# kb

id: alexander-von-humboldt-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt-10.md
category: reference
title: Alexander von Humboldt
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:06:32.417759+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alexander-von-humboldt-20260505-0
summary:
In 1811, and again in 1818, projects of Asiatic exploration were proposed to Humboldt, first by Tsar Nicholas I's Russian government, and afterwards by the Prussian government; but on each occasion, untoward circumstances interposed. It was not until he had begun his sixtieth year that he resumed his early role of traveler in the interests of science. The Russian Finance Minister, Count Georg von Cancrin, contacted Humboldt about whether a platinum-based currency was possible in Russia and invited him to visit the Ural Mountains. Humboldt was not encouraging about a platinum-based currency, when silver was the standard as a world currency. But the invitation to visit the Urals was intriguing, especially since Humboldt had long dreamed of going to Asia. He had wanted to travel to India and made considerable efforts to persuade the British East India Company to authorize a trip, but those efforts were fruitless. When Russia renewed its earlier invitation to Humboldt, he accepted. The Russians sought to entice Humboldt by engaging his enduring interest in mining sites, for comparative scientific purposes for Humboldt, but for the Russians to gain expert knowledge about their resources. For Humboldt, the Russian monarch's promise to fund the trip was extremely


id: alexander-von-humboldt-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt-11.md
category: reference
title: Alexander von Humboldt
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:06:32.417759+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alexander-von-humboldt-20260505-0
summary:
Between May and November 1829 he and the growing expedition traversed the wide expanse of the Russian empire from the Neva to the Yenisei, accomplishing in twenty-five weeks a distance of 9,614 miles (15,472 km). Humboldt and the expedition party travelled by coach on well maintained roads, with rapid progress being made because of changes of horses at way stations. The party had grown, with Johann Seifert, who was a huntsman and collector of animal specimens; a Russian mining official; Count Adolphe Polier, one of Humboldt's friends from Paris; a cook; plus a contingent of Cossacks for security. Three carriages were filled with people, supplies, and scientific instruments. For Humboldt's magnetic readings to be accurate, they carried an iron-free tent. This expedition was unlike his Spanish American travels with Bonpland, with the two alone and sometimes accompanied by local guides. The Russian government was interested in Humboldt's finding prospects for mining and commercial advancement of the realm and made it clear that Humboldt was not to investigate social issues, nor criticize social conditions of Russian serfs. In his publications on Spanish America, he did comment on the conditions of the indigenous populations, and deplored black slavery, but well after he


id: alexander-von-humboldt-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt-12.md
category: reference
title: Alexander von Humboldt
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:06:32.417759+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alexander-von-humboldt-20260505-0
summary:
As with most of Humboldt's works, Kosmos was also translated into multiple languages in editions of uneven quality. It was very popular in Britain and America. In 1849 a German newspaper commented that in England two of the three different translations were made by women, "while in Germany most of the men do not understand it". The first translation by Augustin Pritchard—published anonymously by Mr. Baillière (volume I in 1845 and volume II in 1848)—suffered from being hurriedly made. In a letter Humboldt said of it: "It will damage my reputation. All the charm of my description is destroyed by an English sounding like Sanskrit." The other two translations were made by Elizabeth Juliana Leeves Sabine under the superintendence of her husband Col. Edward Sabine (4 volumes 1846–1858), and by Elise Otté (5 volumes 1849–1858, the only complete translation of the 4 German volumes). These three translations were also published in the United States. The numbering of the volumes differs between the German and the English editions. Volume 3 of the German edition corresponds to the volumes 3 and 4 of the English translation, as the German volume appeared in 2 parts in 1850 and 1851. Volume 5 of the


id: alexander-von-humboldt-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt-13.md
category: reference
title: Alexander von Humboldt
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:06:32.417759+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alexander-von-humboldt-20260505-0
summary:
Humboldt was generous toward his friends and mentored young scientists. He and Bonpland parted ways after their return to Europe, and Humboldt largely took on the task of publishing the results of their Latin American expedition at Humboldt's expense, but he included Bonpland as co-author on the nearly 30 published volumes. Bonpland returned to Latin America, settling in Buenos Aires, Argentina, then moved to the countryside near the border with Paraguay. The forces of Dr. José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia, the strong man of Paraguay, abducted Bonpland after killing Bonpland's estate workers. Bonpland was accused of "agricultural espionage" and of threatening Paraguay's virtual monopoly on the cultivation of yerba mate. Despite international pressure, including the British government and Simón Bolívar's, along with European scientists including Humboldt, Francia kept Bonpland prisoner until 1831. He was released after nearly 10 years in Paraguay. Humboldt and Bonpland maintained a warm correspondence about science and politics until Bonpland's death in 1858. During Humboldt's time in Paris, he met in 1818 the young and brilliant Peruvian student of the Royal Mining School of Paris, Mariano Eduardo de Rivero y Ustariz. Subsequently, Humboldt acted as a mentor of the career of this promising Peruvian scientist. Another


id: alexander-von-humboldt-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt-14.md
category: reference
title: Alexander von Humboldt
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:06:32.417759+00:00
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parent: alexander-von-humboldt-20260505-0
summary:
In the Napoleonic wars, Prussia had capitulated to France, signing the Treaty of Tilsit. The Prussian royal family returned to Berlin, but sought better terms of the treaty and Friedrich Wilhelm III commissioned his younger brother Prince Wilhelm with this. Friedrich Wilhelm III asked Alexander to be part of the mission, charged with introducing the prince to Paris society. This turn of events for Humboldt could not have been better, since he desired to live in Paris rather than Berlin. In 1814 Humboldt accompanied the allied sovereigns to London. Three years later he was summoned by the king of Prussia to attend him at the congress of Aachen. Again in the autumn of 1822 he accompanied the same monarch to the Congress of Verona, proceeded thence with the royal party to Rome and Naples and returned to Paris in the spring of 1823. Humboldt had long regarded Paris as his true home. Thus, when at last he received from his sovereign a summons to join his court at Berlin, he obeyed reluctantly. Between 1830 and 1848 Humboldt was frequently employed in diplomatic missions to the court of King Louis Philippe of France, with whom he always maintained the most cordial


id: alexander-von-humboldt-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt-15.md
category: reference
title: Alexander von Humboldt
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:06:32.417759+00:00
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parent: alexander-von-humboldt-20260505-0
summary:
Because Humboldt did not mention God in his work Cosmos, and sometimes spoke unfavourably of religious attitudes, it was occasionally speculated that he was a materialist philosopher, or perhaps an atheist. However, unlike irreligious figures such as Robert G. Ingersoll, who went so far as to use Humboldtian science to campaign against religion, Humboldt himself denied imputations of atheism. In a letter to Varnhagen von Ense he emphasized that he believed the world had indeed been created, writing of Cosmos: "...'creation' and the 'created world' are never lost sight of in the book. And did I not, only eight months ago, in the French translation, say, in the plainest terms: 'It is this necessity of things, this occult but permanent connection, this periodical return in the progress, development of formation, phenomena, and events which constitute 'Nature' submissive to a controlling power?'" It has been argued that "although Humboldt emphasizes the basis of morality in the nature of man, he does acknowledge that a belief in God is linked directly to acts of virtue" and therefore "the dignity of man lies at the centre of Humboldt's religious thought". Humboldt also believed firmly in an afterlife. A letter he wrote to his


id: alexander-von-humboldt-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt-16.md
category: reference
title: Alexander von Humboldt
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:06:32.417759+00:00
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parent: alexander-von-humboldt-20260505-0
summary:
=== Illness and death === On 24 February 1857, Humboldt suffered a minor stroke, which passed without perceptible symptoms. It was not until the winter of 1858–1859 that his strength began to decline; on 6 May 1859, he died peacefully in Berlin, aged 89. His last words were reported to be "How glorious these sunbeams are! They seem to call Earth to the Heavens!" His remains were conveyed in state through the streets of Berlin, in a hearse drawn by six horses. Royal chamberlains led the cortège, each charged with carrying a pillow with Humboldt's medals and other decorations of honor. Humboldt's extended family, descendants of his brother Wilhelm, walked in the procession. Humboldt's coffin was received by the prince-regent at the door of the cathedral. He was interred at the family resting-place at Tegel, alongside his brother Wilhelm and sister-in-law Caroline. == Honours and namesakes == The honours which had been showered on Humboldt during their life continued after his death. More species are named after Humboldt than after any other human being. The first centenary of Humboldt's birth was celebrated on 14 September 1869, with great enthusiasm in both the New and Old Worlds. Numerous monuments were constructed


id: alexander-von-humboldt-20260505-17
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt-17.md
category: reference
title: Alexander von Humboldt
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:06:32.417759+00:00
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parent: alexander-von-humboldt-20260505-0
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=== Ships === Alexander von Humboldt is also a German ship named after the scientist, originally built in 1906 by the German shipyard AG Weser at Bremen as Reserve Sonderburg. She was operated throughout the North and Baltic Seas until being retired in 1986. Subsequently, she was converted into a three-masted barque by the German shipyard Motorwerke Bremerhaven, and was re-launched in 1988 as Alexander von Humboldt. The Jan De Nul Group operates a hopper dredger built in 1998 also named Alexander von Humboldt. === Recognitions by contemporaries === Simón Bolívar wrote that "The real discoverer of South America was Humboldt, since his work was more useful for our people than the work of all conquerors". Charles Darwin expressed his debt to Humboldt, and admiration for his work, writing to Joseph Dalton Hooker that Humboldt was the "greatest scientific traveller who ever lived". Wilhelm von Humboldt wrote that "Alexander is destined to combine ideas and follow chains of thoughts which would otherwise have remained unknown for ages. His depth, his sharp mind and his incredible speed are a rare combination." Johann Wolfgang Goethe observed that "Humboldt showers us with true treasures". Friedrich Schiller wrote that "Alexander impresses many, particularly when


id: thomas-jefferson-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson-0.md
category: reference
title: Thomas Jefferson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:06:33.894887+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: thomas-jefferson-20260505-0
summary:
Thomas Jefferson (April 13 [O.S. April 2], 1743 – July 4, 1826) was a Founding Father, second vice president, and third president of the United States from 1801 to 1809. Jefferson was the primary author of the Declaration of Independence. He was a leading proponent of democracy, republicanism, and natural rights, and produced formative documents and decisions at the state, national, and international levels. Jefferson was born into the Colony of Virginia's planter class. During the American Revolution, he represented Virginia in the Second Continental Congress, which unanimously adopted the Declaration of Independence. Jefferson's advocacy for individual rights, including freedom of thought, speech, and religion, helped shape the ideological foundations of the revolution. Jefferson served as the second governor of Virginia from 1779 to 1781. In 1785, Congress appointed him as U.S. Minister to France, where he served from 1785 to 1789. President George Washington then appointed Jefferson the nation's first secretary of state, where he served from 1790 to 1793. In 1792, Jefferson and political ally James Madison organized the Democratic-Republican Party to oppose the Federalist Party during the formation of the nation's First Party System. Jefferson and Federalist John Adams became both personal friends and political rivals. In


id: thomas-jefferson-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson-1.md
category: reference
title: Thomas Jefferson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:06:33.894887+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: thomas-jefferson-20260505-0
summary:
Jefferson was born on April 13, 1743 (April 2, 1743, Old Style, Julian calendar), at the family's Shadwell Plantation in the Colony of Virginia, then one of the Thirteen Colonies of British America. He was the third of ten children. His father, Peter Jefferson, was a planter and surveyor; his mother was Jane Randolph. Peter Jefferson moved his family to Tuckahoe Plantation in 1745 following the death of William Randolph III, the plantation's owner and Jefferson's friend, who in his will had named Peter guardian of Randolph's children. The Jeffersons returned to Shadwell before October 1753. Jefferson began his education together with the Randolph children at Tuckahoe under tutors. Thomas' father Peter, who was self-taught and regretted not having a formal education, entered Thomas into an English school at age five. In 1752, at age nine, he attended a local school run by a Presbyterian minister and also began studying the natural world, which he grew to love. He studied Latin, Greek, and French, and began learning to ride horses. Thomas read books from his father's modest library. He was taught from 1758 to 1760 by the Reverend James Maury near Gordonsville, Virginia, where he studied history, science, and the


id: thomas-jefferson-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson-2.md
category: reference
title: Thomas Jefferson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:06:33.894887+00:00
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parent: thomas-jefferson-20260505-0
summary:
In 1767, Jefferson was granted admission to the Virginia bar, and lived with his mother at Shadwell. Between 1769 and 1775, he represented Albemarle County in Virginia's House of Burgesses. While serving in the House of Burgesses, Jefferson pursued reforms to slavery, including writing and sponsoring legislation in 1769 to strip power from the royal governor and courts, instead providing masters of slaves with the discretion to emancipate them. Jefferson persuaded his cousin Richard Bland to spearhead the legislation's passage, but it faced strong opposition in a state whose economy was largely agrarian. As a lawyer, Jefferson took on seven freedom-seeking enslaved people as clients and waived his fee for one he claimed should be freed before the minimum statutory age for emancipation. Jefferson invoked natural law, arguing "everyone comes into the world with a right to his own person and using it at his own will ... This is what is called personal liberty, and is given him by the author of nature, because it is necessary for his own sustenance." The judge cut him off and ruled against his client. As a consolation, Jefferson gave his client some money, which was conceivably used to aid his escape shortly


id: thomas-jefferson-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson-3.md
category: reference
title: Thomas Jefferson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:06:33.894887+00:00
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parent: thomas-jefferson-20260505-0
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Jefferson was the primary author of the Declaration of Independence. At age 33, he was one of the youngest delegates to the Second Continental Congress, which convened in the colonial capital of Philadelphia following the Battles of Lexington and Concord, which launched the American Revolutionary War in 1775. Delegates to the Congress overwhelmingly favored authoring, ratifying, and issuing a formal declaration of independence from Britain. Jefferson was inspired by the Enlightenment ideals of the sanctity of the individual, and the writings of Locke and Montesquieu. Jefferson sought out John Adams, a Continental Congress delegate from Massachusetts and an emerging leader in the Congress. They became close friends, and Adams supported Jefferson's appointment to the Committee of Five, which the Congress charged with authoring the Declaration: Adams, Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, Robert R. Livingston, and Roger Sherman. The committee initially thought that Adams should write the document, but Adams persuaded the committee to choose Jefferson due to Jefferson being a Virginian, popular, and a good writer by Adams. Jefferson consulted with his fellow committee members, but mostly wrote the Declaration of Independence in isolation between June 11 and 28, 1776. Jefferson drew considerably on his proposed draft of the Virginia Constitution, George


id: thomas-jefferson-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson-4.md
category: reference
title: Thomas Jefferson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:06:33.894887+00:00
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parent: thomas-jefferson-20260505-0
summary:
In 1780, Jefferson received a letter of inquiry from French diplomat François Barbé-Marbois into the geography, history, and government of Virginia, as part of a study of the United States. Jefferson organized his responses in a book, Notes on the State of Virginia (1785). The book explores what constitutes a good society, using Virginia as an exemplar. Jefferson included extensive data about the state's natural resources and economy and wrote at length about slavery and miscegenation; he articulated his belief that blacks and whites could not live together as free people in one society because of justified resentments of the enslaved. He also wrote of his views on the American Indians, equating them to European settlers. Notes was first published in 1785 in French and appeared in English in 1787. Biographer George Tucker considered the work "surprising in the extent of the information which a single individual had been thus far able to acquire, as to the physical features of the state"; University of Virginia historian Merrill D. Peterson described it as an accomplishment for which all Americans should be grateful. == Member of Congress == Jefferson was appointed a Virginia delegate to the Congress of the Confederation organized following


id: thomas-jefferson-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson-5.md
category: reference
title: Thomas Jefferson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:06:33.894887+00:00
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parent: thomas-jefferson-20260505-0
summary:
Jefferson sent for his youngest surviving child, nine-year-old Polly, in June 1787. She was accompanied by a young slave from Monticello, Sally Hemings. Jefferson had taken her older brother, James Hemings, to Paris as part of his domestic staff and had him trained in French cuisine. According to Sally's son, Madison Hemings, 16-year-old Sally and Jefferson began a sexual relationship in Paris, where she became pregnant. Madison indicated his mother agreed to return to the United States only after Jefferson promised to free her children when they came of age. While in France, Jefferson became a regular companion of the Marquis de Lafayette, a French hero of the American Revolution, and Jefferson used his influence with Lafayette to procure trade agreements with France. As the French Revolution began, Jefferson agreed to allow his Paris residence at Hôtel de Langeac to be used for meetings by Lafayette and other revolutionary leaders. He was in Paris during the storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, and he consulted with Lafayette as Lafayette drafted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. Jefferson often found his mail opened by postmasters, so he invented his own enciphering device, the "Wheel


id: thomas-jefferson-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson-6.md
category: reference
title: Thomas Jefferson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:06:33.894887+00:00
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parent: thomas-jefferson-20260505-0
summary:
In the presidential campaign of 1796, Jefferson lost the electoral college vote to Federalist John Adams 71–68. He did, however, receive the second-highest number of votes and, under the electoral laws at the time, was elected as vice president. As presiding officer of the United States Senate, Jefferson assumed a more passive role than his predecessor, John Adams. He allowed the Senate to freely conduct debates and confined his participation to procedural issues, which he called an "honorable and easy" role. Jefferson previously studied parliamentary law and procedure for 40 years, making him qualified to serve as presiding officer. In 1800, he published his assembled notes on Senate procedure as A Manual of Parliamentary Practice. He cast only three tie-breaking votes in the Senate. In four confidential talks with French consul Joseph Létombe in the spring of 1797, Jefferson attacked Adams, predicting that his rival would only serve one term. He also encouraged France to invade England, and advised Létombe to stall any American envoys sent to Paris. This toughened the tone that the French government adopted toward the Adams administration. After Adams's initial peace envoys were rebuffed, Jefferson and his supporters lobbied for the release of papers related to


id: thomas-jefferson-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson-7.md
category: reference
title: Thomas Jefferson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:06:33.894887+00:00
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parent: thomas-jefferson-20260505-0
summary:
=== Financial affairs === Jefferson's first challenge as president was shrinking the $83 million national debt. He began dismantling Hamilton's Federalist fiscal system with help from the secretary of the treasury, Albert Gallatin. Gallatin devised a plan to eliminate the national debt in sixteen years by extensive annual appropriations and reduction in taxes. The administration eliminated the whiskey excise and other taxes after closing "unnecessary offices" and cutting "useless establishments and expenses". Jefferson believed that the First Bank of the United States represented a "most deadly hostility" to republican government. He wanted to dismantle the bank before its charter expired in 1811, but was dissuaded by Gallatin. Gallatin argued that the national bank was a useful financial institution and set out to expand its operations. Jefferson looked to other corners to address the growing national debt. He shrank the Navy, for example, deeming it unnecessary in peacetime, and incorporated a fleet of inexpensive gunboats intended only for local defense to avoid provocation against foreign powers. After two terms, he had lowered the national debt from $83 million to $57 million. === Domestic affairs === Jefferson pardoned several of those imprisoned under the Alien and Sedition Acts. Congressional Republicans repealed the


id: thomas-jefferson-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson-8.md
category: reference
title: Thomas Jefferson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:06:33.894887+00:00
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parent: thomas-jefferson-20260505-0
summary:
Spain ceded ownership of the Louisiana territory in 1800 to France. Jefferson was concerned that Napoleon's interests in the vast territory would threaten the security of the continent and Mississippi River shipping. He wrote that the cession "works most sorely on the U.S. It completely reverses all the political relations of the U.S." In 1802, he instructed James Monroe and Robert R. Livingston to negotiate the purchase of New Orleans and adjacent coastal areas. In early 1803, Jefferson offered Napoleon nearly $10 million for 40,000 square miles (100,000 square kilometres) of tropical territory. Napoleon realized that French military control was impractical over such a vast remote territory, and he was in dire need of funds for his wars on the home front. In early April 1803, he unexpectedly made negotiators a counter-offer to sell 827,987 square miles (2,144,480 square kilometres) of French territory for $15 million (~$380 million in 2024), doubling the size of the United States. U.S. negotiators accepted the offer and signed the treaty on April 30, 1803. Word of the unexpected purchase did not reach Jefferson until July 3, 1803. He unknowingly acquired the most fertile tract of land of its size on Earth, making the new


id: thomas-jefferson-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson-9.md
category: reference
title: Thomas Jefferson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:06:33.894887+00:00
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parent: thomas-jefferson-20260505-0
summary:
Jefferson refuted the contemporary notion that Indians were inferior and maintained that they were equal in body and mind to people of European descent, although he believed them to be inferior in terms of culture and technology. As governor of Virginia during the Revolutionary War, Jefferson recommended moving the Cherokee and Shawnee tribes, who had allied with the British, to west of the Mississippi River. But when he took office as president, he quickly took measures to avert another major conflict, as American and Indian societies were in collision and the British were inciting Indian tribes from Canada. In Georgia, he stipulated that the state would release its legal claims for lands to its west in exchange for military support in expelling the Cherokee from Georgia. This facilitated his policy of western expansion, to "advance compactly as we multiply". In keeping with his Enlightenment thinking, President Jefferson adopted an assimilation policy toward American Indians known as his "civilization program" which included securing peaceful U.S.–Indian treaty alliances and encouraging agriculture. Jefferson advocated that Indian tribes should make federal purchases by credit holding their lands as collateral. Various tribes accepted Jefferson's policies, including the Shawnees led by Black Hoof, the Muscogee, and


id: thomas-jefferson-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson-10.md
category: reference
title: Thomas Jefferson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:06:33.894887+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: thomas-jefferson-20260505-0
summary:
Following the 1801 electoral deadlock, Jefferson's relationship with his vice president, Aaron Burr, rapidly eroded. Jefferson suspected Burr of seeking the presidency for himself, while Burr was angered by Jefferson's refusal to appoint some of his supporters to federal office. Burr was dropped from the Democratic-Republican ticket in 1804 in favor of charismatic George Clinton. The same year, Burr was soundly defeated in his bid to be elected New York governor. During the campaign, Alexander Hamilton made publicly callous remarks regarding Burr's moral character. Burr challenged Hamilton to a duel, held on July 11, 1804. In the duel, Burr mortally wounded Hamilton, who died the following day. Burr was subsequently indicted for Hamilton's murder, causing him to flee to Georgia, even though he remained president of the U.S. Senate during Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase's impeachment trial. Both indictments quietly died and Burr was not prosecuted. In August 1804, Burr contacted British Minister Anthony Merry offering to cede U.S. western territory in return for money and British ships. After leaving office in April 1805, Burr traveled west and conspired with Louisiana Territory governor James Wilkinson, beginning a large-scale recruitment for a military expedition. Burr discussed seizing control of Mexico or


id: thomas-jefferson-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson-11.md
category: reference
title: Thomas Jefferson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:06:33.894887+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: thomas-jefferson-20260505-0
summary:
In December 1807, news arrived that Napoleon had extended the Berlin Decree, globally banning British imports. The Royal Navy, meanwhile continued to impress sailors from American merchant ships. However, Congress had no appetite to prepare the U.S. for war; Jefferson asked for and received the Embargo Act, an alternative that allowed the U.S. more time to build up defensive works, militias, and naval forces. Meacham argued that the Embargo Act was a projection of power that surpassed the Alien and Sedition Acts, and R. B. Bernstein said that Jefferson "was pursuing policies resembling those he had cited in 1776 as grounds for independence and revolution". In November 1807, Jefferson, for several days, met with his cabinet to discuss the deteriorating foreign situation. Secretary of State James Madison supported the embargo, while Treasury Secretary Gallatin opposed it, due to its indefinite time frame and the risk to the policy of American neutrality. The U.S. economy suffered, criticism grew, and opponents began evading the embargo. Instead of retreating, Jefferson sent federal agents to secretly track down smugglers and violators. Three acts were passed in Congress during 1807 and 1808, called the Supplementary, the Additional, and the Enforcement acts. The government could not


id: thomas-jefferson-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson-12.md
category: reference
title: Thomas Jefferson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:06:33.894887+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: thomas-jefferson-20260505-0
summary:
=== Autobiography === In 1821, at the age of 77, Jefferson began writing his Autobiography of Thomas Jefferson: 1743–1790, in which he said he sought to "state some recollections of dates and facts concerning myself". He focused on the struggles and achievements he experienced until July 29, 1790, where the narrative stopped short. He excluded his youth, emphasizing the revolutionary era. He related that his ancestors came from Wales to America in the early 17th century and settled in the western frontier of the Virginia colony, which influenced his zeal for individual and state rights. Jefferson described his father as uneducated, but with a "strong mind and sound judgement". He also addressed his enrollment in the College of William & Mary and his election to the Continental Congress in Philadelphia in 1775. He expressed opposition to the idea of a privileged aristocracy made up of large landowning families partial to the King, and instead promoted "the aristocracy of virtue and talent, which nature has wisely provided for the direction of the interests of society, & scattered with equal hand through all its conditions, was deemed essential to a well-ordered republic". The work is primarily concerned with the Declaration and reforming


id: thomas-jefferson-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson-13.md
category: reference
title: Thomas Jefferson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:06:33.894887+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: thomas-jefferson-20260505-0
summary:
Jefferson subscribed to the political ideals expounded by John Locke, Francis Bacon, and Isaac Newton, whom he considered the three greatest men who ever lived. He was also influenced by the writings of Gibbon, Hume, Robertson, Bolingbroke, Montesquieu, and Voltaire. Jefferson thought that the independent yeoman and agrarian life were ideals of republican virtues. He distrusted cities and financiers, favored decentralized government power, and believed that the tyranny that had plagued the common man in Europe was due to corrupt political establishments and monarchies. He supported efforts to disestablish the Church of England, wrote the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom, and he pressed for a wall of separation between church and state. The Republicans under Jefferson were strongly influenced by the 18th-century British Whig Party, which believed in limited government. His Democratic-Republican Party became dominant in early American politics, and his views became known as Jeffersonian democracy. === Philosophy, society, and government === Jefferson wrote letters and speeches prolifically; these show him to be well-read in the philosophical literature of his day and of antiquity. Nevertheless, some scholars do not take Jefferson seriously as a philosopher mainly because he did not produce a formal work on philosophy. However, he has


id: thomas-jefferson-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson-14.md
category: reference
title: Thomas Jefferson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:06:33.894887+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: thomas-jefferson-20260505-0
summary:
Jefferson considered democracy to be the expression of society and promoted national self-determination, cultural uniformity, and education of all males of the commonwealth. He supported public education and a free press as essential components of a democratic nation. After resigning as secretary of state in 1793, Jefferson focused on the electoral bases of the Republicans and Federalists. The "Republican" classification for which he advocated included "the entire body of landholders" everywhere and "the body of laborers" without land. Republicans united behind Jefferson as vice president, with the election of 1796 expanding democracy nationwide at grassroots levels. Jefferson promoted Republican candidates for local offices. Beginning with Jefferson's electioneering for the "revolution of 1800", his political efforts were based on egalitarian appeals. In his later years, he referred to the 1800 election "as real a revolution in the principles of our government as that of '76 was in its form", one "not effected indeed by the sword ... but by the ... suffrage of the people". Voter participation grew during Jefferson's presidency, increasing to "unimaginable levels" compared to the Federalist Era, with turnout of about 67,000 in 1800 rising to about 143,000 in 1804. At the onset of the American Revolution, Jefferson


id: thomas-jefferson-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson-15.md
category: reference
title: Thomas Jefferson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:06:33.894887+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: thomas-jefferson-20260505-0
summary:
Banking establishments are more dangerous than standing armies; & that the principle of spending money to be paid by posterity, under the name of funding, is but swindling futurity on a large scale. In 1791, President Washington asked Jefferson, then secretary of state, and Hamilton, the secretary of the treasury, if the Congress had the authority to create a national bank. While Hamilton believed so, Jefferson and Madison thought a national bank would ignore the needs of individuals and farmers, and would violate the Tenth Amendment by assuming powers not granted to the federal government by the states. Hamilton successfully argued that the implied powers given to the federal government in the Constitution supported the creation of a national bank, among other federal actions. Jefferson used agrarian resistance to banks and speculators as the first defining principle of an opposition party, recruiting candidates for Congress on the issue as early as 1792. As president, Jefferson was persuaded by Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin to leave the bank intact but sought to restrain its influence. === Slavery === Scholars give radically differing interpretations on Jefferson's views and relationship with slavery. Opinions range from "emancipationists" who view him as an early


id: thomas-jefferson-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson-16.md
category: reference
title: Thomas Jefferson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:06:33.894887+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: thomas-jefferson-20260505-0
summary:
Claims that Jefferson fathered children with his slave Sally Hemings after his wife's death have been debated since 1802. In that year James T. Callender, after being denied a position as postmaster, alleged Jefferson had taken Hemings as a concubine and fathered several children with her. In 1998, a panel of researchers conducted a Y-DNA study of living descendants of Jefferson's uncle, Field, and of a descendant of Hemings's son, Eston Hemings. The results showed a match with the male Jefferson line. Subsequently, the Thomas Jefferson Foundation (TJF) formed a nine-member research team of historians to assess the matter. The TJF report concluded that "the DNA study ... indicates a high probability that Thomas Jefferson fathered Eston Hemings". The TJF also concluded that Jefferson likely fathered all of Hemings's children listed at Monticello. In July 2017, the TJF announced that archeological excavations at Monticello had revealed what they believe to have been Sally Hemings's quarters, adjacent to Jefferson's bedroom. Since the results of the DNA tests were made public, the consensus among most historians has been that Jefferson had a sexual relationship with Sally Hemings and that he was the father of her son Eston Hemings. A minority of scholars


id: thomas-jefferson-20260505-17
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson-17.md
category: reference
title: Thomas Jefferson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:06:33.894887+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: thomas-jefferson-20260505-0
summary:
=== Linguistics === Jefferson had a lifelong interest in linguistics, and could speak, read, and write in a number of languages, including French, Greek, Italian, and German. In his early years, he excelled in classical languages. Jefferson later came to regard Greek as the "perfect language" as expressed in its laws and philosophy. While attending the College of William & Mary, he taught himself Italian. Here Jefferson first became familiar with the Anglo-Saxon language, studying it in a linguistic and philosophical capacity. He owned 17 volumes of Anglo-Saxon texts and grammar and later wrote an essay on the Anglo-Saxon language. Jefferson claimed to have taught himself Spanish during his nineteen-day journey to France, using only a grammar guide and a copy of Don Quixote. Linguistics played a significant role in how Jefferson modeled and expressed political and philosophical ideas. He believed that the study of ancient languages was essential in understanding the roots of modern language. Jefferson criticized language purists and supported the introduction of neologisms to English, foreseeing the emergence of "an American dialect". He described the Académie Française, a body designated to regulate the French language, as an "endeavor to arrest the progress of their language". He collected


id: thomas-jefferson-20260505-18
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson-18.md
category: reference
title: Thomas Jefferson
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:06:33.894887+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: thomas-jefferson-20260505-0
summary:
Jefferson has been memorialized with buildings, sculptures, postage, and currency. In the 1920s, Jefferson, together with George Washington, Theodore Roosevelt, and Abraham Lincoln, was chosen by sculptor Gutzon Borglum and approved by President Calvin Coolidge to be depicted in a stone national memorial at Mount Rushmore in the Black Hills in South Dakota. The Jefferson Memorial was dedicated in Washington, D.C., in 1943, on the 200th anniversary of Jefferson's birth. The interior of the memorial includes a 19-foot (6 m) statue of Jefferson by Rudulph Evans and engravings of passages from Jefferson's writings. Most prominent among these passages are the words inscribed around the Jefferson Memorial: "I have sworn upon the altar of God eternal hostility against every form of tyranny over the mind of man", a quote from Jefferson's September 23, 1800, letter to Benjamin Rush. Several species have been named after Jefferson, both during and after his life. Most notable is from a fossil taxon of ground sloths, †Megalonyx. Jefferson himself had defined the genus in 1799 without naming a species. The species of the type fossil would be classified †M. jeffersonii (Jefferson's ground sloth) in honor of Jefferson by Anselme Gaëtan Desmarest in 1822. The flower genus


id: charles-alexander-johns-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Alexander_Johns-0.md
category: reference
title: Charles Alexander Johns
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Alexander_Johns
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:06:35.073374+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: charles-alexander-johns-20260505-0
summary:
Charles Alexander Johns (1811–1874) was a 19th-century British botanist and educator who was the author of a long series of popular books on natural history. == Early years == Charles Alexander Johns was born on 31 December 1811 in Plymouth, England, one of eight surviving children of Henry Incledon Johns, a banker and poet, and Maria (Boone) Johns. Two of his sisters, Emily and Julia, would prove to be exceptionally talented botanical artists. An economic crisis in 1825 forced the closure of the bank where Johns's father Henry was a working partner, throwing him out of a job and causing hardship for the family. Henry Johns then went to work as a teacher at Plymouth New Grammar School. Johns's father had encouraged his interest in natural history from an early age, and Charles had aimed for a career in the church, following an established pattern in Britain of "parson naturalists." One of his early teachers was a local silversmith and amateur botanist, George Banks, who published a study of English botany in 1823. Johns was, however, largely self-taught as a botanist. == Teaching == In 1830, Johns's father suffered a stroke that led to failing health, creating further economic uncertainty


id: charles-alexander-johns-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Alexander_Johns-1.md
category: reference
title: Charles Alexander Johns
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Alexander_Johns
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:06:35.073374+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: charles-alexander-johns-20260505-0
summary:
The launce or sand-eel is a small cylindrical fish from six to twelve inches long, which by day swims about in shoals on the sandy coast, and by night burrows in the sand, keeping near the water line. It is used by fishermen as bait for larger fish, and by others is eaten either fresh or salted. The method of catching it is quite peculiar. As it begins to grow dark the fisherman, armed with a crooked iron instrument, which, with its handle, is about a foot in length, buries its point a few inches in the sand which has just been left by a receding wave, and draws it towards him with a quick motion, holding his left hand ready to catch whatever he may scrape up. When he feels any impediment he lifts his hook with a jerk, bringing up a lively fish, which if it be not immediately secured, by a few contortions of its body penetrates the sand and disappears; or if it happen that the sand be covered by ever so shallow a coating of water, instantly turns its head towards the sea and shoots down to meet the coming wave with such rapidity as


id: robert-kraichnan-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Kraichnan-0.md
category: reference
title: Robert Kraichnan
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Kraichnan
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:06:36.814147+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: robert-kraichnan-20260505-0
summary:
Robert Harry Kraichnan (KRAYSH-nan; January 15, 1928 – February 26, 2008), a resident of Santa Fe, New Mexico, was an American theoretical physicist (fluid dynamicist) best known for his work on the theory of fluid turbulence. == Life == Kraichnan received his B.S. and Ph.D. in physics from MIT, graduating in 1949. He became a member of the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton in 1949/50, and was one of the last assistants to Albert Einstein. After his appointment at Princeton, he worked in Columbia University and the Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences at New York University. From 1962 on, he was supported by research grants and worked as a freelance consultant for the Los Alamos National Laboratory, Princeton University, the Office of Naval Research, the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution and NASA. He had a keen passion for hiking, so he lived in the mountains of New Hampshire and later in White Rock, New Mexico and eventually to Santa Fe, New Mexico near Los Alamos. In 2003, he returned to academia when he was appointed Homewood Professor in the Whiting School of Engineering at Johns Hopkins University, but by this time he had already fallen ill. He was the recipient


id: leopold-kronecker-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold_Kronecker-0.md
category: reference
title: Leopold Kronecker
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold_Kronecker
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:06:38.132385+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: leopold-kronecker-20260505-0
summary:
Leopold Kronecker (German: [ˈkʁoːnɛkɐ]; 7 December 1823 – 29 December 1891) was a German mathematician who worked on number theory, abstract algebra and logic, and criticized Georg Cantor's work on set theory. Heinrich Weber quoted Kronecker as having said, "Die ganzen Zahlen hat der liebe Gott gemacht, alles andere ist Menschenwerk" ("God made the integers, all else is the work of man"). Kronecker was a student and life-long friend of Ernst Kummer. == Biography == Leopold Kronecker was born on 7 December 1823 in Liegnitz, Prussia (now Legnica, Poland) in a wealthy Jewish family. His parents, Isidor and Johanna (née Prausnitzer), took care of their children's education and provided them with private tutoring at home—Leopold's younger brother Hugo Kronecker would also follow a scientific path, later becoming a notable physiologist. Kronecker then went to the Liegnitz Gymnasium where he was interested in a wide range of topics including science, history and philosophy, while also practicing gymnastics and swimming. At the gymnasium he was taught by Ernst Kummer, who noticed and encouraged the boy's interest in mathematics. In 1841 Kronecker became a student at the University of Berlin where his interest did not immediately focus on mathematics, but rather spread over


id: leopold-kronecker-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold_Kronecker-1.md
category: reference
title: Leopold Kronecker
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold_Kronecker
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:06:38.132385+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: leopold-kronecker-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Bell, E. T. (1986), Men of Mathematics, New York: Simon and Schuster, ISBN 978-0-671-62818-5 Davis, Martin (2001), Engines of Logic Mathematicians and the Origin of the Computer, W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 978-0-393-32229-3 Edwards, Harold (1987), "An Appreciation of Kronecker", Mathematical Intelligencer, 9 (1): 28–35, doi:10.1007/BF03023570, S2CID 120885744 Edwards, Harold (1989), "Kronecker's Views on the Foundations of Mathematics", in Rowe, D. E.; McCleary, J. (eds.), The History of Modern Mathematics, vol. 1, Academic Press, pp. 67–78, ISBN 978-0-12-599661-7 Kronecker, Leopold (1996) [1887], "On the concept of number", in Ewald, William B. (ed.), From Kant to Hilbert: A Source Book in the Foundations of Mathematics, vol. 2, Oxford University Press, pp. 947–955, ISBN 978-0-19-850536-5 van Heijenoort, Jean (1977), From Frege to Gödel A Source Book in Mathematical Logic, 1879–1931, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-32449-7 Weber, H. (1893), "Leopold Kronecker" (PDF), Mathematische Annalen, 43 (1), Springer Berlin / Heidelberg: 1–25, doi:10.1007/BF01446613, ISSN 0025-5831, S2CID 177800385 == External links == O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Leopold Kronecker", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews Leopold Kronecker at the Mathematics Genealogy Project The Infinite Heist Story of "the hard-fought journey to embed the concept of infinity


id: george-frederick-kunz-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Frederick_Kunz-0.md
category: reference
title: George Frederick Kunz
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Frederick_Kunz
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:04.269793+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: george-frederick-kunz-20260505-0
summary:
George Frederick Kunz (September 29, 1856 – June 29, 1932) was an American mineralogist and mineral collector. == Biography == Kunz was born in New York City and began an interest in minerals at a very young age. By his teens, he had amassed a collection of over four thousand items, which he sold for four hundred dollars to the University of Minnesota. Kunz attended Cooper Union but did not finish and did not attend college. Nonetheless, he taught himself mineralogy from books and field research. This expertise landed him a job with Tiffany & Co., and his knowledge and enthusiasm propelled him into a vice presidency by the time he was 23. He gained much notoriety for identifying a new gem variety of the mineral spodumene which was named kunzite in his honor. He also supervised the cutting of the very large stone that became the Tiffany Yellow Diamond. He headed up the US mining and mineralogical exhibits at the international expositions in Paris (1889), Chicago (1893), Atlanta (1895), Paris (1900), and St. Louis (1904). He gave a series of eight lectures on "Precious Stones" for the Lowell Institute's 1894–95 season. As a gentleman scientist, he was a member


id: george-frederick-kunz-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Frederick_Kunz-1.md
category: reference
title: George Frederick Kunz
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Frederick_Kunz
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:04.269793+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: george-frederick-kunz-20260505-0
summary:
Kunz, George Frederick (1888). "Diamonds in Meteorites". Science. ns-11 (266): 118–119. doi:10.1126/science.ns-11.266.118-a. PMID 17799324. S2CID 40675694. Kunz, George Frederick (January–March 1891). "Exhibition of Gems Used as Amulets, etc". The American Journal of Folklore. 4 (12). American Folklore Society: 29–31. doi:10.2307/532930. JSTOR 532930. Kunz, George Frederick. "The genesis of the diamond" Science, pp. 450–456, 1897 Baskerville, Charles; Kunz, G F. "Kunzite and its unique properties" American Journal of Science, vol.18, no.103, pp. 25–28, July 1904 Kunz, George Frederick. "The cause of the San Francisco earthquake" Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, pp. 289–290, 1908 Kunz, George Frederick. "Diamonds in North America" Geological Society of America Bulletin, vol.42, no.1, pp. 221–222, March 1931. Kunz, George F. Gems and Precious Stones of North America: A Popular Description of Their Occurrence, Value, History, Archaeology, and of the Collections in Which They Exist; Also a Chapter on Pearls, and on Remarkable Foreign Gems Owned in the United States. Illustrated with eight colored plates and numerous minor engravings. New York: The Scientific Publishing Co. 1890. 336 pages. Second edition with Appendix, 367 pp. 24 Pls., 1892. Kunz George F. Gems, Jewelers’ Materials, and Ornamental Stones of California. Bulletin of the California State Mining Bureau.


id: george-frederick-kunz-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Frederick_Kunz-2.md
category: reference
title: George Frederick Kunz
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Frederick_Kunz
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:04.269793+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: george-frederick-kunz-20260505-0
summary:
Rings for the Finger, from the Earliest Known Times to the Present, with Full Descriptions of the Origin, Early Making, Materials, the Archaeology, History, For Affection, For Love, For Engagement, For Wedding, Commemorative, Mourning, Etc. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Company. 1917. Frontispiece is an oil painting of the Maharani of Sikkim (northeastern Hindustan), and illustrated with 381 pages, plates, partly colored, portraits, etc., plus a holographic facsimile letter from Admiral Peary to the author on the question of ring usage by Eskimo peoples. The Kunz Collection copy is inscribed by the author to his daughter, Bessie: "For Elizabeth Handforth Kunz, with the love of her father, the author, George Frederick Kunz, 30 January 1916. New York." A fine copy of a work that John Sinkankas says "remains the largest single storehouse of information on rings available in any language". Kunz, George F. Shakespeare and Precious Stones, Treating of the Known References of Precious Stones in Shakespeare's Works, With Comments as to the Origin of his Material, the Knowledge of the Poet Concerning Precious Stones, and References to Where the Precious Stones of His Time Came From. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott. 1916. 100 pages with illustrations, portraits, etc. "Treating of the


id: george-frederick-kunz-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Frederick_Kunz-3.md
category: reference
title: George Frederick Kunz
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Frederick_Kunz
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:04.269793+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: george-frederick-kunz-20260505-0
summary:
== References == == Bibliography == Ahlborn, Richard E. and Vera Beaver-Bricken Espinola, eds. Russian Copper Icons and Crosses From the Kunz Collection: Castings of Faith. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. 1991. 85 pages with illustrations, some colored. Includes bibliographical references pages 84–85. Smithsonian Studies in History and Technology: No. 51. Burchard, Hank. "Wright Idea, Wrong Stuff." The Washington Post. June 10, 1988, page WE49. Discusses new display of the Kunz collection of Russian icons sold to the Smithsonian Institution. Conklin, Lawrence H. "On Kunz and Kunzite." Mineralogical Record. Volume 18, pages 369–372. Conklin, Lawrence H. "The Original Specimens of Kunzite." The Matrix: A Journal on the History of Minerals. Volume 1, number 3, page 45. An account of the first specimen of kunzite from Charles Baskerville's collection, used in 1903 in the original determination and naming of that species. Conklin, Lawrence H. "Curious Lore of George F. Kunz." Matrix: A Journal of the History of Minerals. Dillburg, PA. Volume 5 (3), 1997, pages 108–114. Conklin, Lawrence H. Notes and commentaries on letters to George F. Kunz: correspondence from various sources, including Clarence S. Bement: with facsimiles. New Canaan, Ct.: L. H. Conklin, 1986. 137 pages, ill., portraits. ; 29


id: antoine-lavoisier-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier-0.md
category: reference
title: Antoine Lavoisier
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:05.583915+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: antoine-lavoisier-20260505-0
summary:
Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier ( lə-VWAH-zee-ay; French: [ɑ̃twan lɔʁɑ̃ də lavwazje]; 26 August 1743 – 8 May 1794), also Antoine Lavoisier after the French Revolution, was a French nobleman and chemist who was central to the 18th-century chemical revolution and who had a large influence on both the history of chemistry and the history of biology. It is generally accepted that Lavoisier's great accomplishments in chemistry stem largely from his changing the science from a qualitative to a quantitative one. Lavoisier is noted for his discovery of the role oxygen plays in combustion, opposing the prior phlogiston theory of combustion. He named oxygen (1778), recognizing it as an element, and also recognized hydrogen as an element (1783). By using more precise measurements than previous experimenters, he confirmed the developing theory that, although matter in a closed system may change its form or shape, its mass always remains the same (now known as the law of conservation of mass), which led to the development of the balanced physical and chemical reaction equations that we still use today. Lavoisier helped construct the metric system, wrote the first extensive list of elements, in which he predicted the existence of silicon, and helped to reform


id: antoine-lavoisier-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier-1.md
category: reference
title: Antoine Lavoisier
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:05.583915+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: antoine-lavoisier-20260505-0
summary:
==== Sponsorship of the sciences ==== Lavoisier had a vision of public education having roots in "scientific sociability" and philanthropy. Lavoisier gained a vast majority of his income through buying stock in the General Farm, which allowed him to work on science full-time, live comfortably, and allowed him to contribute financially to better the community. (It would also contribute to his demise during the Reign of Terror many years later.) It was very difficult to secure public funding for the sciences at the time, and additionally not very financially profitable for the average scientist, so Lavoisier used his wealth to open a very expensive and sophisticated laboratory in France so that aspiring scientists could study without the barriers of securing funding for their research. He also pushed for public education in the sciences. He founded two organizations, Lycée and Musée des Arts et Métiers, which were created to serve as educational tools for the public. Funded by the wealthy and noble, the Lycée regularly taught courses to the public beginning in 1793. === Ferme générale and marriage === At the age of 26, around the time he was elected to the Academy of Sciences, Lavoisier bought a share in the


id: antoine-lavoisier-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier-2.md
category: reference
title: Antoine Lavoisier
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:05.583915+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: antoine-lavoisier-20260505-0
summary:
=== Royal Commission on Agriculture === Lavoisier urged the establishment of a Royal Commission on Agriculture. He then served as its Secretary and spent considerable sums of his own money in order to improve the agricultural yields in the Sologne, an area where farmland was of poor quality. The humidity of the region often led to a blight of the rye harvest, causing outbreaks of ergotism among the population. In 1788 Lavoisier presented a report to the Commission detailing ten years of efforts on his experimental farm to introduce new crops and types of livestock. His conclusion was that despite the possibilities of agricultural reforms, the tax system left tenant farmers with so little that it was unrealistic to expect them to change their traditional practices. === Gunpowder Commission === Lavoisier's researches on combustion were carried out in the midst of a very busy schedule of public and private duties, especially in connection with the Ferme Générale. There were also innumerable reports for and committees of the Academy of Sciences to investigate specific problems on order of the royal government. Lavoisier, whose organizing skills were outstanding, frequently landed the task of writing up such official reports. In 1775 he was


id: antoine-lavoisier-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier-3.md
category: reference
title: Antoine Lavoisier
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:05.583915+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: antoine-lavoisier-20260505-0
summary:
==== Blinking experiment ==== An apocryphal story exists regarding Lavoisier's execution in which the scientist blinked his eyes to demonstrate that the head retained some consciousness after being severed. Some variants of the story include Joseph-Louis Lagrange as being the scientist to observe and record Lavoisier's blinking. This story was not recorded in contemporary accounts of Lavoisier's death, and the execution site was too removed from the public for Lagrange to have viewed Lavoisier's alleged experiment. The story likely originated in a 1990s Discovery Channel documentary about guillotines and then subsequently spread online, becoming what one source describes as an urban legend. == Contributions to chemistry == === Oxygen theory of combustion === Contrary to prevailing thought at the time, Lavoisier theorized that common air, or one of its components, combines with substances when they are burned. He demonstrated this through experiment. During late 1772 Lavoisier turned his attention to the phenomenon of combustion, the topic on which he was to make his most significant contribution to science. He reported the results of his first experiments on combustion in a note to the Academy on 20 October, in which he reported that when phosphorus burned, it combined with a large


id: antoine-lavoisier-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier-4.md
category: reference
title: Antoine Lavoisier
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:05.583915+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: antoine-lavoisier-20260505-0
summary:
=== Pioneer of stoichiometry === Lavoisier's researches included some of the first truly quantitative chemical experiments. He carefully weighed the reactants and products of a chemical reaction in a sealed glass vessel so that no gases could escape, which was a crucial step in the advancement of chemistry. In 1774, he showed that, although matter can change its state in a chemical reaction, the total mass of matter is the same at the end as at the beginning of every chemical change. Thus, for instance, if a piece of wood is burned to ashes, the total mass remains unchanged if gaseous reactants and products are included. Lavoisier's experiments supported the law of conservation of mass. In France it is taught as Lavoisier's Law and is paraphrased from a statement in his Traité Élémentaire de Chimie: "Nothing is lost, nothing is created, everything is transformed." Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765) had previously expressed similar ideas in 1748 and proved them in experiments; others whose ideas pre-date the work of Lavoisier include Jean Rey (1583–1645), Joseph Black (1728–1799), and Henry Cavendish (1731–1810). === Chemical nomenclature === Lavoisier, together with Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau, Claude-Louis Berthollet, and Antoine François de Fourcroy, submitted a new program


id: antoine-lavoisier-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier-5.md
category: reference
title: Antoine Lavoisier
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:05.583915+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: antoine-lavoisier-20260505-0
summary:
=== Easter memoir === The "official" version of Lavoisier's Easter Memoir appeared in 1778. In the intervening period, Lavoisier had ample time to repeat some of Priestley's latest experiments and perform some new ones of his own. In addition to studying Priestley's dephlogisticated air, he studied more thoroughly the residual air after metals had been calcined. He showed that this residual air supported neither combustion nor respiration and that approximately five volumes of this air added to one volume of the dephlogisticated air gave common atmospheric air. Common air was then a mixture of two distinct chemical species with quite different properties. Thus when the revised version of the Easter Memoir was published in 1778, Lavoisier no longer stated that the principle which combined with metals on calcination was just common air but "nothing else than the healthiest and purest part of the air" or the "eminently respirable part of the air". The same year he coined the name oxygen for this constituent of the air, from the Greek words meaning "acid former". He was struck by the fact that the combustion products of such nonmetals as sulfur, phosphorus, charcoal, and nitrogen were acidic. He held that all acids contained


id: antoine-lavoisier-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier-6.md
category: reference
title: Antoine Lavoisier
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:05.583915+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: antoine-lavoisier-20260505-0
summary:
The relationship between combustion and respiration had long been recognized from the essential role which air played in both processes. Lavoisier was almost obliged, therefore, to extend his new theory of combustion to include the area of respiration physiology. His first memoirs on this topic were read to the Academy of Sciences in 1777, but his most significant contribution to this field was made in the winter of 1782–1783 in association with Laplace. The result of this work was published in a memoir, "On Heat." Lavoisier and Laplace designed an ice calorimeter apparatus for measuring the amount of heat given off during combustion or respiration. The outer shell of the calorimeter was packed with snow, which melted to maintain a constant temperature of 0 °C around an inner shell filled with ice. By measuring the quantity of carbon dioxide and heat produced by confining a live guinea pig in this apparatus, and by comparing the amount of heat produced when sufficient carbon was burned in the ice calorimeter to produce the same amount of carbon dioxide as that which the guinea pig exhaled, they concluded that respiration was, in fact, a slow combustion process. Lavoisier stated, "la respiration est donc


id: antoine-lavoisier-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier-7.md
category: reference
title: Antoine Lavoisier
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:05.583915+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: antoine-lavoisier-20260505-0
summary:
Opuscules physiques et chimiques (Paris: Chez Durand, Didot, Esprit, 1774). (Second edition, 1801) L'art de fabriquer le salin et la potasse, publié par ordre du Roi, par les régisseurs-généraux des Poudres & Salpêtres (Paris, 1779). Instruction sur les moyens de suppléer à la disette des fourrages, et d'augmenter la subsistence des bestiaux, Supplément à l'instruction sur les moyens de pourvoir à la disette des fourrages, publiée par ordre du Roi le 31 mai 1785 (Instruction on the means of compensating for the food shortage with fodder, and of increasing the subsistence of cattle, Supplement to the instruction on the means of providing for the food shortage with fodder, published by order of King on 31 May 1785). (with Guyton de Morveau, Claude-Louis Berthollet, Antoine Fourcroy) Méthode de nomenclature chimique (Paris: Chez Cuchet, 1787) (with Fourcroy, Morveau, Cadet, Baumé, d'Arcet, and Sage) Nomenclature chimique, ou synonymie ancienne et moderne, pour servir à l'intelligence des auteurs. (Paris: Chez Cuchet, 1789) Traité élémentaire de chimie, présenté dans un ordre nouveau et d'après les découvertes modernes (Paris: Chez Cuchet, 1789; Bruxelles: Cultures et Civilisations, 1965) (lit. Elementary Treatise on Chemistry, presented in a new order and alongside modern discoveries) also here (with Pierre-Simon Laplace)


id: antony-garrett-lisi-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antony_Garrett_Lisi-0.md
category: reference
title: Antony Garrett Lisi
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antony_Garrett_Lisi
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:06.750984+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: antony-garrett-lisi-20260505-0
summary:
Antony Garrett Lisi (born January 24, 1968), known as Garrett Lisi, is an American theoretical physicist. Lisi works as an independent researcher without an academic position. Lisi is known for "An Exceptionally Simple Theory of Everything," an unpublished preprint paper proposing a unified field theory based on the E8 Lie group, combining particle physics with Einstein's theory of gravitation. The theory is incomplete and has unresolved problems. The theory has been extensively criticized in the scientific community. == Biography == === Education and career === Lisi was born in Los Angeles and raised in San Diego, California. He graduated from Cate School in 1987. Lisi went on to receive two B.S. degrees with highest honors in physics and mathematics from the University of California, Los Angeles, in 1991. Lisi received a Ph.D. in physics from the University of California, San Diego, in 1999. Lisi then left academia. In July 2006, Lisi was awarded an FQXi grant to conduct research in quantum mechanics and unification. In June 2007, Lisi thought that the algebraic structure he had constructed in an attempt to unify the Standard Model of particle physics with general relativity partially matched part of the algebraic structure of the E8


id: alfred-lee-loomis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Lee_Loomis-0.md
category: reference
title: Alfred Lee Loomis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Lee_Loomis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:08.048084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alfred-lee-loomis-20260505-0
summary:
Alfred Lee Loomis (November 4, 1887 – August 11, 1975) was an American attorney, investment banker, philanthropist, scientist, physicist, inventor of the LORAN Long Range Navigation System and a lifelong patron of scientific research. He established the Loomis Laboratory in Tuxedo Park, New York, and his role in the development of radar and the atomic bomb contributed to the Allied victory in World War II. He invented the Aberdeen Chronograph for measuring muzzle velocities, contributed significantly (perhaps critically, according to Luis Alvarez) to the development of a ground-controlled approach technology for aircraft, and participated in preliminary meetings of the Manhattan Project. Loomis also made contributions to biological instrumentation. Working with E. Newton Harvey he co-invented the microscope centrifuge, and pioneered techniques for electroencephalography. In 1937, he discovered the sleep K-complex brainwave. During the Great Depression, Loomis anonymously paid the Physical Review journal's fees for authors who could not afford them. == Early life == Born in Manhattan, Loomis was the son of Julia Josephine Stimson and Henry Patterson Loomis, and grandson of Alfred Lebbeus Loomis. There were prominent members of society on both sides of his family; primarily they were physicians. Alfred's parents separated when he was very young, and


id: alfred-lee-loomis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Lee_Loomis-1.md
category: reference
title: Alfred Lee Loomis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Lee_Loomis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:08.048084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alfred-lee-loomis-20260505-0
summary:
== Laboratory at Tuxedo Park == Taking advantage of his considerable wealth, Loomis increasingly indulged his interest in science. He established a personal laboratory near his mansion within the exclusive enclave of Tuxedo Park, New York. He and his small staff conducted pioneering studies in spectrometry, high-frequency sound and capillary waves, electro-encephalography, and the precise measurement of time, chronometry. Eventually Loomis was elected to the National Academy of Sciences for his work in physics. His laboratory was the best of its kind, containing equipment that few universities could afford. His reputation spread quickly, particularly in Europe, where money for science was scarce. Loomis often sent first-class tickets to famous European scientists so that they could travel to the United States to meet with their peers and collaborate on projects. They would be picked up at the airport or train station and brought to Tuxedo Park in his limousine. At first, some in the scientific community called him an "eccentric dabbler," but soon his laboratory became the meeting place for some of the most accomplished scientists of the time, such as Albert Einstein, Werner Heisenberg, Niels Bohr, James Franck, and Enrico Fermi. Scientists who worked with him personally, were convinced of


id: alfred-lee-loomis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Lee_Loomis-2.md
category: reference
title: Alfred Lee Loomis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Lee_Loomis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:08.048084+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alfred-lee-loomis-20260505-0
summary:
Alfred Lee Loomis Jr. - an investor, two-time winner of the Bermuda Race and head of the winning America's Cup syndicate in 1977 William Farnsworth - a physician and professor at Brandeis (Farnsworth's grandson is Reed Hastings, co-founder of Netflix). Henry Loomis - head of the Corporation for Public Broadcasting Loomis, always a very private person who avoided publicity, retreated from public life entirely after closing the "Rad Lab" and finishing his related obligations in 1947. He retired to East Hampton, with Manette and never granted another interview. Loomis had an affair with a colleague's wife, Manette Hobart, and in 1945 he divorced Ellen and immediately married Manette, scandalizing New York society. At this point he changed his lifestyle, eschewing his multiple residences and numerous servants and settling into a single household in which he and his wife shared a relationship that was characterized by its domesticity. They remained married until Alfred Loomis died more than 30 years later at age 87. == Patents == External shoe tree, 1914 U.S. patent 1,106,465 Net, 1916 U.S. patent 1,184,466 Toy, 1917 U.S. patent 1,222,005 Chronograph, 1921 U.S. patent 1,376,890 Method and apparatus for forming emulsions and the like, 1929 U.S. patent 1,734,975


id: james-lovelock-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Lovelock-0.md
category: reference
title: James Lovelock
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Lovelock
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:09.585027+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: james-lovelock-20260505-0
summary:
James Ephraim Lovelock (26 July 1919 – 26 July 2022) was an English independent scientist, environmentalist and futurist. He is best known for proposing the Gaia hypothesis, which postulates that the Earth functions as a self-regulating system. With a PhD in the chemistry of disinfection, Lovelock began his career performing cryopreservation experiments on rodents, including successfully thawing and reviving frozen specimens. His methods were influential in the theories of cryonics (the cryopreservation of humans). He invented the electron capture detector and, using it, became the first to detect the widespread presence of chlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere. While designing scientific instruments for NASA, he developed the Gaia hypothesis. In the 2000s, he proposed a method of climate engineering to restore carbon dioxide–consuming algae. He was an outspoken member of Environmentalists for Nuclear Energy, asserting that fossil fuel interests have been behind opposition to nuclear energy, citing the effects of carbon dioxide as being harmful to the environment and warning of global warming due to the greenhouse effect. He wrote several environmental science books based upon the Gaia hypothesis from the late 1970s. He also worked for MI5, the British security service, for decades. Bryan Appleyard, writing in The Sunday Times, described


id: james-lovelock-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Lovelock-1.md
category: reference
title: James Lovelock
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Lovelock
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:09.585027+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: james-lovelock-20260505-0
summary:
Lovelock invented the electron capture detector, which ultimately assisted in discoveries about the persistence of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and their role in stratospheric ozone depletion. After studying the operation of the Earth's sulphur cycle, Lovelock and his colleagues, Robert Jay Charlson, Meinrat Andreae and Stephen G. Warren developed the CLAW hypothesis as a possible example of biological control of the Earth's climate. Lovelock was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1974. He served as the president of the Marine Biological Association (MBA) from 1986 to 1990 and was an Honorary Visiting Fellow of Green Templeton College, Oxford (formerly Green College, Oxford) from 1994. As an independent scientist, inventor and author, Lovelock worked out of a barn-turned-laboratory he called his "experimental station" located in a wooded valley on the Devon–Cornwall border in South West England. In 1988 he made an extended appearance on the Channel 4 television programme After Dark, alongside Heathcote Williams and Petra Kelly, among others. On 8 May 2012, he appeared on the Radio Four series The Life Scientific, talking to Jim Al-Khalili about the Gaia hypothesis. On the programme, he mentioned how his ideas had been received by various people, including Jonathon Porritt. He also said


id: james-lovelock-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Lovelock-2.md
category: reference
title: James Lovelock
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Lovelock
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:09.585027+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: james-lovelock-20260505-0
summary:
In Lovelock's 2006 book, The Revenge of Gaia, he argued that the lack of respect humans have had for Gaia, through the damage done to rainforests and the reduction in planetary biodiversity, is testing Gaia's capacity to minimise the effects of the addition of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. This eliminates the planet's negative feedbacks and increases the likelihood of homeostatic positive feedback potential associated with runaway global warming. Similarly, the warming of the oceans is extending the oceanic thermocline layer of tropical oceans into the Arctic and Antarctic waters, preventing the rise of oceanic nutrients into the surface waters and eliminating the algal blooms of phytoplankton on which oceanic food chains depend. As phytoplankton and forests are the main ways in which Gaia draws down greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide, taking it out of the atmosphere, the elimination of this environmental buffering will see, according to Lovelock, most of the Earth becoming uninhabitable for humans and other life-forms by the middle of this century, with a massive extension of tropical deserts. In 2012, Lovelock distanced himself from these conclusions, saying he had "gone too far" in describing the consequences of climate change over the next century in this book.


id: james-lovelock-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Lovelock-3.md
category: reference
title: James Lovelock
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Lovelock
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:09.585027+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: james-lovelock-20260505-0
summary:
=== Climate === Writing in The Independent in 2006, Lovelock argued that, as a result of global warming, "billions of us will die and the few breeding pairs of people that survive will be in the Arctic where the climate remains tolerable" by the end of the 21st century. The same year he suggested that "we have to keep in mind the awesome pace of change and realise how little time is left to act, and then each community and nation must find the best use of the resources they have to sustain civilisation for as long as they can." He further predicted in 2007 that the temperature increase would leave much of the world's land uninhabitable and unsuitable for farming, with northerly migrations and new cities created in the Arctic; furthermore, he added that much of Europe will have turned to desert and Britain will have become Europe's "life-raft" due to its stable temperature caused by being surrounded by the ocean. He was quoted in The Guardian in 2008 that 80% of humans will perish by 2100, and this climate change will last 100,000 years. In a 2010 interview with the Guardian newspaper, he said that democracy might have


id: james-lovelock-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Lovelock-4.md
category: reference
title: James Lovelock
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Lovelock
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:09.585027+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: james-lovelock-20260505-0
summary:
== Awards and recognition == Lovelock was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1974. His nomination reads: Lovelock has made distinguished contributions to several diverse fields, including a study of the transmission of respiratory infection, and methods of air sterilisation; the role of Ca and other divalent ions in blood clotting; damage to various living cells by freezing, thawing and thermal shock and its prevention by the presence of neutral solutes; methods of freezing and thawing small live animals; methods for preparing sperm for artificial insemination, which have been of major economic importance. He has invented a family of ionisation detectors for gas chromatography. His electron capture detectors are the most sensitive that have been made and are universally used on pollution problems for residual halogen compounds. He has many inventions, including a gas chromatograph, which will be used to investigate planetary atmospheres. His chromatographic work has led to investigation of blood lipids in various animals, including arteriosclerotic humans. He has made a study of detecting life on other planets by analysis of their atmosphere and extended this to world pollution problems. His work generally shows remarkable originality, simplicity and ingenuity. Lovelock was awarded a number of prestigious


id: gregor-mendel-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregor_Mendel-0.md
category: reference
title: Gregor Mendel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregor_Mendel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:10.769171+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gregor-mendel-20260505-0
summary:
Gregor Johann Mendel (; German: [ˈmɛndl̩]; Czech: Řehoř Jan Mendel; 20 July 1822 – 6 January 1884) was an Austrian biologist, meteorologist, mathematician, Augustinian friar and abbot of St. Thomas' Abbey in Brno (Brünn), Margraviate of Moravia. Mendel was born in a German-speaking family in the Silesian part of the Austrian Empire (today's Czech Republic) and gained posthumous recognition as the founder of the modern science of genetics. Though farmers had known for millennia that crossbreeding of animals and plants could favor certain desirable traits, Mendel's pea plant experiments conducted between 1856 and 1863 established many of the rules of heredity, now referred to as the laws of Mendelian inheritance. Mendel worked with seven characteristics of pea plants: plant height, pod shape and color, seed shape and color, and flower position and color. Taking seed color as an example, Mendel showed that when a true-breeding yellow pea and a true-breeding green pea were cross-bred, their offspring always produced yellow seeds. However, in the next generation, the green peas reappeared at a ratio of 1 green to 3 yellow. To explain this phenomenon, Mendel coined the terms "recessive" and "dominant" in reference to certain traits. In the preceding example, the green


id: gregor-mendel-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregor_Mendel-1.md
category: reference
title: Gregor Mendel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregor_Mendel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:10.769171+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gregor-mendel-20260505-0
summary:
Mendel, known as the "father of modern genetics," chose to study variation in plants in his monastery's 2 hectares (4.9 acres) experimental garden. Mendel was assisted in his experimental design by Aleksander Zawadzki while his superior abbot Napp wrote to discourage him, saying that the Bishop giggled when informed of the detailed genealogies of peas. After initial experiments with pea plants, Mendel settled on studying seven traits that seemed to be inherited independently of other traits: seed shape, flower color, seed coat tint, pod shape, unripe pod color, flower location, and plant height. He first focused on seed shape, which was either angular or round. Between 1856 and 1863 Mendel cultivated and tested some 28,000 plants, the majority of which were pea plants (Pisum sativum). This study showed that, when true-breeding different varieties were crossed to each other (e.g., tall plants fertilized by short plants), in the second generation, one in four pea plants had purebred recessive traits, two out of four were hybrids, and one out of four were purebred dominant. His experiments led him to make two generalizations, the Law of Segregation and the Law of Independent Assortment, which later came to be known as Mendel's Laws of


id: gregor-mendel-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregor_Mendel-2.md
category: reference
title: Gregor Mendel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregor_Mendel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:10.769171+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gregor-mendel-20260505-0
summary:
=== Modern analysis of the genes causing Mendel's pea phenotypes === Mendel postulated that seven "factors" determine the features he studied in peas. These factors are called "genes" today, but the nature of these genes remained mysterious for more than a century. The effort to identify these genes lasted until 2025 when the last 3 genes were discovered. The seven genes are as follows (genes are abbreviated PsXYZ for Pisum sativum, the scientific name of the pea): the wrinkled phenotype of peas (wild-type round) is caused by an insertion in the PsSBE1 gene. The yellow phenotype (wild-type: green) is caused by an insertion or mutation in the PsSGR gene. The white phenotype of the flower color (wild-type: purple) is caused by a deletion in the PsbHLH gene. The dwarf phenotype is caused by the PsGA3ox1 gene while the pod color phenotype (yellow vs. green) is caused by the PsChlG gene. Finally, the pod shape is determined by the PsCLE41 gene which causes the constricted or inflated phenotypes and the PsCIK2/3 gene causes the terminal and axial flower position. === Other experiments === Mendel also experimented with hawkweed (Hieracium). He published a report on his work with hawkweed, a group of


id: gregor-mendel-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregor_Mendel-3.md
category: reference
title: Gregor Mendel
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregor_Mendel
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:10.769171+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gregor-mendel-20260505-0
summary:
== Mendelian paradox == In 1936, Ronald Fisher, a prominent statistician and population geneticist, reconstructed Mendel's experiments, analyzed results from the F2 (second filial) generation, and found the ratio of dominant to recessive phenotypes (e.g., yellow versus green peas; round versus wrinkled peas) to be implausibly and consistently too close to the expected ratio of 3 to 1. Fisher asserted that "the data of most, if not all, of the experiments have been falsified to agree closely with Mendel's expectations". Mendel's alleged observations, according to Fisher, were "abominable," "shocking," and "cooked." Other scholars agree with Fisher that Mendel's various observations come uncomfortably close to Mendel's expectations. A. W. F. Edwards, for instance, remarks: "One can applaud the lucky gambler; but when he is lucky again tomorrow, and the next day, and the following day, one is entitled to become a little suspicious". Three other lines of evidence likewise lend support to the assertion that Mendel's results are indeed too good to be true. Fisher's analysis gave rise to the Mendelian paradox: Mendel's reported data are, statistically speaking, too good to be true, yet "everything we know about Mendel suggests that he was unlikely to engage in either deliberate fraud or


id: isaac-newton-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton-0.md
category: reference
title: Isaac Newton
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:12.165802+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: isaac-newton-20260505-0
summary:
Sir Isaac Newton ( ; 4 January [O.S. 25 December] 1643 – 31 March [O.S. 20 March] 1727) was an English polymath who was a mathematician, physicist, astronomer, alchemist, theologian, author and inventor. He was a key figure in the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment that followed. His book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy), first published in 1687, achieved the first great unification in physics and established classical mechanics. Newton also made seminal contributions to optics, and shares credit with the German mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz for formulating infinitesimal calculus, although he developed calculus years before Leibniz. Newton contributed to and refined the scientific method, and his work is considered the most influential in bringing forth modern science. In the Principia, Newton formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation that formed the dominant scientific viewpoint for centuries until it was superseded by the theory of relativity. While this is the case, his laws still serve as excellent approximations for the vast majority of physical phenomena involving low speeds (much less than the speed of light) and weak gravitational fields. He used his mathematical description of gravity to derive Kepler's laws of planetary motion, account for


id: isaac-newton-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton-1.md
category: reference
title: Isaac Newton
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:12.165802+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: isaac-newton-20260505-0
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=== The King's School === From the age of about twelve until he was seventeen, Newton was educated at The King's School in Grantham, which taught Latin and Ancient Greek and probably imparted a significant foundation of mathematics. He was removed from school by his mother and returned to Woolsthorpe by October 1659. His mother, widowed for the second time, attempted to make him a farmer, an occupation he hated. Henry Stokes, master at The King's School, and Reverend William Ayscough (Newton's uncle) persuaded his mother to send him back to school. Motivated by a desire for revenge against a schoolyard bully, whom Newton beat in a fight and humiliated, he became the top-ranked student, distinguishing himself mainly by building sundials and models of windmills. === University of Cambridge === In June 1661, Newton was admitted to Trinity College at the University of Cambridge. His uncle the Reverend William Ayscough, who had studied at Cambridge, recommended him to the university. At Cambridge, Newton started as a subsizar, paying his way by performing valet duties until he was awarded a scholarship in 1664, which covered his university costs for four more years until the completion of his MA. At the time,


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton-2.md
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title: Isaac Newton
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton
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=== Mathematics === Newton's work has been said "to distinctly advance every branch of mathematics then studied". His work on calculus, usually referred to as fluxions, began in 1664, and by 20 May 1665 as seen in a manuscript, Newton "had already developed the calculus to the point where he could compute the tangent and the curvature at any point of a continuous curve". His work by 1665 amounted to a systematic calculus that unified differentiation and integration, which he applied to the dynamic analysis of algebraic and transcendental curves, an approach described by scholar Tom Whiteside as "radically novel, indeed unprecedented" and which later directly informed the theory of central-force orbits in the Principia. Another manuscript of October 1666, is now published among Newton's mathematical papers. Newton recorded a definitive tract of calculus in what is called his "Waste Book". He was self-taught in mathematics and did his research without help, as according to scholar Richard S. Westfall, "By every indication we have, Newton carried out his education in mathematics and his program of research entirely on his own." His work De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas, sent by Isaac Barrow to John Collins in June 1669, was


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton-3.md
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title: Isaac Newton
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source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton
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Newton had been reluctant to publish his calculus because he feared controversy and criticism. He was close to the Swiss mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier. In 1691, Duillier started to write a new version of Newton's Principia, and corresponded with Leibniz. In 1693, the relationship between Duillier and Newton deteriorated and the book was never completed. Starting in 1699, Duillier accused Leibniz of plagiarism. The mathematician John Keill accused Leibniz of plagiarism in 1708 in the Royal Society journal, thereby deteriorating the situation even more. The dispute then broke out in full force in 1711 when the Royal Society proclaimed in a study that it was Newton who was the true discoverer and labelled Leibniz a fraud; it was later found that Newton wrote the study's concluding remarks on Leibniz. Thus began the bitter controversy which marred the lives of both men until Leibniz's death in 1716. Newton's first major mathematical discovery was the generalised binomial theorem, valid for any exponent, in 1664–65, which has been called "one of the most powerful and significant in the whole of mathematics." He discovered Newton's identities (probably without knowing of earlier work by Albert Girard in 1629), Newton's method, the Newton polygon, and


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton-4.md
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title: Isaac Newton
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton
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In 1666, Newton observed that the spectrum of colours exiting a prism in the position of minimum deviation is oblong, even when the light ray entering the prism is circular, which is to say, the prism refracts different colours by different angles. This led him to conclude that colour is a property intrinsic to light – a point which had, until then, been a matter of debate. From 1670 to 1672, Newton lectured on optics. During this period he investigated the refraction of light, demonstrating that the multicoloured image produced by a prism, which he named a spectrum, could be recomposed into white light by a lens and a second prism. Modern scholarship has revealed that Newton's analysis and resynthesis of white light owes a debt to corpuscular alchemy. In his work on Newton's rings in 1671, he used a method that was unprecedented in the 17th century, as "he averaged all of the differences, and he then calculated the difference between the average and the value for the first ring", in effect introducing a now standard method for reducing noise in measurements, and which does not appear elsewhere at the time. He extended his "error-slaying method" to studies of


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton-5.md
category: reference
title: Isaac Newton
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton
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Newton argued that light is composed of particles or corpuscles, which were refracted by accelerating into a denser medium. He verged on soundlike waves to explain the repeated pattern of reflection and transmission by thin films (Opticks Bk. II, Props. 12), but still retained his theory of 'fits' that disposed corpuscles to be reflected or transmitted (Props.13). Despite his known preference of a particle theory, Newton noted that light had both particle-like and wave-like properties in Opticks; he believed that corpuscles must interact with waves in a medium to explain interference patterns and the general phenomenon of diffraction. In his Hypothesis of Light of 1675, Newton posited the existence of the ether to transmit forces between particles. The contact with the Cambridge Platonist philosopher Henry More revived his interest in alchemy. He replaced the ether with occult forces based on Hermetic ideas of attraction and repulsion between particles. His contributions to science cannot be isolated from his interest in alchemy. This was at a time when there was no clear distinction between alchemy and science. Newton contributed to the study of astigmatism by helping to erect its mathematical foundation through his discovery that when oblique pencils of light undergo refraction,


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton-6.md
category: reference
title: Isaac Newton
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton
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=== Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica === Newton had been developing his theory of gravitation as far back as 1665. In 1679, he returned to his work on celestial mechanics by considering gravitation and its effect on the orbits of planets with reference to Kepler's laws of planetary motion. Newton's reawakening interest in astronomical matters received further stimulus by the appearance of a comet in the winter of 1680–1681, on which he corresponded with John Flamsteed. After his exchanges with Robert Hooke, Newton worked out a proof that the elliptical form of planetary orbits would result from a centripetal force inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector. He shared his results with Edmond Halley and the Royal Society in De motu corporum in gyrum, a tract written on about nine sheets which was copied into the Royal Society's Register Book in December 1684. As part of this work, Newton also coined the term centripetal force. This tract contained the nucleus that Newton would develop and expand to form the Principia. The Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica was published on 5 July 1687 with encouragement and financial help from Halley. In this work, Newton stated the three universal laws of motion.


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton-7.md
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title: Isaac Newton
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton
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=== Other significant work === Newton studied heat and energy flow, formulating an empirical law of cooling which states that the rate at which an object cools is proportional to the temperature difference between the object and its surrounding environment. It was first formulated in 1701, being the first heat transfer formulation and serves as the formal basis of convective heat transfer, later being incorporated by Joseph Fourier into his work. Newton was the first to observe and qualitatively describe what would much later be formalised as the Magnus effect, nearly two centuries before Heinrich Magnus's experimental studies. In a 1672 text, Newton recounted watching tennis players at Cambridge college and noted how a tennis ball struck obliquely with a spinning motion curved in flight. He explained that the ball's combination of circular and progressive motion caused one side to "press and beat the contiguous air more violently" than the other, thereby producing "a reluctancy and reaction of the air proportionably greater", an astute observation of the pressure differential responsible for lateral deflection. === Philosophy of science === Newton's role as a philosopher was deeply influential, and understanding the philosophical landscape of the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries requires


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton-8.md
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title: Isaac Newton
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In the 1690s, Newton wrote a number of religious tracts dealing with the literal and symbolic interpretation of the Bible. A manuscript Newton sent to John Locke in which he disputed the fidelity of 1 John 5:7—the Johannine Comma—and its fidelity to the original manuscripts of the New Testament, remained unpublished until 1785. Newton was also a member of the Parliament of England for Cambridge University in 1689 and 1701, but according to some accounts his only comments were to complain about a cold draught in the chamber and request that the window be closed. He was, however, noted by the Cambridge diarist Abraham de la Pryme to have rebuked students who were frightening locals by claiming that a house was haunted. Newton moved to London to take up the post of Warden of the Mint during the reign of King William III in 1696, a position that he had obtained through the patronage of Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax, then Chancellor of the Exchequer. He took charge of England's great recoining, clashed with Robert Lucas, 3rd Baron Lucas of Shenfield, the Governor of the Tower, and secured the job of deputy comptroller of the temporary Chester branch for


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton-9.md
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title: Isaac Newton
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=== Knighthood === In April 1705, Newton was knighted by Queen Anne during a royal visit to Trinity College, Cambridge. The knighthood is likely to have been motivated by political considerations connected with the parliamentary election in May 1705, rather than any recognition of Newton's scientific work or services as Master of the Mint. Newton was the second scientist to be knighted, after Francis Bacon. As a result of a report written by Newton on 21 September 1717 to the Lords Commissioners of His Majesty's Treasury, the bimetallic relationship between gold coins and silver coins was changed by royal proclamation on 22 December 1717, forbidding the exchange of gold guineas for more than 21 silver shillings. This inadvertently resulted in a silver shortage as silver coins were used to pay for imports, while exports were paid for in gold, effectively moving Britain from the silver standard to its first gold standard. It is a matter of debate as to whether he intended to do this or not. It has been argued that Newton viewed his work at the Mint as a continuation of his alchemical work. Newton was invested in the South Sea Company and lost at least £10,000, and


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton-10.md
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title: Isaac Newton
tags: science, encyclopedia
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== Personality == Newton has been described as an incredibly driven and disciplined man who dedicated his life to his work. He is known for having a prodigious appetite for work, which he prioritised above his personal health. Newton also maintained strict control over his physical appetites, being sparing with food and drink and becoming a vegetarian later in life. While Newton was a secretive and neurotic individual, he is not considered to have been psychotic or bipolar. He has been described as an "incredible polymath" who was "immensely versatile", with some of his first studies relating to a potential phonetic alphabet and universal language. Newton's diverse range of interests is seen in his library, which contained 1,752 books that could be identified. A large portion consisted of works on theology (27.2%, or 477 books), followed by alchemy (9.6%, 169 books), mathematics (7.2%, 126 books), physics (3.0%, 52 books), and finally astronomy (1.9%, 33 books). Ultimately, books related to his famous scientific work made up slightly less than 12% of the total collection. Although it was claimed that he was once engaged, Newton never married. Voltaire, who was in London at the time of Newton's funeral, said that he "was


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton-11.md
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title: Isaac Newton
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William Stukeley wrote of Newton’s diligence in reading and studying the Bible:No man in England read the Bible more carefully than he did, none study’d it more, as appears by his printed works, by many pieces he left which are not printed, and even by the Bible which he commonly used, thumbd over, as they call it, in an extraordinary degree, with frequency of use.By 1672, he had started to record his theological researches in notebooks which he showed to no one and which have only been available for public examination since 1972. Over half of what Newton wrote concerned theology and alchemy, and most has never been printed. His writings show extensive knowledge of early Church texts and reveal that he sided with Arius, who rejected the conventional view of the Trinity and was the losing party in the conflict with Athanasius over the Creed. Newton "recognized Christ as a divine mediator between God and man, who was subordinate to the Father who created him." He was especially interested in prophecy, but for him, "the great apostasy was trinitarianism." Newton tried unsuccessfully to obtain one of the two fellowships that exempted the holder from the ordination requirement. At the


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton-12.md
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title: Isaac Newton
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Of an estimated ten million words of writing in Newton's papers, about one million deal with alchemy. Many of Newton's writings on alchemy are copies of other manuscripts, with his own annotations. Alchemical texts mix artisanal knowledge with philosophical speculation, often hidden behind layers of wordplay, allegory, and imagery to protect craft secrets. Some of the content contained in Newton's papers could have been considered heretical by the church. In 1888, after spending sixteen years cataloguing Newton's papers, Cambridge University kept a small number and returned the rest to the Earl of Portsmouth. In 1936, a descendant offered the papers for sale at Sotheby's. The collection was broken up and sold for a total of about £9,000. John Maynard Keynes was one of about three dozen bidders who obtained part of the collection at auction. Keynes went on to reassemble an estimated half of Newton's collection of papers on alchemy before donating his collection to Cambridge University in 1946. All of Newton's known writings on alchemy are currently being put online in a project undertaken by Indiana University: "The Chymistry of Isaac Newton" and has been summarised in a book. Newton's fundamental contributions to science include the quantification of gravitational


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton-13.md
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title: Isaac Newton
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton
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Here is buried Isaac Newton, Knight, who by a strength of mind almost divine, and mathematical principles peculiarly his own, explored the course and figures of the planets, the paths of comets, the tides of the sea, the dissimilarities in rays of light, and, what no other scholar has previously imagined, the properties of the colours thus produced. Diligent, sagacious and faithful, in his expositions of nature, antiquity and the holy Scriptures, he vindicated by his philosophy the majesty of God mighty and good, and expressed the simplicity of the Gospel in his manners. Mortals rejoice that there has existed such and so great an ornament of the human race! He was born on 25th December 1642, and died on 20th March 1726. Science writer John G. Simmons ranked Newton first in The Scientific 100, based on a qualitative assessment in which he ordered the scientists according to overall influence, and described him as "the most influential figure in the history of Western science". Physicist Peter Rowlands described him as "the central figure in the history of science", who "more than anyone else is the source of our great confidence in the power of science." New Scientist called Newton "the


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton-14.md
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title: Isaac Newton
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Physicist Edward Andrade stated that Newton "was capable of greater sustained mental effort than any man, before or since". He also noted the place of Newton in history, stating:From time to time in the history of mankind a man arises who is of universal significance, whose work changes the current of human thought or of human experience, so that all that comes after him bears evidence of his spirit. Such a man was Shakespeare, such a man was Beethoven, such a man was Newton, and, of the three, his kingdom is the most widespread. The French physicist and mathematician Jean-Baptiste Biot praised Newton's genius, stating that: Never was the supremacy of intellect so justly established and so fully confessed . . . In mathematical and in experimental science without an equal and without an example; combining the genius for both in its highest degree.Despite his rivalry with Gottfried Wilhem Leibniz, Leibniz still praised the work of Newton, with him responding to a question at a dinner in 1701 from Sophia Charlotte, the Queen of Prussia, about his view of Newton with:Taking mathematics from the beginning of the world to the time of when Newton lived, what he had done was


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton-15.md
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title: Isaac Newton
tags: science, encyclopedia
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On one assessment there should be no doubt: Newton was the greatest creative genius physics has ever seen. None of the other candidates for the superlative (Einstein, Maxwell, Boltzmann, Gibbs, and Feynman) has matched Newton's combined achievements as theoretician, experimentalist, and mathematician.Albert Einstein kept a picture of Newton on his study wall alongside ones of Michael Faraday and of James Clerk Maxwell. Einstein stated that Newton's creation of calculus in relation to his laws of motion was "perhaps the greatest advance in thought that a single individual was ever privileged to make." He also noted the influence of Newton, stating that:The whole evolution of our ideas about the processes of nature, with which we have been concerned so far, might be regarded as an organic development of Newton's ideas.In 1999, an opinion poll of 100 of the day's leading physicists voted Einstein the "greatest physicist ever," with Newton the runner-up, while a parallel survey of rank-and-file physicists ranked Newton as the greatest. In 2005, a dual survey of the public and members of Britain's Royal Society asked two questions: who made the bigger overall contributions to science and who made the bigger positive contributions to humankind, with the candidates being


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton-16.md
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title: Isaac Newton
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source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton
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In the year 1666 he retired again from Cambridge to his mother in Lincolnshire. Whilst he was pensively meandering in a garden it came into his thought that the power of gravity (which brought an apple from a tree to the ground) was not limited to a certain distance from earth, but that this power must extend much further than was usually thought. Why not as high as the Moon said he to himself & if so, that must influence her motion & perhaps retain her in her orbit, whereupon he fell a calculating what would be the effect of that supposition. It is known from his notebooks that Newton was grappling in the late 1660s with the idea that terrestrial gravity extends, in an inverse-square proportion, to the Moon, as other scientists had already conjectured. Around 1665, Newton made quantitative analysis, considering the period and distance of the Moon's orbit and considering the timing of objects falling on Earth. Newton did not publish these results at the time because he could not prove that the Earth's gravity acts as if all its mass were concentrated at its center. That proof took him twenty years. Detailed analysis of historical accounts


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer-0.md
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title: J. Robert Oppenheimer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer
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J. Robert Oppenheimer (born Julius Robert Oppenheimer OP-ən-hy-mər; April 22, 1904 – February 18, 1967) was an American theoretical physicist who served as the director of the Manhattan Project's Los Alamos Laboratory during World War II. He is often called the "father of the atomic bomb" for his role in overseeing the development of the first nuclear weapons. Born in New York City, Oppenheimer obtained a degree in chemistry from Harvard University in 1925 and a doctorate in physics from the University of Göttingen in Germany in 1927, studying under Max Born. After research at other institutions, he joined the physics faculty at the University of California, Berkeley, where he was made a full professor in 1936. Oppenheimer made significant contributions to physics in the fields of quantum mechanics and nuclear physics, including the Born–Oppenheimer approximation for molecular wave functions; work on the theory of positrons, quantum electrodynamics, and quantum field theory; and the Oppenheimer–Phillips process in nuclear fusion. With his students, he also made major contributions to astrophysics, including the theory of cosmic ray showers, and the theory of neutron stars and black holes. In 1941, Oppenheimer was briefed about nuclear weapon design by Australian physicist Mark Oliphant. In


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer-1.md
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title: J. Robert Oppenheimer
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source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer
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After being accepted at Christ's College, Cambridge, in 1924, Oppenheimer wrote to Ernest Rutherford requesting permission to work at the Cavendish Laboratory, though Bridgman's letter of recommendation said that Oppenheimer's clumsiness in the laboratory suggested that theoretical, rather than experimental, physics would be his forte. Rutherford was unimpressed, but Oppenheimer went to Cambridge nonetheless; J. J. Thomson ultimately accepted him on the condition that he complete a basic laboratory course. Oppenheimer was very unhappy at Cambridge and wrote to a friend: "I am having a pretty bad time. The lab work is a terrible bore, and I am so bad at it that it is impossible to feel that I am learning anything." He developed an antagonistic relationship with his tutor, Patrick Blackett, a future Nobel laureate. According to Oppenheimer's friend Francis Fergusson, Oppenheimer once confessed to leaving a poisoned apple on Blackett's desk, and Oppenheimer's parents convinced the university authorities not to expel him. There are no records of either a poisoning incident or probation, but Oppenheimer had regular sessions with a psychiatrist in Harley Street, London, and according to Charles Oppenheimer, his grandson, the poison apple story is unsubstantiated and American Prometheus conceded that it was unproven. Oppenheimer


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer-2.md
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title: J. Robert Oppenheimer
tags: science, encyclopedia
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Probably the most important ingredient he brought to his teaching was his exquisite taste. He always knew what were the important problems, as shown by his choice of subjects. He truly lived with those problems, struggling for a solution, and he communicated his concern to the group. In its heyday, there were about eight or ten graduate students in his group and about six Post-doctoral Fellows. He met this group once a day in his office and discussed with one after another the status of the student's research problem. He was interested in everything, and in one afternoon they might discuss quantum electrodynamics, cosmic rays, electron pair production and nuclear physics. Oppenheimer worked closely with Nobel Prize-winning experimental physicist Ernest Lawrence and his cyclotron pioneers, helping them understand the data that their machines were producing at Berkeley's Radiation Laboratory, which eventually developed into today's Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. In 1936, Berkeley promoted him to full professor at an annual salary of $3,300 (equivalent to $77,000 in 2025). In return, he was asked to curtail his teaching at Caltech, so a compromise was reached whereby Berkeley released him for six weeks each year, enough to teach one term at Caltech. Oppenheimer


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer-3.md
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title: J. Robert Oppenheimer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer
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He didn't have Sitzfleisch, "sitting flesh," when you sit on a chair. As far as I know, he never wrote a long paper or did a long calculation, anything of that kind. He didn't have patience for that; his own work consisted of little aperçus, but quite brilliant ones. But he inspired other people to do things, and his influence was fantastic. == Private and political life == Oppenheimer's mother died in 1931, after which he grew closer to his father, who, though still residing in New York, became a frequent visitor to California. When his father died in 1937, leaving $392,602 (equivalent to $8.6 million in 2024) to be divided between Oppenheimer and his brother Frank, Oppenheimer promptly wrote a will bequeathing his estate to the University of California to fund graduate scholarships. === Politics === During the 1920s, Oppenheimer remained uninformed about world affairs. He claimed that he did not read newspapers or popular magazines and only learned of the Wall Street crash of 1929 while he was on a walk with Ernest Lawrence six months after the crash occurred. He once remarked that he never cast a vote until the 1936 presidential election. From 1934 on, he


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer-4.md
category: reference
title: J. Robert Oppenheimer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer
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=== Relationships and children === In 1936, Oppenheimer became involved with Jean Tatlock, the daughter of a Berkeley literature professor and a student at Stanford University School of Medicine. The two had similar political views; she wrote for the Western Worker, a Communist Party newspaper. In 1939, after a tempestuous relationship, Tatlock broke up with Oppenheimer. In August of that year, he met Katherine ("Kitty") Puening, a former Communist Party member. Kitty's first marriage had lasted only a few months. Her second, common-law, husband from 1934 to 1937 was Joe Dallet, an active member of the Communist Party killed in 1937 in the Spanish Civil War. Kitty returned from Europe to the U.S., where she obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree in botany from the University of Pennsylvania. In 1938 she married Richard Harrison, a physician and medical researcher, and in June 1939 moved with him to Pasadena, California, where he became chief of radiology at a local hospital and she enrolled as a graduate student at the University of California, Los Angeles. She and Oppenheimer created a minor scandal by sleeping together after one of Tolman's parties, and in the summer of 1940 she stayed with Oppenheimer at his


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer-5.md
category: reference
title: J. Robert Oppenheimer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:13.473219+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: j-robert-oppenheimer-20260505-0
summary:
Oppenheimer was overeducated in those fields which lie outside the scientific tradition, such as his interest in religion, in the Hindu religion in particular, which resulted in a feeling for the mystery of the universe that surrounded him almost like a fog. He saw physics clearly, looking toward what had already been done, but at the border he tended to feel there was much more of the mysterious and novel than there actually was ... [he turned] away from the hard, crude methods of theoretical physics into a mystical realm of broad intuition.... In Oppenheimer the element of earthiness was feeble. Yet it was essentially this spiritual quality, this refinement as expressed in speech and manner, that was the basis of his charisma. He never expressed himself completely. He always left a feeling that there were depths of sensibility and insight not yet revealed. These may be the qualities of the born leader who seems to have reserves of uncommitted strength. In spite of this, observers such as physicists Luis Alvarez and Jeremy Bernstein have suggested that if Oppenheimer had lived long enough to see his predictions substantiated by experiment, he might have won a Nobel Prize for his work


id: j-robert-oppenheimer-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer-6.md
category: reference
title: J. Robert Oppenheimer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:13.473219+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: j-robert-oppenheimer-20260505-0
summary:
In June 1942, the U.S. Army established the Manhattan Engineer District to handle its part in the atom bomb project, beginning the process of transferring responsibility from the Office of Scientific Research and Development to the military. In September, Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves Jr., was appointed director of what became known as the Manhattan Project. By October 12, 1942, Groves and Oppenheimer had decided that for security and cohesion, they needed to establish a centralized, secret research laboratory in a remote location. Groves selected Oppenheimer to head the project's secret weapons laboratory, although it is not known precisely when. On October 15, 1942, after a meeting in Chicago on the Manhattan Project Groves invited Oppenheimer to join himself, James C. Marshall and Kenneth Nichols on their return trip to New York on the 20th Century Limited. After dinner on the train, they discussed the project. After Oppenheimer left the train, none of the three could name another suitable scientist to head the project. Shortly afterwards Oppenheimer was appointed to head the Los Alamos Laboratory. This decision surprised many, because Oppenheimer had left-wing political views and no record as a leader of large projects. Groves worried that because Oppenheimer did


id: j-robert-oppenheimer-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer-7.md
category: reference
title: J. Robert Oppenheimer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:13.473219+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: j-robert-oppenheimer-20260505-0
summary:
At this point in the war, there was considerable anxiety among the scientists that the German nuclear weapons program might be progressing faster than the Manhattan Project. In a letter dated May 25, 1943, Oppenheimer responded to a proposal by Fermi to use radioactive materials to poison German food supplies. Oppenheimer asked Fermi whether he could produce enough strontium without letting too many in on the secret. Oppenheimer continued, "I think we should not attempt a plan unless we can poison food sufficient to kill a half a million men." In 1943, development efforts were directed to a plutonium gun-type fission weapon called "Thin Man". Initial research on the properties of plutonium was done using cyclotron-generated plutonium-239, which was extremely pure but could be created only in tiny amounts. When Los Alamos received the first sample of plutonium from the X-10 Graphite Reactor in April 1944, a problem was discovered: reactor-bred plutonium had a higher concentration of plutonium-240 (five times that of "cyclotron" plutonium), making it unsuitable for use in a gun-type weapon. In July 1944, Oppenheimer abandoned the Thin Man gun design in favor of an implosion-type weapon; a smaller version of Thin Man became Little Boy. Using chemical


id: j-robert-oppenheimer-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer-8.md
category: reference
title: J. Robert Oppenheimer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:13.473219+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: j-robert-oppenheimer-20260505-0
summary:
== Postwar activities == Once the public learned of the Manhattan Project after the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Oppenheimer—suddenly a household name as the "father of the atomic bomb"—became a national spokesman for science, emblematic of a new type of technocratic power; he appeared on the covers of Life and Time. Nuclear physics became a powerful force as nations realized the strategic and political power that atomic weapons conferred. Like many scientists of his generation, Oppenheimer felt that security from atomic bombs could come only from a transnational organization such as the newly formed United Nations, which could institute a program to stifle a nuclear arms race. === Institute for Advanced Study === In November 1945, Oppenheimer left Los Alamos to return to Caltech, but soon found that his heart was no longer in teaching. In 1947, he accepted an offer from Lewis Strauss to take up the directorship of the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. This meant moving back east and leaving Ruth Tolman, the wife of his friend Richard Tolman, with whom he had begun an affair after leaving Los Alamos. The job came with a salary of $20,000 per annum, plus rent-free accommodation


id: j-robert-oppenheimer-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer-9.md
category: reference
title: J. Robert Oppenheimer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:13.473219+00:00
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parent: j-robert-oppenheimer-20260505-0
summary:
As a member of the Board of Consultants to a committee appointed by Truman, Oppenheimer strongly influenced the 1946 Acheson–Lilienthal Report. In this report, the committee advocated the creation of an international Atomic Development Authority, which would own all fissionable material and the means of its production, such as mines and laboratories, and atomic power plants where it could be used for peaceful energy production. Bernard Baruch was appointed to translate this report into a proposal to the United Nations, resulting in the Baruch Plan of 1946. The Baruch Plan introduced many additional provisions regarding enforcement, in particular requiring inspection of the Soviet Union's uranium resources. It was seen as an attempt to maintain the United States' nuclear monopoly and rejected by the Soviets. With this, it became clear to Oppenheimer that an arms race was unavoidable, due to the mutual suspicion of the United States and the Soviet Union, which even Oppenheimer was starting to distrust. After the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) came into being in 1947 as a civilian agency in control of nuclear research and weapons issues, Oppenheimer was appointed as the chairman of its General Advisory Committee (GAC). From this position, he advised on a number


id: j-robert-oppenheimer-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer-10.md
category: reference
title: J. Robert Oppenheimer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:13.473219+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: j-robert-oppenheimer-20260505-0
summary:
Oppenheimer played a role on a number of government panels and study projects during the late 1940s and early 1950s, some of which thrust him into controversies and power struggles. In 1948, Oppenheimer chaired the Department of Defense's Long-Range Objectives Panel, a body created by AEC liaison Donald F. Carpenter. It looked at the military utility of nuclear weapons, including how they might be delivered. After a year's worth of study, in spring 1952, Oppenheimer wrote the draft report of Project GABRIEL, which examined the dangers of nuclear fallout. Oppenheimer was also a member of the Science Advisory Committee of the Office of Defense Mobilization. Oppenheimer participated in Project Charles during 1951, which examined the possibility of creating an effective air defense of the United States against atomic attack, and in the follow-on Project East River in 1952, which, with Oppenheimer's input, recommended building a warning system that would provide one-hour notice of an impending atomic attack against American cities. Those two projects led to Project Lincoln in 1952, a large effort on which Oppenheimer was one of the senior scientists. Undertaken at the MIT Lincoln Laboratory, which had recently been founded to study issues of air defense, this in


id: j-robert-oppenheimer-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer-11.md
category: reference
title: J. Robert Oppenheimer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:13.473219+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: j-robert-oppenheimer-20260505-0
summary:
The FBI under J. Edgar Hoover had been following Oppenheimer since before the war, when he showed Communist sympathies as a professor at Berkeley and had been close to members of the Communist Party, including his wife and brother. They strongly suspected that he himself was a member of the party, based on wiretaps in which party members referred to him or appeared to refer to him as a communist, as well as reports from informers within the party. He had been under close surveillance since the early 1940s, his home and office bugged, his phone tapped and his mail opened. In August 1943, Oppenheimer told Manhattan Project security agents that George Eltenton, whom he did not know, had solicited three men at Los Alamos for nuclear secrets on behalf of the Soviet Union. When pressed on the issue in later interviews, Oppenheimer admitted that the only person who had approached him was his friend Haakon Chevalier, a Berkeley professor of French literature, who had mentioned the matter privately at a dinner at Oppenheimer's house. The FBI furnished Oppenheimer's political enemies with evidence that intimated communist ties. These enemies included Strauss, an AEC commissioner who had long harbored resentment against


id: j-robert-oppenheimer-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer-12.md
category: reference
title: J. Robert Oppenheimer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:13.473219+00:00
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parent: j-robert-oppenheimer-20260505-0
summary:
In a great number of cases, I have seen Dr. Oppenheimer act—I understand that Dr. Oppenheimer acted—in a way which for me was exceedingly hard to understand. I thoroughly disagreed with him in numerous issues and his actions frankly appeared to me confused and complicated. To this extent I feel that I would like to see the vital interests of this country in hands which I understand better, and therefore trust more. In this very limited sense I would like to express a feeling that I would feel personally more secure if public matters would rest in other hands. Teller's testimony outraged the scientific community, and he was virtually ostracized from academic science. Ernest Lawrence refused to testify, pleading an attack of ulcerative colitis, but an interview in which Lawrence condemned Oppenheimer was submitted in evidence. Many top scientists, as well as government and military figures, testified on Oppenheimer's behalf. Physicist Isidor Isaac Rabi said that the suspension of the security clearance was unnecessary: "he is a consultant, and if you don't want to consult the guy, you don't consult him, period." But Groves testified that, under the stricter security criteria in effect in 1954, he "would not clear Dr.


id: j-robert-oppenheimer-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer-13.md
category: reference
title: J. Robert Oppenheimer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:13.473219+00:00
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parent: j-robert-oppenheimer-20260505-0
summary:
Starting in 1954, Oppenheimer lived for several months of each year on the island of Saint John in the U.S. Virgin Islands. In 1957, he purchased a two-acre (0.8-hectare) tract of land on Gibney Beach, where he built a spartan home on the beach. He spent considerable time sailing with his daughter Toni and wife Kitty. Oppenheimer's first public appearance following the stripping of his security clearance was a lecture titled "Prospects in the Arts and Sciences" for the Columbia University Bicentennial radio show Man's Right to Knowledge, in which he outlined his philosophy and his thoughts on the role of science in the modern world. He had been selected for the final episode of the lecture series two years prior to the security hearing, though the university remained adamant that he stay on even after the controversy. In February 1955, the president of the University of Washington, Henry Schmitz, abruptly canceled an invitation to Oppenheimer to deliver a series of lectures there. Schmitz's decision caused an uproar among the students; 1,200 of them signed a petition protesting the decision, and Schmitz was burned in effigy. While they marched in protest, the state of Washington outlawed the Communist Party, and


id: j-robert-oppenheimer-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer-14.md
category: reference
title: J. Robert Oppenheimer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer
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parent: j-robert-oppenheimer-20260505-0
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=== Enrico Fermi Award === In 1959, then-Senator John F. Kennedy voted to deny Lewis Strauss, Oppenheimer's greatest detractor in his security hearings, confirmation as Secretary of Commerce, effectively ending Strauss's political career. In 1962, Kennedy―now President of the United States―invited Oppenheimer to a ceremony honoring 49 Nobel Prize winners. At the event, AEC chairman Glenn Seaborg asked Oppenheimer whether he wanted another security hearing. Oppenheimer declined. In March 1963, the General Advisory committee of the AEC selected Oppenheimer to receive its Enrico Fermi Award, an award Congress had created in 1954. Kennedy was assassinated before he could present the award to Oppenheimer, but his successor, Lyndon Johnson, did so in a December 1963 ceremony at which he cited Oppenheimer's "contributions to theoretical physics as a teacher and originator of ideas, [and] leadership of the Los Alamos Laboratory and the atomic energy program during critical years." He called the signing of the award one of Kennedy's greatest acts as president. Oppenheimer told Johnson, "I think it is just possible, Mr. President, that it has taken some charity and some courage for you to make this award today." Kennedy's widow, Jackie, made a point of attending the ceremony so she could


id: j-robert-oppenheimer-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer-15.md
category: reference
title: J. Robert Oppenheimer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:13.473219+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: j-robert-oppenheimer-20260505-0
summary:
When Oppenheimer was stripped of his political influence in 1954, he symbolized for many the folly of scientists who believed they could control the use of their research, and the dilemmas of moral responsibility presented by science in the nuclear age. The hearings were motivated by politics and personal enmities, and reflected a stark divide in the nuclear weapons community. One group passionately feared the Soviet Union as a mortal enemy, and believed having the most powerful weaponry capable of providing the most massive retaliation was the best strategy to combat that threat. The other group thought developing the H-bomb would not improve Western security and that using the weapon against large civilian populations would be genocide; they advocated instead a more flexible response to the Soviets involving tactical nuclear weapons, strengthened conventional forces, and arms control agreements. The first of these groups was the more powerful in political terms, and Oppenheimer became its target. Rather than consistently oppose the "Red-baiting" of the late 1940s and early 1950s, Oppenheimer testified against former colleagues and students, before and during his hearing. In one incident, his damning testimony against former student Bernard Peters was selectively leaked to the press. Historians have interpreted


id: j-robert-oppenheimer-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer-16.md
category: reference
title: J. Robert Oppenheimer
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:13.473219+00:00
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parent: j-robert-oppenheimer-20260505-0
summary:
Oppenheimer is the subject of many biographies, including American Prometheus (2005) by Kai Bird and Martin J. Sherwin, which won the 2006 Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography. The 1980 BBC TV serial Oppenheimer, starring Sam Waterston, won three BAFTA Television Awards. The Day After Trinity, a 1980 documentary about Oppenheimer and the atomic bomb, was nominated for an Academy Award and received a Peabody Award. Oppenheimer's life is explored in Tom Morton-Smith's 2015 play Oppenheimer, and the 1989 film Fat Man and Little Boy, where he was portrayed by Dwight Schultz. Also in 1989, David Strathairn played Oppenheimer in the TV film Day One. In the 2023 American film Oppenheimer, directed by Christopher Nolan and based on American Prometheus, Oppenheimer is portrayed by Cillian Murphy. The film won the Academy Award for best picture, and Murphy won for best actor. A centennial conference about Oppenheimer's legacy was held in 2004 at the University of California, Berkeley, alongside a digital exhibition on his life, with the conference proceedings published in 2005 as Reappraising Oppenheimer: Centennial Studies and Reflections. His papers are in the Library of Congress. As a scientist, Oppenheimer was remembered by his students and colleagues as a brilliant


id: hans-christian-rsted-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Christian_Ørsted-0.md
category: reference
title: Hans Christian Ørsted
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Christian_Ørsted
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:14.623998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hans-christian-rsted-20260505-0
summary:
Hans Christian Ørsted (Danish: [ˈɶɐ̯steð] ; 14 August 1777 – 9 March 1851), sometimes transliterated as Oersted ( UR-sted), was a Danish chemist and physicist who discovered that electric currents create magnetic fields. This phenomenon is known as Oersted's law. He also discovered aluminium, a chemical element. A leader of the Danish Golden Age, Ørsted was a close friend of Hans Christian Andersen and the brother of politician and jurist Anders Sandøe Ørsted, who served as Prime Minister of Denmark from 1853 to 1854. == Early life and studies == Ørsted was born in Rudkøbing in 1777. As a young boy he developed an interest in science while working for his father, who was a pharmacist in the town's pharmacy. He and his brother Anders received most of their early education through self-study at home, going to Copenhagen in 1793 to take entrance exams for the University of Copenhagen, where both brothers excelled academically. By 1796, Ørsted had been awarded honors for his papers in both aesthetics and physics. He earned his doctorate in 1799 for a dissertation based on the works of Kant entitled The Architectonics of Natural Metaphysics. In 1800, Alessandro Volta reported his invention of the voltaic


id: hans-christian-rsted-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Christian_Ørsted-1.md
category: reference
title: Hans Christian Ørsted
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Christian_Ørsted
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:14.623998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hans-christian-rsted-20260505-0
summary:
Ørsted was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in March 1821, a Foreign Member of the Royal Society of London in April 1821, a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1822, a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1829, and a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1849. He founded the Selskabet for Naturlærens Udbredelse (Society for the Dissemination of Natural Science, SNU) in 1824. He was also the founder of predecessor organizations which eventually became the Danish Meteorological Institute and the Danish Patent and Trademark Office. In 1829, Ørsted founded Den Polytekniske Læreanstalt (College of Advanced Technology), which was later renamed the Technical University of Denmark (DTU). In 1824, Ørsted made a significant contribution to chemistry by being the first person to successfully produce aluminium in its metallic state, albeit in a less-than-pure form. In 1808, Humphry Davy had predicted the existence of the metal which he gave the name of alumium. However his attempts to isolate it using electrolysis processes were unsuccessful; the closest he came was an aluminium-iron alloy. Ørsted succeeded in isolating the metallic form by reacting aluminium chloride with potassium amalgam


id: hans-christian-rsted-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Christian_Ørsted-2.md
category: reference
title: Hans Christian Ørsted
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Christian_Ørsted
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:14.623998+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hans-christian-rsted-20260505-0
summary:
Ørsted, H. C. (1807). "Betragtninger over Chemiens Historie" [Considerations on the History of Chemistry]. Det Skandinaviske Litteraturselskabs Skrifter (in Danish). 2. København: Andreas Seidelin: 1–54. OCLC 872505637. —— (1809). Videnskaben om Naturens almindelige Love [The Science of the General Laws of Nature] (in Danish). København: Fr. Brummer. OCLC 488860438. —— (1812). Ansicht der chemischen Naturgesetze, durch die neuern Entdeckungen gewonnen [View of the Chemical Laws of Nature Gained Through Recent Discoveries] (in German). Berlin: Realschulbuchhandlung. OCLC 28640794. —— (1814). Imod den store Anklager [Against the Great Accuser] (in Danish). København: Andreas Seidelin. OCLC 19092207. —— (1820). "Experiments on the Effect of a Current of Electricity on the Magnetic Needle". In Thomson, T. (ed.). Annals of Philosophy; or, Magazine of Chemistry, Mineralogy, Mechanics, Natural History, Agriculture, and the Arts. Vol. XVI. London: Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy. pp. 273–276. hdl:2027/osu.32435051156651. OCLC 9529852. —— (1844). Naturlærens mechaniske Deel [The Mechanical Part of Natural Learning] (in Danish). København: C. A. Reitzel. hdl:2027/njp.32101058433184. OCLC 22224906. —— (1851). Der mechanische Theil der Naturlehre [The Mechanical Part of Natural Learning] (in German). Braunschweig: Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn. OCLC 9489733. OL 6960604M. Harding, M. C., ed. (1920). Correspondance de H. C. Örsted avec divers savants [The Correspondence of


id: henry-sutton-inventor-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Sutton_(inventor)-0.md
category: reference
title: Henry Sutton (inventor)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Sutton_(inventor)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:15.826057+00:00
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parent: henry-sutton-inventor-20260505-0
summary:
Henry Sutton (4 September 1855, Ballarat, Victoria – 28 July 1912) was an Australian designer, engineer, and inventor credited with contributions to early developments in electricity, aviation, wireless communication, photography and telephony. == Early life == === Family === Henry Sutton, the second of the eleven children of Richard Henry Sutton (1831 – 1876), and Mary Sutton (1835 – 1894), née Johnson, was born in a tent on the Ballarat goldfields on 4 September 1855. He had three brothers, with whom he was associated in the Sutton Brothers musical business originally centred on Ballarat, and two sisters. He married Elizabeth Ellen Wyatt (1860–1901) in 1881, and Annie May Tatti (1884-), on 17 September 1902, who bore four and two sons, respectively. === Education === Up to the age of ten, Sutton was schooled by his mother, then attended a state school, and then Gracefield college between 1869 and 1872. Sutton was self taught in the field of science, having read all the available books in library of the Ballarat Mechanics' lnstitute by the age of 14. Sutton trained as a draftsman at the Ballarat School of Design where he won a silver medal and 30 other prizes for drawing. Sutton


id: henry-sutton-inventor-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Sutton_(inventor)-1.md
category: reference
title: Henry Sutton (inventor)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Sutton_(inventor)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:15.826057+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: henry-sutton-inventor-20260505-0
summary:
=== Facsimile === Sutton used his telephane system to demonstrate facsimile transmission with the help of Nicola Tesla in England. An account of his invention was later published in Washington in 1896, noting that the first patents for long-distance transmission of images dated back to 1867. === Lifts === For the benefit of his mother, who had been paralyzed by a stroke, a new hydraulic lift had been installed in the newly built Suttons Music Emporium. As Ballarat's low water pressure and lack of an efficient drainage system were incompatible, Sutton designed and built a new hydraulic mechanism to drive the lift. This design was subsequently used by the Austral Otis company and exported for use in America. === Automotive === "Henry Sutton can be classed as an automobile inventor and designer rather than a manufacturer whose achievements were considerable and internationally recognized. As an inventor he produced a number of automobiles of his own design in an evolutionary process (somewhere between six and eight)." In 1897, a tricycle fitted with a Sutton designed and built engine was driven from Melbourne to Ballarat. Despite atrocious road conditions the trip was completed in eleven and a half hours, and the vehicle


id: henry-fox-talbot-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Fox_Talbot-0.md
category: reference
title: Henry Fox Talbot
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Fox_Talbot
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:21.239999+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: henry-fox-talbot-20260505-0
summary:
William Henry Fox Talbot (; 11 February 1800 – 17 September 1877) was an English scientist, inventor, and photography pioneer who invented the salted paper and calotype processes, precursors to photographic processes of the later 19th and 20th centuries. His work in the 1840s on photomechanical reproduction led to the creation of the photoglyphic engraving process, the precursor to photogravure. He was the holder of a controversial patent that affected the early development of commercial photography in Britain. He was also a noted photographer who contributed to the development of photography as an artistic medium. He published The Pencil of Nature (1844–1846), which was illustrated with original salted paper prints from his calotype negatives and made some important early photographs of Oxford, Paris, Reading, and York. A polymath, Talbot was elected to the Royal Society in 1831 for his work on the integral calculus, and researched in optics, chemistry, electricity and other subjects such as etymology, the decipherment of cuneiform, and ancient history. == Early life == Talbot was born in Melbury House in Dorset and was the only child of William Davenport Talbot, of Lacock Abbey, near Chippenham, Wiltshire, and his wife Lady Elisabeth Fox Strangways, daughter of the


id: henry-fox-talbot-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Fox_Talbot-1.md
category: reference
title: Henry Fox Talbot
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Fox_Talbot
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:21.239999+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: henry-fox-talbot-20260505-0
summary:
The "calotype", or "talbotype", was a "developing out" process, Talbot's improvement of his earlier photogenic drawing process by the use of a different silver salt (silver iodide instead of silver chloride) and a developing agent (gallic acid and silver nitrate) to bring out an invisibly slight "latent" image on the exposed paper. This reduced the required exposure time in the camera to only a minute or two for subjects in bright sunlight. The translucent calotype negative made it possible to produce as many positive prints as desired by simple contact printing, whereas the daguerreotype was an opaque direct positive that could be reproduced only by being copied with a camera. On the other hand, the calotype, despite waxing of the negative to make the image clearer, still was not pin-sharp like the metallic daguerreotype, because the paper fibres blurred the printed image. The simpler salted paper process was normally used when making prints from calotype negatives. Talbot announced his calotype process in 1841, and in August he licensed Henry Collen, the miniature painter, as the first professional calotypist. The most celebrated practitioners of the process were Hill & Adamson. Another notable calotypist was Levett Landon Boscawen Ibbetson. In 1842, Talbot


id: henry-fox-talbot-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Fox_Talbot-2.md
category: reference
title: Henry Fox Talbot
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Fox_Talbot
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:21.239999+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: henry-fox-talbot-20260505-0
summary:
Talbot was a friend and neighbour in Wiltshire of the famed Irish poet and writer Thomas Moore. Dated April 1844, Talbot made a calotype of Moore as a visitor standing with members of his own household. The distinctive curls identify Talbot's half sister Henrietta Horatia Fielding standing to his left. Eliza Frayland, the nursemaid at the far left, had come into the family's employ with the birth of Charles Henry Talbot in 1842. Arranged in the front are Matilda Caroline (later Gilchrist-Clark, age 5); Ela Theresa (age 9); Rosamond Constance Talbot (age 7). The woman at the right is possibly Moore's wife Bessy. Moore took an early interest in Talbot's photogenic drawings. Talbot, in turn, took images of Moore's hand-written poetry possibly for inclusion in facsimile in an edition of The Pencil of Nature. == Spectroscopic and optical investigations == Talbot was one of the earliest researchers into the field of spectral analysis. He showed that the spectrum of each of the chemical elements was unique and that it was possible to identify the chemical elements from their spectra. Such analysis was to become important in examining the light from distant stars, and hence inferring their atomic composition. He also


id: melvin-alvah-traylor-jr-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melvin_Alvah_Traylor_Jr.-0.md
category: reference
title: Melvin Alvah Traylor Jr.
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melvin_Alvah_Traylor_Jr.
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:22.592513+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: melvin-alvah-traylor-jr-20260505-0
summary:
Melvin Alvah Traylor Jr. (December 16, 1915 – February 11, 2008) was an American ornithologist. He was the son of Chicago banker Melvin Alvah Traylor and Mrs. Dorothy Y. Traylor. Traylor was Lieutenant with the marines and served on Guadalcanal during World War II in 1942 where he was awarded with the Silver Star medal. As a Marine Corps officer, Mel was severely injured during the Battle of Tarawa in the Pacific theatre, where he lost one eye and suffered arm and upper body wounds during the famous beach assault. After the war Traylor continued his work for the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago, which he had started in 1937. He made expeditions to Africa (in collaboration with Austin L. Rand), to South America, and to Asia. In 1960 he was among the members of the World Book Encyclopedia Scientific Expedition to the Himalaya led by Sir Edmund Hillary. In 1956 Traylor became assistant curator of birds in the Field Museum. Since his retirement in the 1980s he was working as curator emeritus for the Field Museum. Traylor was among the authors (alongside Raymond A. Paynter, Ernst Mayr, G. William Cottrell, and James Lee Peters) of Check-list of


id: ulugh-beg-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulugh_Beg-0.md
category: reference
title: Ulugh Beg
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulugh_Beg
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:23.755017+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ulugh-beg-20260505-0
summary:
Mīrzā Muhammad Tarāghāy bin Shāhrukh (Chagatay: میرزا محمد تراغای بن شاهرخ; Persian: میرزا محمد طارق بن شاهرخ), better known as Ulugh Beg (Persian: الغ‌بیک; 22 March 1394 – 27 October 1449), was a Timurid sultan, as well as an astronomer and mathematician. Ulugh Beg was notable for his work in astronomy-related mathematics, such as trigonometry and spherical geometry, as well as his general interests in the arts and intellectual activities. It is thought that he spoke five languages: Arabic, Persian, Chaghatai Turkic, Mongolian, and a small amount of Chinese. During his rule (first as a governor, then outright) the Timurid Empire achieved the cultural peak of the Timurid Renaissance through his attention and patronage. Samarkand was captured and given to Ulugh Beg by his father Shah Rukh. He built the great Ulugh Beg Observatory in Samarkand between 1424 and 1429. It was considered by scholars to have been one of the finest observatories in the Islamic world at the time and the largest in Central Asia. Ulugh Beg was subsequently recognized as the most important observational astronomer from the 15th century by many scholars. He also built the Ulugh Beg Madrasah (1417–1420) in Samarkand and Bukhara, transforming the cities into


id: ulugh-beg-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulugh_Beg-1.md
category: reference
title: Ulugh Beg
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulugh_Beg
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:23.755017+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ulugh-beg-20260505-0
summary:
Astronomy piqued Ulugh Beg's interest when he visited the Maragheh Observatory at a young age. This observatory, located in Maragheh, Iran, is where the well-known astronomer Nasir al-Din al-Tusi practised. In 1428, Ulugh Beg built an enormous observatory, similar to Tycho Brahe's later Uraniborg as well as Taqi al-Din's observatory in Constantinople. Lacking telescopes to work with, he increased his accuracy by increasing the length of his sextant; the so-called Fakhri sextant had a radius of about 36 meters (118 feet) and the optical separability of 180" (seconds of arc). The Fakhri sextant was the largest instrument at the observatory in Samarkand (an image of the sextant is on the side of this article). There were many other astronomical instruments located at the observatory, but the Fakhri sextant is the most well-known instrument there. The purpose of the Fakhri sextant was to measure the transit altitudes of the stars. This was a measurement of the maximum altitude above the horizon of the stars. It was only possible to use this device to measure the declination of celestial objects. The image, which can be found in this article, shows the remaining portion of the instrument, which consists of the underground, lower


id: ulugh-beg-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulugh_Beg-2.md
category: reference
title: Ulugh Beg
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulugh_Beg
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:23.755017+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ulugh-beg-20260505-0
summary:
Ulugh Beg led two major campaigns against his neighbours. This first one took place in 1425 and was directed against Moghulistan and its ruler Shir Muhammad. He was victorious but the impact of the campaign was limited and Shir Muhammad remained in power. A year later, Baraq, Khan of the Golden Horde and former protégé of Ulugh Beg, laid claim to Timurid possessions around the Syr Darya, including the town of Sighnaq. In response to that, in 1427 Ulugh Beg, accompanied by his brother Muhummad Juki, marched against Baraq. In a hill close to Sighnaq the Timurid army was surprised by a smaller enemy force but was soundly defeated. The humiliation suffered at the hands of Baraq was to have a lasting effect on Ulugh Beg. His campaign against the Golden Horde would be the last he would undertake against a neighbouring power. The armies he later sent against them would not win any resounding victories and by the end of his reign his territories would be raided by his northern and easterly foes. In 1439, the Zhengtong emperor ordered an artist to produce a painting of a black horse with white feet and a white forehead that had been


id: ulugh-beg-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulugh_Beg-3.md
category: reference
title: Ulugh Beg
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulugh_Beg
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:23.755017+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ulugh-beg-20260505-0
summary:
== Bibliography == O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Ulugh Beg", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews 1839. L. P. E. A. Sedillot (1808–1875). Tables astronomiques d’Oloug Beg, commentees et publiees avec le texte en regard, Tome I, 1 fascicule, Paris. A very rare work, but referenced in the Bibliographie generale de l’astronomie jusqu’en 1880, by J. 1847. L. P. E. A. Sedillot (1808–1875). Prolegomenes des Tables astronomiques d’Oloug Beg, publiees avec Notes et Variantes, et precedes d’une Introduction. Paris: F. Didot. 1853. L. P. E. A. Sedillot (1808–1875). Prolegomenes des Tables astronomiques d’Oloug Beg, traduction et commentaire. Paris. Le Prince Savant annexe les étoiles, Frédérique Beaupertuis-Bressand, in Samarcande 1400–1500, La cité-oasis de Tamerlan : coeur d'un Empire et d'une Renaissance, book directed by Vincent Fourniau, éditions Autrement, 1995, ISSN 1157-4488. L'âge d'or de l'astronomie ottomane, Antoine Gautier, in L'Astronomie, (Monthly magazine created by Camille Flammarion in 1882), December 2005, volume 119. L'observatoire du prince Ulugh Beg, Antoine Gautier, in L'Astronomie, (Monthly magazine created by Camille Flammarion in 1882), October 2008, volume 122. Le recueil de calendriers du prince timouride Ulug Beg (1394–1449), Antoine Gautier, in Le Bulletin, n° spécial Les calendriers, Institut National des Langues et


id: alessandro-volta-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alessandro_Volta-0.md
category: reference
title: Alessandro Volta
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alessandro_Volta
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:24.977260+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alessandro-volta-20260505-0
summary:
Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta (18 February 1745 – 5 March 1827) was an Italian chemist and physicist who was a pioneer of electricity and power, and is credited as the inventor of the electric battery and the discoverer of methane. He invented the voltaic pile in 1799, and reported the results of his experiments in a two-part letter to the president of the Royal Society in London, which was published in 1800. With this invention, Volta proved that electricity could be generated chemically and debunked the prevalent theory that electricity was generated solely by living beings. Volta's invention sparked a great amount of scientific excitement and led others to conduct similar experiments, which eventually led to the development of the field of electrochemistry. Volta drew admiration from Napoleon Bonaparte for his invention, and was invited to the Institute of France to demonstrate his invention to the members of the institute. Throughout his life, Volta enjoyed a certain amount of closeness with the emperor who conferred upon him numerous honours. Volta held the chair of experimental physics at the University of Pavia for nearly 40 years and was widely idolised by his students. Despite his professional success, Volta was inclined


id: alessandro-volta-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alessandro_Volta-1.md
category: reference
title: Alessandro Volta
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alessandro_Volta
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:24.977260+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alessandro-volta-20260505-0
summary:
In announcing his invention of the voltaic pile, Volta paid tribute to the influences of William Nicholson, Tiberius Cavallo, and Abraham Bennet. The battery made by Volta is credited as one of the first electrochemical cells. It consists of two electrodes: one made of zinc, the other of copper. The electrolyte is either sulphuric acid mixed with water or a form of saltwater brine. The electrolyte exists in the form 2 H+ and SO2−4. Zinc metal, which is higher in the electrochemical series than both copper and hydrogen, is oxidized to zinc cations (Zn2+) and creates electrons that move to the copper electrode. The positively charged hydrogen ions (protons) capture electrons from the copper electrode, forming bubbles of hydrogen gas, H2. This makes the zinc rod the negative electrode and the copper rod the positive electrode. Thus, there are two terminals, and an electric current will flow if they are connected. The chemical reactions in this voltaic cell are as follows: Zinc: Zn → Zn2+ + 2e− Sulphuric acid: 2H+ + 2e− → H2 Copper metal does not react, but rather it functions as a catalyst for the hydrogen-gas formation and an electrode for the electric current. The sulphate anion


id: john-wilkinson-chemist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wilkinson_(chemist)-0.md
category: reference
title: John Wilkinson (chemist)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wilkinson_(chemist)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:26.142636+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: john-wilkinson-chemist-20260505-0
summary:
John Wilkinson (born 1961) is an English independent scientist specialising primarily in organic chemistry, phytochemistry, pharmacognosy, and synergism in botanical medicines, botanical foods and ecological biochemistry, and who led the first European degree course (Bachelor of Science with Honours) for herbal medicine, at Middlesex University in the United Kingdom in 1994. == Biography == === Early life === Wilkinson was born in Croydon, Surrey, UK, in 1961, from a working-class background. By the time he was 12 years old he had his own private laboratory and still does to this day. He was inspired and encouraged by Dr Phillips, a gifted science teacher at Stanley Technical High School, to pursue his dream of becoming a chemist when he demonstrated that he knew the answers to "A level" chemistry exams and above despite being only 14 years of age. He was also inspired by a chemistry teacher, Mr Neil Miller at Croydon College, and then went on to study Chemistry – by – thesis at Sussex University where he undertook a three-year research programme, remarkably as an undergraduate, on the chemistry of bioluminescence under the supervision of Professor Frank McCapra. From 1985 to 1987, Wilkinson worked for Wellcome Research Laboratories and


id: stephen-wolfram-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Wolfram-0.md
category: reference
title: Stephen Wolfram
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Wolfram
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:27.374894+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stephen-wolfram-20260505-0
summary:
Stephen Wolfram ( WUUL-frəm; born 29 August 1959) is a British-American computer scientist, physicist, and businessman. He is known for his work in computer algebra and theoretical physics. In 2012, he was named a fellow of the American Mathematical Society. As a businessman, Wolfram is the founder and CEO of the software company Wolfram Research, where he works as chief designer of Mathematica and the Wolfram Alpha answer engine. == Early life == === Family === Stephen Wolfram was born in London in 1959 to Hugo and Sybil Wolfram, both German Jewish refugees to the United Kingdom. His maternal grandmother was British psychoanalyst Kate Friedlander. Wolfram's father, Hugo Wolfram, was a textile manufacturer and served as managing director of the Lurex Company—makers of the fabric Lurex. Wolfram's mother, Sybil Wolfram, was a Fellow and Tutor in Philosophy at Lady Margaret Hall at University of Oxford from 1964 to 1993. Wolfram is married to a mathematician. They have four children together. === Education === Wolfram was educated at Eton College, but left prematurely in 1976. As a young child, Wolfram had difficulties learning arithmetic. He entered St. John's College, Oxford, at age 17 and left in 1978 without graduating to attend


id: stephen-wolfram-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Wolfram-1.md
category: reference
title: Stephen Wolfram
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Wolfram
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:27.374894+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stephen-wolfram-20260505-0
summary:
In March 2014, at the annual South by Southwest (SXSW) event, Wolfram officially announced the Wolfram Language as a new general multi-paradigm programming language, though it was previously available through Mathematica and not an entirely new programming language. The documentation for the language was pre-released in October 2013 to coincide with the bundling of Mathematica and the Wolfram Language on every Raspberry Pi computer with some controversy because of the proprietary nature of the Wolfram Language. While the Wolfram Language has existed for over 30 years as the primary programming language used in Mathematica, it was not officially named until 2014, and is not widely used. === Wolfram Physics Project === In April 2020, Wolfram announced the "Wolfram Physics Project" as an effort to reduce and explain all the laws of physics within a paradigm of a hypergraph that is transformed by minimal rewriting rules that obey the Church–Rosser property. The effort is a continuation of the ideas he originally described in A New Kind of Science. Wolfram claims that "From an extremely simple model, we're able to reproduce special relativity, general relativity and the core results of quantum mechanics." Physicists are generally unimpressed with Wolfram's claim, and say his


id: thomas-young-scientist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Young_(scientist)-0.md
category: reference
title: Thomas Young (scientist)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Young_(scientist)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:28.656184+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: thomas-young-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
Thomas Young (13 June 1773 – 10 May 1829) was a British polymath who made notable contributions to the fields of vision, light, solid mechanics, energy, physiology, language, musical harmony, and Egyptology. He was instrumental in the decipherment of Egyptian hieroglyphs, specifically the Rosetta Stone. Young's work influenced that of William Herschel, Hermann von Helmholtz, James Clerk Maxwell, and Albert Einstein. Young is credited with establishing Christiaan Huygens' wave theory of light, in contrast to the corpuscular theory of Isaac Newton. Young's work was subsequently supported by the work of Augustin-Jean Fresnel. == Personal life == Young belonged to a Quaker family of Milverton, Somerset, where he was born in 1773, the eldest of ten children. By the age of 14, Young had learned Greek, Latin, French, Italian, Syriac, Samaritan Hebrew, Arabic, Biblical Aramaic, Persian, Turkish, and Ge'ez. Young began to study medicine in London at St Bartholomew's Hospital in 1792, moved to the University of Edinburgh Medical School in 1794, and a year later went to Göttingen, Lower Saxony, Germany, where he obtained the degree of doctor of medicine in 1796 from the University of Göttingen. In 1797 he entered Emmanuel College, Cambridge. In the same year, he inherited


id: thomas-young-scientist-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Young_(scientist)-1.md
category: reference
title: Thomas Young (scientist)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Young_(scientist)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:28.656184+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: thomas-young-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
"After some information concerning his affairs, and some instructions concerning the hierographical papers in his hands, he said that, perfectly aware of his situation, he had taken the sacraments of the church on the day preceding. His religious sentiments were by himself stated to be liberal, though orthodox. He had extensively studied the Scriptures, of which the precepts were deeply impressed upon his mind from his earliest years; and he evidenced the faith which he professed; in an unbending course of usefulness and rectitude." == Research == === Wave theory of light === In Young's own judgment, of his many achievements the most important was to establish the wave theory of light set out by Christiaan Huygens in his Treatise on Light (1690). To do so, he had to overcome the century-old view, expressed in the venerable Newton's Opticks, that light is a particle. In the early 19th century, Young put forth a number of theoretical reasons supporting the wave theory of light, and he developed two enduring demonstrations to support this viewpoint. With the ripple tank, he demonstrated the idea of interference in the context of water waves. With additional experiments, including the predecessor of the double-slit experiment, he


id: thomas-young-scientist-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Young_(scientist)-2.md
category: reference
title: Thomas Young (scientist)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Young_(scientist)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:28.656184+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: thomas-young-scientist-20260505-0
summary:
=== Young–Laplace equation === In 1804, Young developed the theory of capillary phenomena on the principle of surface tension. He also observed the constancy of the angle of contact of a liquid surface with a solid, and showed how to deduce from these two principles the phenomena of capillary action. In 1805, Pierre-Simon Laplace, the French philosopher, discovered the significance of meniscus radii with respect to capillary action. In 1830, Carl Friedrich Gauss, the German mathematician, unified the work of these two scientists to derive the Young–Laplace equation, the formula that describes the capillary pressure difference sustained across the interface between two static fluids. Young was the first to define the term "energy" in the modern sense. He also did work on the theory of tides, paralleling that of Laplace and anticipating more well-known work by Airy. === Young's equation and Young–Dupré equation === Young's equation describes the contact angle of a liquid drop on a plane solid surface as a function of the surface free energy, the interfacial free energy, and the surface tension of the liquid. Young's equation was developed further, some 60 years later, by Dupré to account for thermodynamic effects, and this is known as the


id: 10-23-campaign-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10:23_Campaign-0.md
category: reference
title: 10:23 Campaign
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10:23_Campaign
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:32.242299+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: 10-23-campaign-20260505-0
summary:
The 10:23 Campaign (stylized as 1023) is an awareness and protest campaign against homoeopathy organised by the Merseyside Skeptics Society, a non-profit organisation, to oppose the sale of homoeopathic products in the United Kingdom. The campaign has staged public "overdoses" of homoeopathic preparations. == Origin and name == In 2004, the Belgian skeptical organisation SKEPP made headlines when thirty skeptics at Ghent University performed a "mass suicide stunt" with an overdose of homeopathically diluted snake poison, belladonna and arsenic, in an attempt to publicly show that homeopathy does not work. When Belgian skeptics met with Merseyside Skeptics during a Skeptics in the Pub in 2010, the idea was adopted to hold an international event. The campaign's name, 10:23, comes from the Avogadro number, which is approximately 6.022 × 1023. == Aims == The campaign aims to raise awareness of implausible and unsubstantiated claims made by homoeopaths. It opposes high street retailers, such as Boots UK, stocking homoeopathic remedies alongside medicine, saying that "the support lent by Boots to this quack therapy contributes directly to its acceptance as a valid medical treatment by the British public, acceptance it does not warrant and support it does not deserve." The organisers state that


id: alltrials-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AllTrials-0.md
category: reference
title: AllTrials
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AllTrials
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:33.346861+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alltrials-20260505-0
summary:
AllTrials (sometimes called All Trials or AllTrials.net) is a project advocating that clinical research adopt the principles of open research. The project summarizes itself as "All trials registered, all results reported": that is, all clinical trials should be listed in a clinical trials registry, and their results should always be shared as open data. At the center of the organisation is a petition signed by over 85,000 individuals and 599 organisations (as of August 2015): Thousands of clinical trials have not reported their results; some have not even been registered. Information on what was done and what was found in these trials could be lost forever to doctors and researchers, leading to bad treatment decisions, missed opportunities for good medicine, and trials being repeated. All trials past and present should be registered, and the full methods and the results reported. We call on governments, regulators and research bodies to implement measures to achieve this. Ben Goldacre, author of Bad Science and Bad Pharma, is a founder of the campaign and its most public spokesperson. In 2016, he participated in the launch of the OpenTrials database. AllTrials is an international initiative of Bad Science, BMJ, Centre for Evidence-based Medicine, Cochrane Collaboration,


id: alltrials-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AllTrials-1.md
category: reference
title: AllTrials
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AllTrials
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:33.346861+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: alltrials-20260505-0
summary:
== Supporters == The campaign is an initiative of Sense about Science, Centre for Evidence Based Medicine, The Dartmouth Institute for Health Policy and Clinical Practice, James Lind Alliance, Cochrane Collaboration, BMJ Group, PLOS, and Bad Science. The petition statement of AllTrials has been signed by organizations including Wellcome Trust, British Library, Medical Research Council (UK), British Heart Foundation, Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care, National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, BioMed Central, National Physicians Alliance, Royal Society of Medicine, Health Research Authority, American Medical Student Association, GlaxoSmithKline, and others. As of May 2017, The AllTrials petition has been signed by 90,282 people and 721 organisations. In October 2016, AllTrials published a road map detailing steps that various types of organisations can take to get more trials registered and more results reported. 85 investors with >€3.5 trillion (£2.45trn; $3.83trn) of investments have supported AllTrials (as of July 2015), with Peter van der Werf of RobecoSAM saying: "We deem this to be a financially material factor and encourage all companies to gain credibility regarding their approach to clinical trial transparency by signing up to the AllTrials principles.". The Laura and John Arnold Foundation provided early and ongoing financial


id: march-for-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_for_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: March for Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_for_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:39.939284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: march-for-science-20260505-0
summary:
The March for Science (formerly known as the Scientists' March on Washington) was an international series of rallies and marches held on Earth Day. The inaugural march was held on April 22, 2017, in Washington, D.C., and more than 600 other cities across the world. According to organizers, the march was a non-partisan movement to celebrate science and the role it plays in everyday lives. The goals of the marches and rallies were to emphasize that science upholds the common good and to call for evidence-based policy in the public's best interest. The March for Science organizers, estimated global attendance at 1.07 million, with 100,000 participants estimated for the main March in Washington, D.C., 70,000 in Boston, 60,000 in Chicago, 50,000 in Los Angeles, 50,000 in San Francisco, 20,000 in Seattle, 14,000 in Phoenix, and 11,000 in Berlin. A second March for Science was held April 14, 2018. 230 satellite events around the world participated in the 2nd annual event, including New York City, Abuja, Nigeria, and Baraut, India. A third March for Science took place on May 22, 2019, this time with 150 locations around the world participating. The March for Science organizers and supporters said that support for


id: march-for-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_for_Science-1.md
category: reference
title: March for Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_for_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:39.939284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: march-for-science-20260505-0
summary:
During the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), the largest scientific organization in the US, scientists held the "Rally to Stand Up for Science" at Copley Square, Boston, on February 19. The same month, the AAAS announced its support for the march. By mid-March, some 100 science organizations endorsed the March for Science, including many scientific societies. Endorsers of the march included the American Geophysical Union, American Association of Geographers, American Association of Physical Anthropologists, Society for Neuroscience, Society for Freshwater Science, American Statistical Association, Association for Psychological Science, American Sociological Association, Electrochemical Society, Entomological Society of America, California Academy of Sciences, and the Monterey Bay Aquarium. The University of Delaware Center for Political Communication conducted a survey of 1,040 members of March for Science Facebook groups or pages from March 31 to April 18 to study their motivations for joining the march. Respondents cited the following as reasons for marching: Before April, enthusiasts found existing knitting patterns for a hat shaped like a brain and proposed it as a symbol of solidarity for the march in analogy with the pussyhat project. == Participation == The primary march, organized by Earth Day Network and


id: march-for-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_for_Science-2.md
category: reference
title: March for Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_for_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:39.939284+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: march-for-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Criticism === The march received a torrent of criticism from conservative publications for the perceived left-wing bias and orientation of the event. Donald Trump's science adviser, climate change denier William Happer stated that "there's no reason to assume the president is against science" and dismissed the march as a cult. A number of scientists voiced concerns over the march. Theoretical physicist Sylvester James Gates warned that "such a politically charged event might send a message to the public that scientists are driven by ideology more than by evidence". Writing in The New York Times, Robert S. Young argued that the march will "reinforce the narrative from skeptical conservatives that scientists are an interest group and politicize their data, research and findings for their own ends" and that it would be better for scientists to "march into local civic groups, churches, county fairs and, privately, into the offices of elected officials." Matthew Nisbet, writing for Skeptical Inquirer magazine right after the first march in 2017, states that it is not the least educated but the "best educated and most scientifically literate who are prone to biased reasoning and false beliefs about contentious science issues". In his opinion this will mean


id: project-steve-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Steve-0.md
category: reference
title: Project Steve
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Steve
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:41.273242+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: project-steve-20260505-0
summary:
Project Steve is a list of scientists with the given name Stephen or Steven or a variation thereof (e.g., Stephanie, Stefan, Esteban, etc.) who "support evolution". It was originally created by the National Center for Science Education as a "tongue-in-cheek parody" of creationist attempts to collect a list of scientists who "doubt evolution", such as the Answers in Genesis's list of scientists who accept the biblical account of the Genesis creation narrative or the Discovery Institute's A Scientific Dissent From Darwinism. The list pokes fun at such endeavors while making it clear that, "We did not wish to mislead the public into thinking that scientific issues are decided by who has the longer list of scientists!" It also honors Stephen Jay Gould. The level of support for evolution among scientists is very high. A 2009 poll by Pew Research Center found that "[n]early all scientists (97%) say humans and other living things have evolved over time." However, at the same time the project is a genuine collection of scientists. Despite the list's restriction to only scientists with names like "Steve", which it turns out is roughly 1 percent of scientists, Project Steve is longer and contains many more eminent scientists


id: project-steve-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Steve-1.md
category: reference
title: Project Steve
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Steve
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:41.273242+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: project-steve-20260505-0
summary:
The original goal was to collect the signatures of 100 Steves, but this goal was reached in about 10 days. Both Nobel Prize-winning Steves in science — Steven Weinberg and Steven Chu (who has since served as Secretary of Energy in Barack Obama's Cabinet) — were among the first 100 Steves. Over 200 Steves responded in the first month. As the news of Project Steve spread by word of mouth, ever-increasing numbers of Steves contacted the NCSE, and the list continued to grow. Project Steve captured the attention of the media. The first media coverage included articles in the Washington Times, Science, the Oakland Tribune and an interview of NCSE director Eugenie Scott by Australian science journalist and radio broadcaster Robyn Williams for the Australian Broadcasting Corporation’s radio show, The Science Show. The Science Show arranged for Geoff Sirmai and David Fisher of the Australian musical comedy team "Comic Roasts" to write the "Steve Song", a parody of the Monty Python song about Spam, for Project Steve. The song had its debut on The Science Show episode featuring the interview of Scott which aired on Australian Broadcasting Corporation Radio National on March 8, 2003. Cambridge University Lucasian Professor of Mathematics


id: science-online-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Online-0.md
category: reference
title: Science Online
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Online
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:42.353184+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: science-online-20260505-0
summary:
Science Online was an annual conference held in Durham, North Carolina, Raleigh, North Carolina and Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, that focused on the role of the internet in science and science communication. It was attended primarily by bloggers and science journalists from North America. The conference was held annually, beginning in 2007. Notable attendees included PZ Myers, Jennifer Ouellette, Rebecca Skloot, Carl Zimmer and others. The conferences were covered as local news by publications such as The Charlotte Observer, as well as "new media" like Boing Boing, professional journalist organizations like the Columbia Journalism Review and science-oriented publications like Scientific American. In October 2014, the ScienceOnline foundation, which organized the conferences, announced that it had become insolvent and consequently was shutting down. == References ==


id: the-scientific-activist-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Scientific_Activist-0.md
category: reference
title: The Scientific Activist
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Scientific_Activist
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:43.543283+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: the-scientific-activist-20260505-0
summary:
The Scientific Activist was a blog that covered science, politics, and science policy. The Scientific Activist gained international recognition in February 2006 when it published information that led to the immediate resignation of Bush administration NASA appointee George Deutsch. Deutsch — who had been accused of censoring scientific information at NASA — claimed to have graduated from Texas A&M University on his résumé, but the blog discovered that Deutsch had not, in fact, completed his degree there. In July 2006, The Scientific Activist was named one of Nature's "Top five science blogs." == Notes and sources == == External links == The Scientific Activist, current site The Scientific Activist, original site (archives January 11—June 21, 2006)


id: skeptics-in-the-pub-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeptics_in_the_Pub-0.md
category: reference
title: Skeptics in the Pub
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeptics_in_the_Pub
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:46.084198+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: skeptics-in-the-pub-20260505-0
summary:
Skeptics in the Pub (abbreviated SITP) is an informal social event designed to promote fellowship and social networking among skeptics, critical thinkers, freethinkers, rationalists and other like-minded individuals. It provides an opportunity for skeptics to talk, share ideas and have fun in a casual atmosphere, and discuss whatever topical issues come to mind, while promoting skepticism, science, and rationality. == Format == "Skeptics in the Pub" is not a protected term, anyone can set one up. There also is no formal procedure to organising an event; organisers can fill in activities as they see fit. There are, however, some common approaches across the world in hosting such events that make them more successful. The usual format of meetings includes an invited speaker who gives a talk on a specific topic, followed by a question-and-answer session. Other meet-ups are informal socials, with no fixed agenda. The groups usually meet once a month at a public venue, most often a local pub. By 2012 there were more than 100 different "SitP" groups running around the world. == History == === London === The earliest and longest-running event is the award-winning London meeting, established by Australian philosophy professor Scott Campbell in 1999. Campbell


id: stand-up-for-science-2025-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stand_Up_for_Science_2025-0.md
category: reference
title: Stand Up for Science 2025
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stand_Up_for_Science_2025
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:47.411205+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stand-up-for-science-2025-20260505-0
summary:
Stand Up for Science are a series of protests that first occurred on March 7, 2025, and then again March 7, 2026. It is now also a 501(c)(4) non-profit organization formed in February 2025 as an endeavor to combat policy changes administered in Donald Trump's second term as president. The Stand Up for Science non-profit organized the Bethesda Declaration, the EPA Letter of Dissent and the NASA Voyager Declaration. == Background == Stand Up for Science was founded by JP Flores, Emma Courtney, Sam Goldstein, Leslie Bernsten, and Colette Delawalla in February 2025. Amid the first 47 days of Donald Trump's second term, concerns emerged within scientific and medical communities regarding certain policy changes. The policy changes of concern included: the termination of grants related to transgender research and diversity initiatives at the National Institutes of Health, the review of thousands of National Science Foundation grants containing keywords such as "women" and "diversity", the dismissal of hundreds of probationary employees at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and the National Weather Service, a proposed indirect cost cap at the National Institute of Health, attempted closure of facilities housing the Alaska and Hawaii Volcano Observatories, as well as concerns about the


id: world-scientists-warning-to-humanity-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Scientists'_Warning_to_Humanity-0.md
category: reference
title: World Scientists' Warning to Humanity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Scientists'_Warning_to_Humanity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:48.834304+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-scientists-warning-to-humanity-20260505-0
summary:
The "World Scientists' Warning to Humanity" was a document written in 1992 by Henry W. Kendall and signed by about 1,700 leading scientists. Twenty-five years later, in November 2017, 15,364 scientists signed "World Scientists' Warning to Humanity: A Second Notice" written by William J. Ripple and seven co-authors calling for, among other things, human population planning, and drastically diminishing per capita consumption of fossil fuels, meat, and other resources. The second notice has more scientist cosigners and formal supporters than any other journal article ever published. == First publication == In late 1992, the late Henry W. Kendall, a former chair of the board of directors of the Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS), wrote the first warning, "World Scientists' Warning to Humanity", which begins: "Human beings and the natural world are on a collision course." A majority of the Nobel Prize laureates in the sciences signed the document; about 1,700 of the world's leading scientists appended their signature. It was sometimes offered in opposition to the Heidelberg Appeal—also signed by numerous scientists and Nobel laureates earlier in 1992—which begins by criticizing "an irrational ideology which is opposed to scientific and industrial progress, and impedes economic and social development." This document


id: world-scientists-warning-to-humanity-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Scientists'_Warning_to_Humanity-1.md
category: reference
title: World Scientists' Warning to Humanity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Scientists'_Warning_to_Humanity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:48.834304+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-scientists-warning-to-humanity-20260505-0
summary:
== 2022 warning on population == In October 2022, Eileen Crist, William J. Ripple, Paul R. Ehrlich, William E. Rees, and Christopher Wolf all contributed to the Scientists' warning on population, published by Science of the Total Environment as "part of the ongoing series of scientists' warning publications," to address the negative impacts of population size and growth on the climate and biodiversity, which they posit "continues to be ignored, sidestepped, or denied." It calls for two actions that, if heeded, will stop population growth before the end of this century. Firstly, the authors issue a global appeal to all adults to have no more than one child as part of the transformative changes needed to mitigate both climate change and biodiversity loss. Secondly, the warning urges policy-makers to "implement population policies with two key female empowerment components," primarily improving education for young women and girls and providing high-quality family-planning services to all. It emphasizes that "the combination of institutional support to plan one's child-bearing choices and educational attainment, including enhanced opportunity for higher education for women, yields immediate fertility declines." It also posits that a sustainable human population, which according to environmental analysts is "one enjoying a modest, equitable


id: world-scientists-warning-to-humanity-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Scientists'_Warning_to_Humanity-2.md
category: reference
title: World Scientists' Warning to Humanity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Scientists'_Warning_to_Humanity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:48.834304+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-scientists-warning-to-humanity-20260505-0
summary:
Foth, Marcus (2025). "A Scientist's Warning on Smart Cities: Rethinking Urban Sustainability for More-than-Human Futures". Journal of Urban Technology. doi:10.1080/10630732.2025.2575522. ISSN 1063-0732. Montefalcone, M.; Morri, C.; Bianchi, C.N. (2025). "Scientists' warning on sustainability: the ecologist point of view, with examples from marine ecosystems". Discover Sustainability. 6: 279. doi:10.1007/s43621-025-01038-7. Samways, M.J.; Córdoba-Aguilar, A.; Deacon, C.; Alves-Martins, F.; Baird, I.R.C.; Barmentlo, S.H. (2025). "Scientists' warning on the need for greater inclusion of dragonflies in global conservation". Insect Conservation and Diversity. 18 (4): 465–484. doi:10.1111/icad.12819. Seralini, G.E.; Jungers, G.; Andersen, A.; Antoniou, M.; Aschner, M.; Bacon, M.H.; Bertrand, M.; Bohn, T.; Bonfleur, M.L.; Bücking, E.; Defarge, N. (2025). "Scientists' warning: we must change paradigm for a revolution in toxicology and world food supply". Environmental Sciences Europe. 37 (1): 182. doi:10.1186/s12302-025-01217-3. Theodoropoulos, A.; Stewart, K.A.; Wielstra, B. (2025). "Scientists' warning on genetic pollution". Discover Conservation. 2 (1). doi:10.1007/s44353-025-00041-3. Vaccaro, C.A.; Courville, K. (2025). "El impacto al medio ambiente de los aparatos electrónicos: La advertencia de los científicos sobre los residuos electrónicos". REA: Revista Científica Especializada en Educación y Ambiente (in Spanish). 4 (1): 137–146. doi:10.48204/rea.v4n1.7301. Wolf, Stacy; Bullard, Robert; Buonocore, Jonathan J.; Donley, Nisha; Farrelly, Travis; Fleming, Jackson; González, Daniel J.; Oreskes, Naomi; Ripple,


id: world-scientists-warning-to-humanity-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Scientists'_Warning_to_Humanity-3.md
category: reference
title: World Scientists' Warning to Humanity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Scientists'_Warning_to_Humanity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:48.834304+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-scientists-warning-to-humanity-20260505-0
summary:
Ripple, William J.; Wolf, Christopher; Newsome, Thomas M.; Gregg, Jillian W.; Lenton, Timothy M.; Palomo, Ignacio; Eikelboom, Jasper A. J.; Law, Beverly E.; Huq, Saleemul; Duffy, Philip B.; Rockström, Johan (2021). "World scientists' warning of a climate emergency 2021". BioScience. 71 (9): 894–898. doi:10.1093/biosci/biab079. ISSN 0006-3568. Robinne, François-Nicolas; Hallema, Dennis W.; Bladon, Kevin D.; Flannigan, Michael D.; Boisramé, Gabrielle; Bréthaut, Christophe M.; Doerr, Stefan H.; Di Baldassarre, Giuliano; Gallagher, Lauren A.; Hohner, Alexander K.; Khan, Saeed J. (2021). "Scientists' warning on extreme wildfire risks to water supply". Hydrological Processes. 35 (5) e14086. doi:10.1002/hyp.14086. ISSN 0885-6087. Applequist, Wendy L.; Brinckmann, Josef A.; Cunningham, Anthony B.; Hart, Robbie E.; Heinrich, Michael; Katerere, David R.; van Andel, Tinde (2020). "Scientists' Warning on Climate Change and Medicinal Plants". Planta Medica. 86 (1): 10–18. doi:10.1055/a-1041-3406. ISSN 0032-0943. Cardoso, Pedro; Barton, Philip S.; Birkhofer, Klaus; Chichorro, Filipe; Deacon, Charl; Fartmann, Thomas; Fukushima, Caroline S.; Gaigher, René; Habel, Jan C.; Hallmann, Caspar A.; Hill, Matthew J.; Hochkirch, Axel; Kwak, Mackenzie L.; Mammola, Stefano; Noriega, Jorge A.; Orfinger, Alexander B.; Pedraza, Fernando; Pryke, James S.; Roque, Fabio O.; Settele, Josef; Simaika, John P.; Stork, Nigel E.; Suhling, Frank; Vorster, Carlien; Samways, Michael J. (2020). "Scientists' warning to humanity


id: world-scientists-warning-to-humanity-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Scientists'_Warning_to_Humanity-4.md
category: reference
title: World Scientists' Warning to Humanity
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Scientists'_Warning_to_Humanity
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:48.834304+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-scientists-warning-to-humanity-20260505-0
summary:
== See also == == References == === Excerpts and notes === === Citations === === Bibliography === Bose, Priyom (July 7, 2022), "Scientists appeal for global population control", News Medical, retrieved November 4, 2022 Carrington, Damian (November 5, 2019), "Climate crisis: 11,000 scientists warn of 'untold suffering'", The Guardian, retrieved November 8, 2019 Crist, Eileen; Ripple, William J.; Ehrlich, Paul R.; Rees, William E.; Wolf, Christopher (2022), "Scientists' warning on population" (PDF), Science of the Total Environment, 845 157166, Bibcode:2022ScTEn.84557166C, doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157166, PMID 35803428, S2CID 250387801 Kendall, Henry W. (18 November 1992), World Scientists Warning To Humanity (PDF), ucsusa.org, retrieved 2011-08-26 Ripple, William J.; et al. (13 November 2017), "World Scientists' Warning to Humanity: A Second Notice" (PDF), BioScience, 67 (12): 1026–1028, doi:10.1093/biosci/bix125, archived from the original (PDF) on 15 December 2019, retrieved 12 July 2018 Ripple, William J.; et al. (November 5, 2019), "World Scientists' Warning of a Climate Emergency", BioScience, doi:10.1093/biosci/biz088, hdl:1808/30278, retrieved November 8, 2019 Ripple, William J.; et al. (July 28, 2021), "World Scientists' Warning of a Climate Emergency 2021", BioScience, 71 (9): 894–898, doi:10.1093/biosci/biab079, hdl:1808/30278, retrieved July 29, 2021 Ripple, William J; et al. (26 October 2022), "World Scientists' Warning of a Climate Emergency 2022",


id: lists-of-science-and-technology-awards-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_science_and_technology_awards-0.md
category: reference
title: Lists of science and technology awards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_science_and_technology_awards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:50.538078+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lists-of-science-and-technology-awards-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of notable awards for specific areas of science and technology. Typically these lists give the country of the sponsoring organization, the award name, sponsor name and a description of the award criteria. Some of the awards have broad scope, or cover the intersection of different disciplines, so an award may appear in more than one list. A list of general awards for science and technology is followed by the lists of more specific awards. == General list == List of general science and technology awards == Specific lists == == Research == In July 2020, scientists reported that work honored by Nobel Prizes clusters in only a few scientific fields, with only 36/71 having received at least one Nobel Prize of the 114/849 domains that science could be divided into, according to their DC2 and DC3 classification systems. Five of the 114 domains were shown to make up over half of the Nobel Prizes awarded from 1995 to 2017 (particle physics [14%], cell biology [12.1%], atomic physics [10.9%], neuroscience [10.1%], molecular chemistry [5.3%]). This concentration of awards may be partially due to the fact that major scientific prizes, such as the Nobel Prize, are often awarded


id: list-of-general-science-and-technology-awards-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_general_science_and_technology_awards-0.md
category: reference
title: List of general science and technology awards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_general_science_and_technology_awards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:53.617130+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-general-science-and-technology-awards-20260505-0
summary:
This list of general science and technology awards is an index to articles about notable awards for general contributions to science and technology. These awards typically have broad scope, and may apply to many or all areas of science and/or technology. The list is organized by region and country of the sponsoring organization, but awards are not necessarily limited to people from that country. == International == == Africa == == Americas == == Asia == == Europe == == Oceania == == See also == Lists of awards Lists of science and technology awards List of years in science == References ==


id: a-c-redfield-lifetime-achievement-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A.C._Redfield_Lifetime_Achievement_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: A.C. Redfield Lifetime Achievement Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A.C._Redfield_Lifetime_Achievement_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:58.816898+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: a-c-redfield-lifetime-achievement-award-20260505-0
summary:
The Lifetime Achievement Award was first presented in 1994 to honor major long-term achievements in the fields of limnology and oceanography, including research, education and service to the community and society. In 2004, the Association for the Sciences of Limnology and Oceanography board renamed the award in honor of Alfred C. Redfield. == Recipients == Notes The information in the table is according to the "A.C. Redfield Lifetime Achievement Award" webpage of the Association for the Sciences of Limnology and Oceanography unless otherwise specified by additional citations. == References == == External links == ASLO Awards and Nominations


id: a-g-huntsman-award-for-excellence-in-the-marine-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A.G._Huntsman_Award_for_Excellence_in_the_Marine_Sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: A.G. Huntsman Award for Excellence in the Marine Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A.G._Huntsman_Award_for_Excellence_in_the_Marine_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:07:59.939160+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: a-g-huntsman-award-for-excellence-in-the-marine-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
The A.G. Huntsman Award for Excellence in the Marine Sciences was established in 1980 by the Canadian marine science community to recognize excellence of research and outstanding contributions to marine sciences. It is presented by the Royal Society of Canada. The award honours marine scientists of any nationality who have had and continue to have a significant influence on the course of marine scientific thought. It is named in honour of Archibald Gowanlock Huntsman (1883–1973), a pioneer Canadian oceanographer and fishery biologist. == A.G. Huntsman Medal == The award consists of a specially designed fine silver medal showing the CSS Hudson. == A.G. Huntsman Foundation == The A.G. Huntsman Award is administered by the A.G. Huntsman Foundation, based at the Bedford Institute of Oceanography, Nova Scotia. The foundation is organized as an independent, charitable, tax-free foundation. Business of the foundation is conducted by a board of directors and executive officers. The Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia serves as Honorary Patron of the Huntsman Foundation. The award is presented annually by the Royal Society of Canada. The annual process of selection is conducted by a separate selection committee of Canadian marine scientists. The award ceremony takes place in the late fall


id: aaas-award-for-scientific-freedom-and-responsibility-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AAAS_Award_for_Scientific_Freedom_and_Responsibility-0.md
category: reference
title: AAAS Award for Scientific Freedom and Responsibility
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AAAS_Award_for_Scientific_Freedom_and_Responsibility
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:01.121152+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aaas-award-for-scientific-freedom-and-responsibility-20260505-0
summary:
The AAAS Award for Scientific Freedom and Responsibility is given by the American Association for the Advancement of Science and honours scientists and engineers whose exemplary actions, often taken at significant personal cost, have served to foster scientific freedom and responsibility and increased scientific awareness throughout the world. According to the AAAS, exemplary actions include "acting to protect the public's health, safety or welfare; focusing public attention on important potential impacts of science and technology on society by their responsible participation in public policy debates." == History == The establishment of this new Award for Scientific Freedom and Responsibility was announced by AAAS executive officer William D. Carey on 23 October 1980. The award, presented for the first time at the 1982 AAAS Annual Meeting in Washington, DC, consisted of a plaque and a cash prize of $1,000. == Recipients == 1982 - Paul Berg, Maxine Singer, Norton Zinder, Morris H. Baslow 1983 - Anatoly Koryagin, Jose Westerkamp 1985 - Werner A. Baum 1986 - Colegio Medico de Chile, Victor Paschkis 1987 - Stanley L. Weinberg, Norman D. Newell, Francisco J. Ayala 1988 - Richard L. Garwin, Roger M. Boisjoly 1989 - Robert L. Sprague, Natural Resources Defense Council 1990


id: aaas-philip-hauge-abelson-prize-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AAAS_Philip_Hauge_Abelson_Prize-0.md
category: reference
title: AAAS Philip Hauge Abelson Prize
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AAAS_Philip_Hauge_Abelson_Prize
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:02.424569+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aaas-philip-hauge-abelson-prize-20260505-0
summary:
The AAAS Philip Hauge Abelson Prize is awarded by The American Association for the Advancement of Science for public servants, recognized for sustained exceptional contributions to advancing science or scientists, whose career has been distinguished both for scientific achievement and for other notable services to the scientific community. The prize is named after nuclear physicist Philip Abelson.The award consists of an engraved medallion and an honorarium of $5,000. == See also == AAAS Award for Science Diplomacy AAAS Award for Scientific Freedom and Responsibility AAAS Prize for Behavioral Science Research Newcomb Cleveland Prize == References ==


id: abarca-prize-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abarca_Prize-0.md
category: reference
title: Abarca Prize
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abarca_Prize
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:03.669172+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: abarca-prize-20260505-0
summary:
The Doctor Juan Abarca International Award in Medical Sciences, known as the Abarca Prize, is an award that recognises research and innovation through a biomedical finding of global significance. == Background == Created in 2020 by the Fundación de Investigación HM Hospitales, it is awarded to the scientific or medical career of a person who has made a significant contribution to the protection, improvement or rehabilitation of people's health. The award, endowed with 100,000 euros, is inspired by the Spanish surgeon Juan Abarca Campal, founder of HM Hospitales. The jury, appointed by the Fundación de Investigación HM Hospitales, is made up of members of the scientific community. == Abarca Prize == === 2021 === The first edition of the award was held in October 2021. The award ceremony was chaired by King Felipe VI. The jury was headed by Alberto Muñoz, professor at the Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas de Madrid (IIBM) and included Richard Horton, editor of The Lancet, Silvia G. Priori, scientific director of the ICS Maugeri Hospital, palaeoanthropologist Juan Luis Arsuaga, and Federico de Montalvo, former president of the Spanish Bioethics Committee. The Abarca Prize was awarded to Professor Jean-Laurent Casanova for his findings in the field of


id: abb-research-award-in-honor-of-hubertus-von-gruenberg-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABB_Research_Award_in_honor_of_Hubertus_von_Gruenberg-0.md
category: reference
title: ABB Research Award in honor of Hubertus von Gruenberg
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABB_Research_Award_in_honor_of_Hubertus_von_Gruenberg
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:04.791799+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: abb-research-award-in-honor-of-hubertus-von-gruenberg-20260505-0
summary:
The ABB Research Award in Honor of Hubertus von Gruenberg is named after Dr. Hubertus von Gruenberg, who was the Chairman of the Board of Directors of the technology company ABB from 2007 to 2015. == Endowment and format == Awarded every three years, the prize is endowed with a research grant of US$300,000. The prize is awarded to a postdoctoral researcher working in the fields of energy, manufacturing, transport, infrastructure, digitalization, or related fields. The grant enables the awardee to continue research on his or her topic for three years. == Purpose == The award was created to sustain high levels of research and encourage the development of future technologies and applications. == Awardees == === 2016 === Dr. Jef Beerten from KU Leuven for his PhD thesis on "Modeling and Control of DC Power Systems" === 2019 === Dr. Ambuj Varshney from Uppsala University/University of California, Berkeley for his PhD thesis on "Enabling Sustainable Networked Embedded Systems" == Jury == === 2016 === The 2016 jury consisted of Prof. Robert Armstrong, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Prof. Ulrike Grossner, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich (ETH Zurich) Prof. Nina Thornhill, Imperial College London Prof. Zheyao Wang, Tsinghua University,


id: albert-einstein-world-award-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein_World_Award_of_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Albert Einstein World Award of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein_World_Award_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:05.968225+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: albert-einstein-world-award-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The Albert Einstein World Award for Science is an annual award given by the World Cultural Council "as a means of recognition and encouragement for scientific and technological research and development", with special consideration for researches which "have brought true benefit and wellbeing to mankind". Named for physicist and theoretician Albert Einstein, the award includes a diploma, a commemorative medal, and US$10,000. The recipient of the award is evaluated and elected by an Interdisciplinary Committee, which is composed of world-renowned scientists, among them 25 Nobel laureates. == Award recipients == == See also == Leonardo da Vinci World Award of Arts José Vasconcelos World Award of Education Albert Einstein Medal Albert Einstein Award Prizes named after people List of things named after Albert Einstein List of physics awards List of general science and technology awards == References == == External links == Official website


id: annual-bci-research-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annual_BCI_Research_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: Annual BCI Research Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annual_BCI_Research_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:07.218798+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: annual-bci-research-award-20260505-0
summary:
The BCI Research Award is an annual award for innovative research in the field of brain-computer interfaces. It is organized by the BCI Award Foundation. The prize is $3000 for first, $2000 for second, and $1000 for third place. The prizes are provided by g.tec medical engineering, an Austrian company that develops brain-computer interface, neurotechnology and EEG systems used worldwide in neuroscience, clinical applications, and Neuro-AI research. Christoph Guger and Dean Krusienski are the chairmen of the Foundation. Since the COVID-19 pandemic, the Annual BCI Award Ceremony has been held online via Zoom. The ceremony takes place in conjunction with the annual IEEE SMC Conference. The award winner is traditionally invited to present their work at the annual BCI & Neurotechnology Spring School. All nominated projects are published as chapters in the BCI State-of-the-Art book series. In addition, winners and nominees are featured in The Neurocareers: Doing The Impossible! Podcast, which highlights career paths, research insights, and developments in the field of brain-computer interfaces. == References ==


id: arrhenius-plaque-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrhenius_Plaque-0.md
category: reference
title: Arrhenius Plaque
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrhenius_Plaque
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:08.406007+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: arrhenius-plaque-20260505-0
summary:
The Arrhenius Plaque (Swedish: Arrhenius-plaketten) is awarded annually by the Swedish Chemical Society in memory of Svante Arrhenius, a Swedish physicist, chemist, and long-time member of the society, "to a person or persons who have distinguished themselves through outstanding research in the field of chemistry or who have performed valuable work for the good of the Swedish Chemical Society". Past recipients include Ragnar Ryhage (1962), Jerker Porath and Per Flodin (1963), Carl-Ivar Brändén (1976), Svante Wold (1984), Gunnar von Heijne (1997), Per Claesson (2008), Jonas Bergquist (2009), Lisbeth Olsson (2018), Berit Olofsson (2021), Belén Martín-Matute (2024) and Karin Schillén (2025). == References ==


id: aryabhata-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryabhata_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: Aryabhata Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryabhata_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:09.690742+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: aryabhata-award-20260505-0
summary:
The Aryabhata Award or Aryabhatta Award is an annual award, presented to individuals with notable lifetime contributions in the field of astronautics and aerospace technology in India. It was instituted by the Astronautical Society of India (ASI) (established 1990), an International Astronautical Federation member since 1958. The award is usually presented by the Minister of State of the Prime Minister's Office, and consists of a citation and ₹1 lakh (₹100,000). == History == The award is named after the fifth century Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata, and in commemoration of the first Indian satellite Aryabhata (launched 19 April 1975). == Award winners == == See also == List of astronomy awards List of engineering awards List of physics awards List of space technology awards == References ==


id: avicenna-prize-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avicenna_Prize-0.md
category: reference
title: Avicenna Prize
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avicenna_Prize
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:14.707080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: avicenna-prize-20260505-0
summary:
The Avicenna Prize for Ethics in Science is awarded every two years by UNESCO and rewards individuals and groups in the field of ethics in science. The aim of the award is to promote ethical reflection on issues raised by advances in science and technology, and to raise global awareness of the importance of ethics in science. The prize was named after the 11th century Persian physician and philosopher Avicenna (980-1038). The Prize consists of a gold medal, a certificate, US$10,000, and a one-week academic visit to the Islamic Republic of Iran. Since it was founded, the award has been given to five individuals. == Award recipients == 2004 Margaret Somerville, Canada 2005 Abdallah Daar, Canada 2009 Renzong Qiu, China 2015 Zabta Khan Shinwari, Pakistan 2019 Donald A. Brown, US == References == == External links == Official site


id: award-of-merit-association-for-information-science-and-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Award_of_Merit_-_Association_for_Information_Science_and_Technology-0.md
category: reference
title: Award of Merit - Association for Information Science and Technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Award_of_Merit_-_Association_for_Information_Science_and_Technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:15.958918+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: award-of-merit-association-for-information-science-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
The Award of Merit is bestowed by the Association for Information Science and Technology. It is an annual prize to an individual for a lifetime of achievement that recognizes sustained contributions to and/or achievements in the field of information science and/or the professions in which it is practiced. The Award of Merit was first given in 1964 to Hans Peter Luhn. == References ==


id: az-zubair-prize-for-innovation-and-scientific-excellence-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Az-Zubair_Prize_for_Innovation_and_Scientific_Excellence-0.md
category: reference
title: Az-Zubair Prize for Innovation and Scientific Excellence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Az-Zubair_Prize_for_Innovation_and_Scientific_Excellence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:17.191080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: az-zubair-prize-for-innovation-and-scientific-excellence-20260505-0
summary:
Az-Zubair Prize for Innovation and Scientific Excellence (Arabic: جائزة الزبير للإبداع والتميز العلمي) is an annual Sudanese scientific prize awarded by the President of Sudan for scientific innovation and creativity in applied and technological fields. == History == On November 7, 1998, President Omer Al-Bashir passed a bill to establish an annual scientific award for innovation and scientific excellence that commemorate General Az-Zubair Mohammed Salih, former Sudan's vice president who died in an aeroplane crash. The award is governed by the Association for the Promotion of Scientific Innovation (APSI), a specialized organization that was established by General Az-Zubair for sponsoring technological advances and scientific research. == Prize types == The prize is divided onto two major levels: Special Honorary Prize - awarded for individuals who had great distinctive works and great scientific position that majorly contributed to the society. Competitors level is divided onto three sub-categories: Scientific level - open to higher certificate holders and researchers Youth level - open to students and graduates of universities and higher institutions Talented level - open to anyone that presents valuable and empirical invention or creative work that reflects talent and excellence and has a great value for the society == Prize fields


id: baltic-assembly-prize-for-literature-the-arts-and-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_Assembly_Prize_for_Literature,_the_Arts_and_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Baltic Assembly Prize for Literature, the Arts and Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_Assembly_Prize_for_Literature,_the_Arts_and_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:18.434496+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: baltic-assembly-prize-for-literature-the-arts-and-science-20260505-0
summary:
The Baltic Assembly Prize for Literature, the Arts and Science is an award given annually by the Baltic Assembly for achievements in three categories: literature, art and science. The prize is an annual award given to a citizen of Estonia, Latvia or Lithuania "for outstanding achievements" in three categories: literature, art and science. It was awarded for the first time in 1994 and consists of a statuette, a diploma and a sum of money, presently (2016) 5,000 euro. It is awarded during the formal session of the assembly. A joint jury consisting of three persons per prize make the decision on whom to award the prize. The purpose of the award is according to the Baltic Assembly to "demonstrate the common interests of the countries in this region in upholding of their national identity and self-esteem; create an opportunity to learn about the achievements of the neighbouring countries; maintain a continuous interest among the people in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania about developments in the Baltic States; strengthen cooperation among the Baltic States in the fields of literature, the arts and science; encourage more and more people to become interested in the intellectual values and languages of the Baltic nations; and


id: balzan-prize-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balzan_Prize-0.md
category: reference
title: Balzan Prize
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balzan_Prize
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:19.602185+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: balzan-prize-20260505-0
summary:
The International Balzan Prize Foundation awards four annual monetary prizes to people or organizations who have made outstanding achievements in the fields of humanities, natural sciences, culture, as well as for endeavours for peace and the brotherhood of man. == History == The assets behind the foundation were established by the Italian Eugenio Balzan (it) (1874–1953), a part-owner of Corriere della Sera who had invested his assets in Switzerland and in 1933 had left Italy in protest against fascism. He left a substantial inheritance to his daughter Angela Lina Balzan (1892–1956), who at the time was suffering an incurable disease. Before her death, she left instructions for the foundation and since then it has two headquarters, the Prize administered from Milan, the Fund from Zurich. The first award was in fact one million Swiss francs to the Nobel Foundation in 1961. After 1962, a gap of 16 years followed when prizes recommenced with an award of half a million Swiss francs to Mother Teresa. Award ceremonies alternate between Bern and the Accademia dei Lincei in Rome, and frequently winners have later won a Nobel Prize. == Procedure == All awards are decided by a single committee. The Balzan Prize committee


id: list-of-balzan-prize-recipients-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Balzan Prize recipients
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:20.863214+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-balzan-prize-recipients-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of recipients of the Balzan Prize, one of the world's most prestigious academic awards. The International Balzan Prize Foundation awards four annual monetary prizes to people or organizations who have made outstanding achievements in the humanities, natural sciences, culture, and peace on an international level. The Prizes are awarded in four subject areas: "two in literature, the moral sciences and the arts" and "two in the physical, mathematical and natural sciences and medicine." The special Prize for Humanity, Peace and Fraternity is presented at intervals of every three years or longer. == 1960s–1970s == 1961 Nobel Foundation (Sweden) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples 1962 Andrey Kolmogorov (Soviet Union) --- Mathematics Karl von Frisch (Austria) --- Biology Paul Hindemith (Germany) --- Music Samuel Eliot Morison (United States) --- History Pope John XXIII (Vatican) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples 1978 Mother Teresa of Calcutta (India) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples 1979 Ernest Labrousse (France) and Giuseppe Tucci (Italy) --- History Jean Piaget (Switzerland) --- Social and political sciences Torbjörn Caspersson (Sweden) --- Biology == 1980s == 1980 Enrico Bombieri (Italy) --- Mathematics Hassan Fathy (Egypt) --- Architecture and town planning Jorge Luis


id: list-of-balzan-prize-recipients-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients-1.md
category: reference
title: List of Balzan Prize recipients
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:20.863214+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-balzan-prize-recipients-20260505-0
summary:
== 2000s == 2000 Ilkka Hanski (Finland) --- Ecological sciences Martin Litchfield West (United Kingdom) --- Classical antiquity Michael Stolleis (Germany) --- Legal history since 1500 Michel G.E. Mayor (Switzerland) --- Instrumentation and techniques in astronomy and astrophysics Abdul Sattar Edhi (Pakistan) --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples 2001 Claude Lorius (France) --- Climatology James Sloss Ackerman (United States) --- History of architecture (including town planning and landscape design) Jean-Pierre Changeux (France) --- Cognitive neurosciences Marc Fumaroli (France) --- Literary history and criticism (post 1500) 2002 Anthony Grafton (United States) --- History of the humanities Dominique Schnapper (France) --- Sociology Walter J. Gehring (Switzerland) --- Developmental biology Xavier Le Pichon (France) --- Geology 2003 Eric Hobsbawm (United Kingdom) --- European history since 1900 Reinhard Genzel (Germany) --- Infrared astronomy Serge Moscovici (France) --- Social psychology Wen-Hsiung Li (Taiwan / United States) --- Genetics and evolution 2004 Andrew Colin Renfrew (United Kingdom) --- Prehistoric Archaeology Michael Marmot (United Kingdom) --- Epidemiology Nikki R. Keddie (United States) --- The Islamic world from the end of the 19th to the end of the 20th century Pierre Deligne (Belgium) --- Mathematics Community of Sant'Egidio --- Humanity, peace and brotherhood among peoples 2005 Lothar


id: list-of-balzan-prize-recipients-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients-2.md
category: reference
title: List of Balzan Prize recipients
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Balzan_Prize_recipients
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:20.863214+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-balzan-prize-recipients-20260505-0
summary:
== 2020s == 2020 Susan Trumbore (US / Germany) --- Earth System Dynamics Jean-Marie Tarascon (France) --- Environmental Challenges: Materials Science for Renewable Energy Joan Martinez Alier (Spain) --- Environmental Challenges: Responses from the Social Sciences and the Humanities Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade (Brazil) --- Human Rights 2021 Saul Friedländer (France / US) --- Holocaust and Genocide Studies Jeffrey I. Gordon (US) --- Microbiome in Health and Disease Alessandra Buonanno (Italy / US) and Thibault Damour (France) --- Gravitation: physical and astrophysical aspects Giorgio Buccellati and Marilyn Kelly-Buccellati (Italy / USA) --- Art and Archaeology of the Ancient Far East 2022 Robert Langer (US) --- Biomaterials for Nanomedicine and Tissue Engineering Martha Nussbaum (US) --- Moral Philosophy Dorthe Dahl-Jensen (Denmark) and Hans Oerlemans (Netherlands) --- Glaciation and Ice-Sheet Dynamics Philip Bohlman (US) --- Ethnomusicology 2023 David Damrosch (US) --- World Literature Jean-Jacques Hublin (France) --- Evolution of Humankind: Paleoanthropology Eske Willerslev (Denmark) --- Evolution of Humankind: Ancient DNA and Human Evolution Heino Falcke (Germany) --- High resolution images: from planetary to cosmic objects 2024 John Braithwaite (Australia) --- Restorative Justice Lorraine Daston (US / Germany) --- History of Modern and Contemporary Science Michael N. Hall (US / Switzerland) --- Biological


id: bbva-foundation-frontiers-of-knowledge-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBVA_Foundation_Frontiers_of_Knowledge_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBVA_Foundation_Frontiers_of_Knowledge_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:22.207189+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bbva-foundation-frontiers-of-knowledge-award-20260505-0
summary:
The BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Awards (Spanish: Premios Fundación BBVA Fronteras del Conocimiento) are an international award programme recognizing significant contributions in the areas of scientific research and cultural creation. The categories that make up the Frontiers of Knowledge Awards respond to the knowledge map of the present age. As well as the fundamental knowledge that is at their core, they address developments in information and communication technologies, and interactions between biology and medicine, ecology and conservation biology, climate change, economics, humanities and social sciences, and, finally, contemporary musical creation and performance. Specific categories are reserved for developing knowledge fields of critical relevance to confront central challenges of the 21st century, as in the case of the two environmental awards. The awards were established in 2008, with the first set of winners receiving their prizes in 2009. The BBVA Foundation — belonging to financial group Banco Bilbao Vizcaya Argentaria — is partnered in the scheme by the Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), the country's premier public research organization. == Details == There are eight award categories: Basic Science Biology and Biomedicine Climate Change Ecology and Conservation Biology Information and Communications Technologies Economics, Finance and Management Music and Opera Humanities


id: beckman-young-investigators-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beckman_Young_Investigators_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: Beckman Young Investigators Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beckman_Young_Investigators_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:23.565175+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: beckman-young-investigators-award-20260505-0
summary:
The Beckman Young Investigators Award was established by Mabel and Arnold Beckman in 1991, and is now administered by the Arnold and Mabel Beckman Foundation. The Beckman Young Investigator (BYI) Program is intended to provide research support to promising young faculty members in the early stages of their academic careers. Awardees receive grants of roughly $600,000 over four years, "contingent on demonstrated progress after the second year". The intent is to foster "innovative departures" and the invention of methods, instruments and materials that will open up new avenues of research in the chemical and life sciences. It has been awarded to the following scientists: == 2021 == Beau Alward Roxanne Beltran Margaret Byron Katherine Davis Robert Gilliard Tania Lupoli Brett McGuire Nicolas Pégard Alison Wendlandt Balyn Zaro Yingjie Zhang == 2020 == John Blazeck Jennifer Bridwell-Rabb Laura Duvall Andrea Giovannucci Stavroula Hatzios Sarah King James McKone Yue Wang == 2019 == Keriann Backus Chenfeng Ke Wesley Legant Frank Leibfarth Jarad Mason Jia Niu Kimberly See Leslie Schoop Kirk Wangensteen Brad Zuchero == 2018 == Dmitriy Aronov Alistair Boettiger Henry La Pierre Chen Li Jean-Hubert Olivier Ian Seiple Michaela TerAvest Ashleigh Theberge Weiwei Xie Xiaoji Xu == 2017 == Victor Acosta


id: marcel-benoist-prize-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_Benoist_Prize-0.md
category: reference
title: Marcel Benoist Prize
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcel_Benoist_Prize
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:24.842171+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: marcel-benoist-prize-20260505-0
summary:
The Marcel Benoist Prize, offered by the Marcel Benoist Foundation, is a monetary prize that has been offered annually since 1920 to a scientist of Swiss nationality or residency who has made the most useful scientific discovery. Emphasis is placed on those discoveries affecting human life. Since 1997, candidates in the humanities have also been eligible for the prize. The Marcel Benoist Foundation was established by the will of the French lawyer Marcel Benoist, a wartime resident of Lausanne, who died in 1918. It is managed by a group of trustees comprising the Swiss interior minister and heads of the main Swiss universities. It has been dubbed the "Swiss Nobel Prize." == History == The first award was given to immunologist Maurice Arthus (1862–1945) at the University of Lausanne. Other winners have included computer scientist Niklaus Wirth, astronomer Michel Mayor, and cardiologist Max Holzmann. As of 2019, eleven Marcel Benoist winners have later also won the Nobel Prize: Paul Karrer, Leopold Ruzicka, Walter R. Hess, Tadeus Reichstein, Vladimir Prelog, Niels Kaj Jerne, Johannes G. Bednorz, Karl. Alexander Müller, Richard R. Ernst, Kurz Wüthrich, and Michel Mayor. In 2009, Françoise Gisou van der Goot (École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne) was the


id: berry-medal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berry_Medal-0.md
category: reference
title: Berry Medal
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berry_Medal
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:25.981484+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: berry-medal-20260505-0
summary:
The Leonard G. Berry Medal is an annual award of the Mineralogical Association of Canada. Established in 1987, it is named after Leonard G. Berry (1914–1982), a Canadian geologist who made notable contributions to mineralogy and who was a founding member of the Association. The award is granted for important contributions to mineral science in Canada or for significant long-term service to the Mineralogical Association of Canada. The medalist is chosen by a committee which includes two past recipients. == List of recipients == 1987: A. Ronald Graham 1988: E.W. (Les) Nuffield 1989: Guy Perreault 1990: Joseph A. Mandarino 1991: Richard A. Alcock 1992: John L. Jambor 1993: Louis J. Cabri 1994: Ann Sabina 1995: Robert Gait 1996: Sol Kaimai 1997: J. Murray Duke 1998: Dorian G.W. Smith 1999: Norman M. Halden 2001: Robert F. Martin 2002: Robert T. Downs 2003: Gina Lecheminant 2004: J. Douglas Scott 2005: Pierrette Tremblay 2005: Rob Raeside 2006: Mati Raudsepp 2008: Iain Samson 2011: Bob and Fran Pinard 2015: Martine M. Savard 2016: Jim Nicholls 2019: Lee A. Groat 2021: Malcolm Back 2025: Andrew M. McDonald == See also == List of geology awards List of earth sciences awards Prizes named after people ==


id: berthold-leibinger-zukunftspreis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berthold_Leibinger_Zukunftspreis-0.md
category: reference
title: Berthold Leibinger Zukunftspreis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berthold_Leibinger_Zukunftspreis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:31.510733+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: berthold-leibinger-zukunftspreis-20260505-0
summary:
The Berthold Leibinger Zukunftspreis (future prize) is an international award for "excellent research on the application or generation of laser light". Since 2006, it is biennially awarded by the German non-profit foundation Berthold Leibinger Stiftung as part of its Laser Prizes, with an amount of 50,000 euros. == Recipients == As of 2023, two Zukunftspreis laureates have also received the Nobel Prize in Physics: Gérard Mourou in 2018, and Anne L'Huillier in 2023. Source: == See also == Berthold Leibinger Innovationspreis (affiliated innovation prize) Berthold Leibinger (founder of issuing foundation) List of physics awards == References == == External links == Website of the Berthold Leibinger Stiftung


id: blaise-pascal-chair-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blaise_Pascal_Chair-0.md
category: reference
title: Blaise Pascal Chair
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blaise_Pascal_Chair
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:32.953054+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: blaise-pascal-chair-20260505-0
summary:
The Blaise Pascal Chairs (Chaires Internationales de Recherche Blaise Pascal), established in 1996 by the Government of the Île-de-France Region for internationally acclaimed foreign scientists in all disciplines. A scientific committee annually selects the most outstanding candidates from all over the world. Since their inception a number of famous scientists have been Blaise Pascal Chair laureates: Gérard Debreu (UC Berkeley, 1983 Nobel Prize in Economics), Ahmed Zewail (Caltech, 1999 Nobel Prize in Chemistry), Igor Mel'čuk (University of Montreal, the world leading researcher in linguistics), George Smoot (LBL, 2006 Nobel Prize in experimental Astrophysics), Robert Langlands (UBC, 1996 Wolf Prize, one of the most influential mathematicians of the 20th century), outstanding theoretical physicists Gabriele Veneziano (CERN/College de France), Alexander Zamolodchikov (Rutgers), and others. == External links == Chaires Internationales de Recherche Blaise Pascal, France == References ==


id: blavatnik-awards-for-young-scientists-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blavatnik_Awards_for_Young_Scientists-0.md
category: reference
title: Blavatnik Awards for Young Scientists
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blavatnik_Awards_for_Young_Scientists
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:34.281701+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: blavatnik-awards-for-young-scientists-20260505-0
summary:
Blavatnik Awards for Young Scientists was established in 2007 through a partnership between the Blavatnik Family Foundation, headed by the Soviet/Ukrainian Odessa-born businessman Len Blavatnik chairman of Access Industries, and the New York Academy of Sciences, headed by president Nicholas Dirks. These cash grant awards are given annually to selected faculty and postdoctoral researchers age 42 years and younger who work in the life and physical sciences and engineering at institutions in New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut. The first Blavatnik Awards were given in New York City on Monday, November 12, 2007. On June 3, 2013, the Blavatnik Family Foundation and the New York Academy of Sciences announced the expansion of the faculty competition to include young scientists from institutions throughout the United States. In April 2017, the Blavatnik Awards program was expanded to the United Kingdom (UK) and Israel. By the end of 2022, the Blavatnik Awards for Young Scientists will have awarded prizes totaling US$13.6 million; Blavatnik Award recipients have hailed from 48 countries across six continents. Blavatnik National Awards are for faculty-rank scientists and engineers in Chemistry, Physical Sciences and Engineering, and Life Sciences. Blavatnik Regional Awards are for postdoctoral scientists working in the fields of


id: borlaug-cast-communication-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borlaug_CAST_Communication_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: Borlaug CAST Communication Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borlaug_CAST_Communication_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:35.541825+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: borlaug-cast-communication-award-20260505-0
summary:
The Borlaug CAST Communication Award, formerly the Charles A. Black Award, is an annual award presented by the Council for Agricultural Science and Technology (CAST) to a "scientist, engineer, technologist, or other professional working in the agricultural, environmental, or food sectors for contributing to the advancement of science in the public policy arena". The Council for Agricultural Science and Technology (CAST) is a non-profit whose primary purpose is to publish science-based reviews and reports on topics related to agriculture and food. As originally named, the award acknowledged the contributions of Charles Allen Black, founding president of CAST. Its current name honors Nobel Prize winner Norman Borlaug, "The Man Who Fed the World". who was the author of the first of CAST's publications, in 1973. == Recipients == As the Charles A. Black Award: 1986: Charles Allen Black 1987: William E. Larson 1989: Stanley E. Curtis 1990: Donald E. Davis 1991: Homer McKay LeBaron 1992: John T. Pesek 1993: F. M. Clydesdale 1994: Frederick John Francis 1995: Dale E. Bauman 1996: Luther G. Tweeten 1997: Neil E. Harl 1998: Per Pinstrup-Andersen 1999: Abner W. Womack 2000: Dennis Keeney 2001: Judith S. Stern 2002: C. O. Qualset 2003: Kong Luen Heong 2004:


id: bpi-dost-science-awards-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BPI-DOST_Science_Awards-0.md
category: reference
title: BPI-DOST Science Awards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BPI-DOST_Science_Awards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:36.897072+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bpi-dost-science-awards-20260505-0
summary:
Organized in 1989 by the BPI Foundation, Inc., the corporate social responsibility arm of the Bank of the Philippine Islands (BPI), with the Department of Science and Technology (DOST), the BPI-DOST Science Awards recognizes exceptional science and engineering students from partner universities nationwide. These students are individuals whose efforts made them excel in specialized fields of science such as mathematics, physics, engineering, chemistry, biology, and computer science. The awardees are recognized for their potential contributions to industry and nation-building and selected based on their academic and research performance and nomination from the school. == Selection process == The preparation for the awards is a very long and tedious process. Every year in June, the BPI Foundation selects three entries from the ten partner universities, and by July, all the invitations, materials, and all preparations are complete. Acceptance of formal nominations closes in October. By February, all the arrangements for the awarding ceremonies are made. The foundation gathers the three best entries from the ten partner universities each year. These are Ateneo de Davao University, Ateneo de Manila University, De La Salle University, Saint Louis University, Silliman University, University of the Philippines (Diliman and Los Banes), University of San Carlos, University


id: breakthrough-of-the-year-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakthrough_of_the_Year-0.md
category: reference
title: Breakthrough of the Year
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakthrough_of_the_Year
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:38.062541+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: breakthrough-of-the-year-20260505-0
summary:
The Breakthrough of the Year is an annual award for the most significant development in scientific research made by the AAAS journal Science, an academic journal covering all branches of science. Originating in 1989 as the Molecule of the Year, and inspired by Time's Person of the Year, it was renamed the Breakthrough of the Year in 1996. == Molecule of the Year == 1989 PCR and DNA polymerase 1990 the manufacture of synthetic diamonds 1991 buckminsterfullerene 1992 nitric oxide 1993 p53 1994 DNA repair enzyme == Breakthrough of the Year == 1996: Understanding HIV 1997: Dolly the sheep, the first mammal to be cloned from adult cells 1998: Accelerating universe 1999: Prospective stem-cell therapies 2000: Full genome sequencing 2001: Nanocircuits or Molecular circuit 2002: RNA interference 2003: Dark energy 2004: Spirit rover landed on Mars 2005: Evolution in action 2006: Proof of the Poincaré conjecture 2007: Human genetic variation 2008: Cellular reprogramming 2009: Ardipithecus ramidus 2010: The first quantum machine 2011: HIV treatment as prevention (HPTN 052) 2012: Discovery of the Higgs boson 2013: Cancer immunotherapy 2014: Rosetta comet mission 2015: CRISPR genome-editing method 2016: First observation of gravitational waves 2017: Neutron star merger (GW170817) 2018: Single-cell sequencing 2019:


id: bridgman-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridgman_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: Bridgman Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridgman_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:39.294819+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: bridgman-award-20260505-0
summary:
The Bridgman Award is a prize given every two years by the International Association for the Advancement of High Pressure Science and Technology (AIRAPT) for research in the physics, chemistry, or technology of high pressure science. The award is named in honor of Percy Williams Bridgman, Nobel Prize winner and famous pioneer of the physics of high pressure. == Recipients == 1977 Harry George Drickamer 1979 Boris Vodar, France 1981 E. Ulrich Franck (1920–2004), professor for physical chemistry at the University of Karlsruhe 1983 Albert Francis Birch (1903–1992), geophysicist and mineralogist, professor at Harvard University 1985 Nestor Joseph Trappeniers (1922–2004), professor in Amsterdam 1987 Francis P. Bundy (1910–2008), diamond synthesis under high pressure in 1954 at General Electric 1989 Ho-kwang Mao, Carnegie Institution, Washington D.C. 1991 Shigeru Minomura (1923–2000), professor at the Institute for Condensed Matter Research in Tokyo, later in Hokkaido and at Okayama University 1993 Arthur L. Ruoff, professor at Cornell University 1995 Bogdan Baranowski (1927–2014), professor of physical chemistry in Warsaw 1997 William A. Bassett (born 1931), professor of geology at Cornell University 1999 Vladimir Fortov 2001 William J. Nellis 2003 Neil Ashcroft 2005 Sergei Mikhailovich Stishov, professor and direct of the Institute of High Pressure Physics


id: british-inspiration-awards-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Inspiration_Awards-0.md
category: reference
title: British Inspiration Awards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Inspiration_Awards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:40.632155+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: british-inspiration-awards-20260505-0
summary:
The British Inspiration Awards (BIAs) are a set of industry awards celebrating achievement in the creative industries of the United Kingdom, organised by David Yarnton, the UK managing director for Nintendo. The inaugural awards took place at a ceremony in London on 23 April 2010. The awards, in the shape of a gold statue of Boudica, were presented in a number of categories including art, design, entertainment, fashion and science. All proceeds of the awards are to be donated to various charities. == History == With the UK in a recession in the late 2000s, and with a steadily declining manufacturing industry and little natural resources, the creative sector was believed to be the basis for future growth, and was as of 2010 was estimated to already contribute £110billion to the economy per annum, contribute two million jobs, and number over businesses classed as creative. The BIAs were initiated by David Yarnton, the UK managing director for Nintendo. He was of the opinion that "The UK is the creative capital of the World" and it was "about time that the UK creative sector was recognised for its achievements". He was of the belief that, although a world leader in the


id: competitions-and-prizes-in-artificial-intelligence-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competitions_and_prizes_in_artificial_intelligence-0.md
category: reference
title: Competitions and prizes in artificial intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competitions_and_prizes_in_artificial_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:41.972753+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: competitions-and-prizes-in-artificial-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
There are a number of competitions and prizes to promote research in artificial intelligence. == General machine intelligence == The David E. Rumelhart Prize is an annual award for making a "significant contemporary contribution to the theoretical foundations of human cognition". The prize is $100,000. The Human-Competitive Award is an annual challenge started in 2004 to reward results "competitive with the work of creative and inventive humans". The prize is $10,000. Entries are required to use evolutionary computing. The Intel AI Global Impact Festival is an international annual competition held by Intel Corporation for school, and college students with prizes upwards of $15,000. It is about artificial intelligence technology. There are two age brackets in this competition, 13-18 Age Group, and 18 and Above Age Group. The IJCAI Award for Research Excellence is a biannual award given at the International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI) to researchers in artificial intelligence as a recognition of excellence of their career. The 2011 Federal Virtual World Challenge, advertised by The White House and sponsored by the U.S. Army Research Laboratory's Simulation and Training Technology Center, held a competition offering a total of US$52,000 in cash prize awards for general artificial intelligence applications,


id: competitions-and-prizes-in-artificial-intelligence-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competitions_and_prizes_in_artificial_intelligence-1.md
category: reference
title: Competitions and prizes in artificial intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competitions_and_prizes_in_artificial_intelligence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:41.972753+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: competitions-and-prizes-in-artificial-intelligence-20260505-0
summary:
The Herbrand Award is a prize given by Conference on Automated Deduction (CADE) Inc. to honour persons or groups for important contributions to the field of automated deduction. The prize is $1000. The CADE ATP System Competition (CASC) is a yearly competition of fully automated theorem provers for classical first order logic associated with the Conference on Automated Deduction (CADE) and International Joint Conference on Automated Reasoning (IJCAR). The competition was part of the Alan Turing Centenary Conference in 2012, with total prizes of 9000 GBP given by Google. The SUMO prize is an annual prize for the best open source ontology extension of the Suggested Upper Merged Ontology (SUMO), a formal theory of terms and logical definitions describing the world. The prize is $3000. The Hutter Prize for lossless compression of human knowledge is a cash prize which rewards compression improvements on a specific 100 MB English text file. The prize awards 500 euros for each one percent improvement, up to €50,000. The organizers believe that text compression and AI are equivalent problems and 3 prizes have been given, at around € 2k. The Cyc TPTP Challenge is a competition to develop reasoning methods for the Cyc comprehensive ontology


id: conrad-schlumberger-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conrad_Schlumberger_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: Conrad Schlumberger Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conrad_Schlumberger_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:43.068953+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: conrad-schlumberger-award-20260505-0
summary:
The Conrad Schlumberger Award is an award given to one of the members of European Association of Geoscientists and Engineers. The award is given each year to one that has made an outstanding contribution over a period of time to the scientific and technical advancement of the geosciences, particularly geophysics. The award is made annually by the EAGE Board. == History == The Conrad Schlumberger Award was created in 1955, as a recognition of Conrad Schlumberger's outstanding contribution to exploration geophysics, by the European Association of Geoscientists and Engineers (then named The European Association of Exploration Geophysicists.) == List of recipients == Source: 2020 André Revil 2019 Andrey Bakulin 2018 Johan Robertsson and Phil Christie 2017 José Carcione 2016 Stewart Greenhalgh 2015 Alain Tabbagh 2014 Valentina Socco 2013 Kees Wapenaar 2012 Martin Landrø 2011 Sergey Fomel 2010 Lasse Amundsen 2009 Gerhard Pratt 2008 Clive McCann 2007 Colin Macbeth 2006 Petar Stavrev 2005 Horst Rüter 2004 Eric de Bazelaire 2003 Tariq Alkhalifah 2002 M. Tygel 2001 R. Marschall From June 2001, award dates refer to the year in which the award was presented and not to the year in which the winning poster/paper was presented. 1999 Peter Weidelt 1998 Vlastislav Cerveny


id: elliott-cresson-medal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliott_Cresson_Medal-0.md
category: reference
title: Elliott Cresson Medal
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliott_Cresson_Medal
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:48.362832+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: elliott-cresson-medal-20260505-0
summary:
The Elliott Cresson Medal, also known as the Elliott Cresson Gold Medal, was the highest award given by the Franklin Institute. The award was established by Elliott Cresson, life member of the Franklin Institute, with $1,000 granted in 1848. The endowed award was to be "for a discovery in the Arts and Sciences, or for the invention or improvement of some useful machine, or for a new process or combination of materials in manufactures, or for ingenuity skill or perfection in workmanship." The medal was first awarded in 1875, 21 years after Cresson's death. The Franklin Institute continued awarding the medal on an occasional basis until 1998 when they reorganized their endowed awards under one umbrella, The Benjamin Franklin Awards. == List of recipients == A total of 268 Elliott Cresson Medals were given out during the award's lifetime. == See also == List of engineering awards List of physics awards == References ==


id: daiwa-adrian-prize-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daiwa_Adrian_Prize-0.md
category: reference
title: Daiwa Adrian Prize
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daiwa_Adrian_Prize
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:49.669213+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: daiwa-adrian-prize-20260505-0
summary:
This Daiwa Adrian Prize is an award given by The Daiwa Anglo-Japanese Foundation, a UK charity, to scientists who have made significant achievements in science through Anglo-Japanese collaborative research. Prizes are awarded every third year and applications are handled by the foundation with an assessment conducted by a panel of Fellows of The Royal Society. The prize was initiated 1992 by Lord Adrian (2nd Baron Adrian), a former Trustee of the Foundation. The physiologist Richard Adrian was Master of Pembroke College, Vice-Chancellor of the University of Cambridge and the only son of the Nobel laureate Edgar Adrian (1st Baron Adrian). == Daiwa Adrian Prizes 2013 == The ceremony was held at the Royal Society on 26 November 2013 and was attended by Trustees of the Foundation including the Chairman, Sir Peter Williams, who is former Vice President of the Royal Society. The Prizes were presented by Lord Adrian's wife Lady Adrian. Chemonostics: Using chemical receptors in the development of simple diagnostic devices for age-related diseases. Institutions: University of Bath, University of Birmingham, Kyushu University, Tokyo Metropolitan University and University of Kitakyushu. UK Team Leader: Professor Tony James, University of Bath Japan Team Leader: Professor Seiji Shinkai, Kyushu University Circadian regulation


id: dannie-heineman-prize-g-ttingen-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dannie_Heineman_Prize_(Göttingen)-0.md
category: reference
title: Dannie Heineman Prize (Göttingen)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dannie_Heineman_Prize_(Göttingen)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:50.992748+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dannie-heineman-prize-g-ttingen-20260505-0
summary:
The Dannie Heineman Prize of the Göttingen Academy of Sciences and Humanities has been awarded biennially since 1961 for excellent recently published publications in a new research field of current interest. It is awarded to younger researchers in natural sciences or mathematics. The prize is named after Dannie Heineman, a Belgian–US philanthropist, engineer and businessman with German roots. == Prizewinners == == See also == List of general science and technology awards == References == == External links == Dannie Heineman Preis


id: darpa-prize-competitions-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DARPA_Prize_Competitions-0.md
category: reference
title: DARPA Prize Competitions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DARPA_Prize_Competitions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:52.097603+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: darpa-prize-competitions-20260505-0
summary:
Over the years, the U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) has conducted numerous prize competitions to spur innovation. A prize competition allows DARPA to establish an ambitious goal, opening the door to novel approaches from the public that might otherwise appear too risky for experts in a particular field to pursue. == Statutory authorities == In 1999, Congress provided prize competition authority to DARPA in the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2000 (P.L. 106–65), 10 U.S.C. § 4025, formerly 10 U.S.C. §2374a. DARPA also conducts prize competitions under the America COMPETES Act, 15 U.S.C. § 3719. == Recent prize competitions == DARPA Grand Challenge (2004 and 2005) was a prize competition to spur the development of autonomous vehicle technologies. The $1 million prize went unclaimed as no vehicles could complete the challenging desert route from Barstow, CA, to Primm, NV, on March 13, 2004. A year later, on October 8, 2005, the Stanford Racing Team won the $2 million prize during the second competition of the Grand Challenge in the desert Southwest near the California/Nevada state line. DARPA Urban Challenge (2007) required the competitors to build an autonomous vehicle capable of driving in traffic and performing complex


id: darpa-prize-competitions-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DARPA_Prize_Competitions-1.md
category: reference
title: DARPA Prize Competitions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DARPA_Prize_Competitions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:52.097603+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: darpa-prize-competitions-20260505-0
summary:
DARPA Network Challenge (Red Balloon Challenge) (2009) explored the roles that the Internet and social networking play in solving broad-scope, time-critical problems. On December 5, 2009, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology team won $40,000 by locating the ten moored, eight-foot, red weather balloons at ten places in the United States within seven hours. DARPA Digital Manufacturing Analysis, Correlation and Estimation Challenge (DMACE) (2010) was a three-month contest to showcase the potential of digital manufacturing of advanced materials. The University of California at Santa Barbara team won a $50,000 prize for crushing 180 digitally manufactured (DM) titanium mesh spheres with the most accurate predictive model of the components’ properties. DARPA Shredder Challenge (2011) was to identify and assess potential capabilities and vulnerabilities to sensitive information in the national security community. Participating teams must download the images of the documents shredded into more than 10,000 pieces from the Challenge website, reconstruct the documents, and solve the five puzzles. Of almost 9,000 teams, the San Francisco-based All Your Shreds Are Belong to U.S team won the $50,000 prize. DARPA UAVForge Challenge (2011-2012) aimed to build and test a user-intuitive, backpack-portable unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) that could quietly fly in and out of critical


id: darpa-prize-competitions-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DARPA_Prize_Competitions-2.md
category: reference
title: DARPA Prize Competitions
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DARPA_Prize_Competitions
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:52.097603+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: darpa-prize-competitions-20260505-0
summary:
== See also == DARPA DARPA Grand Challenge Adaptive Vehicle Make DARPA Network Challenge (Red Balloon Challenge) DARPA Shredder Challenge DARPA Spectrum Challenge DARPA Robotics Challenge DARPA Cyber Grand Challenge == References == == External links == Federal Prize Competitions by Congressional Research Service (April 6, 2020) Challenge.Gov, the official hub for prize competitions of the U.S. government and managed by the General Services Administration This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the United States government.


id: derek-de-solla-price-memorial-medal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derek_de_Solla_Price_Memorial_Medal-0.md
category: reference
title: Derek de Solla Price Memorial Medal
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derek_de_Solla_Price_Memorial_Medal
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:54.678268+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: derek-de-solla-price-memorial-medal-20260505-0
summary:
The Derek de Solla Price Memorial Award, or Price Medal, was conceived to honor Derek J. de Solla Price for his contributions to information science and for his crucial role in developing the field of scientometrics. The award was launched by Tibor Braun, founder of the international journal Scientometrics, and is periodically awarded by the journal to scientists with outstanding contributions to the fields of quantitative studies of science. The awarding ceremony is part of the annual ISSI conference. The first medal was awarded to Eugene Garfield in 1984. The full list of winners can be found below. == External links == ISSI - Derek de Solla Price Memorial Medal == References ==


id: dr-robert-h-goddard-memorial-trophy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr._Robert_H._Goddard_Memorial_Trophy-0.md
category: reference
title: Dr. Robert H. Goddard Memorial Trophy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr._Robert_H._Goddard_Memorial_Trophy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:55.835248+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: dr-robert-h-goddard-memorial-trophy-20260505-0
summary:
The Dr. Robert H. Goddard Memorial Trophy is awarded annually to an individual or group determined to have made the most impact on space activities over the past year. It is named after Robert Goddard, the father of modern rocketry. It is the primary award of the National Space Club presented during the Dr. Robert H. Goddard Memorial Dinner in Washington, D.C. == List of award winners == == References == == External links == National Space Club


id: eduard-rhein-foundation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduard_Rhein_Foundation-0.md
category: reference
title: Eduard Rhein Foundation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduard_Rhein_Foundation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:57.354296+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eduard-rhein-foundation-20260505-0
summary:
The Eduard Rhein Foundation was founded in 1976 in Hamburg (Germany) by Eduard Rhein. The goal of the foundation is to promote scientific research, learning, arts, and culture. This is done in particular by granting awards for outstanding achievements in research and/or development in the areas of radio, television and information technology. == Awards and honors == The foundation grants the following awards and honors: Technology Award (30,000 euro) Cultural Award (10,000 euro) Ring of Honor (moonstone set in gold) for outstanding work which has been accomplished over a long period of time, the number of living bearers of rings is limited to ten == Ring of Honor Recipients == 1980 Vladimir K. Zworykin 1981 Walter Bruch 1982 Max Grundig 1983 Karl Holzamer 1984 Herbert von Karajan 1985 Hugh Greene 1986 Masaru Ibuka 1987 Werner Höfer 1988 Ray Dolby 1992 Rudolf Hell 1994 Count Lennart Bernadotte of Wisborg 1998 Heinz Zemanek 1999 Vladimir A. Kotelnikov 2000 Heinrich von Pierer 2001 Ernst-Ludwig Winnacker 2002 Hans-Jürgen Warnecke 2004 Hubert S. Markl 2007 Valentina Tereshkova 2008 Herbert Mataré 2012 Michael Sohlman 2015 Wolfgang Heckl 2020 Gerd Hirzinger === Award winners === 1979 to 2006 award winners are listed in the German article. 2007:


id: albert-einstein-medal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein_Medal-0.md
category: reference
title: Albert Einstein Medal
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein_Medal
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:58.717573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: albert-einstein-medal-20260505-0
summary:
The Albert Einstein Medal is an award presented by the Albert Einstein Society in Bern. First given in 1979, the award is presented to people for "scientific findings, works, or publications related to Albert Einstein" each year. == Recipients == Source: Einstein Society == See also == Albert Einstein Award, Lewis and Rosa Strauss Memorial Fund Albert Einstein World Award of Science, World Cultural Council Einstein Prize, American Physical Society List of physics awards UNESCO Albert Einstein medal, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization == References == == External links == Official website


id: faculty-research-awards-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faculty_Research_Awards-0.md
category: reference
title: Faculty Research Awards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faculty_Research_Awards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:08:59.963336+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: faculty-research-awards-20260505-0
summary:
Faculty Research Awards 2018 were awarded to academic researchers across 24 disciplines by the Indian Union Minister of Human Resource Development Prakash Javadekar on 20 March in New Delhi. The awards were hosted by news magazine Careers360. The awards recognize the efforts of those in the field of academic research in India. The award carries a cash prize and a citation. The awardees were chosen on the basis of their academic and research output in Scopus indexed journals, citation index and h-index for the period 2015–17. == References ==


id: fellow-of-the-american-association-for-the-advancement-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow_of_the_American_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow_of_the_American_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:09:01.446058+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: fellow-of-the-american-association-for-the-advancement-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
Fellowship of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (FAAAS) is an honor accorded by the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) to distinguished persons who are members of the Association. Fellows are elected annually by the AAAS Council for "efforts on behalf of the advancement of science or its applications [which] are scientifically or socially distinguished". Examples of areas in which nominees may have made significant contributions are research; teaching; technology; services to professional societies; administration in academe, industry, and government; and communicating and interpreting science to the public. The association has awarded fellowships since 1874. AAAS publishes annual update of active Fellows list, which also provides email address to verify status of non-active Fellows. See also Category:Fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science for more examples. == AAAS Fellows == AAAS Fellows include Nobel Prize winners Michael W. Young and Michael Rosbash, ACM Turing Award winner David Patterson, IEEE Medal of Honor winner Irwin M. Jacobs, American Physical Society Fellow Natalie Roe, cancer researcher Yun Yen, and many more. Maria Elena Zavala, who is a recipient of the Presidential Award for Excellence in Science, Mathematics, and Engineering Mentoring, is also a Fellow.


id: feltrinelli-prize-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feltrinelli_Prize-0.md
category: reference
title: Feltrinelli Prize
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feltrinelli_Prize
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:09:07.274724+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: feltrinelli-prize-20260505-0
summary:
The Feltrinelli Prize (from the Italian "Premio Feltrinelli", also known as "International Feltrinelli Prize" or "Antonio Feltrinelli Prize") is an award for achievement in the arts, music, literature, history, philosophy, medicine, and physical and mathematical sciences. Administered by the Antonio Feltrinelli Fund, the award comes with a monetary grant ranging between €50,000 and €250,000, a certificate, and a gold medal. The prize is awarded, both nationally and internationally, once every five years in each field by Italy's Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei. A further prize is awarded periodically for an exceptional enterprise in moral and humanitarian value. Considered to be Italy's most distinguished scientific society, the organization was founded in 1603 and included Galileo Galilei among its first members. == Award winners == Source: 2024 (Medicine) International Prize H. Franklin Bunn 2024 (Biology) International Prize Paola Arlotta == References == == External links == Official website (in Italian)


id: francqui-prize-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francqui_Prize-0.md
category: reference
title: Francqui Prize
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francqui_Prize
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:09:08.438872+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: francqui-prize-20260505-0
summary:
The Francqui Prize is a prestigious Belgian scholarly and scientific prize named after Émile Francqui. Normally annually since 1933, the Francqui Foundation awards it in recognition of the achievements of a scholar or scientist, who at the start of the year still had to be under 50. It currently represents a sum of 250,000 Euros and is awarded in the following three-year rotation of subjects: exact sciences, social sciences or humanities, and biological or medical sciences. Proposed candidates must be associated with a Belgian academic institution, in the case of a foreigner for at least ten years. The recipient is selected by a jury of eight to 14 members, none of whom may be associated with a Belgian institution. The members of the international jury vote by secret letter, and the laureate they recommend must be supported by two thirds of the assembled directors of the foundation (with a quorum of 12) or no prize would be awarded that year. The prize is meant to encourage the further work of the young laureate, rather than crown the latter's career. Recipients are asked to organise an international colloquium in the appropriate discipline the same year that he is awarded the prize,


id: frank-j-malina-astronautics-medal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_J._Malina_Astronautics_Medal-0.md
category: reference
title: Frank J. Malina Astronautics Medal
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_J._Malina_Astronautics_Medal
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:09:09.702780+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: frank-j-malina-astronautics-medal-20260505-0
summary:
The Frank J. Malina Astronautics Medal is an annual award by the International Astronautical Federation (IAF). It was established in 1986 in memory of Frank Malina, an American aeronautical engineer who pioneered rocket propulsion research and helped establish the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. The medal is presented annually to an educator who has demonstrated excellence in promoting the study of astronautics and space sciences. Each organization of the IAF may nominate a candidate each year, and candidates are reviewed by a committee during the annual spring meeting in Paris, France. Awards after 1996 have been conferred upon only one person. In total, 42 awards have been given granted to engineers, academics, astronauts, and scientists from 11 countries. == List of recipients == 1984: László Gazdag 1985: None 1986: Christa McAuliffe (posthumous) 1987: Luigi G. Napolitano 1988: André Lebeau 1989: None 1990: None 1991: Gerald M. Gregoreck 1992: Oleg M. Alifanov 1992: Willy Sadeh 1993: Hans H. Von Muldau 1994: Richard A. Seebass 1995: John L. Whitesides 1996: Julius E. Dash 1996: Motocki Hinada 1997: Vladimir V. Prisniakov 1997: Leroy S. Fletcher 1998: Kiran Karnik 1999: John Junkins 2000: Roland Doré 2001: Carlo Buongiorno 2002: Martin Sweeting 2003: William A. Hisock 2004:


id: gay-lussac-humboldt-prize-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gay-Lussac–Humboldt_Prize-0.md
category: reference
title: Gay-Lussac–Humboldt Prize
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gay-Lussac–Humboldt_Prize
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:09:11.023641+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gay-lussac-humboldt-prize-20260505-0
summary:
The Gay-Lussac–Humboldt Prize is a German–French science prize. It was created in 1981 by French President Valéry Giscard d'Estaing and German Chancellor Helmut Schmidt based on the recommendation of the German and French research ministries. The prize money is €60,000. The prize is awarded to researchers that have made outstanding contributions in science, especially in cooperation between the two countries. Four to five German and French scientists from all research disciplines are honored with this award every year. The prize was originally named after Alexander von Humboldt and carries since 1997 the double name Gay-Lussac–Humboldt. The Gay-Lussac–Humboldt Award is granted by the French Ministry of Higher Education and Research to German researchers nominated by French researchers. On the other hand, it is awarded by the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation to French researchers nominated by German scientists. == Prize winners == == References == === Sources === Gay-Lussac–Humboldt Prize (PDF, in French) Laureates 1983–2010 (PDF, in French) 2012 Laureates (PDF, in French) 2013 Laureates (in French) 2014 Laureates (in French) 2015 Laureates (in French) 2016 Laureates (in French)


id: gerhard-herzberg-canada-gold-medal-for-science-and-engineering-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerhard_Herzberg_Canada_Gold_Medal_for_Science_and_Engineering-0.md
category: reference
title: Gerhard Herzberg Canada Gold Medal for Science and Engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerhard_Herzberg_Canada_Gold_Medal_for_Science_and_Engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:09:12.328530+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: gerhard-herzberg-canada-gold-medal-for-science-and-engineering-20260505-0
summary:
The Gerhard Herzberg Canada Gold Medal for Science and Engineering is awarded by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) of Canada to recognize "research contributions characterized by both excellence and influence." Prior to 2000, NSERC had awarded the Canada Gold Medal for Science and Engineering, before deciding to rename the award to honour Gerhard Herzberg, winner of the 1971 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. The Herzberg medal is commonly called Canada's top award for science and engineering. It is an individual annual award that recognizes continued excellence and influence in research in either natural sciences or engineering. The award is a gold medal, and the guarantee of $1 million over five years to use for personal research. == About the award == NSERC's Canada Gold Medal for Science and Engineering was first awarded in 1991 to Raymond Lemieux, a chemist working at University of Alberta. Mathematician James Arthur from the University of Toronto was the 1999 recipient, the last year before the award was renamed in honour of Gerhard Herzberg, the winner of the 1971 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. NSERC decided to rename the award after Herzberg because they felt he embodied the two main qualities of the award,


id: german-future-prize-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Future_Prize-0.md
category: reference
title: German Future Prize
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Future_Prize
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:09:13.790057+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: german-future-prize-20260505-0
summary:
The German Future Prize award is considered one of the most prestigious conferred for science and innovation within Germany. The award is worth 250,000 euros and is supported by numerous sponsors. This prize has been awarded to various exceptional individuals since 1997. == The award winners and their projects == == References == == External links == Official website


id: global-energy-prize-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Energy_Prize-0.md
category: reference
title: Global Energy Prize
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Energy_Prize
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:09:15.012763+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: global-energy-prize-20260505-0
summary:
The Global Energy Prize is an international award in the field of energy industry which is given for "outstanding scientific research and scientific-technical developments in the field of energy which promote greater efficiency and environmental security for energy sources on Earth in the interests of all mankind". It was founded in 2002 at the initiative of a Nobel Prize in Physics laureate Zhores Alferov. The headquarters are in Moscow, Russia. The prize is awarded by the President of Russia or "a person authorized by the president". The media and the professional community consider it "a biggest Russian award" and "one of the biggest in the world". Some depictions in the press described it as "a Russian analogue to the Nobel prize". This is confirmed by the IREG Observatory on Academic Ranking and Excellence which includes the Prize in its "top-99" list of the most recognized global awards. It is the only award from Russia included in this list. The award is managed by The Global Energy Association, which is dedicated to the development of international research and projects in energy industry. Besides award, the Association oversees conferences and informational programmes in this field, programmes for younger scientists and produces an


id: global-energy-prize-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Energy_Prize-1.md
category: reference
title: Global Energy Prize
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Energy_Prize
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:09:15.012763+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: global-energy-prize-20260505-0
summary:
Rae Kwon Chung (Republic of Korea): Member of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), awarded with the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007, Professor Emeritus at Institute of Convergence, Science and Technology of Incheon National University Adnan Amin (USA): Senior Researcher of Harvard University, Director General Emeritus of the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) Thomas Albert Blees: (USA): President of the Science Council for Global Initiatives (SCGI) Marta Bonifert (Hungary): Vice President, Institute of Directors Hungary (IoD), Member of the global advisory board of Tokyo University Frederick Bordry (Switzerland): Director for Accelerators and Technology of European Council for Nuclear Research (CERN) William Il Young Byun (Singapore/Republic of Korea/USA): Managing Director at Asia Renewables, Head of Greenpower Fuels, and Principal at Conchubar Infrastructure Fund, Independent Director at the International Green Technologies and Investment Projects Center Nikolay Voropay (Russia): Scientific Adviser of Melentiev Energy Systems Institute Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS) Steven Griffiths (USA/UAE): Senior Vice President, Research and Development Professor of Practice, Khalifa University of Science and Technology Aleksey Kontorovich (Russia): Chief researcher, Laboratory of Theoretical Bases of Oil and Gas Potential of the Forecast of IPGG SB RAS,


id: golden-eurydice-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Eurydice_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: Golden Eurydice Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Eurydice_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:09:16.200601+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: golden-eurydice-award-20260505-0
summary:
The Golden Eurydice Award is presented for an outstanding contribution, or contributions over a period, in the field of biophilosophy. It is awarded by the International Forum for Biophilosophy which was established in Belgium by royal decree in 1988. Founding members included Herman Van Den Berghe. == The award == The award consists of a sculptured golden statue of Eurydice. Awardees must make a 20-minute presentation of their work at a special Golden Keynote evening event, which usually takes place in November/December each year. Awardees are also granted Honorary membership of the forum. == Award recipients == Recipients include: 2013: Don Ihde, Albert Borgmann 2009: Emile Aarts, Kevin Warwick 2007: Craig Venter, Ananda Chakrabarty 2006: Eric Juengst 2005: Jean-Pierre Changeux == See also == List of biology awards List of philosophy awards == References ==


id: golden-goose-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Goose_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: Golden Goose Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Goose_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:09:17.357278+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: golden-goose-award-20260505-0
summary:
The Golden Goose Award is a United States award in recognition of scientists whose federally funded basic research has led to innovations or inventions with significant impact on humanity or society. Created by Congressman Jim Cooper of Tennessee in 2012, recipients receive the award in a ceremony during the fall each year on Capitol Hill in Washington D.C. == Background == Between 1975 and 1988, William Proxmire, a Democratic United States Senator for Wisconsin awarded the tongue-in-cheek Golden Fleece Awards to public officials for spending public money in ways he considered irresponsible or wasteful. These awards were often given to scientists working on seemingly obscure federally funded scientific studies causing ridicule and scrutiny of the usefulness of such research. The Golden Goose Awards were established over two decades later in order to highlight the value of federally-funded basic research. With the Golden Goose Award, Cooper wanted to reverse the image created by Proxmire's award by highlighting examples of seemingly obscure studies that have led to major breakthroughs and resulted in significant societal impact. The award has bipartisan support in Congress, sponsored by multiple organizations and legislators. == Awardees == == Founding organizations == Some of the twelve founding organizations for


id: harnack-medal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harnack_Medal-0.md
category: reference
title: Harnack Medal
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harnack_Medal
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:09:18.562694+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: harnack-medal-20260505-0
summary:
The highest award which is presented by the Max Planck Society for services to society is the Harnack Medal, first awarded in 1925. The Harnack Medal is named after the theologian Adolf von Harnack, who was the first president of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society, the predecessor organization of the MPG, from 1911 to 1930. The medal has only been awarded 33 times since 1924, including 10 times by the Kaiser Wilhelm Society (1924–1936) and 23 times by the Max Planck Society (1953–2017). Past recipients of the Harnack Medal are: == References == == External links == Official website


id: havenga-prize-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Havenga_prize-0.md
category: reference
title: Havenga prize
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Havenga_prize
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:09:23.697194+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: havenga-prize-20260505-0
summary:
The Havenga Prize (Havengaprys in Afrikaans) is a prize awarded annually by the Suid-Afrikaanse Akademie vir Wetenskap en Kuns (South African Academy for Science and Arts) to a candidate for original research in the Sciences since 1945. Candidates are judged on the quality of research publications and evidence of the promotion of Afrikaans. The Havenga prize can only be awarded to a person once, but can be awarded posthumously. The prize is named after Finance Minister Nicolaas Christiaan Havenga, who donated £50 annually to the academy for the prize from 1946. A bequest of R4 000 was received from Havenga's estate and R14 000 from the estate of his wife, Olive. Since 1979 the prize has been awarded in the form of a gold medal. == Havenga prize winners == 1947 – Dr. T.E.W. Schumann (Mathematics and Physics); Dr. P.J. du Toit (Medicine); Dr. H.O. Mönnig (Medicine) 1948 – Dr. A.I. Malan (Chemistry); Dr. R.J. Ortlepp (Biology); Prof. C.G.S. de Villiers (Biology) 1949 – Prof. Dr. D.L. Scholtz (Geology); Dr. S.J. du Plessis (Agricultural Sciences) 1950 – Dr. M.H. de Kock (Economics); Dr. R. Campbell Begg (Medicine) 1951 – Prof. Meiring Naudé (Mathematics and Physics); Prof. HL de Waal (Chemistry)


id: hawking-fellowship-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawking_Fellowship-0.md
category: reference
title: Hawking Fellowship
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawking_Fellowship
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:09:25.001803+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hawking-fellowship-20260505-0
summary:
The Professor Stephen Hawking Fellowship is a prestigious annual fellowship of the Cambridge Union Society in the University of Cambridge. Awarded to an individual who has made an exceptional contribution to the STEM fields and social discourse, it is unique amongst comparable accolades in that it is conferred by the students of the University (through the Union), rather than the University itself. Established to celebrate Hawking’s achievements and the close relationship between him and the students of Cambridge, Professor Hawking accepted the inaugural fellowship and delivered the lecture in his last public appearance before his passing. Each honouree visits the Union to commence their tenure as fellow, delivering what is known as ‘The Hawking Lecture’. == List of Fellows == == References ==


id: hector-medal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hector_Medal-0.md
category: reference
title: Hector Medal
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hector_Medal
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:09:26.272676+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hector-medal-20260505-0
summary:
The Hector Medal, formerly known as the Hector Memorial Medal, is a science award given by the Royal Society Te Apārangi in memory of Sir James Hector to researchers working in New Zealand. It is awarded annually in rotation for different sciences – currently there are three: chemical sciences; physical sciences; mathematical and information sciences. It is given to a researcher who "has undertaken work of great scientific or technological merit and has made an outstanding contribution to the advancement of the particular branch of science." It was previously rotated through more fields of science – in 1918 they were: botany, chemistry, ethnology, geology, physics (including mathematics and astronomy), zoology (including animal physiology). For a few years it was awarded biennially – it was not awarded in 2000, 2002 or 2004. In 1991 it was overtaken by the Rutherford Medal as the highest award given by the Royal Society of New Zealand. The obverse of the medal bears the head of James Hector and the reverse a Māori snaring a huia. The last confirmed sighting of a living huia predates the award of the medal by three years. == Recipients == == See also == Category:New Zealand scientists The Shorland


id: heinrich-rohrer-medal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Rohrer_Medal-0.md
category: reference
title: Heinrich Rohrer Medal
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Rohrer_Medal
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:09:27.503055+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: heinrich-rohrer-medal-20260505-0
summary:
Heinrich Rohrer Medals are a series of awards presented to celebrate the late Nobel laureate Heinrich Rohrer for his work in the fields of nanoscience and nanotechnology, and specifically for co-creating the scanning tunneling microscope. Medals are awarded triennially by the Surface Science Society of Japan with IBM Research – Zurich, Swiss Embassy in Japan, and Ms. Rohrer. The Grand Medal is for a single researcher who has made "distinguished achievements in the field of nanoscience and nanotechnology based on surface science" but can be awarded to several individuals. The Rising Medal is presented to up to three researchers upwards of 37 years in age each with different topics. The Rising Medal is given for their outstanding efforts with the assumption that they will continue to actively work in their respective fields. Medals are given with a framed certificate and a cash prize of JPY 1,000,000 for the Grand Medal and JPY 300,000 for the Rising Medal. Awards have been presented in 2014 and 2017 and is scheduled to be presented in November 2020 at the 9th International Symposium on Surface Science (ISSS9) in Takamatsu, Japan. The 2020 medals will be presented and laureates are requested to give award lectures


id: hispanic-scientist-of-the-year-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispanic_Scientist_of_the_Year_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: Hispanic Scientist of the Year Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispanic_Scientist_of_the_Year_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:09:28.739577+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hispanic-scientist-of-the-year-award-20260505-0
summary:
The Museum of Science & Industry (Tampa) honors a Hispanic scientist every year since 2001. MOSI awards a Scientist every year to provide role models for the diverse youth of the Tampa Bay area. == 2001 == The 2001 honoree was Dr. Alejandro Acevedo-Gutierrez, a Marine Biologist from Mexico. == 2002 == The 2002 honoree was Fernando "Frank" Caldeiro, a NASA Astronaut from Argentina. == 2003 == The 2003 honoree was Dr. Mario Molina, a Nobel Laureate in Chemistry from Mexico. == 2004 == Dr. Antiona Coello Novello was the 2004 honoree, and she was the U.S. Surgeon General from 1990 to 1993. She is originally from Puerto Rico. == 2005 == Dr. Edmond Yunis was the 2005 honoree, and he is an Immunologist from Colombia. == 2006 == The 2006 honoree was Dr. Ines Cifuentes, a Seismologist from England, Ecuador, and America. == 2007 == Dr. Louis A. Martin-Vega is an Industrial Engineer from America and Puerto Rico, and he was the 2007 honoree. == 2008 == The 2008 honoree was Dr. Lydia Villa-Komaroff, a Molecular Biologist from America and Mexico. == 2009 == Dr. Nils Diaz, the former chair of the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, was the 2009


id: ho-am-prize-in-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ho-Am_Prize_in_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: Ho-Am Prize in Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ho-Am_Prize_in_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:09:29.998581+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ho-am-prize-in-science-20260505-0
summary:
The Ho-Am Prize in Science was established in 1990 by Kun-Hee Lee, the Chairman of Samsung, to honour the late Chairman, Lee Byung-chul, the founder of the company. The Ho-Am Prize in Science (previously the Ho-Am Prize in Science & Technology) is one of six prizes awarded annually, covering the five categories of Science, Engineering, Medicine, Arts, and Community Service, plus a Special Prize, which are named after the late Chairman's sobriquet (art-name or pen name), Ho-Am. The Ho-Am Prize in Science is presented each year, together with the other prizes, to individuals of Korean heritage who have furthered the welfare of humanity through distinguished accomplishments in the field of Science. == Prizewinners of Ho-Am Prize for Science == Source: Ho-Am Foundation == See also == List of general science and technology awards Ho-Am Prize in Medicine Ho-Am Prize in the Arts Ho-Am Prize in Engineering Ho-Am Prize in Community Service POSCO TJ Park Prize == References == == External links == Ho-Am Prize winners Laureates 2025


id: honda-prize-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honda_Prize-0.md
category: reference
title: Honda Prize
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honda_Prize
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:09:31.344426+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: honda-prize-20260505-0
summary:
The Honda Prize is awarded by the Honda Foundation. It is awarded for "the efforts of an individual or group who contribute new ideas which may lead the next generation in the field of ecotechnology". It is sometimes referred to as the "Nobel Prize in Technology" since it has put a spotlight on achievements in a variety of fields based on a wide perspective in the future, including two Turing-awarded artificial intelligence accomplishments. == Prize == The prize consists of a diploma, medal, and a reward of 10 million yen. == List of recipients == == References ==


id: howard-n-potts-medal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_N._Potts_Medal-0.md
category: reference
title: Howard N. Potts Medal
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_N._Potts_Medal
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:09:32.643387+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: howard-n-potts-medal-20260505-0
summary:
The Howard N. Potts Medal was one of The Franklin Institute Awards for science and engineering award presented by the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It is named for Howard N. Potts. The first Howard N. Potts Medal was awarded in 1911 but was merged in 1991, along with other Franklin Institute historical awards, into the Benjamin Franklin Medal. == Laureates == The following people received the Howard N. Potts Medal: 1911 - William Weber Coblentz (Physics) 1912 - William Arthur Bone (Chemistry) 1913 - James A. Bizzell (Earth Science) 1913 - Thomas Lyttleton Lyon (Earth Science) for "Plants and Relation to Nitrate in Soils" 1914 - Ralph Modjeski (Engineering) 1916 - William Jackson Humphreys (Physics) 1916 - William Spencer Murray (Engineering) 1917 - Ulric Dahlgren (Life Science) 1918 - Alexander Gray (Engineering) 1918 - Arthur Edwin Kennelly (Engineering) 1918 - Louis Vessot King (Engineering) 1919 - Reynold Janney (Engineering) 1919 - Clarence P. Landreth (Chemistry) 1919 - Harvey D. Williams (Engineering) 1920 - Wendell Addison Barker (Invention) 1920 - Edward P. Bullard, Jr. (Engineering) 1921 - Elmer Verner McCollum (Life Science) 1921 - Alfred O. Tate (Engineering) 1922 - Ernest George Coker (Physics) 1922 - Charles R. Downs (Chemistry)


id: iet-faraday-medal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IET_Faraday_Medal-0.md
category: reference
title: IET Faraday Medal
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IET_Faraday_Medal
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:09:34.029464+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: iet-faraday-medal-20260505-0
summary:
The Faraday Medal is a top-tier international medal awarded by the UK Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET) (previously known as the Institution of Electrical Engineers (IEE)). As one of the world's foremost awards in engineering and the most prestigious in electrical engineering, it is part of the IET Achievement Medals collection of awards. The medal is named after the British physicist Michael Faraday, the father of electromagnetism. == Background == The Faraday Medal is the IET's highest honour and one of the world's most prestigious awards for engineers and scientists. Winners include ground-breaking pioneers and inventors. First awarded in 1922, it is one of the oldest medals still being awarded today. The top medal is awarded annually to distinguished individuals who either for notable scientific or industrial achievement in engineering or for conspicuous service rendered to the advancement of science, engineering and technology, without restriction as regards nationality, country of residence or membership of the Institution. The award was established in 1922 to commemorate the 50th Anniversary of the first Ordinary Meeting of the Society of Telegraph Engineers and is named after Michael Faraday. Each year, the recipient received his/her award at a ceremony held in London that is


id: imagine-cup-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imagine_Cup-0.md
category: reference
title: Imagine Cup
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imagine_Cup
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:09:35.350059+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: imagine-cup-20260505-0
summary:
Imagine Cup is an annual competition sponsored and hosted by Microsoft Corp. which brings together student developers worldwide to help resolve some of the world's toughest challenges. It is considered as "Olympics of Technology" by computer science and engineering and is considered one of the top competitions and awards related to technology and software design. All Imagine Cup competitors create projects that address the Imagine Cup theme: "Imagine a world where technology helps solve the toughest problems". Started in 2003, it has steadily grown, with more than 2 million competitors representing 150 countries in 2022. The 2023 Imagine Cup World Championship was held in Seattle, United States. == History == The Imagine Cup began in 2003 with approximately 1,000 competitors from 25 countries and regions and has grown to more than 2 million competitors representing 150 countries in 2022. The Imagine Cup World Championship has been held all over the globe. Since 2014, the Imagine Cup World Championship has been held in Seattle, United States. 2003: Barcelona, Spain – Theme: Link between people, information, systems, and devices, using Web services and. NET as the springboard. 2004: São Paulo, Brazil – Theme: Imagine a world where smart technology makes everyday life


id: imagine-cup-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imagine_Cup-1.md
category: reference
title: Imagine Cup
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imagine_Cup
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:09:35.350059+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: imagine-cup-20260505-0
summary:
Team Graphmasters from Germany. The team members are: Christian Brüggemann, Sebastian Heise and Iulian Nitescu. Team StethoCloud from Australia. The team members are: Hon Weng Chong, Andrew Lin, Mahsa Salehi and Karthik Rajah. Team Vivid from Egypt. The team members are: Noureldien Hussein (Nour El-Dien Hussein), Muhammed Mousa El-Orabi and Fady Fawzy Rafla. Team Cipher256 from Uganda The team members are: Aaron Tushabe, Joshua Okello, Dr. Davis Musinguzi, Josiah Kavuma and Joseph Kaizzi. Team QuadSquad from Ukraine. The team members are: Maxim Osika, Valeriy Yasakov, Anton Stepanov, Anton Posternikov and Dmytro Samoilenko. == Recognition == Imagine Cup participants from around the world who won their regional competitions in 2010 have been recognized by their government leaders. In October 2010, two Imagine Cup 2010 United States finalists (Wilson To from the Mobilifeteam and Christian Hood from BeastWare) were invited to participate in the White House Science Fair. New Zealand's Prime Minister, Hon. John Key sent Team OneBeep from New Zealand a personal letter that congratulated them on their third-place finish. Team Skeek from Thailand, winners of the 2010 Software Design competition, met Dr. Khunying Kalaya Sophonpanich, a member of Parliament and Secretary General of The Rajapruek Institute Foundation. Microsoft Poland and


id: india-science-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_Science_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: India Science Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_Science_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:09:40.420388+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: india-science-award-20260505-0
summary:
India Science Award is one of the highest and the most prestigious national recognition by the Government of India for outstanding contribution to science. The primary and essential criterion for the award is demonstrated and widely accepted excellence in science. The award covers all areas of research in science including engineering, medicine and agriculture. The prize money is ₹25 lakhs, and it also carries a citation and a gold medal. The award is announced and presented every year at the Indian Science Congress (ISC). The award was instituted by the 10th Prime Minister of India Shri Atal Bihari Vajpayee in 2003. The first award, for the year 2004, was given to a renowned chemist Prof CNR Rao, for his works in solid state and material chemistry, by Prime Minister Manmohan Singh at the inauguration of the 93rd Indian Science Congress on 3 January 2006. == History == India Science Award was launched at the 90th Indian Science Congress on 3 January 2003, held at Bangalore University, by the Prime Minister of India. On 30 June 2003 the Ministry of Science and Technology (India) approved the framework and guidelines of the award. The meeting was attended by 20 eminent scientists, government


id: innovators-under-35-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innovators_Under_35-0.md
category: reference
title: Innovators Under 35
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innovators_Under_35
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:09:41.709400+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: innovators-under-35-20260505-0
summary:
The Innovators Under 35 is a peer-reviewed annual award and listicle published by MIT Technology Review magazine, naming the world's top 35 innovators under the age of 35. == Background == They have 5 categories of innovators, Visionaries, Pioneers, Inventors, Humanitarians, Entrepreneurs. There are also subcategories, and although they change from year to year, they generally focus on biomedicine, computing, communications, business, energy, materials, and the web. Nominations are sent from around the world and evaluated by a panel of expert judges. In some years, an Innovator of the Year or a Humanitarian of the Year is also named from among the winners. The purpose of the award is to honor "Exceptionally talented young innovators whose work has the greatest potential to transform the world." == History == The award was started in 1999 as the TR100, with 100 winners, but was changed to TR35 (35 winners) starting in 2005. The awards are presented to the winners at the annual Emtech conference on emerging technologies, held in the fall at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), where there is an awards ceremony and reception. There are several regional TR35 lists produced by Technology Review also, such as the list of


id: list-of-international-society-for-magnetic-resonance-in-medicine-gold-medal-winners-20260505-0
category: reference
title: List of International Society for Magnetic Resonance in Medicine gold medal winners
tags: science, encyclopedia
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:09:42.948889+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-international-society-for-magnetic-resonance-in-medicine-gold-medal-winners-20260505-0
file:
data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_International_Society_for_Magnetic_Resonance_in_Medicine_gold_medal_winners-0.md

summary:
The ISMRM Gold Medal is the highest honor awarded by the International Society for Magnetic Resonance in Medicine, recognizing individuals who have made major contributions to the development of magnetic resonance techniques in medicine and biology. Recipients are selected by a committee of peers based on the originality and impact of their work in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and spectroscopy (MRS). Past awardees include Robert S. Balaban (1994), Peter J. Basser (2008), Zaver M. Bhujwalla (2019), and Peter A. Bandettini (2020). ✰ – 1991 Nobel Prize in Chemistry ★ – 2003 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine == See also == Günther Laukien Prize, presented at the Experimental Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Conference "to recognize recent cutting-edge experimental NMR research with a high probability of enabling beneficial new applications." == References == == External links == Gold Medal, International Society for Magnetic Resonance in Medicine

source_url:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_International_Society_for_Magnetic_Resonance_in_Medicine_gold_medal_winners


id: iri-medal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IRI_Medal-0.md
category: reference
title: IRI Medal
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IRI_Medal
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:09:44.100060+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: iri-medal-20260505-0
summary:
The IRI Medal, established by the Industrial Research Institute (IRI) in 1946, recognizes and honors leaders of technology for their outstanding accomplishments in technological innovation which contribute broadly to the development of industry and to the benefit of society. One side of the medal depicts a scientist peering into a microscope as a symbol of the never-ending quest for innovation; a pegasus running in the background as a symbol of imagination; and clouds issuing from a retort revealing the practical results of humanity's ability to harness natural forces to meet its needs. The reverse side of the medal is an adaptation of the official seal of the Institute. This award is traditionally presented each spring at the IRI Annual Meeting alongside the IRI Achievement Award. == List of recipients == == See also == Industrial Research Institute IRI Achievement Award Maurice Holland Award == References == == External links == Industrial Research Institute, Inc. (IRI) IRI Medal


id: kamerlingh-onnes-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamerlingh_Onnes_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: Kamerlingh Onnes Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamerlingh_Onnes_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:09:45.258457+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kamerlingh-onnes-award-20260505-0
summary:
The Kamerlingh Onnes Award is in recognition of special merits of scientists active in the field of refrigeration technology, cryogenics and more generally low-temperature science and technology. It was founded in 1948 by the Royal Dutch Association of Refrigeration (Koninklijke Nederlandse Vereniging voor Koude, KNVvK) The name of the award is intended to keep the memory of Heike Kamerlingh Onnes alive. The award is assigned typically every four years and the winners get a golden medal and a certificate. == List of recipients == 1950 Prof. F. Simon, Oxford, England, Very low temperatures, liquid hydrogen and helium 1955 Prof. R. Plank, Karlsruhe, Germany, Refrigeration technology in a broad sense 1958 Prof. S.C. Collins, M.I.T., USA, Low temperatures, especially with regard to equipment for the production of liquid helium 1958 Philips Natuurkundig Laboratorium, Eindhoven, Netherlands, Development of cryogenerator 1963 Dr. F. Kidd and Dr. C. West, Cambridge, England, Research storage conditions of fruit 1968 Prof. P.L. Kapitza, Moscov, Russia, Low temperatures; scientifically and technologically 1973 Ms. Dr. Audrey Smith, Stanmore, England, Introduction of cryoprotectants; cryobiology 1979 Dr. J.E. Kunzler, Bell Labs., USA, Superconductivity 1983 Prof. L. Váhl, Delft, The Netherlands, Refrigeration technology in the broad sense 1988 Ir. T.A. van Hiele,


id: kavli-prize-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kavli_Prize-0.md
category: reference
title: Kavli Prize
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kavli_Prize
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:09:46.537612+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kavli-prize-20260505-0
summary:
The Kavli Prize was established in 2005 as a joint venture of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters, the Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research, and the Kavli Foundation. It honors, supports, and recognizes scientists for outstanding work in the fields of astrophysics, nanoscience and neuroscience. Three prizes are awarded every second year. Each of the three Kavli Prizes consists of a gold medal, a scroll, and a cash award of US$1,000,000. The medal has a diameter of 70 millimetres (2.8 in), a thickness of 5 millimetres (0.20 in), and weighs 311 grams (11.0 oz). The first Kavli Prizes were awarded on 9 September 2008 in Oslo, presented by Haakon, Crown Prince of Norway. == Selection committees == The Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters appoints three prize committees consisting of leading international scientists after receiving recommendations made from the following organisations: Chinese Academy of Sciences French Academy of Sciences Max Planck Society United States National Academy of Sciences Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters Royal Society == Laureates == === Astrophysics === === Nanoscience === === Neuroscience === == See also == List of general science and technology awards List of astronomy awards List of neuroscience awards The


id: k-rber-european-science-prize-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Körber_European_Science_Prize-0.md
category: reference
title: Körber European Science Prize
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Körber_European_Science_Prize
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:09:47.747721+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: k-rber-european-science-prize-20260505-0
summary:
The Körber European Science Prize is a science and technology award, presented annually by the Körber Foundation in Hamburg, honoring outstanding scientists working in Europe for their promising research projects. The prize is endowed with 1 million euro (until 2018: 750,000 euro) and promotes research projects in the life sciences and physical sciences. == History == The prize was initiated by the entrepreneur Kurt A. Körber with the help of Reimar Lüst, the president of the Max Planck Society. The first award was in 1985. At first, European research teams were honored, but since 2005, only individuals qualify. == Selection process == Candidates for the prize need not be from Europe, but they must be living in Europe. Renowned scientists from all over Europe, grouped into two Search Committees, select promising candidates. The awards are annual and alternate between the life and physical sciences. Those who are shortlisted are then asked to submit a detailed proposal for a research project which is then judged in two rounds of assessment by the Search Committee. The work of the Search Committee is supported by international experts. A maximum of five candidates are subsequently recommended to the Trustee Committee which, based on a


id: kyoto-prize-in-basic-sciences-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyoto_Prize_in_Basic_Sciences-0.md
category: reference
title: Kyoto Prize in Basic Sciences
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyoto_Prize_in_Basic_Sciences
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:09:48.996348+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kyoto-prize-in-basic-sciences-20260505-0
summary:
The Kyoto Prize in Basic Sciences is awarded once a year by the Inamori Foundation. The Prize is one of three Kyoto Prize categories; the others are the Kyoto Prize in Advanced Technology and the Kyoto Prize in Arts and Philosophy. The first Kyoto Prize in Basic Sciences was awarded to Claude Elwood Shannon, the “Establishment of Mathematical Foundation of Information Theory”. The Prize is regarded as a prestigious award available in fields which are traditionally not honored with a Nobel Prize. == Fields == The Kyoto Prize in Basic Sciences is awarded on a rotating basis to researchers in the following four fields: Mathematical sciences (including pure mathematics) Biological sciences (evolution, behavior, ecology, environment) Earth and planetary sciences, astronomy and astrophysics Cognitive science/Life sciences (molecular biology, cell biology, neurobiology) == Laureates == Source: Kyoto Prize === Biological sciences === === Mathematical sciences === === Earth and planetary sciences, astronomy and astrophysics === === Life sciences === === Cognitive science === == See also == Kyoto Prize Kyoto Prize in Advanced Technology Kyoto Prize in Arts and Philosophy List of Kyoto Prize winners List of astronomy awards List of biology awards List of mathematics awards == References ==


id: leibniz-prize-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leibniz_Prize-0.md
category: reference
title: Leibniz Prize
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leibniz_Prize
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:09:50.164987+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: leibniz-prize-20260505-0
summary:
The Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize (German: Förderpreis für deutsche Wissenschaftler im Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz-Programm der Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft), or Leibniz Prize, is awarded by the German Research Foundation to "exceptional scientists and academics for their outstanding achievements in the field of research". Since 1986, up to ten prizes have been awarded annually to individuals or research groups working at a research institution in Germany or at a German research institution abroad. It is considered the most important research award in Germany. The prize is named after the German polymath and philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646–1716). It is one of the highest endowed research prizes in Germany with a maximum of €2.5 million per award. Past prize winners include Stefan Hell (2008), Gerd Faltings (1996), Peter Gruss (1994), Svante Pääbo (1992), Theodor W. Hänsch (1989), Erwin Neher (1987), Bert Sakmann (1987), Jürgen Habermas (1986), Hartmut Michel (1986), and Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard (1986). == Prizewinners == === 2020–2029 === 2026: Klaus Blaum – Experimental Physics, Max Planck Institute for Nuclear Physics, Heidelberg Christian Doeller – Cognitive Neuroscience and Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig Christian Hasse – Energy Process Technology, Technische Universität Darmstadt Johannes Krause – Archaeogenetics, Max Planck


id: leibniz-prize-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leibniz_Prize-1.md
category: reference
title: Leibniz Prize
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leibniz_Prize
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:09:50.164987+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: leibniz-prize-20260505-0
summary:
Jens Beckert – Sociology, Max Planck Institute for the Study of Societies, Cologne Alessandra Buonanno – Gravitational Physics, Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics (Albert Einstein Institute), Potsdam Nicola Fuchs-Schündeln – Economics, Goethe University Frankfurt Veit Hornung – Immunologie, Gene Center Munich, LMU Munich and Eicke Latz, Immunologie, University Hospital Bonn, University of Bonn Heike Paul – Amerikanistik, University of Erlangen–Nuremberg Erika L. Pearce – Immunologie, Max Planck Institute of Immunobiology and Epigenetics, Freiburg/Breisgau Claus Ropers – Experimental Solid-state Physics, University of Göttingen Oliver G. Schmidt – Materials Science, Leibniz Institute for Solid State and Materials Research, Dresden and Fakultät für Elektrotechnik und Informationstechnik, Chemnitz University of Technology Bernhard Schölkopf – Machine Learning, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Tübingen László Székelyhidi – Applied Mathematics, Leipzig University 2017: Lutz Ackermann – Organic Molecular Chemistry, University of Göttingen Beatrice Gründler – Arabistics, Free University of Berlin Ralph Hertwig – Cognition Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Education Research Karl-Peter Hopfner – Structure Biology, LMU Munich Frank Jülicher – Theoretical Biophysics, Max Planck Institute for Physics of Complex Systems Lutz Mädler – Mechanical Process engineering, University of Bremen Britta Nestler – Material science, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) Joachim P. Spatz – Biophysics,


id: leibniz-prize-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leibniz_Prize-2.md
category: reference
title: Leibniz Prize
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leibniz_Prize
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:09:50.164987+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: leibniz-prize-20260505-0
summary:
Jan Born – Neuroendocrinology / Sleep research (University of Lübeck) Peter Fratzl – Biomaterials (Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Potsdam) Roman Inderst – Macroeconomics (Goethe University Frankfurt) Christoph Klein – Pediatrics / Oncology (Hannover Medical School) Ulman Lindenberger – Lifespan psychology (Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin) Frank Neese – Theoretical chemistry (University of Bonn) Jürgen Osterhammel – Recent and modern history (University of Konstanz) Petra Schwille – Biophysics (Dresden University of Technology) Stefan Treue – Cognitive Neurosciences (German Primate Center, Göttingen) Joachim Weickert – Digital image processing (Saarland University) === 2009–2000 === 2009: Antje Boetius – Max Planck Institute for Marine Microbiology, Bremen Holger Braunschweig – Inorganic chemistry, University of Würzburg Wolfram Burgard – Computer science, University of Freiburg Heinrich Detering – University of Göttingen Jürgen Eckert – IFW Dresden, and Dresden University of Technology Armin Falk – Economist, University of Bonn Frank Kirchhoff – University of Ulm Jürgen Rödel – Materials scientist, Technische Universität Darmstadt Karl Lenhard Rudolph – University of Ulm Burkhard Wilking – University of Münster Martin R. Zirnbauer – University of Cologne 2008: Susanne Albers – theoretical computer science, University of Freiburg Martin Beneke – theoretical particle physics, RWTH Aachen University Holger


id: leibniz-prize-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leibniz_Prize-3.md
category: reference
title: Leibniz Prize
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leibniz_Prize
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:09:50.164987+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: leibniz-prize-20260505-0
summary:
Jochen Feldmann – optoelectronical component (LMU Munich) Eduard Christian Hurt – molecular biology (Heidelberg University) Hans Keppler – mineralogy (University of Tübingen) Arthur Konnerth – neurophysiology (LMU Munich) Ulrich Konrad – musicology (University of Würzburg) Martin Krönke – immunology/cell biology (University of Cologne) Joachim Küpper – Romantic literary theory (Free University of Berlin) Christoph Markschies – history of Christianity (Heidelberg University) Wolfgang Marquardt – process systems engineering (RWTH Aachen University) Helge Ritter – informatics (Bielefeld University) Günter Ziegler – mathematics (Technische Universität Berlin) 2000: Klaus Fiedler – cognitive social psychology (Heidelberg University) Peter Greil – materials science (University of Erlangen–Nuremberg) Matthias W. Hentze – molecular biology (European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Heidelberg) Peter M. Herzig – geochemistry and economic geology (Freiberg University of Mining and Technology) Reinhard Jahn – cellular biology (Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry (Karl Friedrich Bonhoeffer Institute), Göttingen) Aditi Lahiri – general linguistics (University of Konstanz) Gertrude Lübbe-Wolff – public law (Bielefeld University) Dieter Lüst – theoretical physics (Humboldt University of Berlin) Stefan Müller – mathematics (Max Planck Institute for Mathematics in the Sciences, Leipzig) Manfred Pinkal – computational linguistics (Saarland University) Ilme Schlichting – biophysics (Max Planck Institute for Molecular Physiology, Dortmund) Friedrich Temps and Hans-Joachim


id: leibniz-prize-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leibniz_Prize-4.md
category: reference
title: Leibniz Prize
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leibniz_Prize
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:09:50.164987+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: leibniz-prize-20260505-0
summary:
Georg W. Bornkamm – virology (GSF-Forschungszentrum für Umwelt und Gesundheit München) Christopher Deninger, Michael Rapoport, Peter Schneider and Thomas Zink – mathematics (University of Münster, University of Wuppertal, University of Cologne and Bielefeld University) Irmela Hijiya-Kirschnereit – japanology (Free University of Berlin) Jürgen Kocka – history of sociology (Free University of Berlin) Joachim Menz – mine surveying (Freiberg University of Mining and Technology) Friedhelm Meyer auf der Heide and Burkhard Monien – informatics (Paderborn University) Jürgen Mlynek – experimental physics (University of Konstanz) Svante Pääbo – molecular biology (LMU Munich) Wolfgang Raible – romanistics (University of Freiburg) Hans-Georg Rammensee – immunology (Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology, Tübingen) Jan Veizer – geochemistry of sediments (Ruhr University Bochum) 1991: Gerhard Ertl – physical chemistry (Fritz Haber Institute of the MPG, Berlin) Dieter Fenske and Michael Veith – inorganic chemistry (University of Karlsruhe and Saarland University) Ernst O. Göbel – solid state physics (Marburg University) Dieter Häussinger – internal medicine (University of Freiburg) Karl-Heinz Hoffmann – applied mathematics (University of Augsburg) Randolf Menzel – zoology/neurobiology (Free University of Berlin) Rolf Müller – biochemistry/molecular biology (Marburg University) Hermann Riedel – material mechanics (Fraunhofer-Institut für Werkstoffmechanik Freiburg) Hans-Ulrich Schmincke – mineralogy/vulcanology (Research Center for


id: leonhard-euler-gold-medal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonhard_Euler_Gold_Medal-0.md
category: reference
title: Leonhard Euler Gold Medal
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonhard_Euler_Gold_Medal
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:09:51.338795+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: leonhard-euler-gold-medal-20260505-0
summary:
The Leonhard Euler Gold Medal (Золотая медаль имени Леонарда Эйлера) is a medal named after the Swiss, German, and Russian mathematician Leonhard Euler, awarded by the Отделением математических наук (Branch of Mathematical Sciences of the Russian Academy of Sciences) for outstanding results in mathematics and physics. The medal was awarded once in 1957 to two scientists and since 1991 has been awarded every five years. == Laureates == 1957 — Igor Kurchatov and Felix Frankl for outstanding results in mathematics and physics 1991 — Aleksandr Danilovich Aleksandrov for fundamental contributions to the development of mathematics 1997 — Yury Osipov for outstanding results in mathematics and physics 2002 — Ludvig Faddeev for outstanding results in mathematics and physics 2007 — Valery Vasilevich Kozlov for a series of papers on nonlinear Hamiltonian systems of differential equations 2012 — Sergei Novikov for his deep contribution to the application of topological methods in quantum physics 2017 — Igor Shafarevich for outstanding contributions to number theory and algebraic geometry 2022 — Sergei Godunov for outstanding results in the field of computational mathematics == References ==


id: list-of-nelson-p-jackson-aerospace-memorial-award-winners-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Nelson_P._Jackson_Aerospace_Memorial_Award_winners-0.md
category: reference
title: List of Nelson P. Jackson Aerospace Memorial Award winners
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Nelson_P._Jackson_Aerospace_Memorial_Award_winners
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:09:56.644877+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-nelson-p-jackson-aerospace-memorial-award-winners-20260505-0
summary:
The Nelson P. Jackson Aerospace Memorial Award was established in 1960 to honor Nelson P. Jackson, a founder and first president of the National Space Club. This award is the club's second most prestigious honor and it recognizes outstanding contributions to advancements in the missile, aircraft, and space fields. Described by NASA as “the space world's equivalent of an Academy Award" it is presented annually by the National Space Club during the Dr. Robert H. Goddard Memorial Dinner in Washington, D.C. Nelson P. Jackson was a highly decorated Air Force colonel, involved in the military atomic energy program, and had served with the Joint Chiefs of Staff. He was also a prominent D.C. attorney and the D.C. manager for GE's Atomic Energy Division. The National Space Club is the premier non-profit organization dedicated to advancing space leadership, technology, and education in the United States. Bringing together industry leaders, government officials, educators, and private individuals, the club fosters collaboration in astronautics and ensures that critical space-related information is shared with the public. == List of Nelson P. Jackson Aerospace Memorial Award winners == == References ==


id: lloyd-s-nelson-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lloyd_S._Nelson_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: Lloyd S. Nelson Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lloyd_S._Nelson_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:09:57.801699+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: lloyd-s-nelson-award-20260505-0
summary:
The Lloyd S. Nelson Award is an annual award presented by the editorial review board of the Journal of Quality Technology (JQT), a quarterly peer-reviewed journal published by the American Society for Quality (ASQ). The award recognizes the paper published in the JQT judged to have the "greatest immediate impact to practitioners" in the field of quality control and applied statistics. == History and Namesake == The award is named in honor of Dr. Lloyd S. Nelson (1922–2013), an American statistician and educator who was influential in developing and promoting statistical methods for quality improvement. Nelson was the founding editor of the Journal of Quality Technology, a publication dedicated to making technical statistical tools accessible for industrial application. He established the journal in 1969 by leading the initiative to split ASQ's flagship publication, Industrial Quality Control, into two separate journals: the general interest magazine Quality Progress and the more technical Journal of Quality Technology. Nelson is also known for formalizing the Nelson rules, a set of tests used to detect "special causes" of variation in statistical process control charts. == Criteria and Selection == The winning paper is selected by the JQT editorial review board based on criteria prioritizing real-world


id: m-king-hubbert-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M._King_Hubbert_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: M. King Hubbert Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M._King_Hubbert_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:00.217095+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: m-king-hubbert-award-20260505-0
summary:
The M. King Hubbert Award is an annual award granted by the National Ground Water Association in the United States. Established in 1973, it is named after Marion King Hubbert, an American geophysicist who made foundational contributions to geology and geophysics. The award is presented to a person who has made a major science or engineering contribution to the groundwater industry through research, technical papers, teaching, and practical applications. As of 2026, fifty-three scientists have received the award. == List of recipients == Starting in 1973, the list of recipients is available from the National Ground Water Association website. 1973: Walter H. F. Smith 1974: Robert Minning 1975: Harry E. LeGrand 1977: Thomas A. Prickett 1979: David M. Miller 1980: Stanley N. Davis 1981: Jack Keeley 1982: Wayne A. Pettyjohn 1983: Otto Helwig 1984: Don L. Warner 1985: John G. Ferris 1986: John D. Hem 1987: John A. Cherry 1988: Shlomo P. Neuman 1989: Leonard F. Konikow 1990: Jacob Bear 1991: John D. Bredehoeft 1992: Mary P. Anderson 1993: Irwin Remson 1994: Donald Nielsen 1995: William Back 1996: R. Allan Freeze 1997: Franklin W. Schwartz 1998: Richard R. Parizek 1999: Thomas C. Winter 2000: Emil A. Friend 2001: David McWhorter


id: magellanic-premium-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magellanic_Premium-0.md
category: reference
title: Magellanic Premium
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magellanic_Premium
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:01.471355+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: magellanic-premium-20260505-0
summary:
The Magellanic Premium, also known as the Magellanic Gold Medal and Magellanic Prize is awarded for major contributions in the field of navigation (whether by sea, air, or in space), astronomy, or natural philosophy. The Premium was established in 1786 through a grant by Jean-Hyacinthe Magellan (Portuguese: João Jacinto de Magalhães). Benjamin Franklin, then President of the American Philosophical Society, accepted it and established the terms of reference under which it would be given. In the 217 years since Magellan offered the Premium, the APS has awarded on only 36 occasions (as of 2021): twelve for navigation, twelve for natural philosophy, and eleven for astronomy. == Recipients of the Magellanic Premium == Source: American Philosophical Society == See also == List of general science and technology awards == References == The Magellanic Premium


id: magnus-hirschfeld-medal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnus_Hirschfeld_Medal-0.md
category: reference
title: Magnus Hirschfeld Medal
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnus_Hirschfeld_Medal
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:02.678631+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: magnus-hirschfeld-medal-20260505-0
summary:
The Magnus Hirschfeld Medal is awarded by the German Society for Social-Scientific Sexuality Research (DGSS) for outstanding service to sexual science, granted in the categories "Sexual Research" and "Sexual Reform". It is named in honour of German sexology pioneer Magnus Hirschfeld (though DGSS diverges from some of Hirschfeld's theories). == Previous winners == === For contributions to sexual research === 1990 Ernest Borneman (Austria) 1992 John Paul De Cecco (USA) 1994 Liu Dalin (China) 1997 Jonathan Ned Katz (USA) 2000 Milton Diamond (USA) 2002 John Money (USA) 2004 Martin S. Weinberg (USA) 2006 Richard Green (USA/UK) 2008 Hu Peicheng (China) 2016 João Décio Ferreira (Portugal) === For contributions to sexual reform === 1990 Herman Musaph (Netherlands) 1992 Imre Aszódi (Hungary) 1994 Ruth Westheimer ("Dr. Ruth"; USA) 1997 Maj-Briht Bergström-Walan (Sweden) 2000 Oswalt Kolle (Netherlands) 2002 Manfred Bruns (Germany) and William Granzig (USA) 2004 Rolf Gindorf (Germany) 2006 Rita Süssmuth (Germany) 2008 Robert T. Francoeur (USA) == References ==


id: mahathir-science-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahathir_Science_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: Mahathir Science Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahathir_Science_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:03.844483+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mahathir-science-award-20260505-0
summary:
The Mahathir Science Award is an award for outstanding contributions in science and technology that address issues related to the tropics. The Foundation was established 17 August 2004 in honour of the former Prime Minister of Malaysia Mahathir Mohamad. It is presented by the Mahathir Science Award Foundation. == Award-winners == Alimuddin Zumla Hugh Possingham Kerrie Wilson Erik Meijaard Rita R. Colwell Alan Cowman Yuan Longping == References ==


id: mayor-s-award-for-excellence-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayor's_Award_for_Excellence_in_Science_and_Technology-0.md
category: reference
title: Mayor's Award for Excellence in Science and Technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayor's_Award_for_Excellence_in_Science_and_Technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:05.055926+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: mayor-s-award-for-excellence-in-science-and-technology-20260505-0
summary:
The Mayor's Award for Excellence in Science and Technology is given annually to recognise important members of the science and engineering communities in New York City. Candidates must live or work in the city. Nominations are submitted in five categories: Biological and Medical Sciences Mathematical, Physical, Engineering Sciences Technology Public Understanding of Science and Technology Young Investigator (for scientists and engineers under the age of 40) The Mayor chooses winners from a list of finalists submitted by the New York Academy of Sciences and the New York City Department of Cultural Affairs. == References ==


id: meinzer-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meinzer_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: Meinzer Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meinzer_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:06.372305+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: meinzer-award-20260505-0
summary:
The O.E. Meinzer Award is the annual award of the Hydrogeology Division of the Geological Society of America. Established in 1965, it is named after Oscar Edward Meinzer who has been called the "father of modern groundwater hydrology". The Meinzer award recognizes the author or authors of a publication or body of publications that have significantly advanced the science of hydrogeology or a closely related field. == List of recipients == Starting in 1973, the list of recipients is available from the National Ground Water Association website. 1965 Tóth, József 1966 McGuinness, C. L. 1967 Stallman, Robert W. 1968 Hantush, Mahdi S. 1969 Cooper, Hilton H., Jr. 1970 Stringfield, Victor T. 1971 Maxey, George B. 1972 Poland, Joseph F. and Davis, George H. 1973 Back, William and Hanshaw, Bruce B. 1974 Freeze, R. Allan 1975 Bredehoeft, John D. and Pinder, George F. 1976 Neuman, Shlomo P. and Witherspoon, Paul A. 1977 Rubin, Jacob and James, Ronald V. 1978 Nelson, William R. 1979 Sharp, John. M., Jr., and Domenico, P. A. 1980 Cooley, Richard. L. 1981 Bennett, Gordon D. 1983 Weeks, Edwin P. 1984 Schwartz, Franklin W. and Smith, Leslie. J. 1985 Cherry, John A. 1986 Narasimhan, T. N. 1987 Gelhar,


id: microsoft-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: Microsoft Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:07.665245+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: microsoft-award-20260505-0
summary:
The Royal Society and Académie des sciences Microsoft Award was an annual award given by the Royal Society and the Académie des sciences to scientists working in Europe who had made a major contribution to the advancement of science through the use of computational methods. It was sponsored by Microsoft Research. The award was open to any research scientist who had made a significant contribution at the intersection of computing and the sciences covering Biological Sciences, Physical Sciences, Mathematics and Engineering. The prize recognized the importance of interdisciplinary research at the interface of science and computing for advancing scientific boundaries, as well as the importance of investing in European scientists to give Europe a competitive science base. The recipient was selected by a Committee comprising members of the Académie des sciences and Fellows of the Royal Society. The prize consisted of a trophy and monetary amount of €250,000, of which €7,500 is prize money and the rest earmarked for further research. The first award was made in 2006 and the last in 2009. It has now been replaced by the Royal Society Milner Award. == List of winners == == Microsoft Award today == Today, Microsoft is giving awards for


id: minkowski-prize-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minkowski_Prize-0.md
category: reference
title: Minkowski Prize
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minkowski_Prize
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:08.957702+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: minkowski-prize-20260505-0
summary:
The Minkowski Prize is given by the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD) in recognition to research which has been carried out by a person normally residing in Europe, as manifested by publications which contribute to the advancement of knowledge concerning diabetes mellitus. The Prize honors the name of Oskar Minkowski (1858–1931), a physician and physiologist who was the discoverer of the role of pancreas in the control of glucose metabolism. It has been awarded annually since 1966, and the winner is invited to pronounce a Minkowski Lecture during the EASD Annual Conference. It is traditionally seen as the most prestigious European prize in the field of diabetes research. Since 1966, the award is sponsored by a pharmaceutical company Sanofi-Aventis. The prize consists of a certificate and 20,000 euros plus travel expenses. The candidate must be less than 45 years of age on 1 January of the year of award. Self-nomination is possible. == Winners == With the city where the prize was awarded (Annual Conference), name and country. 1966 Aarhus – Philip Randle (United Kingdom) 1967 Stockholm – E. R. Froesch (Switzerland) 1968 Louvain – Lars Carlson (Sweden) 1969 Montpellier – Bo Hellman (Sweden) 1970 Warsaw –


id: national-medal-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Medal_of_Science-0.md
category: reference
title: National Medal of Science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Medal_of_Science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:14.243421+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-medal-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
The National Medal of Science is an honor bestowed by the president of the United States to individuals in science and engineering who have made important contributions to the advancement of knowledge in the fields of behavioral and social sciences, biology, chemistry, engineering, mathematics and physics. The twelve member presidential Committee on the National Medal of Science is responsible for selecting award recipients and is administered by the National Science Foundation (NSF). It is the highest science award in the United States. == History == The National Medal of Science was established on August 25, 1959, by an act of the Congress of the United States under Pub. L. 86–209. The medal was originally to honor scientists in the fields of the "physical, biological, mathematical, or engineering sciences". The Committee on the National Medal of Science was established on August 23, 1961, by executive order 10961 of President John F. Kennedy. On January 7, 1979, the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) passed a resolution proposing that the medal be expanded to include the social and behavioral sciences. In response, Senator Ted Kennedy introduced the Science and Technology Equal Opportunities Act into the Senate on March 7, 1979,


id: national-medal-of-technology-and-innovation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Medal_of_Technology_and_Innovation-0.md
category: reference
title: National Medal of Technology and Innovation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Medal_of_Technology_and_Innovation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:15.451379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-medal-of-technology-and-innovation-20260505-0
summary:
The National Medal of Technology and Innovation (formerly the National Medal of Technology) is an honor granted by the president of the United States to American inventors and innovators who have made significant contributions to the development of new and important technology. The award may be granted to a specific person, to a group of people or to an entire organization or corporation. It is the highest honor the United States can confer to a U.S. citizen for achievements related to technological progress. == History == The National Medal of Technology was created in 1980 by the United States Congress under the Stevenson-Wydler Technology Innovation Act. It was a bipartisan effort to foster technological innovation and the technological competitiveness of the United States in the international arena. The first National Medals of Technology were issued in 1985 by then-U.S. president Ronald Reagan to 12 individuals and one company. Among the first recipients were Steve Jobs and Stephen Wozniak, founders of Apple Computer. The medal has been awarded annually until 2015. On August 9, 2007, President George Bush signed the America COMPETES (Creating Opportunities to Meaningfully Promote Excellence in Technology, Education, and Science) Act of 2007. The Act amended Section 16


id: national-medals-of-appreciation-and-memorial-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Medals_of_Appreciation_and_Memorial-0.md
category: reference
title: National Medals of Appreciation and Memorial
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Medals_of_Appreciation_and_Memorial
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:16.684970+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-medals-of-appreciation-and-memorial-20260505-0
summary:
The National Medals of Appreciation and Memorial is an honor bestowed by the President of Iran to individuals who have made important contributions to the advancement of knowledge in various fields of science or have lost their lives defending the country. The presidential Committee on the National Medals is responsible for selecting award recipients and is administered by the Presidential Office. == History == The National Medals of Appreciation and Memorial were established on November 21, 2010, by an act of the Cabinet of Iran. The National Medal of Appreciation is to honor scientists who have shown significant contributions to the development of the country. The National Medal of Memorial is to honor those who lost their lives defending the country. The National Medals of Appreciation and Memorial are classified as Golden and Silver Medals. == National Medal of Appreciation == 2010 Meisam Tabatabaei 2010 Hamed Sani Khanin 2010 Mohammad Rashidian 2015 Esmail Baghaei 2015 Behzad Saberi 2015 Mohammad Amiri 2015 Mohammad Hassan Daryayi The awards ceremony is organized by the Office of President of Iran. It is presided by the sitting President of Iran. == References == == External links == پایگاه اطلاع‌رسانی اعطای نشانهای دولتی


id: national-space-club-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Space_Club-0.md
category: reference
title: National Space Club
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Space_Club
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:18.038550+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-space-club-20260505-0
summary:
The National Space Club is a non-profit corporation in the US which contains representatives of industry, government, educational institutions and private individuals in order to enhance the exchange of information on astronautics, and to relay this information to the public. It provides scholarships and internships to students, and encourages educational space based activities. The Club promotes space leadership by the United States, the advancement of space technology, and recognizes and honors people who have contributed significantly to the fields of rocketry and astronautics. The Club fulfills these objectives with scholarships, grants, internships, luncheons, the Goddard Memorial Dinner, and newsletters. == Origin == The National Space Club, originally established as the National Rocket Club, was conceived in 1957 by Erik Bergaust in response to the Soviet Union’s launch of Sputnik, which had sent shockwaves through the western world. Bergaust recognized that the United States needed an organization that could mobilize national efforts and accelerate the country’s involvement in the Space Race. He warned: "Until recently, top-level officials considered space flight a dirty word. These officials refused to listen to the scientists and engineers who predicted years ago that the nation which controlled space would control the world peace. These officials, I


id: national-space-club-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Space_Club-1.md
category: reference
title: National Space Club
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Space_Club
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:18.038550+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-space-club-20260505-0
summary:
Since its first Dr. Robert H. Goddard Memorial Dinner, the National Space Club has been a key gathering place for the space community, fostering discussions on the future of astronautics. The Club has played a significant role in the U.S. space program, uniting astronauts, engineers, scientists, policymakers, and industry leaders. Distinguished figures such as Robert R. Gilruth, William H. Pickering, James Van Allen, James E. Webb, George P. Miller, and Donald W. Douglas, along with many other pioneers of space exploration, have been frequent speakers at Club events. The Club has also had the privilege of hosting Presidents Lyndon B. Johnson, Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford, Jimmy Carter, and Ronald Reagan as honored speakers. Throughout its history, the National Space Club has consistently pursued its mission of fostering national pride among Americans by emphasizing that the United States is the true birthplace of rocket technology, through the pioneering work of Dr. Robert H. Goddard. At the time of the Club's formation, the country still believed that rocket technology originated primarily from German research with their V-1 and V-2 rockets during World War II. However, Wernher von Braun and the German rocket scientists had actually been building upon Goddard’s earlier American research


id: national-space-club-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Space_Club-2.md
category: reference
title: National Space Club
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Space_Club
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:18.038550+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-space-club-20260505-0
summary:
National Space Club Huntsville - established in 1985 in Huntsville, Alabama, home to the Marshall Space Flight Center, where Wernher von Braun and his team of rocket scientists transformed the region into a hub of space technology. Each October, the Club hosts its most significant annual event, the Wernher von Braun Memorial Dinner, which recognizes outstanding contributions to the space industry. During the event, the Club presents several prestigious awards, including the von Braun Space Flight Trophy, the Astronautics Engineering Award, the Distinguished Science Award, the Communications Award, the Community Service Award, the Aerospace Educator Award, the Dr. Wernher von Braun Memorial Scholarship, and the National Space Club scholarships. National Space Club Florida Committee - established in 2002 at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Its signature event, the Space Heroes and Legends Award Dinner, takes place each April, honoring individuals and groups for their contributions to the space industry. Awards presented at the event include the Space Heroes and Legends Award, the Forrest S. McCartney National Defense Space Award, the Lifetime Achievement Award, the Rising Star Award, the Harry Kolcum News and Communications Award, and the Space Worker Hall of Fame Award. == Scholarship == The National Space Club


id: newcomb-cleveland-prize-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newcomb_Cleveland_Prize-0.md
category: reference
title: Newcomb Cleveland Prize
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newcomb_Cleveland_Prize
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:19.364625+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: newcomb-cleveland-prize-20260505-0
summary:
The Newcomb Cleveland Prize of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) is annually awarded to author(s) of outstanding scientific paper published in the Research Articles or Reports sections of Science. Established in 1923, funded by Newcomb Cleveland who remained anonymous until his death in 1951, and for this period it was known as the AAAS Thousand Dollar Prize. "The prize was inspired by Mr. Cleveland's belief that it was the scientist who counted and who needed the encouragement an unexpected monetary award could give." The present rules were instituted in 1975, previously it had gone to the author(s) of noteworthy papers, representing an outstanding contribution to science, presented in a regular session, sectional or societal, during the AAAS Annual Meeting. It is now sponsored by the Fodor Family Trust and includes a prize of $25,000. == Recipients == List of winners === Current rules === === Previous rules === == See also == AAAS Award for Science Diplomacy AAAS Award for Scientific Freedom and Responsibility AAAS Philip Hauge Abelson Prize AAAS Prize for Behavioral Science Research == References ==


id: novartis-drew-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novartis-Drew_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: Novartis-Drew Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novartis-Drew_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:20.529826+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: novartis-drew-award-20260505-0
summary:
The Novartis-Drew Award for Biomedical Research is an award jointly presented by Novartis and Drew University. It comprises a cash award (originally $2000) and a plaque. The award was initially created as the Ciba-Drew Award for Biomedical Research and renamed following the change of company name from Ciba-Geigy to Novartis in 1996. == Incomplete list of winners == Novartis-Drew Award 2003: Elaine Fuchs; Philip A. Sharp; David Botstein 2002: Frank McCormick; Brian J. Druker; Harold Varmus 2001: Sidney Brenner; Eric Lander; Craig Venter 2000: Susan L. Lindquist 1999: Elizabeth Helen Blackburn; Joan Steitz 1998: Tom Maniatis; Alexander Varshavsky 1997: Edward Alan Berger Ciba-Drew Award 1996: H. Robert Horvitz; Stanley J. Korsmeyer 1995: Joseph Schlessinger; Günter Blobel ; Arnold J. Levine 1994: Thomas R. Cech; Albert Eschenmoser; Manfred Eigen 1993: Leroy Hood; Francis S. Collins 1992: Stuart L. Schreiber ; Peter G. Schultz ; Richard Lerner 1991: Sir Michael Berridge 1990: Roger David Kornberg; Nicholas R. Cozzarelli 1989: Robert William Mahley 1988: Samuel Broder; Robert C. Gallo ; Luc Montagnier 1987: Thomas A. Waldmann 1986: Michael H. Wigler 1985: Jean-Pierre Changeux; Solomon Halbert Snyder 1984: Albrecht Fleckenstein; Harald Reuter 1983: Ronald Levy; 1982: 1981: C. Ronald Kahn; Donald F. Steiner ;


id: otto-naegeli-preis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto-Naegeli-Preis-0.md
category: reference
title: Otto-Naegeli-Preis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto-Naegeli-Preis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:21.752111+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: otto-naegeli-preis-20260505-0
summary:
The Otto-Naegeli-Preis is a Swiss award for medical research that is awarded every two years. It is one of the most prestigious Swiss medical awards and is given with an award sum of 200,000 Swiss Francs. It was established in 1960 and is named after Otto Naegeli, a former professor of internal medicine at the University of Zurich. == Awardees == The Awardees of the prize are the following: == References == == External links == Official Website


id: owsd-elsevier-foundation-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OWSD-Elsevier_Foundation_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: OWSD-Elsevier Foundation Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OWSD-Elsevier_Foundation_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:23.096483+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: owsd-elsevier-foundation-award-20260505-0
summary:
The OWSD-Elsevier Foundation Awards for Early-Career Women Scientists in the Developing World are awarded annually to early-career women scientists in selected developing countries in four regions: Latin America and the Caribbean, East and Southeast Asia and the Pacific, Central and South Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa. The Organization for Women in Science for the Developing World (OWSD), the Elsevier Foundation, and The World Academy of Sciences have partnered to recognize achievements of early-career women scientists in developing countries since the award was launched in 2011 as the Elsevier Foundation-OWSD Awards for Young Women Scientists from the Developing World. The award program is open to female scientists who live and work in one of 81 developing countries. Nominations are generally submitted within ten years of the nominee earning a PhD. The maximum number of recipients is currently restricted to five per year: one from each of the four OWSD-recognized regions, plus one additional outstanding candidate, and the awards are granted with a rotating theme annually among three general fields: biological sciences (agriculture, biology and medicine), engineering/innovation & technology, and physical sciences (including chemistry, mathematics and physics). There were six awardees in 2022 as two outstanding candidates were recognised. As of 2014, the


id: parlar-foundation-science-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parlar_Foundation_Science_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: Parlar Foundation Science Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parlar_Foundation_Science_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:24.400841+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: parlar-foundation-science-award-20260505-0
summary:
The METU Parlar Foundation Science Award (Turkish: ODTÜ Mustafa Parlar Ödülü) is a science award issued by the Middle East Technical University Prof. Dr. Mustafa N. Parlar Foundation established in 1981 in Ankara, Turkey, commemorates Professor Mustafa N. Parlar, who served as the Dean of Engineering at the Middle East Technical University. The Foundation's mission is to promote advancements in science and technology and their applications in industry. Annually, it confers several prestigious awards to recognize significant contributions to science and service. These include the Service to Science and Honour Award, the Science Award, and the Service Award. Notable recipients of the Science Award include İoanna Kuçuradi in philosophy, Cahit Arf, Feza Gürsey and Erol Gelenbe in sciences, as well as Halil İnalcık in history. == Background == The METU Prof. Dr. Mustafa N. Parlar Education and Research Foundation was established on January 12, 1981, in memory of Prof. Dr. Mustafa N. Parlar, a scientist and early faculty member of Middle East Technical University. The foundation aims to foster relationships between the university and industry, support research and researchers, provide technical hardware and tools, offer scholarships to METU students and financially assist lecturers. Prof. Dr. Mustafa N. Parlar was a


id: passano-foundation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passano_Foundation-0.md
category: reference
title: Passano Foundation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passano_Foundation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:25.537487+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: passano-foundation-20260505-0
summary:
The Passano Foundation, established in 1945, provides an annual award to a research scientist whose work – done in the United States – is thought to have immediate practical benefits. Many Passano laureates have subsequently won the Nobel Prize. == Selection of award winners == === Passano Laureates === 2024 K. Christopher Garcia 2023 Se-Jin Lee 2022 Duojia Pan 2021 Alfred Goldberg 2020 David Eisenberg 2019 Robert Fettiplace, James Hudspeth 2018 Carl June, Michel Sadelain 2017 Yuan Chang, Patrick S. Moore 2016 Jonathan C. Cohen, Helen Hobbs 2015 James P. Allison (2018 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine) 2014 Jeffrey I. Gordon 2013 Rudolf Jaenisch 2012 Eric N. Olson 2011 Elaine Fuchs 2010 David Julius (2021 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine) 2009 Irving Weissman 2008 Thomas Südhof (2013 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine) 2007 Joan Massagué Solé 2006 Napoleone Ferrara 2005 Jeffrey M. Friedman 2003 Andrew Z. Fire (2006 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine) 2002 Alexander Rich 2001 Seymour Benzer 2000 Giuseppe Attardi, Douglas C. Wallace 1999 Elizabeth Blackburn (2009 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine), Carol W. Greider (2009 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine) 1998 H. Robert Horvitz (2002 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine)


id: percy-l-julian-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percy_L._Julian_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: Percy L. Julian Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percy_L._Julian_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:30.739303+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: percy-l-julian-award-20260505-0
summary:
The Percy L. Julian Award was first given in 1975 by the National Organization for the Professional Advancement of Black Chemists and Chemical Engineers (NOBCChE). The award is given every one to two years. It honors black scientists who have made significant contributions to the areas of pure or applied research in science or engineering. The award is named to honor chemist Percy Lavon Julian. In becoming director of research of a division in the Glidden Company of Chicago, Julian was the first African-American to lead a research group in a major corporation. He later founded Julian Laboratories, Julian Associates, Inc. and the Julian Research Institute. == Awardees == == See also == List of general science and technology awards == References ==


id: peter-p-chen-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_P._Chen_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: Peter P. Chen Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_P._Chen_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:32.078114+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: peter-p-chen-award-20260505-0
summary:
Peter P. Chen Award is an annually presented award to honor one individual for their contributions to the field of conceptual modeling. Named after the computer scientist Peter Chen, the award was started in 2008 by the publisher Elsevier as a means of celebrating the 25th anniversary of the journal Data & Knowledge Engineering. It is presented at the Entity Relationship (ER) International Conference on Conceptual Modeling. Winners are given a plaque, a cash prize, and are invited to give a keynote speech. There are five criteria for selecting the winner; research, how the nominee has contributed to advance the field of conceptual modeling; service, organizational contributions for related meetings, conferences, and editorial boards; education, mentoring of doctoral students in the field; contribution to practice, contributions to technology transfer, commercialization, and industrial projects; and international reputation. The selection committee is composed of five members: the Steering Committee chair, two Program Committee members appointed by the Steering Committee chair, and the recipients of the last two years. == Laureates == == References ==


id: pfizer-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pfizer_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: Pfizer Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pfizer_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:33.371144+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pfizer-award-20260505-0
summary:
The Pfizer Award is awarded annually by the History of Science Society "in recognition of an outstanding book dealing with the history of science" that was "published in English during a period of three calendar years immediately preceding the year of competition."


id: pfizer-award-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pfizer_Award-1.md
category: reference
title: Pfizer Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pfizer_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:33.371144+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pfizer-award-20260505-0
summary:
== Recipients == 1959 Marie Boas Hall, Robert Boyle and Seventeenth-Century Chemistry (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1958). 1960 Marshall Clagett, The Science of Mechanics in the Middle Ages (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1959). 1961 Cyril Stanley Smith, A History of Metallography: The Development of Ideas on the Structure of Metal before 1890 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960). 1962 Henry Guerlac, Lavoisier, The Crucial Year: The Background and Origin of His First Experiments on Combustion in 1772 (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1961) 1963 Lynn Townsend White Jr., Medieval Technology and Social Change (New York: Oxford University Press, 1962). 1964 Robert E. Schofield, The Lunar Society of Birmingham: A Social History of Provincial Science and Industry in Eighteenth-Century England (London: Oxford University Press, 1963). 1965 Charles Donald O'Malley, Andreas Vesalius of Brussels, 1514-1564 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1964). 1966 L. Pearce Williams, Michael Faraday: A Biography (New York: Basic Books, 1965). 1967 Howard B. Adelmann, Marcello Malpighi and the Evolution of Embryology (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1966). 1968 Edward Rosen, Kepler's Somnium (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1967). 1969 Margaret T. May, Galen on the Usefulness of the Parts of the Body (Ithaca. N.Y.: Cornell University


id: pfizer-award-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pfizer_Award-2.md
category: reference
title: Pfizer Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pfizer_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:33.371144+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pfizer-award-20260505-0
summary:
2022 Tara Nummedal, Anna Zieglerin and the Lion’s Blood: Alchemy and End Times in Reformation Germany 2023 Robyn d'Avignon, Ritual Geology. Gold and Subterranean Knowledge in Savanna West Africa 2024 Projit Mukharji, Brown Skins, White Coats: Race Science in India, 1920–66 == References ==


id: pioneers-of-underwater-acoustics-medal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneers_of_Underwater_Acoustics_Medal-0.md
category: reference
title: Pioneers of Underwater Acoustics Medal
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneers_of_Underwater_Acoustics_Medal
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:34.555861+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pioneers-of-underwater-acoustics-medal-20260505-0
summary:
The Pioneers of Underwater Acoustics Medal is awarded by the Acoustical Society of America in recognition of "an outstanding contribution to the science of underwater acoustics, as evidenced by publication of research results in professional journals or by other accomplishments in the field". The award was named in honor of H. J. W. Fay, Reginald Fessenden, Harvey Hayes, G. W. Pierce, and Paul Langevin. == Recipients == 1959 - Harvey C. Hayes - For outstanding contributions to the science of underwater acoustics. His far sighted recognition of the challenging technical problems in this branch of acoustics and the potentiality of the application of their solution to the defense needs of the Nation resulted in the first sustained research program in underwater sound. 1961 - Albert B. Wood - For pioneering leadership in underwater sound; the development of the cathode-ray oscillograph and its adaptation to the study of underwater explosions; his invention of the magneto-strictive depth recorder; and his studies of shallow-water sound transmission. 1963 - J. Warren Horton - For his pioneering contributions to the knowledge and practice of underwater acoustics as scientist, and teacher, and administrator; and particularly for his painstaking and thorough organization of the science of underwater


id: pirelli-internetional-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pirelli_Internetional_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: Pirelli Internetional Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pirelli_Internetional_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:35.739983+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pirelli-internetional-award-20260505-0
summary:
The Pirelli Internetional Award was an international multimedia competition for the communication of science & technology conducted entirely on the internet, which was awarded from 1997 to 2007. Awards were granted to the best multimedia presentations focussing on themes involving the diffusion of science and technology. The multimedia presentations must deal with either physics, chemistry, mathematics, life sciences, or the enabling information and communication technologies that empower multimedia itself. According to Marco Tronchetti Provera, President of the Pirelli Group, the award was established in the belief that the diffusion of social, economic and technological advances are as important as their discovery. == Judging == An international jury of notable people including Nobel Prize laureates reviewed the top entries. With an overall budget prize of 105,000 euro (about US$ 130,000), awards were granted in the following major categories: physics, chemistry, mathematics, life sciences, and information and communications technology. == Award categories == Physics: This category rewarded the best multimedia works coming from the field of physics and amounted to an award of 15,000 euro. Chemistry: This category rewarded the best multimedia works coming from the field of chemistry and amounted to an award of 15,000 euro. Mathematics: This category rewarded the


id: pittcon-editors-awards-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittcon_Editors'_Awards-0.md
category: reference
title: Pittcon Editors' Awards
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittcon_Editors'_Awards
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:37.033932+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pittcon-editors-awards-20260505-0
summary:
Pittcon Editors’ Awards honoured the best new products on show at the Pittsburgh Conference on Analytical Chemistry and Applied Spectroscopy, or Pittcon, for 20 years from 1996 having been established by Dr Gordon Wilkinson, managing editor of Analytical Instrument Industry Report (later Instrumenta). On 8 March 2015, the event returned to the Morial Convention Center in New Orleans and this was the last occasion when the awards were presented. The independent awards, which represented the results of an informal poll of leading editors, had become an important feature of the world's largest trade show for the laboratory equipment industry. Pittcon organisers and media center supported the scheme and provided details and photographs on the exhibition's Press and Media Information page. In 2016 the group of editors and journalists that formed the core of the judging panel reluctantly decided to discontinue the awards program citing gradually dwindling support from ever-busier media representatives. == History and organisation == The awards were started because of the challenge that editors faced of effectively covering the trade show, which in 2015 hosted 925 exhibitors. New exhibitors at the Morial Convention Center totalled 130 companies. Walking past every booth at an event such as this represents


id: premio-presidente-della-repubblica-prize-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premio_Presidente_della_Repubblica_(prize)-0.md
category: reference
title: Premio Presidente della Repubblica (prize)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premio_Presidente_della_Repubblica_(prize)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:38.274812+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: premio-presidente-della-repubblica-prize-20260505-0
summary:
The Premio Presidente della Repubblica is an Italian award introduced by the former president and academic Luigi Einaudi. Since 1949 it has been awarded on a regular basis by the Accademia dei Lincei, the Accademia di San Luca, and the Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia. It is among the most distinguished awards of the three prestigious academies. == History == The award was established on 11 October 1948 by Luigi Einaudi with a letter to the president of the Lincei National Academy to continue the tradition of royal awards. The prize was first introduced to the class of physical, mathematical, and natural sciences and the class of moral, historical, and philological sciences. In the same year, Einaudi established a national prize for artists and architects awarded by the academies of San Luca and Santa Cecilia. The prize is given by the President of Italy in charge in an official ceremony. Among the people awarded, there are several winners of other important awards such as the Nobel Prize, the Wolf Prize, and the Academy Award. == Prize recipients == == See also == Accademia dei Lincei Accademia di San Luca Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia President of Italy == References ==


id: presidential-young-investigator-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential_Young_Investigator_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: Presidential Young Investigator Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential_Young_Investigator_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:39.540671+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: presidential-young-investigator-award-20260505-0
summary:
The Presidential Young Investigator Award (PYI) was awarded by the National Science Foundation of the United States Federal Government. The program operated from 1984 to 1991, and was replaced by the NSF Young Investigator (NYI) Awards and Presidential Faculty Fellows (PFF) program. In 1995, the NSF Young Investigator program was subsumed into the NSF CAREER Awards program, and in 1996, the Presidential Faculty Fellows program was replaced by the PECASE program. Applicants could not directly apply for the award, but were nominated by others including their own institutions based on their previous record of scientific achievement. The award, a certificate from the White House signed by the President of the United States, included a minimum grant of $25,000 a year for five years from NSF to be used for any scientific research project the awardee wished to pursue, with the possibility of additional funding up to $100,000 annually if the PYI obtained matching funds from industry. Considered to be one of the highest honors granted by the National Science Foundation, the award program was criticized in 1990 as not being the best use of NSF funds in an era of tight budgets. Frances Arnold, winner of this award in 1989,


id: prince-albert-i-medal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Albert_I_Medal-0.md
category: reference
title: Prince Albert I Medal
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Albert_I_Medal
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:40.886797+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: prince-albert-i-medal-20260505-0
summary:
The Prince Albert I Medal was established by Prince Rainier of Monaco in partnership with the International Association for the Physical Sciences of the Oceans. The medal was named for Prince Albert I and is given for significant work in the physical and chemical sciences of the oceans. The medal is awarded biannually by IAPSO at its Assemblies. == Past recipients == Source: 2001: Walter Munk 2003: Klaus Wyrtki 2005: Friedrich Schott 2007: Russ Davis 2009: Harry Bryden 2011: Trevor McDougall 2013: Arnold L. Gordon 2015: Toshio Yamagata 2017: Lynne Talley 2019: Corinne Le Quéré 2021: Carl Wunsch 2023: John Alexander Church == References == == External links == Prince Albert I Medal


id: prix-georges-lema-tre-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prix_Georges_Lemaître-0.md
category: reference
title: Prix Georges Lemaître
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prix_Georges_Lemaître
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:42.096687+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: prix-georges-lema-tre-20260505-0
summary:
The Prix Georges Lemaître is an award created in 1995, in celebration of the centenary of the birth in 1894 of Georges Lemaître. The Association des Anciens et Amis de l'Université catholique de Louvain (Association of the Alumni and Friends of the Université catholique de Louvain) initiated the award, as well as the Fondation Georges Lemaître (Georges Lemaître Foundation). The prize, endowed with 25,000 euros as of 2003, is awarded every two years to a scientist who has made a remarkable contribution to développement et à la diffusion des connaissances dans les domaines de la cosmologie, de l'astronomie, de l'astrophysique, de la géophysique, ou de la recherche spatiale (development and dissemination of knowledge in the fields of cosmology, astronomy, astrophysics, geophysics, or space science). The winner is chosen by an international jury of scientists, chaired by the rector of the Université catholique de Louvain. == List of recipients == 1995 — Philip James Edwin Peebles, astrophysicist and cosmologist 1997 — Jean-Claude Duplessy, geochemist and climatologist 1999 — Jean-Pierre Luminet, astrophysist, and Dominique Lambert, philosopher of science 2001 — Kurt Lambeck, geophysicist 2003 — Alain Hubert, explorer and climatologist 2005 — Édouard Bard, climatologist 2007 — Susan Solomon, atmospheric chemist and


id: pythagoras-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagoras_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: Pythagoras Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagoras_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:47.309955+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pythagoras-award-20260505-0
summary:
The Pythagoras Award, or The Pythagoras Prize, or The Pitagor Prize (named after Pythagoras - a Greek philosopher, mathematician and scientist, Bulgarian: Награда Питагор), established in 2008, is an award given annually to Bulgarian nationals by the Ministry of Science and Education of Bulgaria in recognition for outstanding scientific achievements. The Pythagoras Prizes are the most prestigious Scientific awards in Bulgaria, frequently referred as the Bulgarian Nobel Prizes. There are several categories each with its own award. The Pythagoras statuettes symbolize The Third Eye which provides perception beyond ordinary sight. The statuettes are designed by the famous Bulgarian sculptor Georgi Chapkanov. == Categories == 1. Pythagoras Grand Prize for Seminal Contribution to Advancement of Science 2. Pythagoras Grand Prize for Principal Investigator of International Synergy Project 3. Pythagoras Grand Prize for Young Scientist 4. Pythagoras Prize for Distinguished Scientist in Natural Science and Engineering 5. Pythagoras Prize for Distinguished Scientist in Physiology and Medicine 6. Pythagoras Prize for Distinguished Scientist in Humanities and Social Science 7. Pythagoras Prize for Bulgarian Scientist abroad for Seminal Contribution to Science 8. Pythagoras Prize for Scientific Team with Successful Commercialization of Scientific Results 9. Pythagoras Prize for Scientific Book 10. Pythagoras Prize for Company


id: qiu-shi-science-and-technology-prize-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qiu_Shi_Science_and_Technology_Prize-0.md
category: reference
title: Qiu Shi Science and Technology Prize
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qiu_Shi_Science_and_Technology_Prize
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:48.502853+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: qiu-shi-science-and-technology-prize-20260505-0
summary:
The Qiu Shi Prizes (simplified Chinese: 求是奖; traditional Chinese: 求是獎) are awarded on an annual basis in recognition of advances in science and technology. The Qiu Shi Science and Technology Foundation was established by Cha Chi Ming (查濟民) (1914–2007) in 1994 in Hong Kong, with the intention of promoting science and technology research in China, and to encourage and reward successful Chinese scientists and scholars. Prizes are awarded each year Prize categories include Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, Mathematics or Information Technology. Qiu Shi (Chinese: 求是; pronounced ch-OO/sh-ER) means "seeking truth". The Qiu Shi Foundation was named after Qiu Shi Academy (Chinese: 求是书院) in Hangzhou, which was subsequently renamed Zhejiang University (浙江大学). Qiu Shi Science and Technology Foundation is not related to the Qiushi journal, the political theory periodical. == Founder/Foundation == Cha Chi-ming, GBM, JP, was born in 1914, in Haining County, Jiaxing, Zhejiang province. He studied textile technology and graduated from Zhejiang University in 1931. Cha built a multinational textile conglomerate. He was the chairman of CDW International Limited, The Mingly Corporation Limited and Hong Kong Resort International Limited. With his family, he donated US$20 million in 1994 to establish the award. == The Qiu Shi Advisory Board


id: ram-n-margalef-award-for-excellence-in-education-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramón_Margalef_Award_for_Excellence_in_Education-0.md
category: reference
title: Ramón Margalef Award for Excellence in Education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramón_Margalef_Award_for_Excellence_in_Education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:49.651721+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ram-n-margalef-award-for-excellence-in-education-20260505-0
summary:
The Ramón Margalef Award for Excellence in Education was launched in 2008 by the Association for the Sciences of Limnology and Oceanography to recognize innovations and excellence in teaching and mentoring students in the fields of limnology and oceanography. Criteria for the award requires "adherence to the highest standards of excellence" in pedagogy as well as verification that the teaching techniques have furthered the field of aquatic science. The award is not affiliated with the Ramon Margalef Prize in Ecology, often referred to as the Ramon Margalef Award, given by the Generalitat de Catalunya in Barcelona. The award has been presented annually since 2009. == Winners == The winners have included: The information in this table is from the Association for the Sciences of Limnology and Oceanography. == References ==


id: john-william-strutt-lord-rayleigh-medal-and-prize-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_William_Strutt,_Lord_Rayleigh_Medal_and_Prize-0.md
category: reference
title: John William Strutt, Lord Rayleigh Medal and Prize
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_William_Strutt,_Lord_Rayleigh_Medal_and_Prize
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:50.775156+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: john-william-strutt-lord-rayleigh-medal-and-prize-20260505-0
summary:
The John William Strutt, Lord Rayleigh Medal and Prize is an award of the UK-based Institute of Physics (IOP) for "distinguished contributions to theoretical (including mathematical and computational) physics". The award, named in honour of Lord Rayleigh, consists of a medal with £1,000 and a certificate. The John William Strutt, Lord Rayleigh Medal and Prize (established in 2008) should not be confused with the Rayleigh Medal, which was established by the Institute of Acoustics in 1970. == Recipients == == References ==


id: rear-admiral-william-s-parsons-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rear_Admiral_William_S._Parsons_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: Rear Admiral William S. Parsons Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rear_Admiral_William_S._Parsons_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:52.081604+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rear-admiral-william-s-parsons-award-20260505-0
summary:
The Rear Admiral William S. Parsons Award for Scientific and Technical Progress is awarded each year by the Navy League of the United States to a Navy or Marine Corps officer, enlisted person or civilian, who has made an outstanding contribution in any field of science that has furthered the development and progress of the US Navy or Marine Corps. The award is named for Admiral William Sterling Parsons. The award is presented with a certificate and a watch along with other Professional Excellence Awards (Sea Service Awards) at the National Convention of the Navy League of the United States. The award is described by the Navy League of the United States as: "The Rear Admiral William S. Parsons Award is named for Admiral Parsons in recognition of his dedication to all aspects of scientific and technical advances and who was responsible to a marked degree for ensuring that the U.S. Navy remained in operational consonance with the ever-shifting and increasing demands of the changing world. Presented since 1957, this award for scientific and technical progress is awarded to a Navy or Marine Corps officer, enlisted person or civilian who has made an outstanding contribution in any field of science


id: redi-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redi_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: Redi Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redi_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:53.424775+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: redi-award-20260505-0
summary:
Redi Award is an international science award given to scientists who have made significant contributions in toxinology, the scientific study of venoms, poisons and toxins. The award is sponsored by the International Society on Toxinology (ISI). == Origin == Osservazioni intorno alle vipere (Observations about the Viper) written by an Italian polymath Francesco Redi in 1664 is regarded as the milestone in the beginning of toxinology research. Redi was the first scientist to elucidate the scientific basis of snakebite and venom of the viper. He showed for the first time that the viper venom comes from the fang, not the gallbladder as it was believed; that it is not poisonous when swallowed, and effective only when it enters the bloodstream. He even demonstrated the possibility of slowing down the venom action in the blood by tight ligature before the wound. This work is heralded as the foundation of toxinology. In honour of the pioneer, the International Society on Toxinology (ISI) instituted the Redi Award in 1967 in recognition of scientists for their significant contributions in toxinology research. == Nature of the award == The IST awards scientists or clinicians who have made outstanding contributions to the field of toxinology. The


id: research-parasite-award-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_Parasite_Award-0.md
category: reference
title: Research Parasite Award
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_Parasite_Award
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:54.762767+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: research-parasite-award-20260505-0
summary:
The Research Parasite Award is an honor given annually at the Pacific Symposium on Biocomputing to recognize scientists who study previously published data in ways not anticipated by the researchers who first generated it. The tongue-in-cheek name of the award refers to a New England Journal of Medicine editorial that coined the term "research parasite" to disparage such work. The idea was first suggested on Twitter by Iowa State University researcher Iddo Friedberg shortly after the editorial was published, and was then initiated by Casey Greene, a pharmacologist at the University of Pennsylvania. Two Research Parasite Awards are given to recognize scientists who have made outstanding and rigorous contributions to analysis of secondary data in biology. Recipients must reuse data generated by someone else to extend, replicate, or disprove a research study in a reproducible manner. The junior parasite award recognizes an outstanding contribution from an early career scientist such as a postdoctoral, graduate, or undergraduate trainee. The senior parasitism award recognizes an individual who has engaged in exemplary research parasitism for a sustained period of time. Since the launch of the award in 2017, a travel grant to attend the Pacific Symposium on Biocomputing has been provided to the


id: r-ssler-prize-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rössler_Prize-0.md
category: reference
title: Rössler Prize
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rössler_Prize
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:56.069681+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: r-ssler-prize-20260505-0
summary:
The Rössler Prize, offered by the ETH Zurich Foundation, is a monetary prize that has been awarded annually since 2009 to a promising young tenured professor of the ETH Zurich in the middle of an accelerating career. The prize of 200,000 Swiss Francs is financed by the returns from an endowment made by Max Rössler, an alumnus of the ETH. The prize money has to be used for the research of the laureate. == Laureates == 2009: Nenad Ban, Microbiology 2010: Gerald Haug, Geology of Climate 2011: Andreas Wallraff, Solid State Physics 2012: Nicola Spaldin, Material Science 2013: Olivier Voinnet, RNA Biology 2014: Christian Wolfrum, Health Sciences and Technology 2015: David J. Norris, Mechanical and Process Engineering 2016: Christophe Copéret, Chemistry and Applied Biosciences 2017: Olga Sorkine-Hornung, Computer Science 2018: Philippe Block, Architecture 2019: Maksym Kovalenko, Inorganic chemistry/Nanotechnology 2020: Paola Picotti, Biology 2021: Andreas Krause (computer scientist), Machine Learning 2022: Tanja Stadler, Mathematics and Computational evolutionary biology 2023: Siddhartha Mishra, Mathematics 2024: Marco Hutter, Robotics 2025: Florian Dörfler, Control engineering == See also == Science and technology in Switzerland Prizes named after people == References == == External links == Official website


id: royal-norwegian-society-of-sciences-and-letters-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Norwegian_Society_of_Sciences_and_Letters-0.md
category: reference
title: Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences and Letters
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Norwegian_Society_of_Sciences_and_Letters
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:57.363685+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: royal-norwegian-society-of-sciences-and-letters-20260505-0
summary:
The Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences and Letters (Danish: Det Kongelige Norske Videnskabers Selskab, DKNVS) is a Norwegian learned society based in Trondheim. It was founded in 1760 and is Norway's oldest scientific and scholarly institution. The society's Protector is King Harald V of Norway. Its membership consists of no more than 435 members elected for life among the country's most prominent scholars and scientists. The society’s Danish name predates both written standards for Norwegian and has remained unchanged after Norway’s independence from Denmark in 1814 and the spelling reforms of the 20th century. == History == DKNVS was founded in 1760 by the bishop of Nidaros Johan Ernst Gunnerus, headmaster at the Trondheim Cathedral School Gerhard Schøning and Councillor of State Peter Frederik Suhm under the name Det Trondhiemske Selskab (the Trondheim Society). From 1761 it published academic papers in a series titled Skrifter. It was the northernmost learned society in the world, and was established in a time when Norway did not have universities or colleges. It received the royal affirmation of its statutes on 17 July 1767, and was given its present name at a ceremony on 29 January 1788, king Christian VII of Denmark's birthday. In


id: royal-norwegian-society-of-sciences-and-letters-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Norwegian_Society_of_Sciences_and_Letters-1.md
category: reference
title: Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences and Letters
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Norwegian_Society_of_Sciences_and_Letters
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:57.363685+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: royal-norwegian-society-of-sciences-and-letters-20260505-0
summary:
1999 Baard Kasa (science) and Kaja Borthen (humanities) 2000 Ørjan Johansen (science) and Toril Aalberg (humanities) 2001 Magne Lygren (science) and Marianne Ryghaug (humanities) 2002 Alexander Øhrn (science) and Tanja Ellingsenand (humanities) 2003 Sigurd Weidemann Løvseth (science) and Cathrine Brun (humanities) 2004 Bård Gunnar Stokke (science) and Anne Beate Maurseth (humanities) 2005 Sigurd Einum (science) and Dag Trygve Truslew Haug (humanities) 2006 Marianne Fyhn (science), Torkel Hafting Fyhn (science) and Halvard Buhaug, (humanities) 2007 Marit Sletmoen (science) 2008 Jill Kristin Lautgeb (science) and Jo Jakobsen (humanities) 2009 Xavier Raynaud (science) and Terje Andreas Eikemo (humanities) 2010 Petter Andreas Bergh (science), Jacob Linder (science) and Jon Hernes Fiva (humanities) 2011 Simen Ådnøy Ellingsen (science) and Thomas Hegghammer (humanities) 2012 Sverre Magnus Selbach (science) and Martin Wåhlberg (humanities) 2013 Yasser Roudi (science) and Theresa M. Olasveengen (science) 2014 Andriy Bondarenko (science) and Terje Lohndal (humanities) 2015 Steffen Oppermann (science) and Ivar Berg (humanities) 2016 Jannike Solsvik (science) and Siv Gøril Brandtzæg (humanities) 2017 David Bassett (science) and Mats Ingulstad (humanities) 2018 Marie Elisabeth Rognes (science) and Trond Nordfjærn (humanities) === The Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences and Letters scientific annual prize === Source: 1984 Linda R. White and Terje Espevik 1985 Jan


id: russell-varian-prize-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russell_Varian_Prize-0.md
category: reference
title: Russell Varian Prize
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russell_Varian_Prize
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:10:58.537385+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: russell-varian-prize-20260505-0
summary:
The Russell Varian Prize was an international scientific prize awarded for a single, high-impact and innovative contribution in the field of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), that laid the foundation for the development of new technologies in the field. It honored the memory of Russell Varian, the pioneer behind the creation of the first commercial NMR spectrometer and the co-founder, in 1948, of Varian Associates, one of the first high-tech companies in Silicon Valley. The prize carried a monetary award of €15,000 and it was awarded annually between the years 2002 and 2015 (except for 2003) by a committee of experts in the field. The award ceremony alternated between the European Magnetic Resonance (EUROMAR) Conference and the International Council on Magnetic Resonance in Biological Systems (ICMRBS) Conference. Originally, the prize was sponsored by Varian, Inc. and later by Agilent Technologies, after the latter acquired Varian, Inc. in 2010. The prize was discontinued in 2016 after Agilent Technologies closed its NMR division. == Russell Varian Prize Awardees == 2002 Jean Jeener. Contribution: Multi-dimensional Fourier NMR spectroscopy. Jeener, J. (September 1971). Lecture. Ampère International Summer School II. Basko Polje, Yugoslavia. 2004 Erwin L. Hahn. Contribution: Spin echo phenomena and experiments. 2005 Nicolaas Bloembergen.


