# kb

id: index-of-nursing-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_nursing_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of nursing articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_nursing_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:49:48.400467+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-nursing-articles-20260505-0
summary:
This is an index of nursing articles on Wikipedia. == A == == B == == C == == H == == I == == L == == M == == N == == P == == R == == S == == T == == U == == W ==


id: index-of-oncology-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of oncology articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:49:49.665018+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-oncology-articles-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of terms related to oncology. The original source for this list was the US National Cancer Institute's public domain Dictionary of Cancer Terms. == 0–9 == 10-propargyl-10-deazaaminopterin – 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate – 13-cis retinoic acid – 17-N-allylamino-17-demethoxygeldanamycin – 18F-EF5 – 1H-nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging – 2-methoxyestradiol – 2IT-BAD monoclonal antibody 170 – 3-aminopyridine-2-carboxaldehyde thiosemicarbazone – 3-AP – 3-dimensional conformal radiation therapy – 3-dimensional radiation therapy – 4-demethoxydaunorubicin – 4-hydroxytamoxifen – 4-nitroquinoline 1-oxide – 4-NQO – 5-FU – 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid – 5-hydroxytryptamine – 506U78 – 5Q- syndrome – 6-hydroxymethylacylfulvene – 9-cis retinoic acid – 90Y-DOTA-biotin == A == A33 monoclonal antibody – AAP – abarelix – ABCD rating – ABI-007 – ABT-510 – ABT-751 – ABX-EGF – accelerated phase – ACE inhibitor – acetylcysteine – achlorhydria – acitretin – acoustic neurofibromatosis – acridine carboxamide – acrylonitrile – actinic keratosis – action study – Activase – acute erythroid leukemia – acute lymphoblastic leukemia – acute lymphocytic leukemia – acute myelogenous leukemia – acute myeloid leukemia – acute nonlymphocytic leukemia – AD 32 – adenocarcinoma – adenoid cystic cancer – adenoma – adenopathy – adenosine triphosphate – adenovirus – adjunct agent – adjunctive therapy – adjuvant therapy – adrenocortical –


id: index-of-oncology-articles-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles-1.md
category: reference
title: Index of oncology articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:49:49.665018+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-oncology-articles-20260505-0
summary:
== B == B cell – B lymphocyte – B3 antigen – B43-PAP immunotoxin – B7-1 – Bacillus Calmette Guérin – bacterial toxin – barium enema – barium solution – barium swallow – Barrett's esophagus – basal cell – basal cell carcinoma – basal cell nevus syndrome – basophil – batimastat – BAY 12-9566 – BAY 43-9006 – BAY 56-3722 – BAY 59-8862 – BB-10901 – BBBD – BBR 2778 – BBR 3464 – BCG – BCG solution – bcl-2 antisense oligodeoxynucleotide G3139 – BCX-1777 – Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome – beclomethasone – Bellini duct carcinoma – bendamustine – benign – benign proliferative breast disease – benign prostatic hyperplasia – benign prostatic hypertrophy – benign tumor – benzaldehyde – benzoylphenylurea – benzydamine – Beriplast P – best practice – beta alethine – beta carotene – beta hemolytic streptococcus group B – beta-endorphin – beta-glucan – beta-human chorionic gonadotropin – bevacizumab – bexarotene – Bexxar regimen – BG00001 – BI-RADS – Biafine cream – BIBX 1382 – bicalutamide – bidi (oncology) – bilateral cancer – bilateral nephrectomy – bilateral prophylactic mastectomy – bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy – bile duct – biliary – bilirubin – binding agent – bioavailable – biochanin A – biochemical reactions –


id: index-of-oncology-articles-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles-2.md
category: reference
title: Index of oncology articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:49:49.665018+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-oncology-articles-20260505-0
summary:
== C == C cell – c-erbB-2 – c-kit – CA 19-9 assay – CA-125 – CA-125 test – cachexia – calcitonin – calcitriol – CAM – Campath-1H – camptothecin – camptothecin analog – cancer – cancer induction – Cancer Information Service – cancer of unknown primary origin – cancer stem cell – cancer vaccine – Cancer.gov – Candidiasis – Candidosis – CAP-1 – capecitabine – capsaicin – captopril – carbendazim – carbogen – carbon-11 acetate – carboplatin – carboxyamidotriazole – carboxypeptidase-G2 – carcinoembryonic antigen – carcinoembryonic antigen peptide-1 – carcinogen – carcinogenesis – carcinoid – carcinoid syndrome – carcinoma – carcinoma in situ – carcinomatosis – carcinosarcoma – carcinosis – carcinostatic – cardin (oncology) – carmustine – carnitine – carotenoid – carzelesin – case report – case series – case-control study – caspofungin acetate – Castleman's disease – CAT scan – catechol – cauterization – cauterize – cBR96-doxorubicin immunoconjugate – CC-1088 – CC-49 monoclonal antibody – CC-5013 – CC-8490 – CCI-779 – CD34 antigen – CD40-ligand – CEA – CEA assay – cecum – cefalexin – cefepime – cefixime – ceftriaxone – celecoxib – celiac disease – cell – cell differentiation – cell motility – cell proliferation – cell


id: index-of-oncology-articles-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles-3.md
category: reference
title: Index of oncology articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:49:49.665018+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-oncology-articles-20260505-0
summary:
== D == D-20761 – da-huang – dacarbazine – dacliximab – daclizumab – dactinomycin – daidzein – dalteparin – danazol – darbepoetin alfa – darkfield microscope – Data Safety and Monitoring Committee – daunorubicin – DCIS – de novo – death cap – debulking operation – decitabine – decortication – deferoxamine – defibrotide – degenerative disease – dehydroepiandrosterone – delayed-type hypersensitivity response – dendritic cell – dendritic cell vaccine – denileukin diftitox – dental implant – deoxycytidine – deoxyribonucleic acid – DepoFoam-encapsulated cytarabine – depsipeptide – dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans – dermatologist – dermis – DES – deslorelin – desmoid tumor – desmoplastic – desmoplastic melanoma – desmoplastic small round cell tumor – dexamethasone – dexmethylphenidate – dexrazoxane – dextroamphetamine-amphetamine – dextromethorphan acetic acid – DFMO – DHA-paclitaxel – DHEA – di-dgA-RFB4 monoclonal antibody – diagnosis – diagnostic mammogram – diagnostic procedures – diagnostic trial – diathermy – diaziquone – didanosine – DIEP flap – diethylstilbestrol – differentiation – difluoromethylornithine – digital mammography – digital photography – digital rectal examination – dihematoporphyrin ether – dimesna – dimethyl sulfoxide – dimethylxanthenone acetic acid – diphosphonate – dipyridamole – disease progression – disease-free survival – disease-specific survival – distal – distal pancreatectomy – distant


id: index-of-oncology-articles-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles-4.md
category: reference
title: Index of oncology articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:49:49.665018+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-oncology-articles-20260505-0
summary:
== G == G-CSF – gabapentin – Gail model – gallium nitrate – gallium scan – gamma knife – gamma ray – ganciclovir – ganglioside – gastrectomy – gastric atrophy – gastrinoma – gastroenterologist – gastroesophageal junction – gastroesophageal reflux disease – gastrointestinal – gastrointestinal stromal tumor – gastrointestinal tract – gastroscope – gastroscopy – gefitinib – geldanamycin analog – GEM 231 – gemcitabine – gemtuzumab ozogamicin – gene expression profiling – gene therapy – gene transfer – gene-modified – genetic analysis – genetic counseling – genetic deletion – genetic markers – genetic susceptibility – genetic testing – genistein – genitourinary system – genome – germ cell – germ cell tumor – German Commission E – germinoma – germline mutation – Gerota's capsule – Gerota's fascia – gestational trophoblastic disease – gestational trophoblastic neoplasia – gestational trophoblastic tumor – GI14721 – giant cell fibroblastoma – gimatecan – GIST – Gleason score – Gleevec – Gliadel Wafer – glial cell – glial tumor – glioblastoma – glioblastoma multiforme – glioma – gliosarcoma – glossectomy – glucagon – glucagonoma – glucocorticoid – gluconeogenesis – glufosfamide – glutamine – glutathione – glutathione S-transferase – glycinamide ribonucleotide formyltransferase inhibitor – glycolysis – glycopeptide –


id: index-of-oncology-articles-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles-5.md
category: reference
title: Index of oncology articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:49:49.665018+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-oncology-articles-20260505-0
summary:
== I == ibandronate – ICI 182,780 – ICI D1694 – idarubicin – IDEC-Y2B8 monoclonal antibody – idiopathic – idiopathic myelofibrosis – idoxifene – idoxuridine – ifosfamide – IH636 grape seed extract – IL-1 – IL-1-alfa – IL-11 – IL-12 – IL-2 – IL-3 – IL-4 – IL-6 – ileostomy – iloprost – ILX-295501 – ILX23-7553 – IM-862 – imaging procedure – imatinib mesylate – imipenem – imiquimod – immune adjuvant – immune function – immune response – immune system – immune system tolerance – immunoassay – immunocompetence – immunocompetent – immunocompromised – immunodeficiency – immunodeficiency syndrome – immunoglobulin – immunological adjuvant – immunology – immunomodulation – immunophenotyping – immunoscintigraphy – immunostimulant – immunosuppression – immunosuppressive – immunosuppressive therapy – immunotherapy – immunotoxin – in situ cancer – incisional biopsy – incomplete Freund's adjuvant – indinavir – indium In 111 ibritumomab tiuxetan – indium In 111 pentetreotide – indole-3-carbinol – indolent lymphoma – indometacin – induction therapy – infiltrating cancer – infiltrating ductal carcinoma – inflammatory breast cancer – infliximab – infrared coagulation – inguinal orchiectomy – inoperable – inositol – inositol hexaphosphate – instillation – Institutional Review Board – intensification therapy – Intensity Modulated Radiation Therapy – intercalator –


id: index-of-oncology-articles-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles-6.md
category: reference
title: Index of oncology articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:49:49.665018+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-oncology-articles-20260505-0
summary:
== M == M protein – macroglobulinemia – macrophage – mafosfamide – MAGE-3 – magnetic resonance imaging – magnetic resonance perfusion imaging – magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging – magnetic-targeted carrier – maintenance therapy – malabsorption syndrome – malignancy – malignant – malignant ascites – malignant fibrous cytoma – malignant fibrous histiocytoma – malignant meningioma – malignant mesothelioma – malignant mixed Müllerian tumor – malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor – malondialdehyde – MALT lymphoma – mammary – mammogram – mammography – Mammotome – mantle field – marimastat – mast cell – mastectomy – mastocytoma – matrix metalloproteinase – MDL 101,731 – MDX-060 – mean survival time – measurable disease – mechlorethamine – MEDI-507 – medial supraclavicular lymph node – median survival time – mediastinal pleura – mediastinoscopy – mediastinum – medical castration – medical oncologist – medroxyprogesterone – medullary breast carcinoma – medullary thyroid cancer – medulloblastoma – mega-voltage linear accelerator – megestrol – meiosis – melanocyte – melanoma – melanoma vaccine – melphalan – MEN-10755 – MEN1 syndrome – meningeal – meningeal metastases – meningioma – menopausal hormone therapy – mercaptopurine – mercury – Merkel cell cancer – mesenchymal – mesenteric membrane – mesna – mesonephroma – mesothelioma – metaplasia


id: index-of-oncology-articles-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles-7.md
category: reference
title: Index of oncology articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:49:49.665018+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-oncology-articles-20260505-0
summary:
== P == P-32 – p-value – p53 gene – Pacific valerian – paclitaxel – Paget's disease of bone – Paget's disease of the nipple – PALA – palatine uvula – palliative care – palliative therapy – Palmar plantar erythrodysesthesia – pamidronate – Pancoast's tumor – pancreatectomy – pancreatic cancer – pancreatic duct – pancreatic enzyme – pancreatic juice – pancreatitis – PAP, same as Pap smear – Pap smear – Pap test, same as Pap smear – papillary serous carcinoma – papillary thyroid cancer – papillary tumor – papilledema – paracentesis – parageusia – paramyxovirus – paraneoplastic syndrome – parathyroid gland – parathyroid hormone – parenchyma – paresthesias – paricalcitol – parietal pericardium – Parkinson's disease – parotidectomy – paroxetine hydrochloride – partial cystectomy – partial laryngectomy – partial mastectomy – partial nephrectomy – partial oophorectomy – partial remission – partial response – passive antibody therapy – Paterson–Kelly syndrome – pathological staging – patient-controlled analgesia – Patient derived tumor xenografts – PCA – PDQ – peau d'orange – PEG-interferon alfa-2a – PEG-interferon alfa-2b – PEG-MGDF – pegaspargase – pegfilgrastim – PEITC – peldesine – pelvic exenteration – pelvic lymphadenectomy – pemetrexed disodium – penclomedine – penicillamine – pentetic acid


id: index-of-oncology-articles-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles-8.md
category: reference
title: Index of oncology articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:49:49.665018+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-oncology-articles-20260505-0
summary:
== S == S-1 – S-phase fraction – safingol – salpingo-oophorectomy – salvage therapy – samarium 153 – saponin – saquinavir mesylate – sarCNU – sarcoma – sarcosinamide nitrosourea – sargramostim – satraplatin – SC-70935 – SCH 54031 – SCH 66336 – SCH-58500 – Schiller test – Schwann cell – schwannoma – scintimammography – scleroderma – screening mammogram – Scutellaria barbata – SDX-102 – SDX-105 – second primary cancer – second-line therapy – second-look surgery – secondary cancer – sedoxantrone trihydrochloride – segmental cystectomy – segmental mastectomy – selective estrogen receptor modulator – selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor – sella turcica – semaxanib – seminal vesicle biopsy – seminoma – semiparasitic – semustine – senile keratosis – sentinel lymph node – sentinel lymph node biopsy – sentinel lymph node mapping – seocalcitol – SERM – serotonin – sertraline – serum albumin – serum glutamate pyruvate transaminase – Serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase – serum tumor marker test – sesquiterpene lactone – sestamibi breast imaging – severe myelosuppression – Sézary syndrome – SGN-00101 – SGN-15 – SGOT – SGPT – sham therapy – shave biopsy – Sho-saiko-to – sialic acid – sialyl Tn-KLH – side-to-end coloanal anastomosis – sideropenic dysphagia – sigmoidoscope –


id: index-of-oncology-articles-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles-9.md
category: reference
title: Index of oncology articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oncology_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:49:49.665018+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-oncology-articles-20260505-0
summary:
== U == ubiquinone – UCN-01 – UGT1A1 – ultrasonogram – ultrasonography – ultrasound-guided biopsy—see ultrasound and biopsy – ultraviolet radiation therapy—see ultraviolet radiation and radiation therapy – uncontrolled study—see clinical trial – unconventional cancer treatments—see experimental cancer treatment – undifferentiated—see cellular differentiation – unilateral salpingo-oophorectomy—see oophorectomy – unresectable—see resection – unresectable gallbladder cancer—see gallbladder cancer – unsealed internal radiation therapy—see radiation therapy – upper GI series – urachus – uracil – urea nitrogen—see blood urea nitrogen – ureteroscopy – urine cytology—see urine – urokinase – urologic oncologist—see urology and oncologist – urothelium – ursodiol – UV radiation – UVA radiation – UVB radiation – uvula == V == vaccine adjuvant – vaccine therapy – vaccinia CEA vaccine – vaginal cancer – vaginal melanoma–vaginal tumors – valacyclovir – valdecoxib – valerian – Valeriana officinalis – Valerianae radix – valganciclovir – valproic acid – vancomycin – vapreotide – varicose veins – vascular endothelial growth factor – VEGF – VEGF Trap – venlafaxine – video-assisted resection – video-assisted surgery – villous adenoma – villus – vinblastine – vinca alkaloid – vincristine – vindesine – vinorelbine – viral vector – virotherapy – virtual colonoscopy – Virulizin – virus replication cycle – virus-neutralizing antibody


id: index-of-oral-health-and-dental-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oral_health_and_dental_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of oral health and dental articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oral_health_and_dental_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:49:52.331331+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-oral-health-and-dental-articles-20260505-0
summary:
Dental pertains to the teeth, including dentistry. Topics related to the dentistry, the human mouth and teeth include: == A == Abfraction • Abrasion • Academy of General Dentistry • Acinic cell carcinoma • Acrodont • Adalbert J. Volck • Adenomatoid odontogenic tumor • Adhesive Dentistry • Aetna • Agar • Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans • Aim toothpaste • Akers' clasp • Alberta Dental Association and College • Alfred Fones • Alfred P. Southwick • Alginic acid • Alice Timander • Allan G. Brodie • Alveolar bony defects • Alveolar osteitis • Alveolar process of maxilla • Alveolar ridge • Amalgam • Ameloblast • Ameloblastic fibroma • Ameloblastin • Ameloblastoma • Amelogenesis • Amelogenesis imperfecta • Amelogenin • American Academy of Cosmetic Dentistry • American Academy of Periodontology • American Association of Endodontists • American Association of Orthodontists • American Dental Association • American Dental Education Association • American Dental Hygienists' Association • American Society of Dental Surgeons • American Student Dental Association • Amosan • Anbesol • Angular cheilitis • Anodontia • Anthony Hamilton-Smith, 3rd Baron Colwyn • Antoni Cieszyński • Apert syndrome • Apex locator • Aphthous ulcer • Applied kinesiology • Aquafresh • Archwire • Arizona Dental Association •


id: index-of-oral-health-and-dental-articles-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oral_health_and_dental_articles-1.md
category: reference
title: Index of oral health and dental articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oral_health_and_dental_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:49:52.331331+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-oral-health-and-dental-articles-20260505-0
summary:
== F == F. labii inferioris • Faculty of Dental Surgery • Faculty of General Dental Practice • False tooth • Fatima Jinnah Dental College • FDI World Dental Federation • FDI World Dental Federation notation • FDSRCS England • Fiberotomy • Filiform papilla • Fissured tongue • Fixed prosthodontics • Florida Dental Association • Fluoride therapy • Focal infection • Foliate papillae • Forensic dentistry • Frank Abbott (dentist) • Frank Crowther • Frederick B. Moorehead • Frederick Bogue Noyes • Frederick J. Conboy • Free gingival margin • Frenulum linguae • Frey's syndrome • Fungiform papilla == G == G. Walter Dittmar • Gardner's syndrome • Gargling • Gaspard Fauteux • Gene Derricotte • General Dental Council • General Practice Residency • Geographic tongue • Georg Carabelli • George S. Long • Gerald Cardinale • Geriatric dentistry • Gerrit Wolsink • Giant cell fibroma • Gigantiform cementoma • Gingiva • Gingival and periodontal pockets • Gingival cyst of the adult • Gingival cyst of the newborn • Gingival enlargement • Gingival fibers • Gingival sulcus • Gingivectomy • Gingivitis • Giovanni Battista Orsenigo • Glandular odontogenic cyst • Glasgow Dental Hospital and School • Glass ionomer cement •


id: index-of-oral-health-and-dental-articles-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oral_health_and_dental_articles-2.md
category: reference
title: Index of oral health and dental articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_oral_health_and_dental_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:49:52.331331+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-oral-health-and-dental-articles-20260505-0
summary:
== O == Obligate nasal breathing • Occlusal splint • Occlusal trauma • Occlusion • Odontoblast • Odontoblast process • Odontode • Odontogenic keratocyst • Odontogenic myxoma • Odontogenic cyst • Odontoma • Ohaguro • Ohio College of Dental Surgery • Ohio Dental Association • Oil of cloves • Oil pulling • Olaflur • Omega Pharma • Ontario Dental Association • Open Dental • Orabase B • Oral-B • Oral candidiasis • Oral and maxillofacial radiology • Oral and maxillofacial surgery • Oral cancer • Oral hygiene • Oral care swab • Oral irrigator • Oral medicine • Oral microbiology • Oral mucosa • Oral pathology • Oral Surgery • Oral torus • Oral ulcer • Orofacial granulomatosis • Orson Hodge • Orthodontic Facemask & Reverse-Pull Headgear • Orthodontic headgear • Orthodontic spacer • Orthodontic Technicians Association • Orthodontic technology • Orthodontics • Orthopantomogram • Orville Howard Phillips • Oscar Willing • Osseointegrated implant • Osteonecrosis of the jaw • Osteoporotic bone marrow defect • Our Lady of Fatima University • Outer enamel epithelium == P == Painless Parker • Pakistan Medical and Dental Council • Palatal expander • Palate • Palatine uvula • Palmer notation • Parafunctional habit •


id: index-of-radiation-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_radiation_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of radiation articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_radiation_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:49:58.624134+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-radiation-articles-20260505-0
summary:
absorbed dose Electromagnetic radiation equivalent dose hormesis Ionizing radiation Louis Harold Gray (British physicist) rad (unit) radar radar astronomy radar cross section radar detector radar gun radar jamming (radar reflector) corner reflector radar warning receiver (Radarange) microwave oven radiance (radiant: see) meteor shower radiation Radiation absorption Radiation acne Radiation angle radiant barrier (radiation belt: see) Van Allen radiation belt Radiation belt electron Radiation belt model Radiation Belt Storm Probes radiation budget Radiation burn Radiation cancer (radiation contamination) radioactive contamination Radiation contingency Radiation damage Radiation damping Radiation-dominated era Radiation dose reconstruction Radiation dosimeter Radiation effect radiant energy Radiation enteropathy (radiation exposure) radioactive contamination Radiation flux (radiation gauge: see) gauge fixing radiation hardening (radiant heat) thermal radiation radiant heating radiant intensity radiation hormesis radiation impedance radiation implosion Radiation-induced lung injury Radiation Laboratory radiation length radiation mode radiation oncologist radiation pattern radiation poisoning (radiation sickness) radiation pressure radiation protection (radiation shield) (radiation shielding) radiation resistance Radiation Safety Officer radiation scattering radiation therapist radiation therapy (radiotherapy) (radiation treatment) radiation therapy (radiation units: see) Category:Units of radiation dose (radiation weight factor: see) equivalent dose radiation zone radiative cooling radiative forcing radiator radio (radio amateur: see) amateur radio (radio antenna) antenna (radio) radio astronomy radio beacon


id: index-of-radio-propagation-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_radio_propagation_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of radio propagation articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_radio_propagation_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:49:59.900119+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-radio-propagation-articles-20260505-0
summary:
This is an index to articles about terms used in discussion of radio propagation. == A == A-index - active region - Alfvén wave - amateur radio bands - anomalous propagation - antenna height above average terrain - area-to-area Lee model - American Radio Relay League (ARRL) - atmospheric duct - aurora - == B == backscatter - bow shock - brightness temperature - broadcast range - burst transmission - == C == Cassegrain antenna - celestial equator - cellular telephony - Chapman function - clutter (radar) - co-channel interference - coherence bandwidth - coherence time - communication with submarines - computation of radiowave attenuation in the atmosphere - Conder plot - conjugate points - corona - coronagraph - coronal hole - coronal loops - coronal mass ejection - cosmic noise - cosmic ray - COST Hata model - COST 231 model - Coverage map - Cp index - creeping wave - critical frequency - Critical hours - == D == D region - decibel - delay spread - Dellinger effect - differential rotation - dipole antenna - directional antenna - diurnal phase shift - diversity combining - diversity scheme - Doppler effect - Doppler shift - dose rate -


id: index-of-sociology-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of sociology articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:01.232160+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-sociology-articles-20260505-0
summary:
This is an index of sociology articles. For a shorter list, see List of basic sociology topics. == A == ableism — abortion — absolute poverty — achieved status — acute disease — adaptation — adultism — affect control theory — affirmative action — affluent alienation — age grade — age structure — aging in place — ageism — agency — AGIL Paradigm — aggregate — ageism — agrarian society — agribusiness — AIDS — air pollution — alcoholism — altermodern — alienation — alien land law — alternative society — altruism — alzheimer's disease — Amae — amalgamation — Americanization — Anabaptist — anarchy — androgyny — animal abuse — animism — anomia — anomie — anthropology — antipositivism — antisemitism — apartheid — apollonian — applied science — approach — appropriate technology — The Archaeology of Knowledge — arms race — arms trade — arranged marriage — asceticism — Asch conformity experiments — ascribed status — assimilation — assisted living — attribution theory — autarky — authentic act — authoritarian personality — authoritarianism — authority — autocracy — automation — avant-garde == B == baby boomer — balance of power — base and superstructure — The Bell Curve


id: index-of-sociology-articles-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles-1.md
category: reference
title: Index of sociology articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:01.232160+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-sociology-articles-20260505-0
summary:
== I == 'I' and the 'me' — iatrogenesis — ideal type — identity — identity politics — ideology — imagined communities — immigration — imperialism — ingroup — income — independent variable — industrial democracy — industrial production — industrial society — industrial sociology — industrialisation — industrialization of war — infant mortality— informal economy — information technology —infrastructure — inner city — instinct — institution — institutional discrimination — imprinting — institutional racism — insurgency — intelligence — intelligence quotient — intelligentsia — intentional community — interaction — interest group — intergenerational mobility — internal colonialism — international division of labor — interpersonal violence — interpretive == J == Japanization — Jim Crow laws — jingoism — Judaism — justice, distributive — juvenile delinquency == K == kin selection — kinship — kindness == L == labeling theory — labour power — laissez-faire — late modernity — Latino/a — latent function — law — legitimacy — legitimation crisis — Leipzig school — lesbianism — liberal democracy — life-course — life-cycle — life expectancy — lifeworld — limited war — literacy — local knowledge — longevity — longitudinal study — looking-glass self — love — luddism — luddite —


id: index-of-sociology-articles-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles-2.md
category: reference
title: Index of sociology articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:01.232160+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-sociology-articles-20260505-0
summary:
=== Social === social actions — social activism — social actor — social analysis — social animal — social anthropology — social phobia — social assistance — social artifact — social attitude — social balance theory — social behavior — social bookmarking — social capital — social center — social change — social character — social chauvinism — social choice function — social choice theory — social circle — social class — social club — social closure — social cognition — social commentary — social complexity — social computing — social condenser — social conflict — social conservatism — social contact — social contract — social construction — social constructionism — social construction of technology — social context — social control — social cost — Social Credit — social cycle theory — social dance — social Darwinism — social democracy — social demography — social development — social diffusion theory — social dilemma — social disobedience — social disorganization — social division — social ecology — social effect of evolutionary theory — social effects of rock and roll — social elite — social engineering — social environment — social enterprise — social epistemology — social equality — social evolution —


id: index-of-solar-energy-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_solar_energy_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of solar energy articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_solar_energy_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:02.634375+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-solar-energy-articles-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of solar energy topics. == A == Air mass coefficient Agrivoltaics Artificial photosynthesis == B == BP Solar BrightSource Energy Building-integrated photovoltaics == C == Carbon nanotubes in photovoltaics Central solar heating plant Community solar farm Compact linear Fresnel reflector Concentrating photovoltaics Concentrating solar power Crookes radiometer == D == Daylighting Horace de Saussure Desertec Drake Landing Solar Community Duck curve Dye-sensitized solar cell == E == Effect of sun angle on climate Energy tower (downdraft) EURO-SOLAR Programme European Photovoltaic Industry Association == F == Feed-in tariff First Solar Flip Flap Floating Solar (Floatovoltaics) Fresnel reflector Charles Fritts Calvin Fuller == G == Geomagnetic storm Global dimming Greenhouse Growth of photovoltaics == H == Halo (optical phenomenon) Helioseismology Heliostat Home Energy Storage == I == Indosolar Insolation Abram Ioffe ISE (Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems) Ivanpah Solar Power Facility == J == Jinko Solar == L == Light tube List of photovoltaic power stations List of solar thermal power stations Loanpal == M == Magnetic sail Auguste Mouchout Moura photovoltaic power station == N == Nanocrystal solar cell Net metering Nevada Solar One == P == Parabolic reflector Parabolic trough Passive solar Passive solar building


id: index-of-steam-energy-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_steam_energy_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of steam energy articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_steam_energy_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:03.822089+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-steam-energy-articles-20260505-0
summary:
portable engine steam aircraft (steam ball) aeolipile (steam bath) sauna steam brig steam bus steam cannon steam car steam crane steam donkey steam dummy (dummy engine) (steam electric power plant) fossil fuel power plant (FFPP) (steam electrolysis) high-temperature electrolysis steam engine stationary steam engine steam explosion steam fair Steam generator (boiler) steam generator Steam generator (nuclear power) steam hammer steam locomotive steam locomotive nomenclature steam locomotives of British Railways Steam Locomotives of Ireland steam power during the Industrial Revolution steam railroad steam reforming steam rupture steam shovel (steam sterilizer) autoclave steam tank (vehicle) steam tractor (steam train)–see steam locomotive steam tricycle steam turbine steam turbine locomotive steamboat steamroller steam whistle traction engine == See also == List of environment topics Category:Steam road vehicles


id: index-of-trauma-and-orthopaedics-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_trauma_and_orthopaedics_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of trauma and orthopaedics articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_trauma_and_orthopaedics_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:05.010504+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-trauma-and-orthopaedics-articles-20260505-0
summary:
Orthopedic surgery is the branch of surgery concerned with conditions involving the musculoskeletal system. Orthopedic surgeons use both surgical and nonsurgical means to treat musculoskeletal injuries, sports injuries, degenerative diseases, infections, bone tumours, and congenital limb deformities. Trauma surgery and traumatology is a sub-specialty dealing with the operative management of fractures, major trauma and the multiply-injured patient. List excludes anatomical terminology covered in index of anatomy articles. == A == Abbreviated Injury Scale - Acetabular fracture - Acheiropodia - Achilles tendon rupture - Acromioplasty - Adamantinoma - Adhesive capsulitis of shoulder - Advanced trauma life support - Ainhum - Akin osteotomy - Albers-Schonberg disease - Albright's hereditary osteodystrophy - Allis test - ALPSA lesion - Amelia (birth defect) - American Joint Replacement Registry - Amphiarthrosis - Andersson lesion - Aneurysmal bone cyst - Ankle replacement - Anterior cruciate ligament injury - Anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction - Antley–Bixler syndrome - Apert syndrome - Apley grind test - Apley scratch test - Apprehension test - Arachnodactyly - Arm fracture - Arthralgia - Arthritis - Arthrocentesis - Arthrodesis - Arthrogram - Arthrogryposis - Arthroplasty - Arthroscopy - Arthrotomy - Articular capsule - Articular cartilage repair - Astragalectomy - Autologous chondrocyte implantation - Avascular


id: index-of-trauma-and-orthopaedics-articles-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_trauma_and_orthopaedics_articles-1.md
category: reference
title: Index of trauma and orthopaedics articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_trauma_and_orthopaedics_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:05.010504+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-trauma-and-orthopaedics-articles-20260505-0
summary:
== H == Haglund's deformity - Hajdu–Cheney syndrome - Hallux rigidus - Hallux valgus - Hallux varus - Hammer toe - Hand deformity - Hand fracture - Hand of benediction - Hand surgery - Hangman's fracture - Haruguchi classification - Hardinge lateral approach to the hip - Harrington rod - Harris Hip Score - Harris lines - Harrison's groove - Haversian canal - Hawkin's classification - Hawkins-Kennedy test - Heberden's node - Hemarthrosis - Hematoma - Hemimelia - Herbert classification - Herbert screw - Herscovici classification - High ankle sprain - High tibial osteotomy - Hilgenreiner's line - Hill–Sachs lesion - Hip dysplasia (human) - Hip examination - Hip fracture - Hip replacement - Hip resurfacing - Hip spica cast - Hoffa fracture - Holdsworth fracture - Holstein–Lewis fracture - Hubscher's maneuver - Hueter-Volkmann law - Human musculoskeletal system - Hume fracture - Hume fracture - Humerus fracture - Humphrey's ligament - Hyaline cartilage - Hydroxylapatite - Hyperostosis - Hypertrophic pulmonary osteoarthropathy == I == Ideberg classification - Ilizarov apparatus - Infantile cortical hyperostosis - Injury Severity Score - Internal fixation - Intervertebral disc annuloplasty - Intervertebral disc arthroplasty - Intramedullary rod - Intramembranous ossification - Involucrum - Irregular bone


id: index-of-trauma-and-orthopaedics-articles-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_trauma_and_orthopaedics_articles-2.md
category: reference
title: Index of trauma and orthopaedics articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_trauma_and_orthopaedics_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:05.010504+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-trauma-and-orthopaedics-articles-20260505-0
summary:
== S == Sacralization of the fifth lumbar vertebra - Salter–Harris fracture - Sanders classification - Sarcoma - Scaphoid fracture - Scapular fracture - Schenck classification - Scheuermann's disease - Schmorl's nodes - Schober's test - Schwartz–Jampel syndrome - Scoliosis - Seddon classification - Segond fracture - Seidel nail - Seinsheimer classification - Separated shoulder - Sequestrum - Sesamoid bone - Sesamoiditis - Sever's disease - Shenton's Line - Shepherd's fracture - Shin splints - Short bone - Shoulder examination - Shoulder fracture - Shoulder replacement - Shoulder surgery - Silver–Russell syndrome - Simmonds' test - Skeletal fluorosis - SLAP tear - Slipped capital femoral epiphysis - Slipped Upper Femoral Epiphysis - Smith Peterson nail - Smith-Petersen anterior approach to the hip - Smith's fracture - Soft tissue injury - Southwick angle - Speed's test - Spina bifida occulta - Spinal curvature - Spinal fracture - Spinal fusion - Spiral fracture - Splint (medicine) - Spondylolisthesis - Sports injury - Sprained ankle - Sprengel's deformity - Steinmann pin - Stener lesion - Sternal fracture - Stieda fracture - Straight leg raise - Stress fracture - Subacromial bursitis - Sudeck's atrophy - Sulcoplasty - Supracondylar fracture - Swan neck deformity -


id: index-of-women-scientists-articles-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_women_scientists_articles-0.md
category: reference
title: Index of women scientists articles
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_women_scientists_articles
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:07.517839+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: index-of-women-scientists-articles-20260505-0
summary:
== A == == B == == C == == D == == E == == F == == G == == H == == I == == J == == K == == L == == M == == N == == O == == P == == R == == S == == T == == U == == V == == W == == X == == Y == == Z == == Trans man scientists who were scientists before transitioning == == Transmasculine non-binary scientists who were scientists before transitioning == == Transfeminine non-binary scientists == == See also == List of female Fellows of the Royal Society List of female mathematicians List of female scientists before the 21st century List of women geologists Women in chemistry Women in computing Women in geology Women in science Women in STEM fields == References == Herzenberg, Caroline L. 1986. Women Scientists from Antiquity to the Present: An Index. Locust Hill Press. ISBN 0-933951-01-9 Howard S. The Hidden Giants, ch. 2, (Lulu.com; 2006) (accessed 22 August 2007) Howes, Ruth H. and Caroline L. Herzenberg. 1999. Their Day in the Sun: Women of the Manhattan Project. Temple University Press. ISBN


id: list-of-works-on-intelligent-design-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design-0.md
category: reference
title: List of works on intelligent design
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:09.568361+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-works-on-intelligent-design-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of works addressing the subject or the themes of intelligent design. == Non-fiction == === Supportive non-fiction === ==== Supportive non-fiction books ==== Ashton, John F, ed. (2001). In Six Days : Why Fifty Scientists Choose to Believe in Creation. Master Books. ISBN 978-0-89051-341-5. Ashton, John F, ed. (2001). On the Seventh Day: Forty Scientists and Academics Explain Why They Believe in God. Master Books. ISBN 978-0-89051-376-7. Michael J. Behe. Darwin's Black Box: The Biochemical Challenge to Evolution, New York: Free Press, 1996. ISBN 0-684-83493-6 Michael J. Behe, William A. Dembski, Stephen C. Meyer. Science and Evidence for Design in the Universe (Proceedings of the Wethersfield Institute), Ignatius Press 2000, ISBN 0-89870-809-5 Michael J. Behe, The Edge of Evolution, Free Press, June 5, 2007, ISBN 0-7432-9620-6 David Berlinski. The Devil's Delusion: Atheism and its Scientific Pretensions, Basic Books; Reprint edition, 2009, ISBN 0-465-01937-4 Campbell, John Angus; Stephen C. Meyer, eds. (2004). Darwinism, Design, and Public Education. Rhetoric and Public Affairs Series. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press. ISBN 978-0-87013-675-7. Archived from the original on 2006-09-03. Ann Coulter (2006). Godless: The Church of Liberalism. Crown Forum. ISBN 978-1-4000-5420-6. (Attacks evolution. Not a support for Creationism.) Percival Davis


id: list-of-works-on-intelligent-design-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design-1.md
category: reference
title: List of works on intelligent design
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:09.568361+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-works-on-intelligent-design-20260505-0
summary:
==== Supportive non-fiction anthologies ==== John Angus Campbell, Stephen C. Meyer ed. Darwinism, Design and Public Education, Michigan State University Press, December 2003, ISBN 0-87013-670-4 Why Are We Still Debating Darwinism? Why Not Teach the Controversy? John Angus Campbell PART I—Should Darwinism Be Presented Critically and Comparatively in the Public Schools? Philosophical, Educational, and Legal Issues Intelligent Design, Darwinism, and the Philosophy of Public Education, John Angus Campbell Intelligent Design Theory, Religion, and the Science Curriculum, Warren A. Nord Teaching the Controversy: Is It Science, Religion, or Speech? David DeWolf, Stephen C. Meyer, and Mark E. DeForrest PART II—Scientific Critique of Biology Textbooks and Contemporary Evolutionary Theory The Meanings of Evolution, Stephen C. Meyer and Michael Newton Keas The Deniable Darwin, David Berlinski Haeckel's Embryos and Evolution: Setting the Record Straight, Jonathan Wells Second Thoughts about Peppered Moths, Jonathan Wells Where Do We Come From? A Humbling Look at the Biology of Life's Origin, Massimo Pigliucci Origin of Life and Evolution in Biology Textbooks: A Critique, Gordon C. Mills, Malcolm Lancaster, and Walter L. Bradley PART III—The Theory of Intelligent Design: A Scientific Alternative to Neo-Darwinian and/or Chemical Evolutionary Theories DNA and the Origin of Life: Information, Specification, and Explanation,


id: list-of-works-on-intelligent-design-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design-2.md
category: reference
title: List of works on intelligent design
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:09.568361+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-works-on-intelligent-design-20260505-0
summary:
==== Neutral non-fiction books ==== David L. Bender (1988). Science and Religion; Opposing Viewpoints. St. Paul, Minnesota: Greenhaven Press. ISBN 0-89908-406-0 Carl Johan Calleman (2009). The Purposeful Universe: How Quantum Theory and Mayan Cosmology Explain the Origin and Evolution of Life. Bear & Company. ISBN 1-59143-104-2 Michael Corey (2007). The God Hypothesis: Discovering Design in Our Just Right Goldilocks Universe. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 0-7425-5889-4 Paul Davies (2007). Cosmic Jackpot The Goldilocks Enigma: Why is the Universe Just Right for Life?. ISBN 978-0-618-59226-5 James Le Fanu (2009). Why Us?: How Science Rediscovered the Mystery of Ourselves. Pantheon. ISBN 0-375-42198-X Jerry Fodor and Massimo Piattelli-Palmarini. (2011) What Darwin Got Wrong. Picador; Reprint edition ISBN 0-312-68066-X James N. Gardner (2003). Biocosm: The New Scientific Theory of Evolution: Intelligent Life Is the Architect of the Universe. Inner Ocean Publishing. ISBN 1-930722-26-5 Brian Goodwin (2001). How the Leopard Changed its Spots: The Evolution of Complexity. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-08809-8 Amit Goswami (2008). Creative Evolution: A Physicist's Resolution Between Darwinism and Intelligent Design. Quest Books; 1st Quest Ed edition. ISBN 0-8356-0858-1 George Greenstein (1988). The Symbiotic Universe: Life and mind in the Cosmos. Morrow. ISBN 0-688-07604-1 Bernard Haisch (2010). The Purpose-Guided Universe: Believing


id: list-of-works-on-intelligent-design-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design-3.md
category: reference
title: List of works on intelligent design
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:09.568361+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-works-on-intelligent-design-20260505-0
summary:
==== Neutral non-fiction anthologies ==== Robert Pennock ed. Intelligent Design Creationism and its Critics: Philosophical, Theological, and Scientific Perspectives, MIT Press (2002). ISBN 0-262-66124-1 Intelligent Design Creationism's "Wedge Strategy" The Wedge at Work: How Intelligent Design Creationism is Wedging Its Way into the Cultural and Academic Mainstream, by Barbara Forrest Johnson's Critique of Evolutionary Naturalism Evolution as Dogma: The Establishment of Naturalism, by Phillip E. Johnson Naturalism, Evidence and Creationism: The Case of Phillip Johnson, by Robert T. Pennock Response to Pennock by Phillip E. Johnson Reply: Johnson's Reason in the Balance, by Robert T. Pennock A Theological Conflict?: Evolution vs. the Bible When Faith and Reason Clash: Evolution and the Bible, by Alvin Plantinga When Faith and Reason Cooperate, by Howard J. Van Till Plantinga's Defense of Special Creation, by Ernan McMullin Evolution, Neutrality, and Antecedent Probability: A Reply to McMullin and Van Till, by Alvin Plantinga Intelligent Design's Scientific Claims Molecular Machines: Experimental Support for the Design Inference, by Michael J. Behe Born Again Creationism, by Philip Kitcher Biology Remystified: The Scientific Claims of the New Creationists, by Matthew J. Brauer & Daniel R. Brumbaugh Plantinga's Critique of Naturalism & Evolution Methodological Naturalism?, by Alvin Plantinga Methodological Naturalism


id: list-of-works-on-intelligent-design-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design-4.md
category: reference
title: List of works on intelligent design
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:09.568361+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-works-on-intelligent-design-20260505-0
summary:
==== Critical non-fiction books ==== Ayala, Francisco J. (2006). Darwin and Intelligent Design. Facets Series. Fortress Press. ISBN 978-0-8006-3802-3. Brockman, John (ed.) (2006). Intelligent thought. Science versus the intelligent design movement. New York, New York: Vintage. ISBN 978-0-307-27722-0. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help) Claramonte, Vicente (2009). La cientificidad del diseño inteligente. Tirant lo Blanch. ISBN 978-84-9876-165-8. Richard Dawkins. The Blind Watchmaker: Why the Evidence of Evolution Reveals a Universe Without Design, W. W. Norton & Company (1996). ISBN 0-393-31570-3 Richard Dawkins. The God Delusion, Houghton Mifflin (October 18, 2006). ISBN 0-618-68000-4 Richard Dawkins. The Greatest Show on Earth: The Evidence for Evolution (2009) ISBN 978-1416594789 Barbara Forrest and Paul R. Gross. Creationism's Trojan Horse: The Wedge of Intelligent Design, Oxford University Press (2004). ISBN 0-19-515742-7 Foster, John Bellamy; Brett Clark; Richard York (2008). Critique of Intelligent Design: Materialism Versus Creationism from Antiquity to the Present. New York: Monthly Review Press. ISBN 978-1-58367-173-3. Isaak, Mark (2005). The Counter-Creationism Handbook. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-33305-7. Ernst Mayr. One Long Argument: Charles Darwin and the Genesis of Modern Evolutionary Thought, Harvard University Press (1993). ISBN 0-674-63906-5 Kenneth R. Miller. Finding Darwin's God, HarperCollins (1999). ISBN 0-06-093049-7 National Academy of Sciences. Science and


id: list-of-works-on-intelligent-design-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design-5.md
category: reference
title: List of works on intelligent design
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:09.568361+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-works-on-intelligent-design-20260505-0
summary:
==== Critical non-fiction papers and articles ==== Attie, Alan D.; Elliott Sober; Ronald L. Numbers; Richard M. Amasino; Beth Cox; Terese Berceau; Thomas Powell; Michael M. Cox (2006). "Defending science education against intelligent design: a call to action". Journal of Clinical Investigation. 116 (5): 1134–1138. doi:10.1172/JCI28449. PMC 1451210. PMID 16670753. Bauer, D.R. (2006). "Resolving the controversy over "teaching the controversy": The constitutionality of teaching intelligent design in public schools". Fordham Law Review. 75 (2): 1019–1063. Beja, A. (2006). "The judge and "intelligent design" in the United States". Esprit (6): 181–184. Bland, M. (2005). "Intelligent design: the response". Physics World. 18 (12): 19. doi:10.1088/2058-7058/18/10/27. Branch, Glenn (March 2007). "Understanding Creationism after Kitzmiller". BioScience. 57 (3): 278–284. doi:10.1641/B570313. Frederick C. Crews. Saving Us from Darwin, The New York Review of Books, Vol 48, No 15 (4 October 2001). Frederick C. Crews. Saving Us from Darwin, Part II, The New York Review of Books, Vol 48, No 16 (18 October 2001). Fitelson, Branden; Elliott Sober (1998). "Plantinga's Probability Arguments Against Evolutionary Naturalism" (PDF). Pacific Philosophical Quarterly. 79 (2): 115–129. doi:10.1111/1468-0114.00053. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-06-28. Retrieved 2007-06-24. Fitelson, Branden; Christopher Stephens; Elliott Sober (1999). "How Not to Detect Design--- A Review


id: list-of-works-on-intelligent-design-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design-6.md
category: reference
title: List of works on intelligent design
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_on_intelligent_design
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:09.568361+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-works-on-intelligent-design-20260505-0
summary:
==== Critical non-fiction films ==== Flock of Dodos A biting, tongue-in-cheek documentary that pans both sides of the debate. Judgement Day: Intelligent Design on Trial, a Public Broadcasting Service NOVA television documentary about the Kitzmiller v. Dover federal trial A War on Science is a 49-minute BBC Horizon television documentary about intelligent design, including the 2005 Kitzmiller v. Dover court battle. It prominently features Oxford University professor, biologist Richard Dawkins. It was first broadcast on 26 January 2006. Intelligent design supporters and promoters Phillip Johnson, Michael Behe, Stephen C. Meyer and William A. Dembski also appear in the documentary. == Fiction == The concept of life having been designed or manipulated is a staple of science fiction. Aspects of Intelligent Design are explored in: Calculating God by Robert J. Sawyer. 2000. ISBN 0-312-86713-1 A science fiction novel in which an intelligent designer is manipulating reality solely for the benefit of human-kind and three other sentient species residing in our galaxy. 2001: A Space Odyssey; in the movie, human evolution is accelerated and guided by an unspecified force, assumed by many to be aliens. In the novel based on the film, human evolution is accelerated and guided by aliens. In the


id: list-of-abuse-allegations-made-through-facilitated-communication-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_abuse_allegations_made_through_facilitated_communication-0.md
category: reference
title: List of abuse allegations made through facilitated communication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_abuse_allegations_made_through_facilitated_communication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:10.791741+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-abuse-allegations-made-through-facilitated-communication-20260505-0
summary:
There have been instances in which a person, through facilitated communication (FC)—a scientifically discredited technique that attempts to aid communication by people with autism or other communication disabilities who are non-verbal—seems to disclose experiences of abuse. Often, the alleged abuse is sexual and contains "extensive, explicit, pornographic details". While facilitators are taught to expect their communication partners to reveal sensitive, personal issues, researchers find that facilitators involved in this type of case mistakenly suspect abuse by family members or others. Despite this, some abuse accusations first made via FC have been later proven credible through physical evidence, medical records, and witness testimony by parties unrelated to FC. In one study, out of 13 children who had made such accusations using FC, four had evidence of sexual abuse, two had physical findings consistent with sexual abuse, one also disclosed the allegation verbally, and one perpetrator confessed following the accusation. In 1993, Frontline's "Prisoners of Silence" featured the story of Gerry Gherardi of New Hampshire, who was accused, through FC-generated messages, of sexually abusing his son. Despite protestations of innocence, Gherardi was forced to stay away from his home for six months. The charges were dropped when court-ordered double-blind tests showed that


id: list-of-abuse-allegations-made-through-facilitated-communication-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_abuse_allegations_made_through_facilitated_communication-1.md
category: reference
title: List of abuse allegations made through facilitated communication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_abuse_allegations_made_through_facilitated_communication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:10.791741+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-abuse-allegations-made-through-facilitated-communication-20260505-0
summary:
=== Wheaton case === In 1992, the parents of Betsy Wheaton, a 16-year-old nonspeaking person with autism, were, through facilitated communication, falsely accused of sexually abusing their daughter. The facilitator, Janyce Boynton, who was trained in FC at the University of Maine, interpreted Betsy's hitting and scratching during facilitated sessions as reenactments of abuses occurring at home. Boynton reported these incidents to the Department of Human Services, and Betsy and her brother were removed from the home. The brother was also implicated. The parents' attorney hired Howard Shane of Boston Children's Hospital to conduct testing of authorship. It was determined through double blind testing that Boynton, not Betsy, was authoring the messages obtained through facilitation. Boynton, unlike many other facilitators who have undergone testing, accepted the results, stopped using FC, and persuaded the school system to stop using FC as well. Looking back on her training, Boynton could see that it had been inadequate. She had not worked with anyone who was nonverbal, and she was pronounced "good to go" after only two days of mostly lectures. She knew that disabled people suffer relatively high levels of abuse, was taught that there was a strong affinity between patient and facilitator,


id: list-of-abuse-allegations-made-through-facilitated-communication-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_abuse_allegations_made_through_facilitated_communication-2.md
category: reference
title: List of abuse allegations made through facilitated communication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_abuse_allegations_made_through_facilitated_communication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:10.791741+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-abuse-allegations-made-through-facilitated-communication-20260505-0
summary:
=== John Pinnington case === In 1998, middle-aged John Pinnington changed careers to focus on the care and treatment of individuals with autism (having been inspired by his experiences with his own autistic step-son). After several years of work in the field, Pinnington was hired by Thomley Hall College, a specialist facility for students aged 16–25 with autism, where he was promoted to the position of Deputy Headmaster in 2004. At the time of his promotion the college was aware that between the years 2000 and 2002, two young adults with autism had accused Pinnington of sexual abuse. Those charges, made during facilitated communication sessions, had been investigated by the college and by the police and found to be without foundation. In 2005, Pinnington learned that a third young man with autism had made an abuse allegation. Again, the charges were made during a facilitated communication session. Despite the dismissal of all charges by police investigators, the law in the UK required that a record of the allegations remain in Pinnington's police record, and the charges came to light later in 2005 when a new set of background checks were mandated by a charity that had taken over the college.


id: list-of-abuse-allegations-made-through-facilitated-communication-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_abuse_allegations_made_through_facilitated_communication-3.md
category: reference
title: List of abuse allegations made through facilitated communication
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_abuse_allegations_made_through_facilitated_communication
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:10.791741+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-abuse-allegations-made-through-facilitated-communication-20260505-0
summary:
=== Wales case === In 2012, the parents of a young woman with severe intellectual disabilities, autism, and profound communication problems were reunited with their daughter after the Public Services Ombudsman for Wales concluded they had been wrongfully arrested on suspicion of serious sexual assault obtained via FC. The family had been separated for six months. No charges were brought against the parents. Rowan Wilson, a psychiatrist, had, on November 8, 2010, assessed the woman's mental capacity using FC, though he, admittedly, had no knowledge or experience of the system. He also failed to consider the discrepancy between the woman's language fluency with and without FC. The Medical Practitioners Tribunal Services ruled that Wilson was still fit to practice because "he had shown remorse and insight into the errors he was highly unlikely to repeat." Wilson participated in further training in autism. === Hialeah case === In 2018, Jose Cordero spent 35 days in jail and was barred from seeing his family for months after he was accused of abusing his seven-year-old autistic son. The accusations arose through the child's teacher using the "hand-over-hand" method of FC. Miami-Dade prosecutors grew suspicious when, through the facilitator the boy made even more


id: list-of-psychic-abilities-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychic_abilities-0.md
category: reference
title: List of psychic abilities
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_psychic_abilities
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:12.029125+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-psychic-abilities-20260505-0
summary:
This is a list of psychic abilities attributed to real-world people. Many of these abilities pertain to variations of extrasensory perception or the sixth sense. Superhuman abilities from fiction are not included. == Psychic abilities == Aerokinesis – The ability to control air and wind. Astral projection or mental projection – The ability to voluntarily project an astral body or mental body, being associated with the out-of-body experience, in which one's consciousness or a state of day dream-like experience imagines an imaginary or future state of one's being. Atmokinesis – The ability to regulate the weather by "calling" for snow, rain, or sunshine. Automatic writing – The ability to draw or write without conscious intent. Bilocation – The ability to be present in two different places at the same time, usually attributed to a saint. Biokinesis - The ability to control any form of life from a single nucleotide to an entire ecosystem simultaneously. Chlorokinesis – The ability to mentally and/or physically summon, control and manipulate plants and vegetation. Cryokinesis – The ability to control ice or cold with one's mind. Curse – Any expressed wish that some form of adversity or misfortune will befall or attach to one or


id: curious-cases-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curious_Cases-0.md
category: reference
title: Curious Cases
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curious_Cases
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:13.542687+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: curious-cases-20260505-0
summary:
Curious Cases is a BBC Radio 4 science programme, presented by Hannah Fry and Dara Ó Briain. Each episode tackles a question sent in by a listener (who are collectively known as The Curios), which they attempt to solve "using the power of science". Currently in its 24th series, it is broadcast weekly on Saturdays. Originally called "The Curious Cases of Rutherford and Fry", the first 21 series were presented by Adam Rutherford and Hannah Fry, with the first episode airing on Monday, 15 February 2016. After the end of the 21st series, there was a break of just over 19 months. The first episode of series 22 was broadcast on 4 October 2024 with Ó Briain replacing Rutherford. == Presenters == Hannah Fry has co-hosted the series since its inception to the present. Fry was appointed the Professor of the Public Understanding of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge, UK on 1 January 2025. She was awarded the David Attenborough Award by the Royal Society in 2024. Adam Rutherford is a geneticist, writer and author and lecturer at University College London. He was awarded the David Attenborough Award by the Royal Society in 2021., and appointed President of Humanists


id: glossary-of-aerospace-engineering-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-0.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of aerospace engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-aerospace-engineering-20260505-0
summary:
This glossary of aerospace engineering terms pertains specifically to aerospace engineering, its sub-disciplines, and related fields including aviation and aeronautics. For a broad overview of engineering, see glossary of engineering.


id: glossary-of-aerospace-engineering-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-1.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of aerospace engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-aerospace-engineering-20260505-0
summary:
== A == Above ground level – In aviation, atmospheric sciences and broadcasting, a height above ground level (AGL) is a height measured with respect to the underlying ground surface. This is as opposed to altitude/elevation above mean sea level (AMSL), or (in broadcast engineering) height above average terrain (HAAT). In other words, these expressions (AGL, AMSL, HAAT) indicate where the "zero level" or "reference altitude" is located. Absolute humidity – describes the water content of air and is expressed in either grams per cubic meter or grams per kilogram. Absolute value – In mathematics, the absolute value or modulus |x| of a real number x is the non-negative value of x without regard to its sign. Namely, |x| = x for a positive x, |x| = −x for a negative x (in which case −x is positive), and |0| = 0. For example, the absolute value of 3 is 3, and the absolute value of −3 is also 3. The absolute value of a number may be thought of as its distance from zero. Acceleration – In physics, acceleration is the rate of change of velocity of an object with respect to time. An object's acceleration is the net


id: glossary-of-aerospace-engineering-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-2.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of aerospace engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-aerospace-engineering-20260505-0
summary:
The rocket's rotation (induced by the deployment from the aircraft) is slowed by a small parachute attached to its tail, then ignited once the carrier aircraft has passed it. It is ignited before it is pointing fully vertically, however it will turn to do so, and accelerates to pass behind the carrier aircraft. AGL – Above ground level Aileron – is a hinged flight control surface usually forming part of the trailing edge of each wing of a fixed-wing aircraft. Ailerons are used in pairs to control the aircraft in roll (or movement around the aircraft's longitudinal axis), which normally results in a change in flight path due to the tilting of the lift vector. Movement around this axis is called 'rolling' or 'banking'. Air-augmented rocket – Aircraft – is a machine that is able to fly by gaining support from the air. It counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or by using the dynamic lift of an airfoil, or in a few cases the downward thrust from jet engines. Common examples of aircraft include airplanes, helicopters, airships (including blimps), gliders, and hot air balloons. Aircraft flight control systems – A conventional fixed-wing aircraft flight control


id: glossary-of-aerospace-engineering-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-3.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of aerospace engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-aerospace-engineering-20260505-0
summary:
As a result, they were often distinguished from objects found in the main asteroid belt. Astrodynamics – Orbital mechanics or astrodynamics is the application of ballistics and celestial mechanics to the practical problems concerning the motion of rockets and other spacecraft. Atmospheric entry – is the movement of an object from outer space into and through the gases of an atmosphere of a planet, dwarf planet or natural satellite. There are two main types of atmospheric entry: uncontrolled entry, such as the entry of astronomical objects, space debris or bolides; and controlled entry (or reentry) of a spacecraft capable of being navigated or following a predetermined course. Technologies and procedures allowing the controlled atmospheric entry, descent and landing of spacecraft are collectively termed as EDL. Attitude control – is controlling the orientation of an object with respect to an inertial frame of reference or another entity like the celestial sphere, certain fields, and nearby objects, etc. Controlling vehicle attitude requires sensors to measure vehicle orientation, actuators to apply the torques needed to re-orient the vehicle to a desired attitude, and algorithms to command the actuators based on (1) sensor measurements of the current attitude and (2) specification of a desired


id: glossary-of-aerospace-engineering-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-4.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of aerospace engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-aerospace-engineering-20260505-0
summary:
== B == Balloon – In aeronautics, a balloon is an unpowered aerostat, which remains aloft or floats due to its buoyancy. A balloon may be free, moving with the wind, or tethered to a fixed point. It is distinct from an airship, which is a powered aerostat that can propel itself through the air in a controlled manner. Ballute – (a portmanteau of balloon and parachute) is a parachute-like braking device optimized for use at high altitudes and supersonic velocities. Invented by Goodyear in 1958, the original ballute was a cone-shaped balloon with a toroidal burble fence fitted around its widest point. A burble fence is an inflated structure intended to ensure flow separation. This stabilizes the ballute as it decelerates through different flow regimes (from supersonic to subsonic). Beam-powered propulsion – also known as directed energy propulsion, is a class of aircraft or spacecraft propulsion that uses energy beamed to the spacecraft from a remote power plant to provide energy. The beam is typically either a microwave or a laser beam and it is either pulsed or continuous. A continuous beam lends itself to thermal rockets, photonic thrusters and light sails, whereas a pulsed beam lends itself to


id: glossary-of-aerospace-engineering-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-5.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of aerospace engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-aerospace-engineering-20260505-0
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== C == Cabin pressurization – is a process in which conditioned air is pumped into the cabin of an aircraft or spacecraft, in order to create a safe and comfortable environment for passengers and crew flying at high altitudes. For aircraft, this air is usually bled off from the gas turbine engines at the compressor stage, and for spacecraft, it is carried in high-pressure, often cryogenic tanks. The air is cooled, humidified, and mixed with recirculated air if necessary, before it is distributed to the cabin by one or more environmental control systems. The cabin pressure is regulated by the outflow valve. Cable lacing – is a method for tying wiring harnesses and cable looms, traditionally used in telecommunication, naval, and aerospace applications. This old cable management technique, taught to generations of linemen, is still used in some modern applications since it does not create obstructions along the length of the cable, avoiding the handling problems of cables groomed by plastic or hook-and-loop cable ties. Camber – the asymmetric curves on the top and bottom, or front and back, of an aerofoil Canard – is an aeronautical arrangement wherein a small forewing or foreplane is placed forward of the


id: glossary-of-aerospace-engineering-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-6.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of aerospace engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-aerospace-engineering-20260505-0
summary:
β = − 1 V ∂ V ∂ p {\displaystyle \beta =-{\frac {1}{V}}{\frac {\partial V}{\partial p}}} , where V is volume and p is pressure. The choice to define compressibility as the opposite of the fraction makes compressibility positive in the (usual) case that an increase in pressure induces a reduction in volume. t is also known as reciprocal of bulk modulus(k) of elasticity of a fluid. Compression – In mechanics, compression is the application of balanced inward ("pushing") forces to different points on a material or structure, that is, forces with no net sum or torque directed so as to reduce its size in one or more directions. It is contrasted with tension or traction, the application of balanced outward ("pulling") forces; and with shearing forces, directed so as to displace layers of the material parallel to each other. The compressive strength of materials and structures is an important engineering consideration. Compressor map – is a diagram showing significant performance parameters for a rotating compressor, and how they vary with changing ambient conditions of pressure and temperature. Computational fluid dynamics – (CFD), is a branch of fluid mechanics that uses numerical analysis and data structures to analyze and solve


id: glossary-of-aerospace-engineering-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-7.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of aerospace engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-aerospace-engineering-20260505-0
summary:
== D == Damage tolerance – is a property of a structure relating to its ability to sustain defects safely until repair can be effected. The approach to engineering design to account for damage tolerance is based on the assumption that flaws can exist in any structure and such flaws propagate with usage. Decalage – Decalage on a fixed-wing aircraft is the angle difference between the upper and lower wings of a biplane, i.e. the acute angle contained between the chords of the wings in question. Decalage is said to be positive when the upper wing has a higher angle of incidence than the lower wing, and negative when the lower wing's incidence is greater than that of the upper wing. Positive decalage results in greater lift from the upper wing than the lower wing, the difference increasing with the amount of decalage. De Laval nozzle – (or convergent-divergent nozzle, CD nozzle or con-di nozzle), is a tube that is pinched in the middle, making a carefully balanced, asymmetric hourglass shape. It is used to accelerate a hot, pressurized gas passing through it to a higher supersonic speed in the axial (thrust) direction, by converting the heat energy of the


id: glossary-of-aerospace-engineering-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-8.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of aerospace engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-aerospace-engineering-20260505-0
summary:
The drag coefficient is always associated with a particular surface area. Drag equation – In fluid dynamics, the drag equation is a formula used to calculate the force of drag experienced by an object due to movement through a fully enclosing fluid. The equation is:


id: glossary-of-aerospace-engineering-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-9.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of aerospace engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-aerospace-engineering-20260505-0
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F D = 1 2 ρ u 2 C D A {\displaystyle F_{D}\,=\,{\tfrac {1}{2}}\,\rho \,u^{2}\,C_{D}\,A} F D {\displaystyle F_{D}} is the drag force, which is by definition the force component in the direction of the flow velocity, ρ {\displaystyle \rho } is the mass density of the fluid, u {\displaystyle u} is the flow velocity relative to the object, A {\displaystyle A} is the reference area, and C D {\displaystyle C_{D}} is the drag coefficient – a dimensionless coefficient related to the object's geometry and taking into account both skin friction and form drag. In general, C D {\displaystyle C_{D}} depends on the Reynolds number. Drop test – is a method of testing the in-flight characteristics of prototype or experimental aircraft and spacecraft by raising the test vehicle to a specific altitude and then releasing it. Test flights involving powered aircraft, particularly rocket-powered aircraft, may be referred to as drop launches due to the launch of the aircraft's rockets after release from its carrier aircraft. Dual mode propulsion rocket – Dual mode propulsion systems combine the high efficiency of bipropellant rockets with the reliability and simplicity of monopropellant rockets. It is based upon the use of two rocket fuels, liquid


id: glossary-of-aerospace-engineering-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-10.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of aerospace engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-aerospace-engineering-20260505-0
summary:
Where | ∇ u | 2 = ∑ i , j = 1 n | ∂ i u j | 2 {\displaystyle |\nabla \mathbf {u} |^{2}=\sum _{i,j=1}^{n}\left|\partial _{i}u^{j}\right|^{2}} . This is quantity is the same as the squared seminorm | u | H 1 ( Ω ) n 2 {\displaystyle |\mathbf {u} |_{H^{1}(\Omega )^{n}}^{2}} of the solution in the Sobolev space :::: H 1 ( Ω ) n {\displaystyle H^{1}(\Omega )^{n}} . In the case that the flow is incompressible, or equivalently that ∇ ⋅ u = 0 {\displaystyle \nabla \cdot \mathbf {u} =0} , the enstrophy can be described as the integral of the square of the vorticity ω {\displaystyle \mathbf {\omega } } , E ( ω ) ≡ ∫ Ω | ω | 2 d x {\displaystyle {\mathcal {E}}({\boldsymbol {\omega }})\equiv \int _{\Omega }|{\boldsymbol {\omega }}|^{2}\,dx} or, in terms of the flow velocity, E ( u ) ≡ ∫ S | ∇ × u | 2 d S . {\displaystyle {\mathcal {E}}(\mathbf {u} )\equiv \int _{S}|\nabla \times \mathbf {u} |^{2}\,dS\,.} In the context of the incompressible Navier-Stokes equations, enstrophy appears in the following useful result d d t ( 1 2 ∫ Ω | u | 2


id: glossary-of-aerospace-engineering-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-11.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of aerospace engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-aerospace-engineering-20260505-0
summary:
== F == Fatigue – In materials science, fatigue is the weakening of a material caused by repeatedly applied loads. It is the progressive and localized structural damage that occurs when a material is subjected to cyclic loading. The nominal maximum stress values that cause such damage may be much less than the strength of the material typically quoted as the ultimate tensile stress limit, or the yield stress limit. Field-emission electric propulsion – (FEEP), is an advanced electrostatic space propulsion concept, a form of ion thruster, that uses a liquid metal as a propellant – usually either caesium, indium, or mercury. Fixed-wing aircraft – is a heavier-than-air flying machine, such as an airplane, which is capable of flight using wings that generate lift caused by the aircraft's forward airspeed and the shape of the wings. Fixed-wing aircraft are distinct from rotary-wing aircraft (in which the wings form a rotor mounted on a spinning shaft or "mast"), and ornithopters (in which the wings flap in a manner similar to that of a bird). The wings of a fixed-wing aircraft are not necessarily rigid; kites, hang gliders, variable-sweep wing aircraft and airplanes that use wing morphing are all examples of fixed-wing


id: glossary-of-aerospace-engineering-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-12.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of aerospace engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-aerospace-engineering-20260505-0
summary:
Fluid mechanics – is the branch of physics concerned with the mechanics of fluids (liquids, gases, and plasmas) and the forces on them. It has applications in a wide range of disciplines, including mechanical, civil, chemical and biomedical engineering, geophysics, oceanography, meteorology, astrophysics, and biology. It can be divided into fluid statics, the study of fluids at rest; and fluid dynamics, the study of the effect of forces on fluid motion. Fluid statics – or hydrostatics, is the branch of fluid mechanics that studies the condition of the equilibrium of a floating body and submerged body "fluids at hydrostatic equilibrium and the pressure in a fluid, or exerted by a fluid, on an immersed body". FMS – Flight management system. Force – In physics, a force is any influence that, when unopposed, will change the motion of an object. A force can cause an object with mass to change its velocity (which includes to begin moving from a state of rest), i.e., to accelerate. Force can also be described intuitively as a push or a pull. A force has both magnitude and direction, making it a vector quantity. It is measured in the SI unit of newton (N). Force is


id: glossary-of-aerospace-engineering-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-13.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of aerospace engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-aerospace-engineering-20260505-0
summary:
== G == Galaxy – is a gravitationally bound system of stars, stellar remnants, interstellar gas, dust, and dark matter. The word is derived from the Greek galaxias (γαλαξίας), literally "milky", a reference to the Milky Way. Galaxies range in size from dwarfs with just a few hundred million (108) stars to giants with one hundred trillion (1014) stars, each orbiting its galaxy's center of mass. Galaxies are categorized according to their visual morphology as elliptical, spiral, or irregular. Gas-generator cycle (rocket) – is a power cycle of a pumped liquid bipropellant rocket engine. Part of the unburned propellant is burned in a gas generator (or preburner) and the resulting hot gas is used to power the propellant pumps before being exhausted overboard, and lost. Because of this loss, this type of engine is termed open cycle. Geostationary orbit – also referred to as a geosynchronous equatorial orbit (GEO), is a circular geosynchronous orbit 35,786 kilometres (22,236 miles) in altitude above Earth's equator (42,164 kilometers in radius from Earth's center) and following the direction of Earth's rotation. An object in such an orbit has an orbital period equal to the Earth's rotational period, one sidereal day, and so to ground


id: glossary-of-aerospace-engineering-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-15.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of aerospace engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-aerospace-engineering-20260505-0
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== H == Hall effect thruster – In spacecraft propulsion, a Hall-effect thruster (HET) is a type of ion thruster in which the propellant is accelerated by an electric field. Hall-effect thrusters (based on the discovery by Edwin Hall) are sometimes referred to as Hall thrusters or Hall-current thrusters. Hall-effect thrusters use a magnetic field to limit the electrons' axial motion and then use them to ionize propellant, efficiently accelerate the ions to produce thrust, and neutralize the ions in the plume. The Hall-effect thruster is classed as a moderate specific impulse (1,600 s) space propulsion technology and has benefited from considerable theoretical and experimental research since the 1960s. Heat shield – A heat shield is designed to protect an object from overheating by dissipating, reflecting, absorbing heat, or simply gradually burn and fall away from the aircraft, pulling the excess heat with it. The term is most often used in reference to exhaust heat management and to systems for dissipation of heat due to friction. Helicopter – is a type of rotorcraft in which lift and thrust are supplied by horizontally-spinning rotors. This allows the helicopter to take off and land vertically, to hover, and to fly forward, backward


id: glossary-of-aerospace-engineering-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-16.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of aerospace engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-aerospace-engineering-20260505-0
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== I == Impulse – Specific impulse (usually abbreviated Isp) is a measure of how efficiently a rocket uses propellant or a jet engine uses fuel. For engines whose reaction mass is only the fuel they carry, specific impulse is exactly proportional to exhaust gas velocity. Indicated airspeed – (IAS), is the airspeed read directly from the airspeed indicator (ASI) on an aircraft, driven by the pitot-static system. It uses the difference between total pressure and static pressure, provided by the system, to either mechanically or electronically measure dynamic pressure. The dynamic pressure includes terms for both density and airspeed. Since the airspeed indicator cannot know the density, it is by design calibrated to assume the sea level standard atmospheric density when calculating airspeed. Since the actual density will vary considerably from this assumed value as the aircraft changes altitude, IAS varies considerably from true airspeed (TAS), the relative velocity between the aircraft and the surrounding air mass. Calibrated airspeed (CAS) is the IAS corrected for instrument and position error. An aircraft's indicated airspeed in knots is typically abbreviated KIAS for "Knots-Indicated Air Speed" (vs. KCAS for calibrated airspeed and KTAS for true airspeed). Instrument landing system – In aviation,


id: glossary-of-aerospace-engineering-20260505-17
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-17.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of aerospace engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:15.292303+00:00
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== K == Keel effect – In aeronautics, the keel effect (also known as the pendulum effect or pendulum stability) is the result of the sideforce-generating surfaces being above (or below) the center of mass (which coincides with the center of gravity) in an aircraft. Along with dihedral, sweepback, and weight distribution, keel effect is one of the four main design considerations in aircraft lateral stability. Kepler's laws of planetary motion – In astronomy, Kepler's laws of planetary motion, published by Johannes Kepler between 1609 and 1619, describe the orbits of planets around the Sun. The laws modified the heliocentric theory of Nicolaus Copernicus, replacing its circular orbits and epicycles with elliptical trajectories, and explaining how planetary velocities vary. The three laws state that: The orbit of a planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the two foci. A line segment joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time. The square of a planet's orbital period is proportional to the cube of the length of the semi-major axis of its orbit. The elliptical orbits of planets were indicated by calculations of the orbit of Mars. From this, Kepler inferred that


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-18.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of aerospace engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering
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== L == Lander – spacecraft designed to soft-land intact or almost undamaged on the surface of a celestial body and eventually take-off from it Landing – is the last part of a flight, where an aircraft, or spacecraft returns to the ground. When the flying object returns to water, the process is called alighting, although it is commonly called "landing", "touchdown"a or "splashdown" as well. A normal aircraft flight would include several parts of flight including taxi, takeoff, climb, cruise, descent and landing. Landing gear – is the undercarriage of an aircraft or spacecraft and may be used for either takeoff or landing. For aircraft it is generally needed for both. Also, for aircraft, the landing gear supports the craft when it is not flying, allowing it to take off, land, and taxi without damage. Wheeled landing gear is the most common, with skis or floats needed to operate from snow/ice/water and skids for vertical operation on land. Faster aircraft have retractable undercarriages, which fold away during flight to reduce drag. Lagrangian mechanics – Introduced by the Italian-French mathematician and astronomer Joseph-Louis Lagrange in 1788, Lagrangian mechanics is a formulation of classical mechanics and is founded on the stationary


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-19.md
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title: Glossary of aerospace engineering
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The function δ ( t ) {\displaystyle \delta (t)} on the right-hand side is called perturbation or virtual displacement. The directional derivative δ S {\displaystyle \delta {\cal {S}}} on the left is known as variation in physics and Gateaux derivative in mathematics. Lagrangian mechanics has been extended to allow for non-conservative forces. Lagrangian point – In celestial mechanics, the Lagrange points (also Lagrangian points, L-points, or libration points) are points near two large orbiting bodies. Normally, the two objects exert an unbalanced gravitational force at a point, altering the orbit of whatever is at that point. At the Lagrange points, the gravitational forces of the two large bodies and the centrifugal force balance each other. This can make Lagrange points an excellent location for satellites, as few orbit corrections are needed to maintain the desired orbit. Small objects placed in orbit at Lagrange points are in equilibrium in at least two directions relative to the center of mass of the large bodies. Laser broom – is a proposed ground-based laser beam-powered propulsion system whose purpose is to sweep space debris out of the path of other artificial satellites such as the International Space Station. It would heat one side of


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-20.md
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title: Glossary of aerospace engineering
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Lunar space elevator – or lunar spacelift, is a proposed transportation system for moving a mechanical climbing vehicle up and down a ribbon-shaped tethered cable that is set between the surface of the Moon "at the bottom" and a docking port suspended tens of thousands of kilometers above in space at the top.


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-21.md
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title: Glossary of aerospace engineering
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== M == Mach number – In fluid dynamics, the Mach number is a dimensionless quantity representing the ratio of flow velocity past a boundary to the local speed of sound. Magnetic sail – or magsail, is a proposed method of spacecraft propulsion which would use a static magnetic field to deflect charged particles radiated by the Sun as a plasma wind, and thus impart momentum to accelerate the spacecraft. A magnetic sail could also thrust directly against planetary and solar magnetospheres. Magnetoplasmadynamic thruster – A magnetoplasmadynamic (MPD) thruster (MPDT) is a form of electrically powered spacecraft propulsion which uses the Lorentz force (the force on a charged particle by an electromagnetic field) to generate thrust. It is sometimes referred to as Lorentz Force Accelerator (LFA) or (mostly in Japan) MPD arcjet. Mass – is both a property of a physical body and a measure of its resistance to acceleration (rate of change of velocity with respect to time) when a net force is applied. An object's mass also determines the strength of its gravitational attraction to other bodies. The SI base unit of mass is the kilogram (kg). In physics, mass is not the same as weight, even though


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering-22.md
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title: Glossary of aerospace engineering
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== N == NACA – United States National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, replaced by NASA in 1958. NASA – United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Navier–Stokes equations – In physics, the Navier–Stokes equations() are certain partial differential equations which describe the motion of viscous fluid substances, named after French engineer and physicist Claude-Louis Navier and Anglo-Irish physicist and mathematician George Gabriel Stokes. They were developed over several decades of progressively building the theories, from 1822 (Navier) to 1842–1850 (Stokes). The Navier–Stokes equations mathematically express conservation of momentum and conservation of mass for Newtonian fluids. They are sometimes accompanied by an equation of state relating pressure, temperature and density. They arise from applying Isaac Newton's second law to fluid motion, together with the assumption that the stress in the fluid is the sum of a diffusing viscous term (proportional to the gradient of velocity) and a pressure term—hence describing viscous flow. The difference between them and the closely related Euler equations is that Navier–Stokes equations take viscosity into account while the Euler equations model only inviscid flow. As a result, the Navier–Stokes are a parabolic equation and therefore have better analytic properties, at the expense of having less mathematical structure


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title: Glossary of aerospace engineering
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== O == Orbit – In physics, an orbit is the gravitationally curved trajectory of an object, such as the trajectory of a planet around a star or a natural satellite around a planet. Normally, orbit refers to a regularly repeating trajectory, although it may also refer to a non-repeating trajectory. To a close approximation, planets and satellites follow elliptic orbits, with the center of mass being orbited at a focal point of the ellipse, as described by Kepler's laws of planetary motion. For most situations, orbital motion is adequately approximated by Newtonian mechanics, which explains gravity as a force obeying an inverse-square law. However, Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity, which accounts for gravity as due to curvature of spacetime, with orbits following geodesics, provides a more accurate calculation and understanding of the exact mechanics of orbital motion. Orbit phasing – In astrodynamics, orbit phasing is the adjustment of the time-position of spacecraft along its orbit, usually described as adjusting the orbiting spacecraft's true anomaly. Orbital phasing is primarily used in scenarios where a spacecraft in a given orbit must be moved to a different location within the same orbit. The change in position within the orbit is usually


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title: Glossary of aerospace engineering
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== P == Parallel axis theorem – also known as Huygens–Steiner theorem, or just as Steiner's theorem, named after Christiaan Huygens and Jakob Steiner, can be used to determine the moment of inertia or the second moment of area of a rigid body about any axis, given the body's moment of inertia about a parallel axis through the object's center of gravity and the perpendicular distance between the axes. Parasitic drag – also known as profile drag, is a type of aerodynamic drag that acts on any object when the object is moving through a fluid. Parasitic drag is a combination of form drag and skin friction drag. It affects all objects regardless of whether they are capable of generating lift. Total drag on an aircraft is made up of parasitic drag and lift-induced drag. Parasitic drag is so named because it is not useful, whereas lift-induced drag is the result of an airfoil generating lift. Parasitic drag comprises all types of drag except lift-induced drag. Perpendicular axes theorem – states that the moment of inertia of a planar lamina (i.e. 2-D body) about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the lamina is equal to the sum of the


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title: Glossary of aerospace engineering
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== S == SABRE – Satellite – Saturn (rocket family) – Scalar (physics) – A quantity with magnitude but no direction. Schlieren – Schlieren photography – Scramjet – Second moment of area – Shock wave – SI – Single point of failure – Single-stage-to-orbit – spacecraft able to fly from a celestial body (usually the Earth or the Moon)'s surface to its orbit without using external boosters Skyhook (structure) – Slew – Stream function – Streamline – Solar panel – Solar sail – Solar thermal rocket – Solid of revolution – Solid rocket – Sound barrier – Space activity suit – Space elevator – Space fountain – Space Shuttle – crewed NASA spacecraft used between 1981 and 2011, consisting of a reusable spaceplane (the Space Shuttle orbiter, capable of airplane-like landing) attached to an expendable external tank (which disintegrated during re-entry) and two recoverable solid rocket boosters (which re-entered the Earth's atmosphere and splash-landed) Space Shuttle external tank – external tank attached to the orbiter and the solid rocket boosters in the NASA Space Shuttle program Space Shuttle main engine – Space Shuttle orbiter – reusable NASA VTHL spaceplane used during the Space Shuttle program (1981–2011) Space station – habitable


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title: Glossary of aerospace engineering
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== V == V-2 rocket – The V-2 (German: Vergeltungswaffe 2, "Retribution Weapon 2"), with the technical name Aggregat 4 (A4), was the world's first long-range guided ballistic missile. The missile, powered by a liquid-propellant rocket engine, was developed during the Second World War in Germany as a "vengeance weapon" and assigned to attack Allied cities as retaliation for the Allied bombings against German cities. The V-2 rocket also became the first artificial object to travel into space by crossing the Kármán line with the vertical launch of MW 18014 on 20 June 1944. Variable specific impulse magnetoplasma rocket – (VASIMR), is an electrothermal thruster under development for possible use in spacecraft propulsion. It uses radio waves to ionize and heat an inert propellant, forming a plasma, then a magnetic field to confine and accelerate the expanding plasma, generating thrust. It is a plasma propulsion engine, one of several types of spacecraft electric propulsion systems. Velocity – The velocity of an object is the rate of change of its position with respect to a frame of reference, and is a function of time. Velocity is equivalent to a specification of an object's speed and direction of motion (e.g. 60 km/h


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-0.md
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title: Glossary of agriculture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture
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This glossary of agriculture is a list of definitions of terms and concepts used in agriculture, its sub-disciplines, and related fields, including horticulture, animal husbandry, agribusiness, and agricultural policy. For other glossaries relevant to agricultural science, see Glossary of biology, Glossary of ecology, Glossary of environmental science, and Glossary of botanical terms. == A == abattoir See slaughterhouse. aboiteau Plural aboiteaux. A sluice or conduit built beneath a coastal dike, with a hinged gate or a one-way valve that closes during high tide but remains open during low tide, preventing salt water from flowing into the sluice and flooding the land behind the dike while allowing fresh water precipitation and irrigation runoff to drain from the land into the sea. The term may also refer to a method of land reclamation which relies on these gated sluices to convert tidal flats and coastal marshes into land suitable for agriculture. Aboiteau systems are usually installed several seasons prior to planting to allow time for natural flows of fresh water to drain through the soil and reduce its salinity. This method is practiced in areas with extremely high tidal amplitudes, particularly Atlantic Canada, where large tracts of coastal land would otherwise be


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title: Glossary of agriculture
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agricultural fencing Any fence or barrier used to keep domestic or wild animals (or humans) inside or outside of an agricultural area. Fencing materials and designs vary widely depending on terrain and the kinds of animals they are intended to deter, though wooden logs, barbed wire, and electrified fences are common. They must often be continuous for long distances to surround farms or pastures. In many places, ranchers are required by law to build fences to enclose their grazing livestock within designated rangeland; in others, livestock are allowed to roam freely, and responsibility for fencing belongs to those who wish to prevent animals from accessing their land. agricultural land Any land devoted solely to agriculture, i.e., the deliberate and systematic reproduction of living organisms to produce commodities that humans can use. In the broadest sense, agricultural land may also include certain types used only partially or seasonally for agricultural purposes, such as pastures and wild forests. Colloquially, the term is often used interchangeably with farmland, cropland, and arable land, though these terms may also be considered technically distinct. agricultural machinery The mechanical or electrical tools, devices, and structures used in farming or any other type of agriculture. The broadest definition


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title: Glossary of agriculture
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animal-free agriculture Also veganic farming. Any agricultural practice or farming method that does not make use of animals or animal products, such as farmed animal manures. Animal-free agriculture may use organic or non-organic techniques. apiculture Also beekeeping. The maintenance of colonies of bees, commonly in human-made beehives, by humans for any of a variety of purposes, including collecting honey or other products created by bees, pollinating crops, and breeding bees for sale. A location where bees are kept is called an apiary and a person who practices apiculture is called an apiarist or beekeeper. aquaculture Also aquafarming. The cultivation of aquatic organisms in either freshwater or saltwater habitats, including fish, crustaceans, molluscs, aquatic plants, and others, with the goal of producing any of a variety of products that can be used by humans. Branches of aquaculture include pisciculture, algaculture, and mariculture. aquaponics A variant of hydroponic agriculture that recycles nutrient-rich waters sourced from an aquaculture operation and uses them to feed hydroponically grown plants. arable land Any land which is capable of producing viable agricultural crops in its present state, and which does not require substantial clearing or other improvements apart from routine tillage operations. This may include both natural,


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bin burn The discoloration and deterioration of harvested grain due to heat during long-term storage in bins. biochar A fine-grained, porous charcoal produced from organic matter via pyrolysis (i.e. in low-temperature, anoxic conditions) rather than standard combustion. It is often used as a soil amendment to increase soil fertility and sequester carbon. biodynamic agriculture A type of alternative agriculture which incorporates holistic ecological approaches and aspects of organic and integrated farming but also emphasizes various esoteric perspectives, including spiritual and mystical beliefs about nature. The efficacy of biodynamic agricultural techniques lacks scientific evidence, and the practice has been labeled a pseudoscience. bioeffector Any viable microorganism or naturally occurring chemical compound which directly or indirectly affects plant growth, development, production, and/or yield quality (e.g. organic fertilizers and biofertilizers) and thus has the potential to reduce or replace use of conventional chemical fertilizers or pesticides. biofertilizer A substance containing living microorganisms such as bacteria and algae which, when applied to seeds, plant parts, or soil, colonize plant tissues or the rhizosphere surrounding the roots and promote the growth and health of the host plant by increasing the supply or bioavailability of useful nutrients. Biofertilizers serve the same purpose as conventional fertilizers, though


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branding A technique for marking and identifying livestock in which a permanent scar, known as a brand, is made in the animal's hide, traditionally by applying an extremely hot or cold branding iron which has been shaped or placed in such a way as to create a unique, specific symbol or series of numbers, usually for the purpose of indicating ownership. Branding may be used in conjunction with other forms of animal identification, including earmarking, ear tagging, and radio-frequency identification (RFID). branding iron A handheld metal tool with one end shaped into a letter, number, or other symbol, intended as a unique identifier, which is heated, chilled, or electrified and then pressed against the skin of an animal in a process known as branding. brash 1. The decaying residues of a previous crop, along with any weeds that may be present on or near the soil surface, in an area that has not been ploughed. This debris may impede subsequent cultivation unless it is removed or buried. 2. In forestry, the small branches and foliage removed when trees are felled. Where trees such as hazel are coppiced, brash is often placed over the stool to deter animals from browsing the


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candling In the poultry egg industry, the process of examining eggs for quality and defects by holding them in front of a bright light source, illuminating the internal contents of the egg through the translucent shell without having to break it open. cane mill A mill at which sugarcane is ground into raw sugar. capon A male chicken which has been castrated or neutered before reaching maturity, allowing it to grow faster and obtain a larger adult size. care farming The practice of farming (or of agricultural activities in general) for the purpose of providing or promoting mental or physical health or well-being, especially as a form of therapy or to aid convalescence or for social or educational services. carryover The supply of a farm commodity that is not yet used at the end of a marketing season and subsequently stored and made available for sale in the next marketing season. An excessively large carryover may be considered a surplus, and may cause prices to fall. carton 1. A container used for fruit or other produce leaving a packinghouse. 2. A unit of mass or volume representing a standardized size of these containers, equal to 425 pounds (193 kilograms) or


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title: Glossary of agriculture
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center-pivot irrigation Also circle irrigation or water-wheel irrigation. A method of crop irrigation in which a long line of sprinklers mounted upon or dangling from a metal frame with multiple sets of wheels rotates slowly around a pivot at the center of a field, watering a very large circular area centered on this point. Water is usually supplied by a well or an underground pipeline near the pivot, and the wheeled frame is propelled by hydraulic pressure or electric motors. A typical center-pivot line is 400 metres (1,300 feet) long and capable of irrigating a 125-acre (51 ha) circle within a 160-acre (65 ha) square, covering about 78% of the surface area; some systems can also irrigate the corners of the square by means of an end gun at the end of the line or a trailing segment of frame that swings out into the corner areas. Modern center-pivot systems are often fully automated and programmable for specific rates of rotation, variable water distribution patterns, and other precision controls. cereal Any member of the grass family cultivated for the edible components of its grain, composed of the endosperm, germ, and bran. The term may also refer to the resulting grain


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title: Glossary of agriculture
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continuous harvest A method of cultivation whereby crops are harvested more or less continuously throughout an extended or indefinite growing season, without any significant pause or interruption such as for replanting. For most conventionally grown plant and animal crops, production is limited to specific times of year by the need for suitable weather or for periods of inactivity during which soils can recover fertility and producers can resupply inputs and otherwise prepare for the start of the next production cycle, meaning the harvested products are only available to consumers for a few weeks or months at the end of each growing season. In some places, however, where the climate is largely consistent throughout the year, or wherever labor and inputs are consistently available, certain crops may be grown, harvested, and sold during unusually long seasons or even year-round. Some seasonal crops can also have their harvest windows extended by growing them in highly controlled environments or by deliberately staggering planting times so that different groups of plants are of different ages and thus one or more groups are ready for harvest at any given time of year. contour farming Also contouring. The practice of ploughing and/or planting a sloping field


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cow–calf operation Also single-suckler herd. A ranch which specializes in producing young beef cattle, maintaining a permanent herd of cows in order to breed and rear their calves and then sell them to other operations while still young, either to other ranches where they are raised into adults or to slaughterhouses for their meat or hides. cow-calf separation Also dam-calf separation. The widespread but controversial practice, in the beef and dairy industries, of separating calves from their mothers shortly after birth. creamery A dairy operation or facility which processes raw milk and/or cream into finished dairy products, such as consumer-grade milk, butter, cheese, and ice cream, and prepares them for market. creep feeding The practice of supplementing the diet of young livestock which are still nursing, usually beef calves and swine, with prepared feed. This may be done in order to introduce the animals to feed before weaning or to facilitate quicker fattening, but is only cost-effective when the price of animal feed is very low. crop Any plant, animal, or other product of a living organism that can be grown and harvested extensively for profit or subsistence. The term may refer to the organism or species itself, the harvested


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-9.md
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title: Glossary of agriculture
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cultural control An approach to pest control which emphasizes the modification of the agricultural environment in order to reduce the prevalence and proliferation of unwanted pests, as an alternative to applying chemical pesticides. Examples of cultural control include altering physical properties of the growing environment (e.g. soil pH or fertility, amount of sunlight, temperature, humidity, irrigation, etc.) in order to make it difficult or impossible for pests to live there, adhering to a strict program of fallowing and weeding, and using pest-eating predators such as chickens or ladybugs as a form of biocontrol. Systematic implementation of these practices can reduce the need for curative interventions and thus avoid the detrimental effects of conventional top-down approaches to pest control such as those associated with chronic pesticide use. cultured meat Also cultivated meat or lab-grown meat. Meat-like animal tissue that is grown in a laboratory by culturing animal cells in vitro, in a process known as cellular agriculture, as opposed to meat obtained from whole animals that are raised on farms and then slaughtered. custom harvesting The contracting of independent operators of farm equipment to harvest crops, especially grains, on a particular farm. Custom harvesters provide their own combines and other machinery


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title: Glossary of agriculture
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dipping The process of immersing a live animal into a bath containing a liquid formulation of insecticide (and sometimes also fungicide), usually a dilute solution of organophosphorus compounds, as a means of removing lice, ticks, or other ectoparasites which may otherwise cause disease. Sheep are commonly treated in a sheep dip, and cattle in a plunge dip. disc harrow Also disk harrow. A type of harrow designed to till the soil surface and simultaneously chop up weeds and crop residues, consisting of one or more rows of concave metal discs which may be scalloped or oriented at an oblique angle and which rotate freely as the implement moves forward. It is usually pulled behind a tractor or mounted upon a three-point linkage. dockage Waste material which is removed from grain as it is being processed, prior to milling. docking Also cropping or tailing. The intentional removal of all or part of an animal's tail by any of a variety of methods, usually by cutting with a knife or scalpel, applying a hot iron, or constricting blood circulation with a rubber ring to cause the tail to fall off. Docking of swine is performed in order to reduce potentially harmful tail


id: glossary-of-agriculture-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-11.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of agriculture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture
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dubbing Also dewattling. The removal of any of the fleshy caruncles from the heads of poultry, i.e. the comb, wattles, and/or earlobes. Dubbing is often done with the rationale that it reduces the chances that these parts will be injured, become infected, and thereby potentially compromise the bird's overall health, though the practice has been criticized for being unnecessarily stressful to birds, and also because combs and wattles are thought to have important functions in the regulation of body temperature and in certain social behaviors. dynamic compaction A method of increasing the density of soil deposits by repeatedly dropping a very heavy weight onto the ground at regularly spaced locations, which can compress underground voids, improve soil structure and stability, and prevent settling and undesirable soil movement beneath buildings. It has many applications, including in agriculture, where it can be used to increase water and amendment retention in seedbeds, especially when subsurface constraints make alternative methods of compaction inappropriate. == E == earlage A high-energy feed for cattle composed of ears of maize (both kernels and cobs) chopped into small pieces and fermented into silage. earmark A cut or notch made in, or a tag attached to, one or both


id: glossary-of-agriculture-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-12.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of agriculture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture
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farm gate value The market value of an agricultural product minus the subsequent costs of transporting, storing, marketing, and selling the product to a consumer; the net value of the product as it is at the "farm gate", i.e. upon leaving the agricultural operation, before such costs are added to the market price. The market or retail price paid by the consumer is often far higher than the amount the farmer actually receives for the product, particularly if the farmer sells wholesale to a retailer rather than directly to the end consumer as in farm gate marketing. farm stand Also farm shop. A type of retail outlet which sells fresh produce directly from a particular farm or group of farms. Direct sales to consumers allow farmers to retain a larger portion of the resulting profit than they can usually obtain by selling to a wholesaler. See also farmers' market. farm water Water that is committed for use in agriculture of any type. Farm water may include water used in the irrigation of crops as well as in the watering of livestock. farm-to-fork The tracing or connecting of all stages of the supply chain of a food from production to consumption.


id: glossary-of-agriculture-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-13.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of agriculture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture
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field Any area of land, enclosed or otherwise, used for agricultural purposes, such as for the cultivation of crops or as a paddock for livestock. field crop Any crop suited to cultivation in a large open field, or which must generally be grown in great quantities, on a larger scale than in gardens, in order to produce a meaningful yield, such as most cereals, hay, and cotton. field day A large public trade show for the agricultural industry at which agricultural equipment, techniques, and business ideas are exhibited and demonstrated. filly An immature female horse, too young to be called a mare (generally less than four or five years old). filter strip Also conservation buffer or buffer strip. A strip of grass or other dense, permanent vegetation lining the edge of an agricultural field and acting as a buffer zone between the field and its surrounding environment, usually designed with the primary goal of controlling non-point source pollution by filtering agricultural surface runoff before it drains into an adjacent body of water, e.g. a pond, lake, stream, diversion terrace, or irrigation canal. The roots of the vegetation trap and remove agrichemicals including fertilizers and pesticides from the runoff and may


id: glossary-of-agriculture-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-14.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of agriculture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture
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forage Any plant material, especially leaves and stems, eaten by grazing livestock, especially that which is grazed by animals in pastures. In a looser sense it may also include fodder (plant material deliberately cut and given to animals as food). forcing The practice of intentionally breaking the dormancy of a cultivated plant and encouraging germination, active growth, and/or flowering and fruiting outside of its natural growing season (e.g. in the winter). This involves exposing a seed or other propagule, or a mature perennial plant, to a specific sequence of carefully controlled environmental conditions (e.g. cold stratification) intended to simulate the environmental cues the plant normally receives at the beginning of its seasonal growth cycle, which trigger the internal chemical reactions that cause it to grow and develop. The term is used particularly in the indoor horticulture of plants that grow from bulbs, corms, or rhizomes, but can also refer more broadly to the off-season cultivation of any plant or propagule. forest farming A practice in agroforestry involving the cultivation of high-value specialty crops under a forest canopy that is deliberately modified or maintained to provide habitat and shade levels which enhance crop yields. Most crops produced by such methods are


id: glossary-of-agriculture-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-15.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of agriculture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:17.200809+00:00
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gestation crate Also farrowing crate or sow stall. An enclosure in which a domestic sow used for breeding is confined during pregnancy. Often these cages are not much larger than the sow herself, being designed to maximize breeding efficiency for industrial-scale production, and hence are banned in some jurisdictions for being detrimental to animal welfare. See also maternity pen. ghost acres That land area in less developed countries on which agricultural products are produced cheaply for export to more developed countries. gilt A young female hog, usually less than one year old. ginning The process of separating cotton fibers from the seeds they naturally enclose, particularly when performed by a machine which does so automatically, known as a cotton gin. Both the fibers and seeds may then be processed further. glasshouse See greenhouse. gleaning The practice of collecting unharvested crops from fields or obtaining unused agricultural products from farmers, processors, or retailers, often for distribution to food banks or charitable organizations. glyphosate An organophosphorus compound widely used as a post-emergent broad-spectrum systemic herbicide and crop desiccant, especially to kill annual broadleaf weeds and grasses that compete with crop plants. It is the primary ingredient in the herbicide Roundup. goad Also


id: glossary-of-agriculture-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-16.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of agriculture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture
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green chop Forage that is cut or harvested in the field while still green and succulent and then fed directly to livestock as fresh fodder (in contrast to hay and other types of feed which have been dried and stored). If wrapped and allowed to ferment, it can be made into silage. green manure Fresh or recently living plant material sourced from crop residues or even whole plants which is ploughed or tilled into the soil while still green (and usually when the plant tissues have reached peak maturity, often shortly after flowering and before developing seeds) so that it can serve as a mulch or an organic fertilizer. This is in contrast to brown manure, which consists of wilted or decayed plants that are simply left on the soil surface. Plants used for green manure are often cover crops grown specifically for this purpose and tilled into the same field in which a cash crop is subsequently cultivated. Green Revolution Also called the Third Agricultural Revolution. The dramatic increase in agricultural production that occurred worldwide during the second half of the 20th century, primarily due to the adoption of modern scientific methods of farming and large-scale management techniques; the


id: glossary-of-agriculture-20260505-17
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-17.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of agriculture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture
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harvesting The process of gathering a ripe crop from an agricultural area such as a field or greenhouse. Harvesting is often the most labor-intensive activity of the growing season or utilizes the most expensive and sophisticated implements or machinery. In general usage, the term may also include immediate postharvest practices such as cleaning, sorting, packing, cooling, and storing the gathered crops. haulm The stalks and stems left as residues by the harvesting of certain crops, especially peas, beans, and potatoes. hay Grasses, legumes, or other herbaceous plants that have been cut, dried, and stored as fodder for animals, especially livestock. hay bucking The manual labor of lifting and moving heavy bales of hay by hand, each usually weighing 50–150 pounds (23–68 kg), for the purpose of stacking them in a storage area or on the bed of a vehicle for transportation. The act of throwing bales up above one's head to stack them is called "bucking hay". This labor is notoriously strenuous and physically demanding. Teams of laborers often work together, wearing chaps and using hay hooks to handle the bales. The same task may also be accomplished mechanically with forklifts, balers, or powered elevators. hay fever Another name for


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-18.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of agriculture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture
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herbicide A pesticide intended to kill or prevent the proliferation of unwanted plants such as weeds, by any of a wide variety of mechanisms. The most common herbicides are chemical substances which are applied directly to the foliage, stems, or roots of the target plant or to the soil or water around it. Selective herbicides are designed to be effective only against particular plant species or taxa, while leaving other plants such as agricultural crops relatively unharmed. By contrast, non-selective or broad-spectrum herbicides are capable of harming many or all types of plants, such that care must be taken when applying them so as to avoid harming valuable species. The use of chemical herbicides is a major aspect of weed control. herbicide resistance The development of a biological resistance to the deleterious effects of a herbicide, particularly in weeds or undesirable plants specifically targeted by and normally vulnerable to the herbicide. Such resistance is a common consequence of prolonged use of the same chemical formulation to control the same plant species, because doing so may artificially select for individual plants which express resistance traits. herding Also mustering. The act of gathering individual animals together into a group (known as a


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-19.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of agriculture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture
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humus 1. A characteristically dark-colored, nutrient-rich organic matter in soil formed by the decomposition of plants and animals; a topsoil horizon containing a large accumulation of organic carbon. 2. In agriculture, any natural compost gathered from a woodland or some spontaneous source and used as a soil amendment to aid crop nutrition and improve moisture retention. 3. The solid residues that are a byproduct of the sewage sludge treatment of wastewater, which are also sometimes composted and added to agricultural soils. hundredweight (cwt) Also centum weight or quintal. A unit of weight or mass used in the United States and British Commonwealth territories and defined differently in each: the short hundredweight or cental, used in the U.S. customary system, is defined as exactly 100 pounds (45.4 kilograms), while the long or imperial hundredweight, used in the British imperial system, is defined as 112 pounds (50.8 kilograms). In agriculture, the weight of harvested crops or produce is sometimes reported in hundredweight. husbandry husk The protective outer coating or shell of a seed, especially of a cereal grain such as wheat, or the leafy outer casing that surrounds an ear of maize. The husk is generally removed and discarded during the harvest


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-20.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of agriculture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture
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irrigation The application of controlled amounts of water to plants at needed intervals, especially for the purposes of growing agricultural crops, maintaining landscapes, or revegetating disturbed or drought-affected soils. Irrigation systems may also be used as a means of protecting crops from frost, suppressing the growth of weeds, preventing soil consolidation, providing water to livestock and keeping them cool in hot weather, and controlling airborne dust. == J == jack A male donkey. jenny Also jennet. A female donkey. == K == kernel The edible seed and the hard outer husk or shell of a cereal grain, especially wheat and maize; i.e. the whole grain of a cereal crop. kid A juvenile goat of either sex. kidding The process of giving birth in goats, by which a pregnant doe gives birth to a kid. == L == lamb 1. A young sheep, usually less than one year old. 2. The meat from a young sheep less than one year old; or, in common usage, from a sheep of any age. lairage A holding pen or other accommodation where livestock are rested before slaughter, usually adjacent to a slaughterhouse, market, or port. lambing The process of giving birth in sheep, by


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-21.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of agriculture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture
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malt The sprouted grain of a cereal which has been malted, or any product of the process of malting. The term may also refer more specifically to a viscous mixture of fermentable sugars extracted from the malted grain, rich in maltose, maltotriose, and maltodextrins, or to any of the various products which can be made with this extract, such as malt whisky and malted milk. malt house Also malt barn or maltings. A building where cereal grain is converted into malt through the process of malting. manger Also trough or feeder. A trough or bin used to hold animal fodder which permits animals to eat from it; or a structure or building containing such troughs, where numerous livestock are able to feed simultaneously. manure Any organic matter that is used as an organic fertilizer in agriculture, typically consisting of animal excreta, compost, and/or plant material. Manures contribute to soil fertility by adding organic compounds and nutrients such as nitrogen which are essential for plant growth and for the development of ecological networks with soil microorganisms. manure spreader Also muck spreader or honey wagon. A machine used to distribute manure over an agricultural field as fertilizer. Modern manure spreaders typically consist


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-22.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of agriculture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture
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milling The process of grinding, crushing, cutting, or pulverizing solid matter into smaller pieces, reducing the average particle size and often changing the shape and other physical properties as well; or the process of breaking down, separating, sorting, grading, or classifying aggregate material into particles of uniform size. Milling is an important primary operation in the postharvest processing of many agricultural crops, mainly cereal grains and pseudocereals. Historically mills were powered manually or with draft animals such as oxen, horses, or donkeys, or by the force of the wind or the flow of water, though in modern contexts they are usually electrically powered. millrace Also millrun, lade, leat, flume, or penstock. The current of flowing water that turns a water wheel, or the channel or sluice that carries this water. A millrace is usually a man-made conduit or ditch that delivers a narrow, rapid, and powerful stream from a reservoir such as a mill pond or diverts it from a natural watercourse such as a river, with the force generated by the flow used to power a turbine or mill. The part of the millrace that is upstream of the water wheel is called the headrace, while the part downstream


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-23.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of agriculture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture
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neutering Also fixing. The surgical removal of all or most of the reproductive organ(s) of an animal, male or female, usually with the goal of irreversibly sterilizing the animal by eliminating sex organs which are essential to its ability to reproduce. In the broadest sense the term may also encompass non-surgical methods of sterilization such as those that employ pharmaceutical drugs, which may or may not be reversible. The male-specific term for neutering is castration and the female-specific term is spaying, though colloquially "neutering" may be used interchangeably with both. An animal that has not been neutered is said to be intact or entire. non-program crop Any agricultural crop or commodity not covered by a federally funded commodity program. Contrast program crop. northern vigor The phenomenon by which certain varieties of plants adapted to high-latitude climates produce hardier, better-tasting, or higher-yield crops when grown in lower-latitude climates. The effect has been observed in many types of produce grown in the northern United States and Canada, including potatoes, strawberries, and garlic. no-till farming Any method of growing crops or maintaining pasture without disturbing the soil through tillage, and typically involving minimal or no seedbed preparation. Proponents assert that in certain contexts


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-24.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of agriculture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture
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organic farming Also organic agriculture, biological farming, and ecological farming. An agricultural production system which excludes or eschews the use of synthetic chemical compounds (particularly fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides for plant crops, and growth hormones, antibiotics, and synthetic feed additives for livestock production) and instead emphasizes the use of naturally occurring, organic substances and alternative methods for solving the problems of agriculture, including crop rotation, companion planting and polyculture, permaculture, natural fertilizers such as manure and field residues, beneficial microbes, trap crops, biological pest controls, etc. Organic production usually prohibits the use of genetically modified organisms and sometimes mechanized farm equipment as well. In many places the label "organic" has a specific legal meaning and its use may require certification, whereby certified organic farms must adhere to national organic production standards. Many organic methods are also core elements of sustainable agriculture, though whether or not organic methods actually affect the environment and human health in more positive ways than conventional methods is disputed. organic fertilizer Also natural fertilizer. Any fertilizer made from non-synthetic, naturally occurring substances, often compost or plant and animal products such as crop residues or manure. This is in contrast to many large-scale commercial fertilizers which contain


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-25.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of agriculture
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source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture
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pastoralism A type of animal husbandry in which herds of domestic animals are released onto large areas of vegetated outdoor land, known as pastures, for grazing, traditionally by fully or partially nomadic peoples who move around with their herds, and generally in places where environmental conditions such as aridity, poor soils, and extreme temperatures make growing crops difficult or impossible. pasture Any land used for grazing, especially enclosed tracts of farmland grazed by domesticated livestock such as horses, cattle, sheep, or swine. Pasture vegetation mainly consists of grasses and forbs and is typically grazed throughout the summer. Pasture is often distinguished from, but may in the broadest sense include, other agricultural land types such as meadows, rangelands, or other unenclosed pastoral areas. pastureland A type of agricultural land used as pasture for grazing animals. patch A relatively small cultivated area with only one type of crop growing in it, e.g. a pumpkin patch or onion patch. pegging A developmental stage of the peanut plant in which a fertilized flower produces an elongated ovary which enters the soil and develops underground into a pod and eventually a peanut. pellet mill Also pellet press. A type of mill or machine press used


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-26.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of agriculture
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source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture
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pioneer crop A crop grown to improve the general fertility of a parcel of land prior to sowing another, typically more valuable crop on the same land. Farmers often permit livestock to graze the pioneer crop in the hope that their dung will add soil nutrients. pisciculture Also fish farming. A branch of aquaculture involving the raising of fish in tanks, enclosures, or hatcheries with the goal of producing any of a variety of products that can be used by humans, most commonly food. pitchfork A two-handed agricultural tool with between two and five long, thin tines and a long handle, used to efficiently pitch or toss large clumps of loose material such as hay, straw, leaves, or manure. Pitchforks are used for a wide variety of tasks such as feeding cattle and bucking hay. plant breeding The deliberate and systematic reproduction of plants in agriculture and horticulture, typically involving the artificial selection of which individual plants will breed in order to produce progeny with desirable characteristics. plantation A large-scale estate which specializes in farming cash crops, most commonly cotton, coffee, tea, cocoa, sugar cane, opium, fruit trees, rubber trees, and forest trees. plashing See pleaching. plastic mulch An artificial


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-27.md
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title: Glossary of agriculture
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source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture
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polytunnel Also polyhouse, hoophouse, grow tunnel, or high tunnel. A type of greenhouse in the form of a typically semi-circular, elongated tunnel made from a steel frame covered with transparent polyethylene; temperature, humidity, and air circulation can be adjusted by the opening and closing of doors or vents. Polytunnels are used in similar ways to glass greenhouses and row covers, e.g. for season extension or as nurseries. Though primarily designed to provide temperature increases ranging from 5 to 35 °C (9 to 63 °F) above the outdoor air temperature, they can also protect plants (and animals) against extreme weather and the drying effect of wind. pomology Also fruticulture. The study of fruit and its cultivation. ponding The formation of small ponds or pools of water in agricultural fields due to surface runoff from oversaturated or poorly draining soils, or from heavy precipitation or irrigation. pork The meat of hogs or pigs. porker A pig specifically raised for fresh pork, as opposed to bacon or other processed meats. postemergent Occurring after the stage in a plant's life when the first leaves emerge from beneath the soil. The term is used in particular to describe a class of herbicides intended to be


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-28.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of agriculture
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source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture
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priming 1. The process of moistening seeds in order to initiate germination prior to sowing in soil or other substrate. 2. The process of removing ripened leaves from tobacco plants by hand. prizing The process of packing harvested tobacco leaves into hogsheads. prod See goad. produce A generalized term used to refer to a variety of farm-produced food crops, usually including fruits and vegetables and sometimes also grains and other products, especially implying that such foods are fresh and generally in the same state as when and where they were harvested. profit crop See cash crop. program crop A crop for which deficiency payments are paid by a government agency to participating producers, e.g. wheat, corn, barley, grain sorghum, oats, upland cotton, and rice. Contrast non-program crop. protein crop Any crop plant whose harvested products naturally contain high concentrations of proteins or amino acids and are therefore important as staple foods or in helping to meet the nutritional requirements of humans or domestic animals. Many oilseeds and grains are considered protein crops. provender See fodder. pruning The selective removal of certain unwanted plant parts or tissues, such as branches, buds, or roots, from crops or landscape plants during cultivation for


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-29.md
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title: Glossary of agriculture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture
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ratooning The practice of harvesting a crop plant (particularly a monocot species) by cutting most of the above-ground portion of the plant but leaving the roots and the shoot apices intact so as to allow the plant to recover and produce a fresh crop in a subsequent growing season. This procedure usually can be sustained only for a few seasons, as yield tends to decline with each season. Ratoon crops include sugarcane, pineapples, and bananas. reaping recalcitrant seed Seeds that cannot survive the effects of drying or freezing (generally, temperatures less than 10 °C (50 °F)) and which therefore cannot be stored for long periods of time because they tend to rapidly lose viability. Recalcitrant seeds do not acquire desiccation tolerance during development and are often shed from their parent plants with a relatively high moisture content, making them especially vulnerable to moisture loss. Contrast orthodox seed. registered livestock registered seed relay cropping A type of succession planting in which a new crop is sown or planted in the same field as an existing crop shortly before harvesting the existing crop and clearing it from the field, which then leaves the land available for the newly planted crop to use.


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-30.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of agriculture
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source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture
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ruralism The advocacy of rural lifestyles, including care of forests and nature. See also agrarianism. == S == scalping A method of wildland range renovation in which existing vegetation is turned over in a series of long strips, effectively clearing the land in order to improve water infiltration, hasten the decay of organic matter, and reduce competition for nutrients in the soil, which can help plant species usable by grazing animals to colonize and spread across the range. scarify 1. To stir a soil surface with an implement possessing tines, e.g. a wire rake, but without turning the soil over completely, often to remove shallow-rooted weeds. 2. To use a sharp tool to create a nick or slit in the hard outer coat of a seed in order to aid the penetration of moisture to the endosperm and thereby speed up germination. scion An aerial or above-ground plant structure, e.g. a stem or branchlet, that is grafted onto the rootstock of another plant. scythe A handheld agricultural tool designed with one or more curved blades, sharp on the inside edge, used for mowing grass or harvesting crops, especially reaping grain crops prior to threshing. The action of the scythe has


id: glossary-of-agriculture-20260505-31
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-31.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of agriculture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture
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shattering The natural detachment and dispersal of a plant's fruit or seeds upon reaching maturity, i.e. when the fruit is ripe. For agricultural crops where the harvested seed is valuable, such as cereal grains, shattering is usually undesirable because natural dispersal mechanisms often scatter the small seeds haphazardly over the ground, making it difficult or impossible to collect them, while seeds that remain attached to the plant are much easier to harvest. Hence farmers try to time the harvest to occur immediately before their crops begin to shatter. Heavy rain and strong winds may cause premature shattering, which can result in significant yield losses. sheaf A bundle of cut stems from a cereal crop (especially wheat) which have been bound together after reaping, traditionally by sickle or scythe but on some modern farms by machines such as a reaper-binder. Multiple sheaves are then "shocked" or arranged into conical stooks to allow the grain to dry before threshing. shearing The process by which the woollen fleece of a sheep or other wool-bearing mammal is cut or shaved from its body. Adult sheep are typically shorn once each year. shearing shed Also woolshed. A building or facility which accommodates large-scale shearing of


id: glossary-of-agriculture-20260505-32
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-32.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of agriculture
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source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture
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smother crop A dense, fast-growing plant species capable and often cultivated specifically for the purpose of suppressing the growth of weeds by competing strongly for access to light, water, and nutrients. An ideal smother crop competes with the weeds but not with other crops. Once it has served its purpose, it may be ploughed into the soil as green manure along with any weeds that may have survived. Smother crops are an example of biological pest control. smudge pot Any heat-producing device placed between the trees of an orchard to keep the trees warm and prevent the accumulation of frost on fruits and flowers, which are often highly vulnerable to damage from cold temperatures. Historically, smudge pots burned petroleum to produce an open flame at the top of a long chimney, though colloquially the term now encompasses modern frost control methods, which usually rely on propane or electric space heaters instead. soil amendment Also soil improvement or soil conditioner. Any substance which is added to soil to improve the soil's quality, especially its fertility and mechanics, either to make poor soils more usable or to maintain soils that are already in good condition. In the broadest sense, the term includes


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-33.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of agriculture
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source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture
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stag A male bovine animal (a bull) that has been castrated relatively late in life, e.g. after reaching maturity, as opposed to the normal practice of castrating males while they are still calves. Compare steer. staking The practice of supporting the growth of a plant by placing a stake or artificial support in the ground next to it. It is widely used to cultivate plants with vine-like habits. stalk rot A generic term for a variety of plant diseases caused by molds and other fungi which grow in the stems and stalks of plant crops and weaken their structural integrity so greatly that they easily fall over in wind, rain, or snow, potentially killing the crop or making it much more difficult to harvest. stallion An adult male horse or donkey that has not been gelded, especially one used for breeding purposes. staple fiber Any textile fiber, natural or synthetic, of discrete and consistent length, as opposed to a filament fiber, for which length varies continuously. Staple fibers are defined by a characteristic length, to which either natural fibers consistently grow (e.g. certain cultivars of cotton tend to produce short, medium, long, or extra-long staple lengths), or to which synthetic


id: glossary-of-agriculture-20260505-34
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-34.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of agriculture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture
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subsistence agriculture Agricultural production that is practiced in order to meet the needs of the farmer or producer, as opposed to that practiced in order to generate profit by selling the agricultural products to consumers. Subsistence agriculture usually refers to farmers growing various food crops strictly for use by themselves and their families, typically on smallholdings, with the output of the farm targeted principally at fulfilling basic survival needs and local requirements, and generally implies small amounts of inputs, use of crude or traditional farming tools, reliance on unskilled labor (often family members), low yields, and little or no surplus. It primarily occurs in the developing world, though most modern subsistence farmers also participate in trade to some degree. subsoiler Also flat lifter. A tractor-mounted farm implement used for tilling soil at depths much below the levels normally worked by mouldboard ploughs, disc harrows, or rototillers. While most such tools break up and turn over surface soil to a depth of 15–20 centimetres (6–8 in), subsoilers can often extend the action to as deep as 75 centimetres (30 in). They typically consist of three or more heavy, curved shanks fitted with replaceable points and sometimes with horizontal wings, which are


id: glossary-of-agriculture-20260505-35
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-35.md
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title: Glossary of agriculture
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tailwater 1. In furrow and border irrigation, water that drains from the lower end of the furrows, having run off instead of penetrating the soil. It is sometimes subsequently usable for the irrigation of lower-lying land. 2. The water immediately downstream of a dam, spillway, bridge, culvert, or any other hydraulic structure, or the water that passes through a tailrace. tallow Fat rendered from the tissue of slaughtered cattle, sheep, or other livestock to be used in the manufacture of candles, soap, or any of a variety of other products. tame hay Hay cut from domesticated, cultivated crop plants such as clover, timothy, or alfalfa, as opposed to wild hay, which is cut from wild or native grasses. tankage A highly nutritive animal feed concentrate made of processed meat byproducts. tapping The process by which sap or latex is extracted from the trunks of cultivated trees. teart Plants or soils that contain high concentrations of molybdenum; or the poisoning of livestock that graze on vegetation grown in these soils. tedder Also hay tedder. A tractor-drawn machine that uses rapidly moving pitchfork-like tines to aerate or "wuffle" freshly cut hay on the ground in a process known as tedding, typically prior


id: glossary-of-agriculture-20260505-36
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-36.md
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title: Glossary of agriculture
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source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture
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topographical tetrazolium test Also TTC assay or tetrazolium test. A test of seed viability in which ungerminated seeds are nicked and then soaked in an aqueous solution containing triphenyl tetrazolium chloride (TTC), a chemical indicator which is reduced by the activity of dehydrogenase enzymes in living tissues, changing their color from white to red, but remains unreacted in metabolically inactive or necrotic tissues. A seed embryo that stains red is assumed to be metabolically active and therefore likely to germinate. The TTC assay is used in agriculture for quick estimations of viability without having to wait for actual germination, which can often take days or weeks, but may also yield misleading or unreliable results in certain plant species. topping The removal by mowing or cutting of the aerial parts of a plant, i.e. the uppermost parts of the canopy, including the highest or most distal ends of shoots, stems, stalks, trunks, or branches, for any of a variety of reasons, especially in order to prevent the development of terminal reproductive structures such as flowers and fruits, with the ultimate aim of diverting the plant's resources to the growth of other structures such as roots and leaves, or of preventing unwanted


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-37.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of agriculture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture
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udder The fleshy, bag-like mammary gland found just in front of the hind legs of many female ungulate mammals, including cattle, sheep, goats, and horses. The udder contains nipples or teats that secrete milk, which is used as a food source for nursing young and collected by humans in the process of milking. undergrazing The practice of neglecting to allow livestock to graze an area of pasture for an excessively long period of time, such that the vegetation covering it reaches maturity or the end of its life cycle well before animals have the opportunity to graze it and thus is not eaten when it is optimally palatable or nutritious. urban agriculture The practice of agriculture in urban environments (as opposed to rural areas, with which agriculture is more commonly associated), especially the cultivation of plants for food production but also inclusive of animal husbandry, aquaponics, beekeeping, or any other type of agriculture which has been adapted to an urban context. Urban areas present unique challenges for agriculture due to space limitations, difficult or inconsistent access to adequate fresh water, fertile soil, and sunlight, and exposure to urban pollutants. Urban agriculture is often practiced in the interest of food security,


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-38.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of agriculture
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source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture
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water rights The right of a landowner to make use of the banks, bed, or waters of a water source, e.g. a river, stream, pond, spring, or underground aquifer. The water source need not necessarily be contained within or border on the user's property, as human-made reservoirs, aqueducts, and other water distribution systems have made it possible to allocate water to places outside of the source's natural drainage basin. Water rights are of major significance for managing irrigation, especially in arid regions, though the legal principles regulating access and usage vary widely by jurisdiction. water wheel A mechanical device that converts the kinetic energy of flowing or falling water into mechanical energy, generally a series of blades, paddles, or buckets attached to the outer rim of a wooden or metal wheel which the water in a natural or artificial channel pushes against, causing the wheel to turn and thereby providing a drive mechanism that can be used to perform useful work such as grinding grain into flour in a gristmill, grinding wood into pulp for papermaking, and pounding plant fibers for clothmaking, among many other uses. waterlogging The saturation of soil with water, such that water completely fills all available


id: glossary-of-agriculture-20260505-39
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-39.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of agriculture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture
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wheat middlings (WM) Also wheat mill run (WMR), millfeed (MF), and midds. A byproduct of the milling of wheat consisting of all components of the wheat kernel remaining after the flour portion is separated, generally a mixture of both coarse and fine particles including screenings, bran, germ, shorts, red dog, and offal from other mill streams. Sometimes these components are further sorted into their own separate fractions, though they are also commonly recycled into a single combined fraction representing approximately 25–30 percent of the original grain. Wheat middlings are inexpensive and rich in protein, lipids, digestible fiber, phosphorus, and many vitamins and minerals, making them a popular animal feed. wheatings Also weatings. A byproduct of the milling of wheat consisting of brans of various sizes and varying amounts of attached endosperm, commonly used as animal feed. See also wheat middlings. wigging The shearing of wool from around the eyes and face of a sheep. wild hay Hay cut from wild or native grasses, as opposed to tame hay, which is cut from cultivated crops. wildcrafting The human practice of foraging for uncultivated plants or fungi from their natural or "wild" habitats, primarily for food or medicine. wildling A crop seedling


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture-40.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of agriculture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_agriculture
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yearling A male or female horse, donkey, bovine animal, or any other domestic mammal that is too young to breed, generally between one and two years of age. yield Also agricultural output. yield mapping The preparation of agricultural maps using data obtained from physical sensors (known as yield monitors) attached to agricultural machinery such as combines or tractors, in combination with precise position information from satellite or GIS technologies, in order to visualize and study the spatial variation of variables such as crop yield and moisture content across an agricultural field. These data are often compared with records of the application of fertilizers, pesticides, and irrigation, allowing farmers to understand how particular combinations of inputs influence the yield harvested from different parts of the same field and to develop strategies for increasing yields in future production cycles. Yield mapping is a major component of precision agriculture. You-Pick == See also == Index of agriculture articles Outline of agriculture Outline of organic gardening and farming Outline of sustainable agriculture == References == == External links == National Agricultural Library Thesaurus Concept Space – National Agricultural Library, United States Department of Agriculture Agriculture: A Glossary of Terms, Programs, and Laws, 2005 Edition


id: glossary-of-architecture-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture-0.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of architecture
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture
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This page is a glossary of architecture. == A == Abacus A flat slab forming the uppermost member or division of the capital of a column. Accolade A sculptural embellishment of an arch. Aisle The subsidiary space alongside the body of a building, separated from it by columns, piers, or posts. Anta The posts or pillars on either side of a doorway or entrance of a Greek temple – the slightly projecting piers which terminate the side walls (of the naos). Ante-choir The space enclosed in a church between the outer gate or railing of the rood screen and the door of the screen. Apron 1. A raised panel below a window or wall monument or tablet. 2. An open portion of a marine terminal immediately adjacent to a vessel berth, used in the direct transfer of cargo between the vessel and the terminal. 3. A concrete slab immediately outside a vehicular door or passageway used to limit the wear on asphalt paving due to repetitive turning movements or heavy loads. Apse A vaulted semicircular or polygonal end of a chancel or chapel. That portion of a church, usually Christian, beyond the "crossing" and opposite the nave. In some churches,


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture-1.md
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title: Glossary of architecture
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source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture
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Belfry A chamber or stage in a tower where bells are hung. The term is also used to describe the manner in which bricks are laid in a wall so that they interlock. Bench table A stone seat which runs round the walls of large churches, and sometimes round the piers; it very generally is placed in the porches. Bond Brickwork with overlapping bricks. Types of bond include stretcher, English, header, Flemish, garden wall, herringbone, basket, American, and Chinese. Boss 1. A roughly cut stone set in place for later carving. 2. An ornamental projection, a carved keystone of a ribbed vault at the intersection of the ogives. Bossage Uncut stone that is laid in place in a building, projecting outward from the building, to later be carved into decorative mouldings, capitals, arms, etc. Bossages are also rustic work, consisting of stones which seem to advance beyond the surface of the building, by reason of indentures, or channels left in the joinings; used chiefly in the corners of buildings, and called rustic quoins. The cavity or indenture may be round, square, chamfered, beveled, diamond-shaped, or enclosed with a cavetto or listel. Boutant A type of support. An arc-boutant, or flying


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture-2.md
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title: Glossary of architecture
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Clock gable A gable or facade with a decorative shape characteristic of traditional Dutch architecture. The top of the gable is shaped like a church bell. Coffer A sunken panel in the shape of a square, rectangle, or octagon that serves as a decorative device, usually in a ceiling or vault. Also called caissons, or lacunar. Colarin or Hypotrachelium (also colarino, collarino, or hypotrachelium) The little frieze of the capital of the Tuscan and Doric column placed between the astragal and the annulets. It was called hypotrachelium by Vitruvius. Column A structural element that transmits, through compression, the weight of the structure above to other structural elements below. Compass In carpentry, architecture, and shipbuilding, a compass is a curved circular form. Compluvium The Latin term for the open space left in the roof of the atrium of a Roman house (domus) for lighting it and the rooms round. Coping The capping or covering of a wall. Corbel A structural piece of stone, wood or metal jutting from a wall to carry a superincumbent weight. Corbiesteps A series of steps along the slopes of a gable. Also called crow-steps. A gable featuring corbiesteps is known as a corbie gable, crow-step gable,


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture-3.md
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title: Glossary of architecture
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Egg-and-dart An ornamental moulding in which an ovolo is inscribed with alternating oval and V-shaped motifs. Enfilade A row of rooms with aligned doorways, creating a linear processional route. Enfilades were common in upper-class Baroque architecture and are used in museum layouts to manage flow. Engaged column A column built into and partially projecting from a wall, particularly notable in Roman architecture. Engawa In Japanese architecture, a section of floor outside the shoji that encircles the structure's rooms, similar to a porch or, when itself enclosed by storm doors or sheet glass, a sunroom. Entablature A superstructure of mouldings and bands which lie horizontally above columns, resting on their capitals. Entasis The application of a convex curve to a surface for aesthetic purposes. Its best-known use is in certain orders of Classical columns that curve slightly as their diameter is decreased from the bottom upward. It also may serve an engineering function regarding strength. Ephebeum (ephebion) A large hall in the ancient Palaestra furnished with seats, the length of which should be a third larger than the width. It served for the exercises of youths of from sixteen to eighteen years of age. Epinaos An open vestibule behind the nave.


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture-4.md
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title: Glossary of architecture
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Garret A habitable attic at the top of a larger building, generally with sloping walls, and with skylights or dormer windows. Gauged brickwork (also rubbed brickwork) Brickwork constructed of soft bricks rubbed to achieve a fine smooth finish with narrow joints between courses. Gazebo A freestanding pavilion structure often found in parks, gardens and public areas. Geison (Greek: γεῖσον — often interchangeable with cornice) The part of the entablature that projects outward from the top of the frieze in the Doric order and from the top of the frieze course of the Ionic and Corinthian orders; it forms the outer edge of the roof on the sides of a structure with a sloped roof. Gorgerin On some capitals, a smooth or ornate part placed above the astragalus of a column. Geodesic dome A structure formed of straight wood or metal members between points (or nodes) on a circular sphere (or part thereof) that are "pinned" at each connection point to two or more other members that transfer loads imposed on the structure to the base of the structure. The geometric areas between individual members may support a "skin" if the structure is to be enclosed. A "regular" geodesic structure have


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title: Glossary of architecture
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Metope In a Doric entablature, the space between triglyphs along the frieze. These may be ornamented or plain, and may be square or rectangular. Mihrab In Islamic architecture, a semicircular niche in the wall of a mosque that indicates the direction of prayer. Minaret In Islamic architecture, a tall spire with a conical or onion-shaped crown, on or near a mosque, that is used by the imam to give the prayer call. Modillion An enriched block or horizontal bracket generally found under the cornice and above the bedmould of the Corinthian entablature. It is probably so called because of its arrangement in regulated distances. Moulding A decorative finishing strip. Monotriglyph The interval of the intercolumniation of the Doric column, which is observed by the intervention of one triglyph only between the triglyphs which come over the axes of the columns. This is the usual arrangement, but in the Propylaea at Athens there are two triglyphs over the central intercolumniation, in order to give increased width to the roadway, up which chariots and beasts of sacrifice ascended. Mullion A vertical structural element of stone, wood or metal within a window frame (cp. transom). Muntin A vertical or horizontal piece that divides


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture-6.md
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title: Glossary of architecture
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Peristasis (Greek: Περίστασις) A four-sided porch or hall of columns surrounding the cella in an ancient Greek peripteros temple (see also Peristyle). In ecclesial architecture, it is also used of the area between the baluster of a Catholic church and the high altar (what is usually called the sanctuary or chancel). Peristyle A continuous porch of columns surrounding a courtyard or garden (see also Peristasis). In ecclesial architecture, the term cloister is used. Phiale A building or columned arcade around a fountain. Piano nobile The principal floor of a large house, built in the style of renaissance architecture. Pier An upright support for a superstructure, such as an arch or bridge. Pilaster A flat, slightly projecting element that resembles a pillar or pier and is engaged in the face of a wall. Pilasters usually do not serve a structural purpose. Planceer or Planchier A building element sometimes used in the same sense as a soffit, but more correctly applied to the soffit of the corona in a cornice. Plate girder A steel girder formed from a vertical center web of steel plate with steel angles forming the top and bottom flanges welded, bolted or riveted to the web. Some deep


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture-7.md
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title: Glossary of architecture
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source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_architecture
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Shoji A translucent partition consisting of a paper sheet over a wood framework, commonly seen in traditional Japanese architecture. Shoji are built to be moved (usually by sliding them along tracks) or removed, allowing rooms to be reorganized and reshaped as desired and, in earlier constructions, allowing the interior of a structure to open directly to the outdoors. Because of their translucence, shoji are notable for diffusing light, air, and sound. Fusuma are similar to shoji but are generally opaque. Site-specific architecture Architecture which is of its time and of its place. It is designed to respond to both its physical context, and the metaphysical context within which it has been conceived and executed Skeiling A straight sloped part of a ceiling, such as on the underside of a pitched roof. Soffit Any architectural element's underside, especially the board connecting the walls of a structure to the fascia or the end of the roof, enclosing the eave. Sommer or Summer A girder or main "summer beam" of a floor: if supported on two storey posts and open below, also called a "bress" or "breast-summer". Often found at the centerline of the house to support one end of a joist, and


id: glossary-of-areas-of-mathematics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics-0.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of areas of mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics
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Mathematics is a broad subject that is commonly divided in many areas or branches that may be defined by their objects of study, by the used methods, or by both. For example, analytic number theory is a subarea of number theory devoted to the use of methods of analysis for the study of natural numbers. This glossary is alphabetically sorted. This hides a large part of the relationships between areas. For the broadest areas of mathematics, see Mathematics § Areas of mathematics. The Mathematics Subject Classification is a hierarchical list of areas and subjects of study that has been elaborated by the community of mathematicians. It is used by most publishers for classifying mathematical articles and books. == A == Absolute differential calculus An older name of Ricci calculus Absolute geometry Also called neutral geometry, a synthetic geometry similar to Euclidean geometry but without the parallel postulate. Abstract algebra The part of algebra devoted to the study of algebraic structures in themselves. Occasionally named modern algebra in course titles. Abstract analytic number theory The study of arithmetic semigroups as a means to extend notions from classical analytic number theory. Abstract differential geometry A form of differential geometry without the notion


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics-1.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of areas of mathematics
tags: science, encyclopedia
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== B == Bifurcation theory the study of changes in the qualitative or topological structure of a given family. It is a part of dynamical systems theory Biostatistics the development and application of statistical methods to a wide range of topics in biology. Birational geometry a part of algebraic geometry that deals with the geometry (of an algebraic variety) that is dependent only on its function field. Bolyai–Lobachevskian geometry see hyperbolic geometry == C == C*-algebra theory a complex algebra A of continuous linear operators on a complex Hilbert space with two additional properties-(i) A is a topologically closed set in the norm topology of operators.(ii)A is closed under the operation of taking adjoints of operators. Cartesian geometry see analytic geometry Calculus An area of mathematics connected by the fundamental theorem of calculus. Calculus of infinitesimals Also called infinitesimal calculus A foundation of calculus, first developed in the 17th century, that makes use of infinitesimal numbers. Calculus of moving surfaces an extension of the theory of tensor calculus to include deforming manifolds. Calculus of variations the field dedicated to maximizing or minimizing functionals. It used to be called functional calculus. Catastrophe theory a branch of bifurcation theory from dynamical systems


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title: Glossary of areas of mathematics
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== D == Decision analysis Decision theory Derived noncommutative algebraic geometry Descriptive set theory a part of mathematical logic, more specifically a part of set theory dedicated to the study of Polish spaces. Differential algebraic geometry the adaption of methods and concepts from algebraic geometry to systems of algebraic differential equations. Differential calculus The branch of calculus contrasted to integral calculus, and concerned with derivatives. Differential Galois theory the study of the Galois groups of differential fields. Differential geometry a form of geometry that uses techniques from integral and differential calculus as well as linear and multilinear algebra to study problems in geometry. Classically, these were problems of Euclidean geometry, although now it has been expanded. It is generally concerned with geometric structures on differentiable manifolds. It is closely related to differential topology. Differential geometry of curves the study of smooth curves in Euclidean space by using techniques from differential geometry Differential geometry of surfaces the study of smooth surfaces with various additional structures using the techniques of differential geometry. Differential topology a branch of topology that deals with differentiable functions on differentiable manifolds. Diffiety theory Diophantine geometry in general the study of algebraic varieties over fields that are finitely


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics-3.md
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title: Glossary of areas of mathematics
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Galois cohomology an application of homological algebra, it is the study of group cohomology of Galois modules. Galois theory named after Évariste Galois, it is a branch of abstract algebra providing a connection between field theory and group theory. Galois geometry a branch of finite geometry concerned with algebraic and analytic geometry over a Galois field. Game theory the study of mathematical models of strategic interaction among rational decision-makers. Gauge theory General topology also known as point-set topology, it is a branch of topology studying the properties of topological spaces and structures defined on them. It differs from other branches of topology as the topological spaces do not have to be similar to manifolds. Generalized trigonometry developments of trigonometric methods from the application to real numbers of Euclidean geometry to any geometry or space. This includes spherical trigonometry, hyperbolic trigonometry, gyrotrigonometry, and universal hyperbolic trigonometry. Geometric algebra an alternative approach to classical, computational and relativistic geometry. It shows a natural correspondence between geometric entities and elements of algebra. Geometric analysis a discipline that uses methods from differential geometry to study partial differential equations as well as the applications to geometry. Geometric calculus extends the geometric algebra to include differentiation and


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics-4.md
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title: Glossary of areas of mathematics
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Ideal theory once the precursor name for what is now known as commutative algebra; it is the theory of ideals in commutative rings. Idempotent analysis the study of idempotent semirings, such as the tropical semiring. Incidence geometry the study of relations of incidence between various geometric objects, like curves and lines. Inconsistent mathematics see paraconsistent mathematics. Infinitary combinatorics an expansion of ideas in combinatorics to account for infinite sets. Infinitesimal analysis once a synonym for infinitesimal calculus Infinitesimal calculus See calculus of infinitesimals Information geometry an interdisciplinary field that applies the techniques of differential geometry to study probability theory and statistics. It studies statistical manifolds, which are Riemannian manifolds whose points correspond to probability distributions. Integral calculus The branch of calculus concerned with integralss, contrasted to differential calculus. Integral geometry the theory of measures on a geometrical space invariant under the symmetry group of that space. Intersection theory a branch of algebraic geometry and algebraic topology Intuitionistic type theory a type theory and an alternative foundation of mathematics. Invariant theory studies how group actions on algebraic varieties affect functions. Inventory theory Inversive geometry the study of invariants preserved by a type of transformation known as inversion Inversive plane geometry inversive


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title: Glossary of areas of mathematics
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Malliavin calculus a set of mathematical techniques and ideas that extend the mathematical field of calculus of variations from deterministic functions to stochastic processes. Mathematical biology the mathematical modeling of biological phenomena. Mathematical chemistry the mathematical modeling of chemical phenomena. Mathematical economics the application of mathematical methods to represent theories and analyze problems in economics. Mathematical finance a field of applied mathematics, concerned with mathematical modeling of financial markets. Mathematical logic a subfield of mathematics exploring the applications of formal logic to mathematics. Mathematical optimization Mathematical physics The development of mathematical methods suitable for application to problems in physics. Mathematical psychology an approach to psychological research that is based on mathematical modeling of perceptual, thought, cognitive and motor processes, and on the establishment of law-like rules that relate quantifiable stimulus characteristics with quantifiable behavior. Mathematical sciences refers to academic disciplines that are mathematical in nature, but are not considered proper subfields of mathematics. Examples include statistics, cryptography, game theory and actuarial science. Mathematical sociology the area of sociology that uses mathematics to construct social theories. Mathematical statistics the application of probability theory, a branch of mathematics, to statistics, as opposed to techniques for collecting statistical data. Mathematical system theory Matrix


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title: Glossary of areas of mathematics
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Ramsey theory the study of the conditions in which order must appear. It is named after Frank P. Ramsey. Rational geometry Real algebra the study of the part of algebra relevant to real algebraic geometry. Real algebraic geometry the part of algebraic geometry that studies real points of the algebraic varieties. Real analysis a branch of mathematical analysis; in particular hard analysis, that is the study of real numbers and functions of Real values. It provides a rigorous formulation of the calculus of real numbers in terms of continuity and smoothness, whilst the theory is extended to the complex numbers in complex analysis. Real Clifford algebra Real K-theory Recreational mathematics the area dedicated to mathematical puzzles and mathematical games. Recursion theory see computability theory Representation theory a subfield of abstract algebra; it studies algebraic structures by representing their elements as linear transformations of vector spaces. It also studies modules over these algebraic structures, providing a way of reducing problems in abstract algebra to problems in linear algebra. Representation theory of groups Representation theory of the Galilean group Representation theory of the Lorentz group Representation theory of the Poincaré group Representation theory of the symmetric group Ribbon theory a branch of


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-0.md
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title: Glossary of artificial intelligence
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This glossary of artificial intelligence is a list of definitions of terms and concepts relevant to the study of artificial intelligence (AI), its subdisciplines, and related fields. Related glossaries include Glossary of computer science, Glossary of robotics, Glossary of machine vision, and Glossary of logic. == A == A* search Pronounced "A-star".A graph traversal and pathfinding algorithm which is used in many fields of computer science due to its completeness, optimality, and optimal efficiency. abductive logic programming (ALP) A high-level knowledge-representation framework that can be used to solve problems declaratively based on abductive reasoning. It extends normal logic programming by allowing some predicates to be incompletely defined, declared as abducible predicates. abductive reasoning Also abduction.A form of logical inference which starts with an observation or set of observations then seeks to find the simplest and most likely explanation. This process, unlike deductive reasoning, yields a plausible conclusion but does not positively verify it. abductive inference, or retroduction ablation The removal of a component of an AI system. An ablation study aims to determine the contribution of a component to an AI system by removing the component, and then analyzing the resultant performance of the system. abstract data type A mathematical


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title: Glossary of artificial intelligence
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algorithmic efficiency A property of an algorithm which relates to the number of computational resources used by the algorithm. An algorithm must be analyzed to determine its resource usage, and the efficiency of an algorithm can be measured based on usage of different resources. Algorithmic efficiency can be thought of as analogous to engineering productivity for a repeating or continuous process. algorithmic probability In algorithmic information theory, algorithmic probability, also known as Solomonoff probability, is a mathematical method of assigning a prior probability to a given observation. It was invented by Ray Solomonoff in the 1960s. AlphaGo A computer program that plays the board game Go. It was developed by Alphabet Inc.'s Google DeepMind in London. AlphaGo has several versions including AlphaGo Zero, AlphaGo Master, AlphaGo Lee, etc. In October 2015, AlphaGo became the first computer Go program to beat a human professional Go player without handicaps on a full-sized 19×19 board. ambient intelligence Electronic environments that are sensitive and responsive to the presence of people. The concept was pioneered by Philips Research in the early 2000s as a vision for a post-PC era in which computing power would be embedded invisibly into everyday objects and spaces. An AmI environment


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title: Glossary of artificial intelligence
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asymptotic computational complexity In computational complexity theory, asymptotic computational complexity is the usage of asymptotic analysis for the estimation of computational complexity of algorithms and computational problems, commonly associated with the usage of the big O notation. attention mechanism Machine learning-based attention is a mechanism mimicking cognitive attention. It calculates "soft" weights for each word, more precisely for its embedding, in the context window. It can do it either in parallel (such as in transformers) or sequentially (such as in recursive neural networks). "Soft" weights can change during each runtime, in contrast to "hard" weights, which are (pre-)trained and fine-tuned and remain frozen afterwards. Multiple attention heads are used in transformer-based large language models. attributional calculus A logic and representation system defined by Ryszard S. Michalski. It combines elements of predicate logic, propositional calculus, and multi-valued logic. Attributional calculus provides a formal language for natural induction, an inductive learning process whose results are in forms natural to people. augmented reality (AR) An interactive experience of a real-world environment where the objects that reside in the real-world are "augmented" by computer-generated perceptual information, sometimes across multiple sensory modalities, including visual, auditory, haptic, somatosensory, and olfactory. autoencoder A type of artificial neural


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title: Glossary of artificial intelligence
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bees algorithm A population-based search algorithm which was developed by Pham, Ghanbarzadeh and et al. in 2005. It mimics the food foraging behaviour of honey bee colonies. In its basic version the algorithm performs a kind of neighborhood search combined with global search, and can be used for both combinatorial optimization and continuous optimization. The only condition for the application of the bees algorithm is that some measure of distance between the solutions is defined. The effectiveness and specific abilities of the bees algorithm have been proven in a number of studies. behavior informatics (BI) The informatics of behaviors so as to obtain behavior intelligence and behavior insights. behavior tree (BT) A mathematical model of plan execution used in computer science, robotics, control systems and video games. They describe switchings between a finite set of tasks in a modular fashion. Their strength comes from their ability to create very complex tasks composed of simple tasks, without worrying how the simple tasks are implemented. BTs present some similarities to hierarchical state machines with the key difference that the main building block of a behavior is a task rather than a state. Its ease of human understanding make BTs less error-prone and


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title: Glossary of artificial intelligence
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brute-force search Also exhaustive search or generate and test.A very general problem-solving technique and algorithmic paradigm that consists of systematically enumerating all possible candidates for the solution and checking whether each candidate satisfies the problem's statement. Although simple to implement, brute force search is often inefficient for large problem spaces due to its high computational cost. == C == capsule neural network (CapsNet) A machine learning system that is a type of artificial neural network (ANN) that can be used to better model hierarchical relationships. The approach is an attempt to more closely mimic biological neural organization. case-based reasoning (CBR) Broadly construed, the process of solving new problems based on the solutions of similar past problems. chatbot Also smartbot, talkbot, chatterbot, bot, IM bot, interactive agent, conversational interface, or artificial conversational entity. A computer program or an artificial intelligence which conducts a conversation via auditory or textual methods. cloud robotics A field of robotics that attempts to invoke cloud technologies such as cloud computing, cloud storage, and other Internet technologies centred on the benefits of converged infrastructure and shared services for robotics. When connected to the cloud, robots can benefit from the powerful computation, storage, and communication resources of modern


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title: Glossary of artificial intelligence
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computational problem In theoretical computer science, a computational problem is a mathematical object representing a collection of questions that computers might be able to solve. computational statistics Also statistical computing. The interface between statistics and computer science. computer-automated design (CAutoD) Design automation usually refers to electronic design automation, or Design Automation which is a Product Configurator. Extending Computer-Aided Design (CAD), automated design and computer-automated design are concerned with a broader range of applications, such as automotive engineering, civil engineering, composite material design, control engineering, dynamic system identification and optimization, financial systems, industrial equipment, mechatronic systems, steel construction, structural optimisation, and the invention of novel systems. More recently, traditional CAD simulation is seen to be transformed to CAutoD by biologically inspired machine learning, including heuristic search techniques such as evolutionary computation, and swarm intelligence algorithms. computer audition (CA) See machine listening. computer science The theory, experimentation, and engineering that form the basis for the design and use of computers. It involves the study of algorithms that process, store, and communicate digital information. A computer scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems. computer vision An interdisciplinary scientific field that deals with how computers can be made


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title: Glossary of artificial intelligence
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data science An interdisciplinary field that uses scientific methods, processes, algorithms and systems to extract knowledge and insights from data in various forms, both structured and unstructured, similar to data mining. Data science is a "concept to unify statistics, data analysis, machine learning, and their related methods" in order to "understand and analyze actual phenomena" with data. It employs techniques and theories drawn from many fields within the context of mathematics, statistics, information science, and computer science. data set Also dataset. A collection of data. Most commonly a data set corresponds to the contents of a single database table, or a single statistical data matrix, where every column of the table represents a particular variable, and each row corresponds to a given member of the data set in question. The data set lists values for each of the variables, such as height and weight of an object, for each member of the data set. Each value is known as a datum. The data set may comprise data for one or more members, corresponding to the number of rows. data warehouse (DW or DWH) Also enterprise data warehouse (EDW). A system used for reporting and data analysis. DWs are central repositories


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Also epigenetic robotics. A scientific field which aims at studying the developmental mechanisms, architectures, and constraints that allow lifelong and open-ended learning of new skills and new knowledge in embodied machines. diagnosis Concerned with the development of algorithms and techniques that are able to determine whether the behaviour of a system is correct. If the system is not functioning correctly, the algorithm should be able to determine, as accurately as possible, which part of the system is failing, and which kind of fault it is facing. The computation is based on observations, which provide information on the current behaviour. dialogue system Also conversational agent (CA). A computer system intended to converse with a human with a coherent structure. Dialogue systems have employed text, speech, graphics, haptics, gestures, and other modes for communication on both the input and output channel. diffusion model In machine learning, diffusion models, also known as diffusion probabilistic models or score-based generative models, are a class of latent variable models. They are Markov chains trained using variational inference. The goal of diffusion models is to learn the latent structure of a dataset by modeling the way in which data points diffuse through the latent space. In computer


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error-driven learning A sub-area of machine learning concerned with how an agent ought to take actions in an environment so as to minimize some error feedback. It is a type of reinforcement learning. ensemble learning The use of multiple machine learning algorithms to obtain better predictive performance than could be obtained from any of the constituent learning algorithms alone. epoch In machine learning, particularly in the creation of artificial neural networks, an epoch is training the model for one cycle through the full training dataset. Small models are typically trained for as many epochs as it takes to reach the best performance on the validation dataset. The largest models may train for only one epoch. ethics of artificial intelligence The part of the ethics of technology specific to artificial intelligence. evolutionary algorithm (EA) A subset of evolutionary computation, a generic population-based metaheuristic optimization algorithm. An EA uses mechanisms inspired by biological evolution, such as reproduction, mutation, recombination, and selection. Candidate solutions to the optimization problem play the role of individuals in a population, and the fitness function determines the quality of the solutions (see also loss function). Evolution of the population then takes place after the repeated application of the


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title: Glossary of artificial intelligence
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frame language A technology used for knowledge representation in artificial intelligence. Frames are stored as ontologies of sets and subsets of the frame concepts. They are similar to class hierarchies in object-oriented languages although their fundamental design goals are different. Frames are focused on explicit and intuitive representation of knowledge whereas objects focus on encapsulation and information hiding. Frames originated in AI research and objects primarily in software engineering. However, in practice the techniques and capabilities of frame and object-oriented languages overlap significantly. frame problem The problem of finding adequate collections of axioms for a viable description of a robot environment. friendly artificial intelligence Also friendly AI or FAI. A hypothetical artificial general intelligence (AGI) that would have a positive effect on humanity. It is a part of the ethics of artificial intelligence and is closely related to machine ethics. While machine ethics is concerned with how an artificially intelligent agent should behave, friendly artificial intelligence research is focused on how to practically bring about this behaviour and ensuring it is adequately constrained. futures studies The study of postulating possible, probable, and preferable futures and the worldviews and myths that underlie them. fuzzy control system A control system based on


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title: Glossary of artificial intelligence
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graph database (GDB) A database that uses graph structures for semantic queries with nodes, edges, and properties to represent and store data. A key concept of the system is the graph (or edge or relationship), which directly relates data items in the store a collection of nodes of data and edges representing the relationships between the nodes. The relationships allow data in the store to be linked together directly, and in many cases retrieved with one operation. Graph databases hold the relationships between data as a priority. Querying relationships within a graph database is fast because they are perpetually stored within the database itself. Relationships can be intuitively visualized using graph databases, making it useful for heavily inter-connected data. graph theory The study of graphs, which are mathematical structures used to model pairwise relations between objects. graph traversal Also graph search. The process of visiting (checking and/or updating) each vertex in a graph. Such traversals are classified by the order in which the vertices are visited. Tree traversal is a special case of graph traversal. == H == hallucination A response generated by AI that contains false or misleading information presented as fact. heuristic A technique designed for solving a


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title: Glossary of artificial intelligence
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intrinsic motivation An intelligent agent is intrinsically motivated to act if the information content alone, of the experience resulting from the action, is the motivating factor. Information content in this context is measured in the information theory sense as quantifying uncertainty. A typical intrinsic motivation is to search for unusual (surprising) situations, in contrast to a typical extrinsic motivation such as the search for food. Intrinsically motivated artificial agents display behaviours akin to exploration and curiosity. issue tree Also logic tree. A graphical breakdown of a question that dissects it into its different components vertically and that progresses into details as it reads to the right. Issue trees are useful in problem solving to identify the root causes of a problem as well as to identify its potential solutions. They also provide a reference point to see how each piece fits into the whole picture of a problem. == J == junction tree algorithm Also Clique Tree.A method used in machine learning to extract marginalization in general graphs. In essence, it entails performing belief propagation on a modified graph called a junction tree. The graph is called a tree because it branches into different sections of data; nodes of variables


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title: Glossary of artificial intelligence
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aka lethal autonomous weapon system (LAWS), autonomous weapon system (AWS), robotic weapon, or killer robot type of military drone or military robot, which is autonomous in that it can independently search for and engage targets based on programmed constraints and descriptions. As of 2025, most military drones and military robots are not truly autonomous. LAWs may engage in drone warfare in the air, on land, on water, underwater, or in space. Lisp (programming language) (LISP) A family of programming languages with a long history and a distinctive, fully parenthesized prefix notation. logic programming A type of programming paradigm which is largely based on formal logic. Any program written in a logic programming language is a set of sentences in logical form, expressing facts and rules about some problem domain. Major logic programming language families include Prolog, answer set programming (ASP), and Datalog. long short-term memory (LSTM) An artificial recurrent neural network architecture used in the field of deep learning. Unlike standard feedforward neural networks, LSTM has feedback connections that make it a "general purpose computer" (that is, it can compute anything that a Turing machine can). It can not only process single data points (such as images), but also entire


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multilayer perceptron (MLP) In deep learning, a multilayer perceptron (MLP) is a name for a modern feedforward neural network consisting of fully connected neurons with nonlinear activation functions, organized in layers, notable for being able to distinguish data that is not linearly separable. multi-swarm optimization A variant of particle swarm optimization (PSO) based on the use of multiple sub-swarms instead of one (standard) swarm. The general approach in multi-swarm optimization is that each sub-swarm focuses on a specific region while a specific diversification method decides where and when to launch the sub-swarms. The multi-swarm framework is especially fitted for the optimization on multi-modal problems, where multiple (local) optima exist. mutation A genetic operator used to maintain genetic diversity from one generation of a population of genetic algorithm chromosomes to the next. It is analogous to biological mutation. Mutation alters one or more gene values in a chromosome from its initial state. In mutation, the solution may change entirely from the previous solution. Hence GA can come to a better solution by using mutation. Mutation occurs during evolution according to a user-definable mutation probability. This probability should be set low. If it is set too high, the search will turn into


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neural Turing machine (NTM) A recurrent neural network model. NTMs combine the fuzzy pattern matching capabilities of neural networks with the algorithmic power of programmable computers. An NTM has a neural network controller coupled to external memory resources, which it interacts with through attentional mechanisms. The memory interactions are differentiable end-to-end, making it possible to optimize them using gradient descent. An NTM with a long short-term memory (LSTM) network controller can infer simple algorithms such as copying, sorting, and associative recall from examples alone. neuro-fuzzy Combinations of artificial neural networks and fuzzy logic. neurocybernetics Also brain–computer interface (BCI), neural-control interface (NCI), mind-machine interface (MMI), direct neural interface (DNI), or brain–machine interface (BMI). A direct communication pathway between an enhanced or wired brain and an external device. BCI differs from neuromodulation in that it allows for bidirectional information flow. BCIs are often directed at researching, mapping, assisting, augmenting, or repairing human cognitive or sensory-motor functions. neuromorphic engineering Also neuromorphic computing. A concept describing the use of very-large-scale integration (VLSI) systems containing electronic analog circuits to mimic neuro-biological architectures present in the nervous system. In recent times, the term neuromorphic has been used to describe analog, digital, mixed-mode analog/digital VLSI, and software


id: glossary-of-artificial-intelligence-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-15.md
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title: Glossary of artificial intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence
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overfitting "The production of an analysis that corresponds too closely or exactly to a particular set of data, and may therefore fail to fit to additional data or predict future observations reliably". In other words, an overfitted model memorizes training data details but cannot generalize to new data. Conversely, an underfitted model is too simple to capture the complexity of the training data. == P == partial order reduction A technique for reducing the size of the state-space to be searched by a model checking or automated planning and scheduling algorithm. It exploits the commutativity of concurrently executed transitions, which result in the same state when executed in different orders. partially observable Markov decision process (POMDP) A generalization of a Markov decision process (MDP). A POMDP models an agent decision process in which it is assumed that the system dynamics are determined by an MDP, but the agent cannot directly observe the underlying state. Instead, it must maintain a probability distribution over the set of possible states, based on a set of observations and observation probabilities, and the underlying MDP. particle swarm optimization (PSO) A computational method that optimizes a problem by iteratively trying to improve a candidate solution with


id: glossary-of-artificial-intelligence-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-16.md
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title: Glossary of artificial intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence
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propositional calculus Also propositional logic, statement logic, sentential calculus, sentential logic, and zeroth-order logic.A branch of logic which deals with propositions (which can be true or false) and argument flow. Compound propositions are formed by connecting propositions by logical connectives. The propositions without logical connectives are called atomic propositions. Unlike first-order logic, propositional logic does not deal with non-logical objects, predicates about them, or quantifiers. However, all the machinery of propositional logic is included in first-order logic and higher-order logics. In this sense, propositional logic is the foundation of first-order logic and higher-order logic. proximal policy optimization (PPO) A reinforcement learning algorithm for training an intelligent agent's decision function to accomplish difficult tasks. Python An interpreted, high-level, general-purpose programming language created by Guido van Rossum and first released in 1991. Python's design philosophy emphasizes code readability with its notable use of significant whitespace. Its language constructs and object-oriented approach aim to help programmers write clear, logical code for small and large-scale projects. PyTorch A machine learning library based on the Torch library, used for applications such as computer vision and natural language processing, originally developed by Meta AI and now part of the Linux Foundation umbrella. == Q == Q-learning


id: glossary-of-artificial-intelligence-20260505-17
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-17.md
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title: Glossary of artificial intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence
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regularization A set of techniques such as dropout, early stopping, and L1 and L2 regularization to reduce overfitting and underfitting when training a learning algorithm. reinforcement learning (RL) An area of machine learning concerned with how software agents ought to take actions in an environment so as to maximize some notion of cumulative reward. Reinforcement learning is one of three basic machine learning paradigms, alongside supervised and unsupervised learning. It differs from supervised learning in that labelled input/output pairs need not be presented, and sub-optimal actions need not be explicitly corrected. Instead the focus is finding a balance between exploration (of uncharted territory) and exploitation (of current knowledge). reinforcement learning from human feedback (RLHF) A technique that involve training a "reward model" to predict how humans rate the quality of generated content, and then training a generative AI model to satisfy this reward model via reinforcement learning. It can be used for example to make the generative AI model more truthful or less harmful. representation learning See feature learning. reservoir computing A framework for computation that may be viewed as an extension of neural networks. Typically an input signal is fed into a fixed (random) dynamical system called a reservoir


id: glossary-of-artificial-intelligence-20260505-18
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-18.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of artificial intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence
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semantics In programming language theory, semantics is the field concerned with the rigorous mathematical study of the meaning of programming languages. It does so by evaluating the meaning of syntactically valid strings defined by a specific programming language, showing the computation involved. In such a case that the evaluation would be of syntactically invalid strings, the result would be non-computation. Semantics describes the processes a computer follows when executing a program in that specific language. This can be shown by describing the relationship between the input and output of a program, or an explanation of how the program will be executed on a certain platform, hence creating a model of computation. semi-supervised learning Also weak supervision.A machine learning training paradigm characterized by using a combination of a small amount of human-labeled data (used exclusively in supervised learning), followed by a large amount of unlabeled data (used exclusively in unsupervised learning). sensor fusion The combining of sensory data or data derived from disparate sources such that the resulting information has less uncertainty than would be possible when these sources were used individually. separation logic An extension of Hoare logic, a way of reasoning about programs. The assertion language of separation logic


id: glossary-of-artificial-intelligence-20260505-19
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-19.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of artificial intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence
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stochastic semantic analysis An approach used in computer science as a semantic component of natural language understanding. Stochastic models generally use the definition of segments of words as basic semantic units for the semantic models, and in some cases involve a two layered approach. Stanford Research Institute Problem Solver (STRIPS) An automated planner developed by Richard Fikes and Nils Nilsson in 1971 at SRI International. subject-matter expert (SME) A person who has accumulated great knowledge in a particular field or topic, demonstrated by the person's degree, licensure, and/or through years of professional experience with the subject. superintelligence A hypothetical agent that possesses intelligence far surpassing that of the brightest and most gifted human minds. Superintelligence may also refer to a property of problem-solving systems (e.g., superintelligent language translators or engineering assistants) whether or not these high-level intellectual competencies are embodied in agents that act within the physical world. A superintelligence may or may not be created by an intelligence explosion and be associated with a technological singularity. supervised learning The machine learning task of learning a function that maps an input to an output based on example input-output pairs. It infers a function from labeled training data consisting of a


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence-20.md
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title: Glossary of artificial intelligence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence
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transhumanism Abbreviated H+ or h+.An international philosophical movement that advocates for the transformation of the human condition by developing and making widely available sophisticated technologies to greatly enhance human intellect and physiology. transition system In theoretical computer science, a transition system is a concept used in the study of computation. It is used to describe the potential behavior of discrete systems. It consists of states and transitions between states, which may be labeled with labels chosen from a set; the same label may appear on more than one transition. If the label set is a singleton, the system is essentially unlabeled, and a simpler definition that omits the labels is possible. tree traversal Also tree search.A form of graph traversal and refers to the process of visiting (checking and/or updating) each node in a tree data structure, exactly once. Such traversals are classified by the order in which the nodes are visited. true quantified Boolean formula In computational complexity theory, the language TQBF is a formal language consisting of the true quantified Boolean formulas. A (fully) quantified Boolean formula is a formula in quantified propositional logic where every variable is quantified (or bound), using either existential or universal quantifiers, at


id: glossary-of-biology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-0.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology
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This glossary of biology terms is a list of definitions of fundamental terms and concepts used in biology, the study of life and of living organisms. It is intended as introductory material for novices; for more specific and technical definitions from sub-disciplines and related fields, see Glossary of cell biology, Glossary of genetics, Glossary of evolutionary biology, Glossary of ecology, Glossary of environmental science and Glossary of scientific naming, or any of the organism-specific glossaries in Category:Glossaries of biology. == A == absorption (physiology) A process in which one substance permeates another. A fluid permeates or is dissolved by a liquid or solid. Skin absorption is a route by which substances can enter the body through the skin. acclimatization (physiology) Adaptation to a new climate, as with a new temperature or altitude or environment. acetyl-CoA (biochemistry) Acetyl coenzyme A is a molecule participating in many biochemical reactions in carbohydrate, protein and lipid metabolism. Its main function is to deliver the acetyl group to the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) to be oxidized for energy production. acoelomate (zoology) A type of animal, such as a flatworm, with a body plan that lacks a fluid-filled cavity between the body wall and the


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-1.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology
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biological organization The hierarchy of complex biological structures and systems, designed to define life through a reductionist approach. biology The scientific study of life. biomass Organic matter derived from living or recently living organisms. Biomass can be used as a source of energy and it most often refers to plants or plant-based materials which are not used for food or feed, and are specifically called lignocellulosic biomass. biomathematics The theoretical use of mathematical models and abstractions of living systems to understand and predict biological problems. biome Any very large ecological area on the Earth's surface containing fauna and flora (animals and plants) adapting to their environment. Biomes are often defined by abiotic factors such as climate, topographical relief, geology, soils, and water resources. biomechanics The study of the structure and function of biological systems by means of the methods of "mechanics", which is the branch of physics involving analysis of the actions of forces. biomedical engineering The application of engineering principles and design concepts to medicine and biology for healthcare purposes (e.g. diagnostic or therapeutic). biomedical research The pursuit of answers to medical questions. These investigations lead to discoveries, which in turn lead to the development of new preventions, therapies,


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-2.md
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title: Glossary of biology
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source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology
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central dogma of molecular biology A framework for understanding the movement of genetic information between information-carrying biopolymers within biological systems. Popularly (though simplistically) stated as "DNA makes RNA and RNA makes protein", the principle attempts to capture the notion that the transfer of genetic information only naturally occurs between certain classes of molecules and in certain directions. centriole A cylindrical cell structure found in most eukaryotic cells, composed mainly of a protein called tubulin. centrosome An organelle that is the primary site at which microtubules are organized. They occur only in plant and animal cells and help to regulate cell division. chemical compound A chemical substance consisting of two or more different chemically bonded elements, with a fixed ratio determining the composition. The ratio of each element is usually expressed by a chemical formula. chemical equilibrium The state in which both reactants and products are present in concentrations which have no further tendency to change with time in a chemical reaction. chemical reaction A process that leads to the transformation of one set of chemical substances to another. chemistry A branch of the physical sciences that studies the composition, structure, properties, and change of matter. Chemical interactions underlie all biological


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-3.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology
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deciduous Deciduous means "falling off at maturity" or "tending to fall off", and it is typically used in botany in order to refer to trees or shrubs that lose their leaves seasonally (most commonly during autumn) and to the shedding of other plant structures such as petals after flowering or fruits when ripe. decomposition The process by which the organic compounds of deceased organisms are broken down into simpler organic or inorganic matter such as carbon dioxide, water, simple sugars, and mineral salts. These reactions occur naturally by both biotic means (biodegradation, such as that practiced by many bacteria and fungi) and abiotic means (basic physical and chemical processes, such as hydrolysis). Decomposition recycles matter present in the biosphere, making it an essential part of the nutrient cycle. Organisms that facilitate decomposition are known as decomposers; the scientific study of decomposition is known as taphonomy. decomposer Any organism that facilitates the breakdown of dead or decaying organisms by carrying out the decomposition of complex biomolecules into simpler substances. Decomposers are heterotrophs which obtain energy and nutrition for their own growth and reproduction by recycling the chemical compounds contained in organic substrates. Microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi are the biosphere's


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-4.md
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title: Glossary of biology
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source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology
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ectoderm The outermost layer of cells or tissue of an embryo in early development, or the parts derived from this, which include the epidermis, nerve tissue, and nephridia. ectotherm An organism in which internal physiological sources of heat are of relatively small or quite negligible importance in controlling body temperature compared to ambient sources of heat. Ectotherms generally experience changes in body temperature that closely match changes in the temperature of their environment; colloquially, these organisms are often referred to as "cold-blooded". Contrast endotherm. effector A small molecule that selectively binds to a protein and regulates its biological activity. In this manner, effector molecules act as ligands that can increase or decrease enzyme activity, gene expression, or cell signaling. efferent Conducted or conducting outwards or away from something (for nerves, the central nervous system; for blood vessels, the organ supplied). Contrast afferent. egg The organic vessel containing the zygote in which an animal embryo develops until it can survive on its own, at which point the developing organism emerges from the egg in a process known as hatching. electrochemical gradient A gradient of electrochemical potential, usually for an ion that can move across a membrane. The gradient consists of two


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-5.md
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title: Glossary of biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology
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epidemiology The study and analysis of the patterns, causes, and effects of health and disease conditions in defined populations. It is the cornerstone of public health, and shapes policy decisions and evidence-based practice by identifying risk factors for disease and targets for preventive healthcare. epigenetics A sub-field of genetics that studies cellular and physiological phenotypic trait variations caused by external or environmental factors which affect how cells express genes, as opposed to those caused by changes in the DNA sequence. epiphyte An organism that grows on the surface of a plant and derives moisture and nutrients from the air, rain, marine environments, or from debris accumulating around it. essential nutrient A nutrient required for normal physiological function which cannot be synthesized by a particular organism, either at all or in sufficient quantities, and which therefore must be obtained from external sources such as food. In humans, a set of nine amino acids, two fatty acids, thirteen vitamins, and fifteen minerals are considered essential nutrients. estrogen The primary female sex hormone. ethology The scientific study of non-human animal behaviour (i.e. excluding human behaviour) and usually with a focus on behaviour under natural conditions, and viewing behaviour as an evolutionarily adaptive trait.


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-6.md
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title: Glossary of biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology
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== H == habitat A place for animals, people, and plants and non-living things. habituation A form of learning in which an organism decreases or desists its responses to a stimulus after repeated or prolonged presentations. heredity The passing on of phenotypic traits from parents to their offspring, either through sexual or asexual reproduction. Offspring cells and organisms are said to inherit the genetic information of their parents. hermaphrodite A sexually reproducing organism with both male and female reproductive organs. herpetology The branch of zoology that studies reptiles and amphibians. heterosis The improved or increased function of any biological quality in a hybrid offspring. heterotroph histology The study of the microscopic anatomy of cells and tissues of plants and animals. Hodgkin–Huxley model A mathematical model that describes how action potentials in neurons are initiated and propagated. hormone Any member of a class of signaling molecules produced by glands in multicellular organisms that are transported by the circulatory system to target distant organs to regulate physiology and behaviour. host Any living organism that harbors another living organism (known as a "guest" or symbiont), whether the guest is parasitic, mutualistic, or commensalist in its interactions with the host. The guest typically receives


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-7.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology
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life The characteristic or collection of characteristics that distinguishes physical entities that undergo biological processes (e.g. living organisms) from that those do not (e.g. non-living, inanimate matter), either because such processes have ceased or because they were not present in the first place. What constitutes "life" is notoriously difficult to define, and there is currently no consensus definition, though some popular criteria are that living things are composed of cells, have a life cycle, undergo metabolism, maintain homeostasis, adapt to environments, respond to stimuli, reproduce, and evolve. Biology is the scientific study of life and of living organisms. life cycle ligament The fibrous connective tissue that connects bones to other bones and is also known as articular ligament, articular larua, fibrous ligament, or true ligament. light-independent reactions See Calvin cycle. linked genes Any set of one or more genes which are sufficiently close together on the same chromosome that they are very unlikely to assort independently and therefore are usually inherited together. lipid A substance that is insoluble in water and soluble in alcohol, ether, and chloroform. Lipids are an important component of living cells. Together with carbohydrates and proteins, lipids are the main constituents of plant and animal cells.


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-8.md
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title: Glossary of biology
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motor neuron A neuron whose cell body is situated in the motor cortex, brain stem, or the spinal cord, and whose axon (fiber) projects to the spinal cord or outside of the spinal cord to directly or indirectly control effector organs, mainly muscles and glands. mucous membrane A membrane that lines various cavities in the body and covers the surface of internal organs. multicellular Having or consisting of more than one cell, as opposed to being unicellular. mycology The branch of biology concerned with the study of fungi, including their genetic and biochemical properties, their taxonomy and their use to humans as a source for tinder, medicine, food, and entheogens, as well as their dangers, such as poisoning or infection. myofibril A basic rod-like unit of a muscle cell. myosin A superfamily of motor proteins best known for their roles in muscle contraction and in a wide range of other motility processes in eukaryotes. == N == natural selection A process in nature in which organisms possessing certain genotypic characteristics that make them better adjusted to an environment tend to survive, reproduce, increase in number or frequency, and therefore, are able to transmit and perpetuate their essential genotypic qualities to


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-9.md
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title: Glossary of biology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology
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phylum A taxonomic rank or level of classification below kingdom and above class; in botany, the term division is commonly used in place of phylum. physiology The branch of biology dealing with the functions and activities of living organisms and their parts, including all physical and chemical processes. phytochemistry The study of phytochemicals, which are chemicals derived from plants. phytopathology The science of diagnosing and managing plant diseases. piliferous Bearing hair placebo A substance or treatment of no intended therapeutic value. plant plasmolysis The process in which cells lose water in a hypertonic solution. pollination The transfer of pollen from a male part of a plant to a female part of a plant, enabling later fertilisation and the production of seeds. Pollen is most commonly transported by animals or by wind. polymer A large macromolecule composed of many repeated subunits. polymerase chain reaction (PCR) A technique used in molecular biology to amplify a single copy or a few copies of a segment of DNA across several orders of magnitude, generating thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence. polyploidy Having or containing more than two complete sets of chromosomes. population All the organisms of the same group or


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_biology-10.md
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title: Glossary of biology
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steroid A biologically active organic compound with four rings arranged in a specific molecular configuration. strain A genetic variant, subtype, or culture identified as a distinct taxonomic subdivision within a species. The term is most commonly used to identify particular types of bacteria and viruses. structural biology The branch of molecular biology, biochemistry, and biophysics concerned with the molecular structure of biological macromolecules, especially proteins and nucleic acids, how they acquire the structures they have, and how alterations in their structures affect their function. symbiogenesis See endosymbiotic theory. symbiont Any organism involved in any type of symbiosis with another organism, either of the same or a different species. symbiosis Any close and long-term interaction between two different biological organisms, regardless of the nature or degree of the effect on either organism. Examples include mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism. synthetic biology An interdisciplinary branch of biology and engineering combining various disciplines from within these domains, including biotechnology, evolutionary biology, molecular biology, systems biology, biophysics, computer engineering, and genetic engineering. systematics The scientific study of biodiversity. It is concerned with the discovering and naming of new species of organisms (nomenclature) and arranging these taxa into classification schemes (taxonomy). A large part of modern


id: glossary-of-civil-engineering-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_civil_engineering-0.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of civil engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_civil_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:38.982469+00:00
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This glossary of civil engineering terms is a list of definitions of terms and concepts pertaining specifically to civil engineering, its sub-disciplines, and related fields. For a more general overview of concepts within engineering as a whole, see Glossary of engineering. == A == Abney level An instrument used in surveying which consists of a fixed sighting tube, a movable spirit level that is connected to a pointing arm, and a protractor scale. An internal mirror allows the user to see the bubble in the level while sighting a distant target. It can be used as a hand-held instrument or mounted on a Jacob's staff for more precise measurement. Abrams' law Also Abrams' water-cement ratio law. A law which states that the strength of a concrete mix is inversely related to the mass ratio of water to cement. As the water content increases, the strength of the concrete decreases. abrasion The process of scuffing, scratching, wearing down, marring, or rubbing away a substance or substrate. It can be intentionally imposed in a controlled process using an abrasive. Abrasion may also be an undesirable effect of exposure to normal use or exposure to the elements. abrasion resistance absolute electrode potential In


id: glossary-of-civil-engineering-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_civil_engineering-1.md
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title: Glossary of civil engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_civil_engineering
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adhesion The tendency of dissimilar particles or surfaces to cling to one another (cohesion refers to the tendency of similar or identical particles/surfaces to cling to one another). The forces that cause adhesion and cohesion can be divided into several types. The intermolecular forces responsible for the function of various kinds of stickers and sticky tape fall into the categories of chemical adhesion, dispersive adhesion, and diffusive adhesion. In addition to the cumulative magnitudes of these intermolecular forces, there are also certain emergent mechanical effects. adiabatic process In thermodynamics, an adiabatic process is one that occurs without transfer of heat or mass of substances between a thermodynamic system and its surroundings. In an adiabatic process, energy is transferred to the surroundings only as work. The adiabatic process provides a rigorous conceptual basis for the theory used to expound the first law of thermodynamics, and as such it is a key concept in thermodynamics. aerobic digestion A process in sewage treatment designed to reduce the volume of sewage sludge and make it suitable for subsequent use. More recently, technology has been developed that allows the treatment and reduction of other organic waste, such as food, cardboard and horticultural waste. aerodynamics The


id: glossary-of-civil-engineering-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_civil_engineering-2.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of civil engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_civil_engineering
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parent: glossary-of-civil-engineering-20260505-0
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angular acceleration The rate of change of angular velocity. In three dimensions, it is a pseudovector. In SI units, it is measured in radians per second squared (rad/s2), and is usually denoted by the Greek letter alpha (α). Anion is an ion with more electrons than protons, giving it a net negative charge (since electrons are negatively charged and protons are positively charged). annealing anode ANSI Archimedes' principle states that the upward buoyant force that is exerted on a body immersed in a fluid, whether fully or partially submerged, is equal to the weight of the fluid that the body displaces and acts in the upward direction at the center of mass of the displaced fluid. Archimedes' principle is a law of physics fundamental to fluid mechanics. It was formulated by Archimedes of Syracuse. architecture The process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings or any other structures. Architectural works, in the material form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols and as works of art. Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements. architectural engineering Also building engineering or architecture engineering. The application of engineering principles and technology to building design and construction. Arrhenius


id: glossary-of-civil-engineering-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_civil_engineering-3.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of civil engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_civil_engineering
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Dalton's law Also called Dalton's law of partial pressures. In chemistry and physics, a law which states that in a mixture of non-reacting gases, the total pressure exerted is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the individual gases. This empirical law was first observed by John Dalton in 1801 and published in 1802, and is closely related to the ideal gas laws. damped vibration Darcy–Weisbach equation DC motor decibel definite integral deflection deformation (engineering) deformation (mechanics) degrees of freedom delta robot delta-wye transformer density derivative design engineer An engineer whose profession focuses on the engineering design process in any of the various disciplines of engineering, e.g. civil engineering. Design engineers tend to work on products and systems that involve adapting and using complex scientific and mathematical techniques in order to develop solutions for human society. differential pulley dispersion displacement (fluid) displacement (vector) Doppler effect drag ductility dynamics dyne == E == earthquake engineering elastic modulus elasticity electric charge electric circuit electric current electric displacement field electric generator electric field electric field gradient electric motor electric potential electrical potential energy electric power electrical and electronics engineering electrical conductor electrical insulator electrical network Any interconnection of electrical components (e.g.


id: glossary-of-civil-engineering-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_civil_engineering-4.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of civil engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_civil_engineering
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technical standard An established norm or requirement for a repeatable technical task, especially when written in a formal document that establishes uniform criteria, methods, processes, and practices. A technical standard may be developed privately or unilaterally by edict, or by groups such as trade associations, industry standards organizations, or governments, often according to the formal consensus of experts in the discipline. temperature tensile force tensile modulus tensile strength tensile testing tension member thermal conduction thermal equilibrium thermal radiation thermodynamics Thévenin's theorem three-phase torque torsional vibration toughness trajectory transducer transportation engineering trimean triple point Trouton's rule truncated mean truss An assembly of two-force structural members such as beams, connected at nodes, where the members are organized such that the assemblage as a whole behaves as a single, rigid object. turbine turbomachinery turbulence == U == ultimate tensile strength (UTS) Also ultimate strength or simply tensile strength (TS). The maximum stress that a material under tension can withstand while being stretched or pulled before breaking. Ultimate tensile strength is usually found by performing a tensile test and recording the stress versus strain; the highest point of the stress–strain curve is the ultimate tensile strength. Tensile strengths are often important in the design


id: glossary-of-clinical-research-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-0.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of clinical research
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research
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A glossary of terms used in clinical research. == A == Activities of daily living The tasks of everyday life. These activities include eating, dressing, getting into or out of a bed or chair, taking a bath or shower, and using the toilet. Instrumental activities of daily living are activities related to independent living and include preparing meals, managing money, shopping, doing housework, and using a telephone. Also called ADL. (NCI) Adverse drug reaction In the preapproval clinical experience with a new medicinal product or its new usages, particularly as the therapeutic dose(s) may not be established, all noxious and unintended responses to a medicinal product related to any dose should be considered adverse drug reactions. The phrase "responses to a medicinal product" means that a causal relationship between a medicinal product and an adverse event is at least a reasonable possibility, i.e., the relationship cannot be ruled out. Regarding marketed medicinal products: A response to a drug that is noxious and unintended and that occurs at doses normally used in man for prophylaxis, diagnosis, or therapy of diseases or for modification of physiological function. (ICH E6) Adverse effect An unwanted side effect of treatment. (NCI) Adverse event An unexpected


id: glossary-of-clinical-research-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-1.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of clinical research
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research
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In a scientific research study or clinical trial, a flaw in the study design or the method of collecting or interpreting information. Biases can lead to incorrect conclusions about what the study or clinical trial showed. (NCI) When a point of view prevents impartial judgment on issues relating to the subject of that point of view. In clinical studies, bias is controlled by blinding and randomization (NLM) The systematic tendency of any factors associated with the design, conduct, analysis and evaluation of the results of a clinical trial to make the estimate of a treatment effect deviate from its true value. Bias introduced through deviations in conduct is referred to as 'operational' bias. The other sources of bias listed above are referred to as 'statistical'. (ICH E9) Bioavailable The ability of a drug or other substance to be absorbed and used by the body. Orally bioavailable means that a drug or other substance that is taken by mouth can be absorbed and used by the body. (NCI) Bioinformatics The science of using computers, databases, and math to organize and analyze large amounts of biological, medical, and health information. Information may come from many sources, including patient statistics, tissue specimens, genetics


id: glossary-of-clinical-research-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-2.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of clinical research
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research
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A type of research study that tests how well new medical approaches work in people. These studies test new methods of screening, prevention, diagnosis, or treatment of a disease. Also called a clinical trial. (NCI) A clinical trial is a research study to answer specific questions about vaccines or new therapies or new ways of using known treatments. Clinical trials (also called medical research and research studies) are used to determine whether new drugs or treatments are both safe and effective. Carefully conducted clinical trials are the fastest and safest way to find treatments that work in people. Trials are in four phases: Phase I tests a new drug or treatment in a small group; Phase II expands the study to a larger group of people; Phase III expands the study to an even larger group of people; and Phase IV takes place after the drug or treatment has been licensed and marketed. (NLM) Any investigation in human subjects intended to discover or verify the clinical, pharmacological, and/or other pharmacodynamic effects of an investigational product(s), and/or to identify any adverse reactions to an investigational product(s), and/or to study absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of an investigational product(s) with the object


id: glossary-of-clinical-research-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-3.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of clinical research
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research
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Control is a standard against which experimental observations may be evaluated. In clinical trials, one group of participants is given an experimental drug, while another group (i.e., the control group) is given either a standard treatment for the disease or a placebo. (NLM) Coordinating Committee A committee that a sponsor may organize to coordinate the conduct of a multicenter trial. (ICH E6) Coordinating Investigator An investigator assigned the responsibility for the coordination of investigators at different centers participating in a multicenter trial. (ICH E6) == D == Data and Safety Monitoring Board or Independent Data Monitoring Committee DSMB. An impartial group that oversees a clinical trial and reviews the results to see if they are acceptable. This group determines if the trial should be changed or closed. Also called DSMB. (NCI) An independent committee, composed of community representatives and clinical research experts, that reviews data while a clinical trial is in progress to ensure that participants are not exposed to undue risk. A DSMB may recommend that a trial be stopped if there are safety concerns or if the trial objectives have been achieved. (NLM) An independent data monitoring committee that may be established by the sponsor to assess at


id: glossary-of-clinical-research-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-4.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of clinical research
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research
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In clinical trials, an event or outcome that can be measured objectively to determine whether the intervention being studied is beneficial. The endpoints of a clinical trial are usually included in the study objectives. Some examples of endpoints are survival, improvements in quality of life, relief of symptoms, and disappearance of the tumor. (NCI) Overall outcome that the protocol is designed to evaluate. Common endpoints are severe toxicity, disease progression, or death. (NLM) Enrolling The act of signing up participants into a study. Generally this process involves evaluating a participant with respect to the eligibility criteria of the study and going through the informed consent process. (NLM) Epidemiology The branch of medical science that deals with the study of incidence and distribution and control of a disease in a population. (NLM) The study of the patterns, causes, and control of disease in groups of people. (NCI) Equivalence trial A trial with the primary objective of showing that the response to two or more treatments differs by an amount which is clinically unimportant. This is usually demonstrated by showing that the true treatment difference is likely to lie between a lower and an upper equivalence margin of clinically acceptable differences. (ICH


id: glossary-of-clinical-research-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-5.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of clinical research
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research
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An individual who is or becomes a participant in research, either as a recipient of the test article or as a control. A subject may be either a healthy human or a patient. (21CFR50.3) Hypothesis A supposition or assumption advanced as a basis for reasoning or argument, or as a guide to experimental investigation. (NLM) == I == Impartial Witness A person, who is independent of the trial, who cannot be unfairly influenced by people involved with the trial, who attends the informed consent process if the subject or the subject's legally acceptable representative cannot read, and who reads the informed consent form and any other written information supplied to the subject. (ICH E6) In vitro In the laboratory (outside the body). The opposite of in vivo (in the body). (NCI) In vivo In the body. The opposite of in vitro (outside the body or in the laboratory). (NCI) Incidence The number of new cases of a disease diagnosed each year. (NCI) Inclusion/exclusion criteria The medical or social standards determining whether a person may or may not be allowed to enter a clinical trial. These criteria are based on such factors as age, gender, the type and stage of a


id: glossary-of-clinical-research-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-6.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of clinical research
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research
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Analysis of clinical trial results that includes all data from participants in the groups to which they were randomized even if they never received the treatment. (NLM) The principle that asserts that the effect of a treatment policy can be best assessed by evaluating on the basis of the intention to treat a subject (i.e. the planned treatment regimen) rather than the actual treatment given. It has the consequence that subjects allocated to a treatment group should be followed up, assessed and analysed as members of that group irrespective of their compliance to the planned course of treatment. (ICH E9) Interaction (Qualitative & Quantitative) The situation in which a treatment contrast (e.g. difference between investigational product and control) is dependent on another factor (e.g. centre). A quantitative interaction refers to the case where the magnitude of the contrast differs at the different levels of the factor, whereas for a qualitative interaction the direction of the contrast differs for at least one level of the factor. (ICH E9) Inter-rater reliability The property of yielding equivalent results when used by different raters on different occasions. (ICH E9) Interim analysis Any analysis intended to compare treatment arms with respect to efficacy or safety


id: glossary-of-clinical-research-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-7.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of clinical research
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research
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The act of overseeing the progress of a clinical trial, and of ensuring that it is conducted, recorded, and reported in accordance with the protocol, standard operating procedures (SOPs), GCP, and the applicable regulatory requirement(s). (ICH E6) Multicenter study A clinical trial that is carried out at more than one medical institution. (NCI) A clinical trial conducted according to a single protocol but at more than one site, and, therefore, carried out by more than one investigator. (ICH E6 and ICH E9) Multidisciplinary opinion A treatment planning approach in which a number of doctors who are experts in different specialties (disciplines) review and discuss the medical condition and treatment options of a patient. (NCI) Multiplicity A large number or variety. (NCI) == N == National Institutes of Health NIH. A federal agency in the U.S. that conducts biomedical research in its own laboratories; supports the research of non-Federal scientists in universities, medical schools, hospitals, and research institutions throughout the country and abroad; helps in the training of research investigators; and fosters communication of medical information. Access the National Institutes of Health Web site at http://www.nih.gov. Also called NIH. (NCI) Natural history study A study that follows a group of people


id: glossary-of-clinical-research-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-8.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of clinical research
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research
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parent: glossary-of-clinical-research-20260505-0
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The first step in testing a new treatment in humans. These studies test the best way to give a new treatment (for example, by mouth, intravenous infusion, or injection) and the best dose. The dose is usually increased a little at a time in order to find the highest dose that does not cause harmful side effects. Because little is known about the possible risks and benefits of the treatments being tested, phase I trials usually include only a small number of patients who have not been helped by other treatments. (NCI) Initial studies to determine the metabolism and pharmacologic actions of drugs in humans, the side effects associated with increasing doses, and to gain early evidence of effectiveness; may include healthy participants and/or patients. (NLM) Phase 1 includes the initial introduction of an investigational new drug into humans. Phase 1 studies are typically closely monitored and may be conducted in patients or normal volunteer subjects. These studies are designed to determine the metabolism and pharmacologic actions of the drug in humans, the side effects associated with increasing doses, and, if possible, to gain early evidence on effectiveness. During Phase 1, sufficient information about the drug's pharmacokinetics and pharmacological effects


id: glossary-of-clinical-research-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-9.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of clinical research
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research
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Refers to the testing of experimental drugs in the test tube or in animals - the testing that occurs before trials in humans may be carried out. (NLM) Research using animals to find out if a drug, procedure, or treatment is likely to be useful. Preclinical studies take place before any testing in humans is done. (NCI) Predictive factor A situation or condition that may increase a person's risk of developing a certain disease or disorder. (NCI) Prevention In medicine, action taken to decrease the chance of getting a disease or condition. (NCI) Prevention trials Refers to trials to find better ways to prevent disease in people who have never had the disease or to prevent a disease from returning. These approaches may include medicines, vaccines, vitamins, minerals, or lifestyle changes. (NLM) Preventive Used to prevent disease. (NCI) Primary endpoint The main result that is measured at the end of a study to see if a given treatment worked (e.g., the number of deaths or the difference in survival between the treatment group and the control group). What the primary endpoint will be is decided before the study begins. (NCI) Prospective In medicine, a study or clinical trial in which


id: glossary-of-clinical-research-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-10.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of clinical research
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research
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A study that compares two groups of people: those with the disease or condition under study (cases) and a very similar group of people who do not have the disease or condition (controls). Researchers study the medical and lifestyle histories of the people in each group to learn what factors may be associated with the disease or condition. For example, one group may have been exposed to a particular substance that the other was not. Also called a case-control study. (NCI) Risk-benefit ratio The risk to individual participants versus the potential benefits. The risk/benefit ratio may differ depending on the condition being treated. (NLM) == S == Safety & tolerability The safety of a medical product concerns the medical risk to the subject, usually assessed in a clinical trial by laboratory tests (including clinical chemistry and haematology), vital signs, clinical adverse events (diseases, signs and symptoms), and other special safety tests (e.g. ECGs, ophthalmology). The tolerability of the medical product represents the degree to which overt adverse effects can be tolerated by the subject. (ICH E9) Screening trials Refers to trials which test the best way to detect certain diseases or health conditions. (NLM) Selection bias An error in choosing


id: glossary-of-clinical-research-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research-11.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of clinical research
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_clinical_research
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The primary investigative techniques used in an observational protocol; types are Purpose, Duration, Selection, and Timing. (NLM) Subinvestigator Any individual member of the clinical trial team designated and supervised by the investigator at a trial site to perform critical trial-related procedures and/or to make important trial-related decisions (e.g., associates, residents, research fellows). (ICH E6) Subject Identification Code A unique identifier assigned by the investigator to each trial subject to protect the subject's identity and used in lieu of the subject's name when the investigator reports adverse events and/or other trial-related data. (ICH E6) Subject/Trial Subject An individual who participates in a clinical trial, either as a recipient of the investigational product(s) or as a control. (ICH E6) Superiority trial A trial with the primary objective of showing that the response to the investigational product is superior to a comparative agent (active or placebo control). (ICH E9) Surrogate variable A variable that provides an indirect measurement of effect in situations where direct measurement of clinical effect is not feasible or practical. (ICH E9) == T == Test article Any drug (including a biological product for human use), medical device for human use, human food additive, color additive, electronic product, or any


id: glossary-of-computer-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-0.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of computer science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:43.180793+00:00
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This glossary of computer science is a list of definitions of terms and concepts used in computer science, its sub-disciplines, and related fields, including terms relevant to software, data science, and computer programming. == A == abstract data type (ADT) A mathematical model for data types in which a data type is defined by its behavior (semantics) from the point of view of a user of the data, specifically in terms of possible values, possible operations on data of this type, and the behavior of these operations. This contrasts with data structures, which are concrete representations of data from the point of view of an implementer rather than a user. abstract method One with only a signature and no implementation body. It is often used to specify that a subclass must provide an implementation of the method. Abstract methods are used to specify interfaces in some computer languages. abstraction 1. In software engineering and computer science, the process of removing physical, spatial, or temporal details or attributes in the study of objects or systems in order to more closely attend to other details of interest; it is also very similar in nature to the process of generalization. 2. The result


id: glossary-of-computer-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-1.md
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title: Glossary of computer science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science
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assertion In computer programming, a statement that a predicate (Boolean-valued function, i.e. a true–false expression) is always true at that point in code execution. It can help a programmer read the code, help a compiler compile it, or help the program detect its own defects. For the latter, some programs check assertions by actually evaluating the predicate as they run and if it is not in fact true – an assertion failure – the program considers itself to be broken and typically deliberately crashes or throws an assertion failure exception. associative array An associative array, map, symbol table, or dictionary is an abstract data type composed of a collection of (key, value) pairs, such that each possible key appears at most once in the collection. Operations associated with this data type allow: the addition of a pair to the collection the removal of a pair from the collection the modification of an existing pair the lookup of a value associated with a particular key automata theory The study of abstract machines and automata, as well as the computational problems that can be solved using them. It is a theory in theoretical computer science and discrete mathematics (a subject of study


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-2.md
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title: Glossary of computer science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science
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Boolean data type A data type that has one of two possible values (usually denoted true and false), intended to represent the two truth values of logic and Boolean algebra. It is named after George Boole, who first defined an algebraic system of logic in the mid-19th century. The Boolean data type is primarily associated with conditional statements, which allow different actions by changing control flow depending on whether a programmer-specified Boolean condition evaluates to true or false. It is a special case of a more general logical data type (see propositional logic)—i.e. logic need not always be Boolean. Boolean expression An expression used in a programming language that returns a Boolean value when evaluated, that is one of true or false. A Boolean expression may be composed of a combination of the Boolean constants true or false, Boolean-typed variables, Boolean-valued operators, and Boolean-valued functions. Boolean algebra In mathematics and mathematical logic, the branch of algebra in which the values of the variables are the truth values true and false, usually denoted 1 and 0, respectively. Contrary to elementary algebra, where the values of the variables are numbers and the prime operations are addition and multiplication, the main operations of


id: glossary-of-computer-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-3.md
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title: Glossary of computer science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science
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coding Computer programming is the process of designing and building an executable computer program for accomplishing a specific computing task. Programming involves tasks such as analysis, generating algorithms, profiling algorithms' accuracy and resource consumption, and the implementation of algorithms in a chosen programming language (commonly referred to as coding). The source code of a program is written in one or more programming languages. The purpose of programming is to find a sequence of instructions that will automate the performance of a task for solving a given problem. The process of programming thus often requires expertise in several different subjects, including knowledge of the application domain, specialized algorithms, and formal logic. coding theory The study of the properties of codes and their respective fitness for specific applications. Codes are used for data compression, cryptography, error detection and correction, data transmission and data storage. Codes are studied by various scientific disciplines—such as information theory, electrical engineering, mathematics, linguistics, and computer science—for the purpose of designing efficient and reliable data transmission methods. This typically involves the removal of redundancy and the correction or detection of errors in the transmitted data. cognitive science The interdisciplinary, scientific study of the mind and its processes. It


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-4.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of computer science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science
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computer architecture A set of rules and methods that describe the functionality, organization, and implementation of computer systems. Some definitions of architecture define it as describing the capabilities and programming model of a computer but not a particular implementation. In other definitions computer architecture involves instruction set architecture design, microarchitecture design, logic design, and implementation. computer data storage Also simply storage or memory. A technology consisting of computer components and recording media that are used to retain digital data. Data storage is a core function and fundamental component of all modern computer systems. computer ethics A part of practical philosophy concerned with how computing professionals should make decisions regarding professional and social conduct. computer graphics Pictures and films created using computers. Usually, the term refers to computer-generated image data created with the help of specialized graphical hardware and software. It is a vast and recently developed area of computer science. computer network Also data network. A digital telecommunications network which allows nodes to share resources. In computer networks, computing devices exchange data with each other using connections (data links) between nodes. These data links are established over cable media such as wires or optic cables, or wireless media such as


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-5.md
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title: Glossary of computer science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science
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cryptography Or cryptology, is the practice and study of techniques for secure communication in the presence of third parties called adversaries. More generally, cryptography is about constructing and analyzing protocols that prevent third parties or the public from reading private messages; various aspects in information security such as data confidentiality, data integrity, authentication, and non-repudiation are central to modern cryptography. Modern cryptography exists at the intersection of the disciplines of mathematics, computer science, electrical engineering, communication science, and physics. Applications of cryptography include electronic commerce, chip-based payment cards, digital currencies, computer passwords, and military communications. CSV See comma-separated values. cyberbullying Also cyberharassment or online bullying. A form of bullying or harassment using electronic means. cyberspace Widespread, interconnected digital technology. == D == daemon In multitasking computer operating systems, a daemon ( or ) is a computer program that runs as a background process, rather than being under the direct control of an interactive user. Traditionally, the process names of a daemon end with the letter d, for clarification that the process is in fact a daemon, and for differentiation between a daemon and a normal computer program. For example, syslogd is a daemon that implements system logging facility, and sshd


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-6.md
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title: Glossary of computer science
tags: science, encyclopedia
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disk storage (Also sometimes called drive storage) is a general category of storage mechanisms where data is recorded by various electronic, magnetic, optical, or mechanical changes to a surface layer of one or more rotating disks. A disk drive is a device implementing such a storage mechanism. Notable types are the hard disk drive (HDD) containing a non-removable disk, the floppy disk drive (FDD) and its removable floppy disk, and various optical disc drives (ODD) and associated optical disc media. distributed computing A field of computer science that studies distributed systems. A distributed system is a system whose components are located on different networked computers, which communicate and coordinate their actions by passing messages to one another. The components interact with one another in order to achieve a common goal. Three significant characteristics of distributed systems are: concurrency of components, lack of a global clock, and independent failure of components. Examples of distributed systems vary from SOA-based systems to massively multiplayer online games to peer-to-peer applications. divide and conquer algorithm An algorithm design paradigm based on multi-branched recursion. A divide-and-conquer algorithm works by recursively breaking down a problem into two or more sub-problems of the same or related type, until


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_computer_science-7.md
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title: Glossary of computer science
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executable Also executable code, executable file, executable program, or simply executable. Causes a computer "to perform indicated tasks according to encoded instructions," as opposed to a data file that must be parsed by a program to be meaningful. The exact interpretation depends upon the use - while "instructions" is traditionally taken to mean machine code instructions for a physical CPU, in some contexts a file containing bytecode or scripting language instructions may also be considered executable. execution In computer and software engineering is the process by which a computer or virtual machine executes the instructions of a computer program. Each instruction of a program is a description of a particular action which to be carried out in order for a specific problem to be solved; as instructions of a program and therefore the actions they describe are being carried out by an executing machine, specific effects are produced in accordance to the semantics of the instructions being executed. exception handling The process of responding to the occurrence, during computation, of exceptions – anomalous or exceptional conditions requiring special processing – often disrupting the normal flow of program execution. It is provided by specialized programming language constructs, computer hardware mechanisms like


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title: Glossary of computer science
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global variable In computer programming, a variable with global scope, meaning that it is visible (hence accessible) throughout the program, unless shadowed. The set of all global variables is known as the global environment or global state. In compiled languages, global variables are generally static variables, whose extent (lifetime) is the entire runtime of the program, though in interpreted languages (including command-line interpreters), global variables are generally dynamically allocated when declared, since they are not known ahead of time. graph theory In mathematics, the study of graphs, which are mathematical structures used to model pairwise relations between objects. A graph in this context is made up of vertices (also called nodes or points) which are connected by edges (also called links or lines). A distinction is made between undirected graphs, where edges link two vertices symmetrically, and directed graphs, where edges link two vertices asymmetrically. == H == handle In computer programming, a handle is an abstract reference to a resource that is used when application software references blocks of memory or objects that are managed by another system like a database or an operating system. hard problem Computational complexity theory focuses on classifying computational problems according to their inherent


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title: Glossary of computer science
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integer A datum of integral data type, a data type that represents some range of mathematical integers. Integral data types may be of different sizes and may or may not be allowed to contain negative values. Integers are commonly represented in a computer as a group of binary digits (bits). The size of the grouping varies so the set of integer sizes available varies between different types of computers. Computer hardware, including virtual machines, nearly always provide a way to represent a processor register or memory address as an integer. integrated development environment (IDE) A software application that provides comprehensive facilities to computer programmers for software development. An IDE normally consists of at least a source code editor, build automation tools, and a debugger. integration testing (sometimes called integration and testing, abbreviated I&T) is the phase in software testing in which individual software modules are combined and tested as a group. Integration testing is conducted to evaluate the compliance of a system or component with specified functional requirements. It occurs after unit testing and before validation testing. Integration testing takes as its input modules that have been unit tested, groups them in larger aggregates, applies tests defined in an integration


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title: Glossary of computer science
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linker or link editor, is a computer utility program that takes one or more object files generated by a compiler or an assembler and combines them into a single executable file, library file, or another 'object' file. A simpler version that writes its output directly to memory is called the loader, though loading is typically considered a separate process. list An abstract data type that represents a countable number of ordered values, where the same value may occur more than once. An instance of a list is a computer representation of the mathematical concept of a finite sequence; the (potentially) infinite analog of a list is a stream. Lists are a basic example of containers, as they contain other values. If the same value occurs multiple times, each occurrence is considered a distinct item. loader The part of an operating system that is responsible for loading programs and libraries. It is one of the essential stages in the process of starting a program, as it places programs into memory and prepares them for execution. Loading a program involves reading the contents of the executable file containing the program instructions into memory, and then carrying out other required preparatory tasks to


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node Is a basic unit of a data structure, such as a linked list or tree data structure. Nodes contain data and also may link to other nodes. Links between nodes are often implemented by pointers. number theory A branch of pure mathematics devoted primarily to the study of the integers and integer-valued functions. numerical analysis The study of algorithms that use numerical approximation (as opposed to symbolic manipulations) for the problems of mathematical analysis (as distinguished from discrete mathematics). numerical method In numerical analysis, a numerical method is a mathematical tool designed to solve numerical problems. The implementation of a numerical method with an appropriate convergence check in a programming language is called a numerical algorithm. == O == object An object can be a variable, a data structure, a function, or a method, and as such, is a value in memory referenced by an identifier. In the class-based object-oriented programming paradigm, object refers to a particular instance of a class, where the object can be a combination of variables, functions, and data structures. In relational database management, an object can be a table or column, or an association between data and a database entity (such as relating a


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title: Glossary of computer science
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postcondition In computer programming, a condition or predicate that must always be true just after the execution of some section of code or after an operation in a formal specification. Postconditions are sometimes tested using assertions within the code itself. Often, postconditions are simply included in the documentation of the affected section of code. precondition In computer programming, a condition or predicate that must always be true just prior to the execution of some section of code or before an operation in a formal specification. If a precondition is violated, the effect of the section of code becomes undefined and thus may or may not carry out its intended work. Security problems can arise due to incorrect preconditions. primary storage (Also known as main memory, internal memory or prime memory), often referred to simply as memory, is the only one directly accessible to the CPU. The CPU continuously reads instructions stored there and executes them as required. Any data actively operated on is also stored there in uniform manner. primitive data type priority queue An abstract data type which is like a regular queue or stack data structure, but where additionally each element has a "priority" associated with it. In


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title: Glossary of computer science
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reference Is a value that enables a program to indirectly access a particular datum, such as a variable's value or a record, in the computer's memory or in some other storage device. The reference is said to refer to the datum, and accessing the datum is called dereferencing the reference. reference counting A programming technique of storing the number of references, pointers, or handles to a resource, such as an object, a block of memory, disk space, and others. In garbage collection algorithms, reference counts may be used to deallocate objects which are no longer needed. regression testing (rarely non-regression testing) is re-running functional and non-functional tests to ensure that previously developed and tested software still performs after a change. If not, that would be called a regression. Changes that may require regression testing include bug fixes, software enhancements, configuration changes, and even substitution of electronic components. As regression test suites tend to grow with each found defect, test automation is frequently involved. Sometimes a change impact analysis is performed to determine an appropriate subset of tests (non-regression analysis). relational database Is a digital database based on the relational model of data, as proposed by E. F. Codd in 1970.


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title: Glossary of computer science
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semantics In programming language theory, semantics is the field concerned with the rigorous mathematical study of the meaning of programming languages. It does so by evaluating the meaning of syntactically valid strings defined by a specific programming language, showing the computation involved. In such a case that the evaluation would be of syntactically invalid strings, the result would be non-computation. Semantics describes the processes a computer follows when executing a program in that specific language. This can be shown by describing the relationship between the input and output of a program, or an explanation of how the program will be executed on a certain platform, hence creating a model of computation. sequence In mathematics, a sequence is an enumerated collection of objects in which repetitions are allowed and order does matter. Like a set, it contains members (also called elements, or terms). The number of elements (possibly infinite) is called the length of the sequence. Unlike a set, the same elements can appear multiple times at different positions in a sequence, and order does matter. Formally, a sequence can be defined as a function whose domain is either the set of the natural numbers (for infinite sequences) or the set


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software Computer software, or simply software, is a collection of data or computer instructions that tell the computer how to work. This is in contrast to physical hardware, from which the system is built and actually performs the work. In computer science and software engineering, computer software is all information processed by computer systems, programs and data. Computer software includes computer programs, libraries and related non-executable data, such as online documentation or digital media. Computer hardware and software require each other and neither can be realistically used on its own. software agent Is a computer program that acts for a user or other program in a relationship of agency, which derives from the Latin agere (to do): an agreement to act on one's behalf. Such "action on behalf of" implies the authority to decide which, if any, action is appropriate. Agents are colloquially known as bots, from robot. They may be embodied, as when execution is paired with a robot body, or as software such as a chatbot executing on a phone (e.g. Siri) or other computing device. Software agents may be autonomous or work together with other agents or people. Software agents interacting with people (e.g. chatbots, human-robot interaction


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title: Glossary of computer science
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source code In computing, source code is any collection of code, with or without comments, written using a human-readable programming language, usually as plain text. The source code of a program is specially designed to facilitate the work of computer programmers, who specify the actions to be performed by a computer mostly by writing source code. The source code is often transformed by an assembler or compiler into binary machine code that can be executed by the computer. The machine code might then be stored for execution at a later time. Alternatively, source code may be interpreted and thus immediately executed. spiral model Is a risk-driven software development process model. Based on the unique risk patterns of a given project, the spiral model guides a team to adopt elements of one or more process models, such as incremental, waterfall, or evolutionary prototyping. stack Is an abstract data type that serves as a collection of elements, with two main principal operations: push, which adds an element to the collection, and pop, which removes the most recently added element that was not yet removed. The order in which elements come off a stack gives rise to its alternative name, LIFO (last in,


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system console The system console, computer console, root console, operator's console, or simply console is the text entry and display device for system administration messages, particularly those from the BIOS or boot loader, the kernel, from the init system and from the system logger. It is a physical device consisting of a keyboard and a screen, and traditionally is a text terminal, but may also be a graphical terminal. System consoles are generalized to computer terminals, which are abstracted respectively by virtual consoles and terminal emulators. Today communication with system consoles is generally done abstractly, via the standard streams (stdin, stdout, and stderr), but there may be system-specific interfaces, for example those used by the system kernel. == T == technical documentation In engineering, any type of documentation that describes handling, functionality, and architecture of a technical product or a product under development or use. The intended recipient for product technical documentation is both the (proficient) end user as well as the administrator/service or maintenance technician. In contrast to a mere "cookbook" manual, technical documentation aims at providing enough information for a user to understand inner and outer dependencies of the product at hand. third-generation programming language A third-generation programming


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title: Glossary of computer science
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waterfall model A breakdown of project activities into linear sequential phases, where each phase depends on the deliverables of the previous one and corresponds to a specialisation of tasks. The approach is typical for certain areas of engineering design. In software development, it tends to be among the less iterative and flexible approaches, as progress flows in largely one direction ("downwards" like a waterfall) through the phases of conception, initiation, analysis, design, construction, testing, deployment and maintenance. Waveform Audio File Format Also WAVE or WAV due to its filename extension. An audio file format standard, developed by Microsoft and IBM, for storing an audio bitstream on PCs. It is an application of the Resource Interchange File Format (RIFF) bitstream format method for storing data in "chunks", and thus is also close to the 8SVX and the AIFF format used on Amiga and Macintosh computers, respectively. It is the main format used on Microsoft Windows systems for raw and typically uncompressed audio. The usual bitstream encoding is the linear pulse-code modulation (LPCM) format. web crawler Also spider, spiderbot, or simply crawler. An Internet bot that systematically browses the World Wide Web, typically for the purpose of Web indexing (web spidering). Wi-Fi


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-0.md
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title: Glossary of economics
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This glossary of economics is a list of definitions containing terms and concepts used in economics, its sub-disciplines, and related fields. == A == absolute advantage Also called resource cost advantage. The ability of a party (whether an individual, firm, or country) to produce a greater quantity of a good, product, or service than competitors using the same amount of resources. absorption The total demand for all final marketed goods and services by all economic agents resident in an economy, regardless of the origin of the goods and services themselves abandonment of the gold standard The decision by a government to abandon a monetary system in which the standard economic unit of account is based on a fixed quantity of gold. accelerator effect A positive effect on private fixed investment because of the growth of the market economy. Rising GDP usually implies that profit expectations and business confidence rise, encouraging businesses to build more factories and other buildings and to install more machinery. adaptive expectations A hypothetical process by which people form expectations about what will happen in the future based on what has happened in the past. AD–AS model A macroeconomic model that explains price level and output through


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title: Glossary of economics
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arbitrage The practice of taking advantage of a price difference between two or more markets by striking a combination of matching deals that capitalize upon the imbalance, with the profit being the difference between the market prices. Arrow–Debreu model Also called the Arrow–Debreu–McKenzie model or ADM model. A model that suggests there must be a set of prices such that aggregate supplies will equal aggregate demands for every commodity in the economy, given certain assumptions. It can be used to prove the existence of general equilibrium (or Walrasian equilibrium) of an economy. Arrow-Debreu security Also called a state-price security, pure security, or primitive security. A contract that agrees to pay one unit of a numeraire (a currency or a commodity) if a particular state occurs at a particular time in the future and pays zero numeraire in all the other states. Arrow information paradox (AIP) Also called Arrow's disclosure paradox. A problem faced by companies when considering the transfer of intellectual property. A company may wish to sell some information, but it cannot fully describe the capabilities of the information without effectively transferring the information for free. Arrow's impossibility theorem Also called the general possibility theorem or Arrow's paradox. When


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title: Glossary of economics
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balance of payments Also called balance of international payments and abbreviated B.O.P. or BoP. A record or summary of all economic transactions between the residents of a country and the rest of the world in a particular period of time (e.g. over a quarter of a year or, more commonly, over a year). These transactions are made by individuals, firms and government bodies. Thus the balance of payments includes all external visible and non-visible transactions of a country. balance of trade Also called commercial balance or net exports (NX). The difference between the monetary value of a nation's exports and imports over a certain period. Sometimes a distinction is made between a balance of trade for goods versus one for services. "Balance of trade" can be a misleading term because trade measures a flow of exports and imports over a given period of time, rather than a balance of exports and imports at a given point in time. Also, balance of trade does not necessarily imply that exports and imports are "in balance" with each other or anything else. balanced budget A budget in which revenues equal expenditures. Thus, neither a budget deficit nor a budget surplus exists (the accounts


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title: Glossary of economics
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biflation Also called mixflation. A state of the economy in which the processes of inflation and deflation occur simultaneously in different parts of the economy. big push model A concept in development economics or welfare economics that emphasizes that a firm's decision whether to industrialize or not depends on its expectation of what other firms will do. It assumes economies of scale and oligopolistic market structure and explains when industrialization would happen. Birmingham school A school of thought based around opposing the gold standard, advocating for expansionary monetary policy, and belief in underconsumption. Bishop–Cannings theorem A theorem in evolutionary game theory that states that (i) all members of a mixed evolutionarily stable strategy have the same payoff, and (ii) that none of these can also be a pure ESS. Black–Scholes model Also called the Black–Scholes–Merton model. A mathematical model for the dynamics of a financial market containing derivative investment instruments. From the partial differential equation in the model, known as the Black–Scholes equation, one can deduce the Black–Scholes formula, which gives a theoretical estimate of the price of European-style options and shows that the option has a unique price regardless of the risk of the security and its expected return


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title: Glossary of economics
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business cycle Also called the economic cycle or trade cycle. The downward and upward movement of gross domestic product (GDP) around its long-term growth trend. The length of a business cycle is the period of time containing a single boom and contraction in sequence. These fluctuations typically involve shifts over time between periods of relatively rapid economic growth (expansions or booms) and periods of relative stagnation or decline (contractions or recessions). business economics A branch of applied economics which uses economic theory and quantitative methods to analyze business enterprises and the factors contributing to the diversity of organizational structures and the relationships of firms with labour, capital and product markets. business sector Also called the corporate sector or sometimes simply business. The part of the economy made up by companies. It is generally considered a subset of the domestic economy, excluding the economic activities of general government, of private households, and of non-profit organizations serving individuals. == C == Cambridge capital controversy Also called the capital controversy or the two Cambridges debate. A dispute between proponents of two differing theoretical and mathematical positions in economics concerning the nature and role of capital goods and a critique of the neoclassical vision


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cash Money in the physical form of currency, such as banknotes and coins. cash crop A cash crop, also called profit crop, is an agricultural crop which is grown to sell for profit. It is typically purchased by parties separate from a farm. central bank Also called a reserve bank or monetary authority. An institution that manages the currency, money supply, and interest rates of an entire state or nation. Central banks also usually oversee the commercial banking system of their respective countries. In contrast to a commercial bank, a central bank possesses a monopoly on increasing the monetary base in the state, and usually also prints the national currency, which usually serves as the state's legal tender. Central banks also act as a "lender of last resort" to the banking sector during times of financial crisis. Most central banks usually also have supervisory and regulatory powers to ensure the solvency of member institutions, prevent bank runs, and prevent reckless or fraudulent behavior by member banks. Certificate of Deposit (CD or COD) A savings instrument that usually earns more interest than a savings account but is bound by limits set within a contract. ceteris paribus A phrase or clause often


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command economy An economy in which the government directs all economic activity. commerce Relates to "the exchange of goods and services, especially on a large scale". It includes legal, economic, political, social, cultural and technological systems that operate in a country or in international trade. commercial agriculture It is a type of agriculture, both of crop plants and of animals, with higher levels of input and output per unit of agricultural land area. commodity An economic good or service that has full or substantial fungibility: that is, the market treats instances of the good as equivalent or nearly so with no regard to who produced them. communism An ideology centered around common ownership of the means of production, distribution, and exchange that allocates products to everyone in the society based on need. comparative advantage Also called opportunity cost advantage. The ability to produce most efficiently given all of the other products that could be produced. compensating differential Also called compensating wage differential or equalizing difference. The additional amount of income that a given worker must be offered to motivate them to accept a given undesirable job, relative to other jobs that worker could perform. Competition (CD or COD) The presence


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consumption function A mathematical function which describes a relationship between consumption and disposable income. The concept is believed to have been introduced into macroeconomics by John Maynard Keynes in 1936, who used it to develop the notion of a government spending multiplier. contract curve In microeconomics, the contract curve is the set of points representing final allocations of two goods between two people that could occur as a result of mutually beneficial trading between those people given their initial allocations of the goods. All the points on this locus are Pareto efficient allocations, meaning that from any one of these points there is no reallocation that could make one of the people more satisfied with his or her allocation without making the other person less satisfied. The contract curve is the subset of the Pareto efficient points that could be reached by trading from the people's initial holdings of the two goods. contract theory The study of how economic actors can and do construct contractual arrangements, generally in the presence of asymmetric information. Because of its connections with both agency and incentives, contract theory is often categorized within a field known as law and economics. convergence Also called the catch-up


id: glossary-of-economics-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-8.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of economics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics
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parent: glossary-of-economics-20260505-0
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cost-push inflation A purported type of inflation caused by increases in the cost of important goods or services where no suitable alternative is available. As businesses face higher prices for underlying inputs, they are forced to increase prices of their outputs. credit bureau An agency that tracks the credit, employment, and housing history of consumers and assigns them a credit score. credit card A payment card issued to users (cardholders) to enable the cardholder to pay a merchant for goods and services based on the cardholder's promise to the card issuer to pay them at a later time for the cost of the good or service plus other agreed-upon fees and charges. The card issuer (usually a bank) creates a revolving account and grants a line of credit to the cardholder, from which the cardholder can borrow money for payment to a merchant or as a cash advance. credit score A numerical value assigned to a person's potential ability to repay debt. A good credit score in the United States is approximately 700. credit rating An evaluation of the credit risk of a prospective debtor (an individual, business, company, or government), predicting their ability to pay back the debt, and


id: glossary-of-economics-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-9.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of economics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics
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parent: glossary-of-economics-20260505-0
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deficit spending Also called budget deficit or simply deficit. The amount by which spending exceeds revenue over a particular period of time; it is the opposite of budget surplus. The term may be applied to the budget of a government, private company, or individual. deflation A decrease in the general price level of goods and services. Deflation occurs when the inflation rate falls below 0% (a negative inflation rate); though inflation reduces the value of currency over time, deflation increases it. This allows more goods and services to be bought than before with the same amount of currency. Deflation is distinct from disinflation, which occurs when the inflation rate decreases but is still positive. deflator A value that allows data to be measured over time in terms of some base period, usually through a price index, to distinguish between changes in the money value of a gross national product (GNP) that come from a change in prices, and changes from a change in physical output. It is the measure of the price level for some quantity. A deflator serves as a price index in which the effects of inflation are nulled. It is the difference between real and nominal GDP.


id: glossary-of-economics-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-10.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of economics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics
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parent: glossary-of-economics-20260505-0
summary:
discretionary income Money available after one pays taxes and all other necessary expenses like housing and transportation. disequilibrium macroeconomics Also called non-Walrasian theory, equilibrium with rationing, the non-market clearing approach, and non-tâtonnement theory. A tradition of research centered on the role of disequilibrium in economics. disinflation A decrease in the rate of inflation; a slowdown in the rate of increase of the general price level of goods and services in an economy's gross domestic product over time. It is the opposite of reflation. Disinflation is also distinct from deflation, which occurs when the inflation rate is negative. dispersed knowledge The notion that no single agent has information as to all of the factors which influence prices and production throughout the system. disposable income Money available after one pays taxes; income available for personal consumption and saving. disposition effect The tendency to sell an asset that has accumulated in value and resist selling an asset that has declined in value. dissaving Negative saving, which occurs when spending is greater than disposable income. This spending may be financed by already accumulated savings, such as money in a savings account, or it can be borrowed. distribution The way total economic output, income, or


id: glossary-of-economics-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-11.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of economics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:44.577515+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-economics-20260505-0
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economic base analysis A theory that posits that activities in an area divide into two categories: basic and nonbasic. Basic industries are those exporting from the region and bringing wealth from outside, while nonbasic (or service) industries support basic industries. economic calculation problem (ECP) A criticism of using economic planning as a substitute for market-based allocation of the factors of production. It is argued that economy planning necessarily leads to an irrational and inefficient allocation of resources. economic cost The combination of losses of any goods that have a value attached to them by any one individual. Economic cost is used as means to compare the prudence of one course of action with that of another. economic democracy Also called a democratic economy. A socioeconomic philosophy that proposes to shift ownership and decision-making power from corporate shareholders and corporate managers (such as a board of directors) to a larger group of public stakeholders that includes workers, consumers, suppliers, communities and the broader public. economic development Broad improvement in the economic well-being or quality of life of a nation, region, or community, often but not necessarily as a consequence of economic growth. economic efficiency A variety of concepts which denote some


id: glossary-of-economics-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-12.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of economics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics
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parent: glossary-of-economics-20260505-0
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economies of scope The cost advantages that enterprises obtain as a result of the increased efficiency offered by variety rather than by volume, with cost per unit of output decreasing with increasing variety. In economics, "scope" is synonymous with broadening production through diversified products. For example, a gas station that sells gasoline can also sell soda, milk, baked goods, etc. through their customer service representatives, which may make the sale of gasoline more efficient. economist A practitioner in the discipline of economics. economy An area of the production, distribution, trade, and consumption of goods and services by different agents. In its broadest sense, an economy may be defined as "a social domain that emphasizes the practices, discourses, and material expressions associated with the production, use, and management of resources". Edgeworth box Also called an Edgeworth-Bowley box. A graphical representation of a market with just two commodities, X and Y, and two consumers. The dimensions of the box are the total quantities Ωx and Ωy of the two goods. Edgeworth paradox A situation in which two players cannot reach a state of equilibrium with pure strategies, i.e. each charging a stable price. It was proposed to solve the Bertrand paradox. Edgeworth's


id: glossary-of-economics-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-13.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of economics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics
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equilibrium The point at which quantity demanded and quantity supplied are equal and both consumer and producer are satisfied. equilibrium price The market price at which both the supplier and consumer will trade and both are satisfied. equity Also called economic equality. The concept or idea of fairness in economics, particularly in regard to taxation or welfare economics. More specifically, it may refer to equal life chances regardless of identity, to provide all citizens with a basic and equal minimum of income, goods, and services or to increase funds and commitment for redistribution. equity home bias puzzle The fact that individuals and institutions in most countries hold only modest amounts of foreign equity, and tend to strongly favor company stock from their home nation. This finding is regarded as puzzling, since ample evidence shows equity portfolios obtain substantial benefits from diversification into global stocks. equity premium puzzle The inability of an important class of economic models to explain the average equity risk premium provided by a diversified portfolio of equities over that of government bonds, which has been observed for more than 100 years. ergodicity economics A research programme aimed at reworking the theoretical foundations of economics around the concept


id: glossary-of-economics-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-14.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of economics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics
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finance The study of money and how it is used. Specifically, it deals with the questions of how an individual, company, or government acquires the money needed—called capital in the company context—and how they then spend or invest that money. Finance is often split into three areas: personal finance, corporate finance, and public finance. At the same time, finance is about the overall "system", i.e. the financial markets that allow the flow of money, via investments and other financial instruments, between and within these areas; this "flow" is facilitated by the financial services sector. A major focus within finance is thus investment management—called money management for individuals, and asset management for institutions—and finance then includes the associated activities of securities trading, investment banking, financial engineering, and risk management. financial deepening financial economics financial institution Any firm, such as a bank, that is in the business of holding money for those who save and lending money to those who need loans. financial markets Markets where people trade the property rights to assets (like real estate or stocks) or where savers lend money to borrowers. financial planning A series of steps used by a person or a firm to achieve a financial


id: glossary-of-economics-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-15.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of economics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics
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history of economic thought The study of the history of the philosophies of the different thinkers and theories in the subject known today as economics, from ancient economic thought to contemporary economic thought. Hodrick–Prescott filter Holmström's theorem home bias in trade puzzle home bias puzzle homo economicus Hotelling's law Hotelling's lemma hourglass economy household The sector of the economy which purchases goods from the product market and sells labor, land, and entrepreneurship ability to the factor market in the circular flow market. housing starts The number of new houses being built during a period of time. Huff model human capital The knowledge and skills that people use to help them produce output. human capital flight humanistic economics hyperinflation Inflation which occurs at an extremely high rate, usually in excess of 20 or 30 per cent per month. == I == Icarus paradox immiserizing growth implicit cost import import substitution industrialization import quota impossible trinity imputation Inada conditions incentive income income distribution income effect The change in consumption resulting from a change in income. income elasticity of demand (YED) Measures the sensitivity of a good's demand to income. Income tax A tax levied on income, weather being on an individual or


id: glossary-of-economics-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-16.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of economics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics
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leprechaun economics Distortion of national accounts data by corporate tax schemes. Lerman ratio Lerner index An index ranging from 0 to 1 that measures a firm's market power given the price it sets and its marginal cost. Lerner paradox Lerner symmetry theorem Lewis–Mogridge position liability Financial responsibility for something. liberal paradox limit price loan local multiplier effect Also called the local premium The additional economic benefit accrued to a geographic area from money being spent in the local economy. local tax Any tax paid to a city or county, e.g. sales taxes, school taxes, or property taxes. location model long run long-run shutdown condition A situation where a firm's total revenues exceed its variable costs but are less than its total costs. The firm continues to operate until its fixed cost contracts expire. long-term financing LoopCo loose money policy A monetary policy that makes credit inexpensive and abundant, possibly leading to inflation. Lorenz curve loss aversion Lucas critique Lucas paradox Lundberg lag luxury good == M == macroeconomic model macroeconomic policy instruments macroeconomic populism macroeconomic regulation and control macroeconomics The study of the economy as a whole, concentrating on economy-wide factors such as interest rates, inflation, and unemployment. Macroeconomics also


id: glossary-of-economics-20260505-17
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-17.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of economics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics
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monopoly A firm with no competitors in its industry. A monopoly firm produces less output, has higher costs, and sells its output for a higher price than it would if constrained by competition. monopsony moral hazard mortgage motivation moving equilibrium theorem multiplier multiplier uncertainty Any lack of perfect knowledge of the multiplier effect of a particular policy action, such as a monetary or fiscal policy change, upon the intended target of the policy. Mundell–Fleming model mutual fund mutual fund separation theorem mutualism == N == Nakamura number Nash equilibrium national average salary national income and product accounts national income policy agreement national tax Any tax paid to a national or federal government, e.g. income tax, tariffs, and social security taxes. national wealth The total value of capital and private property that is owned within a country. natural monopoly An industry in which one large producer can produce output at a lower cost than many small producers. It undersells its rivals and ends up as the only firm surviving in its industry. natural resource economics need Any good or service that is fundamentally necessary for survival, such as food, clothing, and shelter. Neoclassical economics Neoclassical synthesis Neoliberalism Neo-Ricardianism Neo-Schumpeterian economics net


id: glossary-of-economics-20260505-18
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-18.md
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title: Glossary of economics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics
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price elasticity of demand (PED) Measures the sensitivity of a good's demand to its price. price elasticity of supply (PES) Measures the sensitivity of a good's supply to its price. price floor A market intervention in which the government keeps the price of a good or service above its free-market price. price index A normalized average of price relatives for a given class of goods or services in a given region and during a given period of time. It is a statistic designed to help to compare how these price relatives, taken as a whole, differ between geographical locations or time periods. Notable price indices include consumer price index, producer price index, and GDP deflator. price level price point price–specie flow mechanism price war pricing pricing science The application of social and business science methods to the problem of setting prices. primary economic activity An economic activity which is focused on the extraction of natural resources of the earth. prime rate Also called the prime lending rate. The interest rate at which a bank will agree to lend to customers with good credit. Floating interest rates are often expressed as a percentage above or below the prime rate. principal–agent problem


id: glossary-of-economics-20260505-19
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-19.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of economics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics
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resource market (Also known as a factor market.) In the circular flow model, the sector which facilitates resources from household to firms in return for income payment. retail sales Purchases of finished goods and services by households and firms. returns to scale revealed comparative advantage revealed preference revenue Total income from sales of output. Revolving Credit Revolving credit is a line of credit that remains available over time, even if the balance is paid in full. Borrowers can access credit up to a certain amount and then have ongoing access to that amount. Ricardian economics Ricardian equivalence Ricardian socialism rights right to work law A state law forbidding labor unions from forcing workers to join and pay union dues. risk aversion risk premium risk-return relationship The direct relationship between the risk of an investment and its expected return or profit; the higher the risk, the higher the opportunity for gain or loss and vice versa. rivalry Robin Hood effect Robinson Crusoe economy Robustness The ability of a financial trading system to remain effective. Rostovian take-off model Rostow's stages of growth Roth 401k A Roth 401(k) is an employer-sponsored retirement savings account that is funded using after-tax dollars. This means that


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-20.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of economics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics
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supply-side economics A theory in macroeconomics which postulates that lowering tax rates, decreasing government regulation, and allowing free trade is the most effective way to foster economic growth because greater supplies of goods and services at lower prices cause employment to increase and consumers to spend more. Contrast demand-side economics. surplus A situation in which supply is greater than demand, usually as the result of high prices. == T == tableau économique tatonnement tariff Also called duty. A tax imposed by the government of a country, or by a supranational union of countries or institutions, on imports or exports of goods. Import duties may serve as a source of revenue for the government as well as a form of regulation of foreign trade by taxing foreign products to encourage or safeguard domestic industries that produce the same or similar products. Along with import and export quotas, tariffs are among the most commonly used instruments of protectionism. tax tax-benefit model tax benefits of debt tax credit tax deduction tax rate taxable income The amount of income that is subject to being taxed. This amount may or may not be the total gross income of a person or firm. Taylor rule technological


id: glossary-of-economics-20260505-21
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics-21.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of economics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_economics
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parent: glossary-of-economics-20260505-0
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wealth The abundance of valuable financial assets or physical possessions which can be converted into a form that can be used for transactions. This includes the core meaning as held in the originating old English word weal, which is from an Indo-European word stem. The modern concept of wealth is of significance in all areas of economics, especially for growth economics and development economics, yet the meaning of wealth is context-dependent. Individuals or companies possessing a substantial net worth are often referred to as wealthy. Net worth is defined as the current value of one's assets less liabilities (excluding the principal in trust accounts). wealth effect The change in spending that accompanies a change in perceived wealth. Usually the wealth effect is positive: spending changes in the same direction as perceived wealth. welfare A type of government support for the citizens of that society. Welfare may be provided to people of any income level, as with social security (and is then often called a social safety net), but it is usually intended to ensure that people can meet their basic human needs such as food and shelter. Welfare attempts to provide a minimal level of well-being, usually either a free-


id: glossary-of-electrical-and-electronics-engineering-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-0.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:45.907292+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-electrical-and-electronics-engineering-20260505-0
summary:
This glossary of electrical and electronics engineering is a list of definitions of terms and concepts related specifically to electrical engineering and electronics engineering. For terms related to engineering in general, see Glossary of engineering. == A == AC adapter An external power supply for portable devices that allows them to operate from wall-socket electricity. AC power plugs and sockets Electrical connectors used with alternating current. AC power Electric power where the current reverses direction periodically. AC-to-DC conversion (rectifier) Rectification of AC current, so that current flows in only one direction. AC-to-AC converter A power converter where the input and output are both in the form of alternating current (AC), but may differ in frequency or other characteristics. AC/DC receiver design A radio receiver that can operate from either alternating current or direct current wall socket power. active rectification A circuit where rectifier devices are externally controlled to change AC to current flowing in one direction. actuator An end device of a control system that manipulates a physical variable such as a valve opening or the position of a machine part. adaptive control A control strategy where parameters are adjusted as the controlled process changes. additive white Gaussian noise A


id: glossary-of-electrical-and-electronics-engineering-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-1.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:45.907292+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-electrical-and-electronics-engineering-20260505-0
summary:
automatic gain control A circuit that automatically adjusts the magnitude of a signal to prevent it from becoming too small or too large. automatic transfer switch An electrical switch used to automatically select a standby source of electrical power when the principal source is lost. automation Automatic control of a process. autorecloser A circuit protection device for overhead power distribution lines which briefly interrupts a circuit when a fault is detected, then restores the circuit in the expectation the fault has cleared. autotransformer A transformer where the primary and secondary circuits share some of the transformer windings. availability factor The fraction of time that a power plant is available to produce power. avalanche diode A diode intended for regular operation in the reverse, avalanche breakdown, mode. Used as a voltage reference, noise source, and in certain classes of microwave oscillator device. average rectified value The average value of an alternating current waveform, taking the absolute value of the waveform. The average value is generally different from the root-mean-square value. == B == backward wave oscillator A type of micowave oscillator vacuum tube. balanced line A transmission line with two conductors, with equal impedances to earth ground. ball bearing motor A


id: glossary-of-electrical-and-electronics-engineering-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-2.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:45.907292+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-electrical-and-electronics-engineering-20260505-0
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Category 3 cable A performance standard for unshielded twisted pair cables for analog voice and low speed data circuits within a building. Category 5e cable A performance standard for unshielded twisted pair cables for telephone and data within a building. Category 6 cable A performance standard for unshielded twisted pair cables for telephone and high speed data within a building. catenary A geometric form of curve, the shape of a uniform cable hanging between two supports. cathode ray oscilloscope An electronic instrument that displays the wave shape of electrical signals on a cathode ray tube. cathode ray tube A vacuum tube that relies on an electron beam – usually used to render images on a fluorescent screen such as in television sets. cathode The terminal of an electrochemical or electronic device from which conventional current exits the device. cat's-whisker detector A radio detector that uses a manually-set "whisker" contact to a crystal of galena or other material, to form a rectifying junction. CATV Cable television, distribution of television programming over a wire instead of by radio broadcast. cavity magnetron A vacuum tube that is a high power microwave oscillator, using a resonant cavity and electrons traveling through a magnetic field.


id: glossary-of-electrical-and-electronics-engineering-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-3.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:45.907292+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-electrical-and-electronics-engineering-20260505-0
summary:
consumer electronics Electronic devices intended to be owned by consumers directly; a mobile cell phone is "consumer electronics" but the cell site it communicates with is not. contactor An automatically controlled electrical switch (relay), used to operate motors or other high-current loads. continuous Fourier transform A mathematical operation that expresses a signal in time as the sum of its frequency components. continuous signal A signal that can take any value within its range. control engineering The application of control theory to practical problems. control system The equipment used to adjust some parameter of an ongoing process to regulate its behavior to a desired goal, such as positioning a disk drive head or regulating temperature of a furnace. control theory The mathematical study of behavior of control systems. controllability In control theory, the degree to which a system can be put into any desired state given manipulation of one variable. controller A system that adjusts some variable to control a process. copper cable certification The process of testing a computer network cable installation to verify that it meets standards. copper loss That portion of an electric machine or transformer's loss attributed to the resistance of conductors (which are not necessarily made


id: glossary-of-electrical-and-electronics-engineering-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-4.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:45.907292+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-electrical-and-electronics-engineering-20260505-0
summary:
discrete-time signal A signal represented as a time series of samples taken at regular intervals. displacement current The effect of a time-varying electric field, which induces a magnetic field just as the motion of electrical charges does. display device Any device that displays data from an information system, such as a watch readout or an automatic scoreboard. dissipation The loss of energy in a system, such as dielectric loss in a capacitor. dissolved gas analysis A technique for fault detection in oil-filled transformers. distributed control system A control system in which significant parts of the control process are decentralized. distributed-element model An analysis of an electric circuit where capacitance, inductance, and resistance are distributed along the circuit, as in a transmission line, not concentrated in lumped components. distributed generation An electrical grid where multiple small sources contribute energy, instead of relatively few large central generating stations. distribution board A piece of electrical switchgear which distributes electric power to multiple branch circuits. distribution transformer A power transformer, usually used to change the utility distribution voltage to a lower voltage for use on the customer premises. Dolby A trademark for a noise reduction technique for analog sound recordings. dot convention A system


id: glossary-of-electrical-and-electronics-engineering-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-5.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:45.907292+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-electrical-and-electronics-engineering-20260505-0
summary:
electrical grid A geographically distributed system to connect sources and users of electric power. electrical impedance That property of a circuit that resists the passage of electric current, usually in the context of alternating current. electrical insulation paper A grade of paper used for insulation of transformers, electrical machines, capacitors, and some cables. electrical insulation A material that resists electrical current flow. electrical load A consumer of electrical energy, turning it into light, heat, mechanical power, data, or chemical changes. electrical machine Any apparatus that converts between electrical power and mechanical power, such as a motor or generator. electrical measurements That branch of metrology concerned with electrical quantities. electrical network A network of electrical components and conductors. electrical polarity Identification of electrical terminals where current is flowing in the same direction relative to the device. electrical steel Any of several types of steel used for manufacturing the magnetic field components of machines and transformers. electrical substation A facility connecting a distribution network to a transmission network, usually with one or more transformers. electrical technologist A specialist in applying electrical theory and technique to practical problems. electrical wiring regulations The legal framework for electrical installations in buildings. electrical wiring The installation


id: glossary-of-electrical-and-electronics-engineering-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-6.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:45.907292+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-electrical-and-electronics-engineering-20260505-0
summary:
equivalent impedance transforms A mathematical method to determine values of an equivalent circuit. error correction and detection Techniques used to improve reliability of computer memory or communications channels by including extra information along with the desired data. exponential stability A system that settles to a steady state after a disturbance, at a rate proportional to exponential time. extended Kalman filter A strategy for estimating an unknown value in a non-linear system by combining multiple measurements. == F == farad The SI unit of capacitance. Faraday shield A solid conductive shield around a volume, which blocks electromagnetic fields. Faraday–Lenz law One of Maxwell's equations, describing the relation between a changing magnetic field and production of an electromotive force. Faraday's law of induction The relation between a changing magnetic field and the resulting voltage produced in a closed path. fast Fourier transform A digital algorithm to analyze a time series of sampled data into a set of sine and cosine frequency components. fault A short circuit, open circuit, or other disruption of a power system. fax Also facsimile. The transmission of paper images by radio or by wire. feed forward A control system that adjusts the controlled variable based on a model


id: glossary-of-electrical-and-electronics-engineering-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-7.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:45.907292+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-electrical-and-electronics-engineering-20260505-0
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generator In circuit theory, an ideal voltage source or an ideal current source, whose properties are independent of the connected circuit. governor A speed regulator for a machine such as a steam engine; an early important feedback control cybernetic system. grid energy storage Any system tied to an electrical grid that stores electrical energy at low demand times and releases it to meet peak loads; it might be a centralized station like a pumped-storage hydroelectric plant, or might be distributed over many customer sites such as by the use of electric vehicle batteries. grid-tie inverter A power inverter that allows synchronization with the electrical grid for export of energy surplus to the facility's needs. ground A reference point for electrical potential; often connected to the Earth. ground and neutral Protective and circuit return conductors in a wiring system. ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) See residual-current device. ground-level power supply A system for providing powers for electric trams without overhead wires and without a permanently energized third rail. growler A test instrument that is used to diagnose some faults with AC motors. GSM The second generation of cellular mobile phone technology, deployed since 1991 in Europe. Gunn diode A two-terminal solid-state


id: glossary-of-electrical-and-electronics-engineering-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-8.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:45.907292+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-electrical-and-electronics-engineering-20260505-0
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image processing Electronic recording, storage, alteration, and reproduction of pictures. impulse response The response of a network to a sudden narrow pulse input. incandescent light bulb A device that uses a fine wire filament heated by an electric current to produce visible light (with heat usually produced as a byproduct). induction coil An early name for a transformer; or a type of transformer intended for high-voltage uses. induction cooker A cooking appliance that heats pots with magnetic fields by electromagnetic induction. induction generator A type of generator where the rotating field winding is excited by induction from the stationary armature winding. induction motor A type of motor where the rotating field winding is excited by induction from the stationary armature winding. induction regulator A type of variable transformer that provides stepless control of the output by changing the coupling between two coils. inductive coupling The transfer of energy between two circuits through a shared magnetic field passing through both. inductive output tube A high-power, high-frequency amplifier tube, in some forms capable of megawatt pulses at hundreds of megahertz. inductor Also coil, choke, or reactor. A passive two-terminal circuit component with a concentrated inductance, usually an insulated wire wound into a


id: glossary-of-electrical-and-electronics-engineering-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-9.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:45.907292+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-electrical-and-electronics-engineering-20260505-0
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Laplace transform A mathematical operation for solution of differential equations by transforming them to the s domain from the time domain. laser diode A semiconductor device that produces coherent laser radiation when properly energized. leakage inductance The inductance of a transformer that results from magnetic flux not linked by both primary and secondary windings. light-emitting diode (LED) A semiconductor device that produces visible, infrared, or ultraviolet light radiation when properly energized. linear alternator An electrical machine that generates electric power from the relative straight-line motion of its parts. linear motor An electrical machine that generates electric force in a straight line by the interaction of its moving parts and magnetic fields. linear variable differential transformer A transducer that produces an electrical signal proportional to the movement between its parts. lineman A specialist technician who installs outdoor plant wiring such as overhead circuits and power transmission lines. Litz wire A kind of stranded wire used to minimize losses in coils. load flow study A mathematical prediction of the flow of electric power in a network, based on a model of the actual or proposed system; necessary for planning of electrical grids. load following power plant A power plant that can economically


id: glossary-of-electrical-and-electronics-engineering-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-10.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:45.907292+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-electrical-and-electronics-engineering-20260505-0
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maximum prospective short-circuit current The calculated value of current that could flow if a short circuit occurred; a parameter for selection of circuit protection devices. Maxwell's equations The fundamental relations between electric and magnetic fields, expressed in concise mathematical form. mechanical rectifier An electromechanical device for converting alternating current to direct current, using sets of contacts which operate in synchronism with the AC. mechatronics Combinations of mechanical systems with electronics for sensing and control. memristor A hypothetical non-linear passive two-terminal electrical component relating electric charge and magnetic flux linkage. mercury-arc rectifier A mercury-arc valve; a vacuum tube device that converts alternating current to direct current by an arc in mercury vapor; displaced by solid-state devices, but formerly much used especially in high-voltage direct current transmission. mercury vapor lamp A lamp that generates light from a discharge struck in mercury vapor; formerly widely used in outdoor lighting, now replaced by lamps with better efficacy. mesh analysis A strategy for solution of the voltage distribution in some types of electrical networks. mesh networking A topology where infrastructure nodes connect to other nodes such as to convey information. Metadyne A DC electric machine with crossed fields and two sets of brushes, used as


id: glossary-of-electrical-and-electronics-engineering-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-11.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:45.907292+00:00
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nameplate capacityThe design power output of a generator, at specified temperature rise. nanoinverterGrid tied inverters rated less than 100 watts, useful for connection of single solar PV panels to a building AC power system. nanotechnologyTechnology that uses devices whose principal dimensions are of the order of a few nanometres. National Electrical CodeThe United States national technical standard for building wiring installation. National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA)A US trade association for electrical manufacturers that also develops technical standards. negative feedbackFeedback from a control system output that tends to oppose the input. negative resistanceA voltage/current characteristic where increasing current leads to decreased voltage drop across the device. negawatt powerIn power grid demand management, that portion of load that can be met by conservation efforts or improved energy efficiency. neon signStrictly, a sign that glows orange because of a discharge through neon gas; less pedantically, any gas discharge tube formed into a sign. neon-sign transformerA high-voltage transformer with features intended to support operation of a neon sign. net meteringA metering plan that allows grid customers with their own generation to be billed only for their net import of energy from the grid. network analyzerAn analog computer system for modelling power grids; displaced now


id: glossary-of-electrical-and-electronics-engineering-20260505-12
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-12.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:45.907292+00:00
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pentagrid converter A type of self-oscillating vacuum tube used a frequency mixer in superheterodyne receivers. pentodeAny five-electrode electron device, but usually a kind of vacuum tube. permanent magnet synchronous generatorAn AC generator that uses a permanent field magnet instead of an electromagnet. permanent magnetA magnet that retains its polarization after an external field is removed. permeabilityThe amount of magnetisation in a material resulting from an applied magnetic field. phase converter Any electrical apparatus that converts power from one system of phases to another system, e.g. the conversion of single-phase power to three-phase. phase-fired controllers An AC power controller that adjusts the effective value of output by switching on at a variable time phase in the AC cycle. phase locked loop An oscillator circuit that produces an output signal that is in a fixed timing relation to a reference input. phase modulationImpressing information on a carrier wave by advancing or delaying the waveform slightly; related to frequency modulation. phasorA vector representing a signal of a given frequency in phase space. phasor measurement unitA system that measures the timing and amplitude of voltages and currents on an electrical grid, synchronized over a wide geographic area; the resulting measurements can be used to


id: glossary-of-electrical-and-electronics-engineering-20260505-13
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-13.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering
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power-line communicationThe impression of carrier waves on a power line circuit for signalling purposes. power MOSFETA metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor suitable for use in circuits handling more than a watt of power. power plantA facility that converts other energy forms into electric power. power ratingThe nominal power that an apparatus or machine can handle, with specified or customary temperature rise and life expectancy. power qualityConformance of an electrical power supply with its specifications. power storageA facility that changes electric power into some form that can be stored and usefully reconverted back to electric power, for example, pumped storage or battery systems. power supplyA subsystem of a computer or other electronic device that turns electric power from a wall plug or batteries into a form suitable for use by the system. power-system automationThe implementation of power-operated switching and control that allows automatic operation of power system elements, instead of manual operation. power-system protectionThe technology of limiting the spread of failures of a power system to a minimum, and of preventing permanent damage to apparatus or conductors by such faults. printed circuit boardAn etched wiring assembly for interconnection of electronic components. printerA device that makes permanent human readable images and


id: glossary-of-electrical-and-electronics-engineering-20260505-14
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-14.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering
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parent: glossary-of-electrical-and-electronics-engineering-20260505-0
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recursive least squares filterAn algorithm for a digital filter system. Reed switchAn electrical switch made of two thin strips of ferromagnetic metal, which touch when subject to a magnetic field. regenerative brakingA braking scheme that returns energy to the source. regenerative circuitA circuit that employs positive feedback; can be an amplifier or an oscillator. relaxation oscillatorAn oscillator that relies on an active device periodically changing state; such oscillators usually produce a square-wave or sawtooth waveform, different from the approximately sinusoidal waveshape of a harmonic oscillator. relayAn electrically operated switch. reluctance motorA type of electric motor that induces non-permanent magnetic poles on the ferromagnetic rotor, relying on varying magnetic reluctance; the rotor carries no windings. remanenceThat portion of the applied magnetic field that the material retains when the external field is removed. remote racking systemA system for inserting circuit breakers into switchgear that allows the operator to stay at a safe distance from any possible arc hazard. remote sensingAcquisition of measurements of an object without contact, for example, measuring soil moisture by radar from an aircraft. renewable electricityElectric power derived from primary energy sources that replenish on a rapid scale or that are not appreciably diminished by human exploitation. renewable energy


id: glossary-of-electrical-and-electronics-engineering-20260505-15
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-15.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:45.907292+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-electrical-and-electronics-engineering-20260505-0
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Sallen–Key filterA family of active filters with a second-order characteristic, first described in 1955. sample and holdA circuit that takes a sample of a changing analog value and holds onto it until the value can be processed by some other stage. samplingThe process of taking a continually varying signal and turning it into a stream of numbers taken at regular intervals. sampling frequencyThe rate at which an analog value is sampled. satelliteA natural or artificial object that circles another, bound only by gravity. satellite radioA radio broadcasting service using signals from an Earth satellite to customer receivers. saturationThat point in the magnetization of a substance where most magnetic domains are aligned with the external field; further increase of the magnetizing force (H) gives only small increase in the magnetization (B). SCADASupervisory Control and Data Acquisition, management of geographically distributed automation systems such as for an electrical grid. scattering parametersA matrix that describes the electrical behavior of linear electrical networks, most prominently the distributed microwave systems. Schmitt triggerA circuit that behaves like a snap-action switch, suddenly changing state as an analog signal increases; displays hysteresis. Schottky diodeA diode that relies on the junction between a semiconductor and a metal. Scott-T transformerA


id: glossary-of-electrical-and-electronics-engineering-20260505-16
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-16.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:45.907292+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-electrical-and-electronics-engineering-20260505-0
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split phase distributionA type of distribution system that uses a center tapped transformer to provide two voltages to a building wiring system. split phase motorA type of single phase motor that uses a resistor, inductor, or capacitor and two windings to obtain a rotating magnetic field. square waveA waveform that spends equal times at the positive and negative peak values with rapid transitions between them. stability theoryThe systematic study of control systems that deals with their response to disturbances. stable polynomialThat class of polynomials representing the transfer functions of stable control systems. stacking factorA measure of the efficiency of filling the space of a machine core or winding; the proportion of active material in any given unit cross section. standing wave ratioA measure of impedance mismatch for transmission lines in microwave engineering; the ratio of peak amplitude of a standing wave to its minimum. star-mesh transformA mathematical technique used in circuit analysis. state observerIn control theory, that which discovers and reports the internal state of a controlled system. state space representationA mathematical technique to represent the internal state of a controlled system as a vector in a Euclidean space. static VAR compensatorA system that adjusts reactive power flow without moving


id: glossary-of-electrical-and-electronics-engineering-20260505-17
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-17.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering
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== T == tachometerAn instrument that measures rotational speed (or angular velocity). tapA connection to a winding at some point between the ends, used to adjust voltage. tap changerA switch that selects which transformer tap is connected to an external circuit; may be manually operated, or power operated; some types can be operated under load for voltage regulation purposes. technical drawingDrawings intended to convey information for construction, operation or maintenance of a system or equipment. telecommunicationThe field that deals with transmission of information over distances longer than can be covered by an unaided human. Telecommunications Industry AssociationA US based trade association that develops technical standards. telegraphA system for transmitting text messages, by wire or other means. telegrapher's equationsCoupled linear partial differential equations that relate the voltage and current on a transmission line. telephone balance unitA balun, a transformer used to convert between balanced and unbalanced lines, as used in telephone circuits. telephone lineOutside plant that connects a central office to subscriber equipment. telephoneTransmission of voice by electrical means. televisionTransmission of moving images by electrical means. Tellegen's theoremA theorem relating to branch currents in an electrical network. teslaThe SI unit of magnetic flux density. Tesla coilA kind of resonant transformer capable


id: glossary-of-electrical-and-electronics-engineering-20260505-18
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-18.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering
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parent: glossary-of-electrical-and-electronics-engineering-20260505-0
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ubiquitous computing A scenario where computer science is made to appear everywhere. ultrasonic motor A motor that relies on a component oscillating at an ultrasonic frequency. ultrasonics Term for the field of study pertaining to pressure oscillations in air or other media that are above the range of human hearing. ultrasound Sound having a frequency above the range of normal human hearing. A portmanteau of the former description of 'ultrasonic sound' undersampling Sampling a signal at less than the Nyquist rate; can produce alias frequencies or other artifacts. unijunction transistor A three terminal semiconductor device with a definite switching characteristic and only one PN junction. unshielded twisted pair Two wires wrapped around each other, but without a conductive cover. upsampling Sampling at greater than the Nyquist rate, which makes filter design easier. utility frequency 60 or 50 cycles per second, used for electric power. utility pole A columnar structure that carries wires for electrical power distribution, cable television, telephone or similar services. == V == vacuum capacitor A capacitor using vacuum as its dielectric; useful at high voltages or radio frequency. vacuum tube An electron device that relies on flow of electrons through a vacuum or low-pressure gas; a valve.


id: glossary-of-electrical-and-electronics-engineering-20260505-19
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering-19.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:45.907292+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-electrical-and-electronics-engineering-20260505-0
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war of the currents The late 19th century commercial dispute on whether AC or DC was the best system for power distribution. Ward Leonard control A speed control system for DC machines using an interconnected generator and motor. watt The SI unit of power, work done per unit time. wattmeter An instrument that measures electrical power. waveguide A tubular structure that guides electromagnetic waves, much used at microwave frequencies; an optical fiber is a kind of optical waveguide. weber The SI unit of magnetic flux. wet transformer In telephone systems, a matching transformer that can operate while carrying a substantial DC "wetting" current. Wien bridge oscillator A type of electronic oscillator that generates sine waves and is based on a bridge circuit. Wiener filter A class of filters used in signal processing, used to fit an estimate to noisy signal data. Williams tube A cathode ray vacuum tube used as an early form of computer memory. wind farm An array of two or more wind turbines, usually sharing a substation. wind power Generation of electricity (sometimes mechanical power) from wind. wind turbine A rotating machine that extracts energy from wind. wire A strand of metal much, much, longer than it


id: glossary-of-engineering-a-l-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_A–L-0.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of engineering: A–L
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_A–L
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:47.362460+00:00
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parent: glossary-of-engineering-a-l-20260505-0
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This glossary of engineering terms is a list of definitions about the major concepts of engineering. Please see the bottom of the page for glossaries of specific fields of engineering. == A == Absolute electrode potentialIn electrochemistry, according to an IUPAC definition, is the electrode potential of a metal measured with respect to a universal reference system (without any additional metal–solution interface). Absolute pressureis zero-referenced against a perfect vacuum, using an absolute scale, so it is equal to gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure. Absolute zeroThe lower limit of the thermodynamic temperature scale, a state at which the enthalpy and entropy of a cooled ideal gas reach their minimum value, taken as 0. Absolute zero is the point at which the fundamental particles of nature have minimal vibrational motion, retaining only quantum mechanical, zero-point energy-induced particle motion. The theoretical temperature is determined by extrapolating the ideal gas law; by international agreement, absolute zero is taken as −273.15° on the Celsius scale (International System of Units), which equals −459.67° on the Fahrenheit scale (United States customary units or Imperial units). The corresponding Kelvin and Rankine temperature scales set their zero points at absolute zero by definition. AbsorbanceAbsorbance or decadic absorbance is the


id: glossary-of-engineering-a-l-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_A–L-1.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of engineering: A–L
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_A–L
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parent: glossary-of-engineering-a-l-20260505-0
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Afocal systemAn optical system that produces no net convergence or divergence of the beam, i.e. has an infinite effective focal length. Agricultural engineeringThe profession of designing machinery, processes, and systems for use in agriculture. AlbedoA measure of the fraction of light reflected from an astronomical body or other object. AlkaneAn alkane, or paraffin (a historical name that also has other meanings), is an acyclic saturated hydrocarbon. In other words, an alkane consists of hydrogen and carbon atoms arranged in a tree structure in which all the carbon–carbon bonds are single. AlkeneAn unsaturated hydrocarbon that contains at least one carbon–carbon double bond. The words alkene and olefin are often used interchangeably. Alkyneis an unsaturated hydrocarbon containing at least one carbon—carbon triple bond. The simplest acyclic alkynes with only one triple bond and no other functional groups form a homologous series with the general chemical formula CnH2n−2. Alloyis a combination of metals or of a metal and another element. Alloys are defined by a metallic bonding character. Alpha particleAlpha particles consist of two protons and two neutrons bound together into a particle identical to a helium-4 nucleus. They are generally produced in the process of alpha decay, but may also be produced


id: glossary-of-engineering-a-l-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_A–L-2.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of engineering: A–L
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_A–L
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parent: glossary-of-engineering-a-l-20260505-0
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It was formulated by Archimedes of Syracuse Area moment of inertiaThe 2nd moment of area, also known as moment of inertia of plane area, area moment of inertia, or second area moment, is a geometrical property of an area which reflects how its points are distributed with regard to an arbitrary axis. The second moment of area is typically denoted with either an I {\displaystyle I} for an axis that lies in the plane or with a J {\displaystyle J} for an axis perpendicular to the plane. In both cases, it is calculated with a multiple integral over the object in question. Its dimension is L (length) to the fourth power. Its unit of dimension when working with the International System of Units is meters to the fourth power, m4. Arithmetic meanIn mathematics and statistics, the arithmetic mean or simply the mean or average when the context is clear, is the sum of a collection of numbers divided by the number of numbers in the collection. Arithmetic progressionIn mathematics, an arithmetic progression (AP) or arithmetic sequence is a sequence of numbers such that the difference between the consecutive terms is constant. Difference here means the second minus the first. For


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file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_A–L-3.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of engineering: A–L
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_A–L
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== B == BarometerA device for measuring pressure. BatteryElectrochemical cells that transform chemical energy into electricity. BaseIn chemistry, bases are substances that, in aqueous solution, release hydroxide (OH−) ions, are slippery to the touch, can taste bitter if an alkali, change the color of indicators (e.g., turn red litmus paper blue), react with acids to form salts, promote certain chemical reactions (base catalysis), accept protons from any proton donor, and/or contain completely or partially displaceable OH− ions. BaudRate at which data is transferred in symbols/second; a symbol may represent one or more bits. BeamA structural element whose length is significantly greater than its width or height. Beer–Lambert lawThe Beer–Lambert law, also known as Beer's law, the Lambert–Beer law, or the Beer–Lambert–Bouguer law relates the attenuation of light to the properties of the material through which the light is travelling. The law is commonly applied to chemical analysis measurements and used in understanding attenuation in physical optics, for photons, neutrons, or rarefied gases. In mathematical physics, this law arises as a solution of the BGK equation. BeltA closed loop of flexible material used to transmit mechanical power from one pulley to another. Belt frictionDescribes the friction forces between a belt and


id: glossary-of-engineering-a-l-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_A–L-4.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of engineering: A–L
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_A–L
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parent: glossary-of-engineering-a-l-20260505-0
summary:
Binomial distributionIn probability theory and statistics, the binomial distribution with parameters n and p is the discrete probability distribution of the number of successes in a sequence of n independent experiments, each asking a yes–no question, and each with its own boolean-valued outcome: a random variable containing a single bit of information: success/yes/true/one (with probability p) or failure/no/false/zero (with probability q=1 − p). A single success-failure experiment is also called a Bernoulli trial or Bernoulli experiment and a sequence of outcomes is called a Bernoulli process; for a single trial, i.e., n=1, the binomial distribution is a Bernoulli distribution. The binomial distribution is the basis for the popular binomial test of statistical significance. BiocatalysisBiocatalysis refers to the use of living (biological) systems or their parts to speed up (catalyze) chemical reactions. In biocatalytic processes, natural catalysts, such as enzymes, perform chemical transformations on organic compounds. Both enzymes that have been more or less isolated and enzymes still residing inside living cells are employed for this task. The modern usage of biotechnologically produced and possibly modified enzymes for organic synthesis is termed chemoenzymatic synthesis; the reactions performed are chemoenzymatic reactions. Biomedical engineeringBiomedical engineering (BME) or medical engineering is the application of


id: glossary-of-engineering-a-l-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_A–L-5.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of engineering: A–L
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_A–L
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:47.362460+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-engineering-a-l-20260505-0
summary:
where ni are any integers and ai are known as the primitive vectors which lie in different directions (not necessarily mutually perpendicular) and span the lattice. This discrete set of vectors must be closed under vector addition and subtraction. For any choice of position vector R, the lattice looks exactly the same. Brayton cycleA thermodynamic cycle model for an ideal heat engine, in which heat is added or removed at constant pressure; approximated by a gas turbine. Break-evenThe break-even point (BEP) in economics, business—and specifically cost accounting—is the point at which total cost and total revenue are equal, i.e. "even". There is no net loss or gain, and one has "broken even", though opportunity costs have been paid and capital has received the risk-adjusted, expected return. In short, all costs that must be paid are paid, and there is neither profit nor loss. Brewster's angleBrewster's angle (also known as the polarization angle) is an angle of incidence at which light with a particular polarization is perfectly transmitted through a transparent dielectric surface, with no reflection. When unpolarized light is incident at this angle, the light that is reflected from the surface is therefore perfectly polarized. This special angle of incidence


id: glossary-of-engineering-a-l-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_A–L-6.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of engineering: A–L
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_A–L
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:47.362460+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-engineering-a-l-20260505-0
summary:
CalculusThe mathematics of change. CapacitanceThe ability of a body to store electrical charge. Capacitive reactanceThe impedance of a capacitor in an alternating current circuit, the opposition to current flow. CapacitorAn electrical component that stores energy in an electric field. Capillary actionCapillary action (sometimes capillarity, capillary motion, capillary effect, or wicking) is the ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without the assistance of, or even in opposition to, external forces like gravity. The effect can be seen in the drawing up of liquids between the hairs of a paintbrush, in a thin tube, in porous materials such as paper and plaster, in some non-porous materials such as sand and liquefied carbon fiber, or in a cell. It occurs because of intermolecular forces between the liquid and surrounding solid surfaces. If the diameter of the tube is sufficiently small, then the combination of surface tension (which is caused by cohesion within the liquid) and adhesive forces between the liquid and container wall act to propel the liquid. CarbonateAny mineral with bound carbon dioxide. Carnot cycleA hypothetical thermodynamic cycle for a heat engine; no thermodynamic cycle can be more efficient than a Carnot cycle operating between the same two temperature


id: glossary-of-engineering-a-l-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_A–L-7.md
category: reference
title: Glossary of engineering: A–L
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_engineering:_A–L
date_saved: 2026-05-05T07:50:47.362460+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: glossary-of-engineering-a-l-20260505-0
summary:
Chain reactionis a sequence of reactions where a reactive product or by-product causes additional reactions to take place. In a chain reaction, positive feedback leads to a self-amplifying chain of events. Change of base rule. Charles's lawCharles's law (also known as the law of volumes) is an experimental gas law that describes how gases tend to expand when heated. A modern statement of Charles's law is: When the pressure on a sample of a dry gas is held constant, the Kelvin temperature and the volume will be in direct proportion. Chemical bondis a lasting attraction between atoms, ions or molecules that enables the formation of chemical compounds. The bond may result from the electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely charged ions as in ionic bonds or through the sharing of electrons as in covalent bonds. The strength of chemical bonds varies considerably; there are "strong bonds" or "primary bonds" such as covalent, ionic and metallic bonds, and "weak bonds" or "secondary bonds" such as dipole–dipole interactions, the London dispersion force and hydrogen bonding. Chemical compoundis a chemical substance composed of many identical molecules (or molecular entities) composed of atoms from more than one element held together by chemical bonds. A


