# kb

id: moral-enhancement-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_enhancement-2.md
category: reference
title: Moral enhancement
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_enhancement
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:48.024842+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: moral-enhancement-20260505-0
summary:
=== Other issues === MBE proponents have been accused of being too speculative, overstating the capabilities of future interventions and describing unrealistic scenarios like enhancing "all of humanity." One literature review assesses the evidence on seven interventions cited by MBE proponents, saying that none works well enough to be practically feasible. Furthermore, there is some doubt that any drugs for moral enhancement will soon be introduced to the market. Nick Bostrom highlighted that the way medical research is conducted and drugs approved impedes the development of enhancement drugs. A drug must demonstrably treat a specific disease to be approved, Bostrom said, but the traits or behaviors targeted for MBE arguably cannot be viewed as diseases. Bostrom concludes that any drug that has an enhancing effect "in healthy subjects is a serendipitous unintended benefit". He suggests that the current disease-focused medical model needs to be changed, otherwise enhancement drugs could not be researched well and introduced to the market. Along with this feasibility objection, he notes that public funding for enhancement drugs research projects is currently very limited. Other authors have suggested that unless MBE is based on an individual's choice, it cannot truly be called "moral" enhancement because personal choice


id: national-core-for-neuroethics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Core_for_Neuroethics-0.md
category: reference
title: National Core for Neuroethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Core_for_Neuroethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:49.190927+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-core-for-neuroethics-20260505-0
summary:
The National Core for Neuroethics at the University of British Columbia was established in August 2007, with support from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, the Institute of Mental Health and Addiction, the Canada Foundation for Innovation, the British Columbia Knowledge Development Fund, the Canada Research Chairs program, the UBC Brain Research Centre and the UBC Institute of Mental Health. Co-founded by Judy Illes and Peter Reiner, the Core studies neuroethics, with particular focus on ethics in neurodegenerative disease and regenerative medicine, international and cross-cultural challenges in brain research, neuroimaging and ethics, the neuroethics of enhancement, and personalized medicine. The Core's major research projects are focused on the use of drugs and devices for neuroenhancement, ethics in neurodegenerative disease and regenerative medicine research, brain research, neuroimaging in the private sector, and the ethics of personalized medicine, among others. Members of the Core also lead initiatives aside from their research projects. Considerable attention has been given to the Core by both the scholarly and non-academic media, with the Core featured in The New York Times, the Vancouver Sun, on the Canwest Global Newshour, and in the journal Science, amongst others. As an effort to engage the public in neuroethics discussion, the


id: neuroethics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroethics-0.md
category: reference
title: Neuroethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:50.583791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuroethics-20260505-0
summary:
In philosophy and neuroscience, neuroethics is the study of both the ethics of neuroscience and the neuroscience of ethics. The ethics of neuroscience concerns the ethical, legal, and social impact of neuroscience, including the ways in which neurotechnology can be used to predict or alter human behavior and "the implications of our mechanistic understanding of brain function for society... integrating neuroscientific knowledge with ethical and social thought". Some neuroethics problems are not fundamentally different from those encountered in bioethics. Others are unique to neuroethics because the brain, as the organ of the mind, has implications for broader philosophical problems, such as the nature of free will, moral responsibility, self-deception, and personal identity. Examples of neuroethics topics are given later in this article (see "Key issues in neuroethics" below). The origin of the term "neuroethics" has occupied some writers. Rees and Rose (as cited in "References" on page 9) claim neuroethics is a neologism that emerged only at the beginning of the 21st century, largely through the oral and written communications of ethicists and philosophers. According to Racine (2010), the term was coined by the Harvard physician Anneliese A. Pontius in 1973 in a paper entitled "Neuro-ethics of 'walking' in the


id: neuroethics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroethics-1.md
category: reference
title: Neuroethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:50.583791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuroethics-20260505-0
summary:
== Important activity since 2002 == There is no doubt that people were thinking and writing about the ethical implications of neuroscience for many years before the field adopted the label "neuroethics", and some of this work remains of great relevance and value. However, the early 21st century saw a tremendous surge in interest concerning the ethics of neuroscience, as evidenced by numerous meetings, publications, and organizations dedicated to this topic. In 2002, there were several meetings that drew together neuroscientists and ethicists to discuss neuroethics: the American Association for the Advancement of Science with the journal Neuron, the University of Pennsylvania, the Royal Society, Stanford University, and the Dana Foundation. This last meeting was the largest, and resulted in a book, Neuroethics: Mapping the Field, edited by Steven J. Marcus and published by Dana Press. That same year, the Economist ran a cover story entitled "Open Your Mind: The Ethics of Brain Science", Nature published the article "Emerging ethical issues in neuroscience". Further articles appeared on neuroethics in Nature Neuroscience, Neuron, and Brain and Cognition. Thereafter, the number of neuroethics meetings, symposia, and publications continued to grow. The over 38,000 members of the Society for Neuroscience recognized the importance


id: neuroethics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroethics-2.md
category: reference
title: Neuroethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:50.583791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuroethics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Brain interventions === The ethics of neurocognitive enhancement, that is the use of drugs and other brain interventions to make normal people "better than well", is an example of a neuroethical issue with both familiar and novel aspects. On the one hand, we can be informed by previous bioethical work on physical enhancements such as doping for strength in sports and the use of human growth hormone for normal boys of short stature. On the other hand, there are also some arguably novel ethical issues that arise in connection with brain enhancement, because these enhancements affect how people think and feel, thus raising the relatively new issues of "cognitive liberty". The growing role of psychopharmacology in everyday life raises a number of ethical issues, for example the influence of drug marketing on our conceptions of mental health and normalcy, and the increasingly malleable sense of personal identity that results from what Peter D. Kramer called "cosmetic psychopharmacology". Transhumanist philosophers such as David Pearce and Mark Alan Walker have argued that advancements in neuroscience could eventually make it feasible to artificially eliminate all physical and psychological suffering and artificially induce states of perpetual bliss. Pearce has stated that: "It is


id: neuroethics-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroethics-3.md
category: reference
title: Neuroethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:50.583791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuroethics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Memory dampening === While complete memory erasure is still an element of science-fiction, certain neurological drugs have been proven to dampen the strength and emotional association of a memory. Propranolol, an FDA-approved drug, has been suggested to effectively dull the painful effects of traumatic memories if taken within 6 hours after the event occurs. This has begun the discussion of ethical implications, assuming the technology for memory erasure will only improve. Originally, propranolol was reserved for hypertension patients. However, doctors are permitted to use the drug for off-label purposes—leading to the question of whether they actually should. There are numerous reasons for skepticism; for one, it may prevent us from coming to terms with traumatic experiences, it may tamper with our identities and lead us to an artificial sense of happiness, demean the genuineness of human life, and/or encourage some to forget memories they are morally obligated to keep. Whether or not it is ethical to fully or partially erase the memory of a patient, it is certainly becoming a more relevant topic as this technology improves in our society. === Ethics of brain organoids === ==== Sentient organoids ==== ==== Guidelines and legislation ==== ==== Humanized animals ====


id: neuroethics-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroethics-4.md
category: reference
title: Neuroethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:50.583791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuroethics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Stem cell therapy === Most of the issues concerning the uses of stem cells in the brain are the same as any of the bioethical or purely ethical questions one will find regarding the use and research of stem cells. The field of stem cell research is a very new field that poses many ethical questions concerning the allocation of stem cells as well as their possible uses. Since most stem cell research is still in its preliminary phase, most of the neuroethical issues surrounding stem cells are the same as stem cell ethics in general. More specifically the way that stem cell research has been involved in neuroscience is through the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases and brain tumors. In these cases scientists are using neural stem cells to regenerate tissue and to be used as carriers for gene therapy. In general, neuroethics revolves around a cost benefit approach to find techniques and technologies that are most beneficial to patients. There has been progress in certain fields that have been shown to be beneficial when using stem cells to treat certain neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's disease. A study done in 2011 showed that induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs)


id: neuroethics-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroethics-5.md
category: reference
title: Neuroethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:50.583791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuroethics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Disorders of consciousness === Patients in coma, vegetative, or minimally conscious state pose ethical challenges. The patients are unable to respond, therefore the assessment of their needs can only be approached by adopting a third person perspective. They are unable to communicate their pain levels, quality of life, or end of life preferences. Neuroscience and brain imaging have allowed us to explore the brain activity of these patients more thoroughly. Recent findings from studies using functional magnetic resonance imaging have changed the way we view vegetative patients. The images have shown that aspects of emotional processing, language comprehension, and even conscious awareness might be retained in patients whose behavior suggests a vegetative state. If this is the case, it is unethical to allow a third party to dictate the life and future of the patient. For example, defining death is an issue that comes with patients with severe traumatic brain injuries. The decision to withdraw life-sustaining care from these patients can be based on uncertain assessments about the individual's conscious awareness. Case reports have shown that these patients in a persistent vegetative state can recover unexpectedly. This raises the ethical question about the premature termination of care by physicians.


id: neuroethics-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroethics-6.md
category: reference
title: Neuroethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:50.583791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuroethics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Neurological treatments === Neuroscience has led to a deeper understanding of the chemical imbalances present in a disordered brain. In turn, this has resulted in the creation of new treatments and medications to treat these disorders. When these new treatments are first being tested, the experiments prompt ethical questions. First, because the treatment is affecting the brain, the side effects can be unique and sometimes severe. A special kind of side effect that many subjects have claimed to experience in neurological treatment tests is changes in "personal identity". Although this is a difficult ethical dilemma because there are no clear and undisputed definitions of personality, self, and identity, neurological treatments can result in patients losing parts of "themselves" such as memories or moods. Yet another ethical dispute in neurological treatment research is the choice of patients. From a perspective of justice, priority should be given to those who are most seriously impaired and who will benefit most from the intervention. However, in a test group, scientists must select patients to secure a favorable risk-benefit ratio. Setting priority becomes more difficult when a patient's chance to benefit and the seriousness of their impairment do not go together. For example, many


id: neuroethics-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroethics-7.md
category: reference
title: Neuroethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:50.583791+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: neuroethics-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Glannon, Walter (2025). Neuroethics: The Implications of Mapping and Changing the Brain. MIT Press. doi:10.7551/mitpress/15173.001.0001. ISBN 9780262384926. Illes, J (October 2003). "Neuroethics in a new era of neuroimaging". American Journal of Neuroradiology. 24 (9): 1739–1741. PMC 7976301. PMID 14561594. Glannon, W. (2006).Bioethics and the Brain. Oxford University Press USA Racine E.; Bar-Ilan O; Illes J. (2005). "fMRI in the public eye". Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 6 (2): 159–64. doi:10.1038/nrn1609. PMC 1524852. PMID 15685221. Farah Martha J (2005). "Neuroethics: the practical and the philosophical". Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 9 (1): 34–40. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.728.9513. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2004.12.001. PMID 15639439. S2CID 8635694. Judy Illes (2002). "Brain and Cognition: Ethical Challenges in Advanced Neuroimaging". Brain and Cognition. 50 (3): 341–344. doi:10.1016/s0278-2626(02)00522-5. PMID 12480481. S2CID 16672004. Riis P (2003). "Neuroethics". European Journal of Neurology. 10: 218–223. doi:10.1046/j.1468-1331.10.s1.12.x. S2CID 221736074. "Open your mind". The Economist. 23 May 2002. Racine E. (2010). Pragmatic Neuroethics. MIT Press, Cambridge MA. Pontius A. A. (1973). "Neuro-ethics of 'walking' in the newborn". Perceptual and Motor Skills. 37 (1): 235–245. doi:10.2466/pms.1973.37.1.235. PMID 4728008. S2CID 42403122. Pontius A. A. (1993). "Neuroethics vs neurophysiologically and neuropsychologically uninformed influences in child-rearing, education, emerging hunter-gatherers, and artificial intelligence models of the brain". Psychol Rep. 72


id: neuroethics-research-unit-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroethics_Research_Unit-0.md
category: reference
title: Neuroethics Research Unit
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroethics_Research_Unit
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:51.866525+00:00
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parent: neuroethics-research-unit-20260505-0
summary:
The Neuroethics Research Unit was created in 2006, at the Institut de recherches cliniques de Montréal (IRCM), which is affiliated to the Université de Montréal. The Unit is one of the pioneer units in Canada in this area of research. Neuroethics is a new area of research where bioethics and neuroscience intersect. The focus is on ethical considerations in neuroscience research and the many ethical issues that arise from the transfer of neuroscience to health care. == Research themes == The Neuroethics research unit pursues research within the fields of public and intercultural, clinical, research, reflexive, or theoretical neuroethics to address a large spectrum of challenges in neurological and psychiatric care such as providing quality patient information, diminishing stigma, and promoting respectful healthcare services. The Unit’s research themes cover subjects as diverse as MRI, end-of-life decision making, cognitive enhancement, ethical policy, etc. == Funding == Research projects of the Neuroethics Research Unit are funded by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council. == Outreach == In June 2007, at the annual meeting of the Canadian Bioethics Society (CBS) held in Toronto, over 70 attendees


id: the-new-atlantis-journal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Atlantis_(journal)-0.md
category: reference
title: The New Atlantis (journal)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Atlantis_(journal)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:53.073712+00:00
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parent: the-new-atlantis-journal-20260505-0
summary:
The New Atlantis is a journal founded by the social conservative advocacy group the Ethics and Public Policy Center, now published by the Center for the Study of Technology and Society. It covers topics about the social, ethical, political, and policy dimensions of modern science and technology. The journal is editorially reviewed but is not peer-reviewed on scientific topics. It is edited by Ari Schulman, having previously been edited by co-founders Eric Cohen and Adam Keiper. The journal's name is taken from Francis Bacon's utopian novella New Atlantis, which the journal's editors describe as a "fable of a society living with the benefits and challenges of advanced science and technology". An editorial in the inaugural issue states that the aim of the journal is "to help us avoid the extremes of euphoria and despair that new technologies too often arouse; and to help us judge when mobilizing our technological prowess is sensible or necessary, and when the preservation of things that count requires limiting the kinds of technological power that would lessen, cheapen, or ultimately destroy us." Writing in National Review, the journal's editor Adam Keiper described The New Atlantis as being written from a "particularly American and conservative way


id: the-new-atlantis-journal-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Atlantis_(journal)-1.md
category: reference
title: The New Atlantis (journal)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Atlantis_(journal)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:53.073712+00:00
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parent: the-new-atlantis-journal-20260505-0
summary:
== Other reception == Writing for the National Review in a 2003 column, the conservative author Stanley Kurtz described The New Atlantis as influential on thinking about science and technology. Richard John Neuhaus, former editor of the conservative journal First Things, wrote that The New Atlantis is "as good a publication as there is for the intelligent exploration of questions in bioethics and projections—promising, ominous, and fantastical—about the human future," and a writer in The American Conservative described the journal as a source "of fresh ideas on the Right." National Review columnist Jonah Goldberg described The New Atlantis as "a new and interesting magazine" that "seems to be trying to carve out the space for the government to stop the more offensive aspects of biotechnology." Conversely, the liberal bioethicist Jonathan D. Moreno said that the journal offers "a very dark vision" about science and technology but that it "makes an important point about the need to worry about the ends as well as means in science", and that its "writers were young, smart, and had a good understanding of the political process and the making of public policy." Bioethicist Ruth Macklin criticized The New Atlantis as representative of a conservative


id: non-nuclear-futures-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-Nuclear_Futures-0.md
category: reference
title: Non-Nuclear Futures
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-Nuclear_Futures
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:54.263110+00:00
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parent: non-nuclear-futures-20260505-0
summary:
Non-Nuclear Futures: The Case for an Ethical Energy Strategy is a 1975 book by Amory B. Lovins and John H. Price. The main theme of the book is that the most important parts of the nuclear power debate are not technical disputes but relate to personal values, and are the legitimate province of every citizen, whether technically trained or not. Lovins and Price suggest that the personal values that make a high-energy society work are all too apparent, and that the values associated with an alternate view relate to thrift, simplicity, diversity, neighbourliness, craftsmanship, and humility. They also argue that large nuclear generators could not be mass-produced. Their centralization requires costly transmission and distribution systems. They are inefficient, not recycling excess thermal energy. The authors believed that nuclear reactors were less reliable (a grossly incorrect prediction) and take longer to build, exposing them to escalated interest costs, mistimed demand forecasts, and wage pressure by unions. Lovins and Price suggest that these two different sets of personal values and technological attributes lead to two very different policy paths relating to future energy supplies. The first is high-energy nuclear, centralized, electric; the second is lower energy, non-nuclear, decentralized, less electrified, softer technology.


id: nuclear-ethics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_ethics-0.md
category: reference
title: Nuclear ethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_ethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:55.422664+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nuclear-ethics-20260505-0
summary:
Nuclear ethics is a cross-disciplinary field of academic and policy-relevant study in which the problems associated with nuclear warfare, nuclear deterrence, nuclear arms control, nuclear disarmament, or nuclear energy are examined through one or more ethical or moral theories or frameworks. Nuclear ethics assumes that the very real possibilities of human extinction, mass human destruction, or mass environmental damage which could result from nuclear warfare are deep ethical or moral problems. Specifically, it assumes that the outcomes of human extinction, mass human destruction, or environmental damage count as moral evils. Another area of inquiry concerns future generations and the burden that nuclear waste and pollution imposes on them. Some scholars have concluded that it is therefore morally wrong to act in ways that produce these outcomes, which means it is morally wrong to engage in nuclear warfare. Nuclear ethics is interested in examining policies of nuclear deterrence, nuclear arms control and disarmament, and nuclear energy insofar as they are linked to the cause or prevention of nuclear warfare. Ethical justifications of nuclear deterrence, for example, emphasize its role in preventing great power nuclear war since the end of World War II. Indeed, some scholars claim that nuclear deterrence seems to


id: nuclear-ethics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_ethics-1.md
category: reference
title: Nuclear ethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_ethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:55.422664+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nuclear-ethics-20260505-0
summary:
13 February 1950: a Convair B-36B crashed in northern British Columbia after jettisoning a Mark IV atomic bomb. This was the first such nuclear weapon loss in history. 22 May 1957: a 42,000-pound Mark-17 hydrogen bomb accidentally fell from a bomber near Albuquerque, New Mexico. The detonation of the device's conventional explosives destroyed it on impact and formed a crater 25-feet in diameter on land owned by the University of New Mexico. According to a researcher at the Natural Resources Defense Council, it was one of the most powerful bombs made to date. 7 June 1960: the 1960 Fort Dix IM-99 accident destroyed a Boeing CIM-10 Bomarc nuclear missile and shelter and contaminated the BOMARC Missile Accident Site in New Jersey. 24 January 1961: the 1961 Goldsboro B-52 crash occurred near Goldsboro, North Carolina. A B-52 Stratofortress carrying two Mark 39 nuclear bombs broke up in mid-air, dropping its nuclear payload in the process. 1965 Philippine Sea A-4 crash, where a Skyhawk attack aircraft with a nuclear weapon fell into the sea. The pilot, the aircraft, and the B43 nuclear bomb were never recovered. It was not until the 1980s that the Pentagon revealed the loss of the one-megaton bomb.


id: nuffield-council-on-bioethics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuffield_Council_on_Bioethics-0.md
category: reference
title: Nuffield Council on Bioethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuffield_Council_on_Bioethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:56.610689+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nuffield-council-on-bioethics-20260505-0
summary:
The Nuffield Council on Bioethics is a UK-based independent charitable body, which examines and reports on bioethical issues raised by new advances in biological and medical research. Established in 1991, the Council is funded by the Nuffield Foundation, the Medical Research Council and the Wellcome Trust. The Council has been described by the media as a 'leading ethics watchdog', which 'never shrinks from the unthinkable'. == Purpose == The Nuffield Council on Bioethics was set up in response to concerns about the lack of a national organization responsible for evaluating the ethical implications of developments in biomedicine and biotechnology. Its terms of reference are: To identify and define ethical questions raised by recent developments in biological and medical research that concern, or are likely to concern, the public interest; To make arrangements for the independent examination of such questions with appropriate involvement of relevant participants; To inform and engage in policy and media debates about ethical questions and provide informed comment on emerging issues related to or derived from the Council’s published or ongoing work; and To make policy recommendations to Government or other relevant bodies and to disseminate its work through published reports, briefings and other appropriate outputs. ==


id: nuffield-council-on-bioethics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuffield_Council_on_Bioethics-1.md
category: reference
title: Nuffield Council on Bioethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuffield_Council_on_Bioethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:56.610689+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: nuffield-council-on-bioethics-20260505-0
summary:
== Publications == Climate change and health: embedding ethics into policy and decision making (Jan 2025) Stem cell-based embryo models (November 2024) Predicting: The future of health (Sept 2024) Disagreements in the care of critically ill children (Sept 2023) The future of ageing: Ethical Considerations for research and innovation (April 2023) Genome editing and human reproduction: social and ethical issues (July 2018) Human embryo culture: Discussions concerning the statutory time limit for maintaining human embryos in culture in the light of some recent scientific developments (August 2017) Cosmetic procedures: ethical issues (June 2017) Non-invasive prenatal testing: ethical issues (March 2017) Genome editing: an ethical review (September 2016) (un)natural: Ideas about naturalness in public and political debates about science, technology and medicine (December 2015) Children and clinical research: ethical issues (May 2015) The collection, linking and use of data in biomedical research and healthcare: ethical issues (February 2015) The findings of a series of engagement activities exploring the culture of scientific research in the UK (December 2014) Novel neurotechnologies: intervening in the brain (June 2013) Donor conception: ethical aspects of information sharing (April 2013) Emerging biotechnologies: technology, choice and the public good (December 2012) Novel techniques for the prevention of mitochondrial


id: organizational-technoethics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_technoethics-0.md
category: reference
title: Organizational technoethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_technoethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:57.765531+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: organizational-technoethics-20260505-0
summary:
Organizational technoethics (OT) is a branch stemming from technoethics. Advances in technology and their ability to transmit vast amounts of information in a short amount of time have changed the way information is being shared amongst co-workers and managers throughout organizations across the globe. Starting in the 1980s with information and communications technologies (ICTs), organizations have seen an increase in the amount of technology that they rely on to communicate within and outside of the workplace. However, these implementations of technology in the workplace create various ethical concerns and in turn a need for further analysis of technology in organizations. As a result of this growing trend, a subsection of technoethics known as organizational technoethics has emerged to address these issues. == Changes to organizational structure == Organizational technoethics "focuses on how technological advances are redefining organizations and how they operate within an evolving knowledge economy". This new focus on knowledge and information within organizations has changed the way they function on a daily basis and has made it apparent that "as knowledge-intensive work gradually becomes the cornerstone of this economy, understanding its control practices is consequential to organizational effectiveness, worker satisfaction and ethical conditions of organizational governance". With this


id: organizational-technoethics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_technoethics-1.md
category: reference
title: Organizational technoethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_technoethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:57.765531+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: organizational-technoethics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Technoethical challenges in medical organizations === Another area of organizational technoethics that has been becoming increasingly popular is in the field of medicine. Medical ethics are based on values and judgments in a practical clinical placement where six values are portrayed the most: autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, justice, dignity, truthfulness and honesty. Many of the issues in medical ethics are due to a lack of communication between the patients, family members, and health care team. An asset to medical ethics that has brought attention to its advantages and disadvantages are electronic medical records. This is a new way to update, organize and store patients' medical records in a database that can be accessible to other doctors by using the network. An issue in organizational technoethics in the medical field that is an increasing matter is the privacy issue with electronic medical records. To start, some advantages of EMRs are that they can minimize errors, keep records safe in the database, it is cost efficient, translates into a better treatment for the patients and can even give some control over health records to the patients. On the other hand, EMRs have brought upon some disadvantages mainly around privacy issues. First, it


id: organizational-technoethics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_technoethics-2.md
category: reference
title: Organizational technoethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_technoethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:23:57.765531+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: organizational-technoethics-20260505-0
summary:
The Internet has become a popular medium of expression and accessing information and data. As the Internet community expands, there has been great debate on whether or not the internet should be censored, and if so, by whom. In Canada, there are many public and private organisations with the authority to censor, including many self-censoring associations and service providers. Canadian internet censorship is not specifically regulated; however local laws do apply to websites hosted in Canada as well as to residents who host sites on servers in other jurisdictions. Canada has seen many cases regarding websites including defamatory material and material promoting hatred or contempt. Important Canadian cases that raise the question of control of the flow of content on the Internet include: The Karla Homolka case. In 1993, the judge presiding over the trial of Karla Homolka placed a Canadian publication ban on the proceedings. Through the use of the internet, internationally published materials were then made available in Canada, undermining the court order. McGill University, followed by a number of other universities, immediately took responsibility of the university law under law to control the reception of content within its own constituency because of its liability as an Internet


id: eduard-pernkopf-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduard_Pernkopf-0.md
category: reference
title: Eduard Pernkopf
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduard_Pernkopf
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:03.438676+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eduard-pernkopf-20260505-0
summary:
Eduard Pernkopf (24 November 1888 – 17 April 1955) was an Austrian professor of anatomy who later served as rector of the University of Vienna, his alma mater. He is best known for his seven-volume anatomical atlas, Topographische Anatomie des Menschen (translated as Atlas of Topographical and Applied Human Anatomy; often colloquially known as the Pernkopf Atlas or just Pernkopf), prepared by Pernkopf and four artists over a 20-year period. While it is considered a scientific and artistic masterpiece, with many of its color plates reprinted in other publications and textbooks, it has been in recent years found that Pernkopf and the artists working for him, all of them ardent Nazis, used executed political prisoners as their subjects. == Early life == Pernkopf was born in 1888 in the Lower Austria village of Rappottenstein. The youngest of three sons, he seemed to be considering a career in music upon his completion of the Gymnasium in Horn. However, the death of his father, the village's doctor, in 1903 led him to pursue medicine instead, as his father's death caused the family considerable hardship that a career as a physician was more likely to reverse. He began his studies at the University


id: eduard-pernkopf-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduard_Pernkopf-1.md
category: reference
title: Eduard Pernkopf
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduard_Pernkopf
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:03.438676+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eduard-pernkopf-20260505-0
summary:
== Atlas == At the time he was first hired as Hochstetter's assistant, he began putting together an informal dissection manual for students. He kept expanding it, and it became popular with the rest of the university instructors and the Austrian medical community. As he attained his full professorship he was offered a contract to expand it into a publishable book, and he eagerly accepted. He was to deliver three volumes. Pernkopf began his atlas in 1933. He worked 18-hour days dissecting corpses, teaching classes and discharging his administrative responsibilities while a team of artists created the images that would eventually be in the atlas. His days began at 5 a.m., when he left notes in shorthand for his wife to type. These became the descriptive text that accompanied the images. At the beginning four artists—Erich Lepier, Ludwig Schrott, Karl Endtresser and Franz Batke—worked with Pernkopf. Lepier, Pernkopf's first hire, had largely learned on his own after having to cut short his architectural studies at what is now Vienna University of Technology due to the death of his father, a circumstance similar to that which had shaped Pernkopf's career choice. The other three all had some degree of formal training.


id: eduard-pernkopf-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduard_Pernkopf-2.md
category: reference
title: Eduard Pernkopf
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduard_Pernkopf
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:03.438676+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eduard-pernkopf-20260505-0
summary:
== Later life == In 1943, Pernkopf reached the pinnacle of the academic career ladder when he was named the University of Vienna's rector, its highest official. He continued to serve in those positions until World War II ended two years later, with the surrender of Germany, including Austria. His fortunes changed radically as a result. Two days after the surrender, he was dismissed from his post as head of the university's anatomical institute. Fearing that he might suffer legal or political repercussions for his previous Nazi party membership and prewar actions, he went on what he claimed was a vacation to Strobl in the state of Salzburg. However, he was arrested by American military authorities in August 1945, and by May 1946 he had been terminated from all his remaining positions with the university. He was held at the Allied prisoner of war (POW) camp in Glasenbach for three years. Although he was ultimately never charged with any crimes, he was required to do regular hard labor throughout his imprisonment. The experience left him drained and exhausted when he returned to Vienna after his release, hoping to continue his work on the atlas. His former facilities at the university


id: eduard-pernkopf-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduard_Pernkopf-3.md
category: reference
title: Eduard Pernkopf
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduard_Pernkopf
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:03.438676+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: eduard-pernkopf-20260505-0
summary:
== Controversial legacy and debate over continued use == In 1995, Pernkopf and his atlas became the focus of a controversy in scientific ethics, following the publication of a paper by German researcher Edzard Ernst, who had recently been chair of rehabilitative medicine at the University of Vienna, which outlined the Nazi takeover of the university and highlighted the human experimentation that followed, including the role of Pernkopf himself. The medical school at the university, which had formerly had difficulty finding cadavers for dissection, received a regular supply after 1933. In 1996, Howard Israel, an oral surgeon at Columbia University, revealed that the subject bodies may have in some cases been those of executed political prisoners, LGBT men and women, Roma, and Jews. Sabine Hildebrandt, a Michigan anatomy professor and German native who has researched Pernkopf and other Nazi-era anatomists, has suggested that 26% of the bodies supplied to the university were execution victims. Looking at older copies in the archives, Israel discovered various Nazi symbols in the artists' signatures, which had been removed from more widely circulated later versions. Since then, physicians have discussed whether it is ethical to use the atlas, as it resulted from Nazi medical research.


id: philosophy-technology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_&_Technology-0.md
category: reference
title: Philosophy & Technology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_&_Technology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:04.657750+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: philosophy-technology-20260505-0
summary:
Philosophy & Technology is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal covering philosophy of technology. It is published by Springer Science+Business Media and the editor-in-chief is Luciano Floridi (University of Oxford). Besides regular issues, the journal publishes occasional special issues and topical collections on particular philosophical topics. == Abstracting and indexing == The journal is abstracted and indexed in EBSCO databases, PhilPapers, ProQuest databases, and Scopus. == References == == External links == Official website


id: anil-potti-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anil_Potti-0.md
category: reference
title: Anil Potti
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anil_Potti
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:05.826585+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anil-potti-20260505-0
summary:
Anil Potti is a physician and former Duke University associate professor and cancer researcher, focusing on oncogenomics. He, along with Joseph Nevins, are at the center of a research fabrication scandal at Duke University. On 9 November 2015, the Office of Research Integrity (ORI) found that Potti had engaged in research misconduct. According to Potti's voluntary settlement agreement with ORI, Potti can continue to perform research with the requirement of supervision until year 2020, while he "neither admits nor denies ORI's findings of research misconduct." As of 2024, Potti, employed at the Cancer Center of North Dakota, had 11 of his research publications retracted, one publication received an expression of concern, and two others had been corrected. == Biography == Anil Potti graduated from Christian Medical College, Vellore, India in 1995. He finished an internship in Internal Medicine at the University of North Dakota School of Medicine in 1999. In 2006 Potti completed training in hematology and oncology at Duke University. Potti resigned from Duke in 2010, following the discovery of flaws in the genomics research conducted at Duke and allegations of embellishments in his resume, assuming responsibility for the anomalies in the scientific research. Following his resignation from Duke,


id: anil-potti-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anil_Potti-1.md
category: reference
title: Anil Potti
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anil_Potti
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:05.826585+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anil-potti-20260505-0
summary:
== Aftermath == Healthcare companies cut ties with Potti after evidence surfaced that Potti had fabricated awards on his resume. The American Cancer Society stopped payments of a five-year grant which totalled $729,000 as Potti had received the grant based on his credentials. Duke University later reimbursed the American Cancer Society for the full amount of the grant. Three clinical trials at Duke University Medical Center based on Potti's research came under scrutiny in 2009 and were temporarily suspended, then were permanently stopped in 2010. The United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA) reviewed one of the studies in 2009, several years after its initiation, and concluded that the study would require an Investigational New Drug application, which had not been submitted. An FDA audit in 2011 further showed that an Investigational Device Exemption application had not been filed, but otherwise found "no significant deficiencies" in Duke's IRB conduct. Potti's medical licence record with the North Carolina Medical Board shows eleven settlements, each of at least $75,000, for incidents that appear to be related to these trials. In late 2011, the North Carolina Medical Board reprimanded Potti but he retains his medical licence. The board issued its disciplinary action against


id: anil-potti-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anil_Potti-2.md
category: reference
title: Anil Potti
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anil_Potti
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:05.826585+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: anil-potti-20260505-0
summary:
"A Genomic Approach to Colon Cancer Risk Stratification Yields Biologic Insights into Therapeutic Opportunities" This article was published by PNAS. Gene expressions could allow the researchers to see if tumours are uniform throughout. This could also be used with Colon Cancer. They also can help predict how a person will respond to treatment and improve prognosis. The authors said they wanted to retract this article because "…we have been unable to reproduce certain key experiments described in the paper regarding validation and use of the colon cancer prognostic signature. This includes the validation performed with dataset E-MEXP-1224, as reported in Fig. 2A, as well as the generation of prognostic scores for colon cancer cell lines, as reported in Fig. 4…" "Validation of Gene Signatures that Predict the Response of Breast Cancer to Neoadjuvant Chemotherapy" This article was published in Lancet Oncology. This study involved patients with oestrogen-receptor-negative breast cancer. The researchers wanted to confirm their previous studies of gene-expression signatures in predicting the effects of chemotherapeutic drugs. The article was retracted because the validity of the results was beginning to be questioned and because predictions were made off of the Nature Medicine article that was retracted. "Genomic Signatures to Guide


id: pugwash-conferences-on-science-and-world-affairs-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pugwash_Conferences_on_Science_and_World_Affairs-0.md
category: reference
title: Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pugwash_Conferences_on_Science_and_World_Affairs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:07.269000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pugwash-conferences-on-science-and-world-affairs-20260505-0
summary:
The Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs is an international organization that brings together scholars and public figures to work toward reducing the danger of armed conflict and to seek solutions to global security threats. It was founded in 1957 by Joseph Rotblat and Bertrand Russell in Pugwash, Nova Scotia, Canada, following the release of the Russell–Einstein Manifesto in 1955. Rotblat and the Pugwash Conference jointly won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1995 for their efforts on nuclear disarmament. International Student/Young Pugwash groups have existed since founder Cyrus Eaton's death in 1979. == Origin of the Pugwash Conferences == The Russell–Einstein Manifesto, released July 9, 1955, called for a conference for scientists to assess the dangers of weapons of mass destruction (then only considered to be nuclear weapons). Cyrus Eaton, an industrialist and philanthropist, offered on July 13 to finance and host the conference in the town of his birth, Pugwash, Nova Scotia. This was not taken up at the time because a meeting was planned for India, at the invitation of Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru. With the outbreak of the Suez Crisis the Indian conference was postponed. Aristotle Onassis offered to finance a meeting in Monaco instead, but


id: pugwash-conferences-on-science-and-world-affairs-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pugwash_Conferences_on_Science_and_World_Affairs-1.md
category: reference
title: Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pugwash_Conferences_on_Science_and_World_Affairs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:07.269000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pugwash-conferences-on-science-and-world-affairs-20260505-0
summary:
== Contributions to international security == Pugwash's first fifteen years coincided with the Berlin Crisis, the Cuban Missile Crisis, the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia, and the Vietnam War. Pugwash played a useful role in opening communication channels during a time of otherwise-strained official and unofficial relations. In 1965, addressing a meeting at UNESCO House in Paris, Robert Oppenheimer gave his tribute to Albert Einstein for the Pugwash movement. Oppenheimer confidently asserted: "I know it to be true that it [averting the disaster of the arms race] had an essential part to play in the Treaty of Moscow, the limited test-ban treaty, which is a tentative, but to me very precious, declaration that reason might still prevail." It provided background work to the Partial Test Ban Treaty (1963), the Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968), the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (1972), the Biological Weapons Convention (1972), and the Chemical Weapons Convention (1993). Former US Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara has credited a backchannel Pugwash initiative (code named PENNSYLVANIA) with laying the groundwork for the negotiations that ended the Vietnam War. Mikhail Gorbachev admitted the influence of the organisation on him when he was leader of the Soviet Union. In addition, Pugwash has been credited


id: pugwash-conferences-on-science-and-world-affairs-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pugwash_Conferences_on_Science_and_World_Affairs-2.md
category: reference
title: Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pugwash_Conferences_on_Science_and_World_Affairs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:07.269000+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pugwash-conferences-on-science-and-world-affairs-20260505-0
summary:
Earl (Bertrand) Russell, 1950 Nobel Prize in Literature, a founder of the movement, was its natural head in its initial years. The formal office of the presidency was established at the Quinquennial Conference in Ronneby, in 1967. The president's role was to "preside over the Annual Pugwash Conferences and, in addition, between Conferences, to offer his counsel and advice to the members of the Continuing Committee and the Secretary-General, and thereby assist them in the execution of the activities of the Movement." Sir John Cockcroft, joint recipient of the 1951 Nobel Prize in Physics for pioneering work on the transmutation of atomic nuclei by artificially accelerated atomic particles, was elected as the first president in 1967, though he died suddenly ten days later. Lord Florey, who shared the 1945 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for extraction of penicillin, was then invited to become president, though he also died within weeks. At that point the Continuing Committee decided to have a rotating presidency for a term of one year, to have that office held by a distinguished person in the country where the annual conference would be held each year. Francis Perrin (1968), had worked with Frederic Joliot's team to


id: student-pugwash-usa-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student_Pugwash_USA-0.md
category: reference
title: Student Pugwash USA
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student_Pugwash_USA
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:08.454732+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: student-pugwash-usa-20260505-0
summary:
Student Pugwash USA is the U.S. affiliate of International Student/Young Pugwash, and the US student affiliate of the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs, recipients of the 1995 Nobel Peace Prize. As an educational nonprofit organization, SPUSA does not adopt advocacy positions on policy or political issues or candidates, but seeks to foment student leadership and incubate groups of committed activists who go on to take action separate from SPUSA activities. The organization posits that, in order to create effective social change, students must first understand the issues at stake, then contemplate their ethical and moral responsibility to themselves and to society as a whole. Its stated purpose is not to advance a particular ethical viewpoint regarding scientific and technological issues, but rather to encourage students to consider ethics when thinking about the role of science and technology in society. SPUSA is open to all viewpoints and approaches to these discussions, but with a firm commitment to accurate science and factual information. For example, early SPUSA panel debates were held regarding the causes of climate change, before there was consensus in the scientific community; afterwards, that debate was considered resolved and no longer appropriate, but events continue discussing which


id: scott-reuben-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott_Reuben-0.md
category: reference
title: Scott Reuben
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott_Reuben
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:09.719687+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scott-reuben-20260505-0
summary:
Scott S. Reuben (born 1958) is an American anesthesiologist who falsified data heralding the benefits of the Pfizer pain medication Celebrex while downplaying its negative side effects. He was Professor of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine at Tufts University in Boston, Massachusetts and chief of acute pain at Baystate Medical Center in Springfield, Massachusetts from February 1991 until 2009 when he was sentenced to prison for healthcare fraud. Reuben was considered to be a prolific and influential researcher in pain management, and his purported findings altered the way millions of patients are treated for pain during and after orthopedic surgeries. Reuben has now admitted that he never conducted any of the clinical trials on which his conclusions were based "in what may be considered the longest-running and widest-ranging cases of academic fraud." Scientific American has called Reuben the medical equivalent of Bernie Madoff, the former NASDAQ chairman who was convicted of orchestrating a $65-billion Ponzi scheme. == Background == Reuben was educated at Columbia University. He graduated from medical school at the State University of New York at Buffalo in 1985 and undertook his anesthesiology residency at Mount Sinai Medical Center in New York City. Reuben fell under suspicion when Baystate


id: right-to-reality-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_to_reality-0.md
category: reference
title: Right to reality
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_to_reality
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:10.893465+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: right-to-reality-20260505-0
summary:
The right to reality refers to the right to consume organic content as opposed to content created by artificial intelligence, or more broadly speaking, to experience life and the world as they are, not through simulations and simulacra. It was once defined as "the latest in a series of novel rights set forth in response to a sizable jump in technology". A right to reality can also refer to the right to consume real news in opposition to fake news, as well as the right to receive information when in a news desert. == Proposed definitions == A 2024 article by Digital Frontier describes Newcastle University Law scholar Lilian Edwards as an early proponent of the right to reality, an idea she came across during a 2019 lecture at the Turing Institute, when an attendee asked her if the younger generation were "getting easier with the idea of unreality" while not "knowing what canonical reality is", and that made her reflect on the possibility of "reality" being a human right, much like privacy or freedom of speech. In an article for a 2025 special edition of Stanford Social Innovation Review Brasil, Brazilian proponent Eduardo Saron defined the right to reality


id: right-to-reality-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_to_reality-1.md
category: reference
title: Right to reality
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_to_reality
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:10.893465+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: right-to-reality-20260505-0
summary:
== Applications == Frazier advocated in his article for a system of classification of internet content (similar to nutrition labels) that would inform users of the degree to which AI has or has not been used to create said content while also allowing users to even filter content according to their own preferences. He also wrote that the application of a right to reality "would not require the removal of any content nor discrimination based on the viewpoints asserted by that content" but would be "a disclosure requirement". He mentioned Lawrence Lessig's anticipation of the rise of AI-detection tools and that those would become prevalent in the media market. Edwards supports the labeling of AI-generated content with methods such as watermarkings as proposed by the C2PA and the European Union's AI Act. However, Edwards herself and Fazier admit it may not be enough. Speaking to Digital Frontier, Frazier said that "even the labelling of a right can have a big impact on the ability of people to advocate for the provision of that right" and compared the advocacy for it to citizens' assemblies. Saron concedes both that there's no such thing as an "absolute reality", since according to him reality


id: robot-ethics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_ethics-0.md
category: reference
title: Robot ethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_ethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:12.612544+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: robot-ethics-20260505-0
summary:
Robot ethics, sometimes known as "roboethics", concerns ethical problems that occur with robots, such as whether robots pose a threat to humans in the long or short run, whether some uses of robots are problematic (such as in healthcare or as "killer robots" in war), and how robots should be designed such that they act "ethically" (this last concern is also called machine ethics). Alternatively, roboethics refers specifically to the ethics of human behavior towards robots, as robots become increasingly advanced. Robot ethics is a sub-field of the ethics of technology. It is closely related to legal and socio-economic concerns. Serious academic discussions about robot ethics started around 2000, and involve several disciplines, mainly robotics, computer science, artificial intelligence, philosophy, ethics, theology, biology, physiology, cognitive science, neurosciences, law, sociology, psychology, and industrial design. == History and events == One of the first publications directly addressing and setting the foundation for robot ethics was "Runaround", a science fiction short story written by Isaac Asimov in 1942, which featured his well-known Three Laws of Robotics. These three laws were continuously altered by Asimov, and a fourth – or "zeroth" – law was eventually added to precede the first three, in the context


id: robot-ethics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_ethics-1.md
category: reference
title: Robot ethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_ethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:12.612544+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: robot-ethics-20260505-0
summary:
== Killer robots == Lethal Autonomous Weapon Systems (LAWS), often called "killer robots", are theoretically able to target and fire without human supervision or interference. In 2014, the Convention on Conventional Weapons (CCW) held two meetings. The first was the Meeting of Experts on Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems. This meeting was about the special mandate on LAWS and intrigued intense discussion. National delegations and many non-governmental organizations(NGOs) expressed their opinions on the matter. Numerous NGOs and certain states such as Pakistan and Cuba are calling for a preventive prohibition of LAWS. They proposed opinions based on deontological and consequentialist reasoning. On the deontological side, certain philosophers such as Peter Asaro and Robert Sparrow, most NGOs, and the Vatican argue that granting too much rights to machine violates human dignity, and that people have the "right not to be killed by a machine". To support their standpoint, they repeatedly cite the Martens Clause. At the end of the meeting, the most important consequentialist objection was that LAWS wouldn't be able to respect international humanitarian law (IHL), as believed by NGOs, many researchers, and several states (Pakistan, Austria, Egypt, Mexico). According to the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), "there is


id: robot-ethics-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_ethics-2.md
category: reference
title: Robot ethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot_ethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:12.612544+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: robot-ethics-20260505-0
summary:
== Empirical research == There is mixed evidence as to whether people judge robot behavior similarly to humans or not. Some evidence indicates that people view bad behavior negatively and good behavior positively regardless of whether the agent of the behavior is a human or a robot; however, robots receive less credit for good behavior and more blame for bad behavior. Other evidence suggests that malevolent behavior by robots is seen as more morally wrong than benevolent behavior is seen as morally right; malevolent robot behavior is seen as more intentional than benevolent behavior. In general, people's moral judgments of both robots and humans are based on the same justifications and concepts but people have different moral expectations when judging humans and robots. Research has also found that when people try to interpret and understand how robots decide to behave in a particular way, they may see robots as using rules of thumb (advance the self, do what is right, advance others, do what is logical, and do what is normal). == See also == Ethics of artificial intelligence Plug & Pray – 2010 film by Jens Schanze Union of Concerned Scientists – U.S.-based nonprofit organization == References == ==


id: scientists-against-nuclear-arms-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientists_against_Nuclear_Arms-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientists against Nuclear Arms
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientists_against_Nuclear_Arms
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:13.895006+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientists-against-nuclear-arms-20260505-0
summary:
Scientists against Nuclear Arms (SANA) was formed in 1981 by the physicist and peace activist Mike Pentz together with Steven Rose, both academics at the Open University, to oppose nuclear arms. SANA was one of the forerunner organisations of Scientists for Global Responsibility (SGR). == See also == Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament Anti-nuclear movement Anti-war European Nuclear Disarmament Independent Nuclear Disarmament Election Committee International Coalition to Ban Uranium Weapons Nuclear disarmament Nuclear-Free Future Award Nuclear Information Service Nuclear proliferation Peace movement == References ==


id: scientists-for-global-responsibility-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientists_for_Global_Responsibility-0.md
category: reference
title: Scientists for Global Responsibility
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientists_for_Global_Responsibility
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:15.068729+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: scientists-for-global-responsibility-20260505-0
summary:
Scientists for Global Responsibility (SGR) in the United Kingdom promotes the ethical practice and use of science, design and technology. SGR is affiliated to the International Network of Engineers and Scientists for Global Responsibility (INES). It is an independent UK-based membership organisation of hundreds of natural scientists, social scientists, engineers, IT professionals and architects. In 2017 its partner organization ICAN (International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons) won the Nobel Peace Prize. ICAN have promoted a Kurzgesagt YouTube video endorsed by the International Committee of the Red Cross and Crescent (ICRC) showing the consequences of a single atomic weapon exploded over a city. SGR's work is focused on four main issues: security and disarmament; climate change and energy, including nuclear power; who controls science and technology?; emerging technologies. The main areas of concern are arms and arms control, including military involvement in UK universities; effect of excessive greenhouse gas emissions on climate; the nature of war and reducing barbarity; topsoil and water shortages resulting from modern agricultural methods; depletion of species of fish due to over-fishing; continual spread of nuclear weapons, and reduction of occurrence of serious nuclear accidents. In 2019 SGR launched the journal Responsible Science. SGR evaluates the risk


id: kristin-shrader-frechette-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristin_Shrader-Frechette-0.md
category: reference
title: Kristin Shrader-Frechette
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristin_Shrader-Frechette
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:20.724658+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: kristin-shrader-frechette-20260505-0
summary:
Kristin Shrader-Frechette (born 1944) is O'Neill Family Professor, Department of Biological Sciences and Department of Philosophy, at the University of Notre Dame. She has previously held senior professorships at the University of California and the University of Florida. Most of Shrader-Frechette's research work analyzes the ethical problems in risk assessment, public health, or environmental justice - especially those related to radiological, ecological, and energy-related risks. Shrader-Frechette coined the phrase “ecological justice” more than 40 years ago, with the term changing to “environmental justice” over time. Among other things, "environmental injustice" references situations in which certain groups bear disproportionate environmental risks, have unequal access to goods like clean air or water, or have unequal voices in determining the imposition of environmental risks. Shrader-Frechette, who is considered one of the founders of the environmental justice movement, was also an early advocate of the concept of “intergenerational equity,” the idea that the environmental problems of future generations are also significant to the current generation. Shrader-Frechette has received the Global Citizenship Award, and the Catholic Digest named her one of 12 "Heroes for the US and the World." == Education == Kristin Shrader-Frechette studied physics at Xavier University and graduated (summa cum laude) in


id: stefan-lorenz-sorgner-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefan_Lorenz_Sorgner-0.md
category: reference
title: Stefan Lorenz Sorgner
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefan_Lorenz_Sorgner
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:22.001433+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: stefan-lorenz-sorgner-20260505-0
summary:
Stefan Lorenz Sorgner (born 15 October 1973) is a German philosopher whose main interests are transhumanism, posthumanism, and the ethics of emerging technologies. He is Professor of Philosophy at John Cabot University in Rome and the Editor-in-Chief and Founding Editor of the Journal of Posthuman Studies. == Early life and education == Sorgner was born on 15 October 1973 in Wetzlar, Germany. He studied philosophy at King's College London. He subsequently earned a master's degree by thesis at the University of Durham. He later completed his doctorate at the University of Jena, under the supervision of Wolfgang Welsch and Gianni Vattimo. == Career and research == Sorgner's work focuses on contemporary philosophical issues related to posthumanism, transhumanism, and the ethics of emerging technologies. Influenced by Friedrich Nietzsche, he has explored parallels between Nietzsche’s concept of the Übermensch and modern transhumanist thought. In 2009, Sorgner published an article in the Journal of Evolution and Technology arguing that Nietzsche’s Übermensch shares conceptual similarities with the posthuman figure in some strands of transhumanist theory. The article initiated a debate within both Nietzsche scholarship and the transhumanist community. A special issue of the journal, titled Nietzsche and European Posthumanisms, was later published to investigate


id: space-ethics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_ethics-0.md
category: reference
title: Space ethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_ethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:23.169627+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: space-ethics-20260505-0
summary:
Space ethics, astroethics or astrobioethics is a discipline of applied ethics that discusses the moral and ethical implications arising from astrobiological research, space exploration and space flight. It deals with practical contemporary issues like the protection of the space environment and hypothetical future issues pertaining to our interaction with extraterrestrial life forms. Specific issues of space ethics include space debris mitigation, the militarization of space and the ethics of SETI and METI, but also more theoretical topics like space colonization, terraforming, directed panspermia and space mining. The field also concerns itself with more fundamental moral questions, such as the value of abiotic environments in space, the intrinsic value of extraterrestrial life, and how humans should treat extraterrestrial non-intelligent life (like microbes) and extraterrestrial intelligent life (and whether this distinction should be made in the first place). Astroethical issues are often discussed as elements of broader issues such as general environmental protection and imperialism. Astroethics have been described as an emerging discipline gaining in attention, a "necessity for astrobiology" and a "true issue for the future of astrobiology". == Ethical guidelines for space exploration == === Planetary Protection === A guiding principle in astroethics is that of Planetary Protection (PP), which


id: space-ethics-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_ethics-1.md
category: reference
title: Space ethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_ethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:23.169627+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: space-ethics-20260505-0
summary:
=== Weaponizing space === In 1967, the Outer Space Treaty was signed, spurred by the development of intercontinental ballistic missiles, the Soviet Union's launch of Sputnik, the first artificial satellite, and the following arms race with the United States. The treaty outlaws all kinds of military action (including weapon tests) in space, limits the use of space to peaceful purposes only and ensures that all nations on Earth are free to explore space. This treaty has since been called into question multiple times, especially by President of the United States Donald Trump. On June 18, 2018, Trump announced plans to establish a space force, which would constitute a new, sixth branch of the United States military. He expressed that "When it comes to defending America, it is not enough to merely have an American presence in space. We must have American dominance in space". On December 20, 2019, the United States Space Force Act was signed into law with votes from both Democratic and Republican senators and House members. As a result, the United States Space Force was founded. This was seen by some as an American contestation of the Outer Space Treaty. Viktor Bondarev, chair of the Federation Council


id: techno-progressivism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Techno-progressivism-0.md
category: reference
title: Techno-progressivism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Techno-progressivism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:24.466424+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: techno-progressivism-20260505-0
summary:
Techno-progressivism, or tech-progressivism, is a stance of active support for the convergence of technological change and social change. Techno-progressives argue that technological developments can be profoundly empowering and emancipatory when they are regulated by legitimate democratic and accountable authorities to ensure that their costs, risks and benefits are all fairly shared by the actual stakeholders to those developments. One of the first mentions of techno-progressivism appeared within extropian jargon in 1999 as the removal of "all political, cultural, biological, and psychological limits to self-actualization and self-realization". == Stance == Techno-progressivism maintains that accounts of progress should focus on scientific and technical dimensions, as well as ethical and social ones. For most techno-progressive perspectives, then, the growth of scientific knowledge or the accumulation of technological powers will not represent the achievement of proper progress unless and until it is accompanied by a just distribution of the costs, risks, and benefits of these new knowledges and capacities. At the same time, for most techno-progressive critics and advocates, the achievement of better democracy, greater fairness, less violence, and a wider rights culture are all desirable, but inadequate in themselves to confront the quandaries of contemporary technological societies unless and until they are accompanied


id: technocriticism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technocriticism-0.md
category: reference
title: Technocriticism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technocriticism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:25.656529+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technocriticism-20260505-0
summary:
Technocriticism is a branch of critical theory devoted to the study of technological change. Technocriticism treats technological transformation as historically specific changes in personal and social practices of research, invention, regulation, distribution, promotion, appropriation, use, and discourse, rather than as an autonomous or socially indifferent accumulation of useful inventions, or as an uncritical narrative of linear "progress", "development" or "innovation". Technocriticism studies these personal and social practices in their changing practical and cultural significance. It documents and analyzes both their private and public uses, and often devotes special attention to the relations among these different uses and dimensions. Recurring themes in technocritical discourse include the deconstruction of essentialist concepts such as "health", "human", "nature" or "norm". Technocritical theory can be either "descriptive" or "prescriptive" in tone. Descriptive forms of technocriticism include some scholarship in the history of technology, science and technology studies, cyberculture studies and philosophy of technology. More prescriptive forms of technocriticism can be found in the various branches of technoethics, for example, media criticism, infoethics, bioethics, neuroethics, roboethics, nanoethics, existential risk assessment and some versions of environmental ethics and environmental design theory. Figures engaged in technocritical scholarship and theory include Donna Haraway and Bruno Latour (who work in


id: technorealism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technorealism-0.md
category: reference
title: Technorealism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technorealism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:26.878607+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: technorealism-20260505-0
summary:
Technorealism is an attempt to expand the middle ground between techno-utopianism and Neo-Luddism by assessing the social and political implications of technologies so that people might all have more control over the shape of their future. An account cited that technorealism emerged in the early 1990s and was introduced by Douglas Rushkoff and Andrew Shapiro. In the Technorealism manifesto, which described the term as a new generation of cultural criticism, it was stated that the goal was not to promote or dismiss technology but to understand it so the application could be aligned with basic human values. Technorealism suggests that a technology, however revolutionary it may seem, remains a continuation of similar revolutions throughout human history. == Approach == The technorealist approach involves a continuous critical examination of how technologies might help or hinder people in the struggle to improve the quality of their lives, their communities, and their economic, social, and political structures. In addition, instead of policy wonks, experts, and the elite, it is the technology critic who assumes the center stage in the discourse of technology policy issues. Although technorealism began with a focus on U.S.-based concerns about information technology, it has evolved into an international intellectual


id: ten-commandments-of-computer-ethics-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ten_Commandments_of_Computer_Ethics-0.md
category: reference
title: Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ten_Commandments_of_Computer_Ethics
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:28.199425+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ten-commandments-of-computer-ethics-20260505-0
summary:
The Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics were created in 1992 by the Washington, D.C.–based Computer Ethics Institute. The commandments were introduced in the paper "In Pursuit of a 'Ten Commandments' for Computer Ethics" by Ramon C. Barquin as a means to create "a set of standards to guide and instruct people in the ethical use of computers." They follow the Internet Advisory Board's memo on ethics from 1987. The Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics copies the archaic style of the Ten Commandments from the King James Bible. The commandments have been widely quoted in computer ethics literature but also have been criticized by both the hacker community and some in academia. For instance, Dr. Ben Fairweather of the Centre for Computing and Social Responsibility has described them as "simplistic" and overly restrictive. ISC2, one of the thought leaders in the information security industry, has referred to the commandments in developing its own ethics rules. == The Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics == Thou shalt not use a computer to harm other people. Thou shalt not interfere with other people's computer work. Thou shalt not snoop around in other people's computer files. Thou shalt not use a computer to steal. Thou


id: ethics-of-terraforming-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_terraforming-0.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of terraforming
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_terraforming
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:29.448939+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-terraforming-20260505-0
summary:
The ethics of terraforming has constituted a philosophical debate within biology, ecology, and environmental ethics as to whether terraforming other worlds is an ethical endeavor. == Support == On the pro-terraforming side of the argument, there are those like Robert Zubrin and Richard L. S. Taylor who believe that it is humanity's moral obligation to make other worlds suitable for Terran life, as a continuation of the history of life transforming the environments around it on Earth. They also point out that Earth will eventually be destroyed as nature takes its course, so that humanity faces a long-term choice between terraforming other worlds or allowing all Earth life to become extinct. Dr. Zubrin further argues that even if native microbes have arisen on Mars, for example, the fact that they have not progressed beyond the microbe stage by this point, halfway through the lifetime of the Sun, is a strong indicator that they never will; and that if microbial life exists on Mars, it is likely related to Earth life through a common origin on one of the two planets, which spread to the other as an example of panspermia. Since Mars life would then not be fundamentally unrelated to


id: ethics-of-terraforming-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_terraforming-1.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of terraforming
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_terraforming
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:29.448939+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-terraforming-20260505-0
summary:
If we discover living or dormant organisms on Mars and these forms represent a different type of life than the life we have on Earth, then we should not bring life from Earth to Mars. Instead, we should alter the Martian environment so that this native Martian life can expand to fill a planetary scale biosphere. [...] [I]t is essential to maintain the categorical distinction between killing individual microorganisms and extinguishing an entire alternative system of life. There is no logical argument against killing microorganisms per se, either for research, medical, sanitary, or even casual reasons. However [...] it does not logically follow that destroying or displacing the first example of life beyond Earth is acceptable if the only examples of that life are microscopic. [...] If we terraformed Mars to allow the expansion of that life we would then reap the maximum benefits from the scientific study of that life form and its development into a full scale global biosphere. We would also enjoy the educational and [aesthetic] benefits of life in a biologically richer solar system. Even this "help" would be seen as a type of terraforming to the strictest of ecocentrists, who would say that all life


id: ethics-of-terraforming-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_terraforming-2.md
category: reference
title: Ethics of terraforming
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics_of_terraforming
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:29.448939+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ethics-of-terraforming-20260505-0
summary:
== Ethics of terraforming in fiction == A fairly thorough non-fictional analysis of the ethics of terraforming is also presented under the guise of the fictional Mars trilogy by Kim Stanley Robinson, particularly between the characters Ann Clayborne and Sax Russell, with Clayborne epitomizing an ecocentric ethic of non-interference and Russell embodying the anthropocentric belief in the virtue of terraforming. The idea of interplanetary colonization and its ethical implications are also explored by C.S. Lewis in the first book of his Space Trilogy Out of the Silent Planet published in 1938. The plot of the 1982 film Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan is based around the use of the so-called "Genesis Device" to create the conditions and organic building-blocks for life on previously lifeless planets. In debating the ethics of the device, Dr. McCoy, Spock and Admiral Kirk reflect on the Device's ability to replace any existing lifeforms with "its new matrix". McCoy describes the ethics of the Device in the following terms: "According to myth, the Earth was created in six days. Now watch out - here comes Genesis! We'll do it for you in six minutes!" The technology is shown to be flawed in the 1984


id: tescreal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TESCREAL-0.md
category: reference
title: TESCREAL
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TESCREAL
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:30.691934+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tescreal-20260505-0
summary:
TESCREAL is a neologism proposed by computer scientist Timnit Gebru and philosopher Émile P. Torres. An acronym, it stands for Transhumanism, Extropianism, Singularitarianism, (modern) Cosmism, Rationalists (the internet community, not to be confused with other uses of the term), Effective Altruism, and Longtermism. Gebru and Torres argue that these ideologies should be treated as an "interconnected and overlapping" group with shared origins. They claim these constitute a movement that allows its proponents to use the threat of human extinction to justify expensive or detrimental projects and consider it pervasive in social and academic circles in Silicon Valley centered on artificial intelligence. As such, the acronym is sometimes used to criticize a perceived belief system associated with Big Tech. == Origin == Gebru and Torres proposed the term "TESCREAL" in 2023, first using it in a draft of a paper titled "The TESCREAL bundle: Eugenics and the promise of utopia through artificial general intelligence". First Monday published the paper in April 2024, though Torres and Gebru popularized the term elsewhere before the paper's publication. According to Gebru and Torres, transhumanism, extropianism, singularitarianism, (modern) cosmism, rationalism, effective altruism, and longtermism are a "bundle" of "interconnected and overlapping ideologies" that emerged from 20th-century


id: tescreal-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TESCREAL-1.md
category: reference
title: TESCREAL
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TESCREAL
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:30.691934+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tescreal-20260505-0
summary:
=== Criticism and debate === Writing in Asterisk, a magazine related to effective altruism, Ozy Brennan criticized Gebru's and Torres's grouping of different philosophies as if they were a "monolithic" movement. Brennan argues Torres has misunderstood these different philosophies, and has taken philosophical thought experiments out of context. Similarly, Oliver Habryka of LessWrong has criticized the concept, saying: "I've never in my life met a cosmist; apparently I'm great friends with them. Apparently, I'm like in cahoots [with them]." At Radio New Zealand, politics writer Danyl McLauchlan said that while some members of these groups want to engineer superhumans, others, like the effective altruists (who generally want to help the poor), are astounded to be lumped into a malevolent eugenics conspiracy. James Pethokoukis, of the American Enterprise Institute, disagrees with criticizing proponents of TESCREAL. He argues that the tech billionaires criticized in a Scientific American article for allegedly espousing TESCREAL have significantly advanced society. In the blog for the technoprogressive Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies, Eli Sennesh and James Hughes have argued that TESCREAL is a left-wing conspiracy theory that groups disparate philosophies together without understanding their mutually exclusive tenets. == Alleged adherents == In 2023, venture capitalist Marc


id: transhumanism-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism-0.md
category: reference
title: Transhumanism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:32.037729+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transhumanism-20260505-0
summary:
Transhumanism is a philosophical movement that advocates the enhancement of the human condition by developing and making widely available new and future technologies to enhance longevity, cognition, and well-being. Influenced by seminal works of science fiction, the transhumanist vision of a transformed future humanity has many supporters and detractors from a wide range of perspectives, including philosophy and religion. Some critics argue that transhumanism amounts to little more than a "rebranding" of eugenics. Transhumanist thinkers discuss the potential benefits and dangers of emerging technologies that could overcome fundamental human limitations, as well as the ethics of using such technologies. Some transhumanists speculate that human beings may eventually be able to transform themselves into beings of such vastly greater abilities as to merit being called "posthuman". Another topic of transhumanist discourse is how to protect humanity against existential risks, including artificial general intelligence, asteroid impact, gray goo, pandemic, societal collapse, and nuclear warfare. The biologist Julian Huxley popularised the term "transhumanism" in a 1957 essay. The contemporary meaning of the term was foreshadowed by one of the first professors of futurology, a man who changed his name to FM-2030. In the 1960s, he taught "new concepts of the human" at The


id: transhumanism-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism-1.md
category: reference
title: Transhumanism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:32.037729+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transhumanism-20260505-0
summary:
Japanese Metabolist architects produced a manifesto in 1960 which outlined goals to "encourage active metabolic development of our society" through design and technology. In the Material and Man section of the manifesto, Noboru Kawazoe suggests that:After several decades, with the rapid progress of communication technology, every one will have a "brain wave receiver" in his ear, which conveys directly and exactly what other people think about him and vice versa. What I think will be known by all the people. There is no more individual consciousness, only the will of mankind as a whole. === Artificial intelligence and the technological singularity === The concept of the technological singularity, or the ultra-rapid advent of superhuman intelligence, was first proposed by the British cryptologist I. J. Good in 1965: Let an ultraintelligent machine be defined as a machine that can far surpass all the intellectual activities of any man however clever. Since the design of machines is one of these intellectual activities, an ultraintelligent machine could design even better machines; there would then unquestionably be an "intelligence explosion," and the intelligence of man would be left far behind. Thus the first ultraintelligent machine is the last invention that man need ever make.


id: transhumanism-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism-2.md
category: reference
title: Transhumanism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:32.037729+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transhumanism-20260505-0
summary:
The intellectual and cultural movement that affirms the possibility and desirability of fundamentally improving the human condition through applied reason, especially by developing and making widely available technologies to eliminate aging and to greatly enhance human intellectual, physical, and psychological capacities. The study of the ramifications, promises, and potential dangers of technologies that will enable us to overcome fundamental human limitations, and the related study of the ethical matters involved in developing and using such technologies. In possible contrast with other transhumanist organizations, WTA officials considered that social forces could undermine their futurist visions and needed to be addressed. A particular concern is equal access to human enhancement technologies across classes and borders. In 2006, a political struggle within the transhumanist movement between the libertarian right and the liberal left resulted in a more centre-leftward positioning of the WTA under its former executive director James Hughes. In 2006, the board of directors of the Extropy Institute ceased operations of the organization, saying that its mission was "essentially completed". This left the World Transhumanist Association as the leading international transhumanist organization. In 2008, as part of a rebranding effort, the WTA changed its name to "Humanity+". In 2012, the transhumanist Longevity


id: transhumanism-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism-3.md
category: reference
title: Transhumanism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:32.037729+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transhumanism-20260505-0
summary:
While many transhumanist theorists and advocates seek to apply reason, science and technology to reduce poverty, disease, disability, and malnutrition around the globe, transhumanism is distinctive in its particular focus on the applications of technologies to the improvement of human bodies at the individual level. Many transhumanists actively assess the potential for future technologies and innovative social systems to improve the quality of all life, while seeking to make the material reality of the human condition fulfill the promise of legal and political equality by eliminating congenital mental and physical barriers. Transhumanist philosophers argue that there not only exists a perfectionist ethical imperative for humans to strive for progress and improvement of the human condition, but that it is possible and desirable for humanity to enter a transhuman phase of existence in which humans enhance themselves beyond what is naturally human. In such a phase, natural evolution would be replaced with deliberate participatory or directed evolution. Some theorists such as Ray Kurzweil think that the pace of technological innovation is accelerating and that the next 50 years may yield not only radical technological advances, but possibly a technological singularity, which may fundamentally change the nature of human beings. Transhumanists who


id: transhumanism-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism-4.md
category: reference
title: Transhumanism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:32.037729+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transhumanism-20260505-0
summary:
=== Spirituality === Although many transhumanists are atheists, agnostics, or secular humanists, some have religious or spiritual views. Despite the prevailing secular attitude, some transhumanists pursue hopes traditionally espoused by religions, such as immortality, while several controversial new religious movements from the late 20th century, such as Raëlism, explicitly embrace the transhumanist goal to transform the human condition by using technology to alter the mind and body. But most thinkers associated with transhumanism focus on the practical goals of using technology to help achieve longer and healthier lives, while speculating that future understanding of neurotheology and the application of neurotechnology will enable humans to gain greater control of altered states of consciousness, which were commonly interpreted as spiritual experiences, and thus achieve more profound self-knowledge. Transhumanist Buddhists have sought to explore areas of agreement between various types of Buddhism and Buddhist-derived meditation and mind-expanding neurotechnologies. They have been criticised for appropriating mindfulness as a tool for transcending humanness. Some transhumanists believe the human mind and computer hardware are compatible, with the theoretical implication that human consciousness may someday be transferred to alternative media (a technique commonly known as mind uploading). One extreme formulation of this idea that interests some transhumanists


id: transhumanism-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism-5.md
category: reference
title: Transhumanism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:32.037729+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transhumanism-20260505-0
summary:
== Practice == While some transhumanists such as Ray Kurzweil and Hans Moravec take an abstract and theoretical approach to the perceived benefits of emerging technologies, others have offered specific proposals for modifications to the human body, including heritable ones. Transhumanists are often concerned with methods of enhancing the human nervous system. Though some, such as Kevin Warwick, propose modification of the peripheral nervous system, the brain is considered the common denominator of personhood and is thus a primary focus of transhumanist ambitions. In fact, Warwick has gone a lot further than merely making a proposal. In 2002 he had a 100 electrode array surgically implanted into the median nerves of his left arm to link his nervous system directly with a computer and thus to also connect with the internet. As a consequence, he carried out a series of experiments. He was able to directly control a robot hand using his neural signals and to feel the force applied by the hand through feedback from the fingertips. He also experienced a form of ultrasonic sensory input and conducted the first purely electronic communication between his own nervous system and that of his wife who also had electrodes implanted. As


id: transhumanism-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism-6.md
category: reference
title: Transhumanism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:32.037729+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transhumanism-20260505-0
summary:
== Debate == The very notion and prospect of human enhancement and related issues arouse public controversy. Criticisms of transhumanism and its proposals take two main forms: those objecting to the likelihood of transhumanist goals being achieved (practical criticisms) and those objecting to the moral principles or worldview sustaining transhumanist proposals or underlying transhumanism itself (ethical criticisms). Critics and opponents often see transhumanists' goals as posing threats to human values. The human enhancement debate is, for some, framed by the opposition between strong bioconservatism and transhumanism. The former opposes any form of human enhancement, whereas the latter advocates for all possible human enhancements. But many philosophers hold a more nuanced view in favour of some enhancements while rejecting the transhumanist carte blanche approach. Transhumanists argue that parents have a moral responsibility called procreative beneficence to make use of these methods, if and when they are shown to be reasonably safe and effective, to have the healthiest children possible. They believe this responsibility is a moral judgment best left to individual conscience, rather than imposed by law, in all but extreme cases. In this context, the emphasis on freedom of choice is called procreative liberty. Some of the best-known critiques of


id: transhumanism-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism-7.md
category: reference
title: Transhumanism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:32.037729+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transhumanism-20260505-0
summary:
=== Intrinsic immorality === Some argue that, in transhumanist thought, humans attempt to substitute themselves for God. The 2002 Vatican statement Communion and Stewardship: Human Persons Created in the Image of God, stated that "changing the genetic identity of man as a human person through the production of an infrahuman being is radically immoral", implying, that "man has full right of disposal over his own biological nature". The statement also argues that creation of a superhuman or spiritually superior being is "unthinkable", since true improvement can come only through religious experience and "realizing more fully the image of God". Christian theologians and lay activists of several churches and denominations have expressed similar objections to transhumanism and claimed that Christians attain in the afterlife what radical transhumanism promises, such as indefinite life extension or the abolition of suffering. In this view, transhumanism is just another representative of the long line of utopian movements which seek to create "heaven on earth". On the other hand, religious thinkers allied with transhumanist goals such as the theologians Ronald Cole-Turner and Ted Peters hold that the doctrine of "co-creation" provides an obligation to use genetic engineering to improve human biology. Other critics target what they


id: transhumanism-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism-8.md
category: reference
title: Transhumanism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:32.037729+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transhumanism-20260505-0
summary:
In his 2003 book Enough: Staying Human in an Engineered Age, environmental ethicist Bill McKibben argued at length against many of the technologies that are postulated or supported by transhumanists, including germinal choice technology, nanomedicine and life extension strategies. He claims that it would be morally wrong for humans to tamper with fundamental aspects of themselves (or their children) in an attempt to overcome universal human limitations, such as vulnerability to aging, maximum life span and biological constraints on physical and cognitive ability. Attempts to "improve" themselves through such manipulation would remove limitations that provide a necessary context for the experience of meaningful human choice. He claims that human lives would no longer seem meaningful in a world where such limitations could be overcome technologically. Even the goal of using germinal choice technology for clearly therapeutic purposes should be relinquished, since it would inevitably produce temptations to tamper with such things as cognitive capacities. He argues that it is possible for societies to benefit from renouncing particular technologies, using as examples Ming China, Tokugawa Japan and the contemporary Amish. Biopolitical activist Jeremy Rifkin and biologist Stuart Newman accept that biotechnology has the power to make profound changes in organismal identity.


id: transhumanism-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism-9.md
category: reference
title: Transhumanism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:32.037729+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transhumanism-20260505-0
summary:
=== Socioeconomic effects === Some critics of libertarian transhumanism have focused on the likely socioeconomic consequences in societies in which divisions between rich and poor are on the rise. Bill McKibben, for example, suggests that emerging human enhancement technologies would be disproportionately available to those with greater financial resources, thereby exacerbating the gap between rich and poor and creating a "genetic divide". Even Lee M. Silver, the biologist and science writer who coined the term "reprogenetics" and supports its applications, has expressed concern that these methods could create a two-tiered society of genetically engineered "haves" and "have nots" if social democratic reforms lag behind implementation of enhancement technologies. The 1997 film Gattaca depicts a dystopian society in which one's social class depends entirely on genetic potential and is often cited by critics in support of these views. These criticisms are also voiced by non-libertarian transhumanist advocates, especially self-described democratic transhumanists, who believe that the majority of current or future social and environmental issues (such as unemployment and resource depletion) must be addressed by a combination of political and technological solutions (like a guaranteed minimum income and alternative technology). Therefore, on the specific issue of an emerging genetic divide due to


id: transhumanism-20260505-10
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism-10.md
category: reference
title: Transhumanism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:32.037729+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transhumanism-20260505-0
summary:
The tradition of human enhancement originated with the eugenics movement that was once prominent in the biological sciences, and was later politicized in various ways. This continuity is especially clear in the case of Julian Huxley himself. The major transhumanist organizations strongly condemn the coercion involved in such policies and reject the racist and classist assumptions on which they were based, along with the pseudoscientific notions that eugenic improvements could be accomplished in a practically meaningful time frame through selective human breeding. Instead, most transhumanist thinkers advocate a "new eugenics", a form of egalitarian liberal eugenics. In their 2000 book From Chance to Choice: Genetics and Justice, non-transhumanist bioethicists Allen Buchanan, Dan Brock, Norman Daniels and Daniel Wikler have argued that liberal societies have an obligation to encourage as wide an adoption of eugenic enhancement technologies as possible (so long as such policies do not infringe on individuals' reproductive rights or exert undue pressures on prospective parents to use these technologies) to maximize public health and minimize the inequalities that may result from both natural genetic endowments and unequal access to genetic enhancements. Most transhumanists holding similar views nonetheless distance themselves from the term "eugenics" (preferring "germinal choice" or "reprogenetics")


id: transhumanism-20260505-11
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism-11.md
category: reference
title: Transhumanism
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanism
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:32.037729+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transhumanism-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == Adorno, Francesco Paolo (2021). The Transhumanist Movement. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-3-030-82423-5. Bell, Duncan; Taillandier, Apolline (2025). "Cosmos-Politanism: Transhumanist Visions of Global Order from the First World War to the Digital Age". Perspectives on Politics. 23 (3): 1071–1088. doi:10.1017/S1537592724001051. Cole-Turner, Ronald, ed. (2011). Transhumanism and transcendence: Christian hope in an age of technological enhancement. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. ISBN 978-1-58901-780-1. Frodeman, R. (2019). Transhumanism, Nature, and the Ends of Science. United Kingdom: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-367-18939-6. Hansell, Gregory R; Grassie, William, eds. (2011). H+/-: Transhumanism and Its Critics. Philadelphia: Metanexus Institute. ISBN 978-1-45681-567-7. Oliver Krüger: Virtual Immortality: God, Evolution, and the Singularity in Post- and Transhumanism. Bielefeld: transcript 2021. ISBN 978-3-8376-5059-4. Maher, Derek F.; Mercer, Calvin, eds. (2009). Religion and the implications of radical life extension (1st ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-10072-5. Lee, Newton, ed. (2019). The Transhumanism Handbook. Springer Cham. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-16920-6. ISBN 978-3-030-16920-6. Mercer, Calvin; Trothen, Tracy, eds. (2014). Religion and transhumanism: the unknown future of human enhancement. Westport, CT: Praeger. ISBN 978-1-4408-3325-0. Mercer, Calvin; Maher, Derek, eds. (2014). Transhumanism and the Body: The World Religions Speak. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-137-36583-5. More, Max; Vita-More, Natasha, eds. (2013). The Transhumanist Reader: Classical


id: tunnel-problem-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_problem-0.md
category: reference
title: Tunnel problem
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunnel_problem
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:37.727146+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: tunnel-problem-20260505-0
summary:
The tunnel problem is a philosophical thought experiment first introduced by Jason Millar in 2014. It is a variation on the classic trolley problem designed to focus on the ethics of autonomous vehicles, as well as the question of who gets to decide how they react in life-and-death scenarios. == Original formulation == The tunnel problem is intended to draw one's attention to a specific issue in design/engineering ethics, and was first presented as follows: Tunnel Problem: You are travelling along a single lane mountain road in an autonomous car that is fast approaching a narrow tunnel. Just before entering the tunnel a child attempts to run across the road but trips in the center of the lane, effectively blocking the entrance to the tunnel. The car has but two options: hit and kill the child, or swerve into the wall on either side of the tunnel, thus killing you. How should the car react? Similar thought experiments have been brought forth by other philosophers focusing on the topic of autonomous cars. The premise of these thought experiments is that even with highly sophisticated self-driving-car technologies, the cars will face situations where harm cannot be avoided. == Purpose == The


id: vehicular-automation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation-0.md
category: reference
title: Vehicular automation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:39.053882+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vehicular-automation-20260505-0
summary:
Vehicular automation is using technology to assist or replace the operator of a vehicle such as a car, truck, aircraft, rocket, military vehicle, or boat. Assisted vehicles are semi-autonomous, whereas vehicles that can travel without a human operator are autonomous. The degree of autonomy may be subject to various constraints such as conditions. Autonomy is enabled by advanced driver-assistance systems (ADAS) of varying capacity. Related technology includes advanced software, maps, vehicle changes, and outside vehicle support. The benefits of viewing automated driving from a sociotechnical systems perspective has been discussed. Autonomy presents varying issues for road, air, and marine travel. Roads present the most significant complexity given the unpredictability of the driving environment, including diverse road designs, driving conditions, traffic, obstacles, and geographical/cultural differences. Autonomy implies that the vehicle is responsible for all perception, monitoring, and control functions. == SAE autonomy levels == == Technology == === Software === Autonomous vehicle software generally contains several different modules that work together to enable self-driving capabilities. The perception module ingests and processes data from various sensors, such cameras, LIDAR, RADAR, and ultrasonic SONAR, to create a comprehensive understanding of the vehicle's surroundings. The localization module uses 3D point cloud data, GPS, IMU,


id: vehicular-automation-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation-1.md
category: reference
title: Vehicular automation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:39.053882+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vehicular-automation-20260505-0
summary:
Ford offers Blue Cruise, technology that allows geofenced cars to drive autonomously. Drivers are directed to stay attentive, and safety warnings are implemented to alert the driver when corrective action is needed. Tesla, Incorporated has one recorded incident that resulted in a fatality involving the automated driving system in the Tesla Model S. The accident report reveals the accident was a result of the driver being inattentive and the autopilot system not recognizing the obstruction ahead. Tesla has also had multiple instances where the vehicle crashed into a garage door. According to the book "The Driver in the Driverless Car: How Your Technology Choices Create the Future," Tesla automatically performs an update overnight. The morning after the update, the driver used his app to "summon" his car, and it crashed into his garage door. Another flaw with automated driving systems is that unpredictable events, such as weather or the driving behavior of others, may cause fatal accidents due to sensors that monitor the surroundings of the vehicle not being able to provide corrective action. To overcome some of the challenges for automated driving systems, novel methodologies based on virtual testing, traffic flow simulation and digital prototypes have been proposed, especially


id: vehicular-automation-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation-2.md
category: reference
title: Vehicular automation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:39.053882+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vehicular-automation-20260505-0
summary:
Real-time testing of autonomous vehicles is an inevitable part of the process. At the same time, vehicular automation regulators are faced with challenges to protect public safety and yet allow autonomous vehicle companies to test their products. Groups representing autonomous vehicle companies are resisting most regulations, whereas groups representing vulnerable road users and traffic safety are pushing for regulatory barriers. To improve traffic safety, the regulators are encouraged to find a middle ground that protects the public from immature technology while allowing autonomous vehicle companies to test the implementation of their systems. Regulators face daunting challenges such as jurisdictional ambiguities, the rapid obsolescence of current technologies and the lack of future-looking cost-benefit data to support regulatory development. There have also been proposals to adopt the aviation automation safety regulatory knowledge into the discussions of safe implementation of autonomous vehicles, due to the experience that has been gained over the decades by the aviation sector on safety topics. == Ground vehicles == In some countries, specific laws and regulations apply to road traffic motor vehicles (such as cars, bus and trucks) while other laws and regulations apply to other ground vehicles such as tram, train or automated guided vehicles making them


id: vehicular-automation-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation-3.md
category: reference
title: Vehicular automation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:39.053882+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vehicular-automation-20260505-0
summary:
Assured Clear Distance Ahead Adaptive headlamps Advanced Automatic Collision Notification, such as OnStar Intelligent Parking Assist System Automatic Parking Automotive night vision with pedestrian detection Blind spot monitoring Driver Monitoring System Robotic car or self-driving car which may result in less-stressed "drivers", higher efficiency (the driver can do something else), increased safety and less pollution (e.g. via completely automated fuel control) Precrash system Safe speed governing Traffic sign recognition Following another car on a motorway – "enhanced" or "adaptive" cruise control, as used by Ford Motor Company and Vauxhall Distance control assist – as developed by Nissan Dead man's switch – there is a move to introduce deadman's braking into automotive application, primarily heavy vehicles, and there may also be a need to add penalty switches to cruise controls. Singapore also announced a set of provisional national standards on January 31, 2019, to guide the autonomous vehicle industry. The standards, known as Technical Reference 68 (TR68), will promote the safe deployment of fully driverless vehicles in Singapore, according to a joint press release by Enterprise Singapore (ESG), Land Transport Authority (LTA), Standards Development Organisation and Singapore Standards Council (SSC). === Shuttle === Since 1999, the 12-seat/10-standing ParkShuttle has been operating


id: vehicular-automation-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation-4.md
category: reference
title: Vehicular automation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:39.053882+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vehicular-automation-20260505-0
summary:
Autonomous buses are proposed, as well as self-driving cars and trucks. Grade 2 level automated minibusses were trialed for a few weeks in Stockholm. China has a small fleet of self-driving public buses in the tech district of Shenzhen, Guangdong. The first autonomous bus trial in the United Kingdom commenced in mid-2019, with an Alexander Dennis Enviro200 MMC single-decker bus modified with autonomous software from Fusion Processing able to operate in driverless mode within Stagecoach Manchester's Sharston bus depot, performing tasks such as driving to the washing station, refueling point and then parking at a dedicated parking space in the depot. Passenger-carrying driverless bus trials in Scotland commenced in January 2023, with a fleet of five identical vehicles to the Manchester trial used on a 14 miles (23 km) Stagecoach Fife park-and-ride route across the Forth Road Bridge, from the north bank of the Forth to Edinburgh Park station. Another autonomous trial in Oxfordshire, England, which uses a battery electric Fiat Ducato minibus on a circular service to Milton Park, operated by FirstBus with support from Fusion Processing, Oxfordshire County Council and the University of the West of England, entered full passenger service also in January 2023. The trial route


id: vehicular-automation-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation-5.md
category: reference
title: Vehicular automation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:39.053882+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vehicular-automation-20260505-0
summary:
== Aircraft == Aircraft have received much attention for automation, especially for navigation. A system capable of autonomously navigating a vehicle (especially aircraft) is known as autopilot. === Delivery drones === Various industries such as packages and food have experimented with delivery drones. Traditional and new transportation companies are competing in the market. For example, UPS Flight Forward, Alphabet Wing, and Amazon Prime Air are all developing delivery drones. Zipline, an American medical drone delivery company, has the largest active drone delivery operations in the world, and its drones are capable of Level 4 autonomy. However, even if technology seems to allow for those solutions to function correctly as various tests of various companies show, the main throwback to the market launch and use of such drones is inevitably the legislation in place and regulatory agencies have to decide on the framework they wish to take to draft regulation. This process is in different phases across the world as each country will tackle the topic independently. For example, Iceland's government and departments of transport, aviation, police have already started issuing licenses for drone operations. It has a permissive approach and together with Costa Rica, Italy, the UAE, Sweden and Norway,


id: vehicular-automation-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation-6.md
category: reference
title: Vehicular automation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicular_automation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:39.053882+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: vehicular-automation-20260505-0
summary:
=== Lack of control === Through the autonomy level, it is shown that the higher the level of autonomy, the less control humans have on their vehicles (highest level of autonomy needing zero human interventions). One concerns regarding the development of vehicular automation is related to the end-users' trust in the technology that controls automated vehicles. According to a nationally conducted survey made by Kelley Blue Book (KBB) in 2016, it was shown that the majority of people would choose to have a certain level of control behind their own vehicle rather than having the vehicle operate in Level 5 autonomy, or in other words, complete autonomy. According to half of the respondents, the idea of safety in an autonomous vehicle diminishes as the level of autonomy increases. This distrust of autonomous driving systems proved to be unchanged throughout the years when a nationwide survey conducted by AAA Foundation for Traffic and Safety (AAAFTS) in 2019 showed the same outcome as the survey KBB did in 2016. AAAFTS survey showed that even though people have a certain level of trust in automated vehicles, most people also have doubts and distrust towards the technology used in autonomous vehicles, with most distrust


id: violence-against-robots-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violence_against_robots-0.md
category: reference
title: Violence against robots
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violence_against_robots
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:40.280423+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: violence-against-robots-20260505-0
summary:
Violence against robots, also known as anti-robot attacks and robot abuse, is violence committed by humans against robots. These attacks can be motivated by personal emotions as well as practical or political concerns. Methods of violence include physically breaking the robot, tricking or confusing the robot, and impairing the robot's awareness of its environment. Examples of attacks against robots have been publicised in the press, including attacks against the hitchhiker robot hitchBOT, Knightscope K5 security robots, and more than 24 attacks on self-driving cars. Some companies, such as Starship Technologies, have attempted to discourage violence by creating robots that react in pain or distress when abused. However, researchers disagree on the ethics of using this strategy. == Definition == Brščić et al. define robot abuse as "persistent offensive action, either verbal or non-verbal, or physical violence that violates the robot's role or its human-like (or animal-like) nature". == Types of attack == The types of attacks include ones that aim to disable the robots, impair the robot's sensors and weaken its awareness of the environment, cause humans to believe that the robot has felt some form of humiliation or weakened social status (e.g. defacement), and attacks that verbally attack the


id: asian-science-camp-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_Science_Camp-0.md
category: reference
title: Asian Science Camp
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_Science_Camp
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:42.027710+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: asian-science-camp-20260505-0
summary:
The Asian Science Camp (ASC) is an annual forum for pre-collegiate and college students which aims at promoting discussion and cooperation among Asian students for the betterment of science in the Asian region. The first ASC was held at Taipei in 2007, and was subsequently held at Bali in 2008, Tsukuba in 2009, Mumbai in 2010, Daejeon in 2011, and Jerusalem in 2012, among others. This idea of an annual camp was co-proposed by Yuan Tseh Lee and Masatoshi Koshiba at the 2005 Lindau Nobel Laureate Meeting. The ASC is modeled after the Lindau meetings. == Background == The idea of the Asian Science Camp was co-proposed in September 2005 after the 55th Annual meeting of Nobel Laureates and Students in Lindau, Germany, by Professor Yuan Tseh Lee (1986 Nobel Laureate in Chemistry) from Chinese Taipei, and Professor Masatoshi Koshiba (2002 Nobel Laureate in Physics) from Japan. The proposal expressed the aim to enlighten science talented youths through discussions and dialogues with top scholars in the world, and promoting international friendship and cooperation among best young students of the next generation in Asia. The Lindau Meetings will serve as a model. The Asian Science Camp would invite a dozen Nobel


id: asilomar-conference-on-recombinant-dna-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asilomar_Conference_on_Recombinant_DNA-0.md
category: reference
title: Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asilomar_Conference_on_Recombinant_DNA
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:43.330016+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: asilomar-conference-on-recombinant-dna-20260505-0
summary:
The Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA was an influential conference organized by Paul Berg, Maxine Singer, and colleagues to discuss the potential biohazards and regulation of biotechnology, held in February 1975 at a conference center at Asilomar State Beach, California. A group of about 140 professionals (primarily biologists, but also including lawyers and physicians) participated in the conference to draw up voluntary guidelines to ensure the safety of recombinant DNA technology. The conference also placed scientific research more into the public domain, and can be seen as applying a version of the precautionary principle. The effects of these guidelines are still being felt through the biotechnology industry and the participation of the general public in scientific discourse. Due to potential safety hazards, scientists worldwide had halted experiments using recombinant DNA technology, which entailed combining DNAs from different organisms. After the establishment of the guidelines during the conference, scientists continued with their research, which increased fundamental knowledge about biology and the public's interest in biomedical research. == Background: recombinant DNA technology == Recombinant DNA technology arose as a result of advances in biology that began in the 1950s and '60s. During these decades, a tradition of merging the structural, biochemical and


id: asilomar-conference-on-recombinant-dna-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asilomar_Conference_on_Recombinant_DNA-1.md
category: reference
title: Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asilomar_Conference_on_Recombinant_DNA
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:43.330016+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: asilomar-conference-on-recombinant-dna-20260505-0
summary:
=== Recommendations given === The Asilomar Conference also gave recommendations for matching the types of containment necessary for different types of experiments. These recommendations were based on the different levels of risk associated with the experiment, which would require different levels of containment. These levels were minimal, low, moderate and high risk. The minimal risk level of containment was intended for experiments in which the biohazards could be accurately assessed and were expected to be minimal. Low risk containment was appropriate for experiments that generated novel biotypes but where the available information indicated that the recombinant DNA could not either alter appreciably the ecological behavior of the recipient species, increase significantly its pathogenicity or prevent effective treatments of any resulting infections. The moderate risk level of containment was intended for experiments in which there was a probability of generating an agent with a significant potential for pathogenicity or ecological disruption. High-risk containment was intended for experiments in which the potential for ecological disruption or pathogenicity of the modified organism could be severe and thereby pose a serious biohazard to laboratory personnel or to the public. These levels of containments, along with the previously mentioned safety measures, formed the basis for


id: asilomar-conference-on-recombinant-dna-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asilomar_Conference_on_Recombinant_DNA-2.md
category: reference
title: Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asilomar_Conference_on_Recombinant_DNA
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:43.330016+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: asilomar-conference-on-recombinant-dna-20260505-0
summary:
=== Science and the general public === The participants of the Asilomar Conference also endeavored to bring science into the domain of the general public, with a possible motivation being the Watergate scandal. That scandal resulted from a bungled break-in at the Watergate hotel in Washington, D.C., which served as the Democratic National Committee headquarters in 1972. Two years after the burglary, taped evidence was discovered that indicated that U.S. President Nixon had discussed a cover-up a week after it. Three days following the release of the tape, Nixon resigned from his presidential office. This event focused the nation's attention on the problem of government secrecy fostering illegal and immoral behavior and it has been suggested by the political scientist Ira H. Carmen that this motivated the scientists at the Asilomar Conference to bring science into the public eye to ensure that they would not be accused of a cover-up. Additionally, according to Dr. Berg and Dr. Singer, by being forthright, scientists avoided restrictive legislation due to the development of a consensus on how they were to conduct their research. Bringing science into the public eye also coincided with the rapid rate at which recombinant DNA technology entered the industrial


id: caf-scientifique-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Café_Scientifique-0.md
category: reference
title: Café Scientifique
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Café_Scientifique
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:44.480457+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: caf-scientifique-20260505-0
summary:
Café Scientifique currently exists in more than 60 towns and cities across the United Kingdom and world-wide. It was the idea of Duncan Dallas, from Leeds, who was impressed by the Café Philosophique session he saw in France. Café Scientifique is a place where, for the price of a cup of coffee or a glass of wine, anyone can come to explore the latest ideas in science and technology. Meetings take place in cafes, bars, restaurants and even theatres, but always outside a traditional academic context. The British Council has helped popularise Café Scientifique in several countries around the globe. Events tend to be independently run by local organisers in many cities using variations of the "Café Scientifique" or "Science Café" name. == Format == Typically, one monthly evening meeting is organised in a non-academic space such as a café or bar to which one or several scientists are invited to talk about their work in a topical or even controversial area. In Britain, most cafes follow a simple format in which the speaker introduces the topic, typically for 15–20 minutes, then there is a short break, followed by a longer period of questions and discussion. Typically, speakers do not


id: exploravision-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ExploraVision-0.md
category: reference
title: ExploraVision
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ExploraVision
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:45.739690+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: exploravision-20260505-0
summary:
ExploraVision is a scientific national contest held in the United States and Canada, a joint project by Toshiba Corporation and the National Science Teachers Association. Designed for K–12 students of all interest, skill and ability levels, ExploraVision encourages its participants to create and explore a vision of future technology by developing new ways to apply current science. Since 1992, more than 360,000 students from across the United States and Canada have competed. == Requirements == Each student is limited to one entry per year. Each team must have no more than 4 students. Students and teachers/mentors complete a Toshiba/NSTA ExploraVision Awards Entry Form, signed by the students, coach and mentor, an abstract of their project, a detailed project description, a list of technology used that is available at present time, a bibliography, and five Web page graphics that will be used later to create an official web page for the project. If a team advances to the national level, they will then be challenged with 3 other tasks: 1. Make a prototype displaying how their project would work. 2. Create a video showing both what your project does and why it would be useful. 3. Make a website based on


id: international-biology-olympiad-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Biology_Olympiad-0.md
category: reference
title: International Biology Olympiad
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Biology_Olympiad
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:46.897101+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-biology-olympiad-20260505-0
summary:
The International Biology Olympiad (IBO) is a biological olympiad for pre-university students under the age 20, and is one of the most well-known International Science Olympiads. The first IBO was held in Czechoslovakia in 1990, and it has since been held annually. The competition has gradually expanded to include more than 75 participating countries across five continents. All participating countries send the four winners of their National Biology Olympiad to the IBO, usually accompanied by two adults who are members of the international jury, for the duration of the competition. To select these top four life science contestants for this international competition, all member countries host Biology Olympiad competitions in typically 3-5 consecutively more difficult national competition rounds. As a consequence, this leads to a trickle-down effect, engaging more than 1 million students worldwide in life science each year. In 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the IBO (host: Japan) was organized virtually and was rated "a great success" and "highly successful" in the history of IBO because of its exceptional way of operation and the unique international group-based scientific project International Group Project 2020. In 2021, the COVID-19 pandemic forced the Portuguese IBO host to go virtual once again: the


id: international-conference-of-laser-applications-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Conference_of_Laser_Applications-0.md
category: reference
title: International Conference of Laser Applications
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Conference_of_Laser_Applications
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:48.209677+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-conference-of-laser-applications-20260505-0
summary:
The International Conference on Lasers and Applications, Lasers 'XX was an annual conference organized by the former Society for Optical and Quantum Electronics. The conference, known in short by Lasers 'XX (where XX refers to the particular year), was held at various locations in The United States from 1978 to 2000. The emphasis of these conferences was laser development and in particular the development of high-power lasers. The papers delivered at these conferences were published in a series of hard-bound volumes known as Proceedings of the International Conference on Lasers 'XX (ISSN 0190-4132) by STS Press. In total, more than 20 book proceedings were published. A particular feature of these conferences was the organization of high-power panel discussions on timely topics of interest, such as the role of lasers in directed energy and the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), during the presidency of Ronald Reagan. Noted physicists, including Edward Teller and Arthur Kantrowitz, participated in these discussions. Towards the end of the Cold War this conference enjoyed the participation of numerous Soviet laser physicists, including prominent authors such as Alexander Prokhorov and Nikolay Basov. A partial list of plenary and invited speakers include (in chronological order): Amnon Yariv, John Madey, Charles


id: international-geophysical-year-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Geophysical_Year-0.md
category: reference
title: International Geophysical Year
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Geophysical_Year
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:49.539732+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-geophysical-year-20260505-0
summary:
The International Geophysical Year (IGY; French: Année géophysique internationale), also referred to as the third International Polar Year, was an international scientific project that lasted from 1 July 1957 to 31 December 1958. It marked the end of a long period during the Cold War when scientific interchange between East and West had been seriously interrupted. Sixty-seven countries participated in IGY projects, although one notable exception was the mainland People's Republic of China, which was protesting against the participation of the Republic of China (Taiwan). East and West agreed to nominate the Belgian Marcel Nicolet as secretary general of the associated international organization. The IGY encompassed fourteen Earth science disciplines: aurora, airglow, cosmic rays, geomagnetism, gravity, ionospheric physics, longitude and latitude determinations (precision mapping), meteorology, oceanography, nuclear radiation, glaciology, seismology, rockets and satellites, and solar activity. The timing of the IGY was particularly suited for studying some of these phenomena, since it covered the peak of solar cycle 19. The Soviet Union and the U.S. both launched artificial satellites during the IGY; the Soviet Union's Sputnik 1, launched on October 4, 1957, was the first successful artificial satellite. Other significant achievements of the IGY included the discovery of the Van


id: international-geophysical-year-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Geophysical_Year-1.md
category: reference
title: International Geophysical Year
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Geophysical_Year
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:49.539732+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-geophysical-year-20260505-0
summary:
Although the 1932 Polar Year accomplished many of its goals, it fell short on others because of the advance of World War II. In fact, because of the war, much of the data collected and scientific analyses completed during the 1932 Polar Year were lost forever, something that was particularly troubling to the IGY organizing committee. The committee resolved that "all observational data shall be available to scientists and scientific institutions in all countries." They felt that without the free exchange of data across international borders, there would be no point in having an IGY. In April 1957, just three months before the IGY began, scientists representing the various disciplines of the IGY established the World Data Center system. The United States hosted World Data Center "A" and the Soviet Union hosted World Data Center "B". World Data Center "C" was subdivided among countries in Western Europe, Australia, and Japan. NOAA hosted seven of the fifteen World Data Centers in the United States. Each World Data Center would eventually archive a complete set of IGY data to deter losses prevalent during the International Polar Year of 1932. Each World Data Center was equipped to handle many different data formats, including


id: international-geophysical-year-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Geophysical_Year-2.md
category: reference
title: International Geophysical Year
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Geophysical_Year
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:49.539732+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-geophysical-year-20260505-0
summary:
== Arctic == Ice Skate 2 was a floating research station constructed and staffed by U.S. scientists. It mapped the bottom of the Arctic Ocean. Zeke Langdon was a meteorologist on the project. Ice Skate 2 was planned to be staffed in 6 month shifts, but due to soft ice surfaces for landing some crew members were stationed for much longer. At one point they lost all communications with anyone over their radios for one month except the expedition on the North Pole. At another point the ice sheet broke up and their fuel tanks started floating away from the base. They had to put pans under the plane engines as soon as they landed as any oil spots would go straight through the ice in the intense sunshine. Their only casualty was a man who got too close to the propeller with the oil pan. Norbert Untersteiner was the project leader for Drifting Station Alpha and in 2008 produced and narrated a documentary about the project for the National Snow and Ice Data Center. == Participating countries == The participating countries for the IGY included the following: == Legacy == In the end, the IGY was a resounding success,


id: international-year-of-basic-sciences-for-sustainable-development-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Year_of_Basic_Sciences_for_Sustainable_Development-0.md
category: reference
title: International Year of Basic Sciences for Sustainable Development
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Year_of_Basic_Sciences_for_Sustainable_Development
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:55.274465+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-year-of-basic-sciences-for-sustainable-development-20260505-0
summary:
The International Year of Basic Sciences for Sustainable Development was proclaimed by the 76th session of the United Nations General Assembly 2 December 2021 for 2022, stressing that the applications of basic sciences are vital for advances in medicine, industry, agriculture, water resources, energy planning, environment, communications and culture, and that basic sciences rupture technologies respond to the needs of humankind by providing access to information and increasing societal well-being, and promoting peace through improved collaboration toward Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The official opening ceremony of the year took place in UNESCO headquarters in Paris on 8 July 2022 and the official closure took place at CERN in Geneva on 15 December 2023, so in the end the UN observance lasted six months longer than initially foreseen. The International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP) and 28 other science unions and organizations constituted a Steering Committee, chaired by Michel Spiro with vice chairs Jean Trần Thanh Vân, and Prajval Shastri, which goal from 2017 was to promote the proclamation by the United Nations General Assembly of 2022 as the International Year for Basic Science for Sustainable Development. Over 80 other organizations, among them many national science academies and their


id: international-years-of-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_years_of_science-0.md
category: reference
title: International years of science
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_years_of_science
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:56.567199+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: international-years-of-science-20260505-0
summary:
International Years of Science is an annual event that was hosted by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) starting in 2007. The event promotes university research and development projects and support for vocational education. The German BMBF and the corresponding ministry in the partner country invite research institutions and educational establishments to present their joint projects to the public. The International Bureau of the BMBF at the German Aerospace Center (DLR) supports the BMBF in the coordination and communications activities of the International Years of Science. == Previous events == === The German-Egyptian Year of Science and Technology 2007 === The motto of the German-Egyptian Year of Science and Technology was "Linking Scientific Masterminds". It was jointly launched by the Research Ministers of both countries on 15 January 2007 in Cairo. It implemented a German-Egyptian Research Fund (GERF) and the German University of Cairo (GUC). These events included the opening ceremony in Cairo, the multimedia show "Culturama" in Berlin, the open day on the research vessel METEOR in Port Said, the centennial celebration of the German Archaeological Institute in Cairo, the exhibition "Egypt’s Sunken Treasures" in Bonn, and the exhibition of mummies and an accompanying academic programme


id: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents-0.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific misconduct incidents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:57.942917+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-0
summary:
Scientific misconduct is a serious form of violation of the standard codes of scholarly conduct and ethical behavior in the publication of professional scientific research. A Lancet review on Handling of Scientific Misconduct in Scandinavian countries gave examples of policy definitions. In Denmark, scientific misconduct is defined as "intention[al] negligence leading to fabrication of the scientific message or a false credit or emphasis given to a scientist", and in Sweden as "intention[al] distortion of the research process by fabrication of data, text, hypothesis, or methods from another researcher's manuscript form or publication; or distortion of the research process in other ways." A 2009 systematic review and meta-analysis of survey data found that about 2% of scientists admitted to falsifying, fabricating, or modifying data at least once. Incidents should only be included in this list if the individuals or entities involved have their own Wikipedia articles, or in the absence of an article, where the misconduct incident is covered in multiple reliable sources.


id: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents-1.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific misconduct incidents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:57.942917+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-0
summary:
== Biology and biomedical sciences == Bharat Aggarwal (US), a former Ransom Horne, Jr. Distinguished Professor of Cancer Research at the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, resigned from his position after fraud was discovered in 65 papers published by him in the area of curcumin as a treatment for cancer. As of 2024 Aggarwal has had 30 of his research papers retracted, with 10 others having received an expression of concern and 17 others having been corrected. Anna Ahimastos (Australia) resigned from her position at Melbourne's Baker IDI Heart & Diabetes Institute in 2015 after admitting to fabricating data in a trial of the blood pressure drug ramipril that analyzed if ramipril could reduce pain in people with peripheral artery disease. As of 2025, Ahimastos has had nine of their research publications retracted. Elias Alsabti (Iraq, US), was a medical practitioner who posed as a biomedical researcher. He plagiarized as many as 60 papers in the field of cancer research, many with non-existent co-authors. Werner Bezwoda (South Africa), formerly of the University of Witwatersrand, admitted to scientific misconduct in trials on high-dose chemotherapy on breast cancer, stating that he had "committed a serious breach of scientific honesty and


id: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents-2.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific misconduct incidents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:57.942917+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-0
summary:
Many major trials of the drug ivermectin that claimed it could prevent COVID-19 were found to show signs of fraud and had "either obvious signs of fabrication or errors so critical they invalidate the study," according to one of the groups investigating the studies. For example, some studies were found to list patients who had never actually participated in the research, and others placed patients who were already statistically more likely to die in the placebo group while putting the healthier patients in the experimental group that received ivermectin. Studies that were found to contain legitimate research were generally inconclusive about the effects of ivermectin on COVID-19. He Jiankui (China), former associate professor with the Southern University of Science and Technology, was in 2019 sentenced to three years in prison and fined three million yuan (about US$430,000) for illegally carrying out human embryo gene-editing intended for reproduction. The case is called the He Jiankui affair. Woo-suk Hwang (Hwang Woo-suk) (South Korea), former Professor of Biotechnology at Seoul National University, was found by a University committee to have committed "deliberate fabrication" in his research on stem cells, and to have coerced female members of his research team to donate their eggs.


id: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents-3.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific misconduct incidents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:57.942917+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-0
summary:
Krishna Murthy (US), a protein crystallographer and former research associate professor at the University of Alabama at Birmingham, was found in 2009 by a University committee to be "solely responsible for ... fraudulent data" on protein structures published in nine papers. In 2018 the United States Office of Research Integrity placed a 10-year ban on Federal funding for Murthy. As of 2020 ten of Krishna Murthy's publications have been retracted, and two others have received an expression of concern. Haruko Obokata (Japan) formerly of RIKEN and Harvard University, falsified data in the widely publicized STAP cell fraud. As of 2021, Obokata has had four of her research publications retracted. Luk Van Parijs (US), Associate Professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) fabricated and falsified data in research papers, unpublished manuscripts, and grant applications. He was convicted in 2011 of making a false statement on a federal grant application. Parijs has had five research publications retracted. Milena Penkowa (Denmark), a neuroscientist and former professor at the Panum Institute of the University of Copenhagen, was in 2010 convicted of fraud and embezzlement of research funds, and in 2012 was found to have committed "deliberate scientific malpractice". In 2017 the University of


id: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents-4.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific misconduct incidents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:57.942917+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-0
summary:
Wakefield's claims of a link between the MMR vaccine, autism and inflammatory bowel disease have been reported in the British Medical Journal as "based not on bad science but on a deliberate fraud", and the 1998 paper originally presenting his theory was retracted in 2010 by The Lancet. Wakefield was unsuccessful in an attempt to sue detractors/critics for libel and defamation. Wakefield has had two papers retracted and one corrected. Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories fabricated research data to the extent that upon FDA analysis of 867 studies, 618 (71%) were deemed invalid, including many of which were used to gain regulatory approval for widely used household and industrial products. The company Surgisphere claimed to have hospital data which was used to support studies of the effectiveness of hydroxychloroquine in treating COVID-19. Papers in the Lancet and New England Journal of Medicine were retracted in June 2020 when the data was found to be implausible. The National Centre for Biological Sciences, one of India's top research institutes and part of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, retracted one of its breakthrough scientific papers in 2021 describing the discovery of iron-sensing RNA after its findings and images were found to be manipulated. Eliezer


id: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents-5.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific misconduct incidents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:57.942917+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-0
summary:
== Chemistry == Leo Paquette (US), an Ohio State University professor, plagiarized sections from an unfunded NIH grant application for use in his own NIH grant application. He also plagiarized a NSF proposal for use in one of his scientific publications. Kenichiro Itami (Japan), Nagoya University professor, and other members of his laboratory committed scientific misconduct in the graphene nanoribbon fraud. As a result of that misconduct, in 2022 Itami and the other implicated lab members were banned from receiving research support from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science for at least three years. As of 2023, Itami has had three of his research publications retracted, one other paper has received an expression of concern, and one other paper has been corrected. Itami was held responsible, and the Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST) and the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS), which determine the allocation of government research funds, have stopped granting research funds as a penalty until the end of March 2025 from the university. Despite this, RIKEN, which is funded mainly by research fees from the government, hired Itami and obtained about 50 million yen in research funding. He pioneered a loophole that


id: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents-6.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific misconduct incidents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:57.942917+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-0
summary:
== Philosophy == Magali Elise Roques (France), a philosopher and a chargé de recherche at the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) in Paris, in 2020 became the subject of academic plagiarism inquiries. Several of her journal publications were subsequently retracted, with the journal Vivarium publishing a detailed retraction notice. A CNRS investigating committee reported that although the allegations of plagiarism against Roques were unjustified, "the whole body of [Roques'] work in English [...] is seriously flawed by the regular presence of bad scholarly practices, by what might be called a sort of active negligence". As of 2023, Roques has had 13 of her published articles retracted. Martin William Francis Stone, an Irish philosopher formerly at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, plagiarized in more than 40 publications. Peter Johannes Schulz, a philosopher working at the Institute of Communication and Health at the University of Lugano, had articles both in philosophy and communications retracted for plagiarism and failure to credit sources properly. After a minor sanction, he was reinstated by the university in 2017. Mahmoud Khatami, an Iranian philosopher at the University of Tehran, was subject to plagiarism accusations in 2014. A retraction for one article by Khatami due to plagiarism


id: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents-7.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific misconduct incidents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:57.942917+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-0
summary:
== Social sciences == Mart Bax (Netherlands), former professor of political anthropology at the Vrije Universiteit, committed multiple acts of scientific misconduct including data fabrication, with a 2020 article in Ethnologia Europaea characterizing Bax's misconduct as "incredible and appalling." Bax, who as of 2020 has had nine of his research publications retracted, was found in 2013 to have never published 61 of the papers he listed on his CV. Bruno Frey (Switzerland), an economist formerly at the University of Zurich, in 2010–11 committed multiple acts of self-plagiarism in articles about the Titanic disaster. Frey admitted to the self-plagiarism, terming the acts "grave mistake[s]" and "deplorable." Karl-Theodor zu Guttenberg (Germany), former Minister of Defence of Germany, resigned from his office because of plagiarism in his doctoral dissertation from the University of Bayreuth. The university, which had awarded Guttenberg's dissertation with summa cum laude distinction, revoked his Ph.D. title on 23 February 2011, and Guttenberg resigned in March. Michael LaCour (US), former graduate student in political science at UCLA, was the lead author of the 2014 article "When contact changes minds". Published in Science and making international headlines, the paper was later retracted because of numerous irregularities in the methodology and falsified


id: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents-8.md
category: reference
title: List of scientific misconduct incidents
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_scientific_misconduct_incidents
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:57.942917+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: list-of-scientific-misconduct-incidents-20260505-0
summary:
== Other == Cistercian historian Louis Lekai called attention to "a major case of modern plagiarism" when in 1959 he proved that almost all of Louis Dubois' influential biography of Abbot Armand Jean de Rancé, published in 1867, was copied from an unpublished manuscript by Francois Armand Gervaise. In 2016 the scientific publisher Springer Nature retracted 58 papers from seven journals, authored mostly by Iran-based researchers, because the papers showed evidence of authorship manipulation, peer-review manipulation, and/or plagiarism. Ohio University in 2006 alleged more than three dozen cases of plagiarism in master's degree theses dating back 20 years in its mechanical engineering department. A former faculty member involved in the plagiarism cases, Jay S. Gunasekera, was removed from his position as department chair, had his title of "distinguished professor" rescinded, and in 2011 settled a lawsuit he had brought against the university. Another former faculty member implicated in the plagiarism cases, Bhavin Mehta, in 2012 lost a defamation suit he had brought against the university. 486 Chinese cancer researchers were found guilty of engaging in a fraudulent peer-review scheme by China's Ministry of Science and Technology. The investigation was initiated after the retraction of 107 papers published in Tumor Biology


id: primakov-readings-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primakov_Readings-0.md
category: reference
title: Primakov Readings
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primakov_Readings
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:59.206615+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: primakov-readings-20260505-0
summary:
The Primakov Readings (Russian: Примаковские чтения) is an international summit aimed at promoting dialogue on trends in global politics and economics among high-ranking experts, diplomats and decision-makers. The summit is named in honor of the academician and statesman Yevgeny Primakov. The Readings are intended both to commemorate Primakov and to continue to develop his ideas through international dialogue. The summit is organized by the Institute of World Economy and International Relations (IMEMO) and is held in Indian, India. Approximately 50 leaders from think tanks, universities and the diplomatic community from more than 30 countries participate in the Readings each year. The conference focuses on scenarios of the development of international relations, challenges in the sphere of international security and new models of interaction between States, corporations and other entities. == Mission == The purpose of the event is to create in Russia a regularly operating international platform aimed at discussion of problems of world economy, politics and international security with the participation of leading representatives of Russian and foreign research and expert-analytical centers. Primakov Readings are designed to intensify the dialogue between leading experts from different countries and regions, promote discussion of the approaches to address global and regional problems,


id: primakov-readings-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primakov_Readings-1.md
category: reference
title: Primakov Readings
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primakov_Readings
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:59.206615+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: primakov-readings-20260505-0
summary:
Named “The World in 2035” in 2017 Primakov Readings caused wide resonance not only in Russia, but also abroad. The forum was attended by 503 Russian and 80 foreign guests (291 representatives of scientific organizations), as well as by 231 representatives of the media. Primakov Readings were covered in more than 70 major Russian and 10 foreign media. In addition, during the event more than 20 interviews with key speakers were taken by various agencies. Program The first day of the event began with the welcoming words of the organizers of the Primakov Readings. The participants were greeted by the Assistant to the President of the Russian Federation Y. Ushakov, who read out a welcoming address from the President of the Russian Federation, V.V. Putin. Chairman of the Board of Directors of the World Trade Center, President of the Russian Federation Chamber of Commerce and Industry S. Katyrin and President of IMEMO A. Dynkin have also delivered their welcoming speeches. During the thematic sessions, the panel on Russian-American relations was held under moderation of the Deputy Foreign Minister of the Russian Federation, S. Ryabkov. Among other experts who participated in discussion were: Richard Burt - former chief negotiator of the


id: primakov-readings-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primakov_Readings-2.md
category: reference
title: Primakov Readings
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primakov_Readings
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:59.206615+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: primakov-readings-20260505-0
summary:
The first session - "New Bipolarity” – Myth or Reality?” – touched upon the problems of crisis of supranational and international institutions, as well as the appropriateness of the very concept of "bipolarity" in contemporary international relations. The expert from Austria said that Russia and China are moving towards establishing a new world order; however, it is too early to talk about the formation of a "new bipolarity". The expert from the United States disagreed, stressing that "competing bipolarity" is developing in the world, which will lead to a "new multipolarity". The representative from the PRC noted that China is in isolation, which Russia helps to overcome to some extent. In his opinion, the role of the new institutions, in the formation of which China is involved, is important, and that is why China's tactics might be somehow offensive. The representative of China did not rule out the possibility of conflicts between Washington and Beijing. From the Chinese point of view, the new bipolarity is unacceptable and it is preferable to strive for the formation of blocks. According to the Indian expert, the state of world politics can be defined as "multiple multipolarity". The Russian participant of the session, in


id: primakov-readings-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primakov_Readings-3.md
category: reference
title: Primakov Readings
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primakov_Readings
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:59.206615+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: primakov-readings-20260505-0
summary:
During the discussion of the fourth session - "Exit Strategy for the Ukraine Crisis", most participants agreed with the non-alternative nature of the Minsk agreements, as well as with Moscow's declared need to overcome alienation that is artificially fueled in relations between Russia and Ukraine. Representatives of the US and EU at the session noted the need to consider the Ukrainian crisis in context of changes in the post-Soviet space and the determination to fit it into the architecture of European security. Both Russian and Western experts agreed on the need for a peacekeeping operation, primarily with a view to ending violence in the region. The second day of Primakov Readings was opened by speech of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, S.V. Lavrov, who touched upon the aggravation of international contradictions and the narrowing of space for constructive cooperation between countries, and consequently the risks of uncontrolled escalation. The fifth session - " Is there a Future for Arms Control? " - expanded traditional understanding of the subject, highlighting also the challenges of cyberspace and the emergence of hypersonic and smart weapons, touching on the philosophical question of whether there could be a regime of arms


id: primakov-readings-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primakov_Readings-4.md
category: reference
title: Primakov Readings
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primakov_Readings
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:24:59.206615+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: primakov-readings-20260505-0
summary:
In the 2017 Global Go To Think Tank Index Report published by the University of Pennsylvania, Primakov Readings were given the 7th place in the list of 10 best conferences in the world. === Quotes from the Readings === V. Putin: "Primakov has always been confident that Russia needs normal, constructive, good relations with Western countries. To the question "Is it possible to be friends with all in our world?" He replied: "It is impossible, but it is possible and necessary to work with them. The world is very complicated" Lee Jae-Yong: "Since the beginning of the 21st century Russia has actively pushed forward its Eastern policy based on the growing global political and economic status of the Eurasia continent. Russia has aimed to build an economic bridge connecting Europe and Asia Pacific by promoting cooperation with countries in the Asia Pacific region". W. Ishinger "We live in a moment that symbolizes, that represents the end of the post-Cold-War period and we are obviously moving into a more chaotic, more polycentric world which is going to be far more difficult to run, to operate, to keep stable than was the case previously". R. Sakwa: "In my view, the international system


id: transformation-of-the-roman-world-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformation_of_the_Roman_World-0.md
category: reference
title: Transformation of the Roman World
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformation_of_the_Roman_World
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:00.467794+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: transformation-of-the-roman-world-20260505-0
summary:
Transformation of the Roman World was a 5-year scientific programme, during the years 1992 to 1997, founded via the European Science Foundation. The research project was to investigate the societal transformation taking place in Europe in the period between Late Antiquity up to the time of the Carolingian dynasty. The results were presented in museum exhibitions and also published in a book series with the same title as the project. Contributors to the series include Walter Pohl, Richard Hodges, Bryan Ward-Perkins, Ian Wood, Mayke de Jong, Janet Nelson, Chris Wickham, Miquel Barceló, Hans-Werner Goetz, and Jörg Jarnut. A paper with this title has since the 1970s been one of the options offered by the Faculty of History as part of the BA degree course at the University of Cambridge. == The Brill's series "Transformation of the Roman World" == Walter Pohl, ed. (1997). Kingdoms of the Empire. The Integration of Barbarians in Late Antiquity. Brill. ISBN 9789004108455. Walter Pohl; Helmut Reimitz, eds. (1998). Strategies of Distinction. The Construction of Ethnic Communities, 300-800. Brill. ISBN 9789004108462. Richard Hodges; William Bowden, eds. (2003). The Sixth Century. Production, Distribution and Demand. Brill. ISBN 9789004109803. G.P. Brogiolo; Bryan Ward-Perkins, eds. (2003). The Idea and


id: verci-ncia-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VerCiência-0.md
category: reference
title: VerCiência
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VerCiência
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:01.718556+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: verci-ncia-20260505-0
summary:
VerCiência is an International Exhibition of Science on TV. Annual festival devoted to science communication on television created in Brazil in 1994 by Sergio Moraes Castanheira Brandao and José Renato Campos Monteiro. It is a non-competitive, non-commercial and non-profitable event, with free admission to the general public in all sessions. The main objective of the VerCiência Project is to encourage and promote the dissemination of knowledge and scientific culture through television. It has the support of the Ministry of Science Technology and Innovation of Brazil as part of the Brazilian National Week of Science and Technology. The main sponsor of VerCiência is Petrobras. The annual VerCiência exhibitions take place simultaneously in several Brazilian cities, such as Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo and Brasília, usually in the third week of October (coinciding with the National Week of Science and Technology) and consist in the exhibition of a selection of science TV programmes produced in Brazil and other countries. Among main traditional international participants of the Ver Ciência exhibitions are the BBC (UK) and WGBH (US), with programmes such as Horizon and Nova, good examples of how science and technology can be conveyed in an interesting and informative manner to the general


id: wonderfest-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wonderfest-0.md
category: reference
title: Wonderfest
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wonderfest
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:03.005481+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: wonderfest-20260505-0
summary:
'Wonderfest', the San Francisco Bay Area "Beacon of Science," is a nonprofit corporation founded in California dedicated to informal science education. == Overview == Wonderfest achieved full corporate independence in September 2011. During the prior fourteen years, Wonderfest used to be an educational project of, first, San Francisco University High School, and then, The Branson School. From 1998 to 2010, Wonderfest produced annual science festivals — the first such community-wide event in the United States — that presented a series of expert dialogues, based on topics of scientific controversy. The topics in these dialogues were varied, often covering astronomy, biology, psychology, physics, but also covering other categories. In 2011, this festival was supplanted by the Bay Area Science Festival, which was headquartered at the University of California, San Francisco. Wonderfest, subtitled "The Bay Area Beacon of Science," is dedicated to the memory of Carl Sagan. Since 2011, it has produced public science presentations by Bay Area researchers. From 2002 through 2010, and 2015-present, Wonderfest awarded the $5,000 Carl Sagan Prize for Science Popularization. Wonderfest "Science Envoys" are PhD students at Stanford and UC Berkeley who train to become effective science communicators. Wonderfest's founding director is Tucker Hiatt, a physics teacher


id: world-quantum-day-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Quantum_Day-0.md
category: reference
title: World Quantum Day
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Quantum_Day
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:04.498523+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-quantum-day-20260505-0
summary:
World Quantum Day is an international event celebrated annually on 14 April since 2022. It aims at promoting public awareness and understanding of quantum science and quantum technology around the world. The date, 14 April, was chosen as a reference to "4.14", the rounded first three digits of the Planck constant. == History == The proposal to celebrate the World Quantum Day was launched on 14 April 2021 as an initiative by an international group of scientists. It was launched as a decentralized initiative, for promoting public awareness and understanding of quantum science and quantum technology, planned to be celebrated across various places across the world. The initiative was later joined by engineers, educators, science communicators, and scientific organizations. The first World Quantum day was celebrated a year after the launch, on 14 April 2022. The date, 14 April, was chosen as a reference to "4.14", the rounded first three digits of the Planck constant: 4.14×10−15 eV·s. The United States Senate passed a resolution on 2 May 2023, commemorating and supporting the World Quantum Day initiative. == Organization and events == The global organization and initiative are supported by the World Quantum Day Coordination Team, which includes representatives from more


id: world-summit-on-evolution-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Summit_on_Evolution-0.md
category: reference
title: World Summit on Evolution
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Summit_on_Evolution
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:05.758214+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: world-summit-on-evolution-20260505-0
summary:
The World Summit on Evolution is an evolutionary biology meeting hosted at the Galapagos Islands by Universidad San Francisco de Quito (USFQ), an Ecuadorian private liberal arts university. Its focus is on recent research and new advances in our understanding of evolution and the diversity of life. The summit hosts more than 150 participants presenting invited and submitted talks, poster sessions and scientific-outreach talks. It has been called "The Woodstock of Evolution" bringing together experts and students from widely different areas of evolutionary biology that rarely meet. It has attracted researchers working on evolution from over 15 different countries, including Peter and Rosemary Grant, Niles Eldredge, Antonio Lazcano, Douglas Futuyma, Lynn Margulis, Ada Yonath, William H. Calvin and Daniel Dennett. == Objectives == Objectives: Join experts from different branches of evolutionary biology to discuss on the impacts of recent discoveries in order to integrate them inside the basic concepts of evolution. Through a series of presentations and discussions the participants ask the big questions: What is the evidence for the theory of evolution? How has each field and their respective approaches deepened our understating? And where are the future horizons? Bringing together international experts and students for debate helps to


id: evidence-based-practice-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_practice-0.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based practice
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_practice
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:07.659357+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-practice-20260505-0
summary:
Evidence-based practice (EBP) is the idea that occupational practices ought to be based on scientific evidence. The movement towards evidence-based practices attempts to encourage and, in some instances, require professionals and other decision-makers to pay more attention to evidence to inform their decision-making. The goal of evidence-based practice is to eliminate unsound or outdated practices in favor of more-effective ones by shifting the basis for decision making from tradition, intuition, and unsystematic experience to firmly grounded scientific research. The proposal has been controversial, with some arguing that results may not specialize to individuals as well as traditional practices. Evidence-based practices have been gaining ground since the introduction of evidence-based medicine and have spread to the allied health professions, education, management, law, public policy, architecture, and other fields. In light of studies showing problems in scientific research (such as the replication crisis), there is also a movement to apply evidence-based practices in scientific research itself. Research into the evidence-based practice of science is called metascience. An individual or organisation is justified in claiming that a specific practice is evidence-based if, and only if, three conditions are met. First, the individual or organisation possesses comparative evidence about the effects of the specific


id: evidence-based-practice-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_practice-1.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based practice
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_practice
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:07.659357+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-practice-20260505-0
summary:
Evaluating scientific research is extremely complex. The process can be greatly simplified with the use of a heuristic that ranks the relative strengths of results obtained from scientific research, which is called a hierarchy of evidence. The design of the study and the endpoints measured (such as survival or quality of life) affect the strength of the evidence. Typically, systematic reviews and meta-analysis rank at the top of the hierarchy while randomized controlled trials rank above observational studies, and expert opinion and case reports rank at the bottom. There is broad agreement on the relative strength of the different types of studies, but there is no single, universally-accepted hierarchy of evidence. More than 80 different hierarchies have been proposed for assessing medical evidence. == Applications == === Medicine === Evidence-based medicine is an approach to medical practice intended to optimize decision-making by emphasizing the use of evidence from well-designed and well-conducted research. Although all medicine based on science has some degree of empirical support, evidence-based medicine goes further, classifying evidence by its epistemologic strength and requiring that only the strongest types (coming from meta-analyses, systematic reviews, and randomized controlled trials) can yield strong recommendations; weaker types (such as from case-control


id: evidence-based-practice-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_practice-2.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based practice
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_practice
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:07.659357+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-practice-20260505-0
summary:
==== Reviews of existing research on education ==== The following websites offer free analysis and information on education research: The Best Evidence Encyclopedia is a free website created by the Johns Hopkins University School of Education's Center for Data-Driven Reform in Education (established in 2004) and is funded by the Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. It gives educators and researchers reviews about the strength of the evidence supporting a variety of English programs available for students in grades K–12. The reviews cover programs in areas such as Mathematics, Reading, Writing, Science, Comprehensive school reform, and Early childhood Education; and include such topics as the effectiveness of technology and struggling readers. The Education Endowment Foundation was established in 2011 by The Sutton Trust, as a lead charity in partnership with Impetus Trust, together being the government-designated What Works Centre for UK Education. Evidence for the Every Student Succeeds Act began in 2017 and is produced by the Center for Research and Reform in Education at Johns Hopkins University School of Education. It offers free up-to-date information on current PK-12 programs in reading, writing, math, science, and others that meet the standards of the Every Student Succeeds Act (the


id: adolescent-community-reinforcement-approach-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolescent_community_reinforcement_approach-0.md
category: reference
title: Adolescent community reinforcement approach
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolescent_community_reinforcement_approach
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:13.298051+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: adolescent-community-reinforcement-approach-20260505-0
summary:
The adolescent community reinforcement approach (A-CRA) is a behavioral treatment for alcohol and other substance use disorders that helps youth, young adults, and families improve access to interpersonal and environmental reinforcers to reduce or stop substance use. == Description == A-CRA is a variant of the adult CRA model, which has a history of development and effectiveness research starting in the 1970s. A-CRA was adapted to be developmentally appropriate for adolescents, which included adding sessions for parents/caregivers. The goal of A-CRA is to improve or increase access to social, familial, and educational/vocational reinforcers for adolescents to achieve and sustain recovery. That is, therapists assist adolescents with learning how to lead an enjoyable and healthy life without using alcohol or other drugs. The treatment manual describes an outpatient curriculum that is intended for adolescents (ages 12 to 17) and young adults (ages 18–25). with DSM-5 alcohol and/or other substance use disorders. A-CRA also has been implemented in intensive outpatient and residential treatment settings. A-CRA includes three types of clinical sessions: adolescent alone, parents/caregivers alone, and family (adolescent with parents/caregivers). To address the adolescent's needs, goals for treatment, and reinforcers, clinicians select from 19 A-CRA procedures (e.g., communication skills, problem-solving, and participation


id: campbell-collaboration-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campbell_Collaboration-0.md
category: reference
title: Campbell Collaboration
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campbell_Collaboration
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:14.485083+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: campbell-collaboration-20260505-0
summary:
The Campbell Collaboration is a non-profit organisation that promotes evidence-based decisions and policy through the production of systematic reviews and other types of evidence synthesis. Campbell is composed of coordinating groups that coordinate the production of systematic reviews and evidence gap maps in the following areas: Ageing, Business & Management, Children & Young Persons Wellbeing, Climate Solutions, Crime & Justice, Disability, Education, Sustainable Development, Knowledge Translation & Implementation, Methods and Social Welfare. It is a sister initiative of Cochrane. The CEO is Will Moy, who was formerly Chief Executive of Full Fact. The current president of the board of directors is David Myers, former CEO of the American Institutes for Research. Campbell reviews are published in Campbell Systematic Reviews, an open access journal committed to publishing systematic reviews as well as methods research papers, and evidence and gap maps. The Editor-In-Chief is Vivian Welch from the University of Ottawa. == History == The Campbell Collaboration was created as a result of a perceived need for an organization that would produce reviews of the evidence on the effectiveness of social interventions. An exploratory meeting in London in 1999 led to the establishment of the Campbell Collaboration in 2000 and an inaugural


id: cochrane-organisation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cochrane_(organisation)-0.md
category: reference
title: Cochrane (organisation)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cochrane_(organisation)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:15.757601+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cochrane-organisation-20260505-0
summary:
Cochrane is a British international charitable organisation formed to synthesize medical research findings to facilitate evidence-based choices about health interventions involving health professionals, patients and policy makers. It includes 53 review groups that are based at research institutions worldwide. Cochrane has over 37,000 volunteer experts from around the world. The group conducts systematic reviews of healthcare interventions and diagnostic tests and publishes them in the Cochrane Library. While Cochrane reviews typically focus on randomized controlled trials, some reviews, particularly in areas such as public and occupational health, also incorporate other study designs. These may include non-randomised observational studies as well as controlled before–after (CBA) studies and interrupted time-series studies. According to the Library, articles are available via one-click access, though some may require registration or a subscription. == Structure == The Cochrane Collaboration is a charity registered in the UK. The trustees for the charity are the members of its Governing Board, elected by members. David Sackett was the organisation's first chair. That position is currently held by Susan Phillips. == History == Cochrane, previously known as the Cochrane Collaboration, was founded in 1993 under the leadership of Iain Chalmers. It was developed in response to Archie Cochrane's call for


id: cochrane-organisation-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cochrane_(organisation)-1.md
category: reference
title: Cochrane (organisation)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cochrane_(organisation)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:15.757601+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cochrane-organisation-20260505-0
summary:
=== Funding partners === Cochrane receives funding from governments, supranational organizations, non-governmental organizations, academic institutions, hospitals, and foundations, while avoiding funding from corporate interests. Primary government donors include the United Kingdom's National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR), the Danish Health Authority, the Federal Ministry of Health (Germany), and the National Institutes of Health (NIH). Academic funders include McMaster University, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, Kazan Federal University, and University of Copenhagen, among others. Funding from foundations includes the National Research Foundation (South Africa) and the Gerber Foundation. == Public involvement == Cochrane involves patients and the public via community curation, to produce systematic reviews and other outputs. Tasks can be organised as 'entry level' or higher. Tasks include: Joining a collaborative volunteer effort to help categorise and summarise healthcare evidence Data extraction and risk of bias assessment Translation of reviews into other languages A recent systematic review of how people were involved in systematic reviews aimed to document the evidence-base relating to stakeholder involvement in systematic reviews and to use this evidence to describe how stakeholders have been involved in systematic reviews. Thirty per cent involved patients and/or carers. While there has been some criticism of how Cochrane prioritises


id: cochrane-us-network-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cochrane_US_Network-0.md
category: reference
title: Cochrane US Network
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cochrane_US_Network
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:17.005501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cochrane-us-network-20260505-0
summary:
The United States Cochrane Center (USCC) was one of the 14 centers on the world that facilitated the work of the Cochrane Collaboration. The USCC was the reference center for all 50 US states and US territories, protectorates, and districts: the District of Columbia, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, and the US Virgin Islands. The USCC was also the reference Center for the following countries: Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Guam, Guyana, Jamaica, Japan, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, and Trinidad and Tobago. The USCC discontinued on February 7, 2018. == Historical overview == In the United States, there have been four Cochrane Centers since the start of the Cochrane Collaboration in October 1993. The Baltimore Cochrane Center was launched soon after the launch of the Collaboration, officially in 1994, with Kay Dickersin as Director. The San Francisco Cochrane Center was launched soon thereafter, in 1996, with Lisa Bero and Drummond Rennie as Co-Directors. The San Antonio Cochrane Center launched in 1994, with Cynthia Mulrow as Director, and the New England Cochrane Center launched in 1996 with Joseph Lau and Alexia Anczack-Bouckoms as co-Directors. In 1998, Kay


id: cochrane-us-network-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cochrane_US_Network-1.md
category: reference
title: Cochrane US Network
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cochrane_US_Network
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:17.005501+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: cochrane-us-network-20260505-0
summary:
=== CENTRAL === Each Cochrane Center is responsible for a unique function within the Cochrane Collaboration. For twelve years (1994 to 2005) the Baltimore Cochrane Center, and subsequently NECC@P, was responsible for coordinating CENTRAL, The Cochrane Collaboration's central register of controlled clinical trials. CENTRAL was designed for use by members of the Collaboration's review groups and others performing systematic reviews. CENTRAL serves both as a repository for trial reports identified by members of the Collaboration and as a source of trial reports from which Review Groups build their specialized registers. In late 1992, work began on development of a register of reports of controlled trials for use in conducting systematic reviews. The first meeting was held and the eligibility criteria were decided at the Cochrane Workshop on "Building a Register of RCTs" at Green College, Oxford, United Kingdom, November 8, 1992 and was attended by Iain Chalmers, Carol Lefebrvre and Kay Dickersin, among others. Definitions and eligibility criteria were decided then that continue to be used to this day. Although the individuals interested in and key to the developments leading to international registers of randomized controlled trials were also leaders in the Cochrane Collaboration, a larger and more centralized group


id: critical-appraisal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_appraisal-0.md
category: reference
title: Critical appraisal
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_appraisal
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:18.357884+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: critical-appraisal-20260505-0
summary:
Critical appraisal (or quality assessment) in evidence based medicine, is the use of explicit, transparent methods to assess the data in published research, applying the rules of evidence to factors such as internal validity, adherence to reporting standards, conclusions, generalizability and risk-of-bias. Critical appraisal methods form a central part of the systematic review process. They are used in evidence synthesis to assist clinical decision-making, and are increasingly used in evidence-based social care and education provision. Critical appraisal checklists help to appraise the quality of the study design and (for quantitative studies) the risk of bias. Critical appraisal tools for cross-sectional studies are the AXIS, JBI, Nested Knowledge tools; for randomised controlled trials are Nested Knowledge, Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool, JBI tool and CASP tools. Additionally, supplementary critical appraisal tools such as Naicker's Critically Appraising for Antiracism Tool and the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Quality Appraisal Tool may be used in conjunction with tools for specific study designs to assess additional biases or ethics practices. Critical appraisal may also be an integral part of formalized approaches to turn evidence into recommendations for practice such as GRADE. == See also == Evidence-based medicine Systematic review Meta-analysis == References == ==


id: decoding-the-disciplines-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decoding_the_Disciplines-0.md
category: reference
title: Decoding the Disciplines
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decoding_the_Disciplines
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:19.595601+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: decoding-the-disciplines-20260505-0
summary:
Decoding the Disciplines is a process intended to increase student learning by narrowing the gap between expert and novice thinking. The process seeks to make explicit the tacit knowledge of experts and to help students master the mental actions they need for success in particular courses. == History == The Decoding the Disciplines approach was initiated by Joan Middendorf and David Pace, directors of the Indiana University Freshman Learning Project from 1998 to 2010, for collegiate learning. They found a discrepancy between the content taught and the actual prerequisites for success in many courses. They attributed this to automatic, and thus untaught, processes in expert knowledge. They hypothesized that students were often provided with incomplete conceptual frameworks, leaving them unable to tackle significant challenges. == Guiding questions in the Decoding process == The Decoding process is structured by seven questions, referred to as steps. The order of the steps is not mandatory and can be changed as needed. Question 1 - Where do I experience a bottleneck to learning? Instructors (Professors, Lecturers, etc.) identify an activity or task in their course that students are supposed to learn but often fail. The activity may be a mental activity. Question 2 -


id: ecri-institute-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ECRI_Institute-0.md
category: reference
title: ECRI Institute
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ECRI_Institute
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:20.776428+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: ecri-institute-20260505-0
summary:
ECRI (originally founded as Emergency Care Research Institute) is an American independent healthcare research nonprofit organization in Plymouth Meeting, Pennsylvania. It is tasked with "improving the safety, quality, and cost-effectiveness of care across all healthcare settings worldwide." == History == In the early 1960s, Joel J. Nobel, a surgeon and inventor, founded the institute after a four-year-old boy died when a resuscitator failed to work. Nobel utilized the institute to focus on improving cardiopulmonary resuscitation technology, design, and deployment. Among Nobel's inventions was the MAX Cart, a mobile resuscitation system. Designed and patented in 1965 during Nobel's residency at Pennsylvania Hospital, the cart carries instruments for cardiopulmonary resuscitation and other medical supplies while functioning as a support litter. A prototype is in the permanent collection of the Medicine and Science Division of the Smithsonian National Museum of American History. In 1966, Life profiled the invention in a feature called "MAX, the Lifesaver." ECRI began comparative evaluations of medical device brands and models in 1971. Since its designation as an Evidence-based Practice Center with the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) in 1997, it has undertaken reviews of clinical procedures using meta-analysis for the Medicare program, other federal and state


id: empirical-software-engineering-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_software_engineering-0.md
category: reference
title: Empirical software engineering
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_software_engineering
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:22.048599+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: empirical-software-engineering-20260505-0
summary:
Empirical software engineering (ESE) (also known as Evidence-based software engineering) is a subfield of software engineering (SE) research that uses empirical research methods to study and evaluate SE techniques. These techniques include: software development tools/technology, practices, processes, policies, or other human and organizational aspects. ESE has roots in experimental software engineering, but as the field has matured, the need and acceptance for both quantitative and qualitative research have grown. Today, common research methods used in ESE for primary and secondary research include the following: Primary research (experimentation, case study research, survey research, simulations in particular software Process simulation) Secondary research methods (Systematic reviews, Systematic mapping studies, rapid reviews, tertiary review) == Teaching empirical software engineering == “Handbook on Teaching Empirical Software Engineering” (Springer 2024) is targeted at educators who are teaching empirical methods to software engineering students. It has 21 chapters written by a total of 53 authors from 39 institutions across 16 countries. The book offers comprehensive guidelines and strategies for teaching software engineering research methods (e.g., controlled experiments, case studies, surveys, action research, design science, ethnography, mining software repositories, simulation-based studies, and literature reviews). Some other comprehensive books for students, professionals and researchers interested in ESE are available.


id: evidence-based-library-and-information-practice-journal-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_Based_Library_and_Information_Practice_(journal)-0.md
category: reference
title: Evidence Based Library and Information Practice (journal)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence_Based_Library_and_Information_Practice_(journal)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:23.382851+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-library-and-information-practice-journal-20260505-0
summary:
Evidence Based Library and Information Practice (EBLIP) is an open access peer-reviewed academic journal covering topics related to library and information science. It is published quarterly by the University of Alberta Library and was established in 2006. EBLIP publishes original research and commentary, as well as reviews of previously published research, on the topic of evidence based library and information practice. == Abstracting and indexing information == Evidence Based Library and Information Practice is abstracted and indexed in Scopus, Library Literature and Information Science, Library, Information Science & Technology Abstracts, and Library and Information Science Abstracts, among others. == See also == Category:Library science journals Open access in Canada == References == == External links == Official website ISSN 1715-720X


id: evidence-based-assessment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_assessment-0.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based assessment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_assessment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:24.618333+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-assessment-20260505-0
summary:
Evidence-based assessment (EBA) refers to the application of research and theory in selecting constructs for a specific assessment purpose, as well as informing the methods and measures used in the assessment process. This approach recognizes that, despite data from psychometrically robust measures, the assessment process inherently involves iterative decision-making. Clinicians formulate and test hypotheses by integrating often incomplete and inconsistent data. EBA has been shown to aid clinicians in reducing cognitive biases in their clinical decisions. Evidence-based assessment is a component of the broader movement towards evidence-based practices. The concept of evidence-based assessment originated in the field of medicine, and has since been adopted in several other disciplines, notably clinical psychology. The EBA approach is widely recognized as an empirically driven method of clinical decision-making. Cochrane reviews have reported the efficacy of EBA methods. == History and development == == Limitations == === Test selection and inadequate assessment === Despite the availability of numerous guidelines to assist psychologists in conducting evidence-based assessments (EBAs), professionals often fall short in adhering to these guidelines. Projective tests, for instance, are frequently employed in the assessment of child adjustment. It has been observed that there is considerable variability among professionals in following professional guidelines,


id: evidence-based-conservation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_conservation-0.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based conservation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_conservation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:31.117644+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-conservation-20260505-0
summary:
Evidence-based conservation is the application of evidence in conservation biology and environmental management actions and policy making. It is defined as systematically assessing scientific information from published, peer-reviewed publications and texts, practitioners' experiences, independent expert assessment, and local and indigenous knowledge on a specific conservation topic. This includes assessing the current effectiveness of different management interventions, threats and emerging problems and economic factors. Evidence-based conservation was organized based on the observations that decision making in conservation was based on intuition and or practitioner experience often disregarding other forms of evidence of successes and failures (e.g. scientific information). This has led to costly and poor outcomes. Evidence-based conservation provides access to information that will support decision making through an evidence-based framework of "what works" in conservation. The evidence-based approach to conservation is based on evidence-based practice which started in medicine and later spread to nursing, education, psychology and other fields. It is part of the larger movement towards evidence-based practices. == Systematic review == A systematic review consists of a non-subjective assessment of available data and evidence related to management. Synthesizing results from different studies over different time periods, locations or sample sizes can reduce the bias present in individual studies.


id: evidence-based-dentistry-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_dentistry-0.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based dentistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_dentistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:32.405790+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-dentistry-20260505-0
summary:
Evidence-based dentistry (EBD) is the dental part of the more general movement toward evidence-based medicine and other evidence-based practices. The pervasive access to information on the internet includes different aspects of dentistry for both the dentists and patients. This has created a need to ensure that evidence referenced to are valid, reliable and of good quality. Evidence-based dentistry has become more prevalent than ever, as information, derived from high-quality, evidence-based research is made available to clinicians and patients in clinical guidelines. By formulating evidence-based best-practice clinical guidelines that practitioners can refer to with simple chairside and patient-friendly versions, this need can be addressed. Evidence-based dentistry has been defined by the American Dental Association (ADA) as "an approach to oral healthcare that requires the judicious integration of systematic assessments of clinically relevant scientific evidence, relating to the patient's oral and medical condition and history, with the dentist's clinical expertise and the patient's treatment needs and preferences." Three main pillars or principles exist in evidence-based dentistry. The three pillars are defined as: Relevant scientific evidence Patient needs and preferences Clinician's expertise The use of high-quality research to establish the guidelines for best practices defines evidence-based practice. In essence, evidence-based dentistry requires clinicians


id: evidence-based-dentistry-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_dentistry-1.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based dentistry
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_dentistry
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:32.405790+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-dentistry-20260505-0
summary:
== Need for continuing education == Dental graduates around the globe are possibly up to date at the time they graduate, but usually are fundamentally lacking in the understanding of trials/studies design and relevance/importance. Dental specialty training, however, stresses evidence-based outcomes, results and methodologies. But this becomes out of date as new information and technology appear. Hence it is important, especially with regards to patient safety, for dentists to be able to keep up to date with developments. Having an understanding of how to interpret research results, and some practice in reading the literature in a structured way, can turn the dental literature into a useful and comprehensible practice tool. For this to happen, EBD learning absolutely needs to be at the heart of dental education. Dental students can be taught EBD concept during their time in dental school so that they will develop the ability to evaluate critically new knowledge and determine its relevance to the clinical problems and challenges presented by the individual patient. They also acquire the ability to interpret, assess, integrate, and apply data and information in the process of clinical problem solving, reasoning, and decision making. EBD is a lifelong learning process and help to


id: evidence-based-design-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_design-0.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based design
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_design
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:33.637659+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-design-20260505-0
summary:
Evidence-based design (EBD) is the process of constructing a building or physical environment based on scientific research to achieve the best possible outcomes. Evidence-based design is especially important in evidence-based medicine, where research has shown that environment design can affect patient outcomes. It is also used in architecture, interior design, landscape architecture, facilities management, education, and urban planning. Evidence-based design is part of the larger movement towards evidence-based practices. == Background == Evidence-based design (EBD) was popularized by the seminal study by Ulrich (1984) that showed the impact of a window view on patient recovery. Studies have since examined the relationships between design of the physical environment of hospitals with outcomes in health, the results of which show how the physical environment can lower the incidence of nosocomial infections, medical errors, patient falls, and staff injuries; and reduce stress of facility users, improve safety and productivity, reduce resource waste, and enhance sustainability. Evidence in EBD may include a wide range of sources of knowledge, from systematic literature reviews to practice guidelines and expert opinions. Evidence-based design was first defined as "the deliberate attempt to base design decisions on the best available research evidence" and that "an evidence-based designer, together with


id: evidence-based-design-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_design-1.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based design
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_design
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:33.637659+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-design-20260505-0
summary:
== A cautionary note about the strength of evidence in the built environment == In supporting evidence-based design, some caution is needed to ascertain the robustness of the evidence: the architectural psychology movement eventually drew criticism for its tendency towards ‘architectural determinism’ – a confusion between correlation and causality with the implication that there were mechanistic and causal links between the built environment and human behaviour. As some of the studies reviewed below reveal, the evidence is often weak or, worse, conflicting. In an early review of evidence in the healthcare sector, Rubin, Owens & Golden examined the medical literature for research papers on the effect of the physical environment on patient outcomes. They concluded that, if the demanding standards of proof used in medical research were used, almost all the studies would have to be regarded as methodologically flawed or at least limited. Unfortunately strongly held opinions are not the same as rigorously collected evidence. == Evidence-base for architecture generally, housing and urban environments == In 2002, CABE published a cross-sectoral study that set a pattern by reviewing a selection of the evidence (which it called the key research) for healthcare buildings, educational buildings, housing, urban environments, and business


id: evidence-based-design-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_design-2.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based design
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_design
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:33.637659+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-design-20260505-0
summary:
== Evidence-based design for healthcare facilities == There is a growing awareness among healthcare professionals and medical planners for the need to create patient-centered environments that can help patients and family cope with the stress that accompanies illness. There is also growing supporting research and evidence through various studies that have shown both the influence of well-designed environments on positive patient health outcomes, and poor design on negative effects including longer hospital stays. Using biophilic design concepts in interior environments is increasingly argued to have positive impacts on health and well-being through improving direct and indirect experiences of nature. Numerous studies have demonstrated improved patient health outcomes through environmental measures; exposing patients to nature has been shown to produce substantial alleviation of pain, and limited research also suggests that patients experience less pain when exposed to higher levels of daylight in their hospital rooms. Patients have an increased need for sleep during illness, but suffer from poor sleep when hospitalised. Approaches such as single-bed rooms and reduced noise have been shown to improve patient sleep. Natural daylight in patient rooms help to maintain circadian rhythms and improve sleep. According to Heerwagen, an environmental psychologist, medical models of health integrate behavioral,


id: evidence-based-design-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_design-3.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based design
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_design
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:33.637659+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-design-20260505-0
summary:
Level 1 Informed design decisions based on available literature on environmental research, based on applicability, such as the use of a state of the art technology or strategy based on the physical setting of the project Level 2 Design decisions based on predictive performance and measurable outcomes, rather than subjective decisions based on random choice Level 3 Results reported publicly, with the objective of moving information on the methods and results moving information beyond the design team, The peer review, makes the process more robust, as it could include varying perspectives from those who may or may not agree with the findings Level 4 Publishing findings in peer-reviewed journals Collaborating with academic and social scientists === Working model === A white paper (series 3/5) from the Center for Health Design presents a working model to help designers implement EBD decision-making. The primary goal is providing a healing environment; positive outcomes depend on three investments: Designed infrastructure, including the built environment and technology Re-engineered clinical and administrative practices to maximize infrastructure investment Leadership to maximize human and infrastructure investments All three investments depend on existing research. === Strategies === A white paper from the Center for Health Design identifies ten strategies


id: evidence-based-design-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_design-4.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based design
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_design
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:33.637659+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-design-20260505-0
summary:
== Further reading == A Visual Reference to Evidence-Based Design by Jain Malkin. Study Guide 1: An Introduction to Evidence-Based Design: Exploring Healthcare and Design. Study Guide 2: Building the Evidence-Base: Understanding Research in Helathcare Design. Study Guide 3: Integrating Evidence-Based Design: Practicing the Healthcare Design Process. A Practitioner's Guide to Evidence-Based Design by Debra D. Harris, PhD, Anjali Joseph, PhD, Franklin Becker, PhD, Kirk Hamilton, FAIA, FACHA, Mardelle McCuskey Shepley, AIA, D.Arch. Evidence-Based Design for Multiple Building Types by D. Kirk Hamilton and David H. Watkins. Stout, Chris E. and Hayes, Randy A. The evidence-based practice: methods, models, and tools for mental health professionals. John Wiley and Sons, January 2005. Ulrich, R., Quan, X., Zimring, C., Joseph, A. and, Choudhary, R., "The Role of the Physical Environment in the Hospital of the 21st Century". Report to the Center for Health Design, September 2004. Cama, R., (2009). Evidence-Based Healthcare Design. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Phiri, M. (2015). Design Tools for Evidence-Based Healthcare Design. Abingdon & New York: Routledge. Phiri, M. & Chen, B. (2014). Sustainability and Evidence-Based Design in Healthcare Estate. Heidelberg: Springer. == External links == The Center for Health Design Role of the Physical


id: evidence-based-education-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_education-0.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:34.880785+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-education-20260505-0
summary:
Evidence-based education (EBE) is the principle that education practices should be based on the best available scientific evidence, with randomised trials as the gold standard of evidence, rather than tradition, personal judgement, or other influences. Evidence-based education is related to evidence-based teaching, evidence-based learning, and school effectiveness research. The evidence-based education movement has its roots in the larger movement towards evidence-based practices, and has been the subject of considerable debate since the late 1990s. However, research published in 2020 showed that, despite absence of empirical evidence, belief is high amongst educators in teaching techniques such as matching instruction to a few supposed learning styles and the cone of learning. == History == The English author and academic David H. Hargreaves presented a lecture in 1996 in which he stated "Teaching is not at present a research-based profession. I have no doubt that if it were it would be more effective and satisfying". He compared the fields of medicine and teaching, saying that physicians are expected to keep up to date on medical research, whereas many teachers may not even be aware of the importance of research to their profession. In order for teaching to become more research-based, he suggested, educational


id: evidence-based-education-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_education-1.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:34.880785+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-education-20260505-0
summary:
Tier 1 – Strong Evidence: supported by one or more well-designed and well-implemented randomized controlled experimental studies. Tier 2 – Moderate Evidence: supported by one or more well-designed and well-implemented quasi-experimental studies. Tier 3 – Promising Evidence: supported by one or more well-designed and well-implemented correlational studies (with statistical controls for selection bias). Tier 4 – Demonstrates a Rationale: practices that have a well-defined logic model or theory of action, are supported by research, and have some effort underway by state educational agencies (SEA), local educational agencies (LEA), or outside research organization to determine their effectiveness. In 2016 the Department for Education in England published the White Paper Educational Excellence Everywhere. It states its intention to support an evidence-informed teaching profession by increasing teachers' access to and use of "high quality evidence". It will also establish a new British education journal and expand the Education Endowment Foundation. In addition, on October 4, 2016, the Government announced an investment of around £75 million in the Teaching and Leadership Innovation Fund, to support high-quality, evidence-informed, professional development for teachers and school leaders. A research report in July 2017 entitled Evidence-informed teaching: an evaluation of progress in England concluded this was necessary, but


id: evidence-based-education-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_education-2.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:34.880785+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-education-20260505-0
summary:
A meta-analysis is a statistical analysis that combines the results of multiple scientific studies. A concern of some researchers is the unreliability of some of these reports due to mythological features. For example, it is suggested that some meta-analyses findings are not credible because they do not exclude or control for studies with small sample sizes or very short durations, and where the researchers are doing the measurements. Such reports can yield "implausible" results. According to Robert Slavin, of the Center for Research and Reform in Education at Johns Hopkins University and Evidence for ESSA, "Meta-analyses are important, because they are widely read and widely cited, in comparison to individual studies. Yet until meta-analyses start consistently excluding, or at least controlling for studies with factors known to inflate mean effect sizes, then they will have little if any meaning for practice." == Research sources and information == The following organizations evaluate research on educational programs, or help educators to understand the research. === Best Evidence Encyclopedia (BEE) === Best Evidence Encyclopedia (BEE) is a free website created by the Johns Hopkins University School of Education's Center for Data-Driven Reform in Education (established in 2004) and is funded by the Institute


id: evidence-based-education-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_education-3.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:34.880785+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-education-20260505-0
summary:
==== Evidence-based PK-12 programs ==== There are three program categories 1) whole class, 2) struggling readers and 3) English learners. Programs can be filtered by a) ESSA evidence rating (strong, moderate, and promising), b) school grade, c) community (rural, suburban, urban), d) groups (African American, Asian American, Hispanic, White, free and reduced price lunch, English learners, and special education), and e) a variety of features such as cooperative learning, technology, tutoring, etc. For example, as of June 2020 there were 89 reading programs in the database. After filtering for strong results, grades 1–2, and free and reduced-price lunches, 23 programs remain. If it is also filter for struggling readers, the list is narrowed to 14 programs. The resulting list is shown by the ESSA ratings, Strong, Moderate or Promising. Each program can then be evaluated according to the following: number of studies, number of students, average effect size, ESSA rating, cost, program description, outcomes, and requirements for implementation. === Social programs that work and Straight Talk on Evidence === Social programs that work and Straight Talk on Evidence are administered by the Arnold Ventures LLC's evidence-based policy team, with offices in Houston, Washington, D.C., and New York City. The team


id: evidence-based-education-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_education-4.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based education
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_education
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:34.880785+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-education-20260505-0
summary:
outcome domain (e.g. alphabetics, oral language, general mathematics achievement, etc.) effectiveness rating (e.g. positive, potentially positive, mixed, etc.) number of studies meeting WWC standards grades examined (e.g. K-4) number of students in studies that met the WWC standards, and improvement index (i.e. the expected change in percentile rank). It is also possible to view the program's Evidence snapshot, detailed Intervention report and Review protocols. For other independent "related reviews", go to the evidence snapshot then the WWC Summary of Evidence. The following chart, updated in July 2020, shows some programs that had "strong evidence" of a "positive effect on outcomes" in the areas specified. The results may have changed since that time, however current information is available on the WWC website, including the outcome domains that did not have "strong evidence".Some of the concerns expressed about WWC are that it appears to have difficulty keeping up with the research so it may not be current; and when a program is not listed on their database, it may be that it did not meet their criteria or they have not yet reviewed it, but you don't know which. In addition Straight Talk on Evidence, authored by the Arnold Ventures LLC' Evidence-Based


id: evidence-based-legislation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_legislation-0.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based legislation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_legislation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:36.125348+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-legislation-20260505-0
summary:
Evidence-based legislation (EBL) is a legislative concept which calls for the use of the best available scientific evidence and systematically collected data, when available, by legislatures as a basis for their formulation and writing of law. Evidence-based legislation has its roots in the larger movement towards evidence-based practices, and depends on multiple other factors, including evidence gathering, qualitative and quantitative data analyses, stakeholder assessments, expert input, cost-benefit analyses, and continued monitoring and equation. == Overview == This concept was originally mentioned at a conference entitled "At the Margins. A Conference on Sex Offender Management in Minnesota 2006. Policy and Management Options for the Most Dangerous Sex Offenders" by Gerald T. Kaplan, a psychologist. This conference was organized by Eric Janus, Esq. Vice-Dean, the William Mitchell College of Law, and was held on February 24, 2006, in Minneapolis, Minnesota. The conference was devoted to considerations of policy involving management of dangerous sex offenders. It was noted that much of the legislation involving sex offenders that has been passed has been done so by legislatures reacting to public sentiment and fear, without the interposition of rational consideration of policy options and of policy consequences. Given the evolving standard of evidence-based medicine, and


id: evidence-based-nursing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_nursing-0.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based nursing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_nursing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:37.279571+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-nursing-20260505-0
summary:
Evidence-based nursing (EBN) is an approach to making quality decisions and providing nursing care based upon personal clinical expertise in combination with the most current, relevant research available on the topic. This approach is using evidence-based practice (EBP) as a foundation. EBN implements the most up to date methods of providing care, which have been proven through appraisal of high quality studies and statistically significant research findings. The goal of EBN is to improve the health and safety of patients while also providing care in a cost-effective manner to improve the outcomes for both the patient and the healthcare system. EBN is a process founded on the collection, interpretation, appraisal, and integration of valid, clinically significant, and applicable research. The evidence used to change practice or make a clinical decision can be separated into seven levels of evidence that differ in type of study and level of quality. To properly implement EBN, the knowledge of the nurse, the patient's preferences, and multiple studies of evidence must all be collaborated and utilized in order to produce an appropriate solution to the task at hand. These skills are taught in modern nursing education and also as a part of professional training. Muriel


id: evidence-based-nursing-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_nursing-1.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based nursing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_nursing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:37.279571+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-nursing-20260505-0
summary:
Are the results of the study valid? What are the results? Will the results be applicable in caring for patients? Question 1 measures the validity. In order to be valid, the results of the study must be as close to the truth as possible. Also, the study must be conducted using best available research methods. Question 2 measures the reliability of the study. If it is an intervention study, reliability consists of: whether the intervention worked, how large the effect was, and whether a clinician could repeat the study with similar results. If it is a qualitative study, reliability would be measured by determining if the research accomplished the purpose of the study. Question 3 measures the applicability. The study may be used in practice when caring for patients if the subjects are similar to the patients being cared for, the benefit outweighs the harm, the study is feasible, and the patient desires the treatment. After asking these three questions, evidence appraisal continues by creating an evidence synthesis. This synthesis compares multiple studies to see if they are in agreement with each other. == Integrate the evidence == After appraising the evidence, it is necessary to integrate it with the


id: evidence-based-nursing-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_nursing-2.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based nursing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_nursing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:37.279571+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-nursing-20260505-0
summary:
== Qualitative research process == One method of research for evidence-based practice in nursing is 'qualitative research': The word implies an entity and meanings that are not experimentally examined or measured in terms of quantity, amount, frequency, or intensity. With qualitative research, researchers learn about patient experiences through discussions and interviews. The point of qualitative research is to provide beneficial descriptions that allow insight into patient experiences. "Hierarchies of research evidence traditionally categorize evidence from weakest to strongest, with an emphasis on support for the effectiveness of interventions. That this perspective tends to dominate the evidence-based practice literature makes the merit of qualitative research unclear;" 1 Some people view qualitative research as less beneficial and effective, with its lack of numbers, the fact that it is "feeling-based" research, makes the opponents associate it with bias. Nevertheless, the ability to empathetically understand an individual's experience (whether it be with cancer, pressure ulcers, trauma, etc.), can benefit not only other patients, but the health care workers providing care. For qualitative research to be reliable, the testing must be unbiased. To achieve this, researchers must use random and non-random samples to obtain concise information about the topic being studied. If available, a control


id: evidence-based-nursing-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_nursing-3.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based nursing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_nursing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:37.279571+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-nursing-20260505-0
summary:
== Barriers to promoting evidence-based practice == The use of evidence-based practice depends a great deal on the nursing student's proficiency at understanding and critiquing the research articles and the associated literature that will be presented to them in the clinical setting. According to, Blythe Royal, author of Promoting Research Utilization in nursing: The Role of the Individual, Organization, and Environment, a large amount of the preparation requirements of nursing students consists of creating care plans for patients, covering in depth processes of pathophysiology, and retaining the complex information of pharmacology. These are indeed very important for the future of patient care, but their knowledge must consist of more when they begin to practice. Evidence-based nursing in an attempt to facilitate the management of the growing literature and technology accessible to healthcare providers that can potentially improve patient care and their outcomes. Nancy Dickenson-Hazard states, "Nurses have the capacity to serve as caregivers and change agents in creating and implementing community and population-focused health systems." There is also a need to overcome the barriers to encourage the use of research by new graduates in an attempt to ensure familiarity with the process. This will help nurses to feel more confident


id: evidence-based-nursing-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_nursing-4.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based nursing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_nursing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:37.279571+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-nursing-20260505-0
summary:
Identify "triggers" Clinical applications Organizational priorities Forming a team Piloting a practice change Evaluating the pilot Evaluate change and share results First, identify "triggers", which can be either problem focused or knowledge focused. These can be the important questions that arise from current practices. With knowledge focus, nurses can question a current practice due to shared scientific knowledge. This knowledge can be in the form of research or national guidelines for example. With problem focus, nurses can find room for improvement from already existing facts. Second, clinical application is how nurses figure out the importance of the question identified and the relevance by using the EBP process. Third, organizational priorities is ranking the question by the priorities of the organization. High priority given to areas that focus on high-volume/risk/cost, organization's plan, or motivated by other forces. Knowing where a question lies in priorities can be a determination factor of getting the necessities needed to do an EBP projection for that organization. Fourth, forming a team is possible once agreeance occurs. The team is assembled to create, do, and evaluate the change. It is a multi-disciplinary functioning team with various skill sets and networks. Fifth, the piloting of a practice change


id: evidence-based-pharmacy-in-developing-countries-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_pharmacy_in_developing_countries-0.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based pharmacy in developing countries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_pharmacy_in_developing_countries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:38.590092+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-pharmacy-in-developing-countries-20260505-0
summary:
Many developing nations have developed national drug policies, a concept that has been actively promoted by the WHO. For example, the national drug policy for Indonesia drawn up in 1983 had the following objectives: To ensure the availability of drugs according to the needs of the population. To improve the distribution of drugs in order to make them accessible to the whole population. To ensure efficacy, safety quality and validity of marketed drugs and to promote proper, rational and efficient use. To protect the public from misuse and abuse. To develop the national pharmaceutical potential towards the achievements of self-reliance in drugs and in support of national economic growth. To achieve these objectives in Indonesia, the following changes were implemented: A national list of essential drugs was established and implemented in all public sector institutions. The list is revised periodically. A ministerial decree in 1989 required that drugs in public sector institutions be prescribed generically and that Pharmacy and Therapeutics committees be established in all hospitals. District hospitals and health centers have to procure their drugs based on the essential drugs list. Most drugs are supplied by three government-owned companies. Training modules have been developed for drug management and rational


id: evidence-based-pharmacy-in-developing-countries-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_pharmacy_in_developing_countries-1.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based pharmacy in developing countries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_pharmacy_in_developing_countries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:38.590092+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-pharmacy-in-developing-countries-20260505-0
summary:
== Rational dispensing == In situations where medicines are dispensed in small, twisted-up pieces of brown paper, the need for patient instruction takes on a whole new dimension. Medicines should be issued in appropriate containers and labelled. While the patient may be unable to read, the healthcare worker is probably literate. There are many tried-and-tested methods in the literature for using pictures and diagrams to aid patient compliance. Symbols such as a rising or setting sun to depict time of day have been used, particularly for treatments where regular medication is important, such as cases of tuberculosis or leprosy. Poverty may force patients to purchase one day's supply of medicines at a time, so it is important to ensure that antibiotics are used rationally and not just for one or two days' treatment. Often, poor patients need help from pharmacists to understand which are the most important medicines and to identify the items, typically vitamins, that can be missed to reduce the cost of the prescription to a more manageable level. == The essential drugs concept == The essential drugs list concept was developed from a report to the 28th World Health Assembly in 1975 as a scheme to extend


id: evidence-based-pharmacy-in-developing-countries-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_pharmacy_in_developing_countries-2.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based pharmacy in developing countries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_pharmacy_in_developing_countries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:38.590092+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-pharmacy-in-developing-countries-20260505-0
summary:
== Drug donations == It is a natural human reaction to want to help in whatever way possible when face with human disaster, either as a result of some catastrophe or because of extreme poverty. Sympathetic individuals want to take action to help in a situation in which they would otherwise be helpless, and workers in difficult circumstances, only too aware of waste and excess at home, want to make use of otherwise worthless materials. The problem is that these situations do not lend themselves to objectivity. There are numerous accounts of tons of useless drugs being air-freighted into disaster areas. It the requires huge resources to sort out these charitable acts and often the drugs cannot be identified because the labels are not in a familiar language. In many cases, huge quantities have to be destroyed simply because the drugs are out of date, spoiled, unidentifiable, or totally irrelevant to local needs. Generally, had the cost of shipping been donated instead, then many more people would have benefited. In response to this, the WHO has generated guidelines for drug donations from a consensus of major international agencies involved in emergency relief. If these are followed, a significant improvement in


id: evidence-based-pharmacy-in-developing-countries-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_pharmacy_in_developing_countries-3.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based pharmacy in developing countries
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_pharmacy_in_developing_countries
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:38.590092+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-pharmacy-in-developing-countries-20260505-0
summary:
=== Selection and use === Rational Drug Use: consumer education and information - DA Fresle, 1996, 50 pages, ref no DAP/MAC/(8)96.6. Estimating Drug Requirements: a practical manual - 1988, 136 pages, ref no WHO/DAP/88.2. The Use of Essential Drugs. Model List of essential drugs - updated every two years. Currently 14th edition, 2005. The list is available at: www.who.int/medicines Drugs Used in Sexually Transmitted Diseases and HIV Infection - 1995, 97 pages, ISBN 92-4-140105-2. Drugs Used in Parasitic Diseases (2e) - 1995, 146 pages, ISBN 92-4-140104-4. Drugs Used in Mycobacterial Diseases - 1991, 40 pages, ISBN 92-4-140103-6. Who Model Prescribing Information: Drugs Used in Anaesthesia - 1989, 53 pages, ISBN 978-9-241-40101-2. Guidelines for Safe Disposal of Unwanted Pharmaceuticals In and After Emergencies - ref no WHO/EDM/PAR/99.4. === Supply and marketing === Guidelines for Drug Donations - interagency guidelines, revised 1999. Ref no WHO/EDM/PAR/99.4. Operational Principles for Good Pharmaceutical Procurement - Essential Drugs and Medicines Policy / Interagency Pharmaceutical Coordination Group, Geneva, 1999. Managing Drug Supply - Management Sciences for Health in collaboration with WHO, 1997, 832 pages, ISBN 1-56549-047-9. Ethical Criteria for Medicinal Drug Promotion - 1988, 16 pages, ISBN 978-9-241-54239-5. === Quality assurance === WHO/UNICEF Study on the Stability


id: evidence-based-policing-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_policing-0.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based policing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_policing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:39.913830+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-policing-20260505-0
summary:
Evidence-based policing (EBP) is an approach to policy making and tactical decision-making for police departments. It has its roots in the larger movement towards evidence-based practices. Advocates of evidence-based policing emphasize the value of statistical analysis, empirical research, and ideally randomized controlled trials. EBP does not dismiss more traditional drivers of police decision-making, but seeks to raise awareness and increase the application of scientific testing, targeting, and tracking of police resources, especially during times of budget cuts and greater public scrutiny. == Origins == Experiments had been used in earlier decades to find better policing methods, before Lawrence Sherman first outlined a definition of "evidence-based policing" in 1998. The Police Foundation was founded in 1970. In 1971-72 the Police Foundation worked with the Kansas City Police Department to carry out a landmark study on patrol cars in what is known as the Kansas City preventive patrol experiment. In the early 1980s, Sherman worked with Richard Berk and the Police Foundation to carry out the Minneapolis Domestic Violence Experiment. The study showed that arresting domestic violence suspects was a deterrent against repeat offending. The study had a "virtually unprecedented impact in changing then-current police practices." Sherman later worked with fellow criminologist


id: evidence-based-policing-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_policing-1.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based policing
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_policing
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:39.913830+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-policing-20260505-0
summary:
== United States == EBP is acknowledged by some senior police leaders as a valuable approach to improve policing. The FBI Academy offers a course on EBP. EBP has become the subject of debate in research journals, deliberating the extent to which policing should be guided by experimental criminology. There is a consensus that more needs to be done to bridge the 'translation gap' between frontline police officers and academics. Academics from the Department of Criminology, Law and Society at George Mason University launched the Center for Evidence-Based Crime Policy in 2008. Their Evidence-Based Policing Matrix records, orders and rates scientific evaluations in policing and seeks to enable police departments to access and assess existing evidence. In 2015, a group of working police officers and crime analysts formed the American Society of Evidence-Based Policing. This organization was formed with the intent of educating police officers about the concept of EBP, advocating for the use of best available research to drive policing strategies and tactics, and facilitating the creation of new research findings by connecting researchers and practitioners. Membership is open to all serving police officers, civilian staff members, researchers, and academics. The first annual ASEBP conference was held on the


id: evidence-based-policy-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_policy-0.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based policy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_policy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:41.073168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-policy-20260505-0
summary:
Evidence-based policy (also known as evidence-informed policy or evidence-based governance) is a concept in public policy that advocates for policy decisions to be grounded on, or influenced by, rigorously established objective evidence. This concept presents a stark contrast to policymaking predicated on ideology, 'common sense', anecdotes, or personal intuitions. The methodology employed in evidence-based policy often includes comprehensive research methods such as randomized controlled trials (RCT). Good data, analytical skills, and political support to the use of scientific information are typically seen as the crucial elements of an evidence-based approach. An individual or organisation is justified in claiming that a specific policy is evidence-based if, and only if, three conditions are met. First, the individual or organisation possesses comparative evidence about the effects of the specific policy in comparison to the effects of at least one alternative policy. Second, the specific policy is supported by this evidence according to at least one of the individual's or organisation's preferences in the given policy area. Third, the individual or organisation can provide a sound account for this support by explaining the evidence and preferences that lay the foundation for the claim. The effectiveness of evidence-based policy hinges upon the presence of quality


id: evidence-based-policy-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_policy-1.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based policy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_policy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:41.073168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-policy-20260505-0
summary:
=== History of evidence-based policy making === The application of randomized controlled trials in social policy was notably later than in the medical field. Although elements of an evidence-based approach can be traced back as far as the fourteenth century, it was popularized more recently during the tenure of the Blair Government in the United Kingdom. This government expressed a desire to shift away from ideological decision-making in policy formulation. For instance, a 1999 UK Government white paper, Modernising Government, emphasized the need for policies that "really deal with problems, are forward-looking and shaped by evidence rather than a response to short-term pressures; [and] tackle causes not symptoms." This shift in policy formulation led to an upswing in research and activism advocating for more evidence-based policy-making. As a result, the Campbell Collaboration was established in 1999 as a sibling organization to the Cochrane Collaboration. The Campbell Collaboration undertakes reviews of the most robust evidence, analyzing the impacts of social and educational policies and practices. The Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) furthered the drive for more evidence-based policymaking by granting £1.3 million to the Evidence Network in 1999. One outcome of this investment was the establishment of the first international,


id: evidence-based-policy-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_policy-2.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based policy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_policy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:41.073168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-policy-20260505-0
summary:
== Evidence-based policy initiatives by non-governmental organizations == === Overseas Development Institute === The Overseas Development Institute (now ODI Global) asserts that research-based evidence can significantly influence policies that have profound impacts on lives. Illustrative examples mentioned in the UK's Department for International Development's (DFID) new research strategy include a 22% reduction in neonatal mortality in Ghana, achieved by encouraging women to initiate breastfeeding within one hour of childbirth, and a 43% decrease in mortality among HIV-positive children due to the use of a widely accessible antibiotic. Following numerous policy initiatives, the ODI conducted an evaluation of their evidence-based policy efforts. This analysis identified several factors contributing to policy decisions that are only weakly informed by research-based evidence. Policy development processes are complex, seldom linear or logical, thus making the direct application of presented information by policy-makers an unlikely scenario. These factors encompass information gaps, secrecy, the necessity for rapid responses versus slow data availability, political expediency (what is popular), and a lack of interest among policy-makers in making policies more scientifically grounded. When a discrepancy is identified between the scientific process and political process, those seeking to reduce this gap face a choice: either to encourage politicians to adopt


id: evidence-based-policy-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_policy-3.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based policy
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_policy
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:41.073168+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-policy-20260505-0
summary:
== Cost-benefit analysis in evidence-based policy == Cost-benefit analysis (CBA) is a method used in evidence-based policy. It is an economic tool used to assess the economic, social, and environmental impacts of policies. The aim is to guide policymakers toward decisions that increase societal welfare. The use of cost-benefit analysis in policy-making was first mandated by President Ronald Reagan's Executive Order 12291 in 1981. This order stated that administrative decisions should use sufficient information regarding the potential impacts of regulation. Maximizing the net benefits to society was a primary stated focus among the five general requirements of the order. EO 12291 built on the Nixon administration's expansion of federal control over agencies; in particular, his Quality of Life Review which directed agencies to submit "significant" proposed rules, including a "a comparison of expected costs and benefits" to the Office of Management and Budget. Later presidents, including Bill Clinton and Barack Obama, modified but still emphasized the importance of cost-benefit analysis in their executive orders. For example, Clinton's Executive Order 12866 maintained cost-benefit analysis but also stressed the importance of flexibility, public involvement, and coordination among agencies. During the Obama administration, Executive Order 13563 further strengthened the role of cost-benefit analysis


id: evidence-based-scheduling-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_scheduling-0.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based scheduling
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_scheduling
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:42.309757+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-scheduling-20260505-0
summary:
Evidence-based scheduling is a software estimation approach created by Joel Spolsky, a commentator on software engineering principles. Evidence-based Scheduling is based on at least two core ideas: including all time spent, and using a Monte Carlo completion date prediction method. Evidence-based scheduling is an example of an evidence-based practice. == Including all time spent == One of the core ideas of evidence-based scheduling, that adds to the normal estimation practices, is the idea of including all time spent, regardless of relevance. Most people, when estimating, measure the time they actually spend on a project – classic Time Accounting categories such as cited in McConnell's Software Project Survival Guide do not allow for accounting for non-project activities. While McConnell goes on to include less obvious activities such as holidays, sick days and project support, he and most others identify such as activities to be separately recorded. However, recording and attempting to budget for secondary activities often leads to political pressure to drop such activities. In practice, people find themselves unable to avoid them and compensate by working overtime. Similarly, as Spolsky points out, your bosses' stories about his fishing trips, or model helicopter, are both a time-sink and politically dangerous to


id: evidence-based-toxicology-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_toxicology-0.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based toxicology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_toxicology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:48.329362+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-toxicology-20260505-0
summary:
The discipline of evidence-based toxicology (EBT) strives to transparently, consistently, and objectively assess available scientific evidence in order to answer questions in toxicology, the study of the adverse effects of chemical, physical, or biological agents on living organisms and the environment, including the prevention and amelioration of such effects. EBT has the potential to address concerns in the toxicological community about the limitations of current approaches to assessing the state of the science. These include concerns related to transparency in decision making, synthesis of different types of evidence, and the assessment of bias and credibility. Evidence-based toxicology has its roots in the larger movement towards evidence-based practices. By analogy to evidence-based medicine (EBM), the umbrella term evidence-based toxicology (EBT) has been coined to group all approaches intended to better implement the above-mentioned evidence-based principles in toxicology in general and in toxicological decision-making in particular. Besides systematic reviews, the core evidence-based tool, such approaches include inter alia the establishment and universal use of a common ontology, justified design and rigorous conduct of studies, consistently structured and detailed reporting of experimental evidence, probabilistic uncertainty and risk assessment, and the development of synthesis methodology to integrate evidence from diverse evidence streams, e.g. from


id: evidence-based-toxicology-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_toxicology-1.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based toxicology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_toxicology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:48.329362+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-toxicology-20260505-0
summary:
== Process and progress == The First International Forum Toward Evidence-Based Toxicology was held in 2007. The forum was organized by the European Commission and attended by 170 scientists from more than 25 European, American, and Asian countries. The goal was to explore the available concepts of EBT, and to launch an initiative to formally implement evidence-based assessment methods in toxicology. The starting point for the discussions were two research papers suggesting that the tools and concepts established in evidence-based medicine could serve as a prototype of evidence-based decision-making for evaluating toxicological data. Apparent fundamental differences between medicine and toxicology were carefully considered during these discussions. Forum participants attempted to bridge the two disciplines in order to make use of the accrued wisdom and apply this approach to toxicology. (See [1] Archived 2017-07-29 at the Wayback Machine .) The proceedings of this forum were published as a special issue in Human & Experimental Toxicology. EBT's proponents include experts in EBM, public health, and toxicology who believe that EBT can help toxicologists to better serve the goals of health protection and safety assurance. They argue that EBT's methodologies for collecting, appraising, and pooling evidence can help ensure that all available information


id: evidence-based-toxicology-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_toxicology-2.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based toxicology
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_toxicology
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:48.329362+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-toxicology-20260505-0
summary:
== Limitations and challenges == The specific differences between toxicology and medicine/health care cause challenges for implementing EBT. Evidence-based methodology of clinical research has been focused on a single type of study—randomized, controlled clinical trials, which are a direct measure of the effectiveness of the health care intervention under scrutiny. In contrast, toxicology employs a variety of different kinds of studies in three distinct evidence streams: human (observational) studies, animal studies, and non-animal studies. Because human evidence is frequently lacking most evidence is obtained by using animal and non-animal models, which—by definition—is more difficult to generalize and extrapolate to humans. This methodological heterogeneity complicates evidence integration within an evidence stream, such as when inconsistent evidence is obtained from different animal species, but even more so across evidence streams. Adding to the difficulty is the reality that much toxicological evidence, more so than in medicine and health care, is not readily accessible in the literature. Moreover, the role of expert judgment, especially in systematic reviews, needs to be clearly defined, as it is a common misperception that evidence-based approaches leave no room for it. Systematic reviews should strive to make expert judgments clear along with the scientific basis for those judgments


id: evidence-informed-policy-network-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-Informed_Policy_Network-0.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-Informed Policy Network
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-Informed_Policy_Network
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:49.672257+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-informed-policy-network-20260505-0
summary:
Evidence Informed Policy Network (EVIPNet) is a network, sponsored by the World Health Organization (WHO), which attempts to improve public health, especially in developing countries, by coordinating the efforts of policymakers and health researchers. == History == EVIPNet grew out of discussions at the Ministerial Summit on Health Research held in Mexico City, November 16–20, 2004. Following the Summit, the World Health Assembly which governs the World Health Organization passed Resolution 58.2, 4-5 endorsing the "Mexico Statement On Health Research: Knowledge for better health" developed during the Summit. In the statement, Ministers of Health and delegates called "for national governments to establish sustainable programs to support evidence-based public health and health care delivery systems, and evidence-based health related policies." Resolution 58.34 made a call "to establish or strengthen mechanisms to transfer knowledge in support of evidence-based public health and health-care delivery systems, and evidence-based health-related policies". Developments relevant to EVIPNet are regularly reported to the Advisory Committee on Health Research of the World Health Organization and of its Regional Offices. In March 2009 the EVIPNet Secretariat presented to WHO's Advisory Committee on Health Research a capacity building strategy that assessed through a validated tool the knowledge needs with respect to


id: examine-com-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Examine.com-0.md
category: reference
title: Examine.com
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Examine.com
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:50.876748+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: examine-com-20260505-0
summary:
Examine.com is a Toronto-based company that runs an online encyclopedia covering health, nutrition and supplementation. The website collates scientific research using evidence-based practice methodology. Examine.com is led by Kamal Patel, and includes scientists, editors and peer reviewers. == History == Examine.com was created in 2011 by University of Toronto alumnus Sol Orwell out of his frustration with users on Reddit asking the same questions over and over again. Kurtis Frank had posted on a public forum that he had been doing nutrition research, and wanted to improve accessibility to such information. He was contacted by Orwell, and they created the website, with Frank becoming co-founder. Orwell had already thought of the idea from his weight loss journey and frustration with info on supplements, but wanted an expert alongside. Frank left Examine sometime in 2018, when his name was removed from the site. The company began with a focus on supplementation research, but expanded into nutrition as it continued to grow. During the initial research that led to the company's founding, Orwell noticed unsourced and incorrect marketing claims about nutrition and supplementation made it difficult to draw conclusions about health, which lead to the site's standard of evidence-based analysis. In 2014,


id: german-agency-for-quality-in-medicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Agency_for_Quality_in_Medicine-0.md
category: reference
title: German Agency for Quality in Medicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Agency_for_Quality_in_Medicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:52.024374+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: german-agency-for-quality-in-medicine-20260505-0
summary:
The German Agency for Quality in Medicine (AEZQ) (German: Ärztliches Zentrum für Qualität in der Medizin, ÄZQ), established in 1995 and located in Berlin, co-ordinates healthcare quality programmes with special focus on evidence-based medicine, medical guidelines, patient empowerment, patient safety programs, and quality management. AEZQ is a non-profit organization owned by the German Medical Association and the National Association of Statutory Health Insurance Physicians. == Activities == AEZQ initiated several quality programs for the German healthcare system: It established the German Program for evidence based medical guidelines in the late 90s. Based upon guideline standards from the Scottish Intercollegiate Guideline Network and referring to experiences from the National Guideline Clearinghouse in the US, the agency founded a German Guideline Clearinghouse aiming at best practice in guideline production. In 1998 AEZQ was co-founder of the German Network for Evidence Based Medicine. The organization established the German Clearinghouse for Patient Information in order to promote scientifically based shared decision making in 1999. In 2002, the agency set up the National Program for Disease Management Guidelines. The development of reliable and consumer information is integral part of this guideline program. AEZQ was co-founder of the Guidelines International Network in 2002 - under the


id: global-appraisal-of-individual-needs-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Appraisal_of_Individual_Needs-0.md
category: reference
title: Global Appraisal of Individual Needs
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Appraisal_of_Individual_Needs
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:53.169933+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: global-appraisal-of-individual-needs-20260505-0
summary:
The Global Appraisal of Individual Needs (GAIN) is a family of evidence-based instruments used to assist clinicians with diagnosis, placement, and treatment planning. The GAIN is used with both adolescents and adults in all kinds of treatment programs, including outpatient, intensive outpatient, partial hospitalization, methadone, short-term residential, long-term residential, therapeutic community, and correctional programs. == History == The GAIN was developed to respond to the needs of substance abuse treatment personnel who are faced with the demands of assessing, documenting, treating, and monitoring clients. Researchers, clinicians, policymakers, and behavioral healthcare agencies worked to design assessment tools that could produce methodical data for mapping onto the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) for diagnosis and the American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM) Patient Placement Criteria for placement, while following The Joint Commission (TJC) [formerly the Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations (JCAHO)] for integrating assessments into treatment plans. Since its inception in 1993, application of the GAIN has expanded to thousands of users at agencies across the United States, Canada and several other countries. == Family of assessments == GAIN Initial (GAIN-I) – a comprehensive standardized assessment that can be used for treatment placement and planning, outcome monitoring,


id: grade-approach-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GRADE_approach-0.md
category: reference
title: GRADE approach
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GRADE_approach
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:54.489651+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: grade-approach-20260505-0
summary:
The GRADE approach (Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation) is a method of assessing the certainty in evidence (also known as quality of evidence or confidence in effect estimates) and the strength of recommendations in health care. It provides a structured and transparent evaluation of the importance of outcomes of alternative management strategies, acknowledgment of patients and the public values and preferences, and comprehensive criteria for downgrading and upgrading certainty in evidence. It has important implications for those summarizing evidence for systematic reviews, health technology assessments, and health guidelines as well as other decision makers. == Background and history == The GRADE began in the year 2000 as a collaboration of methodologists, guideline developers, biostatisticians, clinicians, public health scientists and other interested members. GRADE developed and implemented a common, transparent and sensible approach to grading the quality of evidence (also known as certainty in evidence or confidence in effect estimates) and strength of recommendations in healthcare. GRADE follows careful methods to develop its guidance and other articles. GRADE official articles, guidance group, project groups and centers, networks, and formalization of Evidence-to-Decision frameworks As GRADE adoption expanded, the need for sustained methodological support and capacity building became apparent. Starting in


id: grade-approach-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GRADE_approach-1.md
category: reference
title: GRADE approach
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GRADE_approach
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:54.489651+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: grade-approach-20260505-0
summary:
=== Certainty of evidence === GRADE rates the certainty of evidence as follows: The GRADE working group has developed a software application that facilitates the use of the approach, allows the development of summary tables and contains the GRADE handbook. The software is free for non-profit organizations and is available online. The GRADE approach to assess the certainty in evidence is widely applicable, including to questions about diagnosis, prognosis, network meta-analysis and public health. === Strength of recommendation === Factors and criteria that determine the direction and strength of a recommendation: Factors for which overlap is described are often not shown separately in a decision table. == Usage == Over 100 organizations (including the World Health Organization, the UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE), the Canadian Task Force for Preventive Health Care, the Colombian Ministry of Health and Social Protection, and the Saudi Arabian Ministry of Health) have endorsed and/or are using GRADE to evaluate the quality of evidence and strength of health care recommendations. == Criticism == When used to summarize evidence from nutritional science, dietary, lifestyle, and environmental exposure, the use of the GRADE approach has been criticized. Critics argue that the GRADE system had


id: guidelines-international-network-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guidelines_International_Network-0.md
category: reference
title: Guidelines International Network
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guidelines_International_Network
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:55.751764+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: guidelines-international-network-20260505-0
summary:
The Guidelines International Network (GIN) is an international scientific association of organisations and individuals interested and involved in development and application of evidence-based guidelines and health care information. The network supports evidence-based health care and improved health outcomes by reducing inappropriate variation throughout the world. == Membership and Organisation == The Network's membership consists of 115 organisations working in the field of medical guidelines and other types of healthcare guidance as well as of around 130 individual experts (March 2021). The members represent about 47 countries from all continents. The list of members is available on the GIN website Being constituted as a Scottish Guarantee Company under Company Number SC243691, the Network is recognised as a Scottish Charity under Scottish Charity Number SC034047. == History == Based upon the work of the international AGREE Collaboration for the quality of clinical practice guidelines, an organised network for organisations and experts working in the field of evidence-based guidelines was proposed in early 2002 at the first international guideline conference in Berlin, Germany. Guideline experts called for international standardized guideline methods, and information exchange in this field. The proposal was endorsed by health care agencies from all parts of the world such as


id: health-technology-assessment-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_technology_assessment-0.md
category: reference
title: Health technology assessment
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_technology_assessment
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:57.017080+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: health-technology-assessment-20260505-0
summary:
Health technology assessment (HTA) is a multidisciplinary process that uses systematic and explicit methods to evaluate the properties and effects of a health technology. Health technology is conceived as any intervention (test, device, medicine, vaccine, procedure, program) at any point in its lifecycle (pre-market, regulatory approval, post-market, disinvestment). The purpose of HTA is to inform "decision-making in order to promote an equitable, efficient, and high-quality health system". It has other definitions including "a method of evidence synthesis that considers evidence regarding clinical effectiveness, safety, cost-effectiveness and, when broadly applied, includes social, ethical, and legal aspects of the use of health technologies. The precise balance of these inputs depends on the purpose of each individual HTA. A major use of HTAs is in informing reimbursement and coverage decisions by insurers and national health systems, in which case HTAs should include benefit-harm assessment and economic evaluation." And "a multidisciplinary process that summarises information about the medical, social, economic and ethical issues related to the use of a health technology in a systematic, transparent, unbiased, robust manner. Its aim is to inform the formulation of safe, effective, health policies that are patient focused and seek to achieve best value. Despite its policy goals,


id: hierarchy-of-evidence-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchy_of_evidence-0.md
category: reference
title: Hierarchy of evidence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchy_of_evidence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:58.212894+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hierarchy-of-evidence-20260505-0
summary:
A hierarchy of evidence, comprising levels of evidence (LOEs), that is, evidence levels (ELs), is a heuristic used to rank the relative strength of results obtained from experimental research, especially medical research. There is broad agreement on the relative strength of large-scale, epidemiological studies. More than 80 different hierarchies have been proposed for assessing medical evidence. The design of the study (such as a case report for an individual patient or a blinded randomized controlled trial) and the endpoints measured (such as survival or quality of life) affect the strength of the evidence. In clinical research, the best evidence for treatment efficacy is mainly from meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and the least relevant evidence is expert opinion, including consensus of such. Systematic reviews of completed, high-quality randomized controlled trials – such as those published by the Cochrane Collaboration – rank the same as systematic review of completed high-quality observational studies in regard to the study of side effects. Evidence hierarchies are often applied in evidence-based practices and are integral to evidence-based medicine (EBM). == Definition == In 2014, Jacob Stegenga defined a hierarchy of evidence as "rank-ordering of kinds of methods according to the potential for that method


id: hierarchy-of-evidence-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchy_of_evidence-1.md
category: reference
title: Hierarchy of evidence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchy_of_evidence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:58.212894+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hierarchy-of-evidence-20260505-0
summary:
=== Khan et al. === A protocol for evaluation of research quality was suggested by a report from the Centre for Reviews and Dissemination, prepared by Khan et al. and intended as a general method for assessing both medical and psychosocial interventions. While strongly encouraging the use of randomized designs, this protocol noted that such designs were useful only if they met demanding criteria, such as true randomization and concealment of the assigned treatment group from the client and from others, including the individuals assessing the outcome. The Khan et al. protocol emphasized the need to make comparisons on the basis of "intention to treat" in order to avoid problems related to greater attrition in one group. The Khan et al. protocol also presented demanding criteria for nonrandomized studies, including matching of groups on potential confounding variables and adequate descriptions of groups and treatments at every stage, and concealment of treatment choice from persons assessing the outcomes. This protocol did not provide a classification of levels of evidence, but included or excluded treatments from classification as evidence-based depending on whether the research met the stated standards. === U.S. National Registry of Evidence-Based Practices and Programs === An assessment protocol has


id: hierarchy-of-evidence-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchy_of_evidence-2.md
category: reference
title: Hierarchy of evidence
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchy_of_evidence
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:58.212894+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: hierarchy-of-evidence-20260505-0
summary:
== Criticism == In 2011, a systematic review of the critical literature found three kinds of criticism: procedural aspects of EBM (especially from Cartwright, Worrall and Howick), greater than expected fallibility of EBM (Ioaanidis and others), and EBM being incomplete as a philosophy of science (Ashcroft and others). Rawlins and Bluhm note, that EBM limits the ability of research results to inform the care of individual patients, and that to understand the causes of diseases both population-level and laboratory research are necessary. EBM hierarchy of evidence does not take into account research on the safety and efficacy of medical interventions. RCTs should be designed "to elucidate within-group variability, which can only be done if the hierarchy of evidence is replaced by a network that takes into account the relationship between epidemiological and laboratory research" The hierarchy of evidence produced by a study design has been questioned, because guidelines have "failed to properly define key terms, weight the merits of certain non-randomized controlled trials, and employ a comprehensive list of study design limitations". Stegenga has criticized specifically that meta-analyses are placed at the top of such hierarchies. The assumption that RCTs ought to be necessarily near the top of such hierarchies


id: knowledge-broker-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_broker-0.md
category: reference
title: Knowledge broker
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_broker
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:25:59.492142+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: knowledge-broker-20260505-0
summary:
A knowledge broker is an intermediary (i.e., organization or a person), that aims to develop relationships and networks with, among, and between producers and users of knowledge. This development involves providing linkages, knowledge sources, and in some cases, knowledge itself, (e.g., technical know-how, market insights, or research evidence) to organizations in its network. == Overview == While the exact role and function of knowledge brokers are conceptualized and operationalized differently in various sectors and settings, a key feature appears to be the facilitation of knowledge exchange or sharing between and among various stakeholders, including researchers, practitioners, and policy makers. A knowledge broker may operate in multiple markets and technology domains. The concept of knowledge brokers is closely related to the concept of knowledge spillovers. In the fields of public health, applied health services research, and social sciences, knowledge brokers are often referred to as bridges or intermediaries that link producers of research evidence to users of research evidence as a means of facilitating collaboration to identify issues, solve problems, and promote evidence-informed decision making (EIDM), which is the process of critically appraising and incorporating the best available research evidence, along with evidence from multiple other sources into policy and practice


id: evidence-based-library-and-information-practice-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_library_and_information_practice-0.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based library and information practice
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_library_and_information_practice
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:05.636040+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-library-and-information-practice-20260505-0
summary:
Evidence-based library and information practice (EBLIP) or evidence-based librarianship (EBL) is the use of evidence-based practices (EBP) in the field of library and information science (LIS). This means that all practical decisions made within LIS should 1) be based on research studies and 2) that these research studies are selected and interpreted according to some specific norms characteristic for EBP. Typically such norms disregard theoretical studies and qualitative studies and consider quantitative studies according to a narrow set of criteria of what counts as evidence. If such a narrow set of methodological criteria are not applied, it is better instead to speak of research based library and information practice. == Characteristics == Evidence-based practice in general has been characterised as a positivist approach; EBLIP is therefore also a positivist approach to LIS. As such, EBLIP is an approach in contrast to other approaches to LIS. The use of statistical approaches known as meta-analysis to conclude what evidence has been reported in the literature is one among other methods which is typical for the evidence-based approach. In 2002, Booth noted the three schools of EBILP had some commonalities, including the context of day-to-day decision-making, an emphasis on improving the quality of


id: evidence-based-management-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_management-0.md
category: reference
title: Evidence-based management
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evidence-based_management
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:06.851967+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: evidence-based-management-20260505-0
summary:
Evidence-based management (EBMgt) is an emerging movement to explicitly use the current, best evidence in management and decision-making. It is part of the larger movement towards evidence-based practices. == Overview == Evidence-based management entails managerial decisions and organizational practices informed by the best available evidence. As with other evidence-based practice, this is based on the three following principles: 1) published peer-reviewed (often in management or social science journals) research evidence that bears on whether and why a particular management practice works; 2) judgement and experience from contextual management practice, to understand the organization and interpersonal dynamics in a situation and determine the risks and benefits of available actions; 3) the preferences and values of those affected. While, like its counterparts in medicine, and education EBMgt considers the circumstances and ethical concerns managerial decisions involve, it tends not to make extensive use of behavioral science relevant to effective management practice. Evidence-based management proceeds from the premise that using better, deeper logic and employing facts to the extent possible permits leaders to do their jobs better. == Practice == An important part of EBMgt is educating current and future managers in evidence-based practices. The EBMgt website maintained at Stanford University provides a


id: meta-analysis-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-analysis-0.md
category: reference
title: Meta-analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:08.077779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: meta-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
Meta-analysis is a method of synthesis of quantitative data from multiple independent studies addressing a common research question. An important part of this method involves computing a combined effect size across all of the studies. As such, this statistical approach involves extracting effect sizes and variance measures from various studies. By combining these effect sizes the statistical power is improved and can resolve uncertainties or discrepancies found in individual studies. Meta-analyses are integral in supporting research grant proposals, shaping treatment guidelines, and influencing health policies. They are also pivotal in summarizing existing research to guide future studies, thereby cementing their role as a fundamental methodology in metascience. Meta-analyses are often, but not always, important components of a systematic review. == History == The term "meta-analysis" was coined in 1976 by the statistician Gene Glass, who stated "Meta-analysis refers to the analysis of analyses". Glass's work aimed at describing aggregated measures of relationships and effects. While Glass is credited with authoring the first modern meta-analysis, a paper published in 1904 by the statistician Karl Pearson in the British Medical Journal collated data from several studies of typhoid inoculation and is seen as the first time a meta-analytic approach was used to


id: meta-analysis-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-analysis-1.md
category: reference
title: Meta-analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:08.077779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: meta-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
=== Approaches === In general, two types of evidence can be distinguished when performing a meta-analysis: individual participant data (IPD), and aggregate data (AD). The aggregate data can be direct or indirect. AD is more commonly available (e.g. from the literature) and typically represents summary estimates such as odds ratios or relative risks. This can be directly synthesized across conceptually similar studies using several approaches. On the other hand, indirect aggregate data measures the effect of two treatments that were each compared against a similar control group in a meta-analysis. For example, if treatment A and treatment B were directly compared vs placebo in separate meta-analyses, we can use these two pooled results to get an estimate of the effects of A vs B in an indirect comparison as effect A vs Placebo minus effect B vs Placebo. IPD evidence represents raw data as collected by the study centers. This distinction has raised the need for different meta-analytic methods when evidence synthesis is desired, and has led to the development of one-stage and two-stage methods. In one-stage methods the IPD from all studies are modeled simultaneously whilst accounting for the clustering of participants within studies. Two-stage methods first compute summary


id: meta-analysis-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-analysis-2.md
category: reference
title: Meta-analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:08.077779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: meta-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
Heterogeneity of precision Heterogeneity of effect size Since neither of these factors automatically indicates a faulty larger study or more reliable smaller studies, the re-distribution of weights under this model will not bear a relationship to what these studies actually might offer. Indeed, it has been demonstrated that redistribution of weights is simply in one direction from larger to smaller studies as heterogeneity increases until eventually all studies have equal weight and no more redistribution is possible. Another issue with the random effects model is that the most commonly used confidence intervals generally do not retain their coverage probability above the specified nominal level and thus substantially underestimate the statistical error and are potentially overconfident in their conclusions. Several fixes have been suggested but the debate continues on. A further concern is that the average treatment effect can sometimes be even less conservative compared to the fixed effect model and therefore misleading in practice. One interpretational fix that has been suggested is to create a prediction interval around the random effects estimate to portray the range of possible effects in practice. However, an assumption behind the calculation of such a prediction interval is that trials are considered more or less


id: meta-analysis-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-analysis-3.md
category: reference
title: Meta-analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:08.077779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: meta-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
===== Bayesian framework ===== Specifying a Bayesian network meta-analysis model involves writing a directed acyclic graph (DAG) model for general-purpose Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) software such as WinBUGS. In addition, prior distributions have to be specified for a number of the parameters, and the data have to be supplied in a specific format. Together, the DAG, priors, and data form a Bayesian hierarchical model. To complicate matters further, because of the nature of MCMC estimation, overdispersed starting values have to be chosen for a number of independent chains so that convergence can be assessed. Recently, multiple R software packages were developed to simplify the model fitting (e.g., metaBMA and RoBMA) and even implemented in statistical software with graphical user interface (GUI): JASP. Although the complexity of the Bayesian approach limits usage of this methodology, recent tutorial papers are trying to increase accessibility of the methods. Methodology for automation of this method has been suggested but requires that arm-level outcome data are available, and this is usually unavailable. Great claims are sometimes made for the inherent ability of the Bayesian framework to handle network meta-analysis and its greater flexibility. However, this choice of implementation of framework for inference, Bayesian or


id: meta-analysis-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-analysis-4.md
category: reference
title: Meta-analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:08.077779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: meta-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
=== Validation of meta-analysis results === The meta-analysis estimate represents a weighted average across studies and when there is heterogeneity this may result in the summary estimate not being representative of individual studies. Qualitative appraisal of the primary studies using established tools can uncover potential biases, but does not quantify the aggregate effect of these biases on the summary estimate. Although the meta-analysis result could be compared with an independent prospective primary study, such external validation is often impractical. This has led to the development of methods that exploit a form of leave-one-out cross validation, sometimes referred to as internal-external cross validation (IOCV). Here each of the k included studies in turn is omitted and compared with the summary estimate derived from aggregating the remaining k- 1 studies. A general validation statistic, Vn based on IOCV has been developed to measure the statistical validity of meta-analysis results. For test accuracy and prediction, particularly when there are multivariate effects, other approaches which seek to estimate the prediction error have also been proposed. == Challenges == A meta-analysis of several small studies does not always predict the results of a single large study. Some have argued that a weakness of the method


id: meta-analysis-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-analysis-5.md
category: reference
title: Meta-analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:08.077779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: meta-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
=== Problems related to the statistical approach === Other weaknesses are that it has not been determined if the statistically most accurate method for combining results is the fixed, IVhet, random or quality effect models, though the criticism against the random effects model is mounting because of the perception that the new random effects (used in meta-analysis) are essentially formal devices to facilitate smoothing or shrinkage and prediction may be impossible or ill-advised. The main problem with the random effects approach is that it uses the classic statistical thought of generating a "compromise estimator" that makes the weights close to the naturally weighted estimator if heterogeneity across studies is large but close to the inverse variance weighted estimator if the between study heterogeneity is small. However, what has been ignored is the distinction between the model we choose to analyze a given dataset, and the mechanism by which the data came into being. A random effect can be present in either of these roles, but the two roles are quite distinct. There's no reason to think the analysis model and data-generation mechanism (model) are similar in form, but many sub-fields of statistics have developed the habit of assuming, for theory


id: meta-analysis-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-analysis-6.md
category: reference
title: Meta-analysis
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meta-analysis
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:08.077779+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: meta-analysis-20260505-0
summary:
=== Weak inclusion standards lead to misleading conclusions === Meta-analyses in education are often not restrictive enough in regards to the methodological quality of the studies they include. For example, studies that include small samples or researcher-made measures lead to inflated effect size estimates. However, this problem also troubles meta-analysis of clinical trials. The use of different quality assessment tools (QATs) lead to including different studies and obtaining conflicting estimates of average treatment effects. == Applications in modern science == Modern statistical meta-analysis does more than just combine the effect sizes of a set of studies using a weighted average. It can test if the outcomes of studies show more variation than the variation that is expected because of the sampling of different numbers of research participants. Additionally, study characteristics such as measurement instrument used, population sampled, or aspects of the studies' design can be coded and used to reduce variance of the estimator (see statistical models above). Thus some methodological weaknesses in studies can be corrected statistically. Other uses of meta-analytic methods include the development and validation of clinical prediction models, where meta-analysis may be used to combine individual participant data from different research centers and to assess the


id: metascience-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metascience-0.md
category: reference
title: Metascience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metascience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:09.274638+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: metascience-20260505-0
summary:
Metascience (also known as meta-research) is the use of scientific methodology to study science itself. Metascience seeks to increase the quality of scientific research and enhance its efficiency. It is also known as "research on research" and "the science of science", as it uses research methods to study how research is done and find where improvements can be made. Metascience concerns itself with all fields of research and has been described as "a bird's eye view of science". In the words of John Ioannidis, "Science is the best thing that has happened to human beings ... but we can do it better." In 1966, an early meta-research paper examined the statistical methods of 295 papers published in ten high-profile medical journals. It found that "in almost 73% of the reports read ... conclusions were drawn when the justification for these conclusions was invalid." Meta-research in the following decades found many methodological flaws, inefficiencies, and poor practices in research across numerous scientific fields. Many scientific studies could not be reproduced, particularly in medicine and the soft sciences. The term "replication crisis" was coined in the early 2010s as part of a growing awareness of the problem. Measures have been implemented to


id: metascience-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metascience-1.md
category: reference
title: Metascience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metascience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:09.274638+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: metascience-20260505-0
summary:
=== Reporting === Meta-research has identified poor practices in reporting, explaining, disseminating and popularizing research, particularly within the social and health sciences. Poor reporting makes it difficult to accurately interpret the results of scientific studies, to replicate studies, and to identify biases and conflicts of interest in the authors. Solutions include the implementation of reporting standards, and greater transparency in scientific studies (including better requirements for disclosure of conflicts of interest). There is an attempt to standardize reporting of data and methodology through the creation of guidelines by reporting agencies such as CONSORT and the larger EQUATOR Network. === Reproducibility === The replication crisis is an ongoing methodological crisis in which it has been found that many scientific studies are difficult or impossible to replicate. While the crisis has its roots in the meta-research of the mid- to late 20th century, the phrase "replication crisis" was not coined until the early 2010s as part of a growing awareness of the problem. The replication crisis has been closely studied in psychology (especially social psychology) and medicine, including cancer research. Replication is an essential part of the scientific process, and the widespread failure of replication puts into question the reliability of affected


id: metascience-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metascience-2.md
category: reference
title: Metascience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metascience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:09.274638+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: metascience-20260505-0
summary:
===== Science funding and awards ===== Scientific awards are one category of science incentives. Metascience can explore existing and hypothetical systems of science awards. For instance, it found that work honored by Nobel Prizes clustered in only a few scientific fields with only 36/71 having received at least one Nobel Prize. Of the 114/849 domains science could be divided into their DC2 and DC3 classification systems, five were shown to comprise over half of the Nobel Prizes awarded between 1995 and 2017 (particle physics [14%], cell biology [12.1%], atomic physics [10.9%], neuroscience [10.1%], molecular chemistry [5.3%]). A study found that delegation of responsibility by policy-makers – a centralized authority-based top-down approach – for knowledge production and appropriate funding to science with science subsequently somehow delivering "reliable and useful knowledge to society" is too simple. Measurements show that allocation of bio-medical resources can be more strongly correlated to previous allocations and research than to burden of diseases. A study suggests that "[i]f peer review is maintained as the primary mechanism of arbitration in the competitive selection of research reports and funding, then the scientific community needs to make sure it is not arbitrary". Studies indicate there to is a need to


id: metascience-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metascience-3.md
category: reference
title: Metascience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metascience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:09.274638+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: metascience-20260505-0
summary:
Metascience can investigate how scientific processes evolve over time. A study found that teams are growing in size, "increasing by an average of 17% per decade". (see labor advantage below) It was found that prevalent forms of non-open access publication and prices charged for many conventional journals – even for publicly funded papers – are unwarranted, unnecessary – or suboptimal – and detrimental barriers to scientific progress. Open access can save considerable amounts of financial resources, which could be used otherwise, and level the playing field for researchers in developing countries. There are substantial expenses for subscriptions, gaining access to specific studies, and for article processing charges. Paywall: The Business of Scholarship is a documentary on such issues. Another topic are the established styles of scientific communication (e.g. long text-form studies and reviews) and the scientific publishing practices – there are concerns about a "glacial pace" of conventional publishing. The use of preprint-servers to publish study-drafts early is increasing and open peer review, new tools to screen studies, and improved matching of submitted manuscripts to reviewers are among the proposals to speed up publication. ==== Science overall and intrafield developments ==== Metadata from research publications can be extracted, enriched, and


id: metascience-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metascience-4.md
category: reference
title: Metascience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metascience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:09.274638+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: metascience-20260505-0
summary:
Some research is investigating scientific controversy or controversies, and may identify currently ongoing major debates (e.g. open questions), and disagreement between scientists or studies. One study suggests the level of disagreement was highest in the social sciences and humanities (0.61%), followed by biomedical and health sciences (0.41%), life and earth sciences (0.29%); physical sciences and engineering (0.15%), and mathematics and computer science (0.06%). Such research may also show, where the disagreements are, especially if they cluster, including visually such as with cluster diagrams. === Challenges of interpretation of pooled results === Studies about a specific research question or research topic are often reviewed in the form of higher-level overviews in which results from various studies are integrated, compared, critically analyzed and interpreted. Examples of such works are scientific reviews and meta-analyses. These and related practices face various challenges and are a subject of metascience. Various issues with available studies such as, for example, heterogeneity of methods used may lead to faulty conclusions of the meta-analysis. === Knowledge integration and living documents === Various problems require swift integration of new and existing science-based knowledge. Especially setting where there are a large number of loosely related projects and initiatives benefit from a


id: metascience-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metascience-5.md
category: reference
title: Metascience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metascience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:09.274638+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: metascience-20260505-0
summary:
==== As and for acceleration of progress ==== A study suggests that improving the way science is done could accelerate the rate of scientific discovery and its applications which could be useful for finding urgent solutions to humanity's problems, improve humanity's conditions, and enhance understanding of nature. Metascientific studies can seek to identify aspects of science that need improvement, and develop ways to improve them. If science is accepted as the fundamental engine of economic growth and social progress, this could raise "the question of what we – as a society – can do to accelerate science, and to direct science toward solving society's most important problems." One author clarified that funding science requires diverse approaches rather than a single model. DARPA models, curiosity-driven research, peer-champion mechanisms, and other approaches each have merit and application in different contexts. Nevertheless, evaluation of them can help build knowledge of what works or works best. == Reforms == Meta-research identifying flaws in scientific practice has inspired reforms in science. These reforms seek to address and fix problems in scientific practice which lead to low-quality or inefficient research. A 2015 study lists "fragmented" efforts in meta-research. === Pre-registration === The practice of registering a


id: metascience-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metascience-6.md
category: reference
title: Metascience
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metascience
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:09.274638+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: metascience-20260505-0
summary:
Clinical research in medicine is often of low quality, and many studies cannot be replicated. An estimated 85% of research funding is wasted. Additionally, the presence of bias affects research quality. The pharmaceutical industry exerts substantial influence on the design and execution of medical research. Conflicts of interest are common among authors of medical literature and among editors of medical journals. While almost all medical journals require their authors to disclose conflicts of interest, editors are not required to do so. Financial conflicts of interest have been linked to higher rates of positive study results. In antidepressant trials, pharmaceutical sponsorship is the best predictor of trial outcome. Blinding is another focus of meta-research, as error caused by poor blinding is a source of experimental bias. Blinding is not well reported in medical literature, and widespread misunderstanding of the subject has resulted in poor implementation of blinding in clinical trials. Furthermore, failure of blinding is rarely measured or reported. Research showing the failure of blinding in antidepressant trials has led some scientists to argue that antidepressants are no better than placebo. In light of meta-research showing failures of blinding, CONSORT standards recommend that all clinical trials assess and report the quality


id: model-for-assessment-of-telemedicine-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_for_assessment_of_telemedicine-0.md
category: reference
title: Model for assessment of telemedicine
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_for_assessment_of_telemedicine
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:10.473207+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: model-for-assessment-of-telemedicine-20260505-0
summary:
Model for assessment of telemedicine (MAST) is a framework for assessment of the value of telemedicine. == Description == Telemedicine services may have many different types of outcomes and can be studied in many ways. In order for those who develop new telemedicine services to produce the information that healthcare managers need for making decisions on investment in telemedicine, a model for assessment of telemedicine (MAST) was developed. This work was done in 2010 through stakeholder workshops and on the basis of a systematic literature review. If the goal of evaluating telemedicine applications is to assess their effectiveness and impact on the quality of care, and to provide a foundation for decision-making, then according to MAST, the appropriate assessment framework is a multidisciplinary process. This process involves summarizing and evaluating information concerning medical, social, economic, and ethical considerations related to telemedicine in a systematic, impartial, and rigorous manner. This statement is based on the definition of Health technology assessment (HTA) in the EUnetHTA project. Key concepts are "multidisciplinary" and "systematic, unbiased and robust". The first concept implies that the assessments should include all important outcomes of the applications for patients, clinicians, healthcare institutions and society in general. The others imply


id: national-registry-of-evidence-based-programs-and-practices-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Registry_of_Evidence-Based_Programs_and_Practices-0.md
category: reference
title: National Registry of Evidence-Based Programs and Practices
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Registry_of_Evidence-Based_Programs_and_Practices
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:11.663231+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-registry-of-evidence-based-programs-and-practices-20260505-0
summary:
The National Registry of Evidence-based Programs and Practices (NREPP) was a searchable online database of interventions designed to promote mental health or to prevent or treat substance abuse and mental disorders. The registry was funded and administered by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), part of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The goal of the Registry was to encourage wider adoption of evidence-based interventions and to help those interested in implementing an evidence-based intervention to select one that best meets their needs. The NREPP website was phased out in 2018. The included phaseout section has more information. == Overview == In the behavioral health field, there is an ongoing need for researchers, developers, evaluators, and practitioners to share information about what works to improve outcomes among individuals coping with, or at risk for, mental disorders and substance abuse. Discussing how this need led to the development of NREPP, Brounstein, Gardner, and Backer (2006) wrote: It is important to note that not all prevention programs work. Still other programs have no empirically based support regarding their effectiveness. […] Many others have empirical support, but the methods used to generate that support are suspect. This is


id: national-registry-of-evidence-based-programs-and-practices-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Registry_of_Evidence-Based_Programs_and_Practices-1.md
category: reference
title: National Registry of Evidence-Based Programs and Practices
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Registry_of_Evidence-Based_Programs_and_Practices
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:11.663231+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: national-registry-of-evidence-based-programs-and-practices-20260505-0
summary:
A brief description of the reviewed intervention, including targeted goals and theoretical basis Study populations (age, gender, race/ethnicity) Study settings and geographical locations Implementation history Funding information Comparative evaluation research conducted with the intervention Adaptations Adverse effects List of studies and materials reviewed List of outcomes Description of measures and key findings for each outcome Research design of the studies reviewed Quality of Research and Readiness for Dissemination ratings Reviewer comments (Strengths and Weaknesses) Costs Replication studies Contact information NREPP maintained an online Learning Center that included learning modules on implementation and preparing for NREPP submission; a research paper on evidence-based therapy relationships; and links to screening and assessment tools for mental health and substance use. == Predecessor system == The registry originated in 1997 as the National Registry of Effective Prevention Programs (later renamed the National Registry of Effective Programs and Practices) and has gone through several changes. This predecessor to the NREPP was developed by SAMHSA's Center for Substance Abuse Prevention as part of the Model Programs initiative. Procedures under this earlier registry were developed to review, rate, and designate programs as Model, Effective, or Promising. Based on extensive input from scientific communities, service providers, expert panels, and


id: patient-safety-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_safety-0.md
category: reference
title: Patient safety
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_safety
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:13.019610+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patient-safety-20260505-0
summary:
Patient safety is a specialized field focused on enhancing healthcare quality through the systematic prevention, reduction, reporting, and analysis of medical errors and preventable harm that can lead to negative patient outcomes. Although healthcare risks have long existed, patient safety only gained formal recognition in the 1990s following reports of alarming rates of medical error-related injuries in many countries. The urgency of the issue was underscored when the World Health Organization (WHO) identified that 1 in 10 patients globally experience harm due to healthcare errors, declaring patient safety an "endemic concern" in modern medicine. Today, patient safety is a distinct healthcare discipline, supported by an ever evolving scientific framework. It is underpinned by a robust transdisciplinary body of theoretical and empirical research, with emerging technologies, such as mobile health applications, playing a pivotal role in its advancement. == Prevalence of adverse events == Millennia ago, Hippocrates recognized the potential for injuries that arise from the well-intentioned actions of healers. Greek healers in the 4th century BC drafted the Hippocratic Oath, pledging to "prescribe regimens for the good of my patients according to my ability and my judgment and never do harm to anyone." Since then, the directive primum non nocere


id: patient-safety-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_safety-1.md
category: reference
title: Patient safety
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_safety
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:13.019610+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patient-safety-20260505-0
summary:
== Communication == Communication involves distributing relevant information across operational sites to ensure alignment. It also reduces administrative burden by using model-driven instructions, freeing up operational staff and easing procedural demands. This enables consistent execution with minimal but essential feedback, ensuring processes remain both efficient and controlled. === Effective and ineffective communication === The use of effective communication among patients and healthcare professionals is associated with a patient's health outcome. However, scientific patient safety research by Annegret Hannawa et al. has shown that ineffective communication can lead to patient harm. Communication regarding patient safety can be classified into two categories: the prevention of adverse events and the response to adverse events. Effective communication may help to prevent adverse events, whereas ineffective communication may contribute to their occurrence. If ineffective communication contributes to an adverse event, improved communication skills may be applied in response to achieve optimal outcomes for the patient's safety. There are different modes in which healthcare professionals can work to optimize the safety of patients which include both verbal and nonverbal communication, as well as the effective use of communication technologies. Methods of effective verbal and nonverbal communication include treating patients with respect and showing empathy, clearly communicating


id: patient-safety-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_safety-2.md
category: reference
title: Patient safety
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_safety
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:13.019610+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patient-safety-20260505-0
summary:
The simplest definition of a healthcare error is a preventable adverse effect of care, whether or not it is evident or harmful to the patient. Errors have been, in part, and/or attributed to: === Human factors === Variations in healthcare provider training and experience, fatigue, depression and burnout. Diverse patients, unfamiliar settings, and time pressures. Failure to acknowledge the prevalence and seriousness of medical errors. Increasing working hours of healthcare personnel. Mislabeling specimen or forgetting to label specimen. States of anxiety and stress put on the healthcare provider. === Medical complexity === Complicated technologies, powerful drugs. Intensive care, prolonged hospital stays. === System failures === Unsafe communication. Unclear lines of authority or guidelines for physicians, nurses, and other care providers. Complication increasing when the patient to nurse staffing ratio increases to a point where the patient rate is higher than the rate of staff. Disconnected reporting systems within a hospital: fragmented systems in which numerous hand-offs of patients result in errors in examples such as coordination or other general reports due to even minor errors. Drug names that look alike or sound alike. The impression that action is being taken by other groups within the institution. Reliance on automated systems


id: patient-safety-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_safety-3.md
category: reference
title: Patient safety
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_safety
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:13.019610+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patient-safety-20260505-0
summary:
=== Aviation safety === In the United States, two organizations contribute to one of the world's lowest aviation accident rates. Mandatory accident investigation is carried out by the National Transportation Safety Board, while the Aviation Safety Reporting System receives voluntary reports to identify deficiencies and provide data for planning improvements. The latter system is confidential and provides reports back to stakeholders without regulatory action. Similarities and contrasts have been noted between the "cultures of safety" in medicine and aviation. Pilots and medical personnel operate in complex environments, interact with technology, and are subject to fatigue, stress, danger, and loss of life and prestige as a consequence of error. Given the enviable record of aviation in accident prevention, a similar medical adverse event system would include both mandatory (for severe incidents) and voluntary non-punitive reporting, teamwork training, feedback on performance and an institutional commitment to data collection and analysis. The Patient Safety Reporting System (PSRS) is a program modeled upon the Aviation Safety Reporting System and developed by the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to monitor patient safety through voluntary, confidential reports. Required training in crew resource management (CRM), which focused on team


id: patient-safety-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_safety-4.md
category: reference
title: Patient safety
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_safety
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:13.019610+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patient-safety-20260505-0
summary:
Identification upon request of health care personnel, using scanners (similar to readers for passive RFID tags or scanners for barcode labels) to identify patients semi-automatically upon presentation of the patient with a tag to staff Automatic identification upon entry of patient. An automatic identification check is carried out on each person with tags (primarily patients) entering the area to determine the presented patient in contrast to other patient earlier entered into reach of the used reader. Automatic identification and range estimation upon approach to the most proximate patient, excluding reads from more distant tags of other patients in the same area Any of these options may be applied whenever and wherever patient details are required in electronic form Such identifying is essential when the information concerned is critical. There are increasing numbers of hospitals that have an RFID system to identify patients, for instance: Hospital La Fe in Valencia, Spain; Wayne Memorial Hospital (US); Royal Alexandria Hospital (UK). === Computerized provider order entry (CPOE) === Prescribing errors are the largest identified source of preventable errors in hospitals (IOM, 2000; 2007). The IOM (2006) estimates that each hospitalized patient, on average, is exposed to one medication error each day. Computerized provider


id: patient-safety-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_safety-5.md
category: reference
title: Patient safety
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_safety
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:13.019610+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patient-safety-20260505-0
summary:
Managed care plans may attempt to limit "unnecessary" services to cut the costs of health care, despite evidence that guidelines are not designed for general screening, but rather as decision-making tools when an individual practitioner evaluates a specific patient. The medical literature is evolving and often controversial; the development of guidelines requires consensus. Implementing guidelines and educating the entire health care team within a facility costs time and resources (which may be recovered by future efficiency and error reduction). Clinicians may resist evidence-based medicine as a threat to traditional relationships between patients, doctors, and other health professionals since any participant can influence decisions. Failing to follow guidelines might increase the risk of liability or disciplinary action by regulators. == Quality and Safety Initiatives in Community Pharmacy practice == Community pharmacy practice is making important advances in the quality and safety movement, despite the limited number of federal and state regulations that exist and in the absence of national accreditation organizations such as the Joint Commission - a driving force for performance improvement in health care systems. Community pharmacies are using automated drug dispensing devices (robots), computerized drug utilization review tools, and, most recently, the ability to receive electronic prescriptions from


id: patient-safety-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_safety-6.md
category: reference
title: Patient safety
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_safety
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:13.019610+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patient-safety-20260505-0
summary:
Possible additions to the dataset will address the patient's condition on admission and increase the understanding of how laboratory and pharmacy utilization impact patient outcomes. The goal of AHRQ is to refine the area-level indicators to improve outcomes for children receiving outpatient care and reduce the incidence of hospitalization for those defined conditions. === Collaborations for pediatric safety and quality === Numerous groups are engaged in improving pediatric care, quality, and safety. Each of these groups has a unique mission and membership. The following table details these groups' missions and websites. === Nurse staffing and pediatric outcomes === While the number of nurses providing patient care is recognized as an inadequate measure of nursing care quality, there is hard evidence that nurse staffing is directly related to patient outcomes. Studies by Aiken and Needleman have demonstrated that patient death, nosocomial infections, cardiac arrest, and pressure ulcers are linked to inadequate nurse-to-patient ratios. The presence or absence of registered nurses (RNs) impacts the outcome for pediatric patients requiring pain management and/or peripheral administration of intravenous fluids and/or medications. These two indicators of pediatric nursing care quality are sensitive measures of nursing care. Professional nurses play a key role in successful pain


id: patient-safety-20260505-7
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_safety-7.md
category: reference
title: Patient safety
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_safety
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:13.019610+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patient-safety-20260505-0
summary:
=== United Kingdom === In the United Kingdom, the National Health Service (NHS) began an ambitious pay-for-performance initiative in 2004, known as the Quality and Outcomes Framework (QOF). General practitioners agreed to increases in existing income according to performance with respect to 146 quality indicators covering clinical care for 10 chronic diseases, organization of care, and patient experience. Unlike proposed quality incentive programs in the United States, funding for primary care was increased by 20% over previous levels. This allowed practices to invest in extra staff and technology; 90% of general practitioners use the NHS Electronic Prescription Service, and up to 50% use electronic health records for the majority of clinical care. Early analysis showed that substantially increasing physicians' pay based on their success in meeting quality performance measures is successful. The 8,000 family practitioners included in the study earned an average of $40,000 more by collecting nearly 97% of the points available. A component of this program, known as exception reporting, allows physicians to use criteria to exclude individual patients from the quality calculations that determine physician reimbursement. There was initial concern that exception reporting would allow inappropriate exclusion of patients in whom targets were missed ("gaming"). However, a


id: patient-safety-20260505-8
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_safety-8.md
category: reference
title: Patient safety
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_safety
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:13.019610+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patient-safety-20260505-0
summary:
=== Complex illness === Pay-for-performance programs often target patients with serious and complex illnesses; such patients commonly interact with multiple healthcare providers and facilities. However, pilot programs now underway focus on simple indicators such as improvement in lab values or use of emergency services, avoiding areas of complexity such as multiple complications or several treating specialists. A 2007 study analyzing Medicare beneficiaries' healthcare visits showed that a median of two primary care physicians and five specialists provide care for a single patient. The authors doubt that pay-for-performance systems can accurately attribute responsibility for the outcome of care for such patients. The American College of Physicians Ethics has stated concerns about using a limited set of clinical practice parameters to assess quality, "especially if payment for good performance is grafted onto the current payment system, which does not reward robust comprehensive care...The elderly patient with multiple chronic conditions is especially vulnerable to this unwanted effect of powerful incentives." Present pay-for-performance systems measure good performance based on specified clinical measurements, such as glycohemoglobin for diabetic patients. Healthcare providers who are monitored by such limited criteria have a powerful incentive to deselect (dismiss or refuse to accept) patients whose outcome measures fall below


id: patient-safety-20260505-9
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_safety-9.md
category: reference
title: Patient safety
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patient_safety
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:13.019610+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: patient-safety-20260505-0
summary:
===== Medical error ===== Ethical standards of the Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations (JCAHO), the American Medical Association (AMA) Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs, and the American College of Physicians Ethics Manual require disclosure of the most serious adverse events. However, many doctors and hospitals do not report errors under the current system because of concerns about malpractice lawsuits; this prevents collection of information needed to find and correct the conditions that lead to mistakes. As of 2008, 35 US states have statutes allowing doctors and health care providers to apologize and offer expressions of regret without their words being used against them in court, and 7 states have also passed laws mandating written disclosure of adverse events and bad outcomes to patients and families. In September 2005, US Senators Clinton and Obama introduced the National Medical Error Disclosure and Compensation (MEDiC) Bill, providing physicians protection from liability and a safe environment for disclosure, as part of a program to notify and compensate patients harmed by medical errors. It is now the policy of several academic medical centers, including Johns Hopkins, University of Illinois and Stanford, to promptly disclose medical errors, offering apologies and compensation. This national


id: peer-instruction-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer_instruction-0.md
category: reference
title: Peer instruction
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer_instruction
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:14.206293+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: peer-instruction-20260505-0
summary:
Peer instruction is a teaching method popularized by Harvard Professor Eric Mazur in the early 1990s. Originally used in introductory undergraduate physics classes at Harvard University, peer instruction is used in various disciplines and institutions around the globe. It is a student-centered learning approach that involves flipping the traditional classroom. It expects students to prepare for class by exploring provided materials and then engage with a series of questions about the material in class. == Method == Peer instruction as a learning system works by moving information transfer out and moving information assimilation, or application of learning, into the classroom. Students prepare to learn outside of class by doing pre-class readings and answering questions about those readings using another method, called Just in Time Teaching. Then, in class, the instructor engages students by posing prepared conceptual questions or ConcepTests that are based on student difficulties. The questioning procedure outlined by Eric Mazur is as follows: Instructor poses question based on students' responses to their pre-class reading Students reflect on the question Students commit to an individual answer Instructor reviews student responses Students discuss their thinking and answers with their peers Students then commit again to an individual answer The instructor


id: pico-process-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PICO_process-0.md
category: reference
title: PICO process
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PICO_process
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:15.419573+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: pico-process-20260505-0
summary:
The PICO process (or framework) is a mnemonic used in evidence-based practice (and specifically evidence-based medicine) to frame and answer a clinical or health care related question, though it is also argued that PICO "can be used universally for every scientific endeavour in any discipline with all study designs". The PICO framework is also used to develop literature search strategies, for instance in systematic reviews. The PICO acronym has come to stand for: P – Patient, problem, or population I – Intervention C – Comparison, control, or comparator O – Outcome(s) (e.g. pain, fatigue, nausea, infections, death) An application that covers clinical questions about interventions, as well as exposures, risk/ prognostic factors, and test accuracy, is: P – Patient, problem, or population I – Investigated condition (e.g. intervention, exposure, risk/ prognostic factor, or test result) C – Comparison condition (e.g. intervention, exposure, risk/ prognostic factor, or test result respectively) O – Outcome(s) (e.g. symptom, syndrome, or disease of interest) Alternatives such as SPICE and PECO (among many others) can also be used. Some authors suggest adding T and S, as follows: T - Timing (e.g. duration of intervention, or date of publication) S - Study type (e.g. randomized controlled trial,


id: policy-based-evidence-making-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policy-based_evidence_making-0.md
category: reference
title: Policy-based evidence making
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policy-based_evidence_making
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:16.631033+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: policy-based-evidence-making-20260505-0
summary:
"Policy-based evidence making" is a pejorative term which refers to the commissioning of research in order to support a policy which has already been decided upon. It is the converse of evidence-based policy making. As the name suggests, policy-based evidence making means working back from a predefined policy to produce underpinning evidence. Working from a conclusion to provide only supporting evidence is an approach which contradicts most interpretations of the scientific method; however, it should be distinguished from research into the effects of a policy where such research may provide either supporting or opposing evidence. == Examples == In The Politics of Evidence: From evidence-based policy to the good governance of evidence, Justin Parkhurst quotes the following example from Professor Anne Glover, then Chief Scientific Officer to the European Commission: Let's imagine a Commissioner over the weekend thinks, "Let's ban the use of credit cards in the EU because credit cards lead to personal debt". So that commissioner will come in on Monday morning and say to his or her Director General, "Find me the evidence that demonstrates that this is the case". Similar reasoning has been advanced in respect of public policy on alcohol and narcotics. == Mentions ==


id: preregistration-science-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preregistration_(science)-0.md
category: reference
title: Preregistration (science)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preregistration_(science)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:22.218636+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preregistration-science-20260505-0
summary:
Preregistration is the practice of registering the hypotheses, methods, or analyses of a scientific study before it is conducted. Clinical trial registration is similar, although it may not require the registration of a study's analysis protocol. Finally, registered reports include the peer review and in principle acceptance of a study protocol prior to data collection. Preregistration has the goal to transparently evaluate the severity of hypothesis tests, and can have a number of secondary goals (which can also be achieved without preregistering ), including (a) facilitating and documenting research plans, (b) identifying and reducing questionable research practices and researcher biases, (c) distinguishing between confirmatory and exploratory analyses, and, in the case of Registered Reports, (d) facilitating results-blind peer review, and (e) reducing publication bias. Although the idea of preregistration is old, the practice of preregistering studies has gained prominence to mitigate certain issues that contribute to the replication crisis in scientific studies. Among others, these issues include publication bias and questionable research practices, such as p-hacking and HARKing. == Types == === Standard preregistration === In the standard preregistration format, researchers prepare a research protocol document prior to conducting their research. Ideally, this document indicates the research hypotheses, sampling procedure,


id: preregistration-science-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preregistration_(science)-1.md
category: reference
title: Preregistration (science)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preregistration_(science)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:22.218636+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preregistration-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Creation and development === For many years, scientists and others have worried about reporting biases such that negative or null results from initiated clinical trials may be less likely to be published than positive results, thus skewing the literature and our understanding of how well interventions work. This worry has been international and written about for over 50 years. One of the proposals to address this potential bias was a comprehensive register of initiated clinical trials that would inform the public which trials had been started. Ethical issues were those that seemed to interest the public most, as trialists (including those with potential commercial gain) benefited from those who enrolled in trials, but were not required to "give back," telling the public what they had learned. Those who were particularly concerned by the double standard were systematic reviewers, those who summarize what is known from clinical trials. If the literature is skewed, then the results of a systematic review are also likely to be skewed, possibly favoring the test intervention when in fact the accumulated data do not show this, if all data were made public. ClinicalTrials.gov was originally developed largely as a result of breast cancer consumer lobbying,


id: preregistration-science-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preregistration_(science)-2.md
category: reference
title: Preregistration (science)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preregistration_(science)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:22.218636+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preregistration-science-20260505-0
summary:
== Benefits == Several articles have outlined the rationale for preregistration (e.g., Lakens, 2019; Nosek et al., 2018; Wagenmakers et al., 2012). The primary goal of preregistration is to improve the transparency of reported hypothesis tests, which allows readers to evaluate the extent to which decisions during the data analysis were pre-planned (maintaining statistical error control) or data-driven (increasing the Type 1 or Type 2 error rate). Meta-scientific research has revealed additional benefits. Researchers indicate preregistering a study leads to a more carefully thought through research hypothesis, experimental design, and statistical analysis. In addition, preregistration has been shown to encourage better learning of Open Science concepts and students felt that they understood their dissertation and it improved the clarity of the manuscript writing, promoted rigour and were more likely to avoid questionable research practices. In addition, it becomes a tool that supervisors can use to shape students to combat any questionable research practices. A 2024 study in the Journal of Political Economy: Microeconomics preregistration in economics journals found that preregistration reduced p-hacking and publication bias if the preregistration was accompanied by a preanalysis plan, but not if the preregistration did not specify the planned analyses. == Criticisms == === Analytical


id: preregistration-science-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preregistration_(science)-3.md
category: reference
title: Preregistration (science)
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preregistration_(science)
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:22.218636+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: preregistration-science-20260505-0
summary:
=== Practical Implementation === There are also concerns about the practical implementation of preregistration. Many preregistered protocols leave plenty of room for p-hacking (Bakker et al., 2020; Heirene et al., 2021; Ikeda et al., 2019; Singh et al., 2021; Van den Akker et al., 2023), and researchers rarely follow the exact research methods and analyses that they preregister (Abrams et al., 2020; Claesen et al., 2019; Heirene et al., 2021; Clayson et al., 2025; see also Boghdadly et al., 2018; Singh et al., 2021; Sun et al., 2019). In terms of credibility, pre-registered studies are only of higher quality than non-pre-registered studies if the former has a power analysis and higher sample size than the latter but other than that they do not seem to prevent p-hacking and HARKing, as both the proportion of positive results and effect sizes are similar between preregistered and non-preregistered studies (Van den Akker et al., 2023). In terms of adherence, a study of 92 EEG/ERP studies showed that only 60% of studies adhered to their preregistrations or disclosed all deviations. Notably, registered reports had the higher adherence rates (92%) than unreviewed preregistrations (60%). In general, around three-quarters of preregistered studies included at least one


id: randomized-controlled-trial-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial-0.md
category: reference
title: Randomized controlled trial
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:23.353341+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: randomized-controlled-trial-20260505-0
summary:
A randomized controlled trial (RCT) is a type of statistical experiment designed to evaluate the efficacy or safety of an intervention by minimizing bias through the random allocation of participants to one or more comparison groups. In this approach, at least one group receives the intervention or process under study (such as a drug, surgical procedure, medical device or diet), while the other groups receive an alternative treatment, a placebo, or standard care. RCTs are a fundamental methodology in modern clinical trials and have been widely considered one of the highest-quality sources of evidence in evidence-based medicine, due to their ability to reduce selection bias and the influence of confounding factors. However, they have also been criticized for failing to reduce bias in some cases. Participants who enroll in RCTs differ from one another in known and unknown ways that can influence study outcomes, and yet cannot be directly controlled. By randomly allocating participants among compared treatments, an RCT enables statistical control over these influences. Provided it is designed well, conducted properly, and enrolls enough participants, an RCT may achieve sufficient control over these confounding factors to deliver a useful comparison of the treatments studied. == Definition and examples ==


id: randomized-controlled-trial-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial-1.md
category: reference
title: Randomized controlled trial
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:23.353341+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: randomized-controlled-trial-20260505-0
summary:
== Ethics == Although subjects almost always provide informed consent for their participation in an RCT, studies since 1982 have documented that RCT subjects may believe that they are certain to receive treatment that is best for them personally; that is, they do not understand the difference between research and treatment. Determining the amount of information required to ensure informed consent can be difficult, and further research is necessary to determine the prevalence of and ways to address therapeutic misconception. Placebo-controlled trials have been deemed unethical in instances where not receiving treatment may lead to harm for the patient, such as an aggravation of symptoms or risk of death. Crossover trials, active-controlled trials, and other approaches have been used to mitigate this issue, though these options may not always be suitable for study, and have received their own criticism. Active-controlled trials in particular may raise ethical considerations regarding clinical equipoise. Although the principle of equipoise ("genuine uncertainty within the expert medical community... about the preferred treatment") is common to clinical trials and has been applied to RCTs, equipoise may be difficult to ascertain, and the ethics of RCTs have special considerations. It has been argued that equipoise itself is insufficient


id: randomized-controlled-trial-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial-2.md
category: reference
title: Randomized controlled trial
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:23.353341+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: randomized-controlled-trial-20260505-0
summary:
"It eliminates bias in treatment assignment," specifically selection bias and confounding. "It facilitates blinding (masking) of the identity of treatments from investigators, participants, and assessors." "It permits the use of probability theory to express the likelihood that any difference in outcome between treatment groups merely indicates chance." There are two processes involved in randomizing patients to different interventions. First is choosing a randomization procedure to generate an unpredictable sequence of allocations; this may be a simple random assignment of patients to any of the groups at equal probabilities, may be "restricted", or may be "adaptive." A second and more practical issue is allocation concealment, which refers to the stringent precautions taken to ensure that the group assignment of patients are not revealed prior to definitively allocating them to their respective groups. Non-random "systematic" methods of group assignment, such as alternating subjects between one group and the other, can cause "limitless contamination possibilities" and can cause a breach of allocation concealment. However empirical evidence that adequate randomization changes outcomes relative to inadequate randomization has been difficult to detect. === Procedures === The treatment allocation is the desired proportion of patients in each treatment arm. An ideal randomization procedure would achieve the


id: randomized-controlled-trial-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial-3.md
category: reference
title: Randomized controlled trial
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:23.353341+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: randomized-controlled-trial-20260505-0
summary:
"Allocation concealment" (defined as "the procedure for protecting the randomization process so that the treatment to be allocated is not known before the patient is entered into the study") is important in RCTs. In practice, clinical investigators in RCTs often find it difficult to maintain impartiality. Stories abound of investigators holding up sealed envelopes to lights or ransacking offices to determine group assignments in order to dictate the assignment of their next patient. Such practices introduce selection bias and confounders (both of which should be minimized by randomization), possibly distorting the results of the study. Adequate allocation concealment should defeat patients and investigators from discovering treatment allocation once a study is underway and after the study has concluded. Treatment related side-effects or adverse events may be specific enough to reveal allocation to investigators or patients thereby introducing bias or influencing any subjective parameters collected by investigators or requested from subjects. Some standard methods of ensuring allocation concealment include sequentially numbered, opaque, sealed envelopes (SNOSE); sequentially numbered containers; pharmacy controlled randomization; and central randomization. It is recommended that allocation concealment methods be included in an RCT's protocol, and that the allocation concealment methods should be reported in detail in a publication


id: randomized-controlled-trial-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial-4.md
category: reference
title: Randomized controlled trial
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:23.353341+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: randomized-controlled-trial-20260505-0
summary:
=== Relative importance and observational studies === Two studies published in The New England Journal of Medicine in 2000 found that observational studies and RCTs overall produced similar results. The authors of the 2000 findings questioned the belief that "observational studies should not be used for defining evidence-based medical care" and that RCTs' results are "evidence of the highest grade." However, a 2001 study published in Journal of the American Medical Association concluded that "discrepancies beyond chance do occur and differences in estimated magnitude of treatment effect are very common" between observational studies and RCTs. According to a 2014 (updated in 2024) Cochrane review, there is little evidence for significant effect differences between observational studies and randomized controlled trials. To evaluate differences it is necessary to consider things other than design, such as heterogeneity, population, intervention or comparator. Two other lines of reasoning question RCTs' contribution to scientific knowledge beyond other types of studies: If study designs are ranked by their potential for new discoveries, then anecdotal evidence would be at the top of the list, followed by observational studies, followed by RCTs. RCTs may be unnecessary for treatments that have dramatic and rapid effects relative to the expected stable


id: randomized-controlled-trial-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial-5.md
category: reference
title: Randomized controlled trial
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:23.353341+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: randomized-controlled-trial-20260505-0
summary:
=== Time and costs === RCTs can be expensive; one study found 28 Phase III RCTs funded by the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke prior to 2000 with a total cost of US$335 million, for a mean cost of US$12 million per RCT. Nevertheless, the return on investment of RCTs may be high, in that the same study projected that the 28 RCTs produced a "net benefit to society at 10-years" of 46 times the cost of the trials program, based on evaluating a quality-adjusted life year as equal to the prevailing mean per capita gross domestic product. The conduct of an RCT takes several years until being published; thus, data is restricted from the medical community for long years and may be of less relevance at time of publication. It is costly to maintain RCTs for the years or decades that would be ideal for evaluating some interventions. Interventions to prevent events that occur only infrequently (e.g., sudden infant death syndrome) and uncommon adverse outcomes (e.g., a rare side effect of a drug) would require RCTs with extremely large sample sizes and may, therefore, best be assessed by observational studies. Due to the costs of running RCTs,


id: randomized-controlled-trial-20260505-6
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial-6.md
category: reference
title: Randomized controlled trial
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:23.353341+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: randomized-controlled-trial-20260505-0
summary:
=== Economics === RCTs have become a staple of identifying causal inference among microeconomic studies, particularly in development economics. In 1994, Paul Glewwe, eventual Nobel Prize winner, Michael Kremer, and Sylvie Moulin started one of the earliest RCTs in an economic setting by conducting a long run intervention in a school in Kenya, publishing the results fifteen years later. Three years later in 1997, the largest field experiment in a developing context, the PROGRESA program in Mexico, was studied by a multitude of economic researchers. The impact of RCTs on the discipline has only grown, as economists have found this method as a first-best approach to causal inference identification. While not at the forefront, the use of RCTs has helped to bolster the credibility revolution in empirical microeconomics, as well as becoming popularized as a result of the need for more rigorous identification. Despite the shift towards using RCTs in research, there still remains division between economists on its use. John A. List, a proponent of field experiments, particularly RCTs, finds that this method differs significantly from lab experiments, and therefore provide more robust measures for identification. RCTs also offer the advantage of providing true observational data that can be


id: rapid-reviews-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_reviews-0.md
category: reference
title: Rapid reviews
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_reviews
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:24.531048+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: rapid-reviews-20260505-0
summary:
Rapid reviews are a systematic survey of literature on a topic or question of interest. Compared to a systematic review of literature, in a rapid review, several design decisions and practical steps are undertaken to reduce the time it takes to identify, aggregate and answer the question of interest. The Cochrane Rapid Reviews Methods Group proposes that rapid reviews can take different forms, and they define rapid reviews as: "A form of knowledge synthesis that accelerates the process of conducting a traditional systematic review through streamlining or omitting specific methods to produce evidence for stakeholders in a resource-efficient manner". == In medicine and healthcare == Rapid reviews are a form of evidence synthesis, similar to a systematic review, that can be used to inform decision-making and healthcare initiative. The World Health Organization (WHO) considers rapid reviews as a way of generating evidence in a short period using an abbreviated systematic review method. During the COVID-19 pandemic rapid reviews were employed to answer pressing questions under strict time constraints. == In software engineering == For Software Engineering, Rico et al. have recently adapted and extended the rapid review method. Their proposal takes into account the unique requirements of industry-academia collaboration in


id: realist-evaluation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realist_Evaluation-0.md
category: reference
title: Realist Evaluation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Realist_Evaluation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:25.759116+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: realist-evaluation-20260505-0
summary:
Realist evaluation or realist review (also realist synthesis) is a type of theory-driven evaluation used in evaluating social programmes. It was originally based on the epistemological foundations of critical realism. Ray Pawson, one of the originators of realist evaluation was "initially impressed" by how critical realism explains generative causation in experimental science; however, he later criticised its "philosophical grandstanding" and "explain-all Marxism". Based on specific theories, realist evaluation provides an alternative lens to empiricist evaluation techniques for the study and understanding of programmes and policies. Some writers on realist evaluation argue that interventions are theories. This technique assumes that knowledge is a social and historical product, thus the social and political context as well as theoretical mechanisms, need consideration in analysis of programme or policy effectiveness. Realist evaluation techniques recognise that there are many interwoven variables operative at different levels in society, thus this evaluation method suits complex social interventions, rather than traditional cause-effect, non-contextual methods of analysis. This realist technique acknowledges that intervention programmes and policy changes do not necessarily work for everyone, since people are different and are embedded in different contexts. Realist evaluation was popularised by the work of Ray Pawson and Nick Tilley in 1997. They


id: secondary-research-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_research-0.md
category: reference
title: Secondary research
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_research
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:26.994087+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: secondary-research-20260505-0
summary:
Secondary research involves the summary, collation and/or synthesis of existing research. Secondary research is contrasted with primary research in that primary research involves the generation of data, whereas secondary research uses primary research sources as a source of data for analysis. A notable marker of primary research is the inclusion of a "methods" section, where the authors describe how the data was generated. Common examples of secondary research include textbooks, encyclopedias, news articles, review articles, and meta analyses. When conducting secondary research, authors may draw data from published academic papers, government documents, statistical databases, and historical records. == Fields == The term is widely used in fields such as history, legal research, market research, and Wikipedia editing. The principal methodology in health secondary research is the systematic review, commonly using meta-analytic statistical techniques. Other methods of synthesis, like realist reviews and meta-narrative reviews, have been developed in the 21st century. Secondary market research includes the reuse by a second party of any data collected from a first party such as telephone interviews or surveys. Secondary market research can be broken up into two categories: information from internal sources such as an agency or company, and information from external sources held


id: single-arm-study-design-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-arm_study_design-0.md
category: reference
title: Single-arm study design
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single-arm_study_design
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:28.254007+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: single-arm-study-design-20260505-0
summary:
A single-arm study design is a type of clinical or experimental study where all participants receive the same intervention, with no control or placebo group. The term "single-arm" refers to the presence of only one participant group, in contrast to designs such as randomized controlled trials, which include both a treatment arm and control or placebo arm. == Overview == Single-arm trials include one experimental group without the inclusion of a parallel control group. The design is open-label and does not involve randomization or blinding. This type of study design is commonly applied to advance stage cancer, rare diseases, emerging infectious diseases, new treatment methods, and medical devices. While randomized control trials are considered the “gold standard” in clinical research, they are not always feasible due to limitations in the study population, challenges in obtaining evidence, high costs, and ethical considerations. As a result, single arm trials are used to address these concerns. == Applications == Since there is no randomization in single-arm trials, all patients receive the same intervention within a particular study/trial. This design is most commonly used in early-phase clinical trials or in studies of rare or serious diseases, where including a control group may be impractical


id: spaced-repetition-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaced_repetition-0.md
category: reference
title: Spaced repetition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaced_repetition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:29.414379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: spaced-repetition-20260505-0
summary:
Spaced repetition is an evidence-based learning technique that is usually performed with flashcards. Newly introduced and more difficult flashcards are shown more frequently, while older and less difficult flashcards are shown less frequently in order to exploit the psychological spacing effect. The use of spaced repetition has been proven to increase the rate of learning. Although the principle is useful in many contexts, spaced repetition is commonly applied in contexts in which a learner must acquire many items and retain them indefinitely in memory. It is, therefore, well suited for the problem of vocabulary acquisition in the course of second-language learning. A number of spaced repetition software programs have been developed to aid the learning process. It is also possible to perform spaced repetition with physical flashcards using the Leitner system. The testing effect and spaced repetition can be combined to improve long-term memory. Therefore, memorization can be easier to do. == History == The method of spaced repetition was first conceived of in the 1880s by German scientist Hermann Ebbinghaus. Ebbinghaus created the 'forgetting curve'—a graph portraying the loss of learned information over time—and postulated that it can be curbed by reviewing such information at several intervals over a


id: spaced-repetition-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaced_repetition-1.md
category: reference
title: Spaced repetition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaced_repetition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:29.414379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: spaced-repetition-20260505-0
summary:
The notion that spaced repetition could be used for improving learning was first proposed in the book Psychology of Study by C. A. Mace in 1932: "Perhaps the most important discoveries are those which relate to the appropriate distribution of the periods of study... Acts of revision should be spaced in gradually increasing intervals, roughly intervals of one day, two days, four days, eight days, and so on." In 1939, H. F. Spitzer tested the effects of a type of spaced repetition on sixth-grade students in Iowa who were learning science facts. Spitzer tested over 3600 students in Iowa and showed that spaced repetition was effective. This early work went unnoticed, and the field was relatively quiet until the late 1960s when cognitive psychologists, including Melton and Landauer and Bjork, explored manipulation of repetition timing as a means to improve recall. Around the same time, Pimsleur language courses pioneered the practical application of spaced repetition theory to language learning, and in 1973 Sebastian Leitner devised his "Leitner system", an all-purpose spaced repetition learning system based on flashcards. With the increase in access to personal computers in the 1980s, spaced repetition began to be implemented with computer-assisted language learning software-based solutions


id: spaced-repetition-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaced_repetition-2.md
category: reference
title: Spaced repetition
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spaced_repetition
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:29.414379+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: spaced-repetition-20260505-0
summary:
Leitner system—a simple scheme that uses five levels and an arbitrary number of study stages Neural-network-based The SM family of algorithms (SuperMemo#Algorithms), ranging from SM-0 (a paper-and-pencil prototype) to SM-18, which is built into SuperMemo 18 and 19. The DASH (Difficulty, Ability and Study History) family SSP-MMC (Stochastic Shortest Path Minimize Memorization Cost) and the closely related FSRS (Free Spaced Repetition Scheduler), which is available in Anki starting with release 23.10 and in RemNote starting with release 1.16 == Evidence and criticism == Spaced repetition is widely accepted as a performant learning strategy in a number of domains, with many researchers suggesting implementing this method in formal education. There is evidence that the popular method of "expanding intervals" (when the interval between the repetitions increases with each repetition) performs as well as or better than uniformly spaced repetitions. Some papers find expanding intervals to be beneficial for recall. Other meta-analyses tend to conclude that both methods yield similar results, therefore concluding that "strong recommendations to teachers and students in favor of spaced retrieval practice are warranted". Several mechanisms were suggested for expanding intervals providing an additional benefit; the most notable one is that one of the core tenets of spaced


id: systematic-review-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic_review-0.md
category: reference
title: Systematic review
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic_review
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:30.659047+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: systematic-review-20260505-0
summary:
A systematic review is a scholarly synthesis of the evidence on a clearly presented topic using critical methods to identify, define and assess research on the topic. A systematic review extracts and interprets data from published studies on the topic (in the scientific literature), then analyzes, describes, critically appraises and summarizes interpretations into a refined evidence-based conclusion. For example, a systematic review of randomized controlled trials is a way of summarizing and implementing evidence-based medicine. Systematic reviews, sometimes along with meta-analyses, are generally considered the highest level of evidence in medical research. While a systematic review may be applied in the biomedical or health care context, it may also be used where an assessment of a precisely defined subject can advance understanding in a field of research. A systematic review may examine clinical tests, public health interventions, environmental interventions, social interventions, adverse effects, qualitative evidence syntheses, methodological reviews, policy reviews, and economic evaluations. Systematic reviews are closely related to meta-analyses, and often the same instance will combine both (being published with a subtitle of "a systematic review and meta-analysis"). The distinction between the two is that a meta-analysis uses statistical methods to induce a single number from the pooled data


id: systematic-review-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic_review-1.md
category: reference
title: Systematic review
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic_review
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:30.659047+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: systematic-review-20260505-0
summary:
=== Scoping reviews === Scoping reviews are distinct from systematic reviews in several ways. A scoping review is an attempt to search for concepts by mapping the language and data which surrounds those concepts and adjusting the search method iteratively to synthesize evidence and assess the scope of an area of inquiry. This can mean that the concept search and method (including data extraction, organisation and analysis) are refined throughout the process, sometimes requiring deviations from any protocol or original research plan. A scoping review may often be a preliminary stage before a systematic review, which 'scopes' out an area of inquiry and maps the language and key concepts to determine if a systematic review is possible or appropriate, or to lay the groundwork for a full systematic review. The goal can be to assess how much data or evidence is available regarding a certain area of interest. This process is further complicated if it is mapping concepts across multiple languages or cultures. As a scoping review should be systematically conducted and reported (with a transparent and repeatable method), some academic publishers categorize them as a kind of 'systematic review', which may cause confusion. Scoping reviews are helpful when it


id: systematic-review-20260505-2
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic_review-2.md
category: reference
title: Systematic review
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic_review
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:30.659047+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: systematic-review-20260505-0
summary:
=== Analyse and combine the data === Analysing and combining data can provide an overall result from all the data. Because this combined result may use qualitative or quantitative data from all eligible sources of data, it is considered more reliable as it provides better evidence, as the more data included in reviews, the more confident we can be of conclusions. When appropriate, some systematic reviews include a meta-analysis, which uses statistical methods to combine data from multiple sources. A review might use quantitative data, or might employ a qualitative meta-synthesis, which synthesises data from qualitative studies. A review may also bring together the findings from quantitative and qualitative studies in a mixed methods or overarching synthesis. The combination of data from a meta-analysis can sometimes be visualised. One method uses a forest plot (also called a blobbogram). In an intervention effect review, the diamond in the 'forest plot' represents the combined results of all the data included. An example of a 'forest plot' is the Cochrane Collaboration logo. The logo is a forest plot of one of the first reviews which showed that corticosteroids given to women who are about to give birth prematurely can save the life of


id: systematic-review-20260505-3
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic_review-3.md
category: reference
title: Systematic review
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic_review
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:30.659047+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: systematic-review-20260505-0
summary:
Joining a collaborative volunteer effort to help categorise and summarise healthcare evidence Data extraction and risk of bias assessment Translation of reviews into other languages A systematic review of how people were involved in systematic reviews aimed to document the evidence-base relating to stakeholder involvement in systematic reviews and to use this evidence to describe how stakeholders have been involved in systematic reviews. Thirty percent involved patients and/or carers. The ACTIVE framework provides a way to describe how people are involved in systematic review and may be used as a way to support systematic review authors in planning people's involvement. Standardised Data on Initiatives (STARDIT) is another proposed way of reporting who has been involved in which tasks during research, including systematic reviews. There has been some criticism of how Cochrane prioritises systematic reviews. Cochrane has a project that involved people in helping identify research priorities to inform Cochrane Reviews. In 2014, the Cochrane–Wikipedia partnership was formalised. ==== Environmental health and toxicology ==== Systematic reviews are a relatively recent innovation in the field of environmental health and toxicology. Although mooted in the mid-2000s, the first full frameworks for conduct of systematic reviews of environmental health evidence were published in 2014


id: systematic-review-20260505-4
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic_review-4.md
category: reference
title: Systematic review
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic_review
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:30.659047+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: systematic-review-20260505-0
summary:
=== Out-dated or risk of bias === While systematic reviews are regarded as the strongest form of evidence, a 2003 review of 300 studies found that not all systematic reviews were equally reliable, and that their reporting can be improved by a universally agreed upon set of standards and guidelines. A further study by the same group found that of 100 systematic reviews monitored, 7% needed updating at the time of publication, another 4% within a year, and another 11% within 2 years; this figure was higher in rapidly changing fields of medicine, especially cardiovascular medicine. A 2003 study suggested that extending searches beyond major databases, perhaps into grey literature, would increase the effectiveness of reviews. A 2005 analysis of 377 Cochrane systematic reviews of healthcare interventions found that, after four years, 9% of the updated reviews resulted in a changed conclusion compared to the original versions. Among Cochrane systematic reviews on medical interventions published in 2010 and updated by 2017, very few (4%) of the updated reviews reported a change in conclusion for a primary outcome. Some authors have highlighted problems with systematic reviews, particularly those conducted by Cochrane, noting that published reviews are often biased, out of date,


id: systematic-review-20260505-5
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic_review-5.md
category: reference
title: Systematic review
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic_review
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:30.659047+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: systematic-review-20260505-0
summary:
== References == This article was submitted to WikiJournal of Medicine for external academic peer review in 2019 (reviewer reports). The updated content was reintegrated into the Wikipedia page under a CC-BY-SA-3.0 license (2020). The version of record as reviewed is: Jack Nunn; Steven Chang; et al. (9 November 2020). "What are Systematic Reviews?" (PDF). WikiJournal of Medicine. 7 (1): 5. doi:10.15347/WJM/2020.005. ISSN 2002-4436. Wikidata Q99440266. STARDIT report Q101116128. == External links == Systematic Review Tools — Search and list of systematic review software tools Cochrane Collaboration MeSH: Review Literature—articles about the review process MeSH: Review [Publication Type] - limit search results to reviews Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) Statement Archived 27 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine, "an evidence-based minimum set of items for reporting in systematic reviews and meta-analyses" PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR): Checklist and explanation Animated Storyboard: What Are Systematic Reviews? - Cochrane Consumers and Communication Group Sysrev - a free platform with open access systematic reviews. STARDIT - an open access data-sharing system to standardise the way that information about initiatives is reported. Cao, Christian; Arora, Rohit; Cento, Paul; Manta, Katherine; Farahani, Elina; Cecere, Matthew; Selemon, Anabel; Sang, Jason; Gong,


id: theory-driven-evaluation-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory-driven_evaluation-0.md
category: reference
title: Theory-driven evaluation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory-driven_evaluation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:31.832962+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theory-driven-evaluation-20260505-0
summary:
Theory-driven evaluation (also theory-based evaluation) is an umbrella term for any approach to program evaluation – quantitative, qualitative, or mixed method – that develops a theory of change and uses it to design, implement, analyze, and interpret findings from an evaluation. More specifically, an evaluation is theory-driven if it: formulates a theory of change using some combination of social science, lived experience, and program-related professionals' expertise; develops and prioritizes evaluation questions using the theory; uses the theory to guide the design and implementation of the evaluation; uses the theory to operationalize contextual, process, and outcome variables; provides a causal explanation of how and why outcomes were achieved, including whether the program worked and/or had any unintended consequences (desirable or harmful); and explains what factors moderate outcomes. By investigating the mechanisms leading to outcomes, theory-driven approaches facilitate learning to improve programs and how they are implemented, and help knowledge to accumulate – including across ostensibly different programs. This is in contrast to methods-driven "black box" evaluations, which focus on following the steps of a method (for instance, randomized experiment or focus group) and only assess whether a program achieves its intended outcomes. Theory-driven approaches can also improve the validity of evaluations,


id: theory-driven-evaluation-20260505-1
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory-driven_evaluation-1.md
category: reference
title: Theory-driven evaluation
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory-driven_evaluation
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:31.832962+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: theory-driven-evaluation-20260505-0
summary:
The target population includes a specification of who participants are and how they are recruited. The implementing organization (for instance a clinic or school) and its staff of implementers (for instance therapists or teachers) are responsible for allocating resources, training, and delivering the interventions. Intervention and service delivery protocols would include therapy manuals or subject curricula. Associated organizations and community partners refers to organisations other than the implementing organisation. In the case of a psychotherapy intervention, this may include schools or general practitioners who advertise the program or refer beneficiaries to it. Ecological context refers to aspects of the environment, for instance family, friends, co-workers, other students, etc., that may moderate the effects of a program. == Theory-driven methods == The full-range of research methods has been argued to apply. Chen (2015) provides examples using randomized experiments, quasi-experimental designs, process and outcome monitoring, and qualitative methods. Although proponents of theory-driven evaluation are critical of "black box" experiments, Chen and Rossi (1983, p. 292) argue that theory-driven experiments are possible and desirable: [A]dvocates of the black box experimental paradigm often neglect the fact that after randomization exogenous variables are still correlated with outcome variables. Knowing how such exogenous factors affect outcomes


id: uk-evaluation-society-20260505-0
file: data/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Evaluation_Society-0.md
category: reference
title: UK Evaluation Society
tags: science, encyclopedia
source_url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Evaluation_Society
date_saved: 2026-05-05T04:26:33.012095+00:00
instance: kb-cron
parent: uk-evaluation-society-20260505-0
summary:
The UK Evaluation Society (UKES) was founded in 1994 and is the principal professional organisation for evaluation of social policy and programmes in the UK. It is a member of the UK Academy of Social Sciences. Its president is Dr Kirstine Szifris (December 2023 until November 2026) and Executive Director is Nick Posford. UKES was registered as a charity on 27 November 2024. == Activities == Developed a Manifesto for Evaluation, coinciding with the 2024 United Kingdom general election. Organises an annual conference, which in 2023 was sponsored by RSM UK and Kantar Public (now Verian). In 2023, keynote speakers were Emily Gates (Boston College), Kelly Beaver MBE (Ipsos), Urvashi Parashar (Department for Culture, Media and Sport), and Nigel Ball (Social Purpose Lab) at University of the Arts London). Develops guidance for conducting evaluations, for example Guidelines for Good Practice in Evaluation (revised 2018) and Quality of Evidence Rubrics for Single Cases (2023). Offers training course on evaluation, which are recommended by the UK government for civil servants. Provides peer review for the UK government Magenta Book, the HM Treasury guidance on key considerations when conducting evaluations of public policies and programmes, which was last updated 2020. Also acts as


