science-8.md
category: reference
title: Forensic science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:21.311464+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: forensic-science-20260505-0
summary:
Association of Firearm and Tool Mark Examiners – International non-profit organization Canadian Identification Society Computer forensics – Branch of digital forensic science Crime science – Study of ways to prevent or reduce crime Diplomatics – Academic study of the protocols of documents (forensic paleography) Epigenetics in forensic science – Overview article Evidence packaging – Specialized packaging for physical evidence Forensic biology – Forensic application of the study of biology Forensic economics Forensic identification – Legal identification of specific objects and materials Forensic materials engineering – Branch of forensic engineering Forensic photography – Art of producing an accurate reproduction of a crime scene Forensic polymer engineering – Study of failure in polymeric products Forensic profiling – Study of trace evidence in criminal investigations Glove prints – Mark left on a surface by a worn glove History of forensic photography International Association for Identification Medical jurisprudence – Branch of science and medicine Marine forensics Outline of forensic science – Overview of and topical guide to forensic science Profiling (information science) – Creation and use of user profiles via data analysis Retrospective diagnosis – Practice of identifying an illness after the death of the patient Rapid Stain Identification Series (RSID) Scenes of crime


id: home-economics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_economics-0.md
category: reference
title: Home economics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_economics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:23.657157+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: home-economics-20260505-0
summary:
Home economics, also called home ec, domestic science, household arts, homemaking or family and consumer sciences (often shortened to FCS or FACS), is a subject concerning human development, personal and family finances, consumer issues, housing and interior design, nutrition and food preparation, as well as textiles and apparel. Although historically mostly taught in secondary school or high school, dedicated home economics courses are much less common today. Home economics overlaps with the concept of life skills-based education. Home economics courses are offered around the world and across multiple educational levels. Historically, the purpose of these courses was to professionalize housework, to provide intellectual fulfillment for women, to emphasize the value of "women's work" in society, and to prepare them for the traditional roles of sexes. Family and consumer sciences are taught as an elective or required course in secondary education, as a continuing education course in institutions, and at the primary level. Beginning in Scotland in the 1850s, it was a woman-dominated course, teaching women to be homemakers with sewing being the lead skill. The American Association of Family and Consumer Sciences at the beginning of the 20th century saw Americans desiring youth to learn vocational skills as well. Politics


id: home-economics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_economics-1.md
category: reference
title: Home economics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_economics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:23.657157+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: home-economics-20260505-0
summary:
In 1945, just days before the Liberation of World War II, Ada Gobetti stated, "The most difficult problem will be that of the housewife. It will be one of the most difficult to resolve if one wants to create a new society." She wanted women, family, work, and society to form a new relationship through education and organization of the housewives. Although people were not taught formal classes of home economics, during the 1950s and 1960s home economics manuals had been fully published. These manuals were compulsory for children to read in school. These manuals focused heavily on how to be a good housewife during a new era of transformation and how to adapt to new behaviors and habits. Starting from the Gentile reform of 1923, home economics was taught in the lower middle school and in the new unified middle school established in 1963. The name changed to Technical Applications, differentiated into male and female, which was taught until 1977 when it changed to the title of Technical Education, which no longer differed in relation to the sex of the pupils. === South Korea === In South Korea, the field is most commonly known as "consumer science" (소비자학, sobija-hak).


id: home-economics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_economics-2.md
category: reference
title: Home economics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_economics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:23.657157+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: home-economics-20260505-0
summary:
Over the years, homemaking in the United States has been a foundational piece of the education system, particularly for women. These homemaking courses, called home economics, have had a prevalent presence in secondary and higher education since the 19th century. By definition, home economics is "the art and science of home management", meaning that the discipline incorporates both creative and technical aspects into its teachings. Home economics courses often consist of learning how to cook, how to do taxes, and how to perform child care tasks. In the United States, home economics courses have been a key part of learning the art of taking care of a household. One of the first to champion the economics of running a home was Catherine Beecher, sister to Harriet Beecher Stowe. Since the nineteenth century, schools have been incorporating home economics courses into their education programs. In its early years, home economics began with the goal of professionalizing domestic labor for women whilst also uplifting the idea of "women's work". In the United States, the teaching of home economics courses in higher education greatly increased with the Morrill Act of 1862. Signed by Abraham Lincoln, the Act granted land to each state or


id: home-economics-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_economics-3.md
category: reference
title: Home economics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_economics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:23.657157+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: home-economics-20260505-0
summary:
Practice homes were added to American universities in the early 1900s in order to model a living situation, with the first facility built for home management practice constructed in the early 1920s at North Dakota Agricultural College. The all-women 'team' model used for students was different from prevailing expectations of housewives. For example, women were graded on collaboration, while households at the time assumed that women would be working independently. Nevertheless, the practice homes were valued. These practicum courses took place in a variety of environments including single-family homes, apartments, and student dorm-style blocks. For a duration of a number of weeks, students lived together while taking on different roles and responsibilities, such as cooking, cleaning, interior decoration, hosting, and budgeting. Some classes also involved caring for young infants, temporarily adopted from orphanages. Children's service organizations helped supply the babies who were awaiting adoption. At Cornell University, the first practice baby was called Dicky Domecon, named after the phrase "domestic economy". Dicky was borrowed by Cornell in 1920 when he was three weeks old. Practice babies belonged to the students and to the department and were considered central to the proper training and development of home economics students. Many fields


id: home-economics-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_economics-4.md
category: reference
title: Home economics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_economics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:23.657157+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: home-economics-20260505-0
summary:
==== Twenty-first century ==== Today FCS is part of the broader Career Technical Education (CTE) umbrella. Career and technical education is a term applied to programs that specialize in skilled trades, applied sciences, modern technologies, and career preparation. While traditional home economics focused on preparing women to care for a family and home, family consumer science continues to adapt its course offerings to meet the needs of students both for personal growth and professional opportunities. Students can take classes in culinary arts, education, food science, nutrition, health and wellness, interior design, child development, personal finance, textiles, apparel, and retailing. Students who take FCS classes can join the student organization Family, Career, and Community Leaders of America. FCS and CTE courses help prepare students for careers rather than university. Also, homemaking and home economics courses have developed a negative connotation because of the negative gender bias associated with home economics courses. Despite this, homemaking is now socially acceptable for both men and women to partake in. In the United States, both men and women are expected to take care of the home, the children, and the finances. More women are pursuing higher education rather than homemaking. In 2016, 56.4% of college


id: human-nutrition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition-0.md
category: reference
title: Human nutrition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:25.210940+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: human-nutrition-20260505-0
summary:
Human nutrition deals with the provision of essential nutrients in food that are necessary to support human life and good health. Poor nutrition is a chronic problem often linked to poverty, food security, or a poor understanding of nutritional requirements. Malnutrition and its consequences are large contributors to deaths, physical deformities, and disabilities worldwide. Good nutrition is necessary for children to grow physically and mentally, and for normal human biological development. == Recommended Dietary Allowances == The Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) are scientifically determined levels of essential nutrient intake, deemed sufficient by the Food and Nutrition Board to meet the nutritional needs of nearly all healthy individuals. The first RDAs were published in 1943, during World War II, with the aim of setting standards for optimal nutrition. The initial editions outlined daily nutrient recommendations for various age groups, reflecting the latest scientific insights at the time (NRC, 1943). The history and evolution of the RDAs have been extensively detailed by the chair of the first Committee on Recommended Dietary Allowances (Roberts, 1958). Over the years, the RDAs have been periodically updated, with the current version being the tenth edition. Originally intended to address nutrition issues related to national defense, the


id: human-nutrition-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition-1.md
category: reference
title: Human nutrition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:25.210940+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: human-nutrition-20260505-0
summary:
Carbohydrates may be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides or polysaccharides depending on the number of monomer (sugar) units they contain. They are a diverse group of substances, with a range of chemical, physical and physiological properties. They make up a large part of foods such as rice, noodles, bread, and other grain-based products, but they are not an essential nutrient, meaning a human does not need to eat carbohydrates. Monosaccharides contain one sugar unit, disaccharides two, and polysaccharides three or more. Monosaccharides include glucose, fructose and galactose. Disaccharides include sucrose, lactose, and maltose; purified sucrose, for instance, is used as table sugar. Polysaccharides, which include starch and glycogen, are often referred to as 'complex' carbohydrates because they are typically long multiple-branched chains of sugar units. Traditionally, simple carbohydrates were believed to be absorbed quickly, and therefore raise blood-glucose levels more rapidly than complex carbohydrates. This is inaccurate. Some simple carbohydrates (e.g., fructose) follow different metabolic pathways (e.g., fructolysis) that result in only a partial catabolism to glucose, while, in essence, many complex carbohydrates may be digested at the same rate as simple carbohydrates. The World Health Organization recommends that added sugars should represent no more than 10% of total energy intake.


id: human-nutrition-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition-2.md
category: reference
title: Human nutrition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:25.210940+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: human-nutrition-20260505-0
summary:
Dietary fiber is a carbohydrate, specifically a polysaccharide, which is incompletely absorbed in humans and in some animals. Fiber slows down the absorption of sugar in the gut. The microbiome converts fiber into signals that stimulate gut hormones, which in turn control how quickly the stomach empties, regulate blood sugar levels, and influence feelings of hunger. Like all carbohydrates, when fiber is digested, it can produce four calories (kilocalories) of energy per gram, but in most circumstances, it accounts for less than that because of its limited absorption and digestibility. The two subcategories are insoluble and soluble fiber. Insoluble dietary fiber Includes cellulose, a large carbohydrate polymer that is indigestible by humans, because humans do not have the required enzymes to break it down, and the human digestive system does not harbor enough of the types of microbes that can do so. Includes resistant starch, an insoluble starch that resists digestion either because it is protected by a shell or food matrix (Type 1 resistant starch, RS1), maintains the natural starch granule (Type 2 resistant starch, RS2), is retrograded and partially crystallized (Type 3 resistant starch, RS3), has been chemically modified (Type 4 resistant starch, RS4) or has complexed with


id: human-nutrition-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition-3.md
category: reference
title: Human nutrition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:25.210940+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: human-nutrition-20260505-0
summary:
Water is excreted from the body in multiple forms; including urine and feces, sweating, and by water vapour in the exhaled breath. Therefore, it is necessary to adequately rehydrate to replace lost fluids. Early recommendations for the quantity of water required for maintenance of good health suggested that six to eight glasses of water daily is the minimum to maintain proper hydration. However, the notion that a person should consume eight glasses of water per day cannot be traced to a credible scientific source. The original water intake recommendation in 1945 by the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Research Council read: "An ordinary standard for diverse persons is 1 milliliter for each calorie of food. Most of this quantity is contained in prepared foods." More recent comparisons of well-known recommendations on fluid intake have revealed large discrepancies in the volumes of water we need to consume for good health. Therefore, to help standardize guidelines, recommendations for water consumption are included in two recent European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) documents (2010): (i) Food-based dietary guidelines and (ii) Dietary reference values for water or adequate daily intakes (ADI). These specifications were provided by calculating adequate intakes from measured intakes in


id: human-nutrition-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition-4.md
category: reference
title: Human nutrition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:25.210940+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: human-nutrition-20260505-0
summary:
Cobalt as a component of the vitamin B12 family of coenzymes Copper required component of many redox enzymes, including cytochrome c oxidase (see Copper in health) Chromium required for sugar metabolism Iodine required not only for the biosynthesis of thyroxin, but probably, for other important organs as breast, stomach, salivary glands, thymus etc. (see Iodine deficiency); for this reason iodine is needed in larger quantities than others in this list, and sometimes classified with the macrominerals; Nowadays it is most easily found in iodized salt, but there are also natural sources such as Kombu. Iron required for many enzymes, and for hemoglobin and some other proteins Manganese (processing of oxygen) Molybdenum required for xanthine oxidase and related oxidases Selenium required for peroxidase (antioxidant proteins) Zinc required for several enzymes such as carboxypeptidase, liver alcohol dehydrogenase, carbonic anhydrase ==== Ultratrace minerals ==== Ultratrace minerals are an as yet unproven aspect of human nutrition, and may be required at amounts measured in very low ranges of μg/day. Many ultratrace elements have been suggested as essential, but such claims have usually not been confirmed. Definitive evidence for efficacy comes from the characterization of a biomolecule containing the element with an identifiable and testable


id: human-nutrition-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition-5.md
category: reference
title: Human nutrition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:25.210940+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: human-nutrition-20260505-0
summary:
The intestines contain a large population of gut flora. In humans, the four dominant phyla are Bacillota, Bacteroidota, Actinomycetota, and Pseudomonadota. They are essential to digestion and are also affected by food that is consumed. Bacteria are essential for metabolizing food substrates and thereby increasing energy output, and produce a great variety of metabolites, including vitamins and short-chain fatty acids that contribute to the metabolism in a wide variety of ways. These metabolites are responsible for stimulating cell growth, repressing the growth of harmful bacteria, priming the immune system to respond only to pathogens, helping to maintain a healthy gut barrier, control gene expression by epigenetic regulation and defending against some infectious diseases. == Global nutrition challenges == The challenges facing global nutrition are disease, child malnutrition, obesity, and vitamin deficiency. === Disease === The most common non-infectious diseases worldwide, that contribute most to the global mortality rate, are cardiovascular diseases, various cancers, diabetes, and chronic respiratory problems, all of which are linked to poor nutrition. Nutrition and diet are closely associated with the leading causes of death, including cardiovascular disease and cancer. Obesity and high sodium intake can contribute to ischemic heart disease, while consumption of fruits and vegetables


id: human-nutrition-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition-6.md
category: reference
title: Human nutrition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:25.210940+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: human-nutrition-20260505-0
summary:
UNICEF defines undernutrition "as the outcome of insufficient food intake (hunger) and repeated infectious diseases. Undernutrition includes being underweight for one's age, too short for one's age (stunted growth), dangerously thin (muscle wasting), and deficient in vitamins and minerals (micronutrient malnutrition). Under nutrition causes 53% of deaths of children under five across the world. It has been estimated that undernutrition is the underlying cause for 35% of child deaths. The Maternal and Child Nutrition Study Group estimate that under nutrition, "including fetal growth restriction, stunting, wasting, deficiencies of vitamin A and zinc along with suboptimum breastfeeding—is a cause of 3.1 million child deaths and infant mortality, or 45% of all child deaths in 2011". When humans are undernourished, they no longer maintain normal bodily functions, such as growth, resistance to infection, or have insufficient drive for every everyday tasks and unsatisfactory performance in school or work. Major causes of under nutrition in young children include lack of proper breast feeding for infants and illnesses such as diarrhea, pneumonia, malaria, and HIV/AIDS. According to UNICEF 146 million children across the globe, that one out of four under the age of five, are underweight. The number of underweight children has decreased since


id: human-nutrition-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition-7.md
category: reference
title: Human nutrition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:25.210940+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: human-nutrition-20260505-0
summary:
=== Vitamin and mineral malnutrition === Vitamins and minerals are essential to the proper functioning and maintenance of the human body. There are 20 trace elements and minerals that are essential in small quantities to body function and overall human health. Iron deficiency is the most common inadequate nutrient worldwide, affecting approximately 2 billion people. Globally, anemia affects 1.6 billion people, and represents a public health emergency in mothers and children under five. The World Health Organization estimates that there exists 469 million women of reproductive age and approximately 600 million preschool and school-age children worldwide who are anemic. Anemia, especially iron-deficient anemia, is a critical problem for cognitive developments in children, and its presence leads to maternal deaths and poor brain and motor development in children. The development of anemia affects mothers and children more because infants and children have higher iron requirements for growth. Health consequences for iron deficiency in young children include increased perinatal mortality, delayed mental and physical development, negative behavioral consequences, reduced auditory and visual function, and impaired physical performance. The harm caused by iron deficiency during child development cannot be reversed and result in reduced academic performance, poor physical work capacity, and decreased productivity


id: human-nutrition-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition-8.md
category: reference
title: Human nutrition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:25.210940+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: human-nutrition-20260505-0
summary:
=== Nutrition literacy === The findings of the 2003 National Assessment of Adult Literacy (NAAL), conducted by the US Department of Education, provide a basis upon which to frame the nutrition literacy problem in the U.S. NAAL introduced the first-ever measure of "the degree to which individuals have the capacity to obtain, process and understand basic health information and services needed to make appropriate health decisions" – an objective of Healthy People 2010 and of which nutrition literacy might be considered an important subset. On a scale of below basic, basic, intermediate and proficient, NAAL found 13 percent of adult Americans have proficient health literacy, 44% have intermediate literacy, 29 percent have basic literacy and 14 percent have below basic health literacy. The study found that health literacy increases with education and people living below the level of poverty have lower health literacy than those above it. Another study examining the health and nutrition literacy status of residents of the lower Mississippi Delta found that 52 percent of participants had a high likelihood of limited literacy skills. While a precise comparison between the NAAL and Delta studies is difficult, primarily because of methodological differences, Zoellner et al. suggest that health


id: human-nutrition-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition-9.md
category: reference
title: Human nutrition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:25.210940+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: human-nutrition-20260505-0
summary:
=== South Asia === South Asia has the highest percentage and number of underweight children under five in the world, at approximately 78 million children. Patterns of stunting and wasting are similar, where 44% have not reached optimal height and 15% are wasted, rates much higher than any other regions. This region of the world has extremely high rates of underweight children. According to a 2006 UNICEF study, 46% of its child population under five is underweight. The same study indicates India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan combined account for half the globe's underweight child population. South Asian nations have made progress towards the MDGs, considering the rate has decreased from 53% since 1990, however, a 1.7% decrease of underweight prevalence per year will not be sufficient to meet the 2015 goal. Some nations, such as Afghanistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka, on the other hand, have made significant improvements, all decreasing their prevalence by half in ten years. While India and Pakistan have made modest improvements, Nepal has made no significant improvement in underweight child prevalence. Other forms of undernutrition have continued to persist with high resistance to improvement, such as the prevalence of stunting and wasting, which has not changed significantly


id: human-nutrition-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition-10.md
category: reference
title: Human nutrition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:25.210940+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: human-nutrition-20260505-0
summary:
=== East Asia and the Pacific === The East Asia and Pacific region has reached its goals on nutrition, in part due to the improvements contributed by China, the region's most populous country. China has reduced its underweight prevalence from 19 percent to 8 percent between 1990 and 2002. China played the largest role in the world in decreasing the rate of children under five underweight between 1990 and 2004, halving the prevalence. This reduction of underweight prevalence has aided in the lowering of the under 5 mortality rate from 49 to 31 of 1000. They also have a low birthweight rate at 4%, a rate comparable to industrialized countries, and over 90% of households receive adequate iodized salts. However, large disparities exist between children in rural and urban areas, where 5 provinces in China leave 1.5 million children iodine deficient and susceptible to diseases. Singapore, Vietnam, Malaysia, and Indonesia are all projected to reach nutrition MDGs. Singapore has the lowest under five mortality rate of any nation, besides Iceland, in the world, at 3%. Cambodia has the highest rate of child mortality in the region (141 per 1,000 live births), while still its proportion of underweight children increased by


id: human-nutrition-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition-11.md
category: reference
title: Human nutrition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:25.210940+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: human-nutrition-20260505-0
summary:
=== Nutrition interventions === Nutrition directly influences progress towards meeting the Millennium Development Goals of eradicating hunger and poverty through health and education. Therefore, nutrition interventions take a multi-faceted approach to improve the nutrition status of various populations. Policy and programming must target both individual behavioral changes and policy approaches to public health. While most nutrition interventions focus on delivery through the health-sector, non-health sector interventions targeting agriculture, water and sanitation, and education are important as well. Global nutrition micronutrient deficiencies often receive large-scale solution approaches by deploying large governmental and non-governmental organizations. For example, in 1990, iodine deficiency was particularly prevalent, with one in five households, or 1.7 billion people, not consuming adequate iodine, leaving them at risk to develop associated diseases. Therefore, a global campaign to iodize salt to eliminate iodine deficiency successfully boosted the rate to 69% of households in the world consuming adequate amounts of iodine. Emergencies and crises often exacerbate undernutrition, due to the aftermath of crises that include food insecurity, poor health resources, unhealthy environments, and poor healthcare practices. Therefore, the repercussions of natural disasters and other emergencies can exponentially increase the rates of macro and micronutrient deficiencies in populations. Disaster relief interventions often


id: human-nutrition-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition-12.md
category: reference
title: Human nutrition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_nutrition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T03:55:25.210940+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: human-nutrition-20260505-0
summary:
=== Government programs === Governmental organisations have been working on nutrition literacy interventions in non-primary health care settings to address the nutrition information problem in the U.S. Some programs include: The Family Nutrition Program (FNP) is a free nutrition education program serving low-income adults around the U.S. This program is funded by the Food Nutrition Service's (FNS) branch of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) usually through a local state academic institution that runs the program. The FNP has developed a series of tools to help families participating in the Food Stamp Program stretch their food dollar and form healthful eating habits including nutrition education. Expanded Food and Nutrition Education Program (ENFEP) is a unique program that currently operates in all 50 states and in American Samoa, Guam, Micronesia, Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. It is designed to assist limited-resource audiences in acquiring the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and changed behavior necessary for nutritionally sound diets, and to contribute to their personal development and the improvement of the total family diet and nutritional well-being. An example of a state initiative to promote nutrition literacy is Smart Bodies, a public-private partnership between the state's largest university system


